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REPORT

OF THE;

SIXTY-KIGHTH MEETING

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

BRISTOL IN SEPTEMBER 1898.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET,
1899.

Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W.

CONTENTS.

Page
Mrgmors and Rules of-the Association <.............cseccsecctecneesecscsescesssees XXix
Places-and Times of Meeting, with Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local
PCEEELAPIOS ATOR COMMEDCOMENE |) 5. ..0ce0s0deeecsereigseistonsueecnonsoeaccesesies xl
rusipes:and General Officers, 18381—1809. .........cc-ccccccsesccscocrcnssausecoers lii
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from 1832 ... hii
Mrs m MERTEN Beet Ines) » x.1)3a85. oo dante sekote V5. wwe acastegwes o dex deh aede dee) apoE XL
hechures to the Operative Classes ..<......sccescsccecsecoscesscecssewcescsoosceadecs lxxiv
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Bristol Meeting ............ Ixxv
EMME GLC ONTCIAMEOR=HOO -. a ccasscedacecascans ss ccssccaceroensstsasdcdes deoees Ixxvii
Per eAEOM MPA CCOUNE = epee isccecscacsasicsisedacsoedvecetsssedeous SSeS ee ee Ixxviii
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... Ixxx
Report of the Council to the General Committee ............:ccc0cceceecees oe xxxii
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the’ Bristol Meet-
MSIE. POG a.45 55355 Sc cskyansiswnd gee thidi doinanas Baus Sean yee ee Rd sone’ Ixxxvi
Communications ordered to be printed 27 extenso ...........cseecseeeceeeeeeees xevi
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action if
I sae vcah cach nx Rei du tean capt nacaete Gs dapusnnsdegesccéca’ x¢evi
Change of Days of meeting of the General Committee and of the Committee
ESTE GLA Gar ee Ce Pe Pa ee X€Vi
SEEN AS UrTRLIS OF MONG Y .52. os ).o55 fcsund t +.Seansal jentdvdees +e sodneutneiveder x¢vil
Places of Meeting in 1899, 1900, and 1901 ..............ccceecccdecceeeceeeeeee exe be
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants for
PEER CHESUPBGGEH Vat evicss. - pais eipeescah cords Saas Riobesbes naaetere Pestacis ods 02 ¢c
PUMP TNS Si Be ocd 0203 coe stant 2 46“ oun anvizn duc <tah o Seb Xo aematas eve calves exvi
Address by the President, Sir Winr1am Crooxss, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.......4.. 3

a
pe

iv REPORT—1898.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

[An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The mark t indicates the same,
but a reference is given to the jowrnal or newspaper where it is published in extenso.]

Page

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor R. Metpota (Chairman), Mr. T. V. Hotmes (Secretary), Mr.
Francis Gatton, Sir Doveras Garon, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir J. Evans,
Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. Wuitaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor T. G.
Bonney, Sir CurHpperrt E. Penk, Mr. Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O.
EVAN, - and. Professor’ W.. OW) WWATIS, css0e ce, xcsbec'cns <upsne sss saseaneeneemeanten

Meteorological Observatory, Montreal.—Report of the Committee for the
Establishment of a Meteorological Observatory on the Top of Mount Royal,
Montreal, consisting of Professor H. L. CatnenpaRr (Chairman), Professor
C. H. McLeop (Secretary), Professor F. Apams, and Mr. R. F. Srupart....

Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor W. G. Apams (Chairman), Dr. OC. Curex (Secretary),
Lord Kertvin, Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor G. Curystat, Professor
A. Schuster, Captain E. W. Cruax, the Astronomer Royal, Mr. WILLIAM
Hens, and Professor /A.. W,, IRUGKERS..1:.<..case+sdeeknncensss <1 00neo uhh Saneaee

I. Magnetic Results at Greenwich and Kew Discussed and Compared,
1889 to 1896. By Wrurtam Exxis, F.RAS. ............0.0-sesenees

II. Account of the Late Professor John Couch Adam’s Determination
of the Gaussian Magnetic Constants. By Professor W. G.
ADAMB, FURS 6 cece hdd seunetoste edo eaees tonnes se ca eee

Stream-line Motion of a Viscous Film. ‘A
I. Experimental Investigation of the Motion of a Thin Film of
Viscous Fluid. By Professor H. 8. Hrre-Snaw, LL.D..........

II. Mathematical Proof of the Identity of the Stream Lines obtained
by Means of a Viscous Film with those of a Perfect Fluid
moving in Two Dimensions. By Sir G. G. Stoxss, F.R.S.......

Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Lord Kxrtyin (Chairman), Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN CUNNINGHAM
_ (Secretary), Professor B. Prics, Dr. J. W. L. GuatsHer, Professor A. G.
GREENHILL, Professor W. M. Hicks, Major P. A. MacManon, and
Professor A. Lope, appointed for calculating Tables of certain Mathematical
Functions, and, if necessary, for taking steps to carry out the Calculations,
and to publish the results in an accessible form ...........sseeeseeeeeeeereeeeeneee

Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for Elec-
trical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
G. Carry Foster (Chairman), Mr. R. T. Guazesroox (Secretary), Lord
Kevin, Professors W. E. Ayrton, J. Perry, W.G. Apams, and OLIVER
J. Loner, Lord Rayieren, Dr. A. Murrueap, Mr. W. H. Preece, Pro-
fessors J. D. Evererr and A. Scuusrer, Dr. J. A. Fremine, Professors

41

80

109

136

143

145

CONTENTS. Vv

Page
G. F. FrrzGeratp and J. J. THomson, Mi. W. N. Suaw, Dr. J. T.
Borromtety, Rev. T. C. Firzparricx, Professor J. Virtamu Jonzs, Dr. G.
JOHNSTONE StonEy, Professor 8. P. Tompson, Mr. J. Runnin, Mr. E. H.
GRiFFitus, and Professor A. W. Rtckrr, and Professor A. G. WEBSTER... 145

Apprnpix I.—Comparison of the Standard Coils used by Professors J.
Viriamu Jones and W. EH. Ayrton in their deter-
mination of the absolute resistance of Mercury with
the Standards of the Association. By R. T. Giaze-
BROOK, | FRAG. 22. c accede alcielsle aint gaaeMeve sign nese Scena oat 147

,, -11.—On the Determination of the Temperature Coefficients
of two 10-ohm Standard Resistance Coils (Nos. 3873
and 3874) used in the 1897 determination of the
Ohi ei by MC SOLOMONG ce is stcescseccnede cs eceeeee mee 151

» II1.—An Ampere Balance. By Professor W. E. Ayrton,
F.R.S., and Professor J. Virramu Jonss, F.R.S. ... 157

Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. W. N. Suaw (Chairman), Mr. KE. H. Grirriras, Rev. T. C.
Firzparrick, and Mr. W. C. D. WuEruam (Secretary), on the present state
of our knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry .................sseee0 158

On the Use of Logarithmic Coordinates. By J. H. Vincent, D.Se., A.R.C.Sc. 159

| [rn sivas FECCUITC 8 eee sep eche Benne ocrR Sece nOCE RC -SnUe aaCen ae gegen ee caneee nat 159
Wonstruction, of an, Impedance Ohart ......-.5..2<-.cas-cscreoeeacderncecweceasee 161
iscussionzof a (Non-branslatant)....: cassseseossecssomsiensse sdoesenceemdenss 8s 162
Construction of a Chart for Waves on a Frozen Sea...........0......eee0e 163
Another Method of treating the same Non-translatant ..................... 167
The Use of Logarithmic Coordinates to find an Approximate Equation
connecting a Series of Experimental Results .............00..seceeseee eens 171
Tri-dimensional Logarithmic Coordinates .............c..scceeeeeeeeeneeeewes 172
Baus lorAribhMIe COOTMINALES) sesvasacscees)suesealevecece sm abana as Socilaeseaieales 174
The Graphical Computation of the Hyperbolic Functions ~............... 174
MOH MI SNOT ts x. ans conan eaciden sce drop eneceapccsacompindses saateusaares letras: auae 178

Seismological Investigations.—Third Report of the Committee, consisting of
_ Mr. G. J. Symons (Chairman), Dr. C. Davison and Mr. Joun Mitne
_ (Secretaries), Lord Kertvin, Professor W. G. Apams, Professor T. G.
Bonney, Dr. J. T. Borromiry, Mr. C. V. Boys, Sir F. J. BramMwett,
Mr. M. Watron Brown, Professor G. H. Darwin, Mr. Horacr Darwin,
Major L. Darwin, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Dr. G. M. Dawson, Professor J. A.
_ Ewine, Professor C. G. Knorr, Professor G. A. Lesour, Professor R.
Metpora, Professor J. Perry, Proféssor J. H. Poynrtye, Dr. Isaac

Oe ERIS wind Erotessor EL... Es LORNER):..ccssrvebecvetcicamaesseccsccssaloessve tacts 179
I. Progress made towards the Establishment of Karthquake-observing
Stations round the World. By Joun MILNE ..............0:006 179
II.2Notes on Special Earthquakes. By Jouw MIENE..................6+5 185
II. Catalogue of Earthquakes Recorded in Tokio, December 17, 1896,
topblecombersGi So, | assent tisa-cace'seaakys ce ence tel cas d(ccessaeusaetnes 189

IV. Harthquakes Recorded at Shide, Isleof Wight, Edinburgh, Bidstone,
and certain Stations in Europe, with Discussion on the same.
EF ¥gO OEM, VELEN rats Sieiiaeicss voncescleteneaisedsa date teae ga sees Jasionceds 191

V. On Certain Characteristics of Earthquake Motion. By Joun Minne 218
VI. Magnetometer Disturbances and Earthquakes. By Jomn MILNE 226
VII. Suboceanic Changes in Relation to Earthquakes. By Joun Mitnz 251
VIII, A Time Indicator. By Jomn M1tne............ AscAhtidkotpece Shootontne 255

vi REPORT—1898.

: Page
1X, On the Civil Time Employed Throughout the World. By Jomn
PMTICIN DA eet cetera ee teaee ae nok cet cc olsceds soso cenceoee het aaa 255

X. Great Circle Distances and Chords of the Earth. By Jonw
IEW SS oA ascend ceneicbat ss: Core COROEROREER REE RRR Iot 256

XI. Certain Small Fractions of an Hour. By Suryona Hrrora ...... 257
XII. Earthquake Observations in Italy and Europe. By JoHN MILNE 258

XIU. Preliminary Examinations of Photograms obtained with the
Seismometer in the Liverpool Observatory. By W. E.

eS MOMAS Aner stint alcPaesio snl. sens 0r00csrna 02 see ee¥iensinrn meee senseeeeeseeenees 272
XIV. A List of Reports relating to Earthquakes, published by the
METIS PA RBOCIRUION t=. 220.5 s000s 4. codes se cdecceere serene LSepccAnnonsoo56 276

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Lord McLaren, Professor A. Crum Brown (Secretary), Sir Joun
Morray, Dr, Arpxanppr Bucuan, and Professor CopetanD. (Drawn
up by Dr. BUCHAN.) ......0.....0cccceseneecgeeesecreneeeeeeectesecceseescacsusasessseus 277

The Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological Pheno-
mena.—Highth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons
(Chairman), Professor R. Mrtpora, Mr. J. Hopxrnson, Mr. H. N. Dickson,
and Mr. A. W. Craypen (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ...... 283

The Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. T. E. THorpr (Chairman), Professor J. J. Hummer (Secretary), Dr.
W. H. Perr, Professor W. J. Russert, Captain ABNnzy, Professor
W. Srrovup, and Professor R. Mrtpota. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ... 285

The Carbohydrates of the Cereal Straws.—Third Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor R. Warineron (Chairman), Mr. Mannine PREn-
ticn, and Mr. C. F. Cross (Secretary). (Drawn up by Mr. Cross.) ......... 293

The Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.—Fifth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. Emprson Rrynoips (Chairman), Dr.
OC. A. Koun (Secretary), Professor P. FRANKLAND, Professor F. CLowss, Dr.
Huce Marsnart, Mr. A. E. Frercuer, and Professor W. CARLETON
SVVMMGHUAUMAIE Wo dcwcuicaecaccnsocescids yslencisrsnedasdensseeshhepbenete-betabhs saa ate eeseneman 204

The Determination of Zinc. By Professor W. CARLETON WIZLIAMB...... 295
The Determination of Nickel and Cobalt (Part I.). By Hue Marsnatt 300

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives——Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor W. A. Ti~pen (Chairman), and Dr. H. E. ARMsrRone
RSSCHCEATY)) ..- 2... .ccecsessscnanssssnanosseotansn te Saasiapenegeassiesst on <ss+: ekhteenneaemaaee 311

The Promotion of Agriculture.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Sir Jonn Evans (Chairman), Professor H. E. Armsrrone (Secretary),
Professor M. Fosrrer, Professor MarsHattL Warp, Sir J. H. Girpmrt,
Right Hon. J. Brycn, Professor J. W. Rosertson, Dr. W. SAUNDERS,
Professor Mrtxs, Professor J. Mavor, Professor R. WARINGTON, Professor
Povtton, and Mr. S. U. Picknrrne, appointed to report on the Means by
which in Various Countries Agriculture is advanced by Research, by
Special Educational Institutions, and by the Dissemination of Information
and Advice among Acriculturists ..........ccessssssececserscoeecstacecscessescsseres 312

Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscon (Chairman), Dr. Mar-
SHALL Warts (Secretary), Sir J. N. Lockxypr, Professor J. Dewar, Pro-
fessor G. D. Lrvnrne, Professor A. ScuustER, Professor W, N. Harriey,
Professor Wotcort Gipss, and Captain ABNEY. (Drawn up by Dr. Warts.) 318

a!
> CONTENTS. vii

Pags
_ The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Committee, :
consisting of Dr. J. H. Guapstone (Chairman), Professor H. KE. ARMSTRONG
(Secretary), Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr. Grorcu Grapstone, Sir Joun
Lussock, Sir Puitre Maenvs, Sir H. E. Roscoz, and Professor S. P.

THOMPSON .......seceeesseeseseesceseeeeesseenenseeseesecsteseeseeaesaensecsssaeeaeneeeins 438
Apprnpix.—Schedule II.—Elementary Science and Geography ...... 438
Schedule [V.—Elementary Physics and Chemistry ...... 43

Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor H. McLuop, Professor W. C. Rosurrs-Austen, Mr. H. G. Manan,
PUTEMn Vy mL) SIE wlNYA GHENT ci 1), EMEC EAE MsitSGi seuclais cuisla sin bans ned'ecteaed dees cetsedieaainesielt 439

The Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.—Fourteenth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor T, WutrsHireE (Chairman), Dr, H.
Woopwarp, and Professor T. Rupprt Jones (Secretary). (Drawn up by
See ESRO Te VE PEE Td ONES) )at ccs cies open snes sacra aieianasleNels. cosblasenevemeah ees 519

Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Sir J. W. Dawson (Chairman), Professor D. P. Penxattow,. Dr. H.
Amt, Mr. G. W. LamptueH and Professor A; P. Coteman (Secretary),
appointed to further investigate the Flora and Fauna of the Pleistocene
Hiaiui in, ORTEGE -a nbarecesaaeeneessbhiesscaeosce coed gece sche passe mdsdder tins decbaen cece 522

APpPENDIX.—Pleistocene Flora of the Don Valley. By Professor D. P.
EL AATA THO Wins B ante ceeoch i pet tee tesla sce reeies ercien cosets 525

‘Life Zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Mr. E. J. GaARwoop (Secretary),
and Mr. F. A. Barurr, Mr. G. C. Crtcx, Mr. A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox,
Dr. Wuerrtton Hinp, Dr. G. J. Hype, Mr. P. F. Kenpatz, Mr. J. W.
_ Krexipy, Mr. R, Kinston, Mr. G. W. Lamprueu, Professor G. A. Lesour,
_ Mr. G. H. Morton, Professor H. A. NicHotson, Mr. B. N. Peacu, Mr. A.
_ Srrawan, and Dr. H. Woopwarp, appointed for the purpose of studying
the Life Zones in the Carboniferous Rocks. (Drawn up by the
DEER rt acti «cig tse duke gh gets aataphldino to" i'n cfanle Rae tine vais 25. 00(o ss Bey ONT 529

Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Ninth Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor James GEIKIE (Chairman),
_ Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. Temprst AnpERson, Mr. J. E. BEepForp.,
Mr. H. Coarzs, Mr. C. V. Croox, Mr. E. J. Garwoop, Mr. J. G. Goop-
curp, Mr. Witi1am Gray, Mr. Rosertr Kinston, Mr. A. 8. Rerp, Mr. J.
J. H. Tzart, Mr. R. H. Trpppeman, Mr. H. B. Woopwarp, Mr. F.
Woounoven, and Professor W. W. Warts (Secretary). (Drawn up by
Dy the Secretary.) ..............:.cccceneseeceeseeseeeesencessencnecsceeeenccasneesecaneeees 530

Photographs of Geological Interest in Canada.—First Report of Committee,
_ consisting of Professor A. P. Coneman (Chairman), Professor A. B. WILL-

_ mort, Professor F. 0. Apams, Professor W. W. Warts, Mr. J. B. TyRRELL,
and Mr. W. A. Parks (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ......... 546

ApprenpDIx.—Circular Letter issued by the Committee.

Trish Elk Remains.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Borp

_ Dawxrns (Chairman), his Honour Depmsrer Git, Rev. E. B. SavacE,

_ Mr. G. W. Lamervan, and Mr. P. M.C. Kermops (Secretary), appointed to
examine the Conditions under which remains of the Irish Elk are found in

RETEST GI EGIL | ins hanno: ncaemakeccu etn svcnancudctades esses cadet sectueciucanvercdseeweate 548

‘Erratic Blocks of the British Isles—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor E. Hurt (Chairman), Professor T. G. Bonney, Professor W. J.
Sottas, Mr. C. E. De Rancz, Mr. R. H. Trppemay, Rev. 8. N. Harrison,
Mr. J. Horws, the late Mr. Dueatp Bett, Mr. F. M. Burron, Mr. J.

Vili REPORT—1898.

Page
Lomas, and Mr, P. F. Kenpatt (Secretary), appointed to investigate the
Erratic Blocks of the British Isles, and to take measures for their preserva-
tion, (Drawn up by the Secretary.) -...0..0......00050.00 css rcncedancuseneemenmee 552

Structure of a Coral Reef.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor T. G. Bonney (Chairman), Professor W. J. Sotias (Secretary),
Sir ArcHIBALD GEIKTE, Professors J. W. Jupp, C. Lapworru, A. C.
Happon, Boyp Dawkins, G. H. Darwin, 8. J. Hickson, and ANDERSON
Srvart, Admiral Sir W. J. L. Warton, Dr. H. Hicks, Sir J. Murray,
Drs. W. T. BuanrorD, C. Lz Neve Foster, and H. B. Guppy, Messis. F.
Darwin, H. O. Forses, G. C. Bournz, and J. W. Greeory, Sir A. R. |
Brunt, and Mr. J. C. HawxsHaw, appointed to consider a project for
investigating a Coral Reef by Boring and Sounding ...........2..:.:sccsseereeees 556

The Eurypterid-bearing Rocks of the Pentland Hills.—Final Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. R. H. TRaquarr (Chairman), Mr. M. Lacrre
(Secretary), and Professor T. RUPERT JONES................. oes sad Oannaseet eee 557

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Kighth Report of the Committee,
consisting. of Professor A. Newron (Chairman), Dr. W. T. BLAanForp,
Professor S. J. Hickson, the late Mr. O. Satvry, Dr. P. L. Sctatmr,
Mr. E. A. Suaru, and Mr. D. Swarr (Secretary) ...........:.ssscsceeseeseeeeeees 558

Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir W. H. Frowrr (Chairman), Professor W. A. HERDMAN,
Mr. W. E. Hoyts, Dr. P. L. Sctarer, Mr. Anam Sepewicx, Dr. D. SHARP,
Mr. C. D. SHERBORN, Rey. T. R. R. Stepsine, Professor W. F. R. WELDON,
and eM BJA. (BATHERS (SECTCLATY)...--c-2--0--eoseosairssecetnresusqecnsesuaneiane 558

Life Conditions of the Oyster: Normal and Abnormal.—Third and Final
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. HerpMAn (Chair-
man), Professor R. Boycn (Secretary), Mr. G. C. Bourns, Dr. C. A. Kony,
and Professor C. S. SHERRINGTON, appointed to Report on the Elucidation
of the Life Conditions of the Oyster under Normal and Abnormal Enyiron-
ment, including the Effect of Sewage Matters and Pathogenic Organisms.
(Drawn up by Professor HpRDMAN, Professor Boyce, and Dr. KouN.) ...... 559 -

Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Interim Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor Newron (Chairman), Mr. Joun CorDEAUx
(Secretary), Mr. Joun A. Harviz-Brown, Mr. R. M. Barrryeton, Rey. E.
Ponsonby Knustery,.and Dr. H. O. Fores, appointed to work out the
details of the Observations of the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and
Miphtships S8O-87. ....J.c.sncc-cn-scosesersices steesacesomshnuacese«ssaueeenmems 569

Index Animalium.—Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. FLowErR
(Chairman), Mr. P. L. Sctatzr, Dr. H. Woopwapp, Rev. T. R. R. STEBBING,
Mr. R. MacLacutan, Mr. W. E. Hoyle, and Mr. F. A. BarHer (Secretary),
appointed to superintend the Compilation of an Index Animalium............ 570

Caves in the Malay Peninsula.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
W. H. Frower (Chairman), Mr. H. N. Ripiey (Secretary), Dr. R. Hantiscx,
Mr. Crement Rerp, and Mr. A. Russet WaLzAcs, appointed to explore

certain caves in the Malay Peninsula, and to collect their living and extinct
BRINE wns oon dns snide o bi py caren v edhe crane on Dulane emease aaa ae alae eae 571

APPENDIX.—Report by Mr. H. N. Rmpipy.............0+ pass eoeten nanspanaay panne

Canadian Biological Station.—First Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor E. E. Priyce (Chairman), Dr. T. Wxstry Mizis, Dr. A. B.
Macattum, Professor Joun Macoun, Professor E. W. MacBrinz, Mr. W.

T. Tuiseuron-DymR,. and Professor D. P. PENHALLOW (Secretary), on the
Establishment of a Biological Station in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ......... 582

Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. C. Bourne (Chairman),Professor

CONTENTS. ix

Page

E. Ray Lanxester (Secretary), Professor Sypyry H. Vines, Mr, A. Supe-
wick, and Professor W. F. R. WELDON ........-.:.:sseeeseeeeeeeeseesseeeeeeeeeeees OBB
Report of Algological Work. By G. BREBNER .........seeeeeeetrnerreees 583

Report on Nerves of Arenicola, Nereis, &c. By F. W. GamBie, M.Sc. 584
Report on Mr. J. H. Wapsworti’s collection of material for the Study
of the Embryology of Aleyonium. By Professor 8. J. Hickson, F.R.S. 586

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. Herpman, Professor E. Ray
Layxester, Professor W. F. R. Wxxpon, Professor 8. J. Hickson, Mr. A.
Sepewrcx, Professor McInrosH, Mr. W. E. Hoyts, and Mr. Percy StapEn

(Secretary) .........-...cessseccasececccssscccnasseceeeesseceonsscsanssnansseetenescenneees 587
ApprenDIx I,—The Pseudobranch and Intestinal Canal of Teleosteans.

Bry gl amine GEM «oops !occcs amrseeh Chae gaa 588
» IL—(1) The Relations between Marine Animal and Vege-

table Life in Aquaria. By H. M. Vernon ......... 589

(2) The Relations between the Hybrid and Parent
Forms of Echinoid Larve. By H. M. Vernon ... 589

III.—On the Variation of Cardium, Donax, and Tellina. By

Pag, LUNE Tans{=(00. onc oasadd copepReedeEStecoed Sac HoDOSoCOURSOUaEDee 593
» 1V.—List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological
Station from July 1, 1897, to June 30, 1898 ......... 594

V.—List of Papers which were published in 1897 by Natu-

: ralists who have occupied Tables in the Zoological

SHaolOll ccs. eee cae one EPR Reps on pany ne indy 595
Photographic Records of Pedigree Stock—By Francis Gatron, D.O.L.
D (Oxf.), Hon. Sc.D.(Camb.), FLR.S. ....cccccecceeeseenseceeeeeetsnseaeesssenesseneeees 597

The Climatology of Africa.—Seventh Report of a Committee consisting of Mr.
_E G. Ravensrer (Chairman), Sir Jon Krrx, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. H.
R. Mizz, and Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chair-
BT e sev cs-2ecneeeseccsssccuecascneceasenyscunsevetensbedccseecoesaasnevecasandewarsesee 603

The Mechanical and Economic Problems of the Coal Question. By T. Forster
BROWN, M.Inst.C.B. ....00.......ccescccnsccnecccssccnseecesecessooescnsnsesogecnescnecs 611

\ New Instrument for Drawing Envelopes, and its Application to the Teeth
of Wheels and for other Purposes. By Professor H. 8S. Hetz-SHaw, LL.D.,
SUES TNO tre bo A aN eck ta cuaseseesdeasavectedares seesdaccas EEL Sant h once ses 619

Screw Gauge.—Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. H.
Preece (Chairman), Lord Kutviy, Sir F. J. Bramwe tt, Sir H. TRupMan
Woop, Major-Gen. Wesper, Col. Warxin, Messrs. Conran W. Cooxz,
R. E. Crompton, A. Strou, A. Lu Neva Foster, C. T. Hewirt, G. K. B.
Exrursrons, T. Bucxney, E. Riee, 0. V. Boys, and W. A. Pricz (Secre-
tary), appointed to consider means by which Practical Effect can be given
_ to the Introduction of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884 627

e North-Western Tribes of Canada.—Twelfth and Final Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor E. B. Tytor (Chairman), Sir CUTHBERT
E. Perk (Secretary), Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr. R. G. Hatrpurron, Mr.
Davin Bortz, and Hon. G. W. Ross, appointed to investigate the Physical
‘Characters, Languages, and Industrial and Social Conditions of the North-

Western Tribes of the Dominion of Camada ............eceeeseeecceeeeeeeeteetenes 628
‘ I.—Physical Characteristics of the Tribes of British Columbia. By
Franz Boas and Livingston FARRAND ...........scseceseeecerees 628

Ii.—The Chilcotin. By LIVINGSTON FARRAND.....ccccccecesseeeesseees 645

x REPORT—1898.

Page

IlI.—The Social Organisation of the Haida. By Franz Boas ......... 648

1V.—Linguistics, “By HRANZ BOAS \......... ..5..0s.0.0+nsecnenmieaeneeee 654
V.—Summary of the Work of the Committee in British Columbia.

By PRANZ BGM tees ctr sakee sists stoodes secede ss sopeesee see 667

AppENDIxX—Index to Reports, [V.-XII. oo... cede ween 684

Torres Straits Anthropological Expedition.—Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir W. Turner (Chairman), Professor A. C. Happon (Secre-
tary), Professor M. Fosrmr, Dr. J. Scorr-Kenrre, Professor L. C. Mart,
and Professor MARSHALL WARD, appointed: to investigate the Anthropology
and Natural History, of MorresiStralts. ....55.20oc..ns-0+-+nseuseeeenesateoneewnsindy 688

Silchester Excavation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. J.
Evans (Chairman), Mr. Joun L. Myxrs (Secretary), and Mr. KE, W. Bra-
BROOK, appointed to co-operate with the Silchester Excavation Fund Com-
Mibhee ti, bile MR POMM LANES. .nssscccscadacvcenrensanedonaves sav ecve cd enarareQaeeanee 689

Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in Public
Elementary and other Schools——Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir Doveras Garon (Chairman), Dr. Francis WARNER (Secretary), Mr.
E. W. Brasrook, Dr. J. G. Garson, and Mr. E. Wuirn Watts. (Report
drawn up by the Secretary.) .......-00cc-.cessescoesceneecencrereereeecceseecoasersnenes 691

ArpEnDIx.—Table showing co-relations of conditions of defect among
1,120 children, subnormal in constitution, mental, or physical......... 692

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Third Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Bory Dawxrns, Sir JoHn
Evans, General Prrv-Rivers, Mr. A. J. Evans, and Mr. A. BuLnzip
(Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) .. ...6.....scseeeesseeseeeeneeseen ones 694

An Ethnological Survey of Canada.—Second Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Dr. G. M. Dawson (Chairman and Secretary), Professor D. P. PEn-
HALLOW (Vice-Chairman), Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Professor A. C. Happon,
Mr. E. S. HarrnanD, Sir Joun G. Bovriyor, Appi Cuoe, Mr. B. Suze,
Asst Taneuay, Mr. C. Hitr-Tour, Mr. Davin Boyrn, Rev. Dr, ScappINe,
Rev. Dr. J. Macrean, Dr. Mertn Bravcuemin, Rev. Dr. G. ParrErson,
Mr. C. N. Bett, Hon. G. W. Ross, Professor J. Mavor, and Mr, A. F.

TERUIN DER © ere eipase eee ee eek eee e cee siicwesct salelble Seesed soe soos eet amen 696
Apprmnpix I,—Haida Stories and Beliefs. By C. H1r1-Tovr ......... 700

. II.—Customs and Habits of Earliest Settlers of Canada.
Tey GEN YAMIN OULTE: «. 00s .00s0.0esen+++cneneuaeeemaeege 709

Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom,—Sixth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. E. W. Braproox (Chairman), Dr. FRancis
Gatton, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. A. C. Happon, Dr. JosepH ANDERSON,
Mr. J. Romruty Aten, Dr. J. Beppozn, Mr. W. Crooxe, Professor D. J.
CunyincHaM, Professor W. Boyp Dawxrys, Mr. Arruur J. Evans, Mr.

F. G. Hizron Pricn, Sir H. Howorru, Professor R. Murpoxa, General
Prrt-Rivers, Mr. E. G. Ravensrein, and Mr. E, Sipyny HArrnanp
(Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) .......::.ceseesseceesseeeeeeereensees 712

Functional Activity of Nerve Cells——Second Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Dr. W. H. Gasxett (Chairman), Professors BuRDON SANDERSON,
M. Foster, E. A. Soudrer, J. G. McKenprick, W. D. Hariisurton,
J. B. Hayorart, F. Gorcu, CO. 8. SHerrineton, and A. B. MacaLtum,
Dr. J. N. Lanetny, Dr. G. Mann, and Dr. A. Wa ter (Secretary),
appointed to investigate the changes which are associated with the Func-
tional Activity of Nerve Cells and their Peripheral Extensions ......,........ 714

CONTENTS.

_ Appanpix I—Structural Alterations observed in Nerve Cells. By
II.—Excitatory Electrical Changes in Nerve. By FRancis

» i1—The Effects upon Blood-pressure produced by the
Intra-venous Injection of Fluids containing Choline,
Neurine, and Allied Substances. By F. W. Morr,
M.D., F.R.S., and W. D. Harirvrton, M.D.,

SOROS, “Ccapodeoscdsedosscucanu epbeasbeereet occa cogeranorc

The Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when introduced into
_ the Circulation. Second Interim Report of a Committee, consisting of
_ Professor E. A. Scudrer, F.R.S. (Chairman), Professor C. 8. SHmRRING-
_ oN, F.R.S., Professor R. W. Boycu, and Professor W. H. THompson

(Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) .........ccceerecssceceeeseeeeeeereeees

Fertilisation in Pheophyceex.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor J. B. Farmer (Chairman), Professor R. W. Purxures (Secretary),
Professor F, O. Bowzr, and Professor HARVEY GIBSON .........sdssseeeeeeeees

Goren, F.R:S., and G. J. Burcw, M.A.:........... .. (il

xi

Wi b aVWARR INGTON, WMDs <2. seccnewennccttiarseleseswsinc: 715

6

LDL Bie Sh edoadadet pishne. sh do sh Aer Seannn dt aeeeb ape cyn 30 sgrpoo noc 717
» 1V.—The Myelination of Nerve Fibres. By H. V. ANDER-
717

i V.—The Histology of Nerve Cells. By Gustav Mann, M.D. 719

720

REPORT—1898.

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

ON

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
Page

Address by Professor A. W. Rtcxpr, M.A., D.Se., Sec. R.S., President of

i;

2.

Ghe ‘Conference’ 25s. .(2.< fences novice cence once cance meee ates «Se ceulek sae hoe ee nee eee 733

On the Relative Advantages of Long and Short Magnets. By Professor
IES. IMABOARIS.c. ccc secon. spanebarcemeeccntc=scasceckiensccecerets «ssh tanta anne 741
On the Construction of Magnets of Constant Intensity under Changes of
Temperature. By J. R. ASHWORTH, B.Sc. .......5c......000.-snssesesavessees 742

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

. On the Establishment of Temporary Magnetic Observatories in Certain

Localities, especially in Tropical Countries. By Professor von Brzoxp
and General RYKATOHEEE. .......0cssessa:cavescacbecssessa0sconccnaness¥asseateenoge 743

. The Application of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Solution of some

Problems of Cosmical Physics. By Arrour ScHusrter, F.R.S. ......... 745

. Antrag auf Massnahmen zur systematischen Erforschung der Saecular-

variationen der erdmagnetischen Elemente. Von Dr. Ap. Scumipr ... 747

. On Simultaneous Magnetic Observations. By Dr. EscHENHAGEN ......... 748
, Discussion on Monthly Means ..........::2:..ssecocsero+ssco+despecsen etna Eanes 749
. A Discussion on the Publication of the Differences between the Hourly

Means of the Components of the Magnetic Force (X, Y, Z) and the
Monthly Means, s.siccots..csse.ctdcssscewcncessosavdercoccsers se Cneeeeeeenam ere 749

. On Magnetic Observations in the Azores. By AtsErt, Prince of Monaco 749
. *On Magnetic Observatories in Cape Colony. By Dr. Brarrre and

INF ST ORRISON «1 ccc. scree Novessscosecdvecvecesecescaceccesecslses onde eetteetea———=s 750

. Sur Je Mouvement diurne du Péle Nord d’un Barreau Magnétique

suspendu par le centre de gravité. Par J. B. Carrnto

eee teen ewan ee nnee

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

. An Account of the late Professor John Couch Adams’s Determination of

the Gaussian Magnetic Constants. “By Professor W. Gry~is ADAMS,
By Ri aleceaaeasta eanees ccsenn stave secs scosacssuaesvepec sf scueteurae ct sane 752

. On a Simple Method of obtaining the Expression of the Magnetic

Potential of the Earth in a Series of Spherical Harmonics. By ARTHUR
GH UST MY Ey Rue Was tuncsssebhs ose cs osinesasivestyesswedseaduutuceciedeps eaten 752

CONTENTS. xiii
Page

8. *On Magnetic Observations at Funafuti. By Captain E. W. Crnax, R.N.,
MES aoe ec sa nape lane Seiscie sais Sieleludlan dua sasedrodaedoneesenssses 755

4, On the Relations between the Variations in the Earth Currents, the

)
Electric Currents from the Atmosphere, and the Magnetic Perturbations.
By Serre LEMSTROM.............0.ececeeeseceeeeeceeeeeeeesaeesseeaeeecsseeeeseseeees 755
5. On the Interpretation of Earth-current Observations. By ArrHur
PUMPER BOLLS, sacesvnncstevsecscnbqsouctGnsssnteeucnsccosecessosnoeccnsdecevensal 756
6. On the Construction of Magnetic Observatories. By Dr. SNELLEN ...... 757
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
| A Joint Meeting with Sections A and G—the Magnetic and Electrolytic
iftectsioftulectric Riail way, ..c.2c.-.:.-<-ces-ccoenscosesavevecsensercaseesssncsces 758
1. On the Disturbance of Magnetic Observatories by Electric Railways.
By W. VON BEZOLD 22 ...0.....ccccescnsecntencansvesensenscsscoecserserserasere 758
2. On the Magnetic Effects of Electric Railways at Berlin. By Dr.
FESCHENHIAGEN. .......2..0002--ccecevccseccsccascscsscecsccecsessrcesersrcscsaserasla 758

1. On the Form of the Isomagnet:c Lines in the Neighbourhood of the
Volcano Etna. By Lurer PAtaZz0 .............ccccescsccseceecasecsen scans Moats:

2. On the Influence of Altitude above the Sea on the Elements of Terrestrial
Magnetism. By Dr. van Riscknvorset and Dr. W. van BemMeten... 760

8. On the Variation of Terrestrial Magnetic Force with Altitude. By
PEPOLERSOF J. LIGNAB ....-2.20-ccnvsscnaceccercnccostosenacescecnedengnccaursnossenaeas 760
Extracts from the Report of the Permanent Committee on Terrestrial
Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity to the International Meteoro-
PP RMMMIMO NICE EICE! C. .0......0c0cs--snepseoavnssianhenssanenadesnvecnrsansacexedeemsrahds 761

REPORT—1898.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

Page
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
Address by Professor W. E. Ayrron, F.R.S., President of the Section ...... 767
1. Report on Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations ............... 777
2. Lenses not of Glass. By J. W. GIFFORD ....ssccecc.ssccceeseenesnesevevnsee ves 777
3. On the Articulation and Acoustics of the Spirate Fricative Consonants.
By 0. Ler, D.Lit,, M.A., FURS ii dstesdcgsar.cct a... nee ee 777

4, On the Conservation of Energy in the Human Body. By Epwarp B.
Htosaend: WO, -AWWAGER: \..15.5d5 600 xe glee deans 3 as 778

5. On a Pneumatic Analogue of the Potentiometer. By W. N. Smaw,
Ei nhes x soadnnas vveyh st oe0e's agen scene ade ae RON tsL > ¢ coe 778

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

1. Comparison between Charging a Secondary Cell at Constant Potential

and at Constant Current, more especially as regards Efficiency. By A. A.
Oxnen and J. M. DoWALDSON 2..5.:..seeesqeeobeveestessere ck .cosgss ene 779
2. On a Magnifying Telephone. By Professor Ottver Lopes, F.R.S. ...... 782

3. “On the Measurement of Small Differences in Resistance. By E. H.
Grimes, ERAS, | 2.0.2 ssacasovea0 otcebimestetbeae it reess. /-s sone 782

4, The Dynamical Theory of Refraction, Dispersion, and Anomalous Disper-
gion, By Lord Kurvin, GC. V.O. 2. ccs ts seeesntie nse a- +s cee Bows. TBE

10.

.,

. Continuity in Undulatory Theory of Condensational-refractional Waves

in Gases, Liquids, and Solids, of Distortional Waves in Solids, of Electric
Waves in all Substances capable of transmitting them, and of Radiant
Heat, Visible Light, Ultra-Violet Light. By Lord Ketvry, G.C.V.O.... 783

- Heat of Combination of Metals in the Formation of Alloys. By Arnx-

Mapee Gan), DSc. ........agsssocsceoneseogeereuasc sites see pean cee 787

. A Platinum Voltmeter. By Professor H. L. Carnenpar, M.A., F.R.S... 788
. “On Radiation from a Source of Light in a Magnetic Field. By Professor

T. Preston, F.R.S. ..... See: oorcedcoesbee Baslasepboctowneetbe sauce hte sie stein 789

. On the Discovery by Righi of the Absorption of Light in a Magnetic Field.

By Stryawes P. Toompson, D.Sc., FURS. vijesececasenscses sss ssaeen seen 789

On the Dissipation of Energy in the Dielectric of a Condenser. By
Epwarb B. Rosa and ARTHUR W. SMITH..........ccccccsessecscscsesesenseeces 790

Hydrometers of Total Immersion. By A, W. Warrineton, M.Sc. ...... 791

CONTENTS. XV

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

DEPARTMENT I.— MATHEMATICS.

Page

. Report on Tables of certain Mathematical Functions............ faueemen deste’ 791
The Mathematical Representation of Statistics. By Professor F. Y.

TIPE REDE UHe. eeuedsctnecacsecce cc ctcsedsncnrebscienteeenaarntinaisesa)asmWomriadens denis 791

. On the Use of Logarithmic Co-ordinates. By J. H. VINCENT............-.. 791
. Stream Line Motion with Viscous Fluids in two Dimensions, and in three

Dimensions. By Professor H. S. Heve-Swaw, LL.D.............-:eeee 792

. Mathematical Proof of the Identity of the Stream Lines obtained by
means of a Viscous Film with those of a Perfect Fluid moving in two
Dimensions. By Sir G. G. STOKES, FLR.S. ...ceeseeeseeeeeeeee ee eteteeetennees 792

. On Graphic Representations of the two simplest cases of a Single Wave:
(a) Condensational-refractional, (6) Distortional. By Lord Ketviy,
ROMA) Rh oo tee ances edieidcsnnjonanseensanes a a84nsncailanas stints segs # 792

A New Method of Describing Cycloidal and other Curves. By Professor
A. S. Hane-Seaw, UL.D...............02sccccscscscsceeseeeeecececcrecscncseeecneess 792

. The Recent History of the ‘Theory of the Functions used in Analysis.
By E. T. WHITTAKER .-0...eeeceecceeeeeeeeeeeeeensecateeeeceetennneceeeeesenenees 793

. The Dynamical Explanation of certain observed Phenomena of Meteor
Streams. By Dr. G. JonnsTonE STONEY, PLRS. 2.2... tees 793

*Survey of that part of the Scale upon which Nature works, about which
Man has some Information. By Dr. G. Jonnsrong Sronezy, F.R.S....... 796

The Imaginary of Logic. By Professor G, J. STOKES ........61.0100eeeseeees 796

DEPARTMENT IJ.--MprroroLoey.

. Report on the Ben Nevis: Observatory 1... 0h iio bac dee ae 796
. Report on Meteorological Photography ...........+.:s::sseeeeeeeeeeees ates 796
Report on Seismological Investigation ...........-.:..sesseeeeeeeeeee tennessee 796
. Interim Report on the Montreal Meteorological Observatory .......-+-.---- 796

A Quantitative Bolometric Sunshine Recorder. By Professor H. L. Cat-
Reprints: MAL, BURG: - .. 2... sccsceceseensacescseeess sarass pSeewrais dees Samide awctaslse pate 796

6 Progress in the Exploration of the Air by means of Kites at Blue Hill
Observatory, Mass., U.S.A. By A. Lawrence Rorcu, 8.B., AS Meer. 797

*A New Form of American Kite. By Professor A. Scuuster, F.RS. ... 797

8. Analogies between the Yearly Ranges of some Meteorological and Mag-
netic Phenomena. By Dr. VAN RIJCKBVORSEL .........00e-seeeeeeeeeeeeeee eee 797

. The Classification of Polydiurnal Weather Types in relation to the Pro-
longation of the Daily Forecast in Western Europe. By Doveras
AROHIBALD, M.A., F.R.Met.Soc, .......2c0c00 ccsecnececesecceececcneteeeerersceees 798

The Rainfall of the South-Western Counties of England. By Jouy
_ Hopxryson, F.R.Met.Soc., Assoc.Inst.C.H. .......ceceeeeee eee ceee nents eee eees 799

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. ;
*A Discussion on the Results of the Recent Solar Eclipse Expeditions ......... 801

1. Interim Report on Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry ..........::+1seeeseeees 801
2. *Dilute Solutions. By E. H. Grirrirus, F.RS. .........-..--:eeesee neers 801

3. *Conductivity of Dilute Solutions. By W. C. D. WHBTHAM ..........--++- 801

xvi

wd &

P.
. Velocity of the Electricity in the Electric Wind. By Professor A. P.

REPORT—1898.
age

MO TEAEN OOK reek cana n cise sicting ase oem cwiieaaeussiovod sees be egode ec lae tt =e etre 801

fp Dalton's Ioaw.- By Wet N. SHAW, HoIR.S........0000s00c.seseysiec sect ee eee eee 801
. On the Determination of the State of Ionisation in Dilute Aqueous Solu-

tions containing two Electrolytes: No.2. By Professor J. G. MacGrueor 803

. The Carbon-Consuming Cell of Jacques. By S. SKINNER .............00008 804

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13. ‘
discussion on the Magnetic and Electrolytic Actions of Electric Railways 805

. Report on Hlectric Standards ...........cceecsecseceeeeees si Soistiele one RRS aoa 805
. On Standard High Resistances. By F. B. FAWCBIT..................ce0seeeee 805
. *On the Electric Conductivity and Magnetic Permeability of a Series of

New Alloys of Iron. By Professor W. F. Barrerr, W. Brown, and
Re RAa TAA DMGMUD s 55 cn scsscceeees acobosesreobossisnns deus npattens sence teen este et enEe 805

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

. The Drop of Potential at the Carbons of the Electric Arc. By Mrs.

MENTION is oc ce shaoivs on dened d dee Wels Saafaiicin nd boo 04 os ines SSSR ERE as tele de Cee eee aoe 805

2. Some Experiments on the Effect of Pressure on the Thermal Conductivities
OneRocks:. by WDE AOS El. LUBEB, ..)...'50. saan eeseqie coup iteuastacen pele: tee eae 807
3. On the Determination of the Thermal Conductivity of Water. By 8. R.
Minne, BiSe-, and Professor A. P.. CHATTOOK ..2.)..-seeeae--e- meee eee 808
4, Experiments on the Influence of Electricity on Plants. By Srxim Lem-
BSINROM. cost cen edadencsecmuibuessciist oe siieaes dens stociaees ouedahie sence oat sc nem 808
5. The Action of Electricity upon Plants. By E. H. Coox, D.Sc. ............ 809
6. *Experiments with the Brush Discharge. By E. H. Coox, D.Se. ......... 810
7. The Ancient Standard Weights and Measures of the City of Bristol. By
DWV Et PSATRICE 0). 0/00) isiescienicos oo se lsoecmrasiec der asetesssideteeh heats 810
8. Some Preliminary Experiments on the Luminosity produced by striking
Sugar, By J. BURKE, M-A. oo... s.0.cecess.sscnscnscnsaeoenes reeset eae ea 810
9. On the Electromagnetic Theory of Reflection on the Surface of Crystals.
Bysr@a as. Be CURRY. 0.0.002.2se0escnspersaracceesannnnecenet acs eta 811

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

Address by Professor Ff. R. Japp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., President of the

oF oo

RS OPERA. cs ass Sete ema ersie's v's os ccsn ciolidapinateiloccisls oa wie COUAERIINcL cea: ke ae 813

. On the Extraction from Air of the Companions of Argon and on Neon.

By Wrtriam Ramsay and Morris W. TRAVERS ...........:seeccessceeeeseeee 828

. *On the Position of Helium, Argon, Krypton, &c., in the Periodic Classi-

fication of the Elements. By Professor J. Emerson Ruynotps, F.R.S.... 830

. Report on the Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis ............... 830

*A4 new form of Stand for Electrolytic Analysis. By Dr. Hue MarsHart 830

. Report on the Continuation of the Bibliography of Spectroscopy ......... 830

ies

2.

to

CONTENTS. XVil

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

Page
Some Researches on the Thermal Properties of Gases and Liquids. By
PeMeUNea YOUNG OUD SIC), Luss sa yess cacat ove daedpscewavlescpsuslaclaecesedsssGenatety 831
On the Action of certain Metals and Organic Bodies on a Photographic
Rea NY.) ERUSSEEE, Ett) BES. ccyiassscssecsscgesesccperscescnsstoahe 834

. The Action of Bacteria on the aman Plate. By Percy Franx-

RS HSU SSC Ho wcSsutadacctscccddcupseee oncspsupestigecbsletatebagusadsoar ates 835

. Further aa eee on the Absorption of the Réntgen Rays by Chemical

Compounds. By J. H.Guapsronz, D.Sc., F.R.S , and Warr Hrpert 835

. Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours .................cceeeeeees 836
. On the Cooling Curves of Fatty Acids. By Dr. A. P. Laurte and E. Il.

“TEV AO) S10 SPREE ao Sec et Gh A Seed Ane NS a a a oe 836

. On the More Exact Determination of the Densities of Crystals. By

BHEBIAB TRO: MRR oac arte acclees cus sane alasmemesceeebersdeneesucsueeat auearics 837

. The Equivalent Replacement of Metals. By Professor Frank CLowzs,

MMSE ETE Cle Mees et ces c.iceetrie niches aaleiies salciars Sasiat gate RDONASEC ae est nieces aE 838

9. A note on Alkaline Chlorates and Sulphates of Heavy Metals By W.
BEEMONGICINGON ANd AW EL, COOTE. 1... 2.cct..codeccivenovetetddivndeddcescade die 839
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

“A Discussion on the recent Eclipse Expeditions ............ccccccceecceececeseccaes 840
1. Report on the Teaching of Natural Science in Elementary Schools ... .. 840:
2, *Juvenile Research. By Professor H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S. ............ 840
3. Green Cobaltic Compounds. The Result of Oxidising Cobaltous Salts

in presence of Organic Salts of the Alkali Metals. By R. G. Durrant,

a array oso eginkap «unm sine Yo und ade emsannssanageainat es diag tatoo. che 840
4, Bivelysis of Dorsetshire Soils. By C. M. Luxmoors, D.Sc., F.L.C.’ ...... S£1
5. Report on the Carbohydrates of Cereal Straws ............ecccseccceeeeeeccenes 842
G. Interim Report on the Promotion of Agriculture ...............ccccceecceeeees 842

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

1. Recent Advances in the Leather Trade. By J. Gorpon Parxer, Ph.D. 842

. Diamidated Aromatic Amidines, a New Class of Colouring Matters. By

BTC SE LEG N ONEUIN GG: acilsinsts cacscneicetesssalecdeccwncrendtstey Rvectncthe we dklges 845

. The Oxidation of Glycerol in presence of Ferrous Iron. By Henry

J. Horstman Fenton, M.A., and Henry Jacnson, B.A., B.Se. ............ 844

. Action of Hydrogen Peroxide on Carbohydrates in the Presence of a e

Salts. By R.S. Morrert, M.A., Ph.D., and J. M. Crorrs, B.A., B.Sc.

. “An Experiment illustrating the Effect on the Acetylene Flame of vary-

ing proportions of Carbon Dioxide in the Gas. By Professor J.

PAMPIRSONPLUMUN OTDS, Heke they cots sgediaesssaceonnedssdivcencacawesaees sostesnes 845
6. On a 10-Candle Lamp to be as a Standard of Light. By A. G. Vernon

ReanseeE ERT EN DERU all cg cayenne city see tNS wa seed te utp asie yelabuedt de <baeec¥s 845
7. On a Convenient Form of Drying Tube. By A. G. Vernon Ilar-

BFE es ob salen pV ecu eat ob We sata aie acdc oprstinsi ts aid a Hiiws saa geomenrdioe aaatowday 846
8. Standards of Purity for Sewage EfBuanta. By, Dry Spe RMA iccctawecd 847
®. Action of Ammonia on Gun-cotton. By W. R. Hopaxryson and Captain

“COASFIDIS ELE AMCs a al 6 SO Sr OIE Ae ac 847
1898. a

Xvill REPORT—1898.

Page
10. On Nitroso-pinene. By J. A, SMYTHE ......cceceeceeseeeeeeeeeeennaeneeseeeeees 849
11. The Constitution of Oxycannabin. By T. B. Woop, M.A., W. T. N.
Sprvsy, M.A., and T. H. Hasrerrierp, M.A., Ph.D, .....+---+00ere0e ee 849
12, The Action of Certain Substances on the Undeveloped Photographic
Image. By C. H. Bormamuny, F.LC., F.CS, «0.0... cceeseerersreceeeeeees 850
13. Report on a New Series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the
WBHGIMBLITR eres sc tacsOsvestesesscssteesssoscecoscsceccesecconvescseene cnn eastMencmemenas 851
14, Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivates ...........+-+sseeseeeeereees cree 851

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

Address by W. H. Hupieston, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section ...... 852
1. Notes on the Geology of the Bristol District. By Professor C. Lioyp

UREA, MSs cece cpns ss vess+cccccecseccesvcoseocsensuecsiassle enn anita pt seem Eee 862
2. The Building of Clifton Rocks. By E. B. Wrernuren, FVGES eee eens 862
8. On the Revision of South Wales and Monmouthshire by the Geological
Survey. By A. STRAHAN ..........:02--ssscesseeeeeereoenenseeee ‘eoneeaaemaneetss 863
4, On the Exploration of two Caves at Uphill, Weston-super-Mare, contain-
ing remains of Pleistocene Mammalia. By the late Epwarp Wutson,
FSGS Ree eee oda ciaoe yp cise casinos apices sine sesowesidgasinann aap aeteteee amen 867
5. The Comparative Actions of Subaérial and Submarine Agents in Rock
Decomposition. By Tuomas H. Hortanp, A.R.C.S., F.G.S.......-. eee 868
G. On Arborescent Carboniferous Limestone from near Bristol. By Horace
Pare WT AEORRAS sh 2 .5o5005.c05 cscs Sea-ccazeocseneene terse sone ieee on! 869
7. Report on Photographs of Geological Interest in Britain .......... cosesebeak a 869
8. Report on Photographs of Geological Interest in Canada .................000 869
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. The Comparative Value of Different Kinds of Fossils in Determining
Geological Age. By Professor O. C. MARSH ............sseeccesereceeeeneneeees 869
2, On Aggregate Deposits and their Relations to Zones. By Rev. J. F.
PD AG CS MVACSIH.GUS, nc. cnncccnsrassensesecoecceseceietouie sedes sobees ice i eetaa ant 872
3. The Geological Structure of the Malvern and Abberley Ranges. By
THEODORE GROOM, WMA; D.Sc. 00.2... obec evade nceeatcdede sucess ee ee ema 872
4. The Age of the Malvern and Abberley Ranges. By THEoporE Groom,
DIAC SCR eseiie aitnoe le loticeecvusccaeid doodessalserevedblee deere REE RE eam 873
5. On the probable Source of the Upper Felsitic Lava of Snowdon. By J.
TR PAYA EMG) ccicidsle sensible scscicccacseetvecscsesiocsesteecess cet CeeaEaaEam ere: |
6. On the Occurrence of Arenig Shales beneath the Carboniferous Rocks at
the Menai Bridge. By EDWARD GREENLY...............ccccececcecneseccecceces 874
7. On an Uplift of Boulders at Llandegfan, Menai Straits. By Epwarp
APREEND VAM ie cn ibiecatde ele soc20e Sot. ecesceveh2. sven edeeescinpent sett enn 874

8. On the Comparative Dimensions of some Atoms. By W. L. Appison ... 874

9. Leadhillite in Ancient Lead Slags from the Mendip Hills. By L. J.
EIDENGH Bs MM AA Sy pMahas so. otcesctc cess se etesoceeedsedédededsstescssth————nn 875

10, Supplementary List of British Minerals. By L. J. Spencer, M.A., F.G.S. 875

CONTENTS. X1x

: Page
11, On the Age and Origin of the Granite of Dartmoor, and its Relations of

the Adjoining Strata. By ALEXANDER SOMERVAIL........0..cscceceesesueces 877
aoe mepontion Fossil Phyllopoda:<...v..d...idssccswsatesacesvsuccvcdocsecesavdousceseee 878
13, Report on Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks................006.- 878

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

| 1. *On the Relation and Extension of the Franco-Belgian Coalfield to that
of Kent and Somerset. By R. Erneripen, F.RS. 20.0... ec cec eee eece sense 878

2. The Laws of Climatic Evolution, By Marsprn Manson, C.E., Ph.D.... 878
5. On the Sub-oceanic Physical Features of the North Atlantic. By Pro-

fessor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.... cee cecceceesenceseeeeuses 879

4, The Eastern Margin of the North Atlantic Basin. By W. H. Huprzs-
: PES. canon (ull. aa alietaatldth varaoud. ue. dq wale 881
5. *The Great Earthquake of 1897. By R. D. OLDHAM ...........ccccceeeeeee 882
6, Report on the Pleistocene Flora and Fauna of Canada ..............cesse0eee 882

7. On Worked Flints from Glacial Deposits of Cheshire and the Isle of Man.
Meer ILGIEAS,, Aude. Oey BG GeO eased ee Ca eid le Ps 882

8. “On some Dinosaurian Remains from the Oxford Clay of Northampton.
ee c ANDREWS, -sensevonvdevcudeenssaeec'dcahllsenpieVeevavveraveaestoiee tents 883

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
1. *Restoration by Charles Knight of the Extinct Vertebrates: Brontosaurus,

Phenacodus, Coryphodon, Teleoceras. By Professor H. F. Osporn ...... 883

2. *The Work of Encrusting Organisms in the Formation of Limestone.
SEN SEEN oo ei fe os on nl die sain lan cin Bugs agieas oes apestai Gade wens 883

5. The Action of Waves and Tides on the Movement of Material on the
mea Coast. By W. H. WHEELER, M.Inst.C.E. .....2.....c00cccceesene ee 883

4, Further Exploration of the Ty Newydd Cave, Tremeirchion, North Wales.
Eero GeO: EH. POLLEN 9.0.) H. Gud. ccockeascssccceeecsncessacsevrelgenmcete 884
5. Further Exploration of the Fermanagh Caves, By Tuomas Prunxerv... 885
6, Report on Remains of the Irish Elk in the Isle of Man ..................000000 885
7. Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles .............ccccccsseeeeeeees 885
8. Report on Seismological Investigation ..............cessssecesscecsecseeseccasecees 885
9. Report on the Fauna of Caves near Singapore...............secssseeeeeeeeeeeeees 886
10. Report on the Structure of a Coral Reef ............cce.cceeceeeseecseeceuceeseees 886
11. Final Report on the Eurypterids of the Pentlands..................:sseeeeseeee 886

Section D.—ZOOLOGY (INCLUDING ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY).
a THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

Address by W. F. R. Wetpon, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative
Anatomy and Zoology, University College, Iondon, President of the
ata hi ce sic sia ch sn cb bids Asp wep PA u4kh sp nowsaiompanctaconeteaa dh 887

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

1, *The Proof obtained by Guy A. K. Marshall that Precis octavia-nata-
censis and P, sesamus are seasonal forms of the same species. By
{ PRTOLERROLUC) Ey a OUUION, MGA, EEO. csaceccssssececsnecunesschanetepsce seth agaes 902
| a 2

xX REPORT—1898.

Page

2, Photographic Records of Pedigree Stock. By Francis Gatron,
IMIVAY EUR Seluweese ose seth oe Mee Reena Sideteen dev cteeee oateeeecenee woestueaeee severe 902

3. Preliminary Note on the Races and Migrations of the Mackerel (Scomber
scomber). By WALTER GARSTANG, M.A.........cssccscsesseseesseeceseneceees 902

4, *On a proposed Biological and Physical Investigation of the English
Channel, By Watter Garstane and H.N. Dicwson ...........0..0.000 905

5

. *On the Micro-chemistry of Cells. By Professor A. B. Macattum
. *A Case of Protective Resemblance in Mice. By Dr. H. L. JAmzson ... 905

. On the Phylogeny of the Arthropod Amnion, By ARTHUR WILLEY,

D.Se. Lond., Hon. M.A. Cantaby.........cccccccerscecsceencrsecsenes je eeeeebits 905
meee 905

8. Final Report on the Life Conditions of the Oyster, Normal and Ab-
MAOT INA, oes close siyapie's cinjss noes se side «ser cwlasien Go eeSe metres seas den seisina nse elon aero 905
9. Interim Report on Zoological Bibliography and Publication.................. 905
10. *Remarks on the Report of the International Zoological Congress on
Nomenclature. By Rev. T. R. R. STEBBING..............cccecsecseeeeeneneees 905
11. Report on the Index Amimalium .............c:sccscesceccescscoecaecasedscoseeeses 906
12. Report on the Canadian Biological Station..............cccsscecceecaeeeeceeeeees 906
13. Report on the Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory,
Ply MOW .., desis se savers cooper Taso mngmameenn wesea mineecnese dete shah deat eee eee 906
14. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples. 906
15. Interim Report on Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland............ 906
16. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.....,........ssceeceeeees seveeee 906
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
1

. An Experimental Enquiry into the Struggle for Existence in Certain

Common Insects. By Epwarp B. Povtton, M.A., F.R.S., and Cora B.

SANDERS .....:.0006 sncwace saa scaQdodedonsosascsodsnineeh sooAbonebestios seomesce eee 906
2, Animal Intelligence as an Experimental Study. By Professor C. Lioxyp

IMORGAIN’ of2 1.c5.d ho tacntaseeaeddntetecae gen terchs fevsiersner tes ns sostce de nn 909
5. On the Families of Sauropodous Dinosauria. By Professor O. C. Marsu 909
4. *A New Theory of Retrogression. By G. A. REID ............ccsssseeeeenere 911
5. On the so-called Fascination of Snakes. By Dr. A. J. HARRISON ......... 911
6. On the Scientific Experiments to Test the Effects of the Closure of

Certain Areas in Scottish Seas. By W. C. McIntosu, F.R.S. ........00+ 911
7. On a Circulatory Apparatus for Use in Researches on Colour Physiology

and other Investigations. By F. W. Keene, M.A., and F, W. GamBie,

MISE) du ioe ocaes coonss cennemeninaseiineseapeeeeOnnen acirs Slaase seeks (te . 918

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

1. *On Musical Organs in Spiders. By R. I. Pocook...........ssssseseeeseeeeeees 914
2. On the Origin of the Vertebrate Notochord and Pharyngeal Clefts. By

UNG T. Masramwan; (BAG, D.Se. \ joes notes cele ee 914
3. “Le Développement du Coeur chez les Tuniciers: Quelques considérations

sur la phylogénie des Ascidies simples, Par Professeur Cu. JULIN ...... 916
4. “Demonstration of Dr. Field’s Card-catalogue of Zoological Literature.

BSW) MAN EL OTIS oselvee savdeu dds vies ccseves cca eC eRRPRe SIN tenn 916
5. A Phylogenetic Classification of the Pelmatozoa. By F.A. Batumr,

M.A.,, F.G.S,

iG Oc ee seeceachnaueelivarsers. inten ane Biccee co 916

i i i ee

CONTENTS. xxi

Page
6. *On the Detection of Phosphorus in Tissues. By Professor A. B.
ETA ME Ret Fo oc cians nade es deceive’) deo ecinvieoswaev oacesecuadies sasvadecvace 923
7. Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when

mmcroduced into the Circulation! (0.021.000 .iii ses ceccescevcecesseseosessescoers 923

8. Report on Caves in the Malay Peninsula.................csscceeccssecesceeessene 923
MEIER SDSS ee icin cn ons isharescnne gosarstecasetinascavecssadliore 923

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

Address by Col. G. Eart Cuurcn, President of the Section ..............:e00ee 924
1. On Waves. By VaucHan CornisH, M.Sc., F.R.GS., F.C.S. 2.0... eee 937
2. Report on the Climate of Tropical Africa ..............ccsesccssessesceeceeenees 937
3. The Temperature and Salinity of the Surface Waters of the North

Atlantic during the years 1895-96. By H. N. Dickson, F.R.S.E......... 987
4, The Oceanographical Results of the Austro-Hungarian Deep-sea Expedi-
meeeete 0-06, by Dy, K NAPTHRER. . ci. 00.200i.-denscsaennsesessetoansnncdeaaie 938
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9,
1. Theories on the Distribution of the Oceans and Continents. By J. W.
PRESRCHU EVAR EN SCM Pree saree ts se ccute eck sccf duacetarecoucn cas eieceaceenwurcengsnetpestiong 938

2. The Great Indian Earthquake of June 12,1897. By R. D. OrpHaw...... 939
3. On Earthquake Study. By Professor J. MILNE, FVR.S. ..........cseeseeeeee 940
4, The Valley of the Yangtze. By Mrs. Isanerta L. Bisnor, F.R.G.S. ... 940
5. Across the Sierra Madre from Mazatlan to Durango. By O. H.
REMAIN ge ce dst nici cnaccnsUobedacnixe lites wae etveuetjasssecenisoadgatess eeshne 941
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
1. Political Geography. By J. Scorr Ketrre, LL.D., Sec. R.G.S. ............ 942
2. The Prospects of Antarctic Research. By Huan Rozserr Mitt, D.Sc.,
rae aR ae ERNE es Sa RY Secchadti tea SOK act So Snman omeigstedds dame page be 942
3. *The National Photographic Record. By Sir Bensamin Srons, M.P. ... 943
Beokotun, -- by Mrs, THEODORE) BENT: J.0....cc06...cddisueudanceecttocbscatduvcense 943

*The Upper Nile. By Sir Cartes W. Witson, R.E., K.C.B., F.R.S.... 948

. *Twenty-eicht Years in Central Australia. By Lovis pr Rougemont... 94:
y-elg y

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

1, Tirah. By Colonel Sir THomas HoLpicu, R.E.........0..sseecseeeneeeeeeeenes 944
2. Christmas Island. By C. W. ANDREWS .............ssssccseceeeeeeesecassecneess 944
3. Notes on a Visit to North-Eastern Kamchatka. By Captain G. E. I.

oa

SARE DTH EUANGE TONG scdacedeccas voce sacesueneeveciode alate vegarsavanenaciiesdessdestecs 944

. *The Impending Economic Revolution in China. By G. G. Cu1snorm ... 945
. On a Proposed Great Globe. By Professor ELISHE RECLUS ........++.+++++++ 945
. The Edinburgh Outlook Tower. By Professor PatRick GEDDES.......-.... 945

Xxil REPORT—1898.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

_ Page
1, The Orthography, Location, and Selection of Names for the National
Maps. By Henry T. Croox, Memb. Inst.C.B. ...........secesseeeeeeeeeseenens 947
2, On the Employment of Balloons for Geographical Research. By Captain
B, BADEN-POWELL .....ccescecoscesesccscecscsccecccecsecseetencestecnsescoreennsoncals 948
3. The Use of Electric Balloon Signalling in Arctic and Antarctic Expedi-
tions. By Eric Stuart Bruce, M.A., F.R. Met. Soc...............ssseeeeees 948
Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
Address by James Bonar, M.A., LL.D., F.S.S., President of the Section ...... 950
1, A Plea for the Study of Economic History. By W.CunnineHanm, LL.D.,
ADMINS: win c oo s-vasaciee'sesenasoacsseseaseansonsasecunseibausent sti ed ssssla: saa aie 962
2. A Defence of Poor Law Schools. By W. CHANCE .......-..0e-sseeeeeeeseees 962
3. *Poor Law Administration. By DouGLAS DENT ............sseeeeeeeeeeeeeers 963
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. Industrial Conciliation. By L. L. Price ..............seeessseceveccececececeeeees 963
2, Some Economic Aspects of the Imperial Idea. By Ernen R. Farapay,
IMS nacee anes scisdencoebedcaeer voseccses tact onecsemncptcinsent oss es ce sere ate a nea 964
3. Banking in Canada. By B, E. WALKER............:esceeccssceeeueecseceereees 964
4, The Question of the Ratio. By FF’. J. FARADAY ......csecseesecueeeenes asic ae 966
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
1. Municipalities as Traders. By GEORGE PEARSON .......secseeeesessereneeeeees 966
2. Ought Municipal Enterprises to Yield a Profit in Aid of Rates? By
ID WINUGANNAN, M.A: occocssecscascosssscectlossetasasscoarstevsssusseeseeeen Jee 967
3. Rectification of Municipal Frontiers. By W.M. AcwoRTH ............... 968
4, *Economic and Social Influences of Electric Traction. By Professor 8. P.
THOMPSON, PE RSs oiaese ce dceh ove denon ckeieseauee «shee ebbceadtis. bers. stieeeeemee aaa 968
5. Shipping Rings and the Manchester Cotton Trade. By Joun R. Gatto-
WAGW A Pesach ootlelser of cslealnsalnsslewe\ntea ose ta.oe geebleshabtisine seid sestibiael« sree ae eae mma 968
6. The Effect of Sugar Bounties. By Guo. EH. DAVIES ...........ccseeeeeeeeeenee 969
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
1. Comparison of the Changes in Wages in France, the United States, and

the United Kingdom from 1840 to 1891. By A. L. Bow rey, M.A. ...... 970
Saving and Spending: a Criticism of Recent Theories. By A. W. Frux 972

. On Partnership of Capital and Labour as a Solution of the Conflict
between them. By HENRY VIVIAN ........c0:c.cccccessceccctecccecconsacersenes 973
. The Expenditure of Middle-Class Working Women. By Miss C. EH,
( CLO PI OF Oa RRRepncer ee COE CCE CCRC ERCECC ECE EEREEPUP REECE ROAEEE 5.7 OS -Setgscaccua2.2 80 973

5. The Wakefield Land System, and the Developments from it in the

@plonies, “By, W).)bv TUBEVEB vo0s0fssccceesss0scec0te¥annucocndie daaeesaneneeenaane” N74

CONTENTS. Xxiil

Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
Page

Address by Sir Joun Wo1tre-Barry, K.C.B., F.R.S., President of the Section 976

1, *New Works at Barry Docks. By R. C. H. DAVISON ..............cseecee eee 987
2. eee rons necessary for the Successful Treatment of Sewage by Bacteria.
EDM N Oy SEP LOTR TENG. Rh c conte ceeends Jee albu ec seadek dee Shea te abehed haced cae cebeg ats 987
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
i. *Description of an old Newcomen Engine at Long Ashton, near Bristol.
EyeWieckt. PEARSON, Msbost:.©, ES ssc)... desis dae satleathias wae ca pstaacaadameess ocd 987
2. *Factitious Airs. By Sir FrepERick BRaAMWELt, Bart., F.R.S............. 987
3. The Mechanical and Economic Problems of the Coal Question. By
BESHORSTER BROWN, Mi lnst: CO. saccccspccsaspeosaoreceracsswenadtatcsidadhenedsers 987
4. The Hydraulic System of Jointing of Tubes on Tubular Bodies. By
CiavupE Jounson, M.Inst.0.E., M.Inst. ELE, .............ccceceneeceeeececeeeees 987
5. *Description of an Instrument for Measuring small Torsional Strains.
Paar Me OER. spitsnc duszaht suvlob sn «plas oeie dt laa opysethal suc pade pes aceaaedds eek ord 988
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
1. *Electric Power in Workshops. By A. Strmens, M.Inst.C.E. ............ 989
2, The Application of the Electric Motor to small Industrial Purposes and

its Effects on Trade and on the Community Generally. By ALFRED
eremecrveeernrenss, OM Tr By oes cc va ngacaiin onesie gebydieldena Sab} cap da sagen emeean-b raed 989

. Electric Power and its Application on the Three-phase System to the

Bristol Waggon and Carriage Works. By W. Gurpet, M.Inst.C.E....... 989

4. *The Electric Lighting System at Bristol, with Special Reference to
Auxiliary Plant. By H. FArapay Proctor. 991

5. *Electric Traction by Surface Contacts. By Professor Sinvanus P.
THomeson, F.R.S., and MILs WALKER ...........ccesceeeesecesescnescsesenre 991

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

1. Schemes for the Improvement of the Waterway between the Bristol
Channel and the Birmingham District. By E. D. Marren, M.A.,
Pree E eretetar earned -ceracan ant sew iesss8 oa iawcaveysanyens adap taggesients «gos 991

2. On the Welsh Methods of Shipping Coal. By Professor J, Ryan ......... 993

3. A New Instrument for Drawing Envelopes, and its Application to the
Teeth of Wheels and for other purposes. By Professor H. 8. HELE-
SHEA WMA GED) op MOUS tA @ SEs cece o nanos sec ti cats icdeee cesesse teve tense cssesccedesees 994.

4, Hydraulic Power Transmission by Compressed Air. By WILLIAM
George Water, A.M.I.C.E., M.T.M.B, ......c ccc ceeee nsec ee eeeeeeeeeees 994

5. Combined Electric Lighting and Power Plant for Docks and Harbours.

ESV cnr Wet AED RID GEic, seecsasccccsscasttterscccsonscesetaaccntscctesenscnsneesc ess 994

6. Electric Canal Haulage. By A. H. Atien, A.Inst.H.E...........:.ceeeeee 995

7. On the Pacific Cable. By Cuartes Bricut, F.R.S.E., A.M.Inst.C.E.... 996

XXiv REPORT—1898.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
Page

Address by E. B. Brasnroor, C.B., F.S.A., President of the Section ......... 999

THURSDAY, SEPVYEMBER 8.

1. Report on Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among

Children in Public, Elementary, and other Schools..........:..sessseeeeeeeee 1010
2. On Iiuman Life at Extreme Altitudes. By O. H. Howarrn ...... peeERe 1010
38. On the Human Far as a Means of Identification. By Miss M. A. Exris 1011
4, On Tabu in Japan in Ancient, Mediwyal, and Modern Times. By

ROUMIATATRATAN cs» cays asia steno shatens otis. sowshdeb abe a bass «ce nct ess seee aaa 1011
5. On some Stone Implements from South Africa. By G. Lrire ............ 1012
6. On some Roman Symbolic Hands. By F. T. EtwortHy .............00-+ 1012
7. On the Boat-building of Siam. By H. Wartneton Smytu, M.A. ...... 1013:
8. On the Reed Organ of the Lao Shans. By H. Warryeton Smyru,

BE Fig AE Et Lt ceca sp secuesen ta ave snsaye saseviewn MMeasnny nme MaN thle tena ennE 1015

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

Address! by ‘the: President) sass. ssidsioensestdacaeess datgansdaeenechs»-Gaxesue~ ae sanmeeeee 1013
1. On the Medieval Population of Bristol. By Jon Beppor, M.D.,F.R.S. 1013
2. Note on the Origin of Stone-worship. By Professor H. A. Mrers ...... 1018
3. On the Prehistoric Antiquities of the Neighbourhood of Bristol. By

Professor’ C. LLOYD MORGAN 6 mis sdenck ohnotceareet nek aces ee Das 1014

. On the Circles of Stanton Drew. By A. L. Lewis, F.C.A., Treas.

Anithry sings oie voseseaee vas id inisobecds hte emia oebom bee ee 1014

5. On the Survival of Paleolithic Conditions in Tasmania and Australia,
with Especial Reference to the Modern Use of Unground Stone Im-
plements in West Australia. By Professor E. B, Tytor, F.R.S.......... 1016
6. *On the Natives of North-West Australia. By Louis pz Rovermont... 1015
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada .........cscessecccceceeeeees 1015
2, On the Tarahumare People of Mexico. By A. KRAUSS .........ccse0eec0ee 1015
3. *On some Rocli-Drawings from British Columbia. By C. Hitt-Tovt... 1016:
4. On the Myths and Customs of the Musquakie Indians. By Mary A.
KOWEM 1.sssoncoos-veessagensass shubsoesccouaguehedeenssestr dees cotanene rt) een 1016:
5. Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada .......ccceeccceeeseeeceeseereere 1016:
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
1. On a Buddhist Image found in an Irish Bog. By Miss A. G. Werp ... 1016

. The ILill Tribes of the Central Indian ITills—their Ethnology, Customs,
1016:

and Sociology. By WiLttaM CROOKE, B.A. ....c.cccessssnesscsseeeceeeeees

. Interim Report on the Anthropology and Natural History of the Torres

Straits

phe eee ee eee eee ee eee eee eee error err ree ee eee eee

. On the Tribes inhabiting the vicinity of the Mouth of the Wanigela

(Kemp Witch) River, New Guinea. “By R. E. Quist. ..cessseessceseeeveee 1017

. The Montzu of Western Sze-chuan. By Mrs. IsABELta BISHOP .......-- 1017
- The Swati and Afridi. By Col. Sir THomas Horpicn, K.C.LE. ......... 1017

CONTENTS, XXKV

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
Page

. The Law and Nature of Property among the Peoples of the True Negro

Stock. By Miss MARY H. KINGSLEY ..........:seeeeeeereeneeseenersnneeeeess 1018

. The Native Secret Societies of the West Coast of Africa. By H. P.

IPZGERALD MARRIOTT ..cccccceccss cecsses esis sceqeceetcecccseaderessiens ssiste oasis 1019

3. On the Natives of the Niger Delta. By M. le Comte Cuartes pz Carpi 1019
4. Ancient Works of Art from Benin City. By C. H. Reap, F.S.A. ...... 1020
5. On the Languages of Kavirondo. By C. W. Hostery, F.R.GS. ......... 1020
6, *On Egypt under the First Three Dynasties, in the Light of Recent
Discoveries. By Professor W, M. FLINDERS PETRIE..........10+-010e+s0008 1020
7, On the Folk-lore of the Outer Hebrides. By Miss A. Goopricu-FRrER 1020
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
1. Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury ............ssseeeenneeeeeeseeeeeess 1021
2, *On the Place of the Lake Village of Glastonbury in British Archxology.
By ARTHUR J. Evans, F.S.A. ...s.0-sseseeeeeeeoes tadade spoke pes teatooasmanees s 1021
3. *On Traces of Terramdre Settlements in Modern Italian Towns. By
Professor W. M. Frinpers PErriz, D.C.Li.........cceeeee ee eteeeeeee eens tenes 1021
4. *On the Megalithic Monuments of Dartmoor. By P. F. 8. Awzry ...... 1021
5. Report on the Silchester Excavations...........c.sssseesessesneeseeeenesereeseees 1021
6. *On Walled-up Skeletons. By Miss Nina LAYARD ......--ssseeseeeeeeeerrees 1022
7. Report on the Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom ............ 1022
8. On Traces of Early Kentish Migrations. By T. W. SHorg, F.G.S. ...... 1022
9. On the Folk-lore of Guernsey. By the late Mrs. Murray AYNSLEY...... 1023

. On some Myths and Fancies of Insect Life. By S. Crement Sournam 1025
. tOn the Exploration of two Caves at Uphill, Weston-super-Mare, con-

taining remains of Pleistocene Mammalia. By the late Epwarp
WILSON, F.G.S...........cccccscesecveccsesncscecseeeecscrsccscsstecssesassseceaseee 10238

Section K.—BOTANY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

Address by Professor F. 0. Bownr, D.Sc., F.R.S., President of the Section 1024

ip
9

-_

4,

to

Report on Fertilisation in Pheeophycez...........s0++ Sponbcauae cre banbosounee 1045
On the Form of the Protoplasmic Body in certain Floridex. By

REGINALD W. PHILLIPS, M.A. .........2.-csecceveeseceecceceeeecseseccecssersees 1044
On Reproduction in Dictyota dichotoma. By J. Luoyp WIr1TAMs...... 1044
On the Origin of Railway-bank Vegetation. By 8. T. Dunn ..........+ 1044

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

. A Method of obtaining Material for Illustrating Smut in Barley. By

W.. G. BP. Ennis, M.A.........cccccssssssccssccsseenscnseecsccseseseeseccacensseasers 1045

. On a new Medullosa, from the Lower Coal-Measures of Lancashire. By

D. H. Scorr, M.A., Ph.D., FURS. 2.0... ee eeceee ee eee es eee tener eee eneeseaeeees 1045

. On the Alcohol-Producing Enzyme in Yeast. By Professor J. R. GREEN,

NES e cee eoeden Corte tiiukcncoecscveessdstoeterssestsaastanvesycarcieeseierasenianssisnaeess 1046

XXV1 REPORT—1898.

nr

—

a crim oo

="

Page

. A Potato Disease. By Professor H. Marsuatt Warp, D.Sc., F.R.S.... 1046
. Penicillium as a Wood-destroying Fungus. By Professor H. MARSHALL

WARD, DiSe. BBS. issis 2. ccdes sy sitsss cg sdeegect oe abide vedi tee ee an 1048

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

. On a Fine Specimen of the Halonial branch of a Lepidodendron allied to

L. fuliginosum (Will). By D. H. Scorr, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.........,... 1049
On an English Botryopteris. By D. H. Scorr, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S....... 1050

. On the Structure of Zygopteris. By D. H. Scorr, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. 1050
. A Rare Fern, Matonia pectinata (R. Br.) By A. O. Szwarp, F.R.S.... 1050
. The Prothallus of Lycopodium clavatum (L.). By Wit.1am H. Lane,

MUO Ges i5ts25.. sds doles kas AAA Oe 1 10

. Note on the Anatomy of the Stem of Species of Lycopodium. By C. E.

RONEIS ic: So shebassiesaccebee ce ebeece ee tena c ener SST noah ae 1051

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

. A Discussion on the Alternation of Generations in Plants :—

(a) Alternation of Generations in the Archegoniate. By WILLIAM
Hi. GANG; MB; B.S. sie cogee doe vos ce otto Cotton cao odo eno cee 1051
(6) On Alternation of Generations in the Thallophytes. By Professor
Grore Kiss 1057

et eee eee eee eee ee eee er eee eee eee ee ee eee reer er eee

(c) The Formation of the Zygospore in Polyphagus Euglene. By

FLAROED (WAGRRI AT fh... ds0. 506. Dies sede vedo tivssea leis sheonttee aaa 1064
2. On the Peltation of Leaves. By Professor C. DE CANDOLLE .............+5 1065
3. Changes in the Sex of Willows. By I. H. Burxmtt, M.A. ..............- 1065
4, Apogeotropic Roots of Bowenia spectablilis (Hk. f.). By H. H. W.

an
oO

(PEARSON DB Assiaese aide <2 o'Sadons sada de deveacels Hee eee det . oust. adda 1066

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 23.

. Preliminary Note on Changes in the Gland Cells of Drosera produced by

Various Food Materials. By Liny H. Hum ................cccceesceensceoes 1066

. Theoretical Calculation of an Osmotic Optimum. By Professor Dr. L.

FURRERA ois ciscovesssctesctdee ete Me aN Tete te oe a tdacs sucess ons 1067

. On the Unit to be adopted for Osmotic Measurements. By Professor

Dr, L. ERrera

Pee eee eee ee eee Peer e eer eee r rere errr er rr errr rr ere ree eee rr

4. The Knight-Darwin Law. By Francis Darwin, F.R.S. ........000eeeeeee 1068
5. Structure of the Yeast-cell. By Professor Dr. L, ERRERA. .......-....008 1068
G. Structure of the Yeast Plant. By HaRotp WAGER...........ssscececeeseeees 1069
7

. Observations on the Cytology of Achlya Americana (Humphrey) var.

noy. By A. H. Trow

CONTENTS. XXVI1L

RAST OF Paigd TES.

PLATES I-III.
Illustrating Dr. J. H. Vincent's Paper on the use of Logarithmic Coordi-
nates.
PLATE IV.

_ Ilustrating Mr. ‘Francis Gatton’s Memoir on Photographic Records of
Pedigree Stock.

PLATE V.

_ Illustrating the Paper by Professor von BEzoLp and General RyKATCHEFF ‘ On
the Establishment of Temporary Magnetic Observatories in Certain Localities,

PLATES VI.-VIUI.

Tilustrating M. Caretxo’s Paper ‘Sur le Mouvement diurne du Péle Nord d’un
Barreau Magnétique suspendu par le centre de gravité.’

gaerrrs 7“

Le

.

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF
THE ASSOCIATION.

—_+——__

OBJECTS.

Tux Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.

RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.

All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
to conform to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.

Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.

Lire Memsers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratwitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.

Annvat Susscripers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of OnePound. They shall receive

XxX REPORT—1898.

gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis ; but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the offices of the Association.

Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Poundannually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment. ]

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |

5. Associates tor the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis ——Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. |

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets} any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!

Application to be made at the Office of the Association.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.

1 A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set.

i
:
%

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xxxi

Meetings.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee not
less than two years in advance!; and the arrangements for it shall be
entrusted to the Officers of the Association.

General Committee.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

Crass A. PERMANENT MEMBERS.

1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be
sent to the Assistant General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting

of the Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member

of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.

Crass B. TrEmporary Mrmpers.?

1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Olaims under this Rule to be sent to the

_ Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims wnder this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries

_ before the opening of the Meeting.

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.

4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.

Organising Sectional Committees.?

The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-

tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their

names are submitted to the General Committee for election.
From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-

_mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,‘ and of preparing Reports

? Revised by the General Committee, Liverpool, 1896.

? Revised, Montreal, 1884.

% Passed, Edinburgh, 1871.

* Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and. the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become

XXXil REPORT—1898.

thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ez officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.'

An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the Sectional Committee, after which their functions as an
Organising Committee shall cease.”

Constitution of the Sectional Committees.

On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 p.M., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.

The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.

Business of the Sectional Committees.

Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday, and on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday,* Monday, and Tuesday, for the
objects stated in the Rules of the Association. The Organising Committee
of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of meeting of the Section
and the Sectional Committee except for Thursday and Saturday.°

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—

1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the

necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
BELOED So. scdes cstetusesc sarees , addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. ‘For Section......... ’ Ifit should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant General
Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting.

! Sheffield, 1879. 2 Swansea, 1880. 3 Edinburgh, 1871.

* The meeting on Saturday is optional, Southport, 1883, ° Nottingham, 1893.

4 RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXX
.

; ; Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
[ ingly.

; 3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ-

ising Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
, Committees.!

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Kecommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.? The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed, At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
_ forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday
in the Journal.

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
_ of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary.

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ea officio
_ temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxxi), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
_ entitling them to attend its Meetings.

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
_ be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the

state and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.
___ In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,

it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and

1 These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.

a 4 “Se the following sentence were added by the General Committee, Edin-

urgo, .

1898. b

XXXIV REPORT—1898.

one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Ohairman to have
the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any has been made)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time; and, further, it is
expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.

That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working.

That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec-
tions, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.

That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Commuttee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Comnvittee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Com-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.’

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary
for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be
done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.

N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.

Notices regarding Grants of Money.”

1. No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended
except in accordance with the Rules of the Association.

2. In grants of money to Committees the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the Members,

3. Committees to which grants of money are entrusted by the Association
for the prosecution of particular Researches in Science are ap-
pointed for one year only. If the work of a Committee cannot be
completed in the year, and if the Sectional Committee desire the
work to be continued, application for the reappointment of the
Committee for another year must be made at the next meeting of
the Association.

4, Each Committee is required to present a Report, whether final or in-
terim, at the next meeting ot the Association after their appoint-
ment or reappointment. Interim Reports must be submitted in
writing, though not necessarily for publication.

1 Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
* Revised by the General Committee at Ipswich, 1895.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXV

5 In each Committee the Chairman is the only person entitled to

call on the Treasurer, Professor G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., for

such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be
required.

6. Grants of money sanctioned at a meeting of the Association expire on
June 30 following. The Treasurer is not authorised after that
date to allow any claims on account of such grants.

7 The Chairman of a Committee must, before the meeting of the Asso-
ciation next following after the appointment or reappointment of
the Committee, forward to the Treasurer a statement of the sums
which have been received and expended, with vouchers. The
Chairman must also return the balance of the grant, if any, which
has been received and not spent ; or, if further expenditure is con-
templated, he must apply for leave to retain the balance.

8. When application is made for a Committee to be reappointed, and to
retain the balance of a former grant which is in the hands of the
Chairman, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such
farther grant is to be estimated as being additional to, and not
inclusive of, the balance proposed to be retained.

9, The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting
to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations in every case where no such
report has been received.

10. Members and Committees who may be entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of Natural History are requested to re-
serve the specimens so obtained to be dealt with by authority of
the Association.

11. Committees are requested to furnish a list of any apparatus which
may have been purchased ont of a grant made by the Association,
and to state whether the apparatus will be useful for continuing
the research in question, or for other scientific purposes.

12. All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Asso-

ciation are to be deposited at the Office of the Association when

not employed in scientific inquiries for the Association.

:
|

Business of the Sections.

_ The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation shortly
before the meeting commences. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto
can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the
Association.

At the time appointed the Chair will be taken,’ and the reading of
communications, in the order previously made public, commenced.

_ Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.

1 The Organising Committee of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours
of meeting of the Section and Sectional Committee, except for Thursday and

Saturday.
b2

XXXVI REPORT—1898.

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.

Duties of the Doorkeepers.

1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.

2. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Assistant General Secretary.

3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.

No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the Programme, p. 1.

Duties of the Messengers.

To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed ozs
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.

Comnuttee of Recommendations.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

Presidents of the Association in former years are ew officio members of
the Committee of Recommendations.!

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.

All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.?

If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.?

1 Passed by the General Committee at Newcastle, 1863.
? Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865.
® Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXVil

Corresponding Societies.!

1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.

2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
Assistant General Secretary on or before the Ist of June preceding the
Annual Meeting at which it is intended they should be considered, and
must be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the results of
the local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annuai report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.

4, Every Corresponding Societyshall return each year, on or before the
Ast of June, to the Assistant General Secretary of the Association, a
schedule, properly filled up, which will be issued by him, and which wiil
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required tor the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.

5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the

results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
_ being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of

one or other of the various Sections of the Association.
6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any

one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-

gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time

a Member of the General Committee.

Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-

dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.

8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ew officio members.

9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries

_ to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-

tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.
10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to

} Passed by the General Committee, 1884,

XXXVlli REPORT—1898.

the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
Gations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
earried into effect.

11. It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.

Local Commvittees.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

Officers.

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

Council.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.

(1) The Council shall consist of !

1. The Trustees.

2. The past Presidents.

3. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.

4, The President and Vice-Presidents elect.

5. The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.

6. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting.

7. Ordinary Members.

(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.
(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of

1 Passed by the General Committee at Belfast, 1874.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXX1X

whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.

(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination :—1lst, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.

(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of the General
Committee whom they recommend for election as Members of

Council.

(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the

Officers of the Association.

Papers and Communications.

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.

Accounts.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.

1898,

REPORT

xl

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xli

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xlii

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES. xliii

——_

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1898.

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PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES,

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1898.

REPORT

xlvi

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1898.

REPORT

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PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETAR

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hii REPORT—1898.

TRUSTEES

AND GENERAL OFFICERS, 1831—1899.

TRUSTEES.

1832-70 as R. I. MurcHison (Bart.),
RS.

1832-62 his TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S.
1839-44 F. BAILy, Esq., ERS.
1844-58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.
1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.RS.
1862-81 Sir P. EGERTON, Bart., F.R.S.

1872-99 Sir J. LUBBOCK, Bart., F.R.S.

1861-83 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., Pres.
RS.

1883 99 Lord RAYLEIGH, F.RS.

1883-98 Sir Lyon (now Lord) PLAYFAIR,
F.R.S.

1898-99 Prof. A. W. RUCKER, F.R.S.

GENERAL TREASURERS.

1831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq.
1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq. F.R.S.
1862-74 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., F.R.S.

1874-91 Prof. A. W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.
1891-98 Prof. A. W. RUcKER, F.R.S.
1898-99 Prof. G. C. FostEr, F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES,

1832-35 Rev. W.
F.R.S.
1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
F.R.S., and F, Batty, Esq.,
F.RS.
1836-37 Rev. W. Vurnon Harcourt,
¥.R.S., and R. I. Murcurson,
Ksq., F.R.S.
1837-39 R. I. Murcnison, Esq., F.R.S.,
and Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.8.
t839_45 Sir R. I. Murcuison, F.R.S.,
and Major E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E. SABINE,I.R.S.
1850-52 General E. SABINE, F.R.S., and
J.F. ROoYLE, Esq., F.R.S.
1852-53 J. F. Royue, Esq., F.R.S.
1853-59 General EK. SABINE, F.R.S.
1859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.S.
1861-62 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S.
1862-63 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S.
1863-65 W. Hopxins, Esq., F.R.S., and
F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.
1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.

VERNON HARCOURT,

1866-68 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S.

1868-71 Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S., and Dr.
T. THOMSON, F.R.S.

1871-72 Dr.T. THOMSON,F.R.S.,and Capt.
DovuGLas GALTON, F.R.S.

1872-76 Capt. DouGLAS GALTON. F.B.S.,
and Dr. MICHAEL FOSTER,
F.R.S.

1876-81 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.,
and Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.RB.S.

1881-82 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.,
and Prof. F. M. BALFOUR,
F.R.S.

1882-83 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.

1883-95 Sir DouGLAs GALTON, F.R.S.,
and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT,
Esq., F.R.S.

1895-97 A. G. VERNON HARCOURT, Esq.,
F.R.S., and Prof. HE. A.
SCHAFER, E.R.S.

1897-99 Prof. E. A. SCHAFER, F.R.S., and
Prof. W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN,
C.B., F.R.S.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES.

1831 JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary. | 1881-85 Prof. T. G.

1832 Prot. J: D;
Secretary.

2832-62 Prof. JoHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S.

1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.

1878-80 J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A.,
Assistant Secretary.

G, GewritH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.

ForBES, Acting

1881

Bonney, F.BS.,

Secretary.

1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A.,
Secretary.

1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.

1890-99 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.

— TT

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections

Date and Place

1832.
1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.

lini

of the Association.

Presidents

Secretaries

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.

Cainbridge
Edinburgh

Dublin......
Bristol......

Liverpool...

Newcastle

1839. Birmingham

1840. Glasgow ...

1841.
1842.

1843.
1844,
1845.
1846.
_ «*1847.

1848.

Plymouth
Manchester

Cambridge

Southamp-

Swansea ...

1849. Birmingham

1850.
1851.
— 1852.
1853.

Edinburgh
Ipswich ..,
Belfast......
Hull

eee ee wees

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.

Rev. H. Coddington.

Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Rev. Dr. Robinson
Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.RB.S.
Rey. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....

Prof. Forbes, F.R.S...........0.

Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S.......

Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.

Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A. ...

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...

The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely.

Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.R.S.

Prof. Powell,
F.R.S.

Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......

William Hopkins, F.R.S.......

M.A.,

Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.

../Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,

E.B.S., F.R.S.E.
The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.

1854, Liverpool...| Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
RS

1855. Glasgow .../Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A,

F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

1856, Cheltenham | Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.

Prof. Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.

W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.

J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.

Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.

Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.

J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.

John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
S. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W, J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,

Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.

J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof,
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.

Tyndall.
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.

liv

REPORT—1898.

Secretaries

Date and Place Presidents
1857. Dublin...... Rev. T. R. Robinson,
F.R.S., M.R.IA.
1858. Leeds ...... Rev. W. Whewell,
V.P.R.S

1859. Aberdeen...
F.R.S.
1860. Oxford......

1861. Manchester
F.R.S.

Prof. G. G. Stokes,
F.R.S.

1862. Cambridge

1863. Newcastle
C.H., F.R.S.

1864. Bath.........
F.R.A.S.

1865. Birmingham |W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.5.,
F.R.A.S.

1866. Nottingham|Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

1867. Dundee
F.R.S
1868. Norwich ...

E.R.S.

1869. Exeter......
F.R.S.

1879. Liverpool...|J. Clerk Maxwell,
LL.D., F.R.S.

1871. Edinburgh

1872. Brighton...

1873. Bradford ...

1874. Belfast...... Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett,
M.R.LA.

1875. Bristol...... Prof. Balfour Stewart,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...
Pres. Physical Soe.

1878. Dublin...... Rev. Prof. Salmon,
D.C.L., F.B.S.

1879. Sheffield ...|George Johnstone
M.A., F.R.S.

1880. Swansea ...|Prof. W. Grylls Adams,
F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson,

LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.

GD MORK. 25.0232

1882. Southamp-

ton. M.A., F.R.S.

The Harlof Rosse, M.A.,

...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
J. Tyndall, LL.D.,

Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...

D.D.,|Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.

D.D.,|Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.

K.P.,| J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J.S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....] Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,

Prof. Stevelly.

G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,} Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8S.

Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
M.A.,| Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,| Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.

Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T.
Whitley.

Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,| Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.

Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.

Fleeming Jenkin,Prof.H.J.S. Smith,
Rey. 8. N. Swann.

Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.

Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,|Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,

W. K. Clifford.

M.A.,| Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.

Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.

W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,

Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, F.R.S. .|Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.

W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel.

M.A.,|J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.

M.A.,| Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.

M.A.,| Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.

Prof, G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,| Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,

J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
D.D.,|Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.

Stoney,|A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.

O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
M.A.,)W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
M.A.,|Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.

Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,|W. M. Hicks, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D.

MacAlister, Rey. G. Richardson.

ed al - ee, ae

or *+

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF

THE SECTIONS. lv

Date and Place

1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
- 1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.

1897.
1898.

1832.
1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.
1837.
1838. Newcastle

1839. Birmingham
1840.

1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.

1845.

1846,

Southport

Montreal ...

Presidents Secretaries

Prof.O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.|W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,|C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, A. John-
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. son, O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.

Aberdeen...|Prof. G. Chrystal, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof,
F.R.S.E. W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
Birmingham |Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A.,)R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
LL.D., F.R.S. J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.
Manchester |Prof. Sir R. 8S. Ball, M.A.,/R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
LL.D., F.R.S. H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.
Bath .......<. Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A
F.RB.S. Lodge, W. N. Shaw.
Newcastle- |Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,|R. H. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
upon-Tyne| R.H., F.R.S. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, H. Stroud.
Leeds ...... J. W. L. Glaisher, Sc.D.,|R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S. W.N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.
Cardiff -....: Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc.,)R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
LL.D., F.R.S. Lodge, Prof. A. L. Selby.
Edinburgh |Prof. A. Schuster, Ph.D.,)R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.
Nottingham|R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S.|W. T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof.
A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.
Oxford)...... Prof. A. W. Riicker, M.A.,| Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
F.R.S. J. Walker.
Ipswich ...|Prof. W. M. Hicks, M.A.,| Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
F.R.S. G. T. Walker, W. Watson.
Liverpool...|Prof. J. J. Thomson, M.A.,|Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. L. Howard,
D.Sc., F.R.S. Prof. A. Lodge, G. T. Walker,
W. Watson.
Toronto ...|Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,|Prof. W. H. Heaton, J.C. Gissian, J.
F.R.S. L. Howard, Prof. J.C. McLennan.
Bristol ...... Prof W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. ...|Prof. A. P. Chattock, J. L. Howard,
C. H. Lees, Prof, W. Watson, E. T.
Whittaker.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IIl.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
Oxford...... John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. |James F. W. Johnston.
Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Prof. Miller.
Edinburgh | Dr. Hope..............scceececeeees Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
Dublin...... Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. .|Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
Bristol...... Rey. Prof. Cumming ......... |Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
ath.
Liverpool...| Michael Faraday, F.R.S....... pape. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.

Rey. William Whewell,F.R.S.
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S.

Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
| Richardson.

. Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson.
|Dr. R. D: “Thomson, Dr. ‘Tf. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.

Glasgow .,.| Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.
Plymouth...|Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. .........
Manchester | John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Cork..5;.29%5 Prof. Apjohn, M.R.1.A.........
OTIC osc ’ae Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S..
Cambridge | Rev. Prof. Cumming .........
Southamp- | Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,

ton. F.R.S.

J. Prideaux, R. Hunt, W. M. Tweedy.

| Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham,

|R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.

..| Dr. L, Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker.

|R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
i. Solly.

Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.

lvi

REPORT—1898.

Date and Place

1847. Oxford......
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......

Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,

Presidents

F.R.S.
Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ...|
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S. |
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S. |

1853. Hull.........

1854. Liverpool

1855. Glasgow ..
1856. Cheltenham |
1857. Dublin

weeeee

1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford

seeeee

1861. Manchester,
1862. Cambridge

1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath.........
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869, Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford...
1874. Belfast

1875. Bristol......

1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth... |

...|Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.

| Prof. W.H. Miller, M.A.,}.B.S.

|W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S.......

see IEYOL.

Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.R.S,
Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...|

Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,)
M.R.I.A.

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.

Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S......
Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S. |

Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
F.R.S.

Prof. W. A.
V.P.R.S.
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.!

Miller, M.D.,

T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.

M.D.,

(Dy, SH Debus, He Resse. ceagtece

|

\Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.R.S.

Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....

Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....

Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., |
F.R.S.

WViemterrerkin. \H RAS: ie. cert

BEA REA DEL MH Ee. Ounvcsescnecdeuee

1878, Dublin......|
1879. Sheffield ...
|

Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D., |
F.R.S.
Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S. ...

Secretaries

B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.

T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams,

R. Hunt, G. Shaw.

Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.

T. J. Pearsall, W. 8. Ward.

Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.

H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.

Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.

Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.

J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.

J. 8. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Livein
A. B. Northcote.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.

H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe. i

Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. €.
Stevenson.

A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.

A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.

A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr, W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.

g>

/Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.

Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.

J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, F.
E. Thorpe.

Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.

Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.

Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.

Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.

W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.

Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.

W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.

H. 8S. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.

M. Thomson.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1880.

1881.
1882.

1883.
1884.
1885.

Swansea ...

Southamp-
ton,

Southport

Montreal ...

Aberdeen...

1886, Birmingham

1887.

1888. E

1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.

1895.

1896.
1897.

1898.

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

Cardiff ......
Edinburgh
Nottingham

Oxiford)......

Ipswich

Liverpool...
Toronto

Bristol ......

lvii

\Prof. W. A. Tilden,

\Prof. T. E. Thorpe,

Presidents

Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,|
F.R.S.

Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.

Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,
F.R.S. |

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...

Prof, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.

W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S. ..:...

D.S8c.,|
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

Sir I. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,
D.C.L., F.B.S.

B.Sc.,|
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S.
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen, |

C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. H. McLeod, F.R.S.......

Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, |

Secretaries

P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, W. R. E.
Hodgkinson, J. M. Thomson.

P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, T. Gough.

P. Phillips Bedson, H. Bb. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W-
J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.

Prof. H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley,
R. E. Moyle, W. W. J. Nicol.

H, Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W.
W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun.

C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

C. H, Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
W. W. J. Nicol, G. 8. Turpin.

J. Gibson, H. Forster Morley, D. H.
Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan,

M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Prof. H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.,
|

D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.
A. Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur
Harden, H. Forster Morley.

SECTION B (continwed).—~CHEMISTRY.

.| Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. ......|

Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S. |

...|Prof. W. Ramsay, F.B.S.......

Prof, F. R. Japp, F.B.S, ae

BE. H. Fison, Arthur Harden, C. A.
Kohn, J. W. Rodger.

Arthur Harden, C. A. Kohn

Prof. W. H. Ellis, A. Harden, C. A-
Kohn, Prof. R. F, Ruttan.

C. A. Kohn, F. W. Stoddart, T. K.
Rose.

GEOLOGICAL (anv, untit 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IJIL.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1832.
1833.
1834.

1835.

1836.

1837.
1838,

Oxford......
Cambridge.
Edinburgh .

Dublin......
Bristol ......

Liverpool...

Newcastle. .

1839, Birmingham

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ......
Prof, Jameson

Bere m ese ereesenree

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AN

Fed) LUDO) teas earaatesccsesves
Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geog.,R.I.Murchison,F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.
C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
Geography, Lord Prudhoe.
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.

| John Taylor.

W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
J. Phillips, T. J. Torrie, Rev. J. Yates.

D GEOGRAPHY.

Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.

William Sanders, S. Stutchbury,
T. J. Torrie.

Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—G@eo-
graphy, Capt. H. M. Denham,R.N.

W.C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Washington.

George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin.

lviil

Date and Place

1840.

1841.

1842,
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.

1847.

1848

REPORT—1898.

Presidents

Secretaries

Glasgow ...

Plymouth...

Manchester

sseteeeee

se eewenee

Cambridge.

Southamp-
ton.

. Swansea...

1849.Birmingham

Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.

H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......

Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S. ...

Henry Warburton, Pres. G. 5.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Leonard Horner, F.R.S. ......

Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.

Sir H. T. De la Beche, F.R.8.
Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,

F.G.S.

1850. Edinburgh! |Sir Roderick I. Murchison,

1851
1852
1853

1854.

1855

1856

1857
1858

1859.
1860.

1861
1862
1863

1864.

1865
1866

. Ipswich ...
. Belfast

eeneee

. Hull
Liverpool..

. Glasgow
. Cheltenham

. Dublin

pPLICLOS) i... sss
Aberdeen...
Oxford......
. Manchester
. Cambridge
. Newcastle

. Birmingham

. Nottingham

le CEES.

SECTION C (continued).

William Hopkins, M.A.,F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E.,
F.R.S.

Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........
Prof. Edward Forbes, F,R.S.

...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....

Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....

The Lord Talbot de Malahide

William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.R.S.

Sir Charles Lyell,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.

TBs

Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.R.S., F.G.8.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.

Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
E.R.S.

W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.

W.J. Hamilton, Kdward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.

KE. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.

F. M. Jennings, H. E. Strickland.

Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rey. W. Thorp.

Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham, Dr. C. T. Beke.

Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.

S.Benson, Prof.Oldham, Prof.Ramsay.

J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
A. C. Ramsay.

A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof. Nicol.

— GEOLOGY.

C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.

James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
J. Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. Nicol.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.

Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, i. W.
Shaw.

Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.

|Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
Woodall.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hutl, T,
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert

Jones, H. C. Sorby.
E. F, Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
| Sorby, Themas Sopwith.
W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.
Rey. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. HE.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
|\R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.

» Geography was constituted a separate Section, under the title of the ‘Geo-
graphical and Ethnological Section,’ see page lxiv.

—-

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1867.
1868.

1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.

1879.
1880.

1881.

1882.

1883.

1884.

"1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.

1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.

Dundee
Norwich ...

Exeter ......
Liverpool...
Edinburgh

Brighton...

Bradford ...

Glasgow a3
Plymouth...
Dublin......
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...

Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen ...
Birmingham
Manchester

eee eeeee

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

seeeee

aeteee

Edinburgh

Nottingham
Oxford’..sss:
Ipswich ...
Liverpool...
Toronto

Bristol

Presidents

.| Archibald Geikie, F.B.S.

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,

F.RB.S., F.G.S.

Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,

E.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L.,
F.B.S., F.G.S.

Prof. Hull, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.8.

Dr. T. Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.

.|Prof. John Young, M.D. ......

W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Jobn Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.

Prof. P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.

H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., F.G.S....

A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.RB.S.,
F.G.8.

R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. W. C.
LL.D., F.R.'.

W. T. Blanford, F.B.S,, Sec.
G.S.

Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.8.

Prof. A. H. Green,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S8.,
B.G.S.

Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D.,
F.RB.S., F.G.8.

J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.B.S..,
F.G.S.

L. Fletcher, M.A., F.R.S.

Williamson,

M.A.,

W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S. ...

Jdioth. Marr,
Sec. G.S.

M.A., F.RB.S.,

F.R.S.
W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S.......

lix

Secretaries

E. Hull, W. Pengelly, H. Woodward.
Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rev. H. H. Winwood.

W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.

R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.

L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.

L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.

F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.

L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Topley.

J.Armstrong,F.W.Rudler, W.Topley.

Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.

E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.

W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.

W. Topley, W. Whitaker.

J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.

T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker. .

R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker. 2

¥. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.

Cc. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.

W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.

J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
ley, W. W. Watts.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
J. B. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.
W. Galloway, J. E. Marr,
Reid, W. W. Watts.

H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

J. W. Carr, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

lement

.|F. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clement

Reid, W. W. Waits.

F. A. Bather, G. W. Lamplugh, H.
A. Miers, Clement Reid.

J. Lomas, Prof. H. A. Miers, Clement
Reid.

...|Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.,|Prof. A. P. Coleman, G. W. Lamp-

lugh, Prof. H. A. Miers.
G. W. Lamplugh, Prof. H. A. Miers,
H. Pentecost.

lx REPORT—1898.

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY,

1832. Oxford...... Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...| Rev. Prof. J. 8. Henslow.
1833. Cambridge’) Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L,S.|C. C. Babington, D. Don.
1834, Edinburgh .| Prof. Graham..................008 |W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
1835. Dublin...... SPALL. cess cassswvsccessoos ss J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
1836. Bristol...... Rey. Prof. Henslow ..........+6 J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, S.
Rootsey.
1837. Liverpool...|W. S. MacLeay............c0c00 iC. C. Babington, Rev. L, Jenyns, W.
| Swainson.
1838. Newcastle |Sir W. Jardine, Bart. ......... J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson.
1839. Birmingham | Prof. Owen, F.R.S. ............ |E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
1840. Glasgow ...|Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......| Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson,

1841. Plymouth... |John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.| J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
1842. Manchester |Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-| Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.

bert, LL.D., F.L.S. Turner.
1843. Cork......... William Thompson, F.L.S....\G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.
1844, York......... Very Rey. the Dean of Man- Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
chester. Dr. Lankester.

1845. Cambridge | Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S...,'Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.
1846. Southamp- |Sir J. Richardson, M.D., Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.

ton. E.R.S. Wooldridge.
1847. Oxford...... H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S. Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.

SECTION D (continwed).—zZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub-
sections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. Isiii.]

1848. Swansea ...)L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S..........| Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.

1849. Birmingham| William Spence, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.

1850. Edinburgh |Prof, Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E. | Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
1851. Ipswich .../Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A., | Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.

F.R.S. Lankester.
1852. Belfast...... WTO PED Yio store soosonosnseescounes Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
L853. Hull....:/.0s- C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.|Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.

1854, Liverpool...|Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....| Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.

1855. Glasgow ...|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. | William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.

1856. Cheltenham | Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.| Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,

Dr. Lankester.~

1857. Dublin...... Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D., Prof. J.R.Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
F.R.S. | Robert Patterson, Dr, W. E. Steele.

+ At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. I xiii.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1858. Leeds

1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......

1861. Manchester

1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864. Bath

sere eeres

1865. Birming-)|T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.

ham !

~ 1866. Nottingnam

1867. Dundee

1868. Norwich ...

1869. Exeter

1870. Liverpool...

qi

1871. Edinburgh.

1872. Brighton ...

1873. Bradford ...

|Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.

‘Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S.

Presidents

lxi

Secretaries

C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.

‘Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....

Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.

ee eee eens

Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....

Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.

W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

.|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.

Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

...|Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.

H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

SECTION D (continwed),—BIOLOGY.

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.—Dep.|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.

of Physiol., Prof. Humphry,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
A. R. Wallace.

—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.

B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.

...| Prof, Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.|C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr.

M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.|Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.

—Dep. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.

M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H.T.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.

George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S./Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,

—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.
Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,

F.R.S. F.L.S.—Dep. of

Anat. and Physiol., Prof.M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.8.—Dep.
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S.

Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.

Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.

KE. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T, Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.

Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.

Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.

Prof, Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr..Gamgee, E. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.

Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,

Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.— Dep. of An-
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.

R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey.

1 The title of Section D was changed to Biology; and for the word ‘Sub-
section,’ in the rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘Deput-
ment’ was substituted.

lxii

REPORT—1898.

Date and Place Presidents

Secretaries

Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.— Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D.

P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prof.
Cleland, F.R.&.-—Dep. of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
F.R.S. ,

A. Russel Wallace, F.L.S.—
Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. J. G. McKendrick.

J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Prof. Macalister— Dep. of
Anthropol.,F.Galton,F.R.S.

1874. Belfast

1875. Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...

1878. Dublin...... Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.

of Anat. and Physiol. R.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.-— Dep. of Anthropol.,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-

siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.

A. C. L. Giinther, M.D., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.

Richard Owen, C.B., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sander-
son, F.R.S.

Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.
— Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, F.L.S.
—Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.

1879, Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...

1881. York

1882. Southamp-
ton.!

1883. Southport ?

Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.RB.S.

Prof. W.C. M‘Intosh, M.D.,,
LL.D., F.R.S. F.R.S.E.

1884. Montreal ...

|

1885. Aberdeen...

1886. Birmingham|W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,
F.R.S., F.G.S8.

W.'. Thiselton-Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler. .

E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.

EK. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son.

E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.

Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.

Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schiifer.

G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sede-

wick.

G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. E. Spencer.

G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sede-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.

Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.

W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.

Prof. T, W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward.

' The Departments of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were

amalgamated.
2 Anthropology was made a separate Section,

see p. Ixx.

1897. Toronto

_ 1835. Dublin
~ 1836. Bristol ......|Dr. P. M. Roget, F.R.S. ......

_ 1838. Newcastle

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES

OF THE SECTIONS. lxiii

Date and Place Presidents

Secretaries

1887. Manchester | Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., V.P.Z.S.

1888. Bath......... W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,

E.RB.S., F.L.S.
1889. Newcastle -| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson,

upon-Tyne| M.A., M.D., F.R.S.
1890. Leeds ...... Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
1891. Cardiff...... Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,

F.R.S., F.L.S.

1892. Edinburgh |Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.,
E.RB.S., F.B.S.E.

1893. Nottingham'|Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

1894. Oxford? ...| Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A.,
E.RS.

SECTION D (continued)

1895. Ipswich ...|Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.58.

1896. Liverpool...|Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ...

Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. ......

1898, Bristol......| Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S.

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.

F. E. Beddard, S. F. Harmer, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.

S. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
8S. J. Hickson, F. W. Oliver, H.
Wager, H. Marshall Ward.

¥. E. Beddard, Prof. W.A. Herdman,
Dr. 8. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
W. N. Parker, H. Wager.

G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G.
Murray, W. Stirling, H. Wager.
G. C. Bourne, J. B. Farmer, Prof.
W. A. Herdman, 8. J. Hickson,

W. B. Ransom, W. L. Sclater.

W. W. Benham, Prof. J. B. Farmer,
Prof. W. A. Herdman, Prof. 8S. J.
Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater.

.— ZOOLOGY.

G. C. Bourne, H. Brown, W. E.
Hoyle, W. L. Sclater.

H. O. Forbes, W. Garstang, W. E.
Hoyle.

W. Garstang, W. E. Hoyle, Prof.
E. E. Prince. :

Prof. R. Boyce, W. Garstang, Dr.
A. J. Harrison, W. H. Hoyle.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

1833. Cambridge
1834. Edinburgh

a ry

Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr. G. E. Paget.
Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.

SECTION E (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

Dr. J. C. Pritchard

1837. Liverpool...|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. .........

T. E. Headlam, M.D. .........
1839. Birmingham|John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....
1840. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D.

tee eeeeee

RSECTION E.—PHYS
1841. Plymouth...) P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S.

Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart,

Dr. Symonds.

Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. B. W. Vose.

T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.

Dr.J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof. Reid.

IOLOGY.

Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. 8.
Sargent.

1842. Manchester | Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.|Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1843. Cork Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
meee u044. York......... J. ©. Pritchard, M.D. ......... I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
1845. Cambridge |Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ......|Dr. R. §. Sargent, Dr. Webster.

1 Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. lxx.
2 The title of Section D was changed to Zoology.

xiv

Date and Place

REPORT—1898.

Presidents

Secretaries

=e
. Southamp- |Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...|C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-

1846
ton. gent.
1847. Oxford’ ...|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......]Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.
; Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
4850. Edinburgh |Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. |
1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.8. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
1857. Dublin...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,|C. G. Wheelhouse.
F.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen... | Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
1860. Oxford...... Prof.G.Roleston,M.D.,F.L.S.|Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
1861. Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. L.& E.| Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
1862. Cambridge |G. E. Paget, M.D................ G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
1863. Newcastle | Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turrer.
1864. Bath......... Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,|J.S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
F.RS.
1865. Birming- |Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,)Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
ham.* F.R.S. . Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,
p. lvii.]

ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION
1846.Southampton] Dr. J. C. Pritchard

weer ew eeneee

D.

|Dr. King,

1847. Oxford ...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ...|Prof. Buckley.
DEAS SHINO TELS MAS I og eonacian oc bosadcuadeeseanocpUBadbe G. Grant Francis.
SSA Oy BITMIN HAM | 0. .00ssecqceeepgeenenss sss = esas Dr. R. G. Latham.

1850.Edinburgh |Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

1851. Ipswich ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.§.,|R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
| Pres. R.G.S. Norton Shaw.
1852. Belfast...... Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,/R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
F.R.S. Shaw.
Ros. UL. sence IR. G. Latham, M.D., F.2.8. |R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
1854. Liverpool... |Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,/ Richard Cull, Rey. H. Higgins, Dr.
F.R.S. Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1855. Glasgow ...|Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,|Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
F.R.S. Norton Shaw.
1856. Cheltenham |Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,|/R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
K.C.B. + Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1857. Dublin...... Rey. Dr. J, Henthorn Todd,/R. Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.

}

Pres. R.I.A.

Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.

1 By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were

incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and" Botany, including Phy-
siology’ (see p. lx.). Section E, being then vacant, was assigned in 1851 to
Geography.

2 Vide note on page 1xi.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

lxv

Presidents

Secretaries

1858. -
1859. Aberdeen...

seneee

1860. Oxford
1861
1862

. Manchester
. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864.

eee

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...

. Liverpool...
. Edinburgh

. Brighton ...
. Bradford ...

1876. Glasgow ...

1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
mas!.. York.........
1883. eae
_ 1884. Montreal ...
‘ 1885. Aberdeen...
1886, Birmingham

1898.

Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,
F.RB.S.

Rear - Admiral Sir James}
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L..
F.R.S.

John Crawfurd, F.R.S..........

Francis Galton, F.R.S..........

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
E.RB.S.

Major-General Sir H. Raw-
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.

Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
LL.D.

.|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.

Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,
F.R.S.

R. Cull, F. Galton, P. O'Callaghan,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.

Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.

J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.

H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, 8. Evans, G. Jabet,
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.

H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.

~ Markham, S. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock.

T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements'R.
Markham, T. Wright.

SECTION E (continued ).—GEOGRAPHY.

\Sir Bartle Frere,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8.
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.

K.C.B.,

Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.

Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.

Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E., C.8.1L., F.R.S.,F.R.G.S.

Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......

Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.

Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.

Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.R.S.

Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.1.,
CIB: EER:S.

Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.L.,
F.R.G.S.

Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.

Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G.. F.R.S.,V.P.2.G.8.

Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,
K.C.S.1., C.B., F.R.G.S.

H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham
J. H. Thomas. :

H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.

A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.

E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.

H, W. Bates, HE. C. Rye, F. F.
Tackett.

H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. O. Wood.

H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, HK. C. Rye.

John Coles, E. C. Rye.

,

H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C,
Rye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.

J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.

E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.

John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C,

Rye.

Rev. Abbé Laflamme, J.S. O’Halloran,
KE. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.

J.S. Keltie, J. S. O'Halloran, E. G.
Ravenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.

F. T. S. Houghton, J. 8. Keltie.
E. G. Ravenstein. a

Ixvi

REPORT—1898.

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1887. Manchester| Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,|Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. 8. Keltie,
G.C.M.G., F.B.S., F.R.G.S. | H.J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.
1888. Bath......... Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,|J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Ravenstein.
1889. Newcastle- |Col. Sir F. de Winton,|J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.
upon-Tyne| K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. Sulivan, A. Silva White.
1890. Leeds ...... Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert|A. Barker, John Coles, J. 8. Keltie,
Playfair, K.C.M.G.,F.R.G.S.|_ A. Silva White.
1891. Cardiff...... E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.,|John Coles, J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
F.S.8. kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.
1892. Edinburgh | Prof, J. Geikie, D.C.L.,F.R.S.,|J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J. 8.
V.P.R.Scot.G.S. Keltie, A. Silva White.
1893. Nottingham|H. Seebohm, Sec. R.S., F.L.S., Col. F. Bailey, John Coles, H. oO.
F.Z.8. Forbes, Dr. H. R. Mill.
1894. Oxford...... Capt. W.J. L. Wharton, R.N.,\John Coles, W. 8. Dalgleish, H. N.
F.R.S. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill.
1895. Ipswich .../H. J. Mackinder, M.A., John Coles, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H.
F.R.G.S. R. Mill, W. A. Taylor.
1896. Liverpool...| Major L. Darwin, Sec. R.G.S. |Col. F. Bailey, H. N. Dickson, Dr.
H. R. Mill, E. C. DuB. Phillips.
1897. Toronto ...|J. Scott-Keltie, LL.D. i\Col. F. Bailey, Capt. Deville, Dr.
H. R. Mill, J. B. Tyrrell.
1898. Bristol...... Col. G. Earl Church, F.R.G.S.H. N. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill, H. C.
| Trapnell.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.
1833. Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........{/J. E. Drinkwater.
1834, Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.......I Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
1835. Dublin...... Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......) W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
1836. Bristol...... Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.|Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
: James Heywood.
1837. Liverpool...|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon......... W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
1838. Newcastle |Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........| W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.
1839, Birmingham |Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........|F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. Ww.c.
Tayler.
1840. Glasgow .../Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,/C. R Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
F.R.S. Rawson.
1841. Plymouth... |Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S....... Rey. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
1842, Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...|Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr,
W. C. Tayler.
1843. Cork......... ‘Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...|Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1844. York......... ict scale Sykes, F-.R.S.,|J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
: -L.S. cock.
1845, Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam|J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............ J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
ton. C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
1847, Oxford...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.
1848. Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
1849. Birmingham| Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton...... Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.

1850 Hedinburgh |Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
|

V.P.R.S.E.

\Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr,
| Stark,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxvil

Date and Place

Presidents

1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
£855. Hull.:.....0.
1854. Liverpool...

1855. Glasgow .

Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...

His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.

James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.

Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........

R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...

Secretaries

J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.

Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, jun.

Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.

E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.

J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.

SECTION F (continued).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

1856. Cheltenham

1857. Dublin

1858. Leeds .......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......

1861. Manchester

1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864. Bath.........
1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee

1868. Norwich....
1869. Exeter

1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast......
1875,
(1876.

1877.
1878.

Bristol......

Glasgow ...

Plymouth...
Dublin......

1879. Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...
Obs VOLK. .cccees

1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport

Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P.

His Grace the Archbishop of

Dublin, M.R.1.A.
Edward Baines......... accvbooor,

Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ......
Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......
William Newmarch, F.R.S....
Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........

.| William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....

W. Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P

Prof. f . E. T. Rogers

M. E. Grant-Duff, M.P. .......

Samuel Brown ...........see000s

Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.

Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.

Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves.........

Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....

Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.

Lord: O'Hagan “v.\....0..ccsc000e

James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S.,
Pres. 8.8.

Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.L,
M.P.

Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue

Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
M.R.LA.

G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
8.8.

G. W. Hastings, M.P...........

Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,
M.P., F.B.S.

R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S,

Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.

Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.

T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,

Smith, Dr. John Strang.

Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.

T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.

E. Macrory, E. T. Payne. F. Purdy.

G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
E. Macrory.

R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.

Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.

Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.

E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.

Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.

J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.

J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.

J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.

Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.

F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.

A. M‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.

W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.

W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.

Prof, Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
Molloy.

N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.

C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.

G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. 8. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. §.

Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. ree’

ixviii

Date and Place

1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.

1888.
1889.
1890.

1891.

1892.

1893.

1894,
1895.
1896.

1897.
1898.

1836.
1837.
1838.

1839.
1840.

1841.
1842.

1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.

1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.

1852.
1853,

Montreal ...

REPORT—1898.

Presidents

Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
G.C.8.1., C.LE., F.R.G.S.

Secretaries

Prof. H. S. Foxwell, J.S. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.

Rey. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.

F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. 8S. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.

Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sargant.

Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
H. S. Foxwell, L. L. F. R. Price.

Rey. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,
F. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.

W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,
T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E. C. Munro,
L. L. F. R. Price.

Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, Prof.
E. C. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith,
Prof, W. R. Sorley.

Prof. J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof.
E. C. K. Gonner, H. Higgs,
L. L. F. R. Price.

Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. de B.
Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs,
L. L. F. R. Price.

EB. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
W.A.S. Hewins, H. Higgs.

E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,

E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
W. A. 8S. Hewins, H. Higgs.

E. Cannan, H. Higgs, Prof. A. Shortt.

E. Cannan, Prof. A. W. Flux, H.
Higgs, W. E. Tanner.

T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
C. Vignoles, T.

W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,

Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.

J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.

James Thomson, Robert Mallet.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

Rey. W. T. Kingsley.

William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.

J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.

R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.

Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.

Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.

John Head, Charles Manby.

John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.

Aberdeen...| Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,
Litt.D.
Birmingham|J. B. Martin, M.A., ¥.8.S.
Manchester | Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.S.
Bath.....20.. Rt. Hon. Lord Bramwell,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Newcastle- | Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,
upon-Tyne| F.S.S,
Leeds ...... Prof. A. Marshall, M.A., F.8.S.
Cardiff ...... Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D.,
D.Sc., F.8.8.
Edinburgh |Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle,
K.C.B.
Nottingham | Prof. J. 8. Nicholson, D.Sc.,
E.S.8.
Oxford...... Prof. C. F. Bastable, M.A.,
F.S8.5.
Ipswich. cs. |. Ta. Price; diac so .cs5.:-5<0-6
H. Higgs.
Liverpool...|Rt. Hon. L. Courtney, M.P....
Toronto ...| Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A.
Bristol......| J. Bonar, M.A., LL.D.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Bristol...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Liverpool...|Rev. Dr. Robinsor ............
Newcastle |Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......)R. Hawthorn,
Webster.
Birmingham | Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.
Stephenson. Webster.
Glasgow ..../Sir John Robinson ............
C. Vignoles.
Plymouth |John Taylor, F.R.S. ...........
Manchester| Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. ......
Cork cca. Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A....
ROT seesceces John Laylor, HRS. acc.ecaeeees
Cambridge |George Rennie, F.R.S..........
South’mpt’n| Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.
Swansea .../ Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.
Birmingh’™ | Robt. Stephenson, M.P.,F.R.S.
Edinburgh | Rev. R. Robinson ...............
Ipswich ..,} William Cubitt, F.R.S..........
Belfast...... John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Hull.........) William Fairbairn, F.R.S.

J. Oldham, J.. Thomson, W.S. Ward.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxix

Date and Place

1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin......
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen..

seenee

1860. Oxford

weeeee

1861. Manchester

1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee......

1868. Norwich ...

1869. Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool..

1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...

1873. Bradford ..
1874. Belfast

teens

1875. Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin ......

1879. Sheffield ..

1880. Swansea ...
1881. York

1882, Southamp-
ton
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham

1887. Manchester

1888. Bath

Presidents

Secretaries

John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...

W. J. M. Rankine, F.R.S.

George Rennie, F.R.S. .......

Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.

William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...

.{ Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....

William Fairbairn, F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.8.

J. ee F.R.S.
Sir W. G. Armstrong, Tis D.,
F.R

Thomas ‘Hawksley, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.G.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.

G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.

C. W. Siemens, F.R.S....

Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S. |

F. J. Bramwell, C.E.

seerecsee

.|W. H. Barlow, F.RB.S.

J. Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thomson,

...|L. Hill, W. Ramsay, J. Thomson.
..|C. Atherton. B. Jones, H. M., Jeffery,

Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.

J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.

R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H,
Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.

W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.

P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.

.|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.

P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M,
O. Tarbotton.

P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, 0,
Manby, W. Smith.

......|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
.| Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S.

H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.

H. Bauerman, A. Leslie, J. P. Smith,

H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

..|C. Barlow, H. Bauerman. E.H.Carbutt,

J. C. Hawkshaw, J. N. Shoolbred.

Prof, James Thomson, LL.D., A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John

C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.

C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ...
Edward Woods, C.E. .

Edward Easton, C.E.

.|J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.

J. Abernethy, JRE ish) eppacens

Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S. ...

J. Brunlees, Pres. Inst.C.E.

Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,
V.P.Inst.C.E.

B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. ........

Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.
C.E

Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,
LL.D., F.RB.S.

W. dH. Preece, F.RS.,
M.Inst.C.E.

Smyth, jun.
W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

.|W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,

J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.

. A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.

Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.

A. T, Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.

A. T,. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.

A. ‘ft. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T.
Wood.

A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. T. Wood.

.|A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.

Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.

C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.

C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
Rigg, P. K, Stothert.

lxx

REPORT—1898.

Date and Place

1889.
1890.
1891,

Presidents

Secretaries

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

eeneer

Cardiff ....,

W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ...

Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.RB.S.,
F.R.A.S.
T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E.

1892. Edinburgh |Prof. W. C. Unwin, F.R.S.,

1893.

1894.
1895.

1896.

1897.
1898.

1884.
1885.

Nottingham
Oxford......
Ipswich ...
Liverpool...

Toronto

Bristol

seeeee

\

Montreal...
Aberdeen...

1886. Birmingham

1887.
1888.
1889,
1890.
1891,
1892.
1893.

1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.

1894,

1896.
1897,

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

Cardiff ......

Edinburgh

Nottingham

Oxford ....:.
Ipswich ...
Liverpool...

Toronto

Bristol

.|E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.RB.S. ..

... (Sir W. Tumer, F.R.S. .........

M.Inst.C.E.

Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E.,
F.C.S.

Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy,
F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.

Prof. L. F. Vernon-Harcourt,
M.A., M.Inst.C.E.

Sir Douglas Fox, V.P.Inst.C.E.

...|G@. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E.

Sir J. Wolfe-Barry, K.C.B.,
FE.R.S.

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
C. A. Parsons, E. Rigg.

E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott,
W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C.
Popplewell, E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. Bb. Marshall, E.
Rigg, H. Talbot.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, Rev. F. J. Smith.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, P. G. M. Stoney.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,

8. Dunkerley, W. B. Marshall.
Prof. T. Hudson Beare, Prof, Callen-
dar, W. A. Price.
Prof. T. H. Beare, Prof. J. Munro,
H. W. Pearson, W. A. Price.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Francis Galton, M.A., FBS. |

Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.1.,
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S.
Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ......

Lieut.-General
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Dr. J. Evans, Treas. R.S.,
F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.

Prof. F. Max Miiller, M.A. ...

Pitt-Rivers,

Prof. A. Macalister,
M.D., F.B.S.
Dr. R. Munro, M.A., F.R.S.E.

M.A,

Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B.,
E.R.S.

Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,
D.C.L.

Arthur J. Evans, F.S.A. ...

E. W. Brabrook, C.B.°....,..+

G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
Harris Stone.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
Dr. J. G. Garson.

G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.
Ling Roth, E. Seward.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof.
R. Howden, H. Ling Roth.

G. W. Bloxam, Rev. T. W. Davies,
Prof. R. Howden, F. B. Jevons,
J. L. Myres.

H. Balfour, Dr. J. G.Garson, H. Ling
Roth.

J. L. Myres, Rev. J. J. Raven, H.
Ling Roth.

.| Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres,

Prof. A. M. Paterson.
A. F. Chamberlain, H. O. Forbes,
Prof, A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres.
H. Balfour, J. L. Myres, G. Parker.

SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExpermenTa
PaTHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsycHouocy).
Oxford......|Prof. E. A, Schiifer, F.R.S.,|Prof. F. Gotch, Dr. J. 8. Haldane,

M.R.C.S.

Liverpool.../Dr. W. H. Gaskell, F.R.S.
Toronto .../Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S. | Prof, R. Boyce, Prof. C. 8. Sherring-

M. 8. Pembrey.

Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C.S. Sherrington.

ton, Dr. L. HE. Shore.

Date and Place

LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.

lxxi

Presidents

Secretaries

1895. Ipswich
1896. Liverpool...

1897. Toronto ...
1898. Bristol......

SECTION K.—BOTANY.

Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.

seneee

...|W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S,|A..C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.

Prof. Harvey Gibson, A. C. Seward,
Prof. F. E. Weiss.

Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S. |Prof. J. B. Farmer, E. C. Jeffrey,

Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S.

A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.

...; A.C, Seward, H. Wager, J. W. White.

LIST OF EVENING

Date and Place

1842. Manchester

1843, Cork .........

1844. York.........
1845. Cambridge

1846. Southamp-
ton.

1847. Oxford......

1848. Swansea ...

1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich ...

1852. Belfast......

1853. Hull.........

Lecturer

LECTURES.

Subject of Discourse

Charles Vignoles, F'.R.S......

Sir M. I. Brunel
Feel, MN CHISON J... ccs asescee sets.
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S..........

ee eeeeseeceenee

Dre RODINSONG« casvecsscsss sauce.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........
Dr: Walconer; HORS ...c.cccccoes

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. .....

Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ........
W. R. Grove, F.R.S. ............

Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Prof, M. Faraday, F.R.S.......

Hugh HE. Strickland, F.G.S....
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......

W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. Faraday, F.R.S. ............
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

Dr. Mantell, F.R.S. .........066
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

G.B.Airy,F.B.S.,Astron. Royal

Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.RB.S.

Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.B.S.,
F.G.S.

Robert Hunt, F.B.S....... esees

The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.

The Thames Tunnel.

The Geology of Russia.

The Dinornis of New Zealand.

The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.

The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.

Geology of North America.

The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.

Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.

.|Geology of Russia.

Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.

.| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.

Properties of the ExplosiveSubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.

Shooting Stars.

Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.

The Dodo (Didus ineptus).

Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its Neighbourhood.

Recent Microscopical Discoveries.

Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.

Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-

nection with Nutrition.

Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Recent Discoveries in the properties

of Light.

Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.

Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.

The present state of Photography.

Ixxii

Date and Place

1854. Liverpool...

1855. Glasgow ...

1856. Cheltenham

1859. Aberdeen...

1860. Oxford

seecee

. Manchester

. Cambridge

. Newcastle

1864.

ee ereecee

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee

eeesee

1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter ......

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh

1872. Brighton ...

REPORT—1898.

Lecturer

Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......

Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson

Col. Sir H. Rawlinson

fe eeeeeee

WR. Grove, HOB:S. cscccssecce
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.58. ..
Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....
Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...

Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
Prof.W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S8.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron.
Royal.
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof, Odlang, W-RGS. ..5..2..:0-.
Prof. Williamson, F.R.5.......

James Glaisher, F.R.S.........
Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S............

Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ......
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S..........

William Huggins, F.R.S.......

Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.......
Archibald Geikie, F.R.5.......

Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
J. Fergusson, F.R.S..........---

Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S..........
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S....

Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.

HAS Abels BRS ...ssschepsccace

He Bs PylOr; HeRcSe. iscssstsesees
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,

F.R.S.
PEGE MWe Ae, (CIM OTG cc: . sen cecs

Subject of Discourse

Anthropomorphous Apes,

Progress of Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.

Characters of Species.

.| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities

and Ethnology.

Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform Research up to the
present time.

Correlation of Physical Forces.

.|The Atlantic Telegraph.

Recent Discoveries in Africa.

The Ironstones of Yorkshire.

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

Geology of the Northern Highlands.

Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.

Physical Constitution of the Sun,

Arctic Discovery.

Spectrum Analysis.

The late Eclipse of the Sun.

The Forms and Action of Water.

Organic Chemistry.

The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.

The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.

.|The Chemical Action of Light.

Recent Travels in Africa.

Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.

The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.

Insular Floras.

The Geological Origin of the present.
Scenery of Scotland.

The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archeology of the early Buddhist

Monuments.
Reverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.
The Scientific Use of the Imagination.
Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.
Some Recent Investigations and Ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilisation.
Insect Metamorphosis.

The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.

ES

Date and Place

1873.
1874.

1875.
1876.
1877.

1878.

1879.
1880.
1881.

1882.

1883.

1884.

1885.

Bradford ...

Belfast ......

Bristol

Glasgow

Plymouth...
Dublin

Sheffield ...

Swansea ...

Southamp-
Southport

Montreal...

Aberdeen...

1886. Birmingham

1887.

1888.

1889.

1890.

1891.

1892.
1893.

1894.

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne

seeees

Edinburgh

Nottingham

..»|Prof. Tait, F.RS.E. ,

LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.

lxxni

Lecturer

Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.

Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.

Sir John Lubbock, Bart..M.P.,
F.R.S.

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. .......-

W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.

F, J. Bramwell, F.R.S..........

Sir Wyville Thomson, F R. s.

W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
E.RB.S.

Prot OGlin Ge HR. Savcsesnash«0s

G. J. Romanes, F.L.S.........

Prof, Dewar, FURS. ccccccsesses

W. Crookes, F.R.S. ren
Prof. EK. Ray Lankester, F. BP 8.
Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.8.
Francis Galton, F.RB.S..........
Prof. Huxley, Sec. B.S.

W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S....

Prof. Sir Wm. Thomsca, F.R.S.,

Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.
Prof. R. S. Ball, F.R.S.

Prof. J. G. McKendrick. ......

Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ......

Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.

Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S.

John Murray, F.R.S.E.........
A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D....
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.
Col. Sir F. de Winton .........
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. ...

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
F.RB.S.

Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.

Walter Gardiner, M.A.........

E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S..
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Prof. L. C. Miall, F.L.S.,F.G.S.

Prof. A.W. Riicker, M.A.,F.R.S.
Prof. A. M. Marshall, F.R.S.
Prof. J.A. Ewing, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Smithells, B.Sc.
Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S.

J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Subject of Discourse

Coal and Coal Plants.

Molecules.

Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.

The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.

The Colours of Polarised Light.

Railway Safety Appliances.

. | Force.

The Challenger Expedition.
Physical Phenomena connected with

the Mines of Cornwall and Devon.
The New Element, Gallium.

..../Animal Intelligence.

Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.

.|Radiant Matter.

Degeneration.

Primeval Man.

Mental Imagery.

The Rise and Progress of Paleon-
tology.

|The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.

Tides.

Pelagic Life.

| Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.

Galvanic and Animal Electricity.

Dust. -

The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.

--- The Electric Light and Atmospheric

Absorption.

.| The Great Ocean Basins.

Soap Bubbles.
The Sense of Hearing.

- |The Rate of Explosions in Gases.

Explorations in Central Africa.

The Electrical Transmission of
Power.

The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s
Crust.

The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel.

How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.

-. | Mimicry.

Quartz Fibres and their Applications.

Some Diffculties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.

Electrical Stress.

Pedigrees.

Maenetic Induction.

Flame.

The Discovery of the Physiology of
the Nervous System.

Experiences and Prospects of
African Exploration.

lxxiv

Date and Place

REPORT—1898.

Lecturer

Prof. J.Shield Nicholson, M.A.

Subject of Discourse

Historical Progress and Ideal So-

1894. Oxford......
cialism.
1895. Ipswich ...|Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S. | Magnetism in Rotation.
Prof. Percy F. Frankland,|The Work of Pasteur and its various
F.RB.S. Developments.
1896. Liverpool...| Dr. F. Elgar, F.R.S. ............ Safety in Ships.
Prof. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L. | Man before Writing.
1897. Toronto ...|Prof. Roberts Austen, F.R.S. |Canada’s Metals.
J. Milne, HIRASsa. .cseccsscesse. ..|Harthquakes and Volcanoes.
1898. Bristol...... Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ...|Funafuti: the Study, of a Coral
Island.
Herbert Jackson ..........0005 Phosphorescence.
LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.
Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse
1867. Dundee......| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.| Matter and Force.
1868. Norwich ...| Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F. R.S. |A Piece of Chalk.
1869. Exeter ...... Prof, Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...|The modes of detecting the Com-
i position of the Sun and other
i Heavenly Bodies by the Spectrum.
1870. Liverpool... |SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.| Savages.
1872. Brighton ...| W.Spottiswoode,LL.D. F, R.8.| Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
1872. Bradford ...|C.W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Fuel.
1874, Belfast ...... Prof. Odling, F.R.S............. The Discovery of Oxygen.
1875. Bristol ...... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. | A Piece of Limestone.
1876. Glasgow ...|Commander Cameron, C.B....| A Journey through Africa.
1877. Plymouth...) W. H. Preece..........cssecsssees Telegraphy and the Telephone.
1879. Sheffield ...|W. E. Ayrton ..............0006 Electricity as a Motive Power.
1880. Swansea ...|H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ............ The North-East Passage.
WSBT VOrk.......... Prof. Osborne Reynolds,| Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
E.R.S. flakes.
1882. Southamp- |John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas.R.S.} Unwritten History, and how to
ton. read it.
1883. Southport {Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...| Talking by Electricity—Telephones.
1884. Montreal ...| Prof. R. S. Ball, F.R.S..........| Comets.
1885. Aberdeen ...|H. B. Dixon, M.A. ............ The Nature of Explosions.
1886. Birmingham | Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,|The Colours of Metals and their
F.R.S. Alloys.
1887. Manchester) Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S. ...... Electric Lighting.
1888. Bath......... SirJohn Lubbock,Bart.,F.R.S.|The Customs of Savage Races.
1889. Newcastle- |B. Baker, M. Inst.C. E. .........| The Forth Bridge.
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds ...... Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S. |Spinning Tops.
1891. Cardiff...... Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S. | Electricity in Mining.
1892. Edinburgh |Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.| Electric Spark Photographs.
1893. Nottingham | Prof. Vivian B. Lewes......... Spontaneous Combustion.
1894. Oxford...... Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ...|Geologies and Deluges.
USSD ipswich... |r “AS Hy Wison <...2:5)..csseue Colour.
1896. Liverpool...|Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S....|The Earth a Great Magnet.
1897. Toronto ...|Dr. H. O. Forbes ............... New Guinea.
1898. Bristol......| Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. |The ways in which Animals Warn

their enemies and Signal to their
friends.

Ixxv

_. OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
x THE BRISTOL MEETING.

j SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

| President.—Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S.
| Vice-Presidents—The Rt. Hon. Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., F.R.S.; Sir
' Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. ; Prof. Mascart; Prof. A. W. Riicker,
Sec.R.S. ; General-Major Rykatcheff ; Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S. ;
Prof. 8. Young, E.RB.S.
_ Secretaries.—Prof. A. P. Chattock, M.A.; J. L. Howard, D.Sc. ; C. H.
Lees, D.Sc.; Prof. W. Watson, B.Sc. (Recorder); E. T. Whit-
‘ taker, B.A.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.
President.—Prof. F. R. Japp, F.R.S8.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. E. Noelting ; J. H. Gladstone, F. R.S.; Prof. W.
Ramsay, F.R8.; A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. Prof. Emerson
Reynolds, F.R. 8. ; W. J. Russell, F.R.S. ; W. Biakcodones E.R.S.

i irice C0, A. Kohn (Recorder); F. ‘Wallis Stoddart; T. K.
Rose.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.

President.—W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S8.

Vice-Presidents.—R. Etheridge, F.R.S. ; Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S. ;
. EE. B. Wethered ; W. Whitaker, F. R. S.; Rev. H. Winwood.
Secretaries.—G. W. ampiodts Professor i. A. Miers, F.R.S. (Re-
. corder); H. Pentecost.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.

| President.—Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, M.A., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Francis Galton, D.C.L., F.R.S. ; Prof. Francis Gotch,
M.D., F.R.S. ; Prof. W. A. Herdman, D.Sc., F.R.S8.; Prof. O. C.
Marsh ; Henry Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries. — Prof, R. Boyce ; Walter Catan M.A.; Dr. A. J. Har-
rison ; W. E. Hoyle, M.A. (Recorder).

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.

_ President.—Col. G. Earl Church, F.R.G.8.

_ Vice-Presidents.—Col. F. Bailey, Sec. R.S.G.S. ; Prof. Boyd Dawkins,
F.R.S. ; Colonel J. Farquharson, C.B. ; J. Scott Keltie, LL.D., Sec.
R.GS. ; ; B. Leigh Smith; F. F. Tuckett ; General Sir Charles We
Wilson, K.C.B., “R, RS.

Secretaries. —H. N. Dickson, F.R.G.S.; H. R. Mill, D.Sc. F.R.G.S.
(Recorder) ; H. C. Trapnell, LL.B.

lxxvi REPORT—1898.

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,

President.—J. Bonar, M.A., LL.D., F.8.8.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A., F.S.S.; L. L. Price,
M.A., F.S.S.; Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D., F.S.S.; Rev. Canon
Glazebrook, M.A.

Secretaries.—E. Cannan, M.A., F.S.S.; Prof. A. W. Flux, M.A., FSS. ;
H. Higgs, LL.B., F.S.S. (Recorder) ; W. E. Tanner, M.A.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

President.—Sir John Wolfe-Barry, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E,

Vice-Presidents.—W. Proctor Baker; Sir Frederick Bramwell, Bart.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.; T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E.; G. F. Deacon,
M.Inst.C.E.

Secretaries.—Prof. T. Hudson Beare, F.R.S.E. (Recorder); Prof. J.
Munro, M.Inst.M.E. ; H. W. Pearson, M.Inst.C.E.; W. A. Price,
M.A.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY,

President.—E. W. Brabrook, C.B., F.S.A.

Vice-Presidents—A. J. Evans, F.8.A.; Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.B.S. ;
Dr. Francis Galton, F.R.S. ; C. H. Read, F.S8.A. ; Dr. Paul Topinard ;
Prof. E. B. Tylor, F.R.S.

Secretaries—H. Balfour ; J. L. Myres, M.A., F.S.A. (Recorder); G.
Parker, M.D.
SECTION K,—BOTANY.

President.—Prof. F, O. Bower, Sc.D., F.R.8.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. H. Marshall Ward, Se.D., F.R.S.; Dr. D. H.
Scott, F.R.S. ; Francis Darwin, F.R.S.
a C. Seward, F.R.S. (Recorder); Harold Wager; J. W.
hite.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1898-99.

PRESIDENT.
SIR WILLIAM OROOKES, F.R.S., V-P.O.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. the Fart of Ducr®, F.R.S., F.G.S. The PrRInctpat of University College, Bristol.
The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHop of Bristol, D.D. The Master of The Society of Merchant Venturers

The Right Hon. Sir Epwarp Fry, D.O.L., F.R.S., of Bristol.

4 FAS.A. JoHN BEDDOF, Esq., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir F. J. BRAMWELL, Bart., D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor T. G. BONNEY, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
The Right Worshipful the Mayor of Bristol. ¥.G.8.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor MrcHAEL Foster, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. B.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

His Grace the LornD ARCHBISHOP OF OANIER- The MAJOR-GENERAL COMMANDING THE SOUTH-
EASTERN DISTRICT.

Bury, D.D.
The Most Hon. the MARQUIS OF SALISBURY, K.G., The Right Hon. A. AkrRs-DouGLAsS, M.P.
M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Very Rev. F. W. FARRAR, D.D., F.R.S., Dean
The Right Worsbipful the Mayor or Dovrr. of Canterbury.
The Right Hon. LorD HERSCHELL, G.O.B., D.C.L., Sir J. Norman LockyYER, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S,
LL.D., F.R.S. Professor G. H. Darwin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Professor E. A. ScHArER, LL.D., F.R.S., University College, London, W.C.
Professor W. 0. ROBERTS-AUSTEN, O.B., D.O.L., F.R.S., Royal Mint, London, E.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GrirrirH, Esq., M.A., College Road, Harrow, Middlesex.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor G. CAREY FosTERr, B.A., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT DOVER,
E, WOLLASTON KNocKER, Hsq., O.B. | W. H. PENDLEBURY, Esq., M.A.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT DOVER.
A. T. WALMISLEY, Esq., M.Inst.C.E.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Boys, C. VERNON, Esq., F.R.S. PREECE, W. H., Esq., O.B., F.R.S.

Oreak, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S. Price, L. L., Esq., M.A.

Darwin, F., Esq., F.R.S. REYNOLDS, Professor J. EMERSON, M.D.,
FREMANTLE, Hon. Sir O. W., K.C.B. F.R.S.

GASKELL, Dr. W. H., F.R.S. . Suaw, W. N., Esq., F.R.S.

HALurBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S. TEALL, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.

Harcourt, Professor L. F. VERNON, M.A. THISELTON-DYER, W. T., Esq., C.M.G., F.R.S.
HERDMAN, Professor W. A., F.R.S. THOMPSON, Professor S. P., F.R.S.

KEL, J. Scott, Esq., LL.D. THomsoON, Professor J. M., F.R.S.
Macmanoy, Masor P. A., F.R.S. TILDEN, Professor W. A., F.R.S.

Marr, J.E., Esq., F.R.S. Tyxor, Professor E. B., F.R.S.

MELDOLA, Professor R., F.R.S. Unwin, Professor W. C., F.R.S.

Povutton, Professor E. B., F.R.S. WHITE, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and

Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Sir Jonn LUBBOCK, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S,
The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Professor A. W. RUCKER, M.A., D.Sc., Sec. B.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

The Duke of Argyll, K.G.,K.T. Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S. | SirArchibald Geikie, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof, J.S.Burdon Sanderson,F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I. , | Sir Wm. Dawson, O.M.G., F.B.S. | The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G.,
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. F.R.S.

Lord Kelvin, G.O.V.O., F.R.S. Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.R.S.

F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Lord Lister, D.O.L., Pres. R.S.
S.

Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir F. A. Abel, Bart., K.0.B., F.R.S. | Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir Wm. Huggins, K.O.B., F.R.S.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.

F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. | P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. j Sir Douglas Galton, K.O.B..F.R.S.

Prof. Michael Foster, Sec. R.S. Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S8. | A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., F.R.S.

4 G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. | Prof. A. W. Riicker, Sec. R.S.
AUDITORS.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. | Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. | Sir H. Trueman Wood, M.A.

Ixxvili REPORT—1898.

Dr. THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT,
1897-98. RECEIPTS, f

s ds

Balance brought forward .......:.cscccecseceecseneeescsccesonceseenss 2396 0 4

Life Compositions ......csccssssoccseecesnseeseccereresssensersvenesegs - 120 0 O

New Annual Members’ pe cue Depebers’ cellos de> tues ee pane - 218 0 0

Annual Subscriptions Ciss.22- pecconccnusavescocssccccensccscevescensoss 465 0 0

Members of American ‘Association _ Be caused aee ev nasAvoedasenansne 159 0 O

Sale of Associates’ Tickets ..........csssccecssessersccsscssseccccescses 648 0 0

Sale of Ladies’ Tickets .......cc.-csssencoscsneccescrscsssesenccscscees (103 0 0

Saleio£, PUDLCALIONS Wesstrecss>sescusDscesssecoss>ccsessesssscsecetersrs 175 17 O

Interest on Deposit at Liverpool Bank .............scseseeecenee 24 5 6

Dividend On COnsols pp aaeccacesacsvacsasenesccsnaceccsocsescescecvoush 200 7 4

Dividend on India 3 per Cents ...........ssssecerereceeersseseecesnee 104 8 O
Unexpended Balance of Grant returned by the Committee

for the Calculation of certain Integrals ............sseeeeeeeeee 10 0 0

£4623 18 2

Investments.
£ ee”
Consols .....seeeees Ae edy ssecs ves aesieep sone ea creme 7537 3 6
ANGI ETICENES. scosstasneassssossssceventunentne 3600 0 0
£11,137 3° 5
———————

ARTHUR W RUCKER, General Treasurer.

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. lxxix

from July 1, 1897, to June 30, 1898. Cr.
1897-98. EXPENDITURE.

Expenses of Toronto Meeting, including Printing, Adver-

tising, Payment of Clerks, &C. ......csscsssssssesseeccerreseeereee 108 9 7
Rent and Office Expenses .......ssssssscssesseeeseeesececeeseesseeeees 6016 0
PaaS eccestestcasecacccecstasseasess 0
Printing, Binding, &c. ............... 7
Payment of Grants made at Toronto:

Ss. d.
Electrical Standards..... aalaitle « eiale Bieta Miatals aie apoocacsae. Ge 0) ty
Seismological Observations.......e+eeeeeeeeeeseeeeeens 75 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers.........es0.++0+ -- 100 0 0
Calculation of certain Integrals . ~~ 1070) 0
Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry ......... .. 35 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at Montreal.. Asicisisis\a\aiaiere 50 0 0
Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Blements . esisaj 420" ,0; 0
Action of Light upon Dyed Colours..........essseee0e8 8 0 0
Erratic Blocks......see.ssees Ae oa ne |< CUP RO CONE ae 2a 0
Investigation of a Coral POL 5 ages aati clo wicsalanin cass wee, RAD VOR.O
Photographs of Geological Interest .........++-- ateioieta€ enlOc 0! 0
Life-zones in British Carboniferous Rocks..........- sen b0) 0
Pleistocene Fauna and Flora in Canada..........++ an veter 2a 0) 10.
Table at the Zoological Station, Naples ...... edie voce’ nee LOGr Ol 0,
Table at the Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.......... 14 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum Animalium..........-... 100 0 0
Healthy and Unhealthy Oysters ......... 30 0 0
Climatology of Tropical Africa ..... ane 10 0 0
State Monopolies in other Countries........... - 15 0 0
Small Screw Gauge ..........2--+- Gcidhe joistejaiateletaraiave iene 10 0
North-Western Tribes of Canada Saleieistoia! «le 0\s'e @aldials 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury..........seeeeecesecece 0
Silchester Excavation .........- Biel smivale sie.ciacicinietevais 0
Ethnological Survey of Canada. SEaisla ielele's s(a:cislejncisisiaicle 0
Anthropology and Natural History of Torres Strait... . 125 0 0

Investigation of Changes associated with the Functional

Activity of Nerve Cells and their Peripheral Exten-
sions . 5 Rta Oe slalelitetela/tls vieyaiaic@ aalere on.cis s'n/einioaimiaye ear kO URE O)
Fertilisation in “Pheophycese Wialeide wis eleiaiaicie ofc ee hetieoaeteus Low Oi..0
¥ Corresponding Societies Committee........ asta waielatsicis.en: M2 Ume Une U)

1212 0 0
In hands of General Treasurer :
On deposit at Liverpool (National Provincial

Bank) -ccccuswacscdsasctuascldocst ese. Susteee sseveensest MO GNSE A. uk
At Bank of England, Western ‘Branch £219 11 1
Less Cheque not presented ............... 37 100

ee ek
1703 3 8

Bethy @asiiin: Wanders tees cgcss cece sce aenstacssause seen aanmasasacadeagas Oy 4

£4623 18 2

I have examined the above Account with the books and vouchers of the Associa-
tion, and certify the same to be correct. I have also verified the balances at the
bankers on Current and Deposit Accounts, and have ascertained that the Invest-
ments are duly registered in the names of the Trustees.

W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant,
3 Church Court, Old Jewry, E.C.
eee July 12, 1898.
ERBERT MCLEOD é
D. H. Soorr . } Auditors.

Ixxx

REPORT—1898.

Table showing the Attendance and Receipts

Presidents

Date of Meeting Where held

1831, Sept. 27...... York .

1832, June 19...... Oxford _

1833, June 25...... Cambridge | a

1834, Sept. 8 ...... Edinburgh .. Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O0.L
1835, Aug. 10...... Dublin ..... :

1836, Aug. 22...... Bristol ... .| The Marquis of Lansdowne
1837, Sept. 11......| Liverpool ...............

1838, Aug. 10...... Neweastle-on-Tyne...

1839, Aug. 26......| Birmingham .,

1840, Sept. 17...... Glasgow...

1841, July 20 ...... Plymouth .. ‘

1842, June 23......| Manchester ..| The Lord Francis Egerton
1843, Aug. 17...... Cork: ese .| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...
1844, Sept. 26 ...... MOVE cee:

1845, June l9...... Cambridge ..

1846, Sept. 10 . ...| Southampton ¢

1847, June 23 Oxford: Vif .| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart
1848, Aug. 9. Swansea...

1849, Sept. 12. Birmingham

1850, July 21 ......
1851, July 2.........
1852, Sept.1 ......
1853, Sept. 3
1854, Sept. 20......
1855, Sept. 12......
1856, Aug.6 ......
1857, Aug. 26.
1858, Sept. 22.
1859, Sept. 14......
1860, June 27......
1861, Sept. 4

1862, Oct. 1
1863, Aug. 26
1864, Sept. 13
1865, Sept. 6
1866, Aug. 22
1867, Sept. 4
1868, Aug.
1869, Aug.
1870, Sept.
1871, Aug. 2
1872, Aug.
1873, Sept.
1874, Aug.
1875, Aug.
1876, Sept.
1877, Aug.
1878, Aug.
1879, Aug.
1880, Aug.
1881, Aug.
1882, Aug. 23......
1883, Sept. 19......
1884, Aug.
1885, Sept.
1886, Sept.
1887, Aug.
1888, Sept.
1889, Sept.
1890, Sept.
1891, Aug.
1892, Aug.
1893, Sept.
1894, Aug.
1895, Sept.
1896, Sept.
1897, Aug. 18......
1898, Sept. 7

....| Montreal ..
.| Aberdeen ,

....| Bath
....| Newcastle- ea ne,,
.| Leeds i

: ‘ Edinburgh
.| Oxford ..

4 Eivenpoala

Ki dinburgh

Gute ees
Dublin ..

Leeds ...
Aberdeen ..

Cambridge ............
Newecastle-on-Tyne.
Bath. scce..stheneveeese
Birmingham,
Nottingham .

Southampton .
Southport

Nottingham.

Ipswich ..

Toronto .,
Bristol

“| The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S.
.| The Rev. A. Sedgwick. F.R.S.

..| The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D. .

"| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.

_.| The Rey. G. Peacock, DD. .....
__| Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. f

“| The Marquis of Northampton ,
.| The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D..

. | G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal .
..| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R:S. .
..| William Hopkins, F'.R.S...........
..| The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.8.
..| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. .
..| Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D..... or
..| The Rev. Humphrey Lloyd, D.D.......
..| Richard Owen, M.D., D.O.L. .
..| H.R.H. The Prince Consort .
..| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ..
.| William Fairbairn, ioap Di, R. s

..| Sir William G. Armstrong, O.B. .
.| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.

"| Dr. C. W. Siemens F.R.S. pian
...| Prof..A. Cayley, D.C.L., ERS...
.| Prof. Lord Rayleigh, ERS.

.| Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., PRS.

"| Sir A. Geikie, LL.D. ERS. _..
.| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson |

"| Sir Douglas Galton, F.RS.. =
.| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. B.S. ine

‘| Sir W. Crookes, FURS. ......c.0e0-+-

The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.

The Ear! of Burlington, F.R.S.,
The Duke of Northumberland .
The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt,
The Marquis of Breadalbane.

Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.

Sir David Brewster, K.H. .......

The Rev. Professor Willis, ALAC
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., MLA. .........
William R. Grove, Q. C., F.R.S

Dundee .. The Duke of Buceleuch, K.C. B.
Norwich ..| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.
Exeter ..... ..| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L. ....
Liverpool .. .| Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D.....
Edinburgh ..| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D. .
Brighton .. ..| Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Bradford .. 3.| Prot. A. W. Williamson, ERS.
Belfast . .| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D. JPRS. -
Bristol .. ...| Sir John Hawkshaw, ©. E. ERS.
Glasgow ..| Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S..
Plymouth ., ...| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.......
JD Eoin eee ...| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., T. Soo sees
Sheffield... ...| Prof. G. J. Allman, M.D.. F.R.S
Swansea... ...| A. O. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.......
York .| Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S

Sir Lyon Playfair. K.C.B., FRS.......

.| Birmingham .........| Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.......
Manchester .... .| Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.' B.
Prof. W. H. Flower, ©.B., RS.

Or WwW: Hugzins, ERS

The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G.,F.R. 8.

Sir John Evans, K.OB., E.RS. ...

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843,

Old Life
Members

New Life
Members

o6) ee Oe ee ee

+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only.

ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. lxxxi

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

Attended by el Sums paid
receivenan ies Account
Old New Meas during the fi ania Year
Annual | Annual mates Ladies |Foreigners} Total Meeting °P oe
Members | Members wnGSS
—_ — cd —_ _ 353 —_ —_ 1831
_- — — _ _— _ — —- 1832
_ —s — _ — 900 -— —_ 1833
— — = — _ 1298 — £20 0 0 1834
SS — a _ — — _ 167 0 0 1835
_ _ — _ — 1350 — 435 0 1836
— _ = _ _— 1840 — 922 12 6 1837
_— _ _ 1100* _— 2400 -- 932 2 2 1838
— = = = 34 1438 — 1595 11 0 1839
= = — = 40 1353 _ 1546 16 4 1840
46 317 _ 60* — 891 —_— 1235 10 11 1841
75 376 33f 331* 28 1315 _— 144917 8 1842
71 185 _ 160 —_— — _— 1565 10 2 1843
45 190 9 260 — — — 98112 8 1844
: 94 22 407 172 35 1079 = 831 9 9| 1845
65 39 270 196 36 857 — 685 16 0 1846
| 197 40 495 203 53 1320 — 208 5 4 1847
54 25 376 197 15 819 £707 0 0] 275 1 8 1848
93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 OO} 15919 6 1848
128 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0} 34518 0 1850
61 47 244 141 37 710 620 0 0 391 9 7 1851
63 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 0 0 304 6 7 1852
56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0 205 0 0 1853
121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0 380 19 7 1854
142 101 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 0 480 16 4 1855
104 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0 73413 9 1856
156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857
111 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0 61818 2 1858
125 179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0 684 11 1 1859
177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0 766 19 6 1860
184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0] 1111 5 10 1861
150 57 433 242 25 11 1089 0 0} 129316 6 1862
154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0] 1608 3 10 1863
182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0/ 128915 8 1864.
215 149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0 0| 1591 7 10 1865
218 105 960 771 11 2303 2469 0 0/|175013 4 1866
193 118 1163 771 7 2444 2613 0 0/1739 4 0 1867
226 117 720 682 45t 2004 2042 0 0/1940 0 0 1868
229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0| 1622 0 0 1869
303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0] 1572 0 0 1870
311 127 976 754 21 2463 2575 0 0] 1472 2 6 1871
280 80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0] 1285 0 0 1872
237 99 796 601 nol 1983 2120 0 0} 1685 0 0 1873
232 85 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 0| 115116 0 1874
307 93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0| 960 0 0 1875
331 185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 0| 1092 4 2 1876
238 59 446 283 11 1229 1268 0 0] 1128 9 7 1877
290 93 1285 674 17 2578 2615 0 0 72516 6 1878
239 74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0} 1080 11 11 1879
171 41 389 147 12 915 g99 0 0 yi Nf 1880
313 176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0 476 8 1 1881
253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 0} 1126 111 1882
330 323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 0 | 1083 3 3 1883
317 219 826 74 26 & 60 H.§ 1777 1855 0 0| 1173 4 0 1884
332 122 1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 0 | 1385 0 0 1885
428 179 1067 429 11 2453 2532 0 0 995 0 6 1886
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 0| 118618 0 1887
399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0| 1511 0 5 1888
412 113 1024 579 21 2437 2441 0 0} 1417 O11 1889
368 92 680 334 12 1775 1776 0 0 789 16 8 1890
Mf 341 152 672 107 35 1497 1664 0 O| 102910 0 1891
") 413 141 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0| 86410 0 1892
Py 6 328 _ 57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 0 907 15 6 1893
435 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0 683 15 6 1894
4, 290 31 493 261 22 1324 1236 0 0 977 15 5 1895
383 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0| 1104 6 1 1896
286 125 682 100 41 1362 1398 0 0/}] 105910 8 1897
327 96 1051 639 33 2446 2399 0 0| 1212 0 0 1898

————EE————————————————————S SSS SSS a aareereeeeenll

ss $ Including Ladies, § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.

1898, e

lxxxil REPORT—1898.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Report of the Council for the Year 1897-98, presented to the General
Committee at Bristol on Wednesday, September 7, 1898.

The Meeting held at Toronto last August was attended by a represen-
tative body of members from the British Isles and from the Dominion
‘of Canada, and bya large number of scientific men from the United States
of America and from the Continent of Europe. The success of the
Meeting had been confidently anticipated in view of the experience of
the Montreal Meeting in 1884, and that this anticipation was fully
realised was largely the result of the unremitting exertions of the Local
Officers and Committee at Toronto, and the support which was received
from the Government of the Dominion, the Government of Ontario, and
the City of Toronto.

A Permanent Committee on Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric
Electricity was appointed at the Meeting of the International Meteoro-
logical Conference at Paris in 1896. The members of this body were
desirous of holding a Conference with other magneticians, and at the
suggestion of Professor Riicker, who is President of the Committee, the
Council decided to invite the Committee to hold the Conference at
Bristol during the Meeting of the British Association. This invitation
was accepted, and it was decided that the Conference should meet asa
Department of Section A, and that the foreign magneticians who might
attend should have all the privileges of foreign members of the Associa-
tion. The Council have reason to believe that this arrangement will
work satisfactorily, and that the Conference will be well attended.

The Council have nominated the Master of the Society of Merchant
Venturers to be a Vice-President of the Association for the Meeting at
Bristol, in addition to the Vice-Presidents elected at the last meeting of
the General Committee.

The Council have received Reports from the General Treasurer
during the past year, and his Accounts from July 1, 1897, to June 30,
1898, which have been audited, will be presented to the General
Committee.

The Council have been informed by Professor Riicker that he does not
intend to offer himself for re-election as General Treasurer after the
Bristol Meeting. Professor Riicker has held this post since 1891, and the
Council desire to put on record their sense of the important services
which Professor Riicker has rendered to the Association during this period.
The Council recommend that Professor G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., be
appointed General Treasurer in succession to Professor Riicker.

The Council have to deplore the loss by death of Lord Playfair, who
had been one of the Trustees of the Association since 1883. The Council
have nominated Professor Riicker as Trustee, the other Trustees being
Lord Rayleigh and Sir John Lubbock.

The Council have elected the following men of Science who have
attended Meetings of the Association to be Corresponding Members :—

Professor C. Barus, Brown University. Professor E. W. Morley, Cleveland,
M. C. de Candolle, Geneva. Ohio.

Dr. G. W. Hill, West Nyack, N.Y. Professor C. Richet, Paris.

Professor Oskar Montelius, Stockholm. | Professor W. B. Scott, Princeton, N.J.

The Council were invited to nominate one or two Members to give

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxxxili

evidence before the Committee appointed by the Government to report on
the desirability of establishing a National Physical Laboratory, and at
their request Professor G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., and Professor W. E.
Ayrton, F.R.S., gave evidence before this Committee. A Report has
been presented to Parliament, and the Council trust that the delibera-
tions of the Committee will result in the establishment of a National
Laboratory.

In regard to the Resolutions referred to them for consideration and
action, if desirable, the Council have to report :—

(1) That the Council appointed a Committee to consider the desira-
bility of approaching the Government with a view to the establishment
in Britain of experimental Agricultural Stations similar in character to
those which are producing such satisfactory results in Canada. The
Committee having reported that much is already being done in this
direction by County Councils and Agricultural Societies, advised that
the co-operation of these bodies should first be invited. The Committee
was re-appointed for this purpose, and sent in a Report, the principal
recommendation of which was adopted by the Council, and is as follows :

‘Your Committee recommend that the Board of Agriculture be in-
formed that, in the opinion of the British Association, there is an urgent
need for the co-ordination of existing institutions for agricultural research,
and that the Association hopes that steps may be taken towards this end,
including the strengthening of the scientific work of the Board of Agri-
culture and the provision of the means for dealing adequately with scien-
tific questions which may come before it.’

At the request of the Council this Report was brought by the Presi-
dent to the notice of the President of the Board of Agriculture, from
whom the following reply was received :—

Board of Agriculture,
4 Whitehall Place, London, S.W., 26th July, 1898.

Srr,—I have laid before the Board of Agriculture your letter of the 18th inst.,
and I am desired to express to the Council of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science the thanks of the Board for the attention which the
Council have been so good as to give to the important subject of agricultural
research.

The Board will not fail to bear in mind the views set out in the Resolution com-
municated to them in the letter above referred to.

Iam, Sir, your obedient servant,
P. G. CRAIGIE, Assistant Secretary.

Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S., &c., President of the British Association for the

Advancement of Science, Burlington House, W.

(2) That a Committee was appointed to report to the Council whether,
and, if so, in what form, it is desirable to bring before the Canadian
Government the necessity for a Hydrographic Survey of Canada, and that

the following formed the Committee :—Professor A. Johnson (Chairman
and Secretary), Lord Kelvin, Professor G. H. Darwin, Admiral Sir
W. J. L. Wharton, Professor Bovey, and Professor Macgregor.

The Committee reported to the Council, and it was decided, in con-

formity with the recommendation contained in the Report, that the

following Resolution should be sent to the Canadian Government :—
‘The Council of the British Association have learnt with regret that

the Government of the Dominion of Canada is contemplating the discon-

tinuance of their Tidal Survey of Canadian Waters. Whilst the work

already carried out is primarily connected with Hydrography and Navi-

e2

Ixxxiv REPORT—1898.

gation, they consider that Science will incur a great loss if the work of
the Survey is discontinued. They would, therefore, urge on the Govern-
ment the desirability of continuing the Tidal Survey as heretofore.’

The President transmitted the Resolution to the Governor-General,
who forwarded it to the Government of the Dominion of Canada for their
favourable consideration.

The Council have received the following in reply :—

Extract from a Report of the Committee of the Honourable the Privy Council,
approved by His Excellency on the 20th June, 1898.

On a Report dated 25th April, 1898, from the Minister of Marine and Fisheries,.
stating that he has had under consideration a letter, dated 9th March, 1898, from
the President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, enclosing a
resolution adopted at a meeting of the Council of the Association, urging the desira-
bility of continuing the Tidal Survey as heretofore.

The Minister recommends that the Association be informed that, in view of the
limited appropriation made by Parliament, it has been deemed advisable to defer the
prosecution of the Survey for the present, and to confine the work to the maintenance
and operations of the Tidal gauges already established, and the preparation of tide.
tables.

The Committee submit the same for your Excellency’s approval.
JOHN J. MCGEE,
Clerk of the Privy Council.

(3) That a Committee was appointed by the Council to consider the:
following Resolution : ‘That, in view of the facts (a) that a Committee of
Astronomers appointed by the Royal Society of London, in consequence:
of a communication from the Royal Society of Canada, has recently con-
sidered the matter, and has arrived at the conclusion that no change can
now be introduced in the “‘ Nautical Almanac ” for 1901, and (6) that few
English astronomers are attending the Toronto meeting of the Association :
the Committees of Sections A and E are not in a position to arrive at.
any definite conclusions with respect to the Unification of Time; but they
think it desirable to call the attention of the Council to the subject, in
which the interests of mariners are deeply involved, with the view of their
taking such action in the matter as may seem to them to be desirable.’

Several members of this Committee had also served on the Committee
of the Royal Society, and after careful re-consideration of the whole
question the Committee saw no good reason for dissenting from the con-
clusion which had been recently adopted by the Royal Society, and
reported in the following terms :—

‘The Committee report that, as there is a great diversity of opinion
amongst astronomers and sailors as to the desirability of the adoption of
civil reckoning for astronomical purposes, and as it is impossible to carry
out such a change in the “ Nautical Almanac” for the year 1901, they do.
not recommend that the Council of the British Association should at
present take any steps in support of the suggested change of reckoning.’

The President has transmitted this Report to the Royal Society of
Canada.

In their Report last year at Toronto the Council informed the General
Committee that the establishment of a Bureau for Ethnology was under
the consideration of the Trustees of the British Museum. Since that
date, the following letter, addressed to the President, has been received :

British Museum, December 15, 1897.
Dear Sir John Evans,—Referring to a letter of May 19 last, from Lord Lister, as.
President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, requesting the
Trustees of the British Museum to consider whether they could allow a Bureau for

———————————————

eee Pe

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxxxv

Ethnology for Greater Britain to be established in connection with the Museum, I
am directed by the Trustees to inform you that they are quite of opinion that such a
Bureau might be administered in connection with the Ethnographical Section of
their collections with advantage both to the objects in view of the Association and
to the enlargement of the British Museum collections. They are, therefore, willing
to accept in principle the proposal of the British Association, and they would be
ready to take the necessary steps for carrying it into effect so soon as certain
re-arrangements affecting space, &c., which are now taking place within the Museum,
shall have been finished, as it is expected, in the course of the coming year.
Believe me, yours very truly,
E. MAUNDE THOMPSON,
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L, LL.D., &c. &c.

The Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee for the past
year, together with the list of the Corresponding Societies and the titles
of the more important papers, and especially those referring to Local
Scientific Investigations, published by those Societies during the year
ending June 1, 1898, has been received.

The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton, Professor R. Meldola (Chairman), Sir Douglas Galton, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Sir J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. Whitaker, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Sir Cuthbert E. Peek,
Mr. Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan, and Professor W. W. Watts, is
hereby nominated for reappointment by the General Committee.

The Council nominate Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., Chairman, and
Mr. T. V. Holmes, Secretary, to the Conference of Delegates of Corre-
sponding Societies to be held during the Meeting at Bristol.

The Council announce with very great regret the loss that they have
recently sustained by the death of Dr. John Hopkinson, F.R.S8.

In accordance with the regulations the retiring Members of the
Council will be :—

Edgeworth, Professor. Symons, Mr. G. J.
Horsley, Mr. Victor. Ramsay, Professor W.

The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members
of the Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-

_ tinguished by an asterisk in the following list :—

Boys, C. Vernon, Esq., F.R.S. Preece, W. H., Esq., C.B., F.R.S.

Creak, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S. *Price, L. L., Esq., M.A.

Darwin, I’., Esq., F.R.s. Reynolds, Professor J. Emerson, M.D ,

Fremantle, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. E.R.S.

*Gaskell, Dr. W. H., F.R.S. Shaw, W. N., Esq., F.R.S.
- Halliburton, Professor W. D., F.R.S. Teall, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Harcourt, Professor L. F. Vernon, M.A., Thiselton-Dyer, W. T., Esq., C.M.G.
M.Inst.C.E. F.R.S.

Herdman, Professor W. A., F.R.S. Thompson, Professor S. P., F.R.S.
*Keltie, J. Scott, Esq., LL D. Thomson, Professor J. M., F.R.S.
*MacMahon, Major P. A., F.R.S. *Tilden, Professor W. A., F.R.S.

Marr, J. E., Esq., F.R.S. Tylor, Professor E. B., F.R.S.

Meldola, Professor R., F.R.S. Unwin, Professor W. C., F.R.S.

Poulton, Professor E. B., F.R.S. White, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S.

An invitation to hold the Annual Meeting of the Association in the
year 1900 at Bradford, and an invitation from Cork for a future Meeting,

have been received, and will be presented to the General Committee on

Monday, September 12.

Ixxxvi

REPORT—1898.

CoMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
Bristol: MEETING IN SEPTEMBER 1898.

1. Receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

Making Experiments for improv-
ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.

{And 751., last year’s grant not

| expended. |

Seismological Observations.

To assist the publication
‘Science Abstracts.’

of

Experiments on the Heat of com-
bination of Metals in the forma-
tion of Alloys.

Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh.
Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.

Lord Kelvin, Professors W. E. |
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams, |

Oliver J. Lodge, and G.

Carey Foster, Dr. A. Muirhead, |

Mr. W. H. Preece, Profes-
sors J. D. Everett and A.
Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming,
Professors G. F. FitzGerald and
J.J. Thomson, Mr. W. N. Shaw,
Dr. J. T. Bottomley, Rev.
T. C. Fitzpatrick, Professor J.
Viriamu Jones, Dr. G. John-
stone Stoney, Professor S. P.
Thompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Mr.
E. H. Griffiths, Professor A. W.
Riicker, and Professor H. L.
Callendar.

Chairman.—Prof. J. W. Judd.

Seeretary.—Professor J. Milne.

Lord Kelvin, Sir F. J. Bramwell,
Professor G. H. Darwin, Mr.
Horace Darwin, Major L. Dar-
win, Professor J. A. Ewing,
Professor C. G. Knott, Professor
R. Meldola, Professor J. Perry,
Professor J. H. Poynting, Pro-
fessor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. V.
Boys, Professor H. H. Turner,
Mr. G. J. Symons, and Dr. C.

Davison.

Chairman.— Professor <A. W.
Riicker.

Secretary.—Professor W. E. Ayr-
ton.

Captain Abney and Professor 8. P.
Thompson.

Chairman.—Lord Kelvin.
Secretary.—Dr, A. Galt.
Professor F. G. FitzGerald, Dr.

J. H. Gladstone, and Professor

O. J. Lodge.

Grants

100

20

00

00

00

*
a
| ,
q

\

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxxvii

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued. ’

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

Grants

Radiation from a source of Light
in a Magnetic Field.

To co-operate with Professor Karl
Pearson in the Calculation of
certain Integrals.

The Action of Light upon Dyed
Colours.

The relation between the Absorp-
tion Spectra and Chemical Con-
stitution of Organic Substances.

To establish a Uniform System of
recording the Results of the
Chemical and Bacterial Exam-

_ ination of Water and Sewage.

To investigate the Erratic Blocks
of the British Isles, and to take
measures for their preservation.

The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological In-
terest.

Chatrman.-—Professor G. ¥. Fitz-
gerald.

Seeretary.—Professor IT. Preston.

Professor A. Schuster, Professor
O. J. Lodge, Professor 8. P.
Thompson, Professor Molloy,
and Professor W. E. Adeney.

Chairman.—Rey. Robert Harley.

Secretary.—Dr. A. R. Forsyth.

Dr, J. W. L. Glaisher, Professor A.
Lodge, and Professor Kar] Pear-
son.

Chairman.— Dr. T. E. Thorpe.

Secretary.—Professor J. J. Hum-
mel.

Dr. W. H. Perkin, Professor W. J.
Russell, Captain Abney, Pro-
fessor W. Stroud, and Professor
R. Meldola.

Chairman and Secretary.—Pro-
fessor W. Noel Hartley.

Professor F. R. Japp, and Professor
J. J. Dobbie.

Chairman.—-Professor W. Ramsay.

Secretary.—Dr. §. Rideal.

Sir W. Crookes, Professor F.
Clowes, Professor P. F. Frank-
land, and Professor R. Boyce.

Chairman.—Professor E. Hull.

Secretary.—Prof. P. F. Kendall.

Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E.
De Rance, Professor W. J. Sollas,
Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, Rev. S. N.
Harrison, Mr. J. Horne, Mr.
Dugald Bell, Mr. F. M. Burton,
Mr. J. Lomas, Mr. A. R. Dwerry-
house, Mr. J. W. Stather, and
Mr. R. D. Tucker.

Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.

Secretary.—ProfessorW. W. Watts.

Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. T. An-
derson, and Messrs. A. 8. Reid,
E. J. Garwood, W. Gray, H. B.
Woodward, J. E. Bedford, R.
Kidston, R. H. Tiddeman, J. J.
H. Teall, J. G. Goodchild, H.
Coates, and C. V. Crook.

£

Sa Ge
50 00

10 00

10 00

50 00

00

10

15 00

10 00

Ixxxviii

REPORT—1898.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

To study Life-zones in the British
Carboniferous Rocks.

To examine the Conditions under
which remains of the Irish Elk
are found in the Isle of Man.

To further investigate the Fauna
and Flora of the Pleistocene
Beds in Canada,

Photographic and other Records
of the Disappearing Drift
Section at Moel Tryfaen.

The Investigation of the Ty
Newydd Caves, Tremeirchion.

The Excavation of the Ossiferous
Caves at Uphill, near Weston-
super-Mare,

To enable Dr. H. Lyster Jamie-
son, or, failing him, some other
competent investigator, to carry
on a definite piece of work at the
Zoological Station at Naples.

Chairman.—Mr. J. E. Marr.

Seeretary.—Mr. E. J. Garwood.

Mr. F. A. Bather, Mr. G. C. Crick,
Mr. A. H. Foord, Mr. H. Fox,
Dr. Wheelton Hind, Dr. G. J.
Hinde, Mr. P. F. Kendall, Mr.
J. W. Kirkley, Mr. R. Kidston,
Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Professor
G. A. Lebour, Mr. G. H. Morton,
Professor H. A. Nicholson, Mr.
B. N. Peach, Mr. A. Strahan,
and Dr. H. Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins.

Secretary.—Mr. P. C. Kermode.

His Honour Deemster Gill, Mr.
G. W. Lamplugh, and Canon
E. B. Savage.

Chairman.—Sir J. W. Dawson.

Secretary.—Professor A. P. Cole-
man.

Prefessor D. P. Penhallow, Dr. H.
Ami, and Mr. G. W. Lamplugh.

Chairman.—Dr. H. Hicks.

Secretary.—Mr. E. Greenly.

Mr. A. Strahan, Professor P.
Kendall, Professor J. ¥. Blake,
Mr. T. Mellard Reade, and Mr.
G. H. Morton.

Chairman.—Dr. H. Hicks.

Secretary.—Rev. G. C. H. Pollen.

Mr. A. Strahan, Mr. E. T. Newton,
Mr. G. H. Morton, and Rev. —
Hull.

Chairman.—Professor C.
Morgan.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Bolton.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Mr.
W. R. Barker, Mr. Reynolds, and
Mr. E. T. Newton.

Lloyd

Chairman.—Professor W. A.
Herdman.

Secretary.—Professor G. B. Howes.

Professor E. Ray Lankester, Pro-
fessor W. F. R. Weldon, Pro-
fessor S. J. Hickson, Mr. A.
Sedgwick, and Professor W. C.
M‘Intosh.

Grants

1

15

30

40

30

100

£ 8,
0 90

d.
0

00

00

00

00

00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

To enable Mr. Martin T. Wood-
ward to study the embryology of
the Mollusca; Mr. T. N. Taylor
toinvestigate the embryology of
the Polyzoa; and Mr. G. Breb-
ner to continue his studies on
the reproduction of marine
Algz, and to enable other com-
petent Naturalists to perform
definite pieces of work at the
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.

Compilation of an Index Generum
et Specierum Animalium.

To work out the details of the
Observations on the Migration
of Birds at Lighthouses and
Lightships, 1880-87.

To construct a Circulatory Ap-
paratus for keeping Aquatic
Organisms under definite Physi-
cal Conditions.

The Periodic Investigation of the
Plankton and Physical Con-
ditions of the English Channel
during 1899.

The Exploration of the Island
Socotra.

State Monopolies in other
Countries.

[Unexpended balance of
131. 138. 6d.)

Future dealings in Raw Produce.

Ixxxix

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Mz. G. C. Bourne.

Secretary. — Professor HE, Ray
Lankester.

Professor Sydney H. Vines, Mr.
A. Sedgwick, Professor W. F. R.
Weldon, and Mr. W. Garstang.

Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.

Secretary.—Mr. F. A. Bather.

Dr. P. L. Sclater, Rev. T. R. R.
Stebbing, Mr. R. McLachlan,
and Mr. W. E. Hoyle.

Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.

Secretary.—Mr. John Cordeaux.

Mr. John A. Harvie-Brown, Mr.
R. M. Barrington, Rev. HE. P.
Knubley, and Dr. H. O. Forbes,

Chairman.—-Mr. W. E. Hoyle.

Secretary.—Mr. F. W. Gamble.

Professor S. J. Hickson and Mr.
¥. W. Keeble.

Chairman.—Professor
Lankester.

Secretary.—Mr. Walter Garstang.

Professor W. A. Herdman, and Mr.
H. N. Dickson.

E. Ray

Chairman.—Dx. J. Scott Keltie.

Secretary.—Dr. H. O. Forbes, Dr.
W.T. Blanford, Professor Bayley
Balfour, Professor W. F. R.
Weldon.

Chairman.—Professor H. Sidg-
wick.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Higgs.

Mr. W. M. Acworth, the Rt. Hon.
L. H. Courtney, and Professor
H. S. Foxwell.

Chairman.—Mrz. L. L. Price.

Secretary.—Prof. A. W. Flux.

Major P. G. Craigie, Professor
W. Cunningham, Professor
Edgeworth, Professor Gonner,
Mr. R. H. Hooker, and Mr. H.
R. Rathbone.

Grants
£ s.d.
20 00
100 00
15 00
15 00
100 00
Som OAG
5 00

xc REPORT—1898.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

‘To consider means by which better
practical effect can be given to
the Introduction of the Screw
Gauge proposed by the Associa-
tion in 1884.

[Balance of last year’s grant un-
expended, 177. 1s. 2d.]

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.

To organise an Ethnographical
Survey of the United Kingdom.

[And unexpended balance in
hand, 117.]

To co-operate with the Silchester
Excavation Fund Committee in
their Explorations

‘To organise an Ethnological Sur-
vey of Canada.

Preparing a new edition of ‘Notes |

and Queries on Anthropology.’

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Mr. W. H. Preece.

Secretary.—Mr. W. A. Price.

Lord Kelvin, Sir F. J. Bramwell,
Sir H. Trueman Wood, Maj.-
Gen. Webber, Mr. R. E. Cromp-
ton, Mr. A. Stroh, Mr. A. Le
Neve Foster, Mr. C. J. Hewitt,
Mr. G. K. B, Elphinstone, Mr.
T. Buckney, Col. Watkin, Mr.
E. Rigg, Mr, Conrad W. Cooke,
and Mr. Vernon Boys.

Chairman.—Dr. R. Munro.

Secretary.—Mr. A. Bulleid.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Gene-
ral Pitt-Rivers, Sir John Evans,
and Mr. Arthur J. Evans.

Chairman.—Mr. E. W. Brabrook.

Secretary.—Mr. E. Sidney Hart-
land.

Mr. Francis Galton, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Professor A. C. Haddon,
Dr. Joseph Anderson, Mr. J.
Romilly Allen, Dr. J. Beddoe,
Mr. W. Crooke, Professor D. J.
Cunningham, Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins, Mr. Arthur J. Evans,
Dr. H. O. Forbes, Mr. F. G.
Hilton Price, Sir H. Howorth,
Protessor R. Meldola, General
Pitt-Rivers, and Mr, E. G.
Ravenstein.

Chairman.—My. A. J. Evans.
Secretary.—Mr. John L. Myres.
Mr. EH. W. Brabrook.

Chairman.—Professor D. P. Pen-
hallow.

Secretary.—Dr. George Dawson.

Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Professor
A.C. Haddon, Mr. E. S. Hart-
land, Sir J. G. Bourinot, Abbé
Cuoq, Mr. B. Sulte, Abbé Tan-
quay, Mr. C. Hill-Tout, Mr.
David Boyle, Rev. Dr. Scad-
ding, Rev. Dr. J. Maclean,
Dr. Merée Beauchemin, Rev.
Dr. G. Patterson, Mr. C. N. Bell,
Professor E. B. Tylor, Hon. G. W.
Ross, Professor J.. Mavor, and
Mr, A. F. Hunter.

Chairman.—Professor E. B. Tylor.

Secretary.—Dr. J. G. Garson.

General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. C. H.
Read and Mr. J. L. Myres.

Grants

50

to
a

10

35

40

00

00

00

00

00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

To conduct Explorations with the
object of ascertaining the age of
Stone Circles.

The physiological effects of Pep-
tone and its Precursors when
introduced into the circulation.

Investigation of the Electrical
Changes accompanying the Dis-
charge of the Respiratory
Centres.

Influence of Drugs upon the Vas-
cular Nervous System.

Histological Changes in Nerve-
cells.

The Micro-chemistry of Cells.

Histology of Suprarenal Capsules.

Comparative Histology of Cerebral
Cortex.

Fertilisation in Pheophycez,

Experimental Investigation of
Assimilation in Plants.

Chairman.—Dr. J. G. Garson.

Secretary.—Mz. H. Balfour.

Gen. Pitt-Rivers, Sir John Evans,
Mr. C. H. Read, Professor Mel-
dola, Mr. A. J. Evans, Dr. R.
Munro, and Professor Boyd-
Dawkins.

Chairman. — Professor E. A.
Schafer.

Secretary. — Professor W. H.
Thompson.

Professor R. Boyce and Professor
C. §. Sherrington.

Chairman.—Dr. A. Waller.

Secretary.—Professor Waymouth
Reid.

Professor F. Gotch and Dr. J. §.
McDonald.

Chairman.—Professor Francis
Gotch.

Secretary.—Professor W. D, Halli-
burton.

Dr. F. W. Mott.

Chairman.—Frofessor EH. A.
Schifer.

Secretary.—Professor R. Boyce.

Professor C. S. Sherrington and
Dr. W. B. Warrington.

Chairman.—Professor EH. A.
Schafer.

Secretary.—Professor A. B. Mac-
allum.

Professor E. Ray Lankester, Pro-
fessor W. D. Halliburton, and
Mr. G. C. Bourne.

Chairman.—Professor E. A.
Schifer.

Seeretary—Mr. Swale Vincent.

Mr. Victor Horsley,

Chairman.—Professor F. Gotch.
Secretary.—Dr. G. Mann.
Dr. F. W. Mott.

Chairman.—ProfessorJ.B.Farmer.

Secretary.—ProfessorR.W Phillips.

ProfessorF. O. Bowerand Professor
Harvey Gibson.

Chairman.—Mz. F. Darwin.

Secretary.—Professor J. R. Green.

Professor Marshall Ward.

xci

Grants

St

30

20

10

20

40.

20

10

20

20

or

on

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

xcli REPORT—1898.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee Grants

Zoological and Botanical Publica-

Chairman.—Rev.T.R. BR. Stebbing.

Cth

tion. Secretary.— Mr. F. A. Bather.

Professor W. A. Herdman, Pro-

Or
on

Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee for the preparation of
their Report.

fessor W. F. R. Weldon, Mr. A.
C. Seward, Mr. Adam Sedg-
wick, Mr. C. D. Sherborn, Mr.
B. Daydon Jackson, Mr. W. E.
Hoyle, Dr. P. L. Sclater, and
Dr. D. Sharp.

Chairman.—Professor It. Meldola.| 25 0
Secretary.—Mr. T. V. Holmes.
Mr. Francis Galton, Sir Douglas

Galton, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr.
J. G. Garson, Sir John Evans,
Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor
T. G. Bonney, Mr. W. Whitaker,
Sir Cuthbert E. Peek, Mr. Horace
T. Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan,

0

and Professor W. W. Watts.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

To confer with British and Foreign
Societies publishing Mathematical
and Physical Papers as to the desir-
ability of securing Uniformity in the
size of the pages of their Transactions
and Proceedings.

Co-operating with the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society in making Meteoro-
logical Observations on Ben Nevis.

To confer with the Astronomer Royal
and the Superintendents of other
Observatories with reference to the
Comparison of Magnetic Standards
with a view of carrying out such
comparison.

Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob-
servations.

Chairman.—Professor 8. P. Thompson.

Secretary.—Mr. J. Swinburne.

Prof. G. H. Bryan, Mr. C. V. Burton, Mr.
R. T. Glazebrook, Professor A. W.
Riicker, and Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney.

Chairman.—Lord McLaren.

Seeretary.— Professor Crum Brown.

Mr. John Murray, Dr. A. Buchan, and
Professor R. Copeland.

Chairman.—Professor A. W. Riicker.

Secretary.—Professor W. Watson.

Professor A. Schuster and Professor H.
H. Turner.

Chairman. —Professor W. G. Adams.

Secretary.—Dr. OC. Chree.

Lord Kelvin, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. Chrystal, Professor A.
Schuster, Captain E. W. Creak, the
Astronomer Royal, Mr. William Ellis,
and Professor A. W. Riicker.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

XClib

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

The present state of our Knowledge
in Electrolysis and Electro-che-
mistry.

To establish a Meteorological Observa-
tory on Mount Royal, Montreal.

The Rate of Increase of Underground

. Temperature downwards in various
Localities of dry Land and under
Water.

That Professor 8. P. Thompson and Pro-
fessor A. W. Riicker be requested to
draw up a Report on the State of our
Knowledge concerning Resultant
Tones.

The Application of Photography to the
Elucidation of Meteorological Phe-
nomena,

For Calculating Tables of certain Ma-
thematical Functions, and, if neces-
sary, for taking steps to carry out the
Calculations, and to publish the re-
sults in an accessible form.

Considering the best Methods of Re-
cording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation,

To consider the most suitable Method
of Determining the Components of
the Magnetic Force on board Ship.

That Mr. E, T. Whittaker be requested
to draw up a Report on the Planetary
Theory.

Chairman.—Mr. W. N. Shaw.

Secretary.—Mr. W. C. D. Whetham,

Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick, Mr. E. H.
Griffiths, and Mr, 8. Skinner.

Chairman.—Professor H. L. Callendar.

Secretary.—Professor C. H. McLeod.

Professor F. Adams and Mr. R. F.
Stupart.

Chairman.——Professor J. D. Everett.

Secretary.—Professor J. D. Everett.

Professor Lord Kelvin, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Sir A. Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Professor
Edward Hull, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster,
Professor A. §. Herschel, Professor
G. A. Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr.
W. Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickinson,
Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered,
Mr. A. Strahan, Professor Michie
Smith, and Professor H. L. Callendar.

Chairman.—My, G. J. Symons.

Secretary.—Mr. A. W. Clayden.

Professor R. Meldola, Mr. John Hopkin-
son, and Mr. H. N. Dickson.

Chairman.—Lord Kelvin.

Secretary.—Lieut.-Colonel Allan Cun-
ningham.

Professor B. Price, Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher,
Professor A. G. Greenhill, Professor W.
M. Hicks, Major P. A. Macmahon, and
Professor A. Lodge.

Chairman.—Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney.

Secretary.—Professor H. McLeod.

Sir G. G. Stokes, Professor A. Schuster,
Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain W. de W.
Abney, Dr. C. Chree, Professor G. F.
FitzGerald, Professor H. L. Callendar,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W. E. Wilson,
and Professor A. A. Rambaut.

Chairman.— Professor A. W. Riicker.

Secretary.—Mr. C. H. Lees.

Lord Kelvin, Professor A. Schuster, Cap-
tain Creak, Professor Stroud, Mr. C. V.
Boys, and Mr. W. Watson.

xciv

REPORT—1898.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money —continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

That Miss Hardcastle be requested to
draw up a Report on the present
state of the Theory of Point-Groups.

Preparing a new Series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Ele-
ments.

The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.

The Teaching of Natural Science in
Elementary Schools,

The Electrolytic Methods of Quantita-
tive Analysis.

The Promotion of Agriculture: to re-
port on the means by which in various
Countries Agriculture is advanced by
research, by special Educational Insti-
tutions, and by the dissemination of
information and advice among Agri-
culturists.

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.

The Description and Illustration of the
Fossil Phyllopoda of the Palozoic
Rocks.

To consider the best Methods for the
Registration of all Type Specimens
of Fossils in the British Isles, and
to report on the same.

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Canadian
Photographs of Geological Interest.

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe.

Secretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts.

Sir J. N. Lockyer, Professors J. Dewar,
G. D. Liveing, A. Schuster, W. N.
Hartley, and Wolcott Gibbs, and
Captain Abney.

Chairman.—Professor H. McLeod.
Seerctary.—Professor Roberts-Austen.
Mr. H. G. Madan and Mr. D. H. Nagel.

Chairman.—Dr. J. H. Gladstone.

Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.

Mr. George Gladstone, Mr. W. R. Dun-
stan, Sir J. Lubbock, Sir Philip
Magnus, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Dr. Sil-
vanus P. Thompson, and Professor A.
Smithells.

Chairman.—Professor J. Emerson Rey-
nolds.

Seeretary.—Dr. C. A. Kohn.

Professor Frankland, Professor F. Clowes,
Dr. Hugh Marshall, Mr. A. E. Fletcher,
and Professor W. Carleton Williams.

Chairman.— Sir John Evans.

Secretary.— Professor H. E. Armstrong.

Professor M. Foster, Professor Marshall
Ward, Sir J. H. Gilbert, Right Hon. J.
Bryce, Professor J. W. Robertson,
Dr. W. Saunders, Professor Mills,
Professor J. Mavor, Professor R.
Warington, Professor Poulton, and
Mr. 8. U. Pickering.

Chairman.—-Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.

Chairman.—Rev. Professor T. Wiltshire.
Secretary.—Yrofessor T. R. Jones.
Dr. H. Woodward.

Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.

Secretary.—Mr. A. Smith Woodward.

Rev. G. F.Whidborne, Mr. R. Kidston, Pro-
fessor H. G. Seeley, and Mr. H. Woods.

Chairman.—Professor A. P. Coleman.

Secretary.—Mr. Parks.

Professor A. B. Willmott, Professor F.
D. Adams, Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, and
Professor W. W. Watts.

SSS el

a

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

XcV

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

To report upon the present state of our
Knowledge of the Structure of Crys-
tals.

To continue the investigation of the
Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, with
power to co-operate with the Com-
mittee appointed for the purpose by
the Royal Society, and to avail them-
selves of such assistance in their in-
vestigations as may be offered by the
Hawaiian Government or the Trus-
tees of the Museumat Honolulu. The
Committee to have power to dispose
of specimens where advisable.

To report on the present state of our
Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany
of the West India Islands, and to
take steps to investigate ascertained
deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora.

To promote the Systematic Collection
of Photographic and other Records
of Pedigree Stock.

Climatology of Tropical Africa.

To Investigate and Report on Professor
Elisée Reclus’ Scheme of producing a
Relief Globe on a large scale.

The Anthropology and Natural History
of Torres Straits.

To co-operate with the Committee ap-
pointed by the International Con-
gress of Hygiene and Demography in
the investigation of the Mental and
Physical Condition of Children.

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-

tematic Registration of Photographs
of Anthropological Interest.

The Present State of Anthropological

Teaching in the United Kingdom and
Elsewhere.

Chairman.—Professor N. Story Maske-
lyne.

Seeretary.—Professor H. A. Miers.

Mr. L. Fletcher, Professor W. J. Sollas,
Mr. W. Barlow, Mr. G. F. H. Smith,
and the Earl] of Berkeley.

Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.

Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.

Dr. W. T. Blanford, Professor S. J. Hick-
son, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Mr. F. Du Cane
Godman, and Mr. Edgar A. Smith.

Chairman.—Dr. P. lL. Sclater.

Secretary.—Mr. G. Murray.

Mr. W. Carruthers, Dr. A. C. Giinther, Dr.
D. Sharp, Mr. F. Du Cane Godman,
and Professor A. Newton.

Chairman.—Mr. Francis Galton.
Secretary.—Professor W. F. R. Weldon.

Chairman.—My. E. G. Ravenstein.

Secretary.—Mr. H. N. Dickson.

Sir John Kirk, Dr. H. R. Mill, and
Mr. G. J. Symons.

Chairman.—Col. G. Earl Church.

Secretary.—Mr. E. G. Ravenstein.

Lieut.-Col. F. Bailey, Professor P. Geddes,
Dr. J. Scott Keltie, and Dr. H. R. Mill.

Chairman.—Sir W. Turner.

Secretary.—Professor A. C. Haddon.

Professor M. Foster, Dr. J. Scott Keltie,
Professor L. C. Miall, and Professor
Marshall Ward.

Chairman.—Sir Douglas Galton.

Secretary.—Dr. Francis Warner.

Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Dr. J. G. Garson,
and Mr. White Wallis.

Chairman.—My, C. H. Read.

Secretary.—Mr. J. lL. Myres.

Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. H. Ling Roth, Mr.
H. Balfour, Mr. E. S. Hartland, and
Professor Flinders Petrie.

Chairman.—Professor E. B. Tylor.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Ling Roth.

Professor A. Macalister, Professor A. ©.
Haddon, Mr. C. H. Read, Mr. H. Bal-
four, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Dr. R. Munro,
and Professor Flinders Petrie.

SSF

x¢evl REPORT—1898.

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso,

‘On Logarithmic Coordinates,’ by Dr. J. H. Vincent.

‘On Stream-Line Motion with Viscous Fluids in Two Dimensions,’ by Professor
H. 8. Hele-Shaw.

‘Mathematical Proof of the Identity of the Stream-Lines obtained by Means of
a Viscous Film with those of a Perfect Fluid moving in Two Dimensions,’ by Pro-
fessor Sir G. G. Stokes, F.R.S.

‘On the Relative Advantages of Long and Short Magnets,’ by Professor E.
Mascart.

‘On the Establishment of Temporary Magnetic Observatories in certain localities,
especially in Tropical Countries,’ by Professor von Bezold and Gen.-Major
Rykatcheff.

‘Photographic Records of Pedigree Stock,’ with the accompanying Illustrations,
by Mr. Francis Galton.

‘Some of the Mechanical and Economic Features of the Coal Question, by Mr,
T. Forster Brown.

‘A new Instrument for drawing Envelopes, and its Application to the Teeth of
Wheels, and for other purposes,’ by Professor H. 8. Hele-Shaw.

‘The Papers on the Alternation of Generations in the Archegoniatz and Thallo-
phyta,’ by Professor Klebs and Mr. W. H. Lang, in the Proceedings of the Sections.

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action
af desirable.

That having regard to the letter of December 15 last, from Sir E. Maunde
Thompson, the Council be requested to take further action with regard to a Bureau
of Ethnology, by renewing the correspondence with the Trustees of the British
Museum.

That the Council be requested to consider the desirability of representing to the
Colonial Government that the early establishment of a Magnetic Observatory at the
Cape of Good Hope would be of the highest utility to the science of Terrestrial
Magnetism, especially in view of the Antarctic Expeditions which are about to leave
Europe, and that the Observatory should be established at such a distance from
electric railways and tramways as to avoid all possibility of disturbance from them.

That the Council be requested to consider the advisability of urging Her
Majesty’s Government to place at the disposal of the Seismological Committee of
the British Association a suitable building for the housing of Apparatus for con-
tinuous Seismological observations.

That the Council be requested to urge strongly on the Indian Government the
desirability, in the interests both of administration and of science, to promote an
inquiry, under the direction of skilled anthropologists, into the physical and mental
characteristics of the various races throughout the Empire, including their institu-
tions, customs, and traditions, and a carefully organised photographic survey.

That the Council be recommended to issue the collected Reports on the North-
Western Tribes of Canada in a single volume at a moderate price, reprinting so
many of the Reports as may be necessary.

That the Council be requested to bring under the notice of the Admiralty the
importance of securing systematic observations upon the Erosion of the sea coast of
the United Kingdom, and that the co-operation of the Coastguard might be profitably
secured for this purpose.

That the Council be requested to take into consideration whether any alterations:
in the hours of meeting of the Sectional Committees and of the General Committee

on the first day of the Annual Meeting of the Association are desirable, and to
report to the General Committee at the Dover meeting.

Change of Days of Meeting of General Committee and Committee of
Recommendations.
The second meeting of the General Committee was appointed to be held on

Friday, and the first meeting of the Committee of Recommendations on the following,
Monday.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, xcevil

_ Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by the
General Committee at the Bristol Meeting, September, 1898. The
Names of the Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer
for the respective Grants are prefixed.

Mathematics.
£ 3. d.
*Rayleigh, Lord—Electrical Standards (and £75 in hand) ... 225 0 0
*Judd, Professor J. W.—Seismological Observations ......... 75 0 0
*Riicker, Professor A. W.—‘Science Abstracts’ .............+5 100 0 O
Kelvin, Lord—Heat of Combination of Metals ............... 20 0 O
FitzGerald, Professor G. F.—Radiation in a Magnetic Field 50 0 0
*Harley, Rev. R.—Calculation of Certain Integrals ............ 1¢ 0.0
Chemistry.
*Thorpe, Dr. T. E.—Action of Light upon Dyed Colours ...... 10

_ Hartley, Professor W. N.—Relation between Absorption

Spectra and Constitution of Organic Substances ......... 50 0 0

Ramsay, Professor W.—Chemical and Bacterial Examina-
BeMMEREU NY ACOH BHO SG WALES fic. ol ssne coe aces eassmetears ads) «hinid 10 0 0
Geology.

S* Full, Professor E.—Erratic Blocks ........0...s0ccsscecereceeees hanid 0
*Geikie, Professor J.—Photographs of Geological Interest ... 10 0 0
*Marr, Mr. J. E.—Life-zones in British Carboniferous Rocks 10 0 0
*Dawkins, Professor Boyd.—Remains of Irish Elk in the

MECN R ED Its Sel A iF atlad wisi te dara Bak dais dbis Saivatnsess< ce «zeiedies 15 7}-0), 0
*Dawson, Sir J. W.—Pleistocene Fauna and Flora in Canada 30 0 0

Hicks, Dr. H.—Records of Drift Section at Moel Tryfaen... 5 0 0

@anicks, Dr. H.—Ty Newydd Caves ............sccessceeces eens 40 0 0
Lloyd-Morgan, Professor C.—Ossiferous Caves at Uphill ... 30 0 0
U Zoology.

*Herdman, Professor W. A.—Table at the Zoological Station,

RM ge file guaivos ox cach vocas sie aonmignss seed ananeass <ecessiede 100 0 0
*Bourne, Mr. G. C.—Table at the Biological Laboratory,
MOWED oo... cise eeei en on funidie de diboManied bebietineeewet sens 20 0 O
*Woodward, Dr. H.—Index Generum et Specierum Ani-

—o LAEERD 5 52M Ges Dasaee Se BE zoe too ich APE caer Ge Annas sRGncascnmnpnrnsse 100 0 0

ewton, Professor A.—Migration of Birds ..................44 15 0 0
“Hoyle, Mr. W. E.—Apparatus for keeping Aquatic Organ-

__ isms under definite Physical Conditions .............-.-..+.: 15. 0,0
Lankester, Professor E. R.—Plankton and Physical Condi-

_ tions of the English Channel during 1899 ................:. 100 0 0

Geography.
Keltie, Dr. J. Scott—Exploration of Socotra .......:s++10+0 35 0 0
@armed fonwards psenactevevec-«ssesars Metean FeO R asses O90} 0 0

* Reappointed.

xeviil REPORT—1898.

£ 2s. d,
Brought forward ..........::scssssseesescocseecesscvsvecceees 1920 0 0
Economic Science and Statistics.
*Sidgwick, Professor H.—State Monopolies in other Countries
(£13 13s. Gd. in hand) ......-sereoeceeeecee see eerceecersreese res —
*Price, Mr. L. L.—Future Dealings in Raw Produce ......... 5.0" 10
Mechanical Science.
*Preece, Mr. W. H.—Small Screw Gauge (£17 1s. 2d. in hand) —
Anthropology.

*Munro, Dr. R.—Lake Village at Glastonbury ...............006 50 0 0
*Brabrook, Mr. E. W.—Ethnographical Survey (and balance

BT DANG). ..iccacae eer meeh: cae CaM eeR Ceara nes saben Assinsnoanancbee 25 0 0

*Evans, Mr. A. J.—Silchester Excavation ..... 10; BaD
*Penhallow, Professor D. P.—Ethnological Survey ‘of Canada

(and £35 17s. Od. in COLIC) lao dees eee eee 35 0 0
Tylor, Professor E. B. —New Edition of sinthe opological

INOtES and“ @Werlessasea te eete s seco eetceok sta caace ae 40 0 0

Garson, Dr. J. G.—Age of Stone Circles ......... 20 0 O

Physiology.

*Schafer, Professor E. A.—Physiological Effects of Peptone... 30 0 0
Waller, Dr. A.—Electrical Changes accompanying Discharge

of Respiratory Gemiresy ys. Ae. llc ee. .s.cdcstee. seneoaetees 20.0 0
Gotch, Professor F.—Influence of Drugs upon the Vascular

DlePvOus BySvemge cp tek ae sees 25048 oa e. saves Wasidesla-cstemaes ogi 10 0 0

Schafer, Professor E. A.—Histological Changesin Nerve Cells 20 0 0

Schafer, Professor E. A.—Micro-chemistry of Cells ......... 40 0 0

Schafer, Professor E. A.—Histology of Suprarenal Capsules 20 0 0
Gotch, Professor F.—Comparative Histology of Cerebral

COntGs ec ay: screener ebeeeteee: «06h kak adaweebeieaaiee ova von on cabebae i>; D 30

Botany.

*Farmer, Professor J. B.—Fertilisation in Pheophycee ...... 20 0 0

Darwin, Mr. F.—Assimilation in Plants .........-...2.s000e0 00s 20 O 0
*Stebbing, Rev. T. R. R.—Zoological and Botanical Publica-

tion A. sae. iss beads fee , os PE S10 IG

Corresponding Societies,
*Meldola, Professor R.—Preparation of Report .............. 25 0 0
21,4955) 0

* Reappointed.

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. xclx

The Annual Meeting in 1899.

~The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1899 will commence on
Wednesday, September 13, at Dover.

The Annual Meeting in 1900.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1900 will be held at Brad-
ford.
The Annual Meeting in 1901.
_. The Annual Meeting of the Association in |1901 will he held at

Glasgow.

ne

c REPORT—1 898.

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.

1834.

8: a.
Tide Discussions ......+ esau tees 20 0 0

1835
Tide Discussions ..........000+ 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
£167 O OU

1836.
Tide Discussions .........+ee++s 163 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0

Thermometric Observations,

RG rmiiseisa siceeusucccscssshevsceras 50 0 0
Experiments on Long-con-

tinued Heat .........ccceseeee 17 1 0
Rain-Gauges .......escsecseeoeees 913 0
Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0
Lunar Nutation............ss006 60 0 0
Thermometers .......eeseeseeeee 15 6 0

£435 0 O

1837

Tide Discussions .........ses00s 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6
Lunar Nutation.............0660. 70 0 0
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 O
Tides at Bristol .........:0s..2.0e 150 0 O
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature............ 93 3 0
Vitrification Experiments ... 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0
SAT OMECUCTS « sececcss create cctestesie 1118 6

£922 12 6
1838
Tide Discussions ............64+ 29 0 0
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 O
Meteorological Observations .

and Anemometer (construc-

HHO) “Seo oso sbaneeanasoasags 100 0 O
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-

stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
IBTISLOLMLIGES eyetunwatcascatsepe<s 50 0 0
Growth of Plants ............... 75 0 0
WVSACTT RAVIEDS ote suesarctaaceces ss 3.6 6
Education Committee ......... 50 0 O
Heart Experiments ............ 5 3 0
Land and Sea Level............ 267 8 7
Steam-vessels.............sceseees 100 0 ' 0
Meteorological Committee ... 31 9 5

£932 2 2

1839.
£ 8. d-
Fossil Ichthyology ..........6+ 110 0 ©
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &c. ........... 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2
Bristol Tides, ........so.-sssesane 35 18 6
Meteorology and Subterra-

.nean Temperature............ 2111 O
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 0
Cast-iron Experiments......... 105 0 %
Railway Constants ........... 28 7 G
Land and Sea Level............ 274 E12
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 4
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 0
Stars in Lacaille ........0.cs606 11 0 6
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 ©
Animal Secretions............. . 1010 6
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 @
Atmospheric Air ............0«. 16 1 G
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3.0 0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Ob-

servations, Inverness and

IKSAMTISSIC) Pe. «sh asseoneeeeeeeaey AD ee
Fossil Reptiles .........ssees-see 118 2 9
Mining Statistics .............+ 50 0 ©&

£1595 11 O
ee
1840.

Bristol Tides .......0..cesccaceses 100 0 ©
Subterranean Temperature... 1313 6
Heart Experiments .........+0. 18 19 ©
Lungs Experiments ........-+.- 813 0
Tide Discussions ........-+0e0+« 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level....... eceteey 0 1a aE
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 O
Stars (Lacaille) .........s.e+seee 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) ......cecssee0e 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air ......c.eeeeeee 1515 O
Water on Iron ........0.cecensne 10 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 70a:
Meteorological Observations. 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population ............ 100 0 O
School Statistics ..........s.0 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels .....+.sseeseee 184 7 O

Chemical and Electrical Phe-
NOMENA Stecunerstnessessenakosns 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations

‘at Plymouth .........seseeseee 0. OL 6
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 &

£1546 16 4

ee

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1841.
Snake
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature............ 8 8 Qa
Actinometers ...........sccecseeee 10 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ....+...+0+ Lie.790
Acrid Poisons...........ceseeneees 6 0 0
Veins and Absorbents ......... 3.0 0
MMUG/IN) RAVETS cesescccseseseses 5 0 0
Marine Zoology .......sssessseees 1512 8
Skeleton Maps ...........cese00s 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille)..............s000 79 5 O
Stars (Nomenclature of)...... 17 19° 6
Stars (Catalogue of)............ 40 0 0
WV RUCE/ OD ITON. © ...2.cccsceccacece 50 0 O
Meteorological Observations

BE INVEIMeESS. ..:.s0c0s0ecseeeee ZO OREO
Meteorological Observations

(eduction of): ....05.<....00. 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles ........ ......... 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ........ ...... 62 0 6
Railway Sections ............. Ae icjga! Sak t)
Forms of Vessels .............0+ 193 12 0
“Meteorological Observations

at Plymouth .............0000. 55 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-

BRO G er cea sexccusicceneseccss se 100 0 0
Tides at Leith ..............0.68 50 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... S63
sRaces of Men..........sccscesees 5 0 0
Radiate Animals ............... Z 10) 10

£1235 10 11

1842,
Dynamometric Instruments... 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0
Tides at Bristol ...............4. 59 8 O

_ 4ases on Light .................. 3014 7
Chronometers...........c.ceeereee 2617 6
Marine Zoology.............00005 1S)
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-

, PETE cus c never tare ts seirscades 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ............... 161 10 O
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication

BEHEVODOFL). csccccscesceaseaseae. 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ............... 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on

BRACES 5c oe Sfaeasastgassckee 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments

at Plymouth .........cc0sseees 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-

mometric Instruments ...... 99 0 0

cl
ome aeasds
ONCE Of Wind ves.ccevcense4es ost 1070) '0
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 0 0
Vital Statistics ..............06 ee OON Oe O
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8
1843,
Revision of the Nomenclature
OLISEATS) <.Yascckeiebaeeeecess 6 2 0 0
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Firth of
HOLbH Wiis. <cnacncsacccevipavev ones 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
TMNVETNESS) « hunee dese stesdecere de 7712 8
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth ..........00..0008 55 0 0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ...... LOO 5.0
Meteorological Observations, ;
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
INOUE secon scsegasactssiesdeauses 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations ............sc000 30 0 0
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities ...........0.6 39 6 O
Construction of Anemometer
at Inverness ......04, eseseece 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for 2
Kew Observatory .......0.... 50 0 0
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 183 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
NOOSE science geencareae-sespabeeds 81 8 0
Oxidation of the Rails of
Rail Ways, <.assiecnectds cee dee ee 20 0 0
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles ...........0.0 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections .........cccessecs 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
DHGGKSueueeansdssensneeractaenies 30 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomen-
Clatnre: ity ssorcsssceccsesesoee sx 10°00
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester...... 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0
Marine Zoology .....-ceceeseseeee 10 0 0
Marine Zoology ....0....ssreesees 214 12
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents ............ 20 0 O
Vital Statistics ....... varenedeean 36 5 8

ci

Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator
Experiments on the Strength
of Materials

seeeee
Penne neeeneeeee
Pewee ere sewer enene

1844,
Meteorological Observations

REPORT—1898,

£ s. d,
70 0 0
100 0 0
100 0 0
69 14 10
60 0 0

£1565 10 2

at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at
Ply month issesscsctess caesene 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation ...............005 25 8 4
Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of
DLATS i wariasasteeetneen tet ecns 35 0 (0
Observations on Tides on the
East Coast of Scotland 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature
SSTISEAIS ME coses tess Sores 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
LEST nS eae ote od CMe Ts 26
Instruments for Kew Obser-
AUOLY. coer sete cr ererasraceneres DOS ims
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
_Subterraneous Temperature
an Irelands vest oeeskren ce 5 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
Way SECUIONS.<1) nt. ee ears 1517 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes
ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of
Earthquakes ............ 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the
Aigean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 O
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and
COTW rie escoccesccssonseces 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality
OLiSeedsteremree nen... 9 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality
Of Séedsiseewerene LSE Uist tin 7h 8
Exotic Anoplura ............... 15 0 O
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on
the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 O
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 105 O50
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals...... 50 0 0
Constant Indicator and Mo-
rin’s Instrument ...... 1842 10 0 0
£981 12 8

|

1845,
£ 38. da.
Publication of the British As-
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations
Bt Inverness: ...siccsossacnedate 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation .......saseeasese 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments
at Edinburgh.............s000 18 11 9
Reduction of Anemometrical
Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at
Kew Observatory .........0:. 43 17 8
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 14915 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 O
The Actinograph ..........css0. LB,..0220
Microscopic Structure of
Shells’ s.320,swotsse0tass- oe 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 O
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1843 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
CINES —. Sisshtbessbeieb sadeads 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............ 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8
£831 9 9
1846.
British Association Catalogue
OL Stalsy s.<<ocseseecessest 1844 211 15 0
Fossil Fishes of the London
IBY: «cnc tacuncocsmacgee ees etten 100 0 O
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0 O
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 14616 7
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 O
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 215 10
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1846 7123
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 O
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0O
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 O
Expenses attending Anemo-
TICUCTSenesrcnercerescer se sannecs DT EG
Anemometers’ Repairs......... 2 3 6
Atmospheric Waves ............ 3°03 3
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
Varieties of the Human Race
L824 ETRE S
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............ 12 00
£685 16 0

a i i i i

_——

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1847.

Ue
=
RX

Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829............ 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

PRHGH i ccostcccdscctcencccactewes¥ 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves ............ 6 9 3
Vitality of Seeds ............606 AG 7
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6

£208 5 4

1848.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11

Atmospheric Waves ............ SO G9
Vitality of Seeds ............06 915 0
Completion of Catalogue of
PLE Medseet sqoasCescsnscessncsne 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 O
£275 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 0
Maintaining the LUstablish-
ment at ditto.........c0c...e0e 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds ............... SUESial.
On Growth of Plants ...,..... 5 0 0
Registration of Periodical
PHENOMENA.......00000.ccareree 10 0 0
Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations ...... 13, 9.0
£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 O
Periodical Phenomena......... 15 0 0
Meteorological Instruments,
DAZOUES stdicdticcdddscccasctesecce 25 0 0
£345 18 0
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(includes part of grant in
MRED Ve crew ctu ceacaccaauewecekesics 309 2 2
Theory of Heat ..............2+4 20%) Vil
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-
mals and Plants.............6+ 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 6 4
Infiuence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries......... 12 0 0
Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 0
£391 9 7

cil

1852.
£ sd
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

CGncluding balance of grant

for 1850)... <dsenssececeaseacnces 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-

tion of Heat ..........ceccceee 5 2 9
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-

DCMT sac os -caeccacosccccceteuess 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ..........e.00e 10), 6" 2
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0

£304 6 7
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence

of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 0
Researches on the British

PAVING Ia ides se cnasesteseoceene 10 0 0
Dredging on the East Coast

GE Scotlands: +. ctesecdscoceds 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0

£205 0 0
1854,
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(including balance of

former grant)........ssseceeeee 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax......... 11 0 0
Effects of Temperature on

Wrought Iron...........0.0000+ LOR OO
Registration of Periodical

Phenomena........seeseecoeee on LOL OFs0
British Annelida .........++e+8- 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............0+6 a2 3
Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0

£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... TO Om 0
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ............00+ 10 711
Map of the World..............- 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 56 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0 0

£480 16 4
1856.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—

ror eae ae £75 0 0
isfss. £500 0 oF or 05.0

REPORT—1898.

ClV
£ 8. d.
Strickland’s Ornithological

SYNONYMS so. .cccoe-scscoteecss 100 0 0
Dredging and Dredging

HONINS ie sersecstreersatetessdeerns 913 0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 O
Registration of Periodical

PhenoMena..........sseseececees 10 0 0
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 O

£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

PRLCUIUS Hep iesnmauhescideee see cioeeeass 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast

OUI COULANG 225 yauiacs.oseeeeaisse 10 0 0
Investigations into the Mol-

lusca of California ......... 10 0 0
Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0 0
Natural History of Mada-

Preseli esreiec ses saesarercs= secs 20 0 0
Researches on British Anne-

WILAMNe ic aaessconnes-ssssuneaeens 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products

imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-

POH rons conciiecstetpatessvees costs 10 0 O
Temperature of Mines......... isac. (0
Thermometers for Subterra-

nean Observations..........+. 5 7 4
MEO DOALS vs.0005s2enseaccesenebse 5 0 0

£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave LExperi-

TIES ieeicc sacs ccncenvaesstestnecds 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast

DE SCOUANG ....0050-0ccecaseore 10 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............008 5 5 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-

lida ....... puabieadewapcrescceence 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-

tion of Heat by Motion in

PUES <5 sue ssevencaevecesanss sane 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-

ducts imported into Scot-

WAN Weerdelscsdesessvcss-cuccocses 10 0 0

£618 18 2

1859.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0

Dredging near Dublin.........

15 0

0

£ a. d.
Osteology of Birds .........+0. 50 0 O
Irish ‘Tunicata .s.0.scssseneanee 5 0 0
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0
British Meduside ............+0« 56 0 0
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 0
Marine Fauna of South and

West of Ireland.............8. 10 0 0
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils 20 0 1
Balloon Ascents.......scssssssoee 39 11 0

£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 O
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 145 0 0
Inquiry into the Performance

of Steam-vessels .........-0. 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow

Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20 0 O
Chemico-mechanical Analysis

of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of

Plants’ 3: 223 cas beeen tencereens 10 0 0
Researches on the Solubility

OLASAIUS “2. seas cccsssentetoreee 30 0 0
Researches on the Constituents

of Manures ...........ceseeee 25 0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon

ACCOUNUS.<...10002seaeeeerenee 113 6

£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 500 0 O
Earthquake Experiments...... 25.0 0
Dredging North and East

Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 O
Dredging Committee :—

1860...... £50 0 0

1861......£22. 0.0 ¢ poo Oe
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 O
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 15 0 0
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys .......e.se...5 20 0 O
Classified Index to the Trans-

ACWONG St ese ee eeeoeceueee ees 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and

Cee eesteasestnssenwewerance since 5 0 0
DipiCirele Pktemnsaues«seansecenes 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observa-

TIONS. acssseoearsscevescanecacees 50 0 0
PLIGON DICH seisoxsesescctecveres 20 0 O
Gauging of Water............005 1070 20
Alpine Ascents .............4. - 6 610
Constituents of Manures ...... 25 0 0

£1111 5 10

a

e

ee ee ee SS ll

4

ll ee DM lg ae i

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1862.
£
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500
Patent Laws .........sssecesceees 21
Mollusca of N.-W. of America 10
Natural History by Mercantile

DMAEINIG®+ so icecdeccencesenccteres 5
Tidal Observations ............ 25
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40
Photographic Pictures of the

BUM ep etasccsso. Aasessidvecsestes 150
Rocks of Donegal............06 25
Dredging Durham and North-

umberland Coasts ............ 25
Connection of Storms ......... 20
Dredging North-east Coast

GIP OCOUANG! /...cceccscescesese 6
Ravages of Teredo ............ 3
Standards of Electrical Re-

RRR EATICOM ss cedscssacecses vs csese 50
Railway Accidents ............ 10
Balloon Committee ............ 200
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5
ISOM DIC (os. ccsecsesceossosess 20
‘Gauging of Water...........606+ 12
Steamships’ Performance...... 150
Thermo-electric Currents ... 5

£1293

Panes Slow Toyey Staner—o ye Weteniken 352

bo

16

2ISOSCOCOSCOSOSODSD Of CO Co ooo ooo ®&

1863.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory...
Balloon Committee deficiency 70
Bailoon Ascents (other ex-

BIGRINES))| oh re ence saciay oc aciiae sasuic 25
PHILO ZOD cicenscannacecnarassaioesuacs 25
MUO] HOSSIIS .....scssccecseeecnne 20
PIGTYINGS'......cacsseesesss Benceat is 20
Granites of Donegal............ 5
BAMBOBE DICH ¢. . oocescaccestastesiss 20
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

PHORMAD saeacraetectececcvatet<are 13
Dredging Shetland ............ 50
Dredging North-east Coast of

BGDblANG.« 5..ac-a<vetstecssedess 25
Dredging Northumberland

BuO DUT AM 20.0 ssacssecscees 17
Dredging Committee superin-

MEPACNCC! |) s.5.cccescocccness eva LO
Steamship Performance ...... 100
Balloon Committee ............ 200
‘Carbon under pressure ......... 10
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100
Bromide of Ammoniun ...... 8
Electrical Standards............ 100

_ Electrical Construction and

Distribution .............2.00. 40

Luminous Meteors ............ 17

Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph ............ 100

o,co cocecos © Ss oc cocece So

Sg CS ae

f=)

oOo, ofl: -Sc.So:c1o SoS

CV
£ 8. d:.
Thermo-electricity ............ 15 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ..........++ 8 0 0
Ey ATO1d ary scnctreresse cesses connec TORROE 0
£1608 3 10
1864.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Coal Hossils) seicsecswatearscares« 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

TMCUIES! soveseccgeccassdeeecerarras 20 0 0
Dredging, Shetland ............ 75 0 0
Dredging, Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 0
Standards of Electric Re-

SISHANCE! wc sasecsedesecseemaseree 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 10 0 0
ivicltONGanl teesceeccssnesecsenencaas 10 0 0
Agicham’SiGithy wtccssecvettcrenene 50 0 O
Nitrite of Amyle ............... 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 9
Rain-SAaUgeS! 22. .cscssecccsssssces 1915 8
Cast-iron Investigation. ...... 20 0 0
Tidal Observations in the

PERU DOLE cecreeanesaenh cn nae ween 50 0 0
Spectral Rays.-.....c.0c.c0sssreee 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ...........- 20 0 0

£1289 15 8
1865.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600

Balloon Committee ............ 100
ERY GrOId a. ce decaseosatsinssens soe 13
Rain-GaUGes! ..cisececcssnctewecns 30
Tidal Observations in the
FAMIMDOT: avs cots acancasaesacdders 6
Hexylic Compounds ...........- 20
Amyl Compounds ............... 20
TIP MMH OVA ss cmeannideaastitaeee ests 25
American Mollusca ............ 3
Oneanic ACiGS! centsceensspaae vas 20
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10
HUY PECTUS s.~<-cnscaseaenemosaesc 50
Electrical Standards............ 100
Malta Caves Researches ...... 50
Oyster Breeding ............+06 25
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100
Moon’s Surface Observations 35
MarinesH anne) i. .cacuwkecessecs’ 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5

Resistance of Floating Bodies

IM!) Wateritieccbensetesceccccess 100
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8
Luminous Meteors .......+.006 40

£1591 7

0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
9
0
0)
0
0
0
0
0)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
D

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
10

evi

1866.
£. 8
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 600 0
Lunar Committee............... 64 13
Balloon Committee ............ 50 O
Metrical Committee............ 50
British Rainfall.................. 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed .... 15
Luminous Meteors ............ 50
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20
Chemical Constitution of
GASTON |“, .cco0seshastevbaeses 50
Amyl Compounds .............+. 25
Electrical Standards............ 100
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
SUG (COV WALL ce. ...ccnceaveeses 25

Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25
Dredging Hebrides Coast 50
Dredging the Mersey
Resistance of Floating Bodies

HEIMVVIELCT cos eciececeecncasacsmease
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-

CaS teeseatesse Socobide ass eceaeee 29
Rigor Mortis ..........0.sesseeees 10
Trish Annelida ...............0 15
Catalogue of Crania............ 50
Didine Birds of Mascarene

LEDTLG Sh a Se asppeppecnecneeenen 50
Typical Crania Researches ... 30
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100

£1750

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
13

d.
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
13 4

1867.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Meteorological Instruments,

PALE SEINE ss avenscvervensnessvetes 50
Lunar Committee .............66 120
Metrical Committee............ 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations 100
Palestine Explorations......... 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30
Bribish Raintall. ode secccse 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25
Luminous Meteors ............ 50
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30
Dredging Shetland ............ 75
Steamship Reports Condensa-

BLONeressNeeceststsetesenyeieccss 100
Electrical Standards............ 100
Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25
Fossil Crustacea ..........0...6 25
Sound under Water ............ 24
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75

Do. Plant Beds 100
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25
Patent Laws ........... Ridieties 30

£1739

RlOoOCSTOROCOOCOOO cocooooeoooeooo ©

jJolooocooooooo osocoocscoosceooeoo ©

REPORT—1898.

1868.
£
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Lunar Committee ............006 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
Zoological Record........+.0s0 100
Kent’s Hole Explorations .,.. 150
Steamship Performances.. ... 100
British Rainfall .........ceseecee 50
Luminous Meteors........sseeces 50
Organic Acids)... ..-..:sqeea 60
Fossil Crustacea...........ssesce«s 25
Methyl Series........... 25
Mercury and Bile 25
Organic Remains in Lime-

Stone Rocks').. .i:;.:.s.ssnesar 2h
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals ......... £0
Bagshot Leaf-beds .......-.+. . 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
MoOSsil WWLOTA ’ Vo 550... coddenereiene 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Underground Temperature .., 50
Spectroscopic Investigations

of Animal Substances ...... 5
Secondary Reptiles, &c. ...... 30
British Marine Invertebrate

TR eocgnocchcogcecrinonosa 100

£1940
1869.
Maintaining the LEstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory... 600
Lunar Committee.......s.06 see 5O
Metrical Committee............0++ 25
Zoological Record .........seee0s 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-

well) Waterivdccwsdescnceenea tens 25
British Rainfall...............+0 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,

REC np dea tddavstedvedcdapeasaasnsaece 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150
Steamship Performances ...... 30
Chemical Constitution of

Cast Tron. sesessenccsuveseres 80
Tron and Steel Manufacture 100
Methyl] Series............seeseeeee 30
Organic Remains in Lime-

Stone ROCKS). ...c.csetevessceces 10
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds ......... .. 30
Fossil orang 5. dessenvercvsshtb- ow 25
Tidal Observations .......... .- 100
Underground Temperature... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations

of Animal Substances ...... 5
Organic ACIDS ......seccscseeeee 12
Kiltorcan Fossils ..........s000+ 20

co
.

o|/o oo ocoococooocooo ooooce|cooooo

ooo -ocoqceecaoo.. OOO SoCo oo7eoe so

&

colo oo coooococece coocoece|ce|cqcecso

ooo ooococoo o9o9O SoCo CoO SCO9OCSSo

GENERAL STATEMENT,

£ s. d.
Chemical Constitution and

Physiological Action Rela-

EIOUS ccccscstccescescreness ay... 0L5) 10) 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10 0 O
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 0

£1622 0 0
1870.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600

Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record............60 100
Committee on Marine Fauna 20
Bars in Fishes ............see008 10
Chemical Nature of Cast
ATI a chads <Dia eb ctadioscserc 80
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Heat in the Blood............... 15
pribish Rainfall... jecccectsessees 100
Thermal Conductivity of
BEHOIT NG Cla face siocissint <ssecpewet e's 20
British Fossil Corals............ 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4
Bagshot Leaf-beds ........+... 15
PHOSSIL FIOTA, ...cecsccsecenee Sead © Az
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Underground Temperature... 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 50
Organic Chemical Compounds 30
Onny River Sediment ......... 3
Mechanical Equivalent of

So|o oooosooocoecoeooco oooo oeoooece

ele ooocscococeceos ceoeo soooe

1871.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progress

in Chemistry .....c.ssceseeceee 100
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record............66 100
Thermal Equivalents of the

Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10
Tidal Observations ............ 100
GASUIPHWIOTA, .sccssccencsseserses ee
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 25
Heat in the Blood............... 7
British Rainfall.................. 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea .......s...000s 25
Methyl Compounds ............ 25
Lunar Objects .......... Se AGCOSC 20

ooooowooocooo coo oOo

oooooacooooo ooo o

Coe Peay
Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing ...........++- 20 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 20 0 O
Moab Explorations ............ 100 0 O
Gaussian Constants .........+«. 40 0 0
£1472 2 6
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 300

Metrical Committee............ 75
Zoological Record............... 100
Tidal Committee ............... 200
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25
Organic Chemical Compounds 25
Exploration of Moab............ 100

Terato-embryological Inqui-

RICH scdecccccseadtevseraresces tres 10
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100
Luminous Meteors ............ 20
Heat in the Blood............... 15
Fossil Crustacea ............008 25
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25
PMNAaArLOHIECtS.cscccwecesses nes 20
Inverse Wave-lengths ......... 20
British Rainfall.......ccccccecsse 100
Poisonous Substances Anta-

GONISI owececsnscucenessieceaeesen 10
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-

BoLLMEIONG ECC, sccaecswencececcae 40
Mathematical Tables ......... 50

Thermal Conductivity of Me-
tals

Preee eee ee)

oko, oc =o oooooococo cooooeococoe

Colo oo 9c osooso9eoooo eos oseoeo9o

£1285
1873.

Zoological Record...........+08 100
Chemistry Record............066 200
Tidal Committee ............66+ 400
Sewage Committee ..........0. 100
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25
Fossil Elephants ............... 25
Wave-lengths ........ssesseeeee 150
British Rainfall......... .....00. 100
Essential Oils.............ssees0ee 30
Mathematical Tables ......... 100
Gaussian Constants ......... aay HL,
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Underground Temperature... 150
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20

Timber Denudation and Rain-
Fal hs ilge cates Sdcdvde devin sccte 20
Luminous Meteors............+ 30
£1685

Sotas So OCS SO Scio oo o'sic'SiS.

oloo ooooooocooocoooooo

|

evili
1874.
£
Zoological Record ........s.s..06 100
Chemistry Record............006 100
Mathematical Tables ......... 100
Elliptic Functions.............+ 100
Lightning Conductors ......... 10
Thermal Conductivity of
HUOOES Ur eaccesccececasacessewces. 10
Anthropological Instructions 50

Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150

Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15
British Rainfall.................+ 100
Essential Oils..........sececeeeeee 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50
Mauritius Meteorology ...... 100
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20
Marine OrganismS..............5 30
Fossils, North-West of Scot-
EPIC eee nee SeusuirnicesscesAalsasseee 2
Physiological Action of Light 20
PrAGES WMIONS ~......c0-cseeen. 25

Mountain Limestone-corals
Erratic Blocks
Dredging, Durham and York-

shire Coasts

—
aor ooooo cooocoocecoc“secocea oooocs

o!O e900 SSS0CCSO SCoSoScSoCSoCSoCCCOOCCeOO SCoCoC Oo

High Temperature of Bodies 30
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 3
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-

IMEASULES.....0ssecersccereveeens 7 15

£1151 16
1875.

Elliptic Functions ............ 100 0 0
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall.................. 120 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Chemistry Record............... 100 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid............... 10 0 O
Isometric Cresols ............. 20 0 0
‘Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Earthquakesin Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Development of Myxinoid

SHES foccwrccnvaerist doveessebespe 20 0 0
Zoological Record.............+ 100 0 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0

£960 0 0
1876.

Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2
British Rainfall...............068 100 0 0
NOUS Th AWesseccseascsecscneceseee 915 0
Tide Calculating Machine .,. 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0

REPORT—1898.

£ 3. d.
Tsomeric Cresols .......see+0ee 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACETALC........scersncccescnencens 5 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric ACi........0.see06 13 0 0
Exploration of Victoria Cave 100 0 0O
Geological Record............00« 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of

ROCKS Hier cctear sie souesepesateeee 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0
Zoological Record...... rucenoae 100 0 0
Close! Dime wiessc.cs0s.coceceseente 5 0 0
Physiological Action of

SOUNG ticsasced sees stcoverenes 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 O
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-

bitants of British Isles...... 1315 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0O
Effect of Propeller on turning

of Steam-vessels ...........- 5 0 0

£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acid in

Minerals iid. ceenssrecctevacesne 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

ROCKS cieevenansececoscceenecstert 911 7
Zoological Record............00 100 0 0
KWeentisi Cavern Sia ansesderseesnees 100 0 O
Zoologica] Station at Naples 75 0 O
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Elasticity of Wires ........... - 100 0 0
Dipterocarpee, Report on ... 20 0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of

Gaiiees nasser ossekeccsedeotesesee 35 0 0
Double Compounds of Cobalt

@nGeNickell 3.) sss-cececrssesewne 8 0 0
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 O
Underground Waters in New

Red Sandstone ............... 10 0 O
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

BEELADC! wecesaccteessccneess sense 10 0
British Earthworks ............ 25 0
Atmospheric Electricity in

TnGl a) ae sapeecen stares aeecace cnc 15 0
Development of Light from

Coal=Gasl rascssstseer. oxsehesens 20 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid.........s.000+ 118
Geological Record............ -«. 100 0
Anthropometric Committee 34 0
Physiological Action of Phos-

phoric Acid, &C.........e00ee. 15 0

£1128 9

|

Wh el — i — a — a — I — nk)

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1878.
£ s. d.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record.............++ 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Siphon
Recorder .........cecceseceesenes 10 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Investigation of Underground
Waters........cceccocsseseorerees 15 0 0
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
StLUCtUre........sceesseeeeeeeeee 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
for 4th Million ............++- 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record .......+-.++++ 100 0 0
Fermanagh Caves Explora-
PROM: cess. scecscennerseseccesess 15 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
TO CKA es casicecceccedesesacessass 416 6
Luminous Meteors..........-0+++ 10 0 O
Ancient Harthworks ............ 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............... 75 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ 17 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
ESE CMe wea ines Ve ciaswnsenssscsce 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
Exploration of Caves in
BANMCOe anewapies doatesis ninco siacl= 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of
MEROLOLY, <caces aes eseascsenacass 100 0 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 0 0
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts............... 25 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 0
Underground Waters...........+ 10 0 0
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0
Improvements in Astrono-
RCs CLOGKSs veces sce ccued sen 30 0 0
Marine Zoology of South
1D GIG dinasetinee tbe pe benecn eno’ 20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat ..... wee 12:15 6

£ 8. d.
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0
Tables of Sun-heat Co-

CHICICHUS! scar cavepe ence eceseres 30 0 O
Datum Level of the Ordnance

DUEVEY cecsqecerseceadsvacnoneeetss 10 0 ©
Tables of Fundamental In-

variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-

servations in Madeira ...... 15 0 0
Instrument for Detecting

Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 0
Instruments for Measuring

the Speed of Ships ......... Nag oliver 8
Tidal Observations in the

English Channel ............ 10 0 &

£1080 11 12
1880.
New Form of High Insulation

CV iisncdereasntaescasuscasecnresn 10 0 ©&
Underground Temperature... 10 0 0
Determination of the Me-

chanical Equivalent of

ISIS IT) Sar esncoemacbecacercn nc Supe sO
Elasticity of Wires ............ BOM O10:
Luminous Meteors ...........+ 30 0 0
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 ©
Fundamental Invariants ...... (Sheed 1A
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0 0
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 O
Completion of Tables of Sun-

heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 0
Instrument for Detection of

Fire-damp in Mines......... 10 0 0
Inductive Capacity of Crystals

and Paraffines’ <....scse-<.es- AY focal
Report on Carboniferous

POlYZOa, 20... nccccseconsece eeeeet LOLOL O:
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10'.0 “6
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-

Se hates! Raeceheceeeadneresa tiwenee LOY 0710
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 0
Geological Record............... LOOT OFF O
Miocene Flora of the Basalt

of North Ireland ............ 15 0 0
Underground Waters of Per-

mian Formations ............ oe Oe Oe
Record of Zoological Litera-

URC heaaseonedes'soceeseanastinas vane 100 0 ©
Table at Zoological Station

SBtyNAPICS i esncccenvadererenesee ip OOF
Investigation of the Geology

and Zoology of Mexico...... 50) 0" 0
Anthropometry .......ececseseee 50 0 O
Patent) Laws <cscvssscesscssasnase oe

iol te

cx REPORT—1898.

1881.

£
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Underground Temperature... 20
Electrical Standards............ 25
High Insulation Key............ 5
Tidal Observations ..........+. 10
Specific Refractions ............ 7
Fossil Polyz0a_ .......seceesseres 10
Underground Waters ......... 10
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25
Tertiary Flora ..........-.essces 20
Scottish Zoological Station... 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 75
Natural History of Socotra... 50

Anthropological Notes and
RO MEIGEN bp eaaetowanecesercsssens 9
Zoological Record..............- 100

Weights and Heights of
Human Beings ...........00++ 30

1882.

Exploration of Central Africa 100 0 0

Fundamental Invariants of

Algebraical Forms ....,.... 76
Standards for Electrical

Measurements ..........s0006 100
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-

PHGQUHCUETS | sccscnsceesnasanseuee 20
Wave-length Tables of Spec-

tra of Elements..........0..45 50
Photographing Ultra-violet

Spark Spectra ...........0.25 25
Geological Record.......++...0+ 100
Earthquake Phenomena of

SPAN Gees avcnccasscss0-ceceresean 25

Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic

LE OSS}! qogneeuo gen eeecacen eno eoe 10
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15
Geological Map of Europe ... 25
Circulation of Underground

WNGCTA tiiccsiatoce sa tosses see eee 15
Tertiary Flora of North of

VCR Men vioeccceseracesescsess 20
British Polyzoa, .......ce0..seeess 10
Exploration of Caves of South

PINE ANG Ven eneneencocveoesore> 10
Explorationof RaygillFissure 20
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Albuminoid Substances of

RICE Masncacscasdaceacneces «scons 10
Elimination of Nitrogen by

Bodily Exercise............... 50
Migration of Birds ............ 15
Natural History of Socotra... 100
Natural History of Timor-lant 100
Record of Zoological Litera-

SED etic hs pendsesceecnos< sacs: 100
Anthropometric Committee... 50

£i 126

So C0 Sooo OoCCONWOS COSY
H1O CO SOOO OCOOHOCSCOCSOSS®S

Or SONS, O° eSs FS
=)

CBI) SOOO. OS), (Oe OO Se 2S. Eo:
ao! Coco so soc S'S. ic ooo

|

_
i
=

1885.
£
Meteorological Observations
on Ben NeViS........sseseeees 50
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
ALU CSerescnesns<s- eves tose names 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
AVA geaeecscsnectcneess-sceneets 50
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20
British Fossil Polyzoa ......... 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOIC ROCKS, ....sescceeseccsevece 25
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales ........-....0 10
Circulation of Underground
WALETS......cccccncseeesscnenrenes 15
Geological Record..........+.+«. 50
Exploration of Caves in South
OE lbieiowetel -aoeapecepapeccrccte 10
Zoological Literature Record 100
Migration of Birds ............ 20

Zoological Station at Naples 80
Scottish Zoological Station... 25
Elimination of Nitrogen by

Bodily Exercise...........-+0s 38

Exploration of Mount Kili-
I A=WATOscgeensssecece csr eneen . 500

Investigation of Loughton
(Ca emaas ees sea=cneesecrs see en 10
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
Screw Gauges..........0..0. pi, (2
£1083

1884.

Meteorological Observations
on Ben NGVviseee..cnsseeeosens 50

Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust...............00. 20

Meteorological Observatory at
CHEPSHOW...-caseceoeceeneeeeessee 25
Tidal Observations............0. 10

Ultra Violet Spark Spectra... 8
Earthquake Phenomena of
RIAA archsc <n nclces snes @acddancance 75
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15
HOSSILPOlYZGAs tes. cess sencoseeaee 10
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-

ZOIC ROCKS: \...c0.- assccseecscess 15
Circulation of Underground
IWALETS .. sceesessessuccesseass=nee 5

International Geological Map 20
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata ......cec.cesseeee 50
Natura] History of Timor-laut 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500
Migration of Birds............... 20
Coagulation of Blood.........-+ 100
Zoological Literature Record 100
Anthropometric Committee... 10

£1173 a

on
w$loSS © BW COSCOSO 5656 0 6o 6ee6o0 56 oOo ®

Biooe © OS Seoes CSC -O © [OE =o7'S

PIooooo Sc9SSO SO © SSoSoOo 800 Oo oO
S1SOo0S0So ©9095 60 ce seeo0 ooo 6s 8S

ES

a

1885.
Lends
Synoptic Chart of Indian

MIRC ATR at ctcadotecc.<oseorstle tess 50 0 O
Reduction of Tidal Observa-

UBIIS eRe in dactacsceccsadscsteceues 10 0 0
Calculating Tables in Theory

Of Numbers........000-.se.see0e 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations

on Ben Nevis .......0......08 so OO 0
Meteoric Dust ..........0.00008 70 0 0
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt

SOMUIGIONS iiss ccevacdveerses sees 25 0 0
Physical Constants. of Solu-

Bee tage sxevccestt steers. 0esc 20 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

SUG Ge Mines castesiets slows dep devade =e 25 0 0
Raygill Fissure ...............00 15.0 0
Earthquake Phenomena of

PANIANY coe decascrceascsrescssecsea 79 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Paleozoic

IRGEKS sadesdsssccuedenseecentes 25 0 0
Fossil Plants of British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds . 50 0 O
Geological Record ...........406 50 0 0
Circulation of Underground

WWYRAGOTS 5 cidddétveSyevedsddlewadss 10 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 100 0 0
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Exploration of Mount Kilima-

BARON Secs Sx scsveesessscckeesoas 25, 0° 0
Recent Polyzoa ............s00+- 10 0 0
Granton Biological Station ... 100 0 0
Biological Stations on Coasts

of United Kingdom ......... 150 0 O
Exploration of New Guinea... 200 0 0
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100 0 0

£1385 0 0 0 0

1886.

Electrical Standards............ 40 9 0
Solar Radiation .................. 910 6
Tidal Observations ............ 50 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 10 10 0
Observations on Ben Nevis... 100 0 0
Physical and Chemical Bear-

ings of Electrolysis ......... 20 0 0
Chemical Nomenclature ....., 5 0 0
Fossil Plants of British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0 0
Caves in North Wales ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

DAUR ens¢nessads atte Urstwiacicctess 30 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 O
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 15 0 0
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Naples Zoological Station....., 50 0 0
Researches in Food-Fishes and

InvertebrataatSt. Andrews 75 0 0

GENERAL STATEMENT.

sh as
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Secretion of Urine............... 10 0 0
Exploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0
Regulation of Wages under
Sliding Scales. ............... 10 0 0
Prehistoric Race in Greek
Uslands)... 2s. Aageessestectrees 20 0 0
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
NAG AL Fico Redan sete eee 50 0 0
£995 0 6
1887.
Solar Radiation ............s00+ 18 10 0
Mlechrol ysis: dassackrasspsieescreles 30 0 0
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 75 0 0
Standards of Light (1886
Paha) conenanneecee Reon peso: 20 0 0
Standards of Light (1887
TAD) ie ccecnsesposeeereneeseheie LO BOG
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations .............0000. 15 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 26 2 0
Electrical Standards .. 50 0 0
Silent Discharge of Electricit: y 20 0 0
Absorption Spectra ............ 40 0 0
Nature of Solution ............ 20 0 O
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30 0 O
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WALSH Ms sass ncaaasinee ogee 20 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
@IBSGierant))c.j+¢s-naeeran node 50 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
G88 i grant), 22. ..-s..sseeesaes 50 0 0
Cae Gwyn Caye, N. Wales ... 20 0 0
Hrratic Blocks .2..scsssceeasesss 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda ............... 20 0 0
Coal Plants of Halifax......... 25 0 0
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ 10 0 0
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20 0 0
Underground Waters ......... bee
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10 0 0
Provincial Museums Reports 5 0 0
Lymphatic System ............ 25°0 0
Naples Biological Station 100 0 O
Plymouth Biological Station 50 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Zoological Record ..........0.-++ 100 0 0
HMloravom@hinay c..<0casesesvese ee 75 0 0
Flora and Fauna of the
CAMETOONSaccdescanecuseeescese Zoe 0) 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
BrifishvIsles) 35. ca0ss<cs cs <a0 76 Q
Regulation of Wages ......... 10: 0. 'O
Prehistoric Race of Greek
WSTAN Ss evsasedaseieencssccseadees 20 0 0
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20 0 0
£1186 18 0

CX1

cxii
1888.
£
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150
Electrical Standards............ 2
Magnetic Observations......... 15
Standards of Light ............ 79
Hilectrolysis © ........secesececenee 30
Uniform Nomenclature in
IWIEGHADICS pita ivascecesases see 10
Silent Discharge of Elec-
RIUM Be eta sccs sabe escsevevtcess 9
Properties of Solutions ...... 25

Influence of Silicon on Steel
Methods of Teaching Chemis-
RIG Mab n sien ssslaasesssavavassevee

Action of Light on Hydracids
Sea Beach near Bridlington...
Geological Record
Manure Gravels of Wexford...
Erosion of Sea Coasts
Underground Waters
Paleontographical Society ...
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth..,
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-

cashire and West Yorkshire
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

BUS Eaten obo seenawasepacarsbeesee
Zoology and Botany of West

Indies
Flora of Bahamas
Development of Fishes—St.

Andrews
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth

sae ee eww ereeere

20

100
100

ere Perr

Renew eee e eee ee ne eseene

Migration of Birds ............ 30
Bora OF China ........ s.scsee 75

Naples Zoological Station ...
Lymphatic System
Biological Station at Granton
Peradeniya Botanical Station
Development of Teleostei
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar
Regions
Precious Metals in Circulation
Value of Monetary Standard
Effect of Occupations on Phy-
sical Development............
North-Western Tribes of
Canada
Prehistoric Race in Greek
TESTER V6 (Ss (SRS oe

So owNoaoe

Sto] o So Ooc1o Loo oacnc soo Soros eoreooscocescoo so oon

CS Roo EOS o . .cEece'o oc oo cic) SS) Semocaqceceoo Co ooo oC owoRno®

1889.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50
Electrical Standards............ 75
BUCCHTOIY SIS ssncarcscscsestessecesss 20
Surface Water Temperature... 30

Silent Discharge of Electricity
OD OXYLEM® 61. ..c0er0ees meeeiiee 6

ooco

im o.oo oO

REPORT—1898.

oN Deh
Methods of teaching Chemis-

DOV apaccedisevens ests caer enema 10 0 O
Action of Light on Hydracids 10 0 0
Geological Record........ssee00s 80 0 0
Voleanic Phenomena ofJapan 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VALS ite etes sleSavenscrcensiecavanee - 200 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20 0 0
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of

WWiHiujewsapeines> ss e-seeteeeneee - 15 0 0
West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0
Flora Of China .........sssssee0e 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Physiology of Lymphatic

SV SOC: Seistivmace es)- veisaue ite 25 0 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 516 3
Natural History of Friendly

TSIANGS): -bseaepscecnsed ence tree 100 0 0
Geology and Geography of

Atlas Ranges c...s.<.><abende 100 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents

In_ EstuarieS .......0cesscecees 100 0 0
North-Western ‘Tribes of

Wanda sroayecesseoseusseesceee 150 0 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 380 0 O
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 O
Marine Biological Association 200 0 0
‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath...... 100 0 0

£1417 011
1890.
Electrical Standards............ 1217 0
Electrolysis —.....cesasssescessuor D... O- 0.
Electro-optics.........ss,eseeee ide OO OID
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 O
Volcanic and Seismological

Phenomena of Japan ...... 75 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15 0 0
Properties of Solutions 10" 0" Oo
International Standard forthe

Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 O
Influence of the Silent Dis-

charge of Electricity on

ORY SON: sc ncaateuehuccadeaeeeeee 5 0 0
Methods ofteachingChemistry 10 0 0
Recording Results of Water

ANALYSIS \.5:cnaunsstsebiebers dat 4 10
‘Oxidation of Hydracids in

UNIS G canes eimeeaceene leis 1 00
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VIILS' 2. cngananae tenet nctsls seeleels te 20 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 10x00)
Circulation of Underground

WiaAterd..: ccaseespeetasest test seer BOO
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15 0 O
Cretaceous Polyzoa ............ 10 0 0
Geological Photographs ...... 7 1411
Lias Beds of Northampton... 25 0 0O
Botanical Station at Perade-

Na 13. .seepeetaper stews is ee 250 O

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£
Experiments with a Tow-

HS Ubteges ss snot ccedaceressbaree sass 4
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 100
Marine Biological Association 30
Action of Waves and Currents

in Hstuaries ..............0+06 150
Graphic Methods in Mechani-

CAMISCICHCC!.c¢0sceueceneseesacos 11

Anthropometric Calculations 65

8.

d.

a ococ OF Vom. Tro

———

Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25
Corresponding Societies ...... 20
£799

1891.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50
Electrical Standards............ 100
PTC CLEONY SIS, Jo cczaccsessnanscne nes 5

Seismological Phenomena of

Japan
Temperatures of Lakes.........
Photographs of Meteorological

be
Ko)

EMEHOMENA...0<-csceceess eases 5
Discharge of Electricity from
HROUUS foe cniccis this cescsvees suse ce 10
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar
BEGUN |< scseccteensesens snc 50
International Standard for
Analysis of Iron and Steel... 10
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
RANG Brsacricsacntat ges esacavewe ss 25
Formation of Haloids ......... 25
Action of Light on Dyes ...... 17
Geological Record............... 100
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
MESUE eo ioescchna teceuereed nco.te 10
Fossil Phyllopoda............/.. 10
Photographs of Geological
EHEOTOSD fraps vhnsin<s'ueneisaes se'Son 9
Lias of Northamptonshire ... 25

Registration of Type-Speci-
mens of British Fossils...... 5
Investigation of Elbolton Cave
Botanical Station at Pera-
OTN Yel ng oped vonecane aleetsoece
Experiments with a Tow-net

ooo on on oo coco o o i=) j=) oo ooo

i

—

0

0
0

oo o ooo SS ore: Son Ores o So [gee i) oo ooo

o

£1,029 10 0

Marine Biological Association 12
Disappearance of Native

BUAIIS (sec ceva cceavaisavaes ase 5
Action of Waves and Currents

in Estuaries ...............0.. 125
Anthropometric Calculations. 10
New Edition of ‘ Anthropo-

logical Notes and Queries’ 50
North - Western Tribes of

BU AIAG | sce esec2.\eessdieeisess+- 200
Corresponding Societies ...... 25

1898.

1892.
acing: d,
Observations on Ben Nevis... 50 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological

IPHEnOMen As seesscesees«saeseaes 15 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 10 0 0
Discharge of Electricity from

BOIS)... < sdeteeweosSecesecesetes 50 0 0
Seismological Phenomena of

JAPAN! sce anteeeseeastect edoe te LODO
Formation of Haloids ......... 12 0 0
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 O
Action of Light on Dyed

Colours) saadceeeutecesst> Ose ke 10 0 0
Erratic Blocks /.............06.0: 15 0 0
Photographs of Geological

IMERESE 5.5.0. ttectesweces esate: 20 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Investigation of Elbolton

Wave rncctsetossscateedaceatescters 25 0 O
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 10 0 0
Cretaceous Polyzoa ............ 10 0 O
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 1710 0
Deep-sea Tow-net ............... 40 0 0
Fauna of Sandwich Islands... 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West

India, Islands <<......sssesseece 100 0 0
Climatology and Hydrography

of Tropical Africa......... .. 50 0 O
Anthropometric Laboratory... 5 0 0
Anthropological Notes and

Queries iic-cer co, osesarheetarare 20 -0 0
Prehistoric Remains in Ma-

Shonaland) \..ccuscsisnce tones 50 0 0
North-Western Tribes of

Canada Vilesaseesdasessers cases 100 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 0

£864 10 O
1893.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 O
Observations on Ben Nevis... 150 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 15 0 O
Intensity of Solar Radiation 2 8 6
Magnetic Work at the Fal-

mouth Observatory ......... 25 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

VALVES faaterecocdedtres scene te 20 0 0
HirraticuBlocks” .t.<ccrsececscscee 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 5.0 0
Underground Waters ......... 5 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

Clava, Chapelhall, &ce. ...... 20 0 0
Kurypterids of the Pentland

Hal Se ceeetaeesenrecsersceccaas ts 10 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 30 0 0
Fauna of Sandwich Islands 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West

India Islands............... 50 0 0

CXiv REPORT—1898.

£ 8. d.
Exploration of Irish Sea ...... 30 0 0
Physiological Action of

Oxygen in Asphyxia......... 20 0 O
Index of Genera and Species

POE ANAT INANS (ons ale eenls cles eeleeeves 20 0 O
Exploration of Karakoram

ATOM TAING 5, sic. cioeis nce cs siseind cles 50 0 0
Scottish Place-names ......... ZT sO)
Climatology and Hydro-

graphy of Tropical Africa 50 0 0
Economic Training ............ aia 0
Anthropometric Laboratory 5 0 0
Exploration in Abyssinia...... 95 0 0
North-Western ‘Tribes of

WANAGA Aiachweskiniacnts .athacert 100 0 O
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0 0

£907 15 6
1894,
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological

Phenomena..........00..0..00+ 10° 0-0
Tables of Mathematical Func-

ROIS fe vse c can scn» «+ aeaceon sg aeee 15 0 O
Intensity of Solar Radiation 5 5 6
Wavye-length Tables............ 10 0 O
Action of Light upon Dyed

BSGIOUUS. sesuccsncnssssnecotcrear 5 0
Wirtatic BIOCKS ..:...00c...eese0s 15 0
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 5 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

ROIACAACCC. na ccnve chee snes enum 20 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

EAM eetrovacscvsecscesescevienseare 5 0
New Sections of Stonesfield

AUD masts ssc os cscs ccesste ee 14 0
Observations on LEarth-tre-

REALE Mess sc+ csc scscccssessen's 50 0
Exploration of Calf- Hole

PANE eae egessssevesssesssenes sti 5 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0
Marine Biological Association 5 0
Zoology of the Sandwich

TSIEN OUST SARE, aes 100 O
Zoology of the Irish Sea ...... 40 0
Structure and Function of the

Mammalian Heart............ 10 0
Exploration in Abyssinia ... 30 0
Economic Training ............ 9 10
Anthropometric Laboratory

PLA MIBUICS sar. wauectaccectac nn cds 5. 0
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10 0
The Lake Village at Glaston-

ILO Vieec nice «> seanieeetppne staat cas 40
Anthropometrical Measure-

0

ments in Schools ............ Dee
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 20 0

ae 0

5

£583 1

Oo

1895.
ae
Electrical Standards........... . 26 0
Photographs of Meteorological

iPhenomenday,. -....:tsecnseexey 10 0
Marth Wremors: .-....2iveesessdas 75 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0
Reduction of Magnetic Obser-

vations made at Falmouth

Observatory <..i..ccsecseweees 50 0
Comparison of Magnetic Stan-

GANS fuses sous sedi seetene 25 0
Meteorological Observations

On Ben Nevis .......s0ceessneee 50 0
Wave-length ‘lables of the

Spectra of the Elements... 10 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

WOlOUTS Sie... stese <-deweweaponed 4 6
Formation of Haloids from

Pure Materials ...........0..- 20 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

MAULVESte tea wwiddecs cssruserete 30 0
Electrolytic Quantitative An-

BUIVEISE.. sascvecavencectasorsseeas 30 0
Mirtatic BLOCKS) )2:<csasesteecrtere 10 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ........ 5 O
Photographs of Geological In-

UETCBiidos necentheneamenee sete see L000
Shell-bearing Deposits at

Clava, ‘SC. sapancce eae bea ceeee 10 O
Eurypterids of the Pentland

JebUD tease coSuoonOCrIInaG-ocGe ace 3 0
New Sections of Stonesfield

Slate oerce sine apesese serene 50 0
Exploration of Calf Hole Cave 10 0
Nature and Probable Age of

High-level Flint-drifts .. ... 10 0
Table at the Zoological Station

ab ANAM MG. sivsscrensscetene 100 0
Table at the Biological Labo-

ratory, Plymouth ............ 15 0
Zovlogy, Botany, and Geology

of the Irish Sea............ 35 9
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 50 0
Index of Genera and Species

OF -AMUMAIS Sto se.scosenseees 50 0
Climatology of Tropical Africa 5 0
Exploration ef Hadramut ... 50 0
Calibration and Comparison of

,Measuring Instruments ... 25 0
Anthropometric Measure-

ments in Schools .. ........ 5 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 30 0
Exploration of a Kitchen-

midden at Hastings ......... 10 0
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10 0
Physiological Applications of

the Phonograph........ ...... 25 0
Corresponding Societies .... 30 0

£977 15

|

coo lo

(— Rees — ee ee)

wma. Sa Smee Soe, "Sim "So a Sore G-47o:-Soeoo. co se

-

a aa ine

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1896.
£5
Photographs of Meteorologi-
Pm cal Phenomena :::22:5:53:....- 15 0
Seismological Observations... 80 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0
Calculation of Certain Inte-

ULE 4.08 Aaskoogstegnnousesoneeee 10 0
Uniformity of Size of Pages of

Transactions, &c. ...........- 5 0
Wave-length Tables of the

Spectra of the Elements... 10 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

MOGLOULA, pe vesce ds) reeercsestees 2 6
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana-

11/8 ono onanddapepeaenanssooeds 1a 10 0
‘The Carbohydrates of Barley

RIERA Ef ccvcaess.tsssctttastadens. 50 0
Reprinting Discussion on the

Relation of Agriculture to

BIONC Gas oevancicstecesdecesesesc 5 0
Hirrane BIOCKS: .....2-...0s.0+.4 10 0
Palzozoic Phyllopoda ......... 5 a0)
Shell-bearing Deposits at

GVA OCC ac ce ccsancevsccceess 10 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

iS ouemeseisteles cs scccensradsces 2 0
Investigation of a Coral Reef

by Boring and Sounding... 10 0
Examination of Locality where

the Cetiosaurus in the Ox-

ford Museum was found... 25 0
Palzolithic Depositsat Hoxne 25 0
Fauna of Singapore Caves ... 40 0
Age and Relation of Rocks

near Moreseat, Aberdeen 10 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples ............... 100 0
Table at the Biological Labo-

ratory, Plymouth ............ 15 0
Zoology, Botany, and Geology

of the Irish Sea ............... 50 0
Zoology of the Sandwich Is-

BPRTLERSI a arb atiwaceebis advsdcestee» 100 0
African Lake Fauna............ 100 0
Oysters under Normal and

Abnormal Environment ... 40 0
Climatology of TropicalAfrica 10 0
Calibration and Cotparison of

Measuring Instruments...... 20 0

_ Small Screw Gauge ............ 10 0
North Western Tribes of

DEA TANR a vaio os sn<cassvscscce se 100 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury. 30 0
Ethnographical Survey......... 40 0
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 10 0
Physiological Applications of

the Phonograph............... 25 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

BAUME CU sides so sutout ates orcesee% 30 0

£1,104 6

d
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Mathematical Tables ......... 25 O~ 0
Seismological Observations... 100 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of Certain In-

CERT alsweteavecedur teens avec sseee 10 0 O
Electrolysis and Electro-

GREMISiY! eaters Mocdnes aes 50 0 O
Electrolytic Quantitative An-

SUV SIS) cee Sensi en eas 10 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

VALVES cosets cosets tr sannasetete 50 0 0
Hrrabic BlOCksS), .ii2icdee<ssiss->s 10 0 0
Photographs of Geological

HE TES ines ceieaceeeceias eoaa tents 145 0 0
Remains of the Irish Elk in

the Isle of Man ............... Wy gh Un
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion Naples! <penccdssspeeecness 100 0 90
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 910 8
Zoological Bibliography and

PublMCatwiinsscaengessserseetess yO)
Index Generum et Specierum

AATIIMAIUNM Nes <osnnsesse snes seee 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 40 0 0
The Details of Observa-

tions on the Migration of

BILGE re. censpnsiene tees cossers 40 0 O
Climatology of Tropical

WA TPICH Yeas since daosdtieden ates 20 0 0
Ethnographical Survey......... 40 0. 0
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 10°.0,.0
Silchester Excavation \......... 20 0°0
Investigation of Changes as-

sociated with the Func-

tional Activity of Nerve

Cells and their Peripheral

HIXtCNBIONS vo ccc.srersnetacerane 180 0 0
Oysters and Typhoid ......... 30 0 0
Physiological Applications of

the Phonograph.............-. 15 0 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-

tone and its Precursors...... 20 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 20 0 90
Corresponding Societies Com-

HOVUCEE! ne csehan veer merdiesreta 25 0 0

£1,059 10 8
1898.
Electrical Standards............ oO 10
Seismological Observations... 75 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of Certain In-

PORTALS .. 20. ccececccsascccaresces 1050.0
Electrolysisand Electro-chem-

ASUMY gs Wada vaisecasaveesecancences 35 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at

Montreal........... Biabsdsen 50 0 0

CXVl REPORT—1898.

£ os. da. £ os. d.
Wave-length Tables of the Climatology of Tropical Africa 10 0 0
Spectra of the Elements ... 20 0 O | State Monopolies in other
Action of Light upon Dyed Countries ~...is..-sssegeeeaeeee 1s 0, D
CUS MOTING lies pasaghsapTyares scents 8 0 O | Small Screw Gauge . .......... 20 0 0
Mirratic BOCES .......2.....0+0-- 5 0 O | North-Western Tribes of
Investigation of a Coral Reef 40 0 0 Canada. ...csc-:-0ssrcsnueeeeeee 75 0 0
Photographs of Geological Lake Village at Glastonbury 37 10 0
ITUBEON Macageversseseddsssseccas 10 0 O | Silchester Excavation ......... 71049
Life-zones in British Carbon- EthnologicalSurveyof Canada 75 0 O
DELOUS ROCKS :.....0.502000sa00 15 0 O | Anthropology and Natural
Pleistocene Fauna and Flora, History of Torres Straits... 125 0 0
MO ATANA asasecsoescsseneaciias 20 0 O | Investigation of Changes asso-
Table at the Zoological Sta- ‘ciated with the Functional
MIDS NADIE! | 2.205) --seeroese 100 0 0 Activity of Nerve Cells and
Table at the Biological La- their Peripheral Extensions 100 0 O
boratory, Plymouth ......... 14 0 O | Fertilisation in Pheophycer 15 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum Corresponding Societies Com-
PRDATINALULNIO so <'devrass se evas 0c 100 0 0 MMIGECE <i cpus soya «s0> saruneeeee 25 0 0
Ee: £1,212 00

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, September 7, at 8 p.m., in the People’s Palace, Bristol,
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., resigned the office of President to
Sir William Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S., who took the Chair, and delivered
an Address, for which see page 3.

On Thursday, September 8, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
Clifton College.

On Friday, September 9, at 8.50 p.m., in the People’s Palace, Professor
W. J. Sollas, M.A., F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘ Funafuti: the Study
of a Coral Island.’

On Monday, September 12, at 8.30 p.m., in the People’s Palace, Herbert
Jackson, Esq., delivered a discourse on ‘ Phosphorescence.’

On Tuesday, September 13, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
Clifton College.

On Wednesday, September 14, at 2.30 p.m., in the Museum, the con-
cluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the General
Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes were explained
to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Dover. [The Meeting is ap-
painted to commence on Wednesday, September 13, 1899.]

ADDRESS

BY

SIR WILLIAM CROOKES, F.RS., V.P.CS.
PRESIDENT.

For the third time in its history the British Association meets in your
City of Bristol. The first meeting was held under the presidency of the
Marquis of Lansdowne in 1836, the second under the presidency of
Sir John Hawkshaw in 1875. Formerly the President unrolled to the
_ meeting a panorama of the year’s progress in physical and biological
sciences. To-day the President usually restricts himself to specialities
connected with his own work or deals with questions which for
the time are uppermost. To be President of the British Association
is undoubtedly a great honour. It is alsoa great opportunity and a great
responsibility ; for I know that, on the wings of the Press, my words, be
they worthy or not, will be carried to all points of the compass. I propose
first to deal with the important question of the supply of bread to the
inhabitants of these Islands, then to touch on subjects to which
my life work has been more or less devoted. I shall not attempt any
_ general survey of the sciences; these, so far as the progress in them
demands attention, will be more fitly brought before you in the different
Sections, either in the Addresses of the Presidents or in communications
from Members.

Before proceeding with my address I wish to refer to the severe loss
the British Association has sustained in‘the death of Lord Playfair. With
Sir John Lubbock and Lord Rayleigh, Lord Playfair was one of the
_ Permanent Trustees of our Association, and for many years he was
_ present at our meetings. It would be difficult to overrate his loss to
British science. Lord Playfair’s well-matured and accurate judgment,
his scientific knowledge, and his happy gift of clothing weighty thoughts
in persuasive language, made his presence acceptable, whether in the
council chamber, in departmental enquiries, or at light social gatherings,
where by the singular laws of modern society, momentous announcements
are sometimes first given to the world. Lord Playfair (then Sir Lyon

B2

4 REPORT—1898.

Playfair) was President of the British Association at Aberdeen in 1885 ;
his Address on that occasion will long be remembered as a model of pro-
found learning and luminous exposition.

And now I owe a sort of apology to this brilliant audience. I must
ask you to bear with me for ten minutes, for I am afraid what I now
have to say will prove somewhat dull. I ought to propitiate you, for, to
tell the truth, I am bound to bore you with figures. Statistics are rarely
attractive to a listening audience ; but they are necessary evils, and those
of this evening are unusually doleful. Nevertheless, when we have pro-
ceeded a little way on our journey I hope you will see that the river of
figures is not hopelessly dreary. The stream leads into an almost unex-
plored region, and to the right and left we see channels opening out, all
worthy of exploration, and promising a rich reward to the statistic
explorer who will trace them to their source—a harvest, as Huxley
expresses it, ‘immediately convertible into those things which the most
sordidly practical of men will admit to have value, namely, money and
life.’ My chief subject is of interest to the whole world—to every race—
to every human being It is of urgent importance to-day, and it is a life
and death question for generations to come. I mean the question of Food
supply. Many of my statements you may think are of the alarmist order ;
certainly they are depressing, but they are founded on stubborn facts.
They show that England and all civilised nations stand in deadly peril of
not having enough to eat. As mouths multiply, food resources dwindle.
Land is a limited quantity, and the land that will grow wheat is absolutely
dependent on difficult and capricious natural phenomena. Iam constrained
to show that our wheat-producing soil is totally unequal to the strain put
upon it. After wearying you with a survey of the universal dearth to be
expected, I hope to point a way out of the colossal dilemma. It is the
chemist who must come to the rescue of the threatened communities. It
is through the laboratory that starvation may ultimately be turned into
plenty.

The food supply of the kingdom is of peculiar interest to this meeting,
considering that the grain trade has always been, and still is, an important
feature in the imports of Bristol. The imports of grain to this city
amount to about 25,000,000 bushels per annum—8,000,000 of which
consist of wheat.

What are our home requirements in the way of wheat? The con-
sumption of wheat per head of the population (unit consumption) is over
6 bushels per annum ; and taking the population at 40,000,000, we require
no less than 240,000,000 bushels of wheat, increasing annually by 2,000,000
bushels, to supply the increase of population. Of the total amount of wheat
consumed in the United Kingdom we grow 25 and import 75 per cent.

So important is the question of wheat supply that it has attracted the
attention of Parliament, and the question of national granaries has been
mooted, It is certain that, in case of war with any of the Great Powers,

. pa

ADDRESS. 5)
wheat would be contraband, as if it were cannon or powder, liable to
capture even under a neutral flag. We must therefore accept the situation
and treat wheat as munitions of war, and grow, accumulate, or store it as
such. It has been shown that at the best our atock of wheat and flour
amounts only to 64,000,000 bushels—fourteen weeks’ supply—while last
April our stock was equal to only 10,000,000 bushels, the smallest ever
recorded by ‘Beerbohm’ for the period of the season. Similarly, the
stocks held in Europe, the United States, and Canada, called ‘the world’s
visible supply,’ amounted to only 54,000,000 bushels, or 10,000,000 less
than last year’s sum total, and nearly 82,000,000 less than that of 1893
or 1894 at the corresponding period. ‘To arrest this impending danger, it
has been proposed that an amount of 64,000,000 bushels of wheat should
be purchased by the State and stored in national granaries, not to be
opened, except to remedy deterioration of grain, or in view of national

. disaster rendering starvation imminent. This 64,000,000 bushels would

add another fourteen weeks’ life to the population ; assuming that the
ordinary stock had not been drawn on, the wheat in the country would
only then be enough to feed the population for twenty-eight weeks.

I do not venture to speak authoritatively on national granaries. The
subject has been discussed in the daily press, and the recently published

_ Report from the Agricultural Committee on National Wheat Stores brings

together all the arguments in favour of this important scheme, together
with the difficulties to be faced if it be carried out with necessary com-
pleteness.

More hopeful, although difficult and costly, would be the alternative
of growing most, if not all our own wheat supply here at home in the
British Isles. The average yield over the United Kingdom last year was
29-07 bushels per acre, the average for the last eleven years being 29°46.
For twelve months we need 240,000,000 bushels of wheat, requiring about
8,250,000 acres of good wheat-growing land, or nearly 13,000 square
miles, increasing at the rate of 100 square miles per annum, to render us

_ self-supporting as to bread food. This area is about one-fourth the size

of England.!

A total area of land in the United Kingdom equal to a plot 110
miles square, of quality and climate sufficient to grow wheat to the
extent of 29 bushels per acre, does not seem a hopeless demand.” It is
doubtful, however, if this amount of land could be kept under wheat,
and the necessary expense of high farming faced, except under
the imperious pressure of impending starvation, or the stimulus of a
national subsidy or permanent high prices. Certainly these 13,000 square
miles would not be available under ordinary economic conditions, for
much, perhaps all, the land now under barley and oats would not be

1 Appendix A.
2 The total area of the United Kingdom is 120,979 square miles; therefore the
required land is about a tenth part of the total.

6 REPORT—1898.

suitable for wheat. In any case, owing to our cold, damp climate and
capricious weather, the wheat crop is hazardous, and for the present our
annual deficit of 180,000,000 bushels must be imported. A permanently
higher price for wheat is, I fear, a calamity that ere long must be faced.
At enhanced prices, land now under wheat will be better farmed, and
therefore will yield better, thus giving increased production without
increased area.

The burning question of to-day is, What can the United Kingdom do
to be reasonably safe from starvation in presence of two successive
failures of the world’s wheat harvest, or against a hostile combination of
European nations? We eagerly spend millions to protect our coasts and
commerce ; and millions more on ships, explosives, guns, and men ; but
we omit to take necessary precautions to supply ourselves with the very
first and supremely important munition of war—food.

To take up the question of food-supply in its scientific aspect, I
must not confine myself exclusively to our own national requirements.
The problem is not restricted to the British Isles—the bread-eaters of the
whole world share the perilous prospect—and I do not think it out of place
if on this occasion I ask you to take’with me a wide, general survey of
the wheat supply of the whole world.

Wheat is the most sustaining food grain of the great Caucasian race,
which includes the peoples of Europe, United States, British America, the
white inhabitants of South Africa, Australasia, parts of South America,
and the white population of the European colonies. Of late years the in-
dividual. consumption of wheat has almost universally increased. In
Scandinavia it has risen 100 per cent. in twenty-five years ; in Austro-
Hungary, 80 per cent. ; in France, 20 per cent. ; while in Belgium it has.
increased 50 per cent. Only in Russia and Italy, and possibly Turkey,
has the consumption of wheat per head declined.

In 1871 the bread-eaters of the world numbered 371,000,000. In 1881
the numbers rose to 416,000,000 ; in 1891, to 472,600,000, and at the
present time they number 516,500,000. The augmentation of the world’s
bread-eating population ina geometrical ratio is evidenced by the fact that
the yearly aggregates grow progressively larger. In the early seventies
they rose 4,300,000 per annum, while in the eighties they increased by more
than 6,000,000 per annum, necessitating annual additions to the bread
supply nearly one-half greater than sufficed twenty-five years ago.

How much wheat will be required to supply all these hungry mouths.
with bread? At the present moment it is not possible to get accurate
estimates of this year’s wheat crops of the worid, but an adequate idea
may be gained from the realised crops of some countries and the promise
of others. To supply 516,500,000 bread-eaters, if each bread-eating unit
is to have his usual ration, will require a total of 2,324,000,000 bushels
for seed and food. What are our prospects of obtaining this amount ?

According to the best authorities the total supplies from the 1897-98

—

—-

ADDRESS. 7

harvest are 1,921,000,000 bushels.!. The requirement of the 516,500,000
bread-eaters for seed and food are 2,324,000,000 bushels ; there is thus a
deficit of 403,000,000 bushels, which has not been’ urgently apparent
owing to a surplus of 300,000,000 bushels carried over from the last
harvest. Respecting the prospects of the harvest year just beginning it
must be borne in mind that there are no remainders to bring over from
last harvest. We start with a deficit of 103,000,000 bushels and have
6,500,000 more mouths to feed. It follows, therefore, that one-sixth of the
required bread will be lacking unless larger drafts than now seem possible
can be made upon early produce from the next harvest.?

The majority of the wheat crops between 1882 and 1896 were in excess
of current needs, and thus considerable reserves of wheat were available
for supplementing small deficits from the four deficient harvests. But bread-
eaters have almost eaten up the reserves of wheat, and the 1897 harvest
being under average, the conditions become serious.*? That scarcity and
high prices have not prevailed in recent years is due to the fact that since
1889 we have had seven world crops of wheat and six of rye abundantly
in excess of the average. These generous crops increased accumula-
tions to such an extent as to obscure the fact that the harvests of 1895
and 1896 were each much below current requirements. Practically speak-
ing, reserves are now exhausted, and bread-eaters must be fed from current
harvests—accumulation under present conditions being almost impossible.
This is obvious from the fact that a harvest equal to that of 1894 (the
greatest crop on record, both in acre-yield and in the aggregate) would
yield less than current needs.*

It is clear we are confronted with a colossal problem that must tax the
wits of the wisest. When the bread-eaters have exhausted all possible
supplies from the 1897-98 harvest, there will be a deficit of 103,000,000
bushels of wheat, with no substitution possible unless Europeans can be
induccd to eat Indian corn or rye bread. Up to recent years the growth
of wheat has kept pace with demands. As wheat-eaters increased, the
acreage under wheat expanded. The world has become so familiarised
with the orderly sequence of demand and supply, so accustomed to look
upon the vast plains of other wheat-growing countries as inexhaustible
granaries, that, in a light-hearted way it is taken for granted that so many
million additional acres can be added year after year to the wheat-growing
area of the world. We forget that the wheat-growing area is of strictly
limited extent, and that a few million acres regularly absorbed, soon
mount to a formidable number.

The present position being so gloomy, let us consider future prospects.
What are the capabilities as regards available area, economic conditions,
and acreage yield of the wheat-growing countries from whence we now draw
our supply ?

1 Appendix B. * Appendix C.
% Appendix D. 4 Apppendix E.

io 8)

REPORT—1898.

For the last thirty years the United States have been the dominant factor
in the foreign supply of wheat, exporting no less than 145,000,000 bushels.
This shows how the bread-eating world has depended, and still depends,
on the United States for the means of subsistence. The entire world’s
contributions to the food-bearing area have averaged but 4,000,000 acres
yearly since 1869. It is scarcely possible that such an average, under
existing conditions, can be doubled for the coming twenty-five years.!
Almost yearly, since 1885, additions to the wheat-growing area have
diminished, while the requirements of the increasing population of the
States have advanced, so that the needed American supplies have been ©
drawn from the acreage hitherto used for exportation. Practically there
remains no uncultivated prairie land in the United States suitable for
wheat-growing. The virgin land has been rapidly absorbed, until at present
there is no land left for wheat without reducing the area for maize, hay,
and other necessary crops.”

It is almost certain that within a generation the ever increasing popu-
lation of the United States will consume all the wheat grown within its
borders, and will be driven to import, and, like ourselves, will scramble
for a lion’s share of the wheat crop of the world. This being the outlook,
exports of wheat from the United States are only of present interest, and
will gradually diminish to a vanishing point. The inquiry may be
restricted to such countries as probably will continue to feed bread-eaters
who annually derive a considerable part of their wheat from extraneous
sources.

But if the United States, which grow about one-fifth of the world’s
wheat, and contribute one-third of all wheat exportations, are even now
dropping out of the race, and likely soon to enter the list of wheat-
importing countries, what prospect is there that other wheat-growing
countries will be able to fill the gap, and by enlarging their acreage under
wheat, replace the supply which the States have so long contributed to
the world’s food? The withdrawal of 145 million bushels will cause a
serious gap in the food supply of wheat importing countries, and unless
this deficit can be met by increased supplies from other countries there
will be a dearth for the rest of the world after the British Isles are suffi-
ciently supplied.

Next to the United States, Russia is the greatest wheat exporter,
supplying nearly 95 million bushels.?

Although Russia at present exports so lavishly this excess is iade
provisional and precarious. The Russian peasant population increases
more rapidly than any other in Europe. ‘The yield per acre over
European Russia is meagre—not more than 8°6 bushels to the acre—
while some authorities consider it as low as 4°6 bushels. The cost of
production is low—lower even than on the virgin soils of the United
States. The development of the fertile though somewhat overrated

1 Appendix F. ? Appendix G, ? Appendix H.

ADDRESS. 9

‘black earth,’ which extends across the southern portion of the empire
and beyond the Ural Mountains into Siberia, progresses rapidly. But, as
we have indicated, the consumption of bread in Russia has been reduced
to danger point. The peasants starve and fall victims to ‘ hunger typhus,’
whilst the wheat growers export grain that ought to be consumed at
home.

Considering Siberia as a wheat grower, climate is the first considera-
tion. Summers are short—as they are in all regions with continental
climates north of the 45th parallel—and the ripening of wheat requires a
temperature averaging at least 65° Fahr. for fifty-five to sixty-five days.
As all Siberia lies north of the summer isotherm of 65° it follows that
such region is ill adapted to wheat culture unless some compensating
climatic condition exists. As a fact, the conditions are exceptionally
unfavourable in all but very limited districts in the two westernmost
governments. The cultivable lands of Western Siberia adapted to grain-

' bearing neither equal in extent nor in potential productive powers those

of Iowa, Minnesota, and Nebraska. There are limited tracts of fair pro-
ductiveness in Central Siberia and in the valleys of the southern affluents
of the Amoor, but these are only just capable of supporting a meagre
population.

Prince Hilkoff, Russian Minister of Ways and Communications,
declared in 1896 that ‘Siberia never had produced, and never would pro-
duce, wheat and rye enough to feed the Siberian population.’ And, a year
later, Prince Krapotkin backed the statement as substantially correct.

Those who attended the meeting of the British Association last year
in Canada must have been struck with the extent and marvellous capacity
of the fertile plains of Manitoba and the North-West Provinces. Here
were to be seen 1,290,000 acres of fine wheat-growing land yielding
18,261,950 bushels, one-fifth of which comes to hungry England. Ex-
pectations have been cherished that the Canadian North-West would
easily supply the world with wheat, and exaggerated estimates are drawn
as to the amount of surplus land on which wheat can be grown.' Thus
far performance has lagged behind promise, the wheat-bearing area of all
Canada having increased less than 500,000 acres since 1884, while the
exports have not increased in greater proportion. As the wheat area of
Manitoba and the North-West has increased the wheat area of Ontario
and the Eastern provinces has decreased, the added acres being little
more than sufficient to meet the growing requirements of population.
We have seen calculations showing that Canada contains 500,000,000
acres of profitable wheat land. The impossibility of such an estimate

ever being fulfilled will be apparent when it is remembered that the

whole area employed in both temperate zones for growing all the staple
food crops is not more than 580,000,000 acres, and that in no country has
more than 9 per cent. of the area been devoted to wheat culture.?

1 Appendix I, 2 Appendix J.
Pp Pp

10 REPORT—1898,

The fertility of the North-West Provinces of the Dominion is due to an
exceptional and curious circumstance. In winter the ground freezes to a
considerable depth. Wheat is sown in the spring, generally April, when
the frozen ground has been thawed to a depth of three inches. Under the
hot sun of the short summer the grain sprouts with surprising rapidity,
partly because the roots are supplied with water from the thawing depths.
The summer is too short to thaw the ground thoroughly, and gate-posts
or other dead wood extracted in autumn are found still frozen at their
lower ends.

Australasia as a potential contributor to the world’s supply of wheat
affords another fertile field for speculation. Climatic conditions limit the
Australian wheat area to a small portion of the southern littoral belt.
Professor Shelton considers there are still fifty million acres in Queensland
suitable for wheat, but hitherto it has never had more than 150,000 acres
under cultivation. Crops in former days were liable to rust, but since
the Rust in Wheat conferences and the dissemination of instruction to
farmers, rust no longer has any terrors. I am informed by the Queens-
land Department of Agriculture that of late years they practically have
bred wheat vigorous enough to resist this plague. For the second season
in succession, the wheat crop last year was destroyed over large areas in
Victoria ; and in South Australia the harvest averaged not more than about
32 bushels per acre after meeting Colonial requirements for food and seed,
leaving only 684,000 bushels for export. In most other districts the yield
falls to such an extent as to cause Europeans to wonder why the pursuit
of wheat-raising is continued.

New Zealand has a moist climate resembling that of central and
southern England, while South Australia is semi-arid, resembling western
Kansas. Only two countries in the world yield as much wheat per acre
as New Zealand—these are Denmark and the United Kingdom. Not-
withstanding the great yield of wheat, due to an equable climate, New
Zealand finds fruit and dairy farming still more profitable. The climatic
conditions favourable to wheat are also conducive to luxuriant growths
of nutritious grasses. Thus the New Zealander ships his butter more
than half-way round the world, and competes successfully with Western
Europe.

During the last twenty-seven years the Austro-Hungarian population
has increased 21:8 per cent., as against an increase of 54°6 per cent. in the
acreage of wheat. Notwithstanding this disparity in the rates of increase,
exports have practically ceased by reason of an advance of nearly 80 per
cent. in unit consumption. There can be little doubt that Austro-Hungary
is about to enter the ranks of importing nations, although in Hungary a
considerable area of wheat land remains to be brought under culti-
vation. !

Roumania is an important wheat-growing country. In 1896 it pro-

? Appendix K.

| _ ADDRESS. 1}

duced 69,000,000 bushels, and exported 34,000,000 bushels. It has
a considerable amount of surplus land which can be used for wheat,
although for many years the wheat area is not likely to exceed home
requirements.

France comes next to the United States as a producer of wheat ; but
for our purpose she counts but little, being dependent on supplies from
abroad for an average quantity of 14 per cent. of her own production.
‘There is practically no spare land in France that can be put under wheat
in sufficient quantity to enable her to do more than provide for increase
of population.

Germany is a gigantic importer of wheat, her imports rising 700 per
cent. in the last twenty-five years, and now averaging 35,000,000 bushels.
Other nations of Europe, also importers, do not require detailed mention,
as under no conceivable conditions would they be able to do more than
supply wheat for the increasing requirements of their local popula-
tion, and, instead of replenishing, would probably diminish, the world’s
stores.

The prospective supply of wheat from Argentina and Uruguay has been

} greatly overrated. The agricultural area includes less than 100,000,000
acres of good, bad, and indifferent land, much of which is best adapted
for pastoral purposes. ‘There is no prospect of Argentina ever being able
to devote more than 30,000,000 acres to wheat ; the present wheat area
is about 6,000,000 acres, an area that may be doubled in the next twelve
years. Butthe whole arable region is subject to great climatic vicissitudes,
and to frosts that ravage the fields south cf the 37th parallel. Years of
systematised energy are frustrated in a few days—perhaps hours—by a
single cruelty of Nature, such as a plague of locusts, a tropical rain, or a

devastating hail storm. It will take years to bring the surplus lands of
Argentina into cultivation, and the population is even now insufficient to
supply labour at seed time and harvest.

During the next twelve years, Uruguay may add a million acres to
the world’s wheat fields ; but social, political, and economic conditions
_ seriously interfere with agricultural development.

At the present time South Africa is an importer of wheat, and the

regions suitable to cereals do not exceed a few million acres. Great
expectations have been formed as to the fertility of Mashonaland, the:

‘Shiré Highlands, and the Kikuyu plateau, and as to the adaptation of

_ these regions to the growth of wheat. But wheat culture fails where the

_ banana ripens, and the banana flourishes throughout Central Africa,
_ except in limited areas of great elevation. In many parts of Africa insect
_ pests render it impossible to store grain, and without grain-stores there
_ can be little hope of large exports.

North Africa, formerly the granary of Rome, now exports less than
5,000,000 bushels of wheat annually, and these exports are on the decline,
owing to increased home demands. With scientific irrigation, Egypt

12 REPORT—1898.

could supply three times her present amount of wheat, although no increase
is likely unless the cotton fields of the Delta are diverted to grain grow-
ing. In Algeria and Tunis nearly all reclaimed lands are devoted to the
production of wine, for which a brisk demand exists. Were this land
devoted to the growth of wheat, an additional five million bushels might
be obtained.

The enormous acreage devoted to wheat in India has been declining
for some years, and in 1895 over 20,000,000 acres yielded 185,000,000
bushels. Seven-eighths of this harvest is required for native consumption.
and only one-eighth on an average is available for export. The annual
increase of population is more than 3,000,000, demanding an addition to
the food-bearing lands of not less than 1,800,000 acres annually. In
recent years the increase has been less than one-fourth of this amount.!

In surveying the limitations and vicissitudes of wheat crops, I have
endeavoured to keep free from exaggeration, and have avoided insistance
on doubtful points. I have done my best to get trustworthy facts and
figures, but from the nature of the case it is impossible to attain complete
accuracy. Great caution is required in sifting the numerous varying
current statements respecting the estimated areas and total produce of
wheat throughout the world. The more closely official estimates are
examined, the more defective are they found, and comparatively few
figures are sufficiently well established to bear the deductions often drawn.
In doubtful cases I have applied to the highest authorities in each country,
and in the case of conflicting accounts have taken data the least favour-
able to sensational or panic-engendering statements. In a few instances
of accurate statistics their value is impaired by age ; but for 95 per cent.
of my figures I quote good authorities, while for the remaining 5 per cent.
L rely on the best commercial estimates derived from the appearance of
the growing crops, the acreage under cultivation, and the yield last year.
The maximum probable error would make no appreciable difference in my
argument.

The facts and figures I have set before you are easily interpreted.
Since 1871 unit consumption of wheat, including seed, has slowly increased
in the United Kingdom to the present amount of 6 bushels per head per
annum ; while the rate of consumption for seed and food by the whole
world of bread-eaters was 4:15 bushels per unit per annum for the eight
years ending 1878, and at the present time is 4-5 bushels. Under present
conditions of low acre yield, wheat cannot long retain its dominant posi-
tion among the food-stuffs of the civilised world. The details of the
impending catastrophe no one can predict, but its general direction is
obvious enough. Should all the wheat-growing countries add to their
area to the utmost capacity, on the most careful calculation the yield
would give us only an addition of some 100,000,000 acres, supplying at the
average world-yield of 12:7 bushels to the acre, 1,270,000,000 bushels,

? Appendix L.

ADDRESS. ts

just enough to supply the increase of population among bread-eaters till
the year 1931.!

At the present time there exists a deficit in the wheat area of 31,000
square miles—a deficit masked by the fact that the ten world crops of
wheat harvested in the ten years ending 1896 were more than 5 per cent.
above the average of the previous twenty-six years.

When provision shall have been made, if possible, to feed 230,000,000
units likely to be added to the bread-eating populations by 1931—hby the
complete occupancy of the arable areas of the temperate zone now parti-
ally occupied —where can be grown the additional 330,000,000 bushels of
wheat required ten years later by a hungry world? What is to happen

_ if the present rate of population be maintained, and if arable areas of

sufficient extent cannot be adapted and made contributory to the subsist-
ence of so great a host ?

Are we to go hungry and to know the trial of scarcity? That is the
poignant question. Thirty years is but a day in the life of a nation.
Those present who may attend the meeting of the British Association
thirty years hence will judge how far my forecasts are justified.

Tf bread fails—not only us, but all the bread-eaters of the world —
what are we to do? We are born wheat-eaters. Other races, vastly
superior to us in numbers, but differing widely in material and intellectual
progress, are eaters of Indian corn, rice, millet, and other grains; but
none of these grains have the food value, the concentrated health-sus-
taining power of wheat, and it is on this account that the accumulated
experience of civilised mankind has set wheat apart as the fit and proper
food for the development of muscle and brains.

It is said that when other wheat-exporting countries realise that the

States can no longer keep pace with the demand, these countries will

extend their area of cultivation, and struggle to keep up the supply parz
pass with the falling off in other quarters. But will this comfortable
and cherished doctrine bear the test of examination ?

Cheap production of wheat depends on a variety of causes, varying
greatly in different countries. Taking the cost of producing a given
quantity of wheat in the United Kingdom at 100s., the cost for the same
amount in the United States is 67s., in India 66s., and in Russia 54s.
We require cheap labour, fertile soil, easy transportation to market, low
taxation and rent, and no export or import duties. Labour will rise in
price, and fertility diminish as the requisite manurial constituents in the
virgin soil become exhausted. Facility of transportation to market will
be aided by railways, but these are slow and costly to construct, and it
will not pay to carry wheat by rail beyond a certain distance. These
considerations show that the price of wheat tends to increase. On the
other hand, the artificial impediments of taxation and customs duties tend
to diminish as demand increases and prices rise.

} Appeniix M,.

4 REPORT— 1898.

T have said that starvation may be averted through the laboratory.
Before we are in the grip of actual dearth the Chemist will step in and
postpone the day of famine to so distant a period that we, and our sons
and grandsons, may legitimately live without undue solicitude for the
future.

It is now recognised that all crops require what is called a ‘dominant’
manure.. Some need nitrogen, some potash, others phosphates. Wheat
pre-eminently demands nitrogen, fixed in the form of ammonia or nitric
acid. All other necessary constituents exist in the soil; but nitrogen is
mainly of atmospheric origin, and is rendered ‘fixed’ by a slow and
precarious process which requires a combination of rare meteorological
and geographical conditions to enable it to advance at a sufficiently rapid
rate to become of commercial importance.

There are several sources of available nitrogen, The distillation of
coal in the process of gas-making yields a certain amount of its nitrogen
in the form of ammonia; and this product, as sulphate of ammonia, is a
substance of considerable commercial value to gas companies. But the
quantity produced is comparatively small; all Europe does not yield more
than 400,000 annual tons, and, in view of the unlimited nitrogen required
to substantially increase the world’s wheat crop, this slight amount of
coal ammonia is not of much significance. For a long time guano has
been one of the most important sources of nitrogenous manures, but
guano deposits are so near exhaustion that they may be dismissed from
consideration.

Much has been said of late years, and many hopes raised by the
discovery of Hellriegel and Wilfarth, that leguminous plants bear on
their roots nodosities abounding in bacteria endowed with the property
of fixing atmospheric nitrogen; and it is proposed that the necessary
amount of nitrogen demanded by grain crops should be supplied to the
soil by cropping it with clover and ploughing in the plant when its
nitrogen assimilisation is complete. But it is questionable whether such
a mode of procedure will lead to the lucrative stimulation of crops. It
must be admitted that practice has long been ahead of science, and
for ages farmers have valued and cultivated leguminous crops. The four-
course rotation is turnips, barley, clover, wheat—a sequence popular more
than two thousand years ago. On the Continent, in certain localities,
there has been some extension of microbe cultivation; at home we have
not reached even the experimental stage. Our present knowledge leads
to the conclusion that the much more frequent growth of clover on the
same land, even with successful microbe-seeding and proper mineral
supplies, would be attended with uncertainty and difficulties. The land
soon becomes what is called ‘ clover sick ’ and turns barren.

There is still another and invaluable source of fixed nitrogen. I mean
the treasure locked up in the sewage and drainage of our towns.
Individually the amount so lost is trifling, but multiply the loss by the

~————

————————————<— << = CUCU!

ADDRESS. he

number of inhabitants, and we have the startling fact that, in the United
Kingdom, we are content to hurry down our drains and water courses,
into the sea, fixed nitrogen to the value of no less than 16,000,000/. per
annum. ‘This unspeakable waste continues, and no effective and universal
method is yet contrived of converting sewage into corn. Of this barbaric
waste of manurial constituents Liebig, nearly half a century ago, wrote
in these prophetic words : ‘ Nothing will more certainly consummate the
ruin of England than a scarcity of fertilisers—it means a scarcity of food.
It is impossible that such a sinful violation of the divine laws of Nature
should for ever remain unpunished ; and the time will probably come for
England sooner than for any other country, when, with all her wealth in
gold, iron, and coal, she will be unable to buy one-thousandth part of
the food which she has, during hundreds of years, thrown recklessly
away.’

The more widely this wasteful system is extended, recklessly returning
to the sea what we have taken from the land, the more surely and quickly
will the finite stocks of nitrogen locked up in the soils of the world become
exhausted. Let us remember that the plant creates nothing ; there is
nothing in bread which is not absorbed from the soil, and unless the
abstracted nitrogen is returned to the soil, its fertility must ultimately be
exhausted. When we apply to the land nitrate of soda, sulphate of am-
monia, or guano, we are drawing on the earth’s capital, and our drafts
will not perpetually be honoured. Already we see that a virgin soil
cropped for several years loses its productive powers, and without artificial
aid becomes infertile. Thus the strain to meet demands is increasingly
great. Witness the yield of forty bushels of wheat per acre under
favourable conditions, dwindling through exhaustion of soil to less than
seven bushels of poor grain, and the urgency of husbanding the limited
store of fixed nitrogen becomes apparent. The store of nitrogen in the
atmosphere is practically unlimited, but it is fixed and rendered assimilable

by plants only by cosmic processes of extreme slowness. The nitrogen

which with a light heart we liberate in a battleship broadside, has taken
millions of minute organisms patiently working for centuries to win from
the atmosphere.!

The only available compound containing sufficient fixed nitrogen to be
used on a world-wide scale as a nitrogenous manure is nitrate of soda, or
Chili saltpetre. This substance occurs native over a narrow band of the

_ plain of Tamarugal, in the northern provinces of Chili between the Andes

and the coast hills. In this rainless district for countless ages the con-

tinuous fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by the soil, its conversion into

nitrate by the slow transformation of billions of nitrifying organisms, its

combination with soda, and the crystallisation of the nitrate have been

steadily proceeding, until the nitrate fields of Chili have become of vast

commercial importance, and promise to be of inestimably greater value in
1 Appendix N.

16 REPORT—1898.

the future. The growing exports of nitrate from Chili at present amount
to about 1,200,000 tons.

The present acreage devoted to the world’s growth of wheat is about
163,000,000 acres. At the average of 12:7 bushels per acre this gives
2,070,000,000 bushels. But thirty years hence the demand will be
3,260,000,000 bushels, and there will be difficulty in finding the necessary
acreage on which to grow the additional amount required. By increasing
the present yield per acre from 12-7 to 20 bushels we should with our
present acreage secure a crop of the requisite amount. Now from 12-7 to
20 bushels per acre is a moderate increase of productiveness, and there is no
doubt that a dressing with nitrate of soda will give this increase and more.

The action of nitrate of soda in improving the yield of wheat has been
studied practically by Sir John Lawes and Sir Henry Gilbert on their
experimental field at Rothamstead. This field was sown with wheat for
thirteen consecutive years without manure, and yielded an average of 11-9
bushels to the acre. For the next thirteen years it was sown with wheat,
and dressed with 5 ewt. of nitrate of soda per acre, other mineral consti-
tuents also being present. The average yield for these years was 36:4
bushels per acre—an increase of 24:5 bushels. In other words, 22°86 lbs.
of nitrate of soda produce an increase of one bushel of wheat.

At this rate, to increase the world’s crop of wheat by 7-3 bushels, about
1} ewt. of nitrate of soda must annually be applied to each acre. The
amount required to raise the world’s crop on 163,000,000 acres from the
present supply of 2,070,000,000 bushels to the required 5,260,000,000
bushels will be 12 million tons distributed in varying amounts over the
wheat-growing countries of the world. The countries which produce more
than the average of 12-7 bushels will require less, and those below the
average will require more ; but, broadly speaking, about 12,000,000 tons
annually of nitrate of soda will be required, in addition to the 1} million
tons already absorbed by the world.

It is difficult to get trustworthy estimates of the amount of nitrate
surviving in the nitre beds. Common rumour declares the supply to be
inexhaustible, but cautious local authorities state that at the present rate
of export, of over one million tons per annum, the raw material ‘ caliche,’
containing from 25 to 50 per cent. nitrate, will be exhausted in from
twenty to thirty years.

Dr. Newton, who has spent years on the nitrate fields, tells me there
is a lower class material, containing a small proportion of nitrate, which
cannot at present be used, but which may ultimately be manufactured at
a profit. Apart from a few of the more scientific manufacturers, no one
is sanguine enough to think this debatable material will ever be worth
working. If we assume a liberal estimate for nitrate obtained from the
lower grade deposit, and say that it will equal in quantity that from the
richer quality, the supply may last, possibly, fifty years, at the rate of a
million tonsa year; but at the rate required to augment the world’s

LL 2—<$-

ADDRESS. 17;

supply of wheat to the point demanded thirty years hence it will not last
more than four years.

I have passed in review all the wheat-growing countries of the world,
with the exception of those whose united supplies are so small as to make
little appreciable difference to the argument. The situation may be
summed up briefly thus :—The world’s demand for wheat—the leading
bread-stuff—increases in a crescendo ratio year by year. Gradually all
the wheat-bearing land on the globe is appropriated to wheat-growing,
until we are within measurable distance of using the last available acre.
We must then rely on nitrogenous manures to increase the fertility of the
land under wheat, so as to raise the yield from the world’s low average—
12-7 bushels per acre—to a higher average. To do this efficiently and
feed the bread-eaters for a few years will exhaust all the available store
of nitrate of soda. For years past we have been spending fixed nitrogen
at a culpably extravagant rate, heedless of the fact that it is fixed with
extreme slowness and difficulty, while its liberation in the free state takes
place always with rapidity and sometimes with explosive violence.

Some years ago Mr. Stanley Jevons uttered a note of warning as to
the near exhaustion of our British coalfields. But the exhaustion of the
world’s stock of fixed nitrogen is a matter of far greater importance. It
means not only a catastrophe little short of starvation for the wheat-
eaters, but indirectly, scarcity for those who exist on inferior grains,
together with a lower standard of living for meat-eaters, scarcity of
mutton and beef, and even the extinction of gunpowder !

There is a gleam of light amid this darkness of despondency. In its
free state nitrogen is one of the most abundant and pervading bodies on
the face of the earth. Every square yard of the earth’s surface has
nitrogen gas pressing down on it to the extent of about seven tons—but
this is in the free state, and wheat demands it fived. ‘To convey this idea
in an object-lesson, I may tell you that, previous to its destruction by fire,
Colston Hall, measuring 146 feet by 80 feet by 70 feet, contained 27 tons
weight of nitrogen in its atmosphere ; it also contained one-third of a ton
of argon. In the free gaseous state this nitrogen is worthless ; combined
in the form of nitrate of soda it would be worth about 2,000/.

For years past attempts have been made to effect the fixation of
atmospheric nitrogen, and some of the processes have met with sufficient
partial success to warrant experimentalists in pushing their trials still
further ; but I think I am right in saying that no process has yet been
brought to the notice of scientific or commercial men which can be con-
sidered successful either as regards cost or yield of product. It is possible,
by several methods, to fix a certain amount of atmospheric nitrogen ; but
to the best of my knowledge no process has hitherto converted more than
a small amount, and this at a cost largely in excess of the present market
value of fixed nitrogen.

The fixation of atmospheric nitrogen therefore is one of the great

1898. c

18 REPORT-—1898.

discoveries awaiting the ingenuity of chemists. It is certainly deeply
important in its practical bearings on the future welfare and happiness
of the civilised races of mankind. This unfulfilled problem, which so far
has eluded the strenuous attempts of those who have tried to wrest the
secret from nature, differs materially from other chemical discoveries
which are in the air, so to speak, but are not yet matured. The fixation
of nitrogen is vital to the progress of civilised humanity. Other dis-
coveries minister to our increased intellectual comfort, luxury, or con-
venience ; they serve to make life easier, to hasten the acquisition of
wealth, or to save time, health, or worry. The fixation of nitrogen is a
question of the not far distant future. Unless we can class it among
certainties to come the great Caucasian race will cease to be foremost in
the world, and will be squeezed out of existence by races to whom wheaten
bread is not the staff of life.

Let me see if it is not possible even now to solve the momentous
problem. As far back as 1892 I exhibited, at one of the Soirées of the
Royal Society, an experiment on ‘The Flame of Burning Nitrogen.’ I
showed that nitrogen is a combustible gas, and the reason why when once
ignited the flame does not spread through the atmosphere and deluge the
world in a sea of nitric acid is that its igniting point is higher than the
temperature of its flame—not, therefore, hot enough to set fire to the
adjacent mixture. But by passing a strong induction current between
terminals the air takes fire and continues to burn with a powerful flame,
producing nitrous and nitric acids. This inconsiderable experiment may
not unlikely lead to the development of a mighty industry destined to
solve the great food problem. With the object of burning out nitrogen
from air so as to leave argon behind, Lord Rayleigh fitted up apparatus
for performing the operation on a larger scale, and succeeded in effecting
the union of 29:4 grammes of mixed nitrogen and oxygen at an expendi-
ture of one horse-power. Following these figures it would require one
Board of Trade unit to form 74 grammes of nitrate of soda, and therefore
14,000 units to form one ton. To generate electricity in the ordinary
way with steam engines and dynamos, it is now possible with a steady
load night and day, and engines working at maximum efficiency, to pro-
duce current at a cost of one-third of a penny per Board of Trade unit.
At this rate one ton of nitrate of soda would cost 26/7. But electricity
from coal and steam engines is too costly for large industrial purposes ;
at Niagara, where water power is used, electricity can be sold at a profit
for one-seventeenth of a penny per Board of Trade unit. At this rate
nitrate of soda would cost not more than 5/. per ton. But the limit of
cost is not yet reached, and it must be remembered that the initial data
are derived from small scale experiments, in which the object was not
economy, but rather to demonstrate the practicability of the combustion
method, and to utilise it for isolating argon. Even now electric nitrate
at 5/, a ton compares favourably with Chili nitrate at 7/. 10s. a ton ; and

at 2

:
:
7

:

|

ADDRESS, 19

all experience shows that when the road has been pointed out by a small
laboratory experiment, the industrial operations that may follow are
always conducted at a cost considerably lower than could be anticipated
from the laboratory figures.

Before we decide that electric nitrate is a commercial possibility, a
final question must be mooted. We are dealing with wholesale figures
and must take care that we are not simply shifting difficulties a little
further back without really diminishing them. We start with a shortage
of wheat, and the natural remedy is to put more land under cultivation.
As the land cannot be stretched, and there is so much of it and no more,
the object is to render the available area more productive by a dressing
with nitrate of soda. But nitrate of soda is limited in quantity, and will
soon be exhausted. Human ingenuity can contend even with these
apparently hopeless difficulties. Nitrate can be produced artificially by
the combustion of the atmosphere. Here we come to finality in one
direction ; our stores are inexhaustible. But how about electricity ? Can
we generate enough energy to produce 12,000,000 tons of nitrate of soda
annually? A preliminary calculation shows that there need be no fear
on that score ; Niagara alone is capable of supplying the required electric
senergy without much lessening its mighty flow.

The future can take care of itself. Theartificial production of nitrate
is clearly within view, and by its aid the land devoted to wheat can be
brought up to the 30 bushels per acre standard. In days to come, when

_ the demand may again overtake supply, we may safely leave our suc-

cessors to grapple 30 the stupendous food problem.

And, in the next generation, instead of trusting mainly to food- stuffs
which flourish in temperate climates, we pedbatiy shall trust more and
more to the exuberant food-stuffs of the tropics, where, instead of one

yearly sober harvest, jeopardised by any shrinkage of the scanty days of

summer weather, or of the few steady inches of rainfall, Nature annually
supplies heat and water enough to ripen two or three successive crops of

- food-stuffs in extraordinary abundance. To mention one plant alone,

Humboldt—from what precise statistics I know not—computed that,

acre for acre, the food-productiveness of the banana is 133 times that of

wheat—the unripe banana, before its starch is converted into sugar, is
said to make excellent bread.
Considerations like these must in the end determine the range and

_ avenues of commerce, perhaps the fate of continents. We must develop

and guide Nature’s latent energies, we must utilise her inmost workshops,
‘we must call into commercial existence Central Africa and Brazil to
redress the balance of Odessa and Chicago.

Having kept you for the last half-hour rigorously chained to earth,
disclosing dreary possibilities, it will be a relief to soar to the heights of

pure science and to discuss a point or two touching its latest pultevenietts
c2

20 REPORT—1898.

and aspirations. The low temperature researches which bring such
renown to Professor Dewar and to his laboratory in the Royal Institution
have been crowned during the present year by the conquest of one of
Nature’s most defiant strongholds. On the 10th of last May Professor
Dewar wrote to me these simple but victorious words : ‘This evening I have
succeeded in liquefying both hydrogen and helium. The second stage of
low temperature work has begun.’ Statice hydrogen boils at a temperature
of 238° C. at ordinary pressure, and at 250° C. in a vacuum, thus enabling
us to get within 23° C. of absolute zero. The density of liquid hydrogen
is only one-fourteenth that of water, yet in spite of such a low density it
collects well, drops easily, and has a well-defined meniscus. With proper
isolation it will be as easy to manipulate liquid hydrogen as liquid air.

The investigation of the properties of bodies brought near the absolute
zero of temperature is certain to give results of extraordinary importance.
Already platinum resistance thermometers are becoming useless, as the
temperature of boiling hydrogen is but a few degrees from the point
where the resistance of platinum would be practically nothing, or the
conductivity infinite.

Several years ago I pondered on the constitution of matter in what I.
ventured to call the fourth state. I endeavoured to probe the tormenting
mystery of the atom. What is the atom? Is a single atom in space
solid, liquid, or gaseous. Each of these states involves ideas which can
only pertain to vast collections of atoms. Whether, like Newton, we try
to visualise an atom as a hard, spherical body, or, with Boscovitch and
Faraday, to regard it as a centre of force, or accept the vortex atom theory
of Lord Kelvin, an isolated atom is an unknown entity difficult to conceive,
The properties of matter—solid, liquid, gaseous—are due to molecules
in a state of motion. Therefore, matter as we know it involves essentially
a mode of motion ; and the atom itself—intangible, invisible, and incon-
ceivable—is its material basis, and may, indeed, be styled the only true
matter. The space involved in the motions of atoms has no more preten-
sion to be called matter than the sphere of influence of a body of riflemen
—the sphere filled with flying leaden missiles—has to be called lead.
Since what we call matter essentially involves a mode of mction, and
since at the temperature of absolute zero all atomic motions would stop,
it follows that matter as we know it would at that paralysing temperature
probably entirely change its properties. Although a discussion of the
ultimate absolute properties of matter is purely speculative, it can hardly
be barren, considering that in our laboratories we are now within moderate
distance of the absolute zero of temperature.

I have dwelt on the value and importance of nitrogen, but I must not
omit to bring to your notice those little known and curiously related
elements which during the past twelve months have been discovered and
partly described by Professor Ramsay and Dr. Travers. For many years
my own work has been among what I may call the waste heaps of the

ADDRESS. 2]

| mineral elements. Professor Ramsay is dealing with vagrant atoms of
, an astral nature. During the course of the present year he has announced
_ the existence of no fewer than three new gases—krypton, neon, and
, metargon. Whether these gases, chiefly known by their spectra,

are true unalterable elements, or whether they are compounded of other
known or unknown bodies, has yet to be proved. Fellow workers
freely pay tribute to the painstaking zeal with which Professor Ramsay
| has conducted a difficult research, and to the philosophic subtlety brought
to bear on his investigations. But, like most discoverers, he has not
escaped the flail of severe criticism.

There is still another claimant for celestial honours. Professor Nasini
tells us he has discovered, in some volcanic gases at Pozzuoli, that hypo-
thetical element Coronium, supposed to cause the bright line 5316-9 in
the spectrum of the sun’s corona. Analogy points to its being lighter and
more diffusible than hydrogen, and a study of its properties cannot fail to
yield striking results. Still awaiting discovery by the fortunate spectro-
seopist are the unknown celestial elements Aurorium, with a characteristic
line at 5570°7—and Nebulumn, having two bright lines at 5007:05 and
4959-02. J

The fundamental discovery by Hertz, of the electro-magnetic waves
predicted more than thirty years ago by Clerk Maxwell, seems likely to
develop in the direction of a practical application which excites keen
interest—I mean the application to electric signalling across moderate
distances without connecting wires. The feasibility of this method of
_ signalling has been demonstrated by several experimenters at more than
one meeting of the British Association, though most elaborately and with
many optical refinements by Oliver Lodge at the Oxford meeting in 1894.
But not until Signor Marconi induced the British Post-Office and
Foreign Governments to try large scale experiments did wireless signalling
‘become generally and popularly known or practically developed as a
“special kind of telegraphy. Its feasibility depends on the discovery of a
singularly sensitive detector for Hertz waves—a detector whose sensitive-
‘ness in some cases seems almost to compare with that of the eye itself.
‘The fact noticed by Oliver Lodge in 1889, that an infinitesimal metallic
gap subjected to an electric jerk became conducting, so as to complete an
electric circuit, was rediscovered soon afterwards in a more tangible and
‘definite form and applied to the detection of Hertz waves by M. E.
Branly. Oliver Lodge then continued the work, and produced the
vacuum filing-tube coherers with automatic tapper-back, which are of
acknowledged practical service. It is this varying continuity of contact
‘under the influence of extremely feeble electric stimulus alternating with
- mechanical tremor, which, in combination with the mode of producing
the waves revealed by Hertz, constitutes the essential and fundamental
- feature of ‘wireless telegraphy.’ There is a curious and widely spread
misapprehension about coherers, to the effect that to make a coherer work

22, REPORT—1898.

the wave must fall upon it. Oliver Lodge has disproved this fallacy.
Let the wave fall on a suitable receiver, such as a metallic wire or, better
still, on an arrangement of metal wings resembling a Hertz sender, and
the waves set up oscillating currents which may be led by wires (enclosed
in metal pipes) to the coherer, The coherer acts apparently by a species
of end-impact of the oscillatory current, and does not need to be attacked
in the flank by the waves themselves. This interesting method of
signalling—already developing in Marconi’s hands into a_ successful
practical system which inevitably will be largely used in lighthouse and
marine work—presents more analogy to optical signals by flash-light than
to what is usually understood as electric’telegraphy ; notwithstanding the
fact that an ordinary Morse instrument at one end responds to the move-
ments of a key at the other, or, as arranged by Alexander Muirhead, a
siphon recorder responds to an automatic transmitter at about the rate of
slow cable telegraphy. But although no apparent optical apparatus is
employed, it remains true that the impulse travels from sender to receiver
by essentially the same process as that which enables a flash of magnesium
powder to excite a distant eye.

The phenomenon discovered by Zeeman, that a source of radiation is
affected by a strong magnetic field in such a way that light of one re-
frangibility becomes divided usually into three components, two of which
are displaced by diffraction analysis on either side of the mean position
and are oppositely polarised to the third or residual constituent, has been
examined by many observers in all countries. The phenomenon has been
subjected to photography with conspicuously successful results by Professor
T. Preston in Dublin and by Professor Michelson and Dr. Ames and
others in America.

It appears that the different lines in the spectrum are differently
affected, some of them being tripled with different grades of relative
intensity, some doubled, some quadrupled, some sextupled, and some left
unchanged. Even the two components of the D lines are not similarly
influenced. Moreover, whereas the polarisation is usually such as to
indicate that motions of a negative ion or electron constitute the source
of light, a few lines are stated by the observers at Baltimore, who used
what they call the ‘small’ grating of 5 inches width ruled with 65,000
lines, to be polarised in the reverse way.

Further prosecution of these researches must lead to deeper insight
into molecular processes and the mode in which they affect the ether ;
indeed already valuable theoretic views have been promulgated by
H. A. Lorenz, J. Larmor, and G. F. Fitzgerald, on the lines of the
radiation theory of Dr. Johnstone Stoney ; and the connection of the
new phenomena with the old magnetic rotation of Faraday is under
discussion. It is interesting to note that Faraday and a number of more
recent experimenters were led by theoretical considerations to look for
some such effect ; and though the inadequate means at their disposal did

!

ADDRESS. 23

not lead to success, nevertheless a first dim glimpse of the phenomenon was
obtained by M. Fievez, of the Royal Observatory at Brussels, in 1885.

It would be improper to pass without at least brief mention the
remarkable series of theoretic papers by Dr. J. Larmor, published by the
Royal Society, on the relationship between ether and matter. By the
time these researches become generally intelligible they may be found to
constitute a considerable step towards the further mathematical analysis
and interpretation of the physical universe on the lines initiated by
Newton. :

In the mechanical construction of Réntgen ray tubes I can record a
few advances : the most successful being the adoption of Professor Silvanus
P. Thompson’s suggestion of using for the anti-cathode a metal of high
atomic weight. Osmium and iridium have been used with advantage,
and osmium anti-cathode tubes are now a regular article of manufacture.
As long ago as June 1896, X-ray tubes with metallic uranium anti-
cathodes were made in my own laboratory, and were found to work better
than those with platinum. The ditliculty of procuring metallic uranium
prevented these experiments from being continued. Thorium anti-
cathodes have also been tried.

Rontgen has drawn fresh attention to a fact very early observed by
English experimenters—that of the non-homogeneity of the rays and the
dependence of their penetrating power on the degree of vacuum ; rays
generated in high vacua have more penetrative power than when the
vacuum is less high. These facts are familiar to all who have exhausted
focus tubes on their own pumps. Réntgen suggests a convenient phrase-
ology ; he calls a low vacuum tube, which does not emit the highly
penetrating rays, a ‘soft’ tube, and a tube in which the exhaustion has
been pushed to an extreme degree, in which highly penetrating rays pre-
dominate, a ‘hard’ tube. Using a ‘hard’ tube he took a photograph of a
double-barrelled rifle, and showed not only the leaden bullets within the
steel barrels but even the wads and the charges.

Benoit has re-examined the alleged relation between density and
opacity to the rays, and finds certain discrepancies. Thus, the opacity of
equal thicknesses of palladium and platinum are nearly equal whilst their
densities and atomic weights are very different, those of palladium being
about half those of platinum.

At the last meeting of the British Association visitors saw—at the
McGill University—Professors Cox and Callendar’s apparatus for measur-
ing the velocity of Réntgen rays. They found it to be certainly greater
than 200 kilometres per second: Majorana has made an independent
determination, and finds the velocity to be 600 kilometres per second with
an inferior limit certainly of not less than 150 kilometres per second. It
may be remembered that J. J. Thomson has found for cathode rays a
velocity of more than 10,000 kilometres per second, and it is extremely
unlikely that the velocity of Réntgen rays will prove to be less.

24 REPORT— 1898.

Trowbridge has verified the fact, previously announced by Professor
8. P. Thompson, that fluor-spar, which by prolonged heating has lost its
power of luminescing when re-heated, regains the power of thermo-lumi-
nescence when exposed to Réntgen rays. He finds that this restoration
is also effected by exposure to the electric glow discharge, but not by expos-
sure to ultra-violet light. The difference is suggestive.

As for the action of Réntgen rays on bacteria, often asserted and often
denied, the latest statement by Dr. H. Rieder, of Munich, is to the effect
that bacteria are killed by the discharge from ‘hard’ tubes. Whether
the observation will lead to resuits of pathologic importance remains
to be seen. The circumstance that the normal retina of the eye is
slightly sensitive to the rays is confirmed by Dorn and by Réntgen
himself.

The essential wave-nature of the Réntgen rays appears to be con-
firmed by the fact ascertained by several of our great mathematical
physicists, that light of excessively short wave-length would be but
slightly absorbed by ordinary material media, and would not in the
ordinary sense be refracted at all. In fact a theoretic basis for a compre-
hension of the Réntgen rays had been propounded before the rays were
discovered. At the Liverpool meeting of the British Association, several
speakers, headed by Sir George Stokes, expressed their conviction that the
disturbed electric field caused by the sudden stoppage of the motion of an
electrically charged atom yielded the true explanation of the phenomena
extraneous to the Crookes high vacuum tubes—phenomena so excellently
elaborated by Lenard and by Réntgen. More recently, Sir George Stokes
has re-stated his ‘pulse’ theory, and fortified it with arguments which
have an important bearing on the whole theory of the refraction of light.
He still holds to their essentially transverse nature, in spite of the absence
of polarisation, an absence once more confirmed by the careful experi-
ments of Dr. L. Graetz. The details of this theory are in process of
elaboration by Professor J. J. Thomson.

Meantime, while the general opinion of physicists seems to be settling
towards a wave or ether theory for the Réntgen rays, an opposite drift is
apparent with respect to the physical nature of the cathode rays ; it be-
comes more and more clear that cathode rays consist of electrified atoms
or ions in rapid progressive motion. My idea of a fourth state of matter,
propounded in 1881,! and at first opposed at home and abroad, is now be-
coming accepted. It is supported by Professor J. J. Thomson :? Dr.
Larmor’s theory* likewise involves the idea of an ionic substratum of
matter ; the view is also confirmed by Zeeman’s phenomenon. In Ger-
many—where the term cathode ray was invented almost as a protest
against the theory of molecular streams propounded by me at the Sheffield
meeting of the British Association in 1879—additional proofs have been

1 Phil. Trans., Part 2, 1881, pp. 433-4. :
* Phil. Mag., October 1897, p. 312. % Thid., December 1897, p. 506.

ADDRESS. 25

produced in favour of the doctrine that the essential fact in the pheno-
menon is electrified Radiant Matter.

The speed of these molecular streams has been approximately measured,
chiefly by aid of my own discovery nearly twenty years ago, that their
path is curved in a magnetic field, and that they produce phosphorescence
where they impinge on an obstacle. The two unknown quantities, the
charge and the speed of each atom, are measurable from the amount of
curvature and by means of one other independent experiment.

It cannot be said that a complete and conclusive theory of these rays
has yet been formulated. It is generally accepted that collisions among
particles, especially the violent collisions due to their impact on a massive
target placed in their path, give rise to the interesting kind of extremely
high frequency radiation discovered by Roéntgen. It has, indeed, for some
time been known that whereas a charged body in motion constitutes an
electric current, the sudden stoppage, or any violent acceleration of such
a body, must cause an alternating electric disturbance, which, though so
rapidly decaying in intensity as to be practically ‘dead beat,’ yet must
give rise to an ethereal wave or pulse travelling with the speed of light,
but of a length comparable to the size of the body whose sudden change
of motion caused the disturbance. The emission of a high-pitched musical
sound from the jolting of a dustman’s cart (with a spring bell hung on it)
has been suggested as an illustration of the way in which the molecules of
any solid not at absolute zero may possibly emit such rays.

Tf the target on to which the electrically-charged atoms impinge is so
constituted that some of its minute parts can thereby be set into rhyth-
mical vibration, the energy thus absorbed reappears in the form of light,
and the body is said to phosphoresce. The efficient action of the phos-
phorescent target appears to depend as much on its physical and mole-
cular as on its chemical constitution. The best known phosphori belong
to certain weli-defined classes, such as the sulphides of the alkaline-earthy
metals, and some of the so-called rare earths; but the phosphorescent
properties of each of these groups are profoundly modified by an admix-
ture of foreign bodies—witness the effect on the lines in the phosphor-
escent spectrum of yttrium and samarium produced by traces of calcium
or lead. The persistence of the samarium spectrum in presence of over-
whelming quantities of other metals, is almost unexampled in spectro-
_ scopy: thus one part of samaria can easily be seen when mixed with three
million parts of lime.

Without stating it as a general rule, it seems as if with a non-
_ phosphorescing target the energy of molecular impact reappears as pulses
so abrupt and irregular that, when resolved, they furnish a copious supply
of waves of excessively short wave-length, in fact, the now well-known
Réntgen rays. The phosphorescence so excited may last only a small
fraction of a second, as with the constituents of yttria, where the duration
of the different lines varies between the 0:003 and the 0:0009 second;

26 REPORT—1898.

or it may linger for hours, as in the case of some of the yttria earths, and
especially with the earthy sulphides, where the glow lasts bright enough
to be commercially useful. Excessively phosphorescent bodies can be
excited by light waves, but most of them require the stimulus of electrical
excitement.

It now appears that some bodies, even without special stimulation,
are capable of giving out rays closely allied, if not in some cases identical,
with those of Professor Réntgen. Uranium and thorium compounds are
of this character, and it would almost seem from the important researches
of Dr. Russell, that this ray-emitting power may be a general property of
matter, for he has shown that nearly every substance is capable of
affecting the photographic plate if exposed in darkness for sufficient
time.

No other source for Réntgen rays but the Crookes tube has yet been
discovered, but rays of kindred sorts are recognised. The Becquerel rays,
emitted by uranium and its compounds, have now found their companions
in rays—discovered almost simultaneously by Curie and Schmidt—emitted
by thorium and its compounds. The thorium rays affect photographic
plates through screens of paper or aluminium, and are absorbed by metals
and other dense bodies. They ionise the air, making it an electrical
conductor; and they can be refracted and probably reflected, at least
diffusively. Unlike uranium rays, they are not polarised by transmission
through tourmaline, therefore resembling in this respect the Réntgen rays.
§ Quite recently M. and Mme. Curie have announced a discovery
which, if confirmed, cannot fail to assist the investigation of this obscure
branch of physics. They have brought to notice a new constituent of
the uranium mineral pitchblende, which in a 400-fold degree possesses
uranium’s mysterious power of emitting a form of energy capable of im-
pressing a photographic plate and of discharging electricity by rendering
air a conductor. It also appears that the radiant activity of the new
body, to which the discoverers have given the name of Polonium, needs
neither the excitation of light nor the stimulus of electricity ; like
uranium, it draws its energy from some constantly regenerating and
hitherto unsuspected store, exhaustless in amount.

It has long been to me a haunting problem how to reconcile this
apparently boundless outpour of energy with accepted canons. But as
Dr. Johnstone Stoney reminds me, the resources of molecular movements
are far from exhausted. There are many stores of energy in nature that
may be drawn on by properly constituted bodies without very obvious
cause. Some time since I drew attention to the enormous amount of
locked up energy in the ether ; nearer our experimental grasp are the
motions of the atoms and molecules, and it is not difficult mentally so to
modify Maxwell’s demons as to reduce them to the level of an inflexible
law and thus bring them within the ken of a philosopher in search of a
new tool. It is possible to conceive a target capable of mechanically

ADDRESS. 27

sifting from the molecules of the surrounding air the quick from the slow
movers. This sifting of the swift moving molecules is effected in liquids
whenever they evaporate, and in the case of the constituents of the
_ atmosphere, wherever it contains constituents light enough to drift away
molecule by molecule. In my mind’s eye I see such a target as a piece of
metal cooler than the surrounding air acquiring the energy that gradually
raises its temperature from the outstanding effect of all its encounters
with the molecules of the air about it; I see another target of such a
structure that it throws off the slow moving molecules with little exchange
of energy, but is so influenced by the quick moving missiles that it
appropriates to itself some of their energy. Let uranium or polonium,
bodies of densest atoms, have a structure that enables them to throw off
the slow moving molecules of the atmosphere, while the quick moving
molecules, smashing on to the surface, have their energy reduced and that
of the target correspondingly increased. The energy thus gained seems
to be employed partly in dissociating some of the molecules of the gas (or
in inducing some other condition which has the effect of rendering the
neighbouring air in some degree a conductor of electricity) and partly in
originating an undulation through the ether, which, as it takes its rise in
_ phenomena so disconnected as the impacts of the molecules of the air,
must furnish a large contingent of light waves of short wave-length. The
shortness in the case of these Becquerel rays appears to approach without
attaining the extreme shortness of ordinary Réntgen rays. The reduction
of the speed of the quick moving molecules would cool the layer of air_to
which they belong ; but this cooling would rapidly be compensated by
radiation and conduction from the surrounding atmosphere ; under ordi-
nary circumstances the difference of temperature would scarcely be per-
ceptible, and the uranium would thus appear to perpetually emit rays of
energy with no apparent means of restoration.

The total energy of both the translational and internal motions of the
molecules locked up in quiescent air at ordinary pressure and temperature
is about 140,000 foot-pounds in each cubic yard of air. Accordingly the
quiet air within a room 12 feet high, 18 feet wide, and 22 feet long
contains energy enough to propel a one-horse engine for more than twelve
hours. The store drawn upon naturally by uranium and other heavy
atoms only awaits the touch of the magic wand of Science to enable
the Twentieth Century to cast into the shade the marvels of the
Nineteenth.

Whilst placing before you the labours and achievements of my com-
rades in Science I seize this chance of telling you of engrossing work of
my own on the fractionation of yttria to which for the last eighteen years
I have given ceaseless attention. In 1883, under the title of ‘Radiant
Matter Spectroscopy,’ I described a new series of spectra produced by
passing the phosphorescent glow of yttria, under molecular bombardment
im vacuo, through a train of prisms. The visible spectra in time gave up

28 REPORT—1898.

their secrets, and were duly embalmed in the Philosophical Transactions.
At the Birmingham meeting of the British Association in 1886 I brought
the subject before the Chemical Section, of which I had the honour to be
President. The results led to many speculations on the probable origin
of all the elementary bodies—speculations that for the moment I must
waive in favour of experimental facts.

There still remained for spectroscopic examination a long tempting
stretch of unknown ultra-violet light, of which the exploration gave me no
rest. But I will not now enter into details of the quest of unknown lines.
Large quartz prisms, lenses, and condensers, specially sensitised photo-
graphic films capable of dealing with the necessary small amount of radia-
tion given by feebly phosphorescing substances,! and above all tireless
patience in collating and interpreting results, have all played their part.
Although the research is incomplete I am able to announce that among
the groups of rare earths giving phosphorescent spectra in the visible
region there are others giving well defined groups of bands which can only
-be recorded photographically. I have detected and mapped no less than
six such groups extending to \ 3060.

Without enlarging on difficulties, I will give a brief outline of the in-
vestigation. Starting with a large quantity of a group of the rare earths
in a state of considerable purity, a particular method of fractionation is
applied, splitting the earths into a series of fractions differing but slightly
from each other. Each of these fractions, phosphorescing in vacuo, is
arranged in the spectrograph, and a record of its spectrum photographed
upon a specially prepared sensitive film.

In this way, with different groups of rare earths, the several invisible
bands were recorded—some moderately strong, others exceedingly faint.
Selecting a portion giving a definite set of bands, new methods of frac-
tionation were applied, constantly photographing and measuring the
spectrum of each fraction. Sometimes many weeks of hard experiment
failed to produce any separation, and then a new method of splitting up
was devised and applied. By unremitting work—the solvent of most
difficulties—eventually it was possible to split up the series of bands into
various groups. Then, taking a group which seemed to offer possibilities
of reasonably quick result, one method after another of chemical attack
was adopted, with the ultimate result of freeing the group from its accom-
panying fellows and increasing its intensity and detail.

As I have said, my researches are far from complete, but about one of
the bodies I may speak definitely. High up in the ultra-violet, like a
faint nebula in the distant heavens, a group of lines was detected, at first
feeble and only remarkable on account of their isolation. On further puri-
fication these lines grew stronger. Their great refrangibility cut them off

' In this direction I am glad to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. Schuman, of
Leipzig, for valuable suggestions and detail of his own apparatus, by means of which

he has produced some unique records of metallic and gaseous spectra of lines of short
wave-length.

ee el clr

\

ADDRESS. 29

from other groups. Special processes were employed to isolate the earth,
and using these lines as a test, and appealing at every step to the spectro-
graph, it was pleasant to see how each week the group stood out stronger
and stronger, while the other lines of yttrium, samarium, ytterbium, «c.,
became fainter, and at last, practically vanishing, left the sought-for group
strong and solitary. Finally, within the last few weeks, hopefulness has
emerged into certainty, and I have absolute evidence that another member
of the rare earth groups has been added to the list. Simultaneously with
the chemical and spectrographic attack, atomic weight determinations
were constantly performed.

As the group of lines which betrayed its existence stand alone, almost
at the extreme end of the ultra-violet spectrum, I propose to name the
newest of the elements Monium, from the Greek povos, alone. Although
caught by the searching rays of the spectrum, Monium offers a direct
contrast to the recently discovered gaseous elements, by having a strongly
marked individuality ; but although so young and wilful, it is willing to
enter into any number of chemical alliances.

Until my material is in a greater state of purity I hesitate to commit
myself to figures; but I may say that the wave-lengths of the principal
lines are 3120 and 3117. Other fainter lines are at 3219, 3064, and
3060. The atomic weight of the element, based on the assumption of
R,0;, is not far from 118—greater than that accepted for yttrium and
less than that for lanthanum.

T ought almost to apologise for adding to the already too long list of ele-
ments of the rare earth class—the asteroids of the terrestrialfamily. But
as the host of celestial asteroids, unimportant individually, become of high
interest when once the idea is grasped that they may be incompletely
coagulated remains of the original nebula, so do these elusive and insig-
nificant rare elements rise to supreme importance when we regard thein
in the light of component parts of a dominant element, frozen in embryo,
and arrested in the act of coalescing from the original protyle into one
of the ordinary and law-abiding family for whom Newlands and Mende-
leeff have prepared pigeon-holes. The new element has another claim to
notice. Not only is it new in itself, but to discover it a new tool had to
be forged for spectroscopic research.

Further details I will reserve for that tribunal before whom every
aspirant for a place in the elemental hierarchy has to substantiate his

claim.

These, then, are some of the subjects, weighty and far-reaching, on
which my own attention has been chiefly concentrated. Upon one other
interest I have not yet touched—to me the weightiest and the farthest
reaching of all.

No incident in my scientific career is more widely known than the
part I took many years ago in certain psychic researches. Thirty years

30 REPORT—1898.

have passed since I published an account of experiments tending to show
that outside our scientific knowledge there exists a Force exercised by
intelligence differing from the ordinary intelligence common to mortals.
This fact in my life is of course well understood by those who honoured
me with the invitation to become your President. Perhaps among my
audience some may feel curious as to whether I shall speak out or be
silent. I elect to speak, although briefly. To enter at length on a still
debatable subject would be unduly to insist on a topic which—as Wallace,
Lodge, and Barrett have already shown—though not unfitted for dis-
cussion at these meetings, does not yet enlist the interest of the majority
of my scientific brethren. To ignore the subject would be an act of
cowardice—an act of cowardice I feel no temptation to commit.

To stop short in any research that bids fair to widen the gates of
knowledge, to recoil from fear of difficulty or adverse criticism, is to bring
reproach on Science. There is nothing for the investigator to do but to
go straight on, ‘to explore up and down, inch by inch, with the taper his
reason’ ; to follow the light wherever it may lead, even should it at times
resemble a will-o’-the-wisp. I have nothing to retract. I adhere to my
already published statements. Indeed, I might add much thereto. I
regret only a certain crudity in those early expositions which, no doubt
justly, militated against their acceptance by the scientific world. My
own knowledge at that time scarcely extended beyond the fact that
certain phenomena new to science had assuredly occurred, and were
attested by my own sober senses, and better still, by automatic record.
I was like some two-dimensional being who might stand at the singular
point of a Riemann’s surface, and thus find himself in infinitesimal and
inexplicable contact with a plane of existence not his own.

I think I see a little farther now. I have glimpses of something like
coherence among the strange elusive phenomena ; of something like con-
tinuity between those unexplained forces and laws already known. This
advance is largely due to the labours of another Association of which I
have also this year the honour to be President—the Society for Psychical
Research. And were I now introducing for the first time these inquiries
to the world of science I should choose a starting-point different
from that of old. It would be well to begin with telepathy ; with the
fundamental law, as I believe it to be, that thoughts and images may
be transferred from one mind to another without the agency of
the recognised organs of sense—that knowledge may enter the human
mind without being communicated in any hitherto known or recognised
ways.

Although the inquiry has elicited important facts with reference to the
Mind, it has not yet reached the scientific stage of certainty which would
entitle it to be usefully brought before one of our Sections. I will there-
fore confine myself to ‘pointing out the direction in which scientific
investigation can legitimately advance. If teiepathy take place we have

~rrur

ADDRESS. 3]

two physical facts—the physical change in the brain of A, the suggester,
and the analogous physical change in the brain of B, the recipient of the
suggestion. Between these two physical events there must exist a train
of physical causes. Whenever the connecting sequence of intermediate
causes begins to be revealed the inquiry will then come within the range of
one of the Sections of the British Association. Such a sequence can only
occur through anintervening medium. All the phenomena of the universe
are presumably in some way continuous, and itis unscientific to call in the
aid of mysterious agencies when with every fresh advance in knowledge
it is shown that ether vibrations have powers and attributes abundantly
equal to any demand—even to the transmission of thought. It is sup-

_ posed by some physiologists that the essential cells of nerves do not

actually touch, but are separated by a narrow gap which widens in sleep
while it narrows almost to extinction during mental activity. This con-
dition is so singularly like that of a Branly or Lodge coherer as to suggest
a further analogy. The structure of brain and nerve being similar, it is
conceivable there may be present masses of such nerve coherers in the
brain whose special function it may be to receive impulses brought from
without through the connecting sequence of ether waves of appropriate
order of magnitude. Réntgen has familiarised us with an order of vibra-
tions of extreme minuteness compared with the smallest waves with which
we have hitherto been acquainted, and of dimensions comparable with the
distances between the centres of the atoms of which the material universe
is built up ; and there is no reason to suppose that we have here reached
the limit of frequency. It is known that the action of thought is accom-
panied by certain molecular movements in the brain, and here we have
physical vibrations capable from their extreme minuteness of acting direct
on individual molecules, while their rapidity approaches that of the internal
and external movements of the atoms themselves.

Confirmation of telepathic phenomena is afforded by many converging

experiments, and by many spontaneous occurrences only thus intelligible.

The most varied proof, perhaps, is drawn from analysis of the sub-conscious
workings of the mind, when these, whether by accident or design, are
brought into conscious survey. Evidence of a region, below the threshold
of consciousness, has been presented, since its first inception, in the

_ Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research ; and its various aspects
_are being interpreted and welded into a comprehensive whole by the perti-

nacious genius of F. W. H. Myers. Concurrently, our knowledge of the

_ facts in this obscure region has received valuable additions at the hands
_ of labourers in other countries. To mention a few names out of many,

the observations of Richet, Pierre Janet, and Binet (in France), of Breuer
and Freud (in Austria), of William James (in America) have strikingly
illustrated the extent to which patient experimentation can probe sub-
liminal processes, and can thus learn the lessons of alternating personali-
ties, and abnormal states, Whilst it is clear that our knowledge of

32 REPORT—1898.

subconscious mentation is still to be developed, we must beware of
rashly assuming that all variations from the normal waking condition are
necessarily morbid. The human race has reached no fixed or changeless
ideal ; in every direction there is evolution as well as disintegration. It
would be hard to find instances of more rapid progress, moral and physical,
than in certain important cases of cure by suggestion—again to cite a few
names out of many—by Liébeault, Bernheim, the late Auguste Voisin,
Bérillon (in France), Schrenck NGuetar (in Germany), Forel (in Switzer-
land), van Eeden (in Holland), Wetterstrand (in Sweden), Milne-Bramwell
and Lloyd Tuckey (in England). . This is not the place for details, but the
vis medicatrix thus evoked, as it were, from the depths of the organism, is
of good omen for the orl evolution of mankind.

A formidable range of phenomena must be scientifically sifted before
we effectually grasp a faculty so strange, so bewildering, and for ages so
inscrutable, as the direct action of mind on mind. This delicate task
needs a rigorous employment of the method of exclusion—a constant
setting aside of irrelevant phenomena that could be explained by known
causes, including those far too familiar causes, conscious and unconscious
fraud. The inquiry unites the difficulties inherent in all experimentation
connected with mind, with tangled human temperaments and with obser-
vations dependent less on automatic record than on personal testimony.
But difficulties are things to be overcome even in the elusory branch of
research known as Experimental Psychology. It has been characteristic
of the leaders among the group of inquirers constituting the Society for
Psychical Research to combine critical and negative work with work
leading to positive discovery. To the penetration and scrupulous fair-
mindedness of Professor Henry Sidgwick and of the late Edmund Gurney
is largely due the establishment of canons of evidence in psychical research,
which strengthen while they narrow the path of subsequent explorers.
To the detective genius of Dr. Richard Hodgson we owe a convincing
demonstration of the narrow limits of human continuous observation.

It has been said that ‘Nothing worth the proving can be proved, nor
yet disproved.’ True though this may have been in the past, it is true
no longer. The science of our century has forged weapons of observation
and analysis by which the veriest tyro may profit. Science has trained
and fashioned the average mind into habits of exactitude and disciplined
perception, and in so doing has fortified itself for tasks higher, wider, and
incomparably more wonderful than even the wisest among our ancestors
imagined. Like the souls in Plato’s myth that follow the chariot of Zeus,
it has ascended to a point of vision far above the earth. It is, henceforth,
open to science to transcend all we now think we know of matter, and to
gain new glimpses of a profounder scheme of Cosmic Law.

An eminent predecessor in this chair declared that ‘by an intellectual
necessity he crossed the boundary of experimental evidence, and discerned
in that matter, which we in our ignorance of its latent powers, and not-
withstanding our professed reverence for its Creator, have hitherto covered

_—=_-” - =~ =

ADDRESS. 30

with opprobrium, the potency and promise of all terrestrial life.’ I should
prefer to reverse the apophthegm, and to say that in life I see the promise
and potency of all forms of matter.

In old Egyptian days a well-known inscription was carved over the
portal of the temple of Isis :—‘I am whatever hath been, is, or ever will
be ; and my veil no man hath yet lifted.’ Not thus do modern seekers
after truth confront Nature—the word that stands for the baffling
mysteries of the universe. Steadily, unflinchingly, we strive to pierce the
inmost heart of Nature, from what she is to re-construct what she has
been, and to prophesy what she yet shall be. Veil after veil we have
lifted, and her face grows more beautiful, august, and wonderful, with
every barrier that is withdrawn.

APPENDIX.

In preparing the part of this Address dealing with the world’s supply .
and demand for wheat, and the conclusions based thereon, I have been
materially assisted by Mr. C. Wood Davis, of Kansas, U.S.A. Apart

from information obtained from Mr. Davis’s articles in ‘The Forum,’ the

©North-Western Miller,’ the ‘New York Sun,’ and other papers, I am
indebted to him for valuable manuscript information on matters of detail.
Mr. Davis appears to be the only person dealing with this problem in a
manner to determine such essential factors as average acre yields for long
periods, unit requirements for each of the primary food staples of the
temperate zones, and the ratios existing during different recent periods
between the consuming element and acres employed in the production of
each of such primary food staples. His scientific method enables him to
ascertain the acreage requirements of the separate national populations,
and of the ‘bread-eating’ world asa whole. Information has also been
obtained from the ‘ Agricultural Returns of the United Kingdom,’ the
official ‘ Reports on Agricultural Depression,’ and the Annual Reports of
the United States Secretary of Agriculture ; likewise from papers and
articles by Sir John Lawes, Sir H. Gilbert, Major Craigie, Mr. W. E.
Bear, Mr. Warington, Professor E. M. Shelton, Mr. R. F. Crawford,
Dr. Newton, and Mr. W. Walgrave Chapman. The ‘Journal of the

Royal Agricultural Society,’ the ‘Journal of the Royal Statistical Society,’
_ the ‘Journal of the Board of Agriculture,’ and other periodicals have also

been laid under contribution. I am also indebted to the various official
publications of the Government of Canada, the Department of Agricul-
ture, Queensland, and to friends all over the world.

NS
Last year there were under corn crops in the United Kingdom :—
Wheat . ; . 3,025 sq. miles, producing 56,296,000 bushels.
Barley . : . 38,447 A
Oats) -. 5 . 6,580 i
Total é . 13,052 7

1898, D

31. REPORT—1898.

There is now about as much area under mixed cereals as would have
to be devoted solely to wheat to make our country self-supporting.

B.—The World’s Wheat Crop of 1897-98 from Contributory Areas.’

Bushels Bushels
United States . - - 510,000,000 | Uruguay, Brazil, ke. . f 9,000,000
France : r ; - 240,000,000 | Portugal . . ® ‘ 7,000,000
Russia and Poland . . 230,000,000 | Servia F 5 + r 6,000,000
Austria-Hungary : . 135,000,000 | Holland . 2 A ; 5,000,000
Germany , : A . 105,000,000 | Denmark F ‘ 5,000,000
Spain . j j , - 96,000,000 | Sweden and Norway . ‘ 5,000,000
Italy . 3 d ; . 82,000,000 | Greece : ‘3 ; A, 4,000,000
Trans-Caucasia and Siberia 64,000,000 | Switzerland ; : 4 4,000,000
_ Argentina . 5 4 - 60,000,000 | Bosnia, Montenegro, Cy-
United Kingdom : . 56,000,000 prus, &c. A : a 4,000,000
Canada , & 5 . 55,000,000 | South Africa . - - 4,000,000
Roumania . : ; - 483,000,000 rs
Caucasia (Northern) . - 40,000,000 1,890,000,000
Australasia . ; - 38,000,000 Addimports from Asia
Bulgaria . s ‘ . 80,000,000 and North Africa . 31,000,000
‘Turkey in Europ : - 22,000,000 ——-—-
Belgium . ; : . 16,000,000 Total available wheat
Chili . Fi : A . 15,000,000 supply . : . 1,921,000,000

Table showing the Variations in the Bread-eating Populations and the Available
Supply of Wheat in the Five Yearly Periods from 1878 to 1897, in Millions of
Bushels, and Annual Averages.

S z 1 Say) |
Bread- Wheat Imports | Remain- - Supply |
eating | grown by | from Asia {ders from Total Required in excess

Years ‘ available | for seed
Popula- | ‘Contribu- | and North | former of year’s
feng tory areas’ Africa harvest | SUP ply, |, and food fect
1877-81 | 407-0 1797-0 13°8 1744 1985°2 1812°8 172°4
1882-86 | 432°8 1937°6 41-4 294-0 2273°0 1946:0 327-0
1887-91 | 4608 2043°5 43°2 260°2 23469 | 2102:0 2449
1892-96 | 490°9 2199:2 23°6 265°4 2488-2 2233°8 2544 |
1897-98 | 510°0 1890-0 31:0 3000 2221°0 2310°0 | Deficit |
89:0
C,
The ‘ world’s demand’ for wheat is as follows :—
Bushels Bushels ~
United Kingdom, about . 180,000,000 | Spain . : ; - 10,000,000
Belgium. : : - 24,000,000 | Portugal . 5 : : 4,000,000
Germany . : : . 35,000,000 | Greece : é 4 ¢ 4,500,000
Holland. : ; - 13,000,000 | Islands and tropical lands. 28,000,000
Switzerland 7 ; . 13,500,000 SSS SS
France : : : . 40,000,000 Total 8 a » 356,000,000
Sweden ; A x y 4,000,000
D.

Between 1882 and 1897 the wheat crops were so abundant that over
1,200 million bushels were added to our stores, beside large accumulations of
rye. During this time of golden harvests, the exports from Russia increased,

? Outside the better known areas of wheat supply a certain proportion of wheat
comes from India, Persia, Syria, Anatolia and North Africa. But it is impossible to
get accurate figures as to acreage and yield from these countries; as bread-eaters
derive less than one per cent. of their supplies from these outlying sources, it is con-
venient to call the ordinary areas ‘ contributory areas,’ and to deal with the external
areas no further than to show the volume of imports yielded from year to year.

or
Ov

ADDRESS.

in consequence of the Russian decline in unit consumption of 13:5 per cent.

These reserves have been gradually drawn upon, but enough still re-
mained to obscure the fact that the 1895-6 harvest was 75,000,000 bushels,
and the 1896-7 harvest was 138,000,000 bushels below current needs.

The following table' has been compiled from statistics carefully collected
by Mr. Davis and other observers. The prophetic figures are on the
assumption that population, unit consumption, and steady development
will increase during the next forty-three years as they have increased
since 1871 :—

Food and Seed? ans With yields
F Requiring Ay |
Date Bread-eaters required tas 5 averaging 12°7
per unit. Se whsat bushels acreage |
Bushels required
1871 371,000,000 415 1,540,000,000 121,000,000 |
1881 416,000,000 4:38 1,822,000,000 143,000,000 |
1891 472,600,000 4°50 2,127,000,000 167,000,000 |
1898 516,500,000 4-50 2,324,000,000 183,000,000
1901 536,100,000 4°50 2,412,000,000 190,000,000
1911 603,700,000 4:50 2,717,000,000 214,000,000
1921 674,000,000 4:50 3,033,000,000 239,000,000
1931 746,100,000 4:50 3,357,000,000 264,000,000
| 1941 819,200,000 4:50 3,686,000,000 290,000,000 |

To supply these bread-eaters, the world inhabited by bread-eating

populations grew the following quantities of wheat in each of the desig-

nated five-year periods :—

Bushels—Annual average

Acres—Annual average |

Years
1871-75 1,580,000,000, grown on 131,000,000 |
1876-80 1,746,000,000 5 143,000,000 |
1881-85 1,926,000,000 33 152,000,000
1886-90 1,987,000,000 5 154,000,000
1891-95 2,201,000,000 > 159,000,000

4 T have taken the unit consumption including seed at 4:5 bushels and the yield

_ per acre at 12°7 bushels per annum, this being the average of the whole world. The

exact yield varies with the country in which wheat is grown, as shown by the

following table :—
Average Yield of Wheat per Acre in—

‘ Bushels Bushels
Denmark d 3 ‘ . 41:8 | Poland 16:2
United Kingdom . ‘ : . 291 | Canada . 15:5
New Zealand. : : . 25°5 | Argentina 13:0
Norway . ‘ 5 : 3 7 Zo | Ttaly =: : : 12-1

_ Germany . : ; ; . 23:2 | United States (mean) 12:0

- Belgium. 4 , ° ; 1 cb) |. india: 3 : 9°2
Holland . : ; ‘ : . 21:5 | Russia in Europe . Be rS6

France . : F F 194 | Algeria . ; ‘ : ‘ eh etn
Hungary ; . ; i 18:6 | South Australia ; saree)
Roumania ; ; 18:5 | Australasia , ; p e 68
Austria . 16°3

2 The seed quota is kept constant at 0°6 bushel per unit per annum, but the unit
food requirements are found to increase in each five-yearly period.. There has been a
steady increase of unit wheat requirements by reason of the decrease of unit con-

sumption of rye, maslin, spelt, and buckwheat,
D2

36 REPORT—1898.

Within the same periods wheat was imported from Asia and North
Africa by the ‘bread-eating ’ countries as follows :—

Years Bushels—Annual average Acres—Annual average
1871-75 8,000,000, the net product of 750,000
1876-80 12,000,000 4 “ 1,120,000
1881-85 36,000,000 * a 3,360,000
1886-90 39,000,000 - 5 3,640,000
1891-95 | 34,000,000 ny + 3,200,000

Broadly speaking, 2,000 million bushels are now consumed in the
countries where they are grown, either as food or for seed, while the
balance is exported.

E.
At the present time the disproportion is even higher, owing to unit

consumption gradually increasing from year to year, accompanied by slow
shrinkage in the wheat area.

| é | Per cent. of Increase
— 1871 1884 1897 or Decrease in

Twenty-six Years

Population . - | 371,000,000 | 432,800,000 | 510,000,000 375 increase.
Wheat acres . . | 125,800,000 | 154,300,000 | 158,000,000 25°6 increase.
Rye acres : . | 111,000,000 | 110,300,000 | 106,500,000 4:1 decrease.

The area planted with the two great bread-making grains is actually
less now than thirteen years ago, despite enormous additions to the
population. The area under all the bread-making grains is absolutely 2-2
per cent. less than thirteen years ago, notwithstanding an increase of one-
fifth in requirements for bread.

F.

Notwithstanding this expansion the supplies of wheat were hardly
sufficient for the food demands of the world. As the area under wheat
has increased that under rye has diminished, with the result that scarcely
an acre has been added to the world’s wheat and rye since 1890; and
there was in 1897 a deficit in the two principal bread-making grains of
more than 600,000,000 bushels.

G.

Stocks of wheat and flour in the United States were, relatively to
population, probably never smaller, if so small as now. The following
table (from Bradstreet) shows the visible supply of wheat in the States on
June 1 since 1893 :— ©

Bushels Bushels
1893 F : + 93,700,000 1896 ; ; . 71,300,000
1894 é ' - 80,500,000 1897 ‘ : . 389,200,000

1895 : = - 72,800,000 1898 : : - 32,500,000

ADDRESS. 37

H.

In 1896 the area under wheat in the Governments of Russia and
_ Poland was 36,000,000 acres. But the yearly consumption of wheat per
head during the last ten years has declined 14 per cent., and the consump-
tion of bread is quite 30 per cent. less than is required to keep the popu-
lation in health. The grain reserved for seed has likewise decreased—the
peasantry limiting their sowing with the rise of taxation. The reduction
of 14 per cent. in the unit consumption of bread in Russia has added,
during the last eighteen years, 1,360,000,000 bushels to the general wheat
supply. This factitious excess temporarily staved off scarcity in Europe.

IF

In the year 1897 there were 2,371,441 acres under cultivation in
Manitoba, out of a total of 13,051,375 acres. The total area includes
water courses, lakes, forests, towns, and farms, land unsuitable for wheat-
growing, and land required for other crops.

J.

The most trustworthy estimates give Canada a wheat area of not more
than six millions of acres in the next twelve years, increasing to a maxi-
mum of twelve millions of acres in twenty-five years. The development
of this promising area necessarily must be slow, since prairie land cannot
be laid under wheat in advance of a population sufficient to supply the
needful labour at seed time and harvest. As population increases so do
home demands for wheat.

Acreage, Crop, and Exports of Wheat from Canada from 1891 to 1896.

Year Population Acres Total bushels | Bushels exported
1891 4,833,000 | 2,690,000 62,600,000 3,000,000
egg). 4,885,000 2,910,000 49,700,000 | 10,200,000
W893) ~~ 4,936,000 2,800,000 42,700,000 | 11,000,600
1894. 4,986,000 2,550,000 44,600,000 | 11,000,000
1895 5,040,000 2,560,000 57,500,000 9,200,000
1896. 5,090,000 2,700,000 40,800,000 | 10,400,000
1897 5,140,000 2,900,000 56,600,000 / 8,000,000

The net exports average 8,970,000 bushels yearly, being 24-3 per cent.
of the net product.

K.
The land under wheat in Austro-Hungary, according to the latest
official figures, is eleven million acres. The 1897-8 crop, including that
of Croatia-Slavonia, is fifty-five million bushels below that of 1896-7, and
as exports during the last five years have averaged less than 4,000,000
bushels per annum, the imports of wheat are expected to be large.

~

REPORT—1898.

i

So long ago as April 16, 1891, the following statement by a leading
Indian economist appeared in the ‘Daily Englishman’ of Calcutta :—
‘People do not realise the fact that all the wheat India produces is
required for home consumption, and that this fact is not likely to be
realised until a serious disaster occurs, and that even now less than
9 per cent is exported. It is a self-evident fact that a slight expansion
of consumption, or a partial failure of crops of other food grains, will be
sufficient to absorb the small proportion now exported. Besides, we have
a steady increase of consumption, in consequence of the natural growth
of the population, as well as in the gradual improvement of the condition
of a considerable part of the people in the cities. I believe that, com-
paratively speaking, India will in a few years cease to export wheat, and
soon thereafter become an importing country.’

M.

An average wheat crop on the 1897-8 acreage would be 2,070,000,000
bushels. Adding to this 1,270,000,000 bushels, makes a grand total of
3,340,000,000 bushels. But the estimate in Appendix D shows that in
the year 1931 the bread-eaters will require 3,257,000,000 bushels. Thus
there will be in 1931 a deficiency of 17,000,000 bushels, unless the
average yield per acre be increased.

N.

Sir Andrew Noble informs me that a first-class battleship would carry
about sixty-three tons of cordite, and we may suppose that in a general
action forty tons of this would be expended. Now at Trafalgar, Nelson
had twenty-seven line-of-battle ships, and the allied forces thirty-three.
If we suppose a similar number of modern battleships and first-class
cruisers to be engaged, and each to expend forty tons of cordite, the total
volume of nitrogen set free would be 302,400 cubic metres, or about 3580
tons, equivalent to 2,300 tons of nitrate of soda.

co
DB

‘

REPORTS

ON THE

‘STATE OF SCIENCE.-

———

gg eee

»

;

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE.

Corresponding Societies Convmittee.— Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor R. MELDoLA (Chairman), Mr. T. V. HOLMES
(Secretary), Mr. FRANCIS GaALTon, Sir DotGLas GATon, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Sir J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. WHITAKER,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. CUTHBERT PEEK,
Mr. Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan, and Professor W. W.

WATTS.

The Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association
beg leave to submit to the General Committee the following Report of

the proceedings of the Conference held at Bristol.

The Council nominated Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., Chairman, and
Mr. T. V. Holmes, Secretary to the Bristol Conference.
tions were confirmed by the General Committee at a meeting held at.
Bristol on Wednesday, September 7. The meetings of the Conference
were held at University College on Thursday, September 8, and Tuesday,
September 13, at 3 p.m. The following Corresponding Societies nominated

as delegates’to represent them at the Bristol meeting :—

Andersonian Naturalists’ Society
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical

Society
Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club .

Birmingham Natural History and Philoso-

phical Society.
Bristol Naturatists’ Society
Buchan Field Club

Burton-on-Trent Natural History and

Archeological Society.
Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Clu
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society 4 -

Chesterfield and Midland Counties I
tution of Engineers

b

nsti-

Professor M. Laurie, D.Sc.
William Gray, M.R.I.A,
Alexander Tate, M.Inst.C.E.

G. P. Hughes, J.P.
Alfred Browett.

F. W. Stoddart.
John Gray, B.Sc.
Philip B. Mason, F.L.S.

Professor W. W. Watts, F.G.S-
J. T. Thompson, M.B.
M. H. Mills, M Inst.C.E,

These nomina-

42

REPORT—1898,

Croydon Microscopical and Natural

History Club.

Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian
Field Club.

East Kent Natural History Society .

Essex Field Club

Federated Institution of Minas Tingiffeass

Glasgow Geological Society

Glasgow Natural History Society

Hampshire Field Club. .

Hertfordshire Natural History Society

Holmesdale Natural History Club

Ireland, Statistical and Social Inquiry
Society of

Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society

Leeds Naturalists’ Club 5
Liverpool Engineering Society . °

Liverpool Geographical Society
Liverpool Geological Society

Malton Field Naturalists’ and Scientific
Society.

Manchester Geographical Society . .
Manchester Geological Society .
Manchester Microscopical Society
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society
North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club

North of England Institute of Mining
Engineers

Northamptonshire Natural History Society
Perthshire Society of Natural Science
Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society
Scotland, Mining Institute of .
Somersetshire Archeological and Natural
History Society.

South Eastern Union of Scientific Societies
Toronto Astronomical and Physical Society
Tyneside Geographical Society .

Warwickshire Naturalists’ and ‘Arche
logists’ Field Club.

Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club.

Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic
Society.

Yorkskire Naturalists’ Union . 5

W. F. Stanley, I'.G.S.
Dr. H. Colley March.

Mrs. Edith Abbott.

T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.

M. H. Mills, M.Inst.C.E.
J. B. Murdoch.

G. F. Scott-Elliott, M.A.
T. W. Shore, F.G.S.

J. Hopkinson, F.L.S.
Miss Ethel Sargant.
Professor Bastable, M.A.

P. M. C. Kermode.

Harold Wager, F.L.S.

Professor H. §. Hele - Shaw,
M.Inst.C.E.

Professor Gonner, M.A.
Professor Herdman, F.R.S,
M. B. Slater, F.L.S.

Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S.

Mark Stirrup, F.G.8.

F. W. Hembry.

Clement Reid, F.G.S.

Dr. Wheelton Hind, F.G.S.

T, Forster Brown, M.Inst. C.E.

Beeby Thomson, F.G.S.

Dr. H. R. Mill, F.8.S.E.

J. R. Ashworth, B.Sc.

James Barrowman.

Lieut.-Col. J. R. Bramble, I°.S.A.

Dr. G. Abbott.

W. F. Denning, F.R A.S.
G. E. Smithson.

William Andrews, F.G.S.

Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A.
William Cash, F.G.S8.

Harold Wager, F.L.S.

First Conference, Bristol, September 8, 1898.

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Mr. W.

Whitaker (Chairman of the Conference), Dr, Garson, Mr. Hopkinson,
Professor Meldola, Mr. G. J. Symons, and Mr. T. V. Holmes (Secretary).

delegate present, was taken as read :—

The following Report, a copy of which was in the hands of every

»

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 43

The Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association beg
leave to submit to the General Committee the following report.

The Committee observe with satisfaction that the corresponding societies
steadily increase in number, and that the total number of the members
composing them also increases. For example, in the British Association
Report of the Bath Meeting in 1888 there is a list of 55 corresponding
societies, having a total of 18,950 members. The Toronto Report of last
year shows 69 corresponding societies, having a total of 22,395 members.
On the other hand, the average number of members in each society
appears to have slightly decreased, having been between 344 and 345 in
1888, and between 324 and 325 in 1897. But this is accounted for by
the collapse of the two federations—the Midland Union and the Cumber-
land and Westmoreland Association—and the withdrawal of the Royal
Scottish Geographical Society between the two periods. For in 1888
these three associations numbered among them 4,006 members, as many
as would be found in eleven or twelve average societies.

The Committee are also pleased to know that as the great majority of
the societies, the main purpose of whose existence is local scientific inves-
tigation, are now on the list of corresponding societies, the index of their
more important papers approximates to completeness more and more each
' year as a record of local work. But they nevertheless regret the absence
from their index of papers read before certain societies of more or less
importance which from various causes are not on their list. Primarily by
the term ‘local’ the British Association implies that a society so classed
has its headquarters out of London. But it can hardly be expected that
societies which have long flourished in cities such as Edinburgh and
Dublin will feel that they are ‘local,’ as they might be justified in doing
if their headquarters were at Aberdeen or Belfast, Leeds or Birmingham,
or as if they recognised some county as their sphere of action. Then,
many societies have been formed for the study and advancement of some
science or group of sciences in various parts of the country, with little
reference to local phenomena, which societies appeal to their members
rather as being conveniently near than in any other way.

But though societies such as have just been alluded to may be little
more ‘local’ in feeling and in the nature of their work than London
societies it must sometimes happen that papers devoted to local scientific
investigations are published by them. The Committee therefore regret
the absence from their list of papers of local interest which have been
published by such societies as the following :

The Royal Irish Academy, Royal Dublin Society, Institution of Civil
Engineers of Ireland, Royal Society of Edinburgh, Botanical Society of
Edinburgh, Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, Liverpool Biological
Society, Liverpool Naturalists’ Field Club, Manchester Literary and

_ Philosophical Society.

Fortunately, in most cases, information as to the titles and authors of

_ papers read before local societies which are not corresponding societies

of the Association may be obtained from the ‘ Official Year-book of the
Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland,’ C. Griflin
& Co., London. The ‘ Year-book’ appears every spring, and contains lists
of papers read in the previous year. It will be found that the ‘ Year-book’
and the British Association ‘ Index’ combined leave little to be desired by
the inquirer after papers on any locality in the British Isles.

44 REPORT—1898.,

The following Societies have been added to the list of the Corresponding
Societies : —
The Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto.
The Hull Geological Society.
The South-Eastern Union of Naturalists’ Societies.

The Chairman, Mr. Whitaker, then opened the proceedings. He said
that it had become usual to bring some special subject for discussion
before the first meeting of the Conference. On that occasion he wished
to draw their attention to that of Coast Erosion. All persons were
interested in the scenery of our shores, whether living in counties border-
ing the sea or wholly inland. Moreover, some counties having a coast
line had few or no local scientific societies, and might need help from
others farther from the sea. It was now possible to obtain maps on the
scale of six inches to the mile for all localities, and on these measure-
ments could be made from the edge of the cliffs, at any given time, to the
nearest roads, footpaths, hedges, cottages or other objects, and the
amount of land lost since the map was made could be accurately ascer-
tained. Of course, all such measurements should be dated. . Very good
work had been done in the past with old one-inch maps, but many pre-
cautions were necessary in using them which were needless with six-inch
maps. In illustration of the loss which has been sustained in certain
places, he might mention Sheppey. The Geologists’ Association had
made three excursions there. On their first visit the church and church-
yard of Warden were untouched. Some years later the churchyard was
found to have been partly destroyed, and coffins were seen sticking out
from the edge of the cliff. This year neither church nor churchyard
could be seen, There was another form of encroachment by the sea
which had been well displayed during a recent visit of the Geologists’
Association to Aldeburgh in Suffolk. There they found many cottages,
sheds, and gardens more or less injured, or even destroyed by the heaping
up of masses of shingle in or against them, the result of a storm in Novem-
ber 1897, which had caused much damage over many miles of our coast.
Much injury to land adjoining the sea was often done by blown sand, which
here and there had been driven to considerable heights, and covered areas
of some breadth, as he had recently seen on the northern coast of Cornwall.
The help of the photographer was extremely valuable in giving an unas-
sailable record of a past state of things; the damage done by natural forces
being often greatly obscured in a comparatively short period of time. The
photo-theodolite might often be found useful in this matter. Turning to
the economical aspect of the question, Mr. Whitaker remarked that
there were two things especially worthy of attention, (1) the removal of
shingle from the shore, (2) the quarrying of stone on the faces of sea
cliffs. There were certainly some places at which the removal of shingle
from the shore should never be allowed ; nowhere should it be permitted
without some thought as to the probable result. And the quarrying of
stone on the face of a sea cliff often had a powerful influence in aid-
ing the erosive agencies of Nature. Archzxologists would be interested
in noting spots where old British camps had been partly destroyed
by the sea ; examples of which he (Mr. Whitaker) had noticed on the
Chalk of Dorset, and on the much harder rocks which form the cliffs
of northern Cornwall. Observations of this kind were not only cal-
culated to make us realise the differences between the outlines of the

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 45

coast now and in prehistoric times, but they alsoled us to try and imagine
the probable changes of the future. His remarks were intended simply
to start a discussion on a subject in which he had always taken great
interest.

Mr. T. V. Holmes said that, as secretary of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, he had been requested to write to three gentlemen,
known as having taken much interest in Coast Erosion, to ask them if
they would be good enough to take part in this discussion. One of these
gentlemen, Captain McDakin, regretted his inability to attend, the other
two, Mr. W. H. Wheeler and Mr. A. T. Walmisley, were, he believed,
present. The Chairman had also asked Prof. Armstrong, Mr. Cornish,
and Mr. Spiller to attend.

Mr. W. H. Wheeler had a paper to read on this subject on Monday,
which embodied the results of his observations on Coast Erosion. In his
opinion the movement of shingle along the shore was due to the action
of the tides and not of the winds.

Professor H. E. Armstrong recommended the taking of photographs
by means of the photo-theodolite instead of in the ordinary way.

Mr. Gray said, that the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club had already
noted a great many points with regard to Coast Erosion in their
district, and were going to issue a special report on the subject next
year.

; Mr. A. T. Walmisley had always advocated the protection of the
foreshore by means of groynes. Sea-walls were very useful in the pro-

_ tection of cliffs when placed not close to, but a short distance in front of,
_ the cliff to be protected. Waves then might rush up the face of the

wall without touching the cliff.

_ Mr. Vaughan Cornish had come to the conclusion that the protection
of one part of the shore was a bad thing for the rest of the district.
Considering how restricted was the area with which lords of manors,
corporations, and local authorities of all kinds concerned themselves, he
thought that no local work of shore protection should be begun till it
had been sanctioned by a Government Board. In any study of the
results of Coast Erosion, the Coastguard would be able to render most
valuable assistance. They were aiways tramping along the shore, they
were to a considerable extent trained observers, and they might be
simultaneously at work all round the British Isles, if the consent of the
Admiralty could be obtained to their co-operation in the study of Coast
Erosion.

Mr. G. J. Symons mentioned, in illustration of the danger of allow-
ing people to do as they pleased on the shore, that his grandfather at
the beginning of this century was building martello towers on the
southern shores of England. One day he observed some men in a boat
off Bognor taking stones to the mainland, and with them building a
house. His grandfather warned them that the sea would reclaim the
stones some day. And recently he had learned that the people there
a been put to much trouble in endeavouring to restrain the inroads of
the sea.

Mr. Clement Reid referred to the waste of land along the west coast ;
and said that it was most necessary in that district to have the new
ordnance survey maps.

Mr. J. Spiller gave details as to the encroachments of the sea at
Southwold in Suffolk. Quite recently masses of shingle had been thrown

AG REPORT—1898,

on the land so as to cover a whole pasture field. Nothing had hitherto
been done to check these inroads beyond the provision of groynes. Many
old landmarks had disappeared, and the gun-battery was a thing of the
past. He thought Government intervention desirable, and that it would
be a good thing to obtain the co-operation of the Coastguard in noting
the changes on our shores.

Mr. Tate said that the amount of Coast Erosion differed very much
in different districts. In some quarters there seemed to be a feeling in
favour of restrictions on the protective measures allowable in any given
case. It would, however, be difficult to obtain Government regulation
unless it should appear that there was a manifest public need for it.

Mr. Wheeler thought that the retention of a considerable mass of
shingle in front of a place would furnish a better protection than a sea
wall. He greatly approved of an attempt to obtain the services of the
Coastguard in making a survey of the coast, as at present he had found
it very difficult to get trustworthy evidence, the most opposite stories
being told in almost every case. People did not know because they did
not really observe, while the occupation of a Coastguardsman neces-
sarily made him observant. He did not approve, however, of general
Government regulations.

Mr. Scott-Elliot thought that it would be a very good thing to obtain
the co-operation of the Coastguard.

Professor Meldola remarked that the general opinion certainly ap-
peared to be in favour of an attempt to obtain the approval of the
Admiralty for their wish to secure the co-operation of the Coastguard,
and the Conference would be acting within its powers in sending up a
recommendation on the subject. He would therefore move :—

‘That the Council of the British Association be requested to bring
under the notice of the Admiralty, the importance of securing systematic
observations upon the erosion of the sea coasts of the United Kingdom,
and that the co-operation of the Coastguard might be profitably secured
for this purpose.’

Mr. Wheeler asked whether the matter should not be referred to the
Coast Erosion Committee of the British Association.

The Chairman reminded the last speaker that the labours of that
Committee were ended. He thought that the Coastguard were perfectly
capable of doing the work proposed, and that they would be pleased to
do it.

Discussion then ensued on various points of detail, among others on
the question where specimens of shingle collected at certain spots in order
to note its movements along our shores should be stored. In this Messrs.
Wheeler, Shore, Symons, and Gray took part.

Professor Meldola remarked that the resolution did not commit
either the Admiralty or themselves to any particular line. Should the
Admiralty ask how it -was suggested that the Coastguard should make
observations, then it might be for that Conference to draw up rules for
their adoption.

Mr. Gray seconded the resolution, and after some remarks from
Mr. Sowerbutts, Professor Meldola, the Chairman, and Mr. Hopkinson,
it was put to the meeting and carried.

Professor Meldola then announced that he had just received the
following letter from Professor Watts :—

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 47

Corndon, Worcester Road, Sutton, Surrey : September 7, 1898.
Dear Sir,—It might be as well to report to the Conference of Dele-
gates that the B. A. Geological Photographs Committee has formed a
collection of duplicate photographs and slides, which can be sent during
the winter to any local scientific society desiring to make use of them.
Tt consists of about 250 prints in two albums, and about 100 lantern
slides.
Faithfully yours,
W. W. Warts.

Dr. Abbott wished to know if there would be any opportunity of
discussing the subject of the Federation of Local Societies at that meeting
of the British Association. The Chairman thought that it might be
brought forward at the next meeting of the Conference.

Second Meeting of the Conference, September 13.

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Professor
Meldola, Mr. Whitaker, Dr. Garson, Rev. J. O. Bevan, Mr. Hopkinson,
Mr. G. J. Symons, and Mr. T. V. Holmes (Secretary).

The Chairman (Mr. Whitaker) announced that action had been taken

with regard to the Resolution on Coast Erosion passed at their last

meeting. It had been submitted to the Committees of the Geological and
of the Geographical Sections, both of which unanimously supported the
recommendations contained in it.

Dr. Garson then took the chair, Mr. Whitaker being obliged to leave.

Uniformity of Size of Pages of Scientific Societies’ Publications.

Professor 8. P. Thompson said that he had been asked to bring before
the Conference a matter on which a Committee of the British Association

had already made one Report, and still continued to exist, with the

intention of making another. This question was the importance of
adopting one or two uniform standard sizes for the pages of scientific
publications. All who were engaged in any kind of scientific investigation
were greatly indebted to the reprinted papers on the subjects in which
they were interested which were sent to them by their fellow workers.
And all recognised the great advantage given by uniformity in the size
of their pages, which permitted them to be bound together and per-
manently preserved. The great desirability of promoting uniformity in
size of page had caused Section A some four years ago to promote the
formation of a Committee whose object was to prescribe the adoption of
certain standard octavo and quarto sizes. The Report of this Committee
would be found in the Ipswich Report of the British Association, pp. 77—
79 (1895).

The Peas octavo size recommended was : Paper demy, the pages
measuring 14 cm. x22 cm., or, when uncut, 53in.x8#in. The width,
measured from the stitching to the outer edge of the printed matter, to be
12 cm., or 48in., and the height of the printed portion, including the
running headline, to be 18 cm., or 7 in.

48 REPORT—1898.

The standard quarto size: Paper demy, the pages measuring, when
uncut, 22 cm. x 28-5 em., or 8fin. wide x 11} in. high. Letter-press not
to exceed the measurements of 74 in. by 9 in.

It was also desirable that each article should begin a page, and that,
if possible, it should begin on a right-hand page. It is then practicable
to bind that article with others without binding up with it the last page
of another. Many other details dealing with what is desirable in scientific
publications may be found, with illustrations, in the Report of the
Committee in the Ipswich volume. A method of splitting printed pages,
useful in separating successive articles in a journal, for collections of
pamphlets, was incidentally described.!

The Chairman (Dr. Garson) remarked that they were greatly in-
debted to Professor Thompson, who had raised a question of much
practical importance.

Professor Meldola thought that they were much indebted to Professor
Thompson for bringing this matter forward. To endeavour to promote
the uniformity of size which had just been advocated was one of the
original functions of these Conferences, and he hoped that the suggestions
of Professor Thompson might bear fruit. It was the duty of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee to collect the publications of the Correspond-
ing Societies at Burlington House, but, on gazing at the shelves on which
they lay, a great want of uniformity in size became manifest. Some
societies also did themselves injustice as regards paper and printing.

Mr. Tate was glad that the matter had been brought forward, on
account of the great advantage arising from being able to bind together
papers and pamphlets issued by various societies. He would bring the
subject before the Society he represented.

Mr. Clement Reid suggested that the original paging should be pre-
served in reprints.

The Rev. J. O. Bevan hoped that when the matter was brought before
the Corresponding Societies by the delegates the general interest in
uniformity might be dwelt upon, as many societies might otherwise feel
indifferent towards it.

Mr. Gray said that as most papers on local subjects were reprinted,
these suggestions would probably determine the form of the reprints.

Mr. Abbott thought that it would be well if the secretaries of societies
issuing publications irregular in size and form had their attention drawn
to the subject. ;

Mr. Hopkinson was acquainted with the publications of most of the
local societies, and thought that the number which were irregular in
size and form was very small indeed. The chief offenders were socie-
ties which, from want of sufficient funds, published reprints from local
newspapers. He thought each paper should begin at the top of a

' At the request of the Chairman of the Committee, the following note is added
on the method of splitting a page of printed matter described verbally to the Com-
mittee :—Gum to each face of the page that is to be split a rather larger leaf of
paper of a thin tough quality—resembling bank-note paper. The projecting edges
should not be gummed. Let them become quite dry. Procure two small wooden
rollers, about 7 inches (or more) long and 3 inch (or less) in diameter. Then put
the edges of the prepared page between the rollers, and, grasping them in the hands,
60 roll the respective edges of the two leaves around the rollers as to peel them or
tear them away from one another. The use of the rollers is to prevent the page
from tearing irregularly. Finally, soak off the two leaves in water. Not every kind
of printed paper can be split without tearing.—S. P. T.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 49

page; but the suggestion that each paper should begin on the right-
hand page could not always be adopted on account of the loss of space
which would sometimes occur thereby where there were many short
papers. The present discussion would probably be of more service in
guiding new societies than in causing alterations in the publications of
old ones, which would spoil the uniformity of a set of volumes.

_°.The Chairman, Dr. Garson, thought that they should give their best
thanks to Professor Thompson for bringing this matter before them. The
time also was opportune, as we were nearly at the close of the nineteenth
century, and the beginning of another century would be an excellent
period for the commencement of a new series in cases where it was
desirable in the interests of uniformity. The suggestion that reprints
might be of one uniform size, even if the original publication were not so,
‘was one of great importance. It might be worth while to take up the
question of publications next year as a special subject, and it would be a
good thing if the delegates would consider the matter during the winter
and consult their societies upon it, so as to be able to discuss it with
authority upon another occasion.

The Rey. J. O. Bevan suggested that they might ask the Corresponding
Societies to come to some conclusion upon this question, and forward it to
the secretary of the Committee.

Professor Meldola said that they would be quite prepared next year to
name those societies which were offenders with respect to uniformity.
Mr. Hopkinson had pointed out that they were few in number.

Mrs. Abbott suggested that it would be a good thing to offer
information on the subject to as many societies as possible.

Lieut.-Col. Bramble asked what was to be done in the case of societies
which had no delegates present.

The Chairman replied that the report cf the Conference was sent to
every society on their list. And any information applied for by other
‘societies would be given.

f

Section A.

Mr. G. J. Symons, representing Section A, said that there was only
one matter to which he wished to draw attention. Professor Milne, as
most of them knew, was making some highly important observations on
earthquake tremors. But he was then working in a house in the Isle of
Wight, which was in so bad a sanitary state that many fears were enter-
tained with regard to his health. It had been suggested that there were
houses in Richmond Park well suited to be the scene of Professor Milne’s
labours, and that it might be well to approach the Government to see
whether one of them could be obtained for him. If not, perhaps some
rich man, on being made acquainted with the case, might lend a house for
a few years. Nothing sumptuous was asked for, only quarters which
were water-tight and healthy.

Section C.

Mr. Beeby Thompson said that a fine specimen of a Dinosaur had
recently been discovered near Northampton. It would, however, bea very

expensive task to uncover it carefully, and it was necessary that the work
1898, E

50 REPORT—1898.

should be proceeded with without delay. He wished therefore cither to
obtain a grant from the British Association, or to induce any rich people
who might hear of the case and be interested therein, to assist in pro-
viding the necessary funds.

The Chairman (Dr. Garson) thought that an effort should be made to
bring the matter before the scientific societies of Northampton.

Mr. Gray stated that the Society he represented was second to none in
its efforts to collect geological photographs. He thought much more
might be done by other societies in that work.

Section H.

The Chairman wished to draw the attention of the Conference to the
Ethnographical Survey, an investigation in which few local societies were
co-operating. Full directions for guidance in the various departments of
the work might be obtained from the papers issued by the Ethnographical
Survey Committee. The amateur photographer would find a wide field of
action in noting physical characteristics. The important point was to get
a common standard of size, a very convenient one being one-seventh of
the natural size. Another department was that of the ancient monuments
and general archeology of a district. Then came the collection of its
folklore, and the noting of local names and dialects.

Mr. Gray said that the Society he represented had much sympathy
with the objects of the Ethnographical Survey Committee, especially as
regards the cataloguing of antiquities. He hada list of all the Holy
Wells of Antrim and Down, together with photographs of them. He
much wished to obtain the co-operation of the Royal Society of <Anti-
quaries of Ireland in order that a complete survey of Irish antiquities
might be made.

The Chairman remarked that full instructions on all matters connected
with the Ethnographical Survey could be obtained on application to the
Secretary of the Committee, and it was resolved that the Secretary should
be asked to write to the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland pointing
out the plans and objects of the Ethnographical Survey.

Mr. Browett said that he was much impressed by the importance and
interest of the Survey, and would have much pleasure in mentioning it to
the Council of his Society on his return. He thought, however, that it
was desirable that one general plan should be sent to all the Correspond-
ing Societies that the work might be done everywhere on the same lines.

Mr. Hartland, the Secretary of the Ethnographical Survey Committee,
said that it would greatly help his Committee if each of the Corresponding
Societies could see its way to take up one or more branches of this
inquiry. He had explained at previous Conferences that it was by no
means necessary that all branches should be taken up everywhere. The
Committee would be thankful for local help in any department of their
work. He would be happy to send to the Corresponding Societies all the
information they might require as to the nature of the work and the way
in which the Committee wished it to be carried on.

The Chairman hoped that the delegates would give some account to
their respective Societies of the discussions which had taken place. The
proceedings then terminated.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

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54 REPORT—1898.

Index of the more important Papers, and especially those referring to Local
Scientific Investigations, published by named Societies during the year
ending June 1, 1898.

** This catalogue contains only the titles of papers published in the volumes or
parts of the publications of the Correspondence sent to the Secretary of the
Committee in accordance with Rule 2.

Section A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PuysicaAL SCIENCE.

Auston, GARWoopD. Comparison of Evaporation Results in New South
Wales and South Africa. ‘Trans. S. African Phil. Soc.’ rx. 8-19,
1897.

Anpson, Rev. Wu. The Meteorology of Dumfries for 1896. ‘Trans.
Dum. Gal. N. H. A. Soe.’ No. 13, 33-88, 1898.

Beattie, Dr. J. C., and §. pe Smonan. Experiments with Réntgen
Rays, Ultra-Violet Light and Uranium. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’
xxvii. 284-291, 1897.

CAMPBELL-BAyARD, F. Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for
1896. ‘Trans. Croydon M. N. H. C.’ 1896-97, 235-240 and Ap-
pendices, 1897.

CARADOC AND SEVERN VALLEY Firetp Cuus. Meteorological Notes, 1897.
‘ Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 7, 28-33, 1898.
Cotz, W. The Great Storm of Midsummer Day, 1897. ‘ Essex Natura-

list,’ x. 112-129, 1897.

—— The High Tide of November 29, 1897. Ibid. 277-283, 1898.

Craw, H. Hewar. Rainfall and Temperature at West Foulden and at
Rawburn during 1895. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xv. 3878,
1897.

CRAWFORD, LAWRENCE. The Tides. ‘Proc. Birm. N. H. Phil. Soe.’
x. 102-112, 1897.

CRESSWELL, ALFRED. Records of Meteorological Observations taken at
the Observatory of the Birmingham and Midland Institute. bid.
xI. 26 pp., 1898.

Crossman, Major-Gen. Sir Wm. Meteorological Observations at Cheswick,
1895. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xv. 380, 1897.

Dr Grave, L. W. (Chesterf. Mid. Count. Inst.) Photographs of Flashes
of Electric Detonators. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 203-206,
1898.

Der Rance, C. E. The Earthquake of December 17, 1896, ‘Trans. N.
Staff. F. C.’ xxx1. 159-1738, 1897.

Eaton, H. §. Dorset Monthly Rainfall, 1856-95. ‘Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F. C.’ xviir. 1538-168, 1897.

— Returns of Rainfall, &c., in Dorset in 1896. Ibid. 196-206,
1897.

EnnacomBe, Rey. Canon. The Great Drought of 1896. ‘Proc. Bath
N.H. A. F. C.’ vit. 298-306, 1897.

Evans, Franxuen G. The Meteorology and Kindred Phenomena of 1896,
‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxrx. 18-43, 1897.

Everett, Prof.J.D. Recent Advances in Electricity (Inaugural Address).
‘ Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1896-97,’ 17-80, 1897.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 55

Frynecan, JoHn. The History and Properties of the Rontgen Rays.
Thid. 55-59.

Forpuam, H.G. The Earthquake of December 17, 1896, as it affected
the County of Hertford. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ 1x. 183-208,
1897.

Fourcape, H. G. Note on the Three-Point, or Pothenot’s, Problem.
‘Trans. §. African Phil. Soc.’ rx. 51-53, 1898.

Gray, P. L. ‘Grey-Glow’ and ‘ Red-Glow’ (Abstract of a Paper by O.
Lummer). ‘Journ. Birm. N. H. Phil. Soe.’ rm. 144-148, 1897.

Hersert, J.H. The Solar Kelipse of August 9, 1896. ‘ Report Nott.
Nat. Soc. 1896-7,’ 13-35, 1897.

Hopxinson, JOHN. ‘Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the Year
1896. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ rx. 139-147, 1897.

— Meteorological Observations taken at The Grange, St. Albans,
during the Year 1896. Ibid. 175-182.

‘The Climate of St. Albans, deduced from Meteorological Observa-
tions taken during the Ten Years 1887-1896. Ibid. 215-228.

— Climatological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the Year
1896. Ibid. 241-244.

Horstey, 8. (HE. Kent N. H. Soc.) Rainfall in India. ‘ South-Eastern
Naturalist,’ 1. 21-28, 1897.

Howarp, AuBert. Coal Dust Explosions. ‘Trans. Car. and Sev.
Vall. F. C.’ 11. 83-87, 1898.

Hournarp, 8. F., and others. Rainfall and Temperature in Essex in
1897. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x. 287-240, 1898.

Lomas, J. The Earthquake of December 17, 1896. ‘ Proc. Liverpool
Geol. Soc.’ vu. 91-98, 1897.

Macrintyre, Dr. Joun. A Demonstration on the ‘X’ Rays: a Résumé of
Experiments since his former Demonstration before the epciely-
‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxvur. 267-283, 1897.

M‘Kenprick, Prof. J.G. Sound and Speech Waves as revealed by the
Phonograph (The Science Lecture for 1896). ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil.
Soc.’ xxvut. 201-235, 1897.

Mansewt, THos. The ‘Rontgen or ‘X’ Rays. ‘Trans. Herts N. H.
Soc.’ rx. 185-188, 1897.

Marxuam, C. A.’ Meteorological Report. ‘Journal N’ton. N. H. Soe.’
1x. 196-202, 237-244, 1897.

Marguam, C. A., and F. Coventry. Meteorological Report. Ibid.
273-280, 283-293.

Mawtey, Epwarp. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in
Hertfordshire during the year 1896. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ 1x
229-237, 1897.

Meyricr, E. Summary of Meteorological Observations, 1897. ‘Report
Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 46, 89- “108, 1898.

Moorr, A. W. Report of the Meteorological Section. ‘Yn Lioar Manni-
nagh,’ 111. 296, 1898.

Netson, Epwarp M. Microscopic Vision. ‘Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’
vit. 141-166, 1897.

NewsHotmeE, Artuur. Meteorological Report for the Year ending June
1897. ‘Rep. Brighton N. H. Phil. Soc.,’ 1896-97, 34-38.

Nicnott, Wm. The Electric Cinematograph. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H.
Phil. Soc. 1896-97,’ 62-65, 1897.

Percy, J. B., W. Pye, and J. C. Puiirs. Sectional Report on Meteoro-
logy. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxr. 150-152, 1897.

56 REPORT—1898.

Preston, A. W. Meteorological Notes, 1896. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat.
Soe.’ v1. 278-279, 1897.

Roserts, A. W. 1. 8. Velorum; 2. Light Curve of S. Velorum; 3.-
Graphical Determination of the Orbit of an Algol Variable. ‘Trans.
§. African Phil. Soc.’ rx. 23-30, 1897.

— Variation of Lacaille 5861. Ibid. 42-45, 1897.

Latitude of Lovedale. Ibid. 46-47.

Smiruson, T. S. High Temperature of September 1895. ‘Trans.
Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ v. 1-2, 1897.

Warp, Epwarp. The. New Light and the New Photography. ‘Trans.
Manch. Mic. Soc. 1896,’ 72-77, 1897.

WE tts, J. G., and T. Gress. The Weather of 1896. ‘ Trans. Burt.
N. H. Arch. Soe.’ 111. 265-268, 1897.

Wauitrtey, J. Meteorological Table ‘for the Year 1897 (Halifax).
‘Halifax Naturalist,’ m. 118-119, 1898.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Austin, Dr. Wu. L. (N. Eng. Inst.) Pyritic Smelting. ‘Trans. Fed.

Inst. Min. Eng.’ xt111-130, 1897.

Benson, Dr. P. P. (N. Eng. Inst.) Shaw Gas-tester. Ibid. xm. 850-

* $852, 1897.

Bepsoy, Dr. P. P., and J. Cooper (N. Eng. Inst.) Experiments with the

~ Shaw Gas-tester. Ibid. x1v. 361-365, 1898.

Bowser, Haroxp (Midland Inst. Eng.) Recovery of Cyanogen and other
Residual Products from the Waste Gases of Coke Ovens. Ibid.
xu. 835-840, 1897.

Harcreaves, A. F. High Grade Gunpowder. ‘Trans. Mining Inst.
Scot.’ xrx. 2-138, 1897. ‘ ,
Orsman, W. J. Some Defects in Gunpowder as a Blasting Agent.

Ibid. 57-61.

Stuart, D. M.D. The Chemistry of Colliery Explosions due to Gas
Derived from Coal Dust. ‘Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ vir. 109-130,
1897. .

Section C.—GzEoLoey.

Assott, W. J. L. History of the Weald, with special reference to the
Age of the Plateau Deposit. ‘Trans. S. E. Union,’ 1. 26-28, 1897.
AnpDREWs, W. On Recent Boreholes in Warwickshire. ‘Proc. Warw.

N. A. F. C.’ 42, 31-84, 1897.

Barxe, F. The Physical Geography of the British Islands during the
Carboniferous Epoch. (Annual Address.) ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’
XxxI. 19-88, 1897.

Sectional Report: Geology. Ibid. 124-126.

Barnes, J.,and W. F. Horroyp. On some of the Rocks and Minerals of
North Staffordshire. Ibid. 134-140.

Beprorp, J. E. Geology of the Rocks of the Ilfracombe District of
Devonshire. ‘Trans. Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ Part X. 85-36, 1897.

Beuirante, L. L. Report of the Delegate to the International Geo-
logical Congress. ‘ Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 1-4, 1898. ‘

Bett, Aurrep. On the Pliocene Shell-beds at St. Erth. ‘Trans.
Cornw. R. Geol. Soc.’ x1r. 111-166, 1898. “

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. BF

Berrranp, M. Note on Extensions of the Coal-field of the North of
France. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xm. 583-584, 1897.

Binns, G. J. Notes on Borings at Netherseal, Ashby-de-la- Zouch,”
Leicestershire. Ibid. 595-597.
Boron, Hersert. The Nomenclature of the Seams of the Lancashire

Lower Coal Measures. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 428-467, 1898.

Bounron, W. 8. Notes on the Microscopic Characters of some Rocks
occurring as Erratics in the Lichfield District. ‘ Proc. Birm,'N. HH.
Phil. Soc.’ x. 73-80, 1897. /

Boyze, J. R. The Erosion of the Holderness Coast. ‘ Trans. Hull Geol.
Soe.’ m1. 16-17, 1897.

Broviz, Rev. P. B. Sketch of the Labyrinthodontia and Reptilia in the
Trias, chiefly with reference to those in the British New Red Sandstone,
and more especially in Warwickshire. ‘ Proc. Warw. N. A. F. C.’ 42
92-97, 1897. :

Brown, Campsetu. On the Occurrence of Gasteropods (Platyostomella
Scotoburdigalensis) in a Lepidodendron from Craigleith Quarry, Edin-
burgh. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vi. 244-251, 1897.

Bucxay, 8.8., andE. Wmson. The Geological Structure of the Upper
Portion of Dundry Hill. ‘Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ vim. 188-231,

1897. ° ’

Burton, F. M.. The Past History of the Trent. ‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soc.
- wy. 15-16, 1897.

Lincolnshire Coast Boulders. ‘The Naturalist for 1898, 188-138,
= 1898.

Capprcx, Miss. The Volcanoes of Java. ‘ Journ. Birm. N. H. Phil. Soc.’
1. 106-109, 1897.

Capeti, H. M. Note on the Occurrence of Vivianite in an Old Lake
Bed at Cauldhame, near Linlithgow. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vir.
173, 1897.

— Some Geological Features of the Coast of Western Australia. Thid.
174-182.

—— A Visit to the New Zealand Volcanic Zone. Ibid. 183-200.

Catpwetn, Gro. Notes on Hematite found in the Maypole Sinking Pits.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 898, 1898.

Cannaway, Dr. C. A Criticism on the Chemical Evidence for the Exist-
ence of Organisms in the Oldest Rocks. ‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’
vii. 98-103, 1897.

Carrer, Rev. W. L. Ancient British Volcanoes. (Presidential Address.)
‘Trans. Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ Part x. 5-8, 1897.

—— Geology and Scenery. (Presidential Address.) Ibid. 39.

Gas, W. The Fossil Flora of the Halifax Hard Bed. Ibid. 43-44.

Coarrs, Henry. Annual Address (The Origin of Soils, with Special
reference to the Soils of Perthshire). ‘ Proc. Perths. Soc. N. Sci.’ 1.
exl.-exlvii. 1897.

Coates, H., and P. Macyarr. On a Banded Hornblende Schist at
Balhoulan Quarry, Pitlochry. Ibid. 154-166.

Cossotp, E. 8. Origin of Volcanoes. ‘Trans. Car. and Sev. Vall. F.
C.’ 11. 20-24, 1898.

Cone, Rev. E. M. St. Austin’s Stone. ‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soe.’ rr.
24-25, 1897.

Conn, W. Report on Boring in Search of Coal in Essex. ‘ Essex
Naturalist,’ x. 186-139, 1897.

58 REPORT—1898.

Cooxr, Jonn H. Lincolnshire Boulders. ‘The Naturalist for 1897,’
283-284, 1897; for 1898, 17-20, 85-87, 1898.

— The Glacial Deposits of Cleethorpes and District. ‘The Naturalist
for 1897,’ 277-281, 1897.

Corr, Tuos. H. The Igneous Rocks of Aran Mowddwy. ‘ Proc.
Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ vim1. 66-90, 1897.

Covuxtas, F. (Midland Inst. Eng.) Geology of Deepcar and its Sur-
rounding Hills. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xu. 341-346, 1897.

Curniz, JAMES, jun. The Minerals of the Tertiary Eruptive Rocks of
Ben More, Mull. ‘ Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vir. 223-229, 1897. -

On Apophyllite from Cape Colony. Ibid. 252-253.

Currriss, 8. W. Mining Experiencesin Cornwall and Cheshire. ‘Trans.
Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ Part x. 12-14, 1897.

From Fort William to John o’Groat’s. Ibid. 41-42.

Dawkxrns, Prof. W. Boyp. Recent Additions to the Manchester Museum.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 421-424, 1898.

Dickson, E., and P. Honuanp. On some of the Geological Features of
the Neighbourhood of the Varange Fjord, Arctic Norway, with
Analyses of Terrace Deposits, Glacial Waters, &c. ‘Proc. Liverpool
Geol. Soc.’ vir. 180-150, 1897.

Dovetas, T. Notes on the Southern Highlands of Scotland. ‘ Trans.
Croydon M. N. H. C. 1896-97,’ 218-219, 1897.

Drake, H.C. Geological Rambles. ‘ Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’
Iv. 467-474, 1898.

Durnrorp, H. Sr. J. (Midland Inst. Eng.) Notes on the Change in
the Character of the Barnsley Coal-Seam, between Rotherham and
Pontefract. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xrv. 589-594, 1898.

Dymonp, T. S. A Manganiferous Conglomerate in Essex. ‘ Essex
Naturalist,’ x. 210-212, 1898.

Dymonp, T. S., and F. W. Maryon. ‘Freshwater Chalk’ at Halstead,
Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ Ibid. 213-515.

East Kent Natura History Society. Report of Committee on Coast
Erosion, 1896-7. ‘South Eastern Naturalist,’ 1. 5-6, 1897.

Enys, J.D. Anniversary Address. ‘Trans. Cornw. R. Geol. Soc.,’ x1t.
79-90, 1898.

Fuert, Jonn §. <A Hypersthene Andesite from Dumyat (Ochils).
‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vir. 290-297, 1897.

Forsytu, Dr. D. The Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. ‘Trans. Leeds
Geol. Assoc.’ Part x. 27-85, 1897.

Fox, Howarp. On a Nodule of Flint containing Liquid. ‘ Trans.

- Cornw. R. Geol. Soe.’ x11. 177-178, 1898.

Notes on Veryan and other Limestones associated with Radio-
larian Cherts in South Cornwall. Ibid. 179-184.

Fox-Srraneways, C. Notes on the Stratigraphy of the Newer Rocks of
the Netherseal Borings. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xi. 598-599,
1897.

Fryar, Wm. (N. Eng. Inst.) The Mineral Resources of the Colony of
Queensland. Ibid. xm. 356-871, 1897.

Gascoyne, R. (Midland Inst. Eng.) Transvaal Coal-fields. Ibid. 414-
429.

Goovcuitp, J. G. Some of the Modes of Origin of Oil Shales, with
remarks upon the Geological History of some other Hydrocarbon
Compounds. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 121-181, 1897.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. a9

Goopcuitp, J. G. Notes on the Minerals of the Hilderston Silver Mines,
Linlithgow. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 201-202,

—— Desert Conditions in Britain (Opening Address). Ibid. vi. 203—
922, 1897; and ‘Trans. Glasg. Geol. Soc.’ x1. 71-104, 1898.

— Remarks upon a recent Boring for Water at North Berwick.
‘Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc.’ vit. 286-240, 1897.

—— Notes on a Borehole through the Rocks of the Calton Hill. Ibid.
259-264.

— Geological Notes on the Excavations at the Leith Dock Extension,
1897. Ibid. 312-316.

Grrenty, Epwarp. On the Occurrence of Sillimanite Gneisses in
Anglesey. Ibid. 230, 1897.

Incipient Metamorphism in the Harlech Grits. Ibid. 254-258.

GREENWELL, J.C. On the Correlation of the Dover and Somersetshire
Coal-fields. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 378-891, 1898.

Groom, Taro. T. Fossil Birds. ‘Trans. Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ Part x. 20—
22, 1897.

Gunx, Wu. Obituary Notice of Hugh Miller, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., of H.M.
Geological Survey of Scotland, with list of his papers. ‘History
Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xv. 822-324, 1897.

— Notes on the Geology of the Isle of Arran. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol.
Soe.’ vir. 268-276, 1897.

_ Hawper, Avgert H. Mining in Rhodesia. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min.

Eng.’ xi. 609-611, 1897.

Hatximonp, W. T. (N. Eng. Inst.) Notes on the Coal-seams of the
Transvaal, and Description of a Modern Pit-head Plant. Ibid. 372-
380.

Hatsr, Epwarp. Observations on some Gold-bearing Veins of the
Coolgardie, Yilgarn, and Murchison Gold-fields, Western Australia.
Ibid. xiv. 289-811, 1898.

Harrison, W. JERomE, jun. The Minerals of Warwickshire. ‘Journ.
Birm. N. H. Phil. Soe.’ 1. 111-113, 1897.

Hawitns, C.E. Occurrence of Iron Ores and Iron Manufacture in the
Weald. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ x11. 605-608, 1897.

Hepp, Professor M. F. On Analcime with New Forms. ‘Trans.
Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 241-2438, 1897.

— On the Crystalline Forms of Riebeckite. Ibid. 265-267.

Henperson, Jonny. On the Calton Hill and its relation to the Rocks in
the Neighbourhood. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vir. 189-144, 1897.

H:xpr, Dr. G. J. Notes on the Gravels of Croydon and its Neighbour-
hood. ‘Trans. Croydon M. N. H. C. 1896-97,’ 219-283, 1897.

Honreatr, B. A Geological Study of the Horsforth Valley. ‘Trans.

, 4 Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ Part x. 49-50, 1897.

Houmes, W. Murron. Some Forms of Silica. ‘Trans. Croydon M. N.
H. C. 1896-97,’ 213-218, 1897.

Horne, Jonx. Obituary Notice of Hugh Miller. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol.
Soe.’ vir. 182-138, 1897.

—— On the Relation of Valley Moraines to Underlying Strata in
Coulin Forest, Ross-shire. Ibid. 145-147.

—— A New Feature in the Glaciation of Sutherland. ‘Trans. Inver-
ness Sci. Soe.’ rv. 27-29, 1898.

— A Bone Cave in Sutherland. Ibid. 118-119.

— Geological Discoveries in North-West Highlands. Ibid. 151-157.

60 REPORT—1898.

Horne, Joun.. An Igneous Rock in Assynt. ‘ Trans. Inverness Sci. Soc.’:
Ly, 157- 158. :

..The Ice-Shed in the North-West Highlands. Ibid. 212-213. .— -

— Volcanic Necks in Applecross. Ibid. 250-253. :

Howarp, F. T. - Notes on the Base of the Rhaetic Series at Lavernock
Point. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxrx. 64-66, 1897.

Howarp, F. T., and E. W. Smatu. Further Notes on the Geology of
Skomer Island. Ibid. 62-63.

Howarty, J H. The Constituents of Granite. ‘Trans. Leeds Geol.
Assoc.’ Part x. 11, 1897. :

Hows, J. Auten. On the Pockets of Sand and Clay in the Limestone
of Derbyshire and Staffordshire. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxr. 143-
149, 1897.

Hoyze, W. E. Minerals from the Nickel Mines of Sudbury, Ontario.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 426-427, 1898.

Hutt Groxoeicat Society. Report of the East Riding Boulder Com-»
mittee. September 1,:1896. ‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soc.’ 111. 6-9, 1897.

Humpurey, Ropert. On the Occurrence of supposed Caleareous Tufa

_ in the Interglacial Deposits of Blackpool. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soe.’
xxv. 494-497, 1898.
JOHNSTONE, JOHN T: Note on the Occurrence of Limestone Nodules
containing Cementstone Fossils in Glacial Deposits near Moffat.
. ©Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vir. 283-235, 1897.
J UKES-BrownE, A. J. The Origin of the Vale of Marshwood and of the
© Greensand -Hills of West = ‘Proc. Dorset N.H. A. F.C.’ xvut.
- 174-184, 1897.

Even, H.W. F. Tin-mining in Tasmania. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min.

© Eng.’ x11. 570-582, 1897. :

Kneraan, Dr. P. Q. The Rocks of Patterdale (Ullswater) ‘The Natu-
ralist’’ for 1898. 5-10, 1898.

Kenpatu, Percy F. The: Glacial Phenomena of the alee ‘Trans.
Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ Part x. 14-20,.1897..\. . i

With Hammer and Camera in:the Alps. Ibid. 40.

Kennarp, A. §., and B. B.’ Woopwarp.. The Post-Pliocene Non-
Marine Mollusca of Hssex.« ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x.°87-109, 1897.

— Notes on the Mollusca (Post-Pliocene and Recent) of Felstead,
Essex. Ibid. 185-187.

-—— Ona Manuscript of the late John Brown, F.G.S., of Stanway.
Ibid. 288-290, 1898.

Kinston, R. On the Fossil Flora of the Potteries Coal Field—Addi-
tional Species. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxt. 127-1833, 1897.

The Yorkshire Carboniferous Flora. ‘Trans. Yorks. Nat. Union,’
Part 21, 145-176, 1898.

Lanvon, Jos. The Grey-Wethers or Sarsen Stones of Stanmer Park.
‘Proc. Birm. N. H. Phil. Soc.’ x. 81-91, 1897.

LapwortH, Prof. C. Note on Cambrian Hyolithes Sandstones from
Nuneaton. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vir. 281-282, 1897.

Istoyp, Hersert. On the Mineral Resources of the Middelburg District,
Transvaal, South Africa. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv. °474- 480,

- 1898.

Macxigz, Dr. Wo. The Sands and Sandstones of Eastern Moray.
‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vir. 148-172, 1897.

—— Onthe Laws that Govern the Rounding of Particles of Sand.-
Ibid. 298-311, 1897.

EE ———<—— ———_—

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 61

-Macnarr, P. Recent Advances in the Study of the Rocks of Highland

Perthshire. ‘Trans. Perths. Soc. N. Sci.’ 1. 166-190, 1897.
Mantis, H.G. The Glacial Boulders East of Cannock Chase. ‘Proc.
Birm. N. H. Phil. Soe.’ x. 33-72, 1897. f
Marsuaty, J. W. D. Notes on the British Jurassic Brachiopoda.
Part u. ‘Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ vit. 282-257, 1897.
Marnews, D. H. F. An Improved Appliance for Drawing Timber in
Mines. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 414-418, 1898.
Martey, Caartes A. On the Geology of part of North-East Pembroke-
shire. ‘Proc. Birm. N. H. Phil. Soc.’ x. 92-101, 1897.

‘Mracnam, F.G. Further Notes on Irruptions of Coal into the ‘ Thick

Coal’ Workings at Hamstead Colliery. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’
xxv. 898-400, 1898.
Merivate, Water (N. Eng. Inst.). Occurrences and Mining of
' Manjak in Barbados, West Indies. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xiv. 589-546, 1898.
Merritt, Wu. H. Occurrence of Cinnabar in British Columbia,
Canada. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xi. 592-594, 1897.

‘Mercatre, A. T.. The Physical Features of Scotland. ‘Report Nott.

Nat. Soc.,’ 1896-7 ;' 57-59, 1897.
Mittett, F. W. Additions to the List of Foraminifera from the St.
: Erth Clay. ‘Trans. Cornw. R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 174-176, 1898.
Mrrcnett, D. J. The Greensand Fossils from Drift-Beds at Moreseat,

_ Cruden, E. Aberdeenshire. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vit. 277-

285, 1897.

Morton, G. H. The Carboniferous Limestone of the Vale of Clywd.
‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ vir. 82-65, 1897.

Newton, R. B. An Account of the Albian Fossils lately discovered at
Okeford Fitzpaine, Dorset. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. ©.’ xvi.
66-99, 1897.

Parsons, Dr. H. Franxurn. Geological Notes on a Recent Sewer
Section at Park Hill Rise, Croydon. ‘Trans. Croydon M. N. H.C.
1896-97,’ 207-213, 1897.

Parrerson, G. D. A Visit to the Foxdale Mine, Isle of Man. ‘Trans.
Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ Part x. 11-12, 1897.

‘Pawson, A. H. The Lake Country. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 1-4,

1898. as

Pearson, H. W. A Few Observations on Local Surface and Under-
ground Springs and their Surrounding Strata. ‘ Proc. Bristol Nat.
Soc.’ vi. 167-175, 1897.

Pumures, Wm. B. (N. Eng. Inst.) The Gold Regions of Alabama,
U.S.A. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtv. 93-97,.1897.

Prazcer,R.L. (Dublin N.F.C.) Bog Bursts, with Special Reference

to the Recent Disaster in co. Kerry. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ v1. 141-162,
1897.
—— A Bog Burst Seven Years After. Ibid. 201-203.
Reape, T. Metuarp. The Present Aspects of Glacial Geology. (Presi-
- dential Address.) ‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ virr. 13-31, 1897.

_— Geological Observations in Ayrshire. Ibid. 104-129.

Reep,: Frank (N. Eng. Inst.) Hydrothermal Gold Deposits at Peak

! ., Hill, Western Australia. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ x1v. 89-92,

my) 2897.4
Rem, Curmenr. Paradoxocarpus carinatus, Nehring. ‘Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 328, 1897.

62 REPORT—1898.

Rein, J.. W. Grawam, and P. Macnarr. Parka decipiens: its Origin,

Affinities, and Distribution. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 105-121,
1898.

RicHarpson, RaupH. Obituary Notice of James Melvin, F.S.A. Scot.,
formerly a Vice-President of the Society. ‘Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc.’
vit. 286-289, 1897.

Ripyarp, Jonny. Presidential Address: The Utility of Association for
the Promotion of Science, and of its Applications. ‘ Trans. Manch.
Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 363-875, 1898.,

Rosarts, N. F. On the Occurrence of Mammalian Remains near Purley.
‘Trans. Croydon M. N. H. C. 1896-97,’ 233-235, 1897.

Ross, Dr. AnEx. Asbestos near Loch a ‘Trans. Inverness Sci.
Soc.’ 1v. 49- 58, 1898.

Jona Geology. Ibid. 230-2383.

Sawyer, A. R. The South Rand Coalfield, and its Connection with the
Witwatersrand Banket Formation. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xiv. 812-327, 1898.

Seetey, Prof. H. G. Current Bedding in Clay (Wealden). ‘Trans.
S. E. Union.’ 1. 21-22, 1897.

SHEPPARD, T. Geological Bibliography, 1895. ‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soc.’
1. 25-27, 1897.

Smrson, Wm. The Structure and Composition of the Rocks in the
Parish of Halifax. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ 11. 70-76, 1897.

— The Genesis of the Rocks in the Parish of Halifax. Ibid. 81-88,
1897.

—— The Millstone Grit. ‘Trans. Leeds Geol. Assoc.’ Part x. 23-26,
1897.

Smrrx, Jonn. On a Section of Carboniferous Strata in a Cutting of the |

Caledonian Railway at Lissens, three miles north-east of Kilwinning,
Ayrshire. ‘ Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soe.’ xr. 122-127, 1898.

— On a Globular Structure in a Patch of Shale enclosed in the
‘ Deil’s Dyke,’ near Greenan Castle, Ayrshire. Ibid. 128-129.

— ‘Coal Apples’ from Lugton Water. Ibid. 130.

— Shale Sockets of Cenient Nodules from Thornliebank. Ibid. 181.

— The Drift or Glacial Deposits of Ayrshire. Ibid. Supplement,
1-134, 1898.

— On the Grasping Power of Carboniferous Crinoid « Fingers’ or
‘Branches.’ ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v. 58-61, 1897.

Somervain, AnEXx. On the Probable Causes of the Seeming Absence of
Paleolithic Man from Cornwall. ‘Trans. Cornw. R. Geol. Soe.’ x11.
167-178, 1898.

Spencer, Jas. The Belle Vue Museum: The Le a Collections. |

‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ 11. 41-43, 1897.

Local Fossils and Where to Find Them. Ibid. rm. 6- 8, 1898.

Sratuer, J. W. The Speeton Clay and Some Correlative - Beds.
‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soe.’ 11. 17-24, 1897.

Stirrup, Marx. Report on the Recent International Geological Con-
gress at St. Petersburg, with Sketch of the Geology of Finland.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soe.’ xxv. 501-507, 1898.

Surton, J. R. An Inquiry into the Origin of the Mud Rushes in the
De Beers Mine, Kimberley, 1894-1896 (with Charts of the Mine and
of Temperature, &c.). ‘Trans. §. African Phil. Soc.’ ix. 54-68,
1898.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 63

Taytor, Henry. Notes on the Geology of the Island of Eige. ‘ Trans.
Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 832-40, 1898.

Txompson, BEEBy. The Junction Beds of the Upper Lias and Inferior
Oolite in Northamptonshire. ‘Journal Northampton N. H. Soc.’
Ix. 169-186, 212-223, 245-261, 1897.

THomson, JAMES. On the Occurrence of Species of the Genus Palastrea

‘ of McCoy in the Lower Carboniferous Strata of Scotland, with a
Description of some New Species and Varieties. ‘ Trans. Glasgow
Geol. Soe.’ x1. 1-11, 1898.

—— On the Stratified Rocks of the Shore-Line from Clachland Point
to the Code of Arran. Ibid. 12-31.

On the Genus Philipsastrea. Ibid. 51-70.

Traquair, Dr. R. H. On Cladodus Neilsoni from the Carboniferous
Limestone of East Kilbride. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xr. 41-50,
1898.

Tucker, W. T. On some Human Remains found in the Gravel Pit near
the Railway Station at New Hunstanton. ‘ Trans. Leicester Lit.
Phil. Soe.’ rv. 521-526, 1898.

Turner, H. E. The Search for Coal in the South-East of England.
‘Trans. S. E. Union.’ 1. 22-25, 1897.

Watton, Dr. F. F. The Lias of Yorkshire. ‘Trans. Leeds Geol. Assoc.’
Part X. 44-49, 1897.

Warp, THomas. On the Rock Salt Depgsits of Northwich, Cheshire,
and the Result of their Exploitation. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’
xxv. 274-298 ; 580-555, 1897 and 1898.

WaRrDINGLEY, CHartes. The Geological History of the Cephalopoda.
‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ v. 77-88, 1897.

Warren, Harotp. Water-Levels in the Chalk near Royston. ‘ Trans.
Herts N. H. Soe.’ rx. 209-214, 1897.

Warts, W. W. Note on some Rock Specimens from the Borings at
Netherseal. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ x1m. 599-601, 1897.

Waucuorsg, J. A. The Goldfields of the Hauraki District, New Zealand.
‘Trans. Mining Inst. Scotland,’ x1x. 19-45, 1897.

Witson, T. Hay. Note on Sections in the Lea Valley at South Totten-
ham. ‘ Kssex Naturalist,’ x. 110-111, 1897.

Wincuext, Horace V. The Lake Superior Iron-ore Region. ‘Trans.
Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xir. 493-562, 1897.

Winwoop, Rey. H. H. On a Rhetic Exposure at Boyce Hill. ‘ Proc.
Bath N. H. A. F. C.’ vir. 306-316, 1897.

Woopwarp, A. 5S. On a New Specimen Mesozoic Ganoid Fish, Pholi-
dophorus, from the Oxford Clay at Weymouth. ‘Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F.C.’ xvirt. 150-152, 1897.

Woopwarp, H. B. A Memoir of Thomas Beesley, J.P., F'.C.S. ‘ Proc.
Warw. N. A. F. C.’ 42, 15-26, 1897.

Wricut, JosepH. Boulder Clay—a Marine Deposit, with Special
Reference to the ‘Till’ of Scotland. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil.
Soc., 1896-97,’ 52-53, 1897.

Section D.—Zooroey.
Armitt, Miss M. L. Walls and Wall-Nesters. ‘The Naturalist for
1897,’ 243-252, 1897.

Bacxuovuss, J. Notes on the Sandwich Tern. ‘The Naturalist for
1898,’ 73-74, 1898.

64 REPORT—1898.

Barrett, C. G., J. E. Harrina, and G. §. Bouncer. Conference on
the Protection of Animals and Plants in Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
x. 179-184, 1897. nae

BecxrorD, F. J. B. On the Fish of Dorset: their Habits, Mode of
Capture, &. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xvi. 1-48, 1897.

Betti, RicHarp. Emu and Ostrich Farming in the Highlands of Dum-
friesshire. ‘Trans. Dum. Gal. N. H. A. Soc.’ No. 18, 46-66, 1898.

Benoni, Grecory O. Natural History Notes: what to Note and how to
make Notes. ‘The Naturalist for 1897,’ 209-212, 1897.

Biynig, Francis G. (Yorks. Nat. Union.) Neuroptera-Planipennia and
Trichoptera observed near Tadcaster. ‘The Naturalist for 1897,’
349-351, 1897.

BrrkENHEAD, G. A. Note on Mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa vulgaris) found
on Ely Common, 1896. ‘Trans.’ Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxrx. 67-68,
1897.

Buack, R. 8. Observations on the Morphology and Conditions of Growth
of a Fungus Parasitic on Locusts in South Africa. ‘ Trans. S. African
Phil. Soe.’ rx. 68-81, 1898.

Buacxpurn, WinuiamM. The Lace-work Sponge (Temperella Schulzei).
‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc., 1896,’ 57-61, 1897.

Borteav, Sir F.G. M. Presidential Address. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat.
Soe.’ vi. 231-239, 1897.

Bortam, Groras. Rarer Lepidoptera, with several additions to the
Fauna of Northumberland and Berwickshire. ‘ History Berwicksh.
Nat. Club,’ xv. 297-806, 1897.

Bouncer, Professor G. 8. Plant Companionship (Symbiosis) in the
Forest. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x. 170-173, 1897.

Bouskett, F. Parthenogenesis in Insects. ‘ Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil.
Soe.’ Iv. 418-427, 1897.

Boyp, D. A. In Memoriam—Dayid Robertson, LL.D., F.L.S., F.G.S.
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H: Soc.’ v. 18-42, 1897.

CaRraboc AND SEVERN VaLLEy Fienp Cxuus. Ornithological Notes
1897. ‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 7, 22-24, 1898.

— Entomological Notes, 1897. Ibid. 25-27.

CaRPENTER, G. H. (Dublin N. F. C.) The Collembola of Mitchelstown

- Cave. - ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ vi. 225-2338, 257-258, 1897.

Carr, Professor J. W. Fishes of the Nottinghamshire Trent in 1622,
with Notes on their present occurrence. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’
33-36, 1898.

— Trent Fishes not mentioned in Drayton’s ‘Poly-Olbion.’ Ibid.
80. : ®

Cuarke, H. 8. Notes on the Life History of Polia Nigrocincta (Xantho-
mista). ‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ 111. 246-248, 1897.

— Report of the Entomological Section. Ibid. 291-294, 1898.

CLARKE, W. G. List of .Vertebrate Animals in the Neighbourhood of
Thetford. ‘ Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 300-827, 1897.

Cote, W. The Protection of Wild Birds in Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
x. 183-136, 1897, 274-277, 1898.

— Notes on the Conference of Delegates of the Corresponding
- ° Societies of the British Association, Toronto, 1897. Ibid. 284-288,
1898. r
Cours, Dr. Cuarnutes. The Animal Parasites of Malarial Fever. ‘ Trans.
Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ rv. 8365-870, 1897. i

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 65

CorpEAux, JouN. Presidential Address to the Yorkshire Naturalists’
Union. ‘ The Naturalist’ for 1897, 193-208, 1897.

— Bird Notes from the Humber District. Ibid. 237-240, 1897,
21-26, 1898.

CrastreE, AntHuR. The Bell Vue Museum. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ 1.
26-29, 1897.

——— Fish in the Rivers and Brooks of Halifax. Ibid. 119-120, 1898.

Orecuin, J.C. Report of the Zoological Section. ‘ Yn Lioar Manninagh,’
m1. 288-291, 1898.

Crossman, ALAN F. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during
the year 1896. ‘Trans. Herts. N. H. Soc.,’ 1x. 148-162, 1897.

CrowTHeER, J. E. The Pond Snails (Limnez) of the Parish of Halifax.
‘Halifax Naturalist,’ 1. 91-94, 1897.

CuruBert, H. K. G. (Dublin N. F.C.) A Mysterious Irish Wasp, Vespa
austriaca, Panz. teers Smith). ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ vi. 285-287,
1897.

— An Entomologist at Ballybunion, co. Kerry. Ibid. vir. 65-68,
1898.

Datrtry, Rev. T. W. Sectional Report: Entomology. ‘Trans. N. Staff.
F. C.’ xxxr. 55-58, 1897.

Dixon, G. B. Supposed Causes of Variation. ‘Trans. Leicester Lit.
Phil. Soe.’ rv. 874-385, 1897.

Drane, R. Inaugural Address. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxrx.
1-8, 1897.

— Stray Notes on Natural History. Ibid. 76-79.

Dresser, H. E. Pallas’s Willow Warbler and some other Rare Euro-
pean Warblers. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 280-290,
1897.

Dora, Col. W. H. M. The Wild Birds’ Protection Act of 1894, and
the Future of British Oology. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v.
43-47, 1897.

—— The British Abode of the Crested Titmouse. ‘Trans. Perths.
Soc. N. Sci.’ 1. 149-154, 1897.

Epwarps, Tuos. Notes on British Conchology. ‘ Trans. Leicester Lit.
Phil. Soe.’ tv. 371-8738, 1897.

Ferinpen, Col. H. W. Vertebrate and Plant Life on Ben Nevis. ‘ Trans.
Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 245-247, 1897.

Frienp, Rey. Himperic. White Worms as Plant Pests. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1897,’ 257-260, 1897.

Researches among Annelids. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 81-83,
1898.

Ginuanpers, A. T. The Entomology of the Oak. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic.
Soc.’ 1896, 78-88, 1897.

GraspHam, Oxtny. The Food of the Merlin. ‘The Naturalist for 1897,’

241-242, 1897.

—— lggs of Stone Curlew. Ibid. 273-274.

_ Gray, W. G. (E. Kent N. H. Soc.). On Birds that Breed on the Shingle.
‘South-Eastern Naturalist,’ 11. part 1, 7-12, 1897.

Grirritus, G. C. On some Lepidopterous Larve: their Habits and
Means of Protection. ‘Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ vi. 73-93, 1897.
GrimsHaw, P. H. Lincolnshire Diptera: a Preliminary List. ‘The

Naturalist’ for 1898, 157-160, 1898.
ee ee Diptera : a Preliminary List. Ibid. 89-108.
; F

66 : REPORT—1898.

Gurney, J. H. Onthe Tendency in Birds to Resemble other Species.
‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ x1. 240-244, 1897.

On the Ornithology of Switzerland. Ibid. 255-262.

Guturis, Witt1AM Grant. Lepidoptera of the Hawick District. ‘ His-
tory Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xv. 332-845, 1897.

Hanna, H. Notes on the Fauna of the Antrim Coast. ‘Proc. Belfast
Nat. F.C.’ rv. 425-426, 1898.

Harpy, Dr. J. Bottle-nosed Whale, Hyperoodon rostratus (Chemnitz),
stranded at Reaheugh shore, on the Berwickshire coast, November 1,
1895. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xv. 293-296, 1897.

—— Another rare Cetacean, Dolphinus albirostris (White-beaked Dol-
phin). Ibid. 296.

Harris, G. H. The Herring Fishery of 1896. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw.
Nat. Soc.’ v1. 269-272, 1897. ;

Harris, W. H. Note on the Teeth of Diptera. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat.
Soe.’ xxrx. 59-61, 1897.

Hartine, J. E. Hawking in Norfolk. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’
vi. 248-254, 1897.

Hawett, Rey. Jonny. The Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union at Staithes.
‘The Naturalist’ for 1898, 105-111, 1898.

Hickson, Prof. §. J. The Distribution of the Fresh-water Fauna.
‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc. 1896,’ 88-99, 1897.

HinpmarsH, Wo. T. Rare Foreign Quadrupeds and Birds assembled by
J. C. Leyland, Esq., at Haggerston Castle. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat.
Club,’ xv. 235-238, 1897.

Hopson, Rev. J. H. A List of Yorkshire Earthworms. ‘Halifax Natu-
ralist,’ 11. 58-55, 1897.

Hoaa, Cuartes. On Bipaliwm kewense, Moseley. ‘Trans. Glasgow
N. H. Soe.’ v. 58-54, 1897.

Hopkinson, JoHn. Report on the Conferences of Delegates to the British
Association, at Ipswich in 1895. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ rx.
X.-xvil., 1898.

Howarp, Davip. The Work of the Essex Field Club during the past year
[1897]. (Presidential Address.) ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x. 241-246, 1898.

Lane-Crayron, J. C. List of Lepidoptera taken at Wyberton, near
Boston. ‘The Naturalist’ for 1897, 861-866. 1897.

Laver, Henry. The Mammals, Reptiles, and Fishes of Essex. ‘Essex
Field Club Special Memoirs,’ 111. 188 pp. 1898.

MansEx-Pirypett, J.C. The Physics and Biology of the Sea. (Presi-
dential Address.) ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F.C.’ xvut. lix._lxxvi. 1897.

Martin, W. M. J., and G. C. F. Ropinson. Ornithological Notes.
‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 46, 77-78, 1898.

MaseEriIecp, J. R. B. Sectional Report: Zoology. ‘Trans. N. Staff.
F, ©.’ xxx. 48-54, 1897.

—— Aculeate Hymenoptera taken at Cheadle in 1896. Ibid. 59.

Mason, J. E. Some Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the Isle of Man. ‘The
Naturalist for 1898,’ 189-140, 1898.

Mason, P. B. The Struggle for Life within the Animal Body. ‘ Trans.
Burt. N. H. Arch. Soe.’ m1. 205-225, 1897.

Note on Bos longifrons. Ibid. 259-260.

Meyrick, HK. Entomological Notes. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’
No. 46, 51-64, 1898.

—— Ornithological Notes. Ibid. 70-74

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 67

Mircnert, ArcHiBALD. The Pine-Wood Wasp (Sirex juvencus) and its
occurrence at Dunraven. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxrx. 69-73,
1897.

Nunn, Jos. P. Notes on the Bids of North Hertfordshire. ‘Trans.
Herts N. H. Soc.’ rx. 163-166, 1897.

OrpD, Geo. W. The Constancy of the Bee. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soe.’
v. 85-88, 1897.

Parerson, Joun. The Distribution of the Chiff-chaff (Phylloscopus
rufus, Bechst.) in the Clyde area. Ibid. 48-52.

Parrerson, A. Natural History Notes from Yarmouth. ‘ Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soe.’ vi. 291-295, 1897.

Pearson, Cuas. EK. The Natural History of Kolguey (island N. of
Lapland). ‘ Report Nott. Nat. Soc. 1896-7,’ 37-45, 1897.

PrrincuEy, L. Descriptive Catalogue of the Coleoptera of South Africa.
Part III. Family Pausside. ‘Trans. 8. African Phil. Soc.’ x. 3-42,
1897.

Parry, S. L. Polyzoa and Hydrozoa at Filey. ‘The Naturalist for
1897,’ 275-276, 1897.

PicKARD-CAMBRIDGE, Rey. O. British Arachnida observed and captured
in 1896. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xvii. 108-115, 1897.

Prara@sr, R. Lu. (Dublin N. F.C.). Notes on an Expedition to Rockall.
‘Trish Naturalist,’ v1. 309-323, 1897.

Rarrray, A: Occurrence of Blind Insects in South Africa. ‘Trans. S.
African Phil. Soe.’ rx. 20-22, 1897.

— Descriptive Catalogue of the Coleoptera of South Africa. Part IV.

Family Pselaphide. Ibid. 43-130.

Ratrs, P. The Birds of Lonan, Isle of Man. ‘ The Naturalist for 1897,’
| 221-926, 1897.
Rawsoy, F. G.§. The Spotted Fly-catcher (Musicapa grisola). ‘ Halifax
= Naturalist,’ 1. 37, 1897. ;
_—— Some Birds of the Ryburn Valley. Ibid. 1. 51-52,1897; 116-117,

1898.

Ricuarpson, N. M. Dorset Clothes-moths and their Habits. ‘ Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F. C.’ xvi. 138-149, 1897.

— Report on Observations of the First Appearances of Birds, Insects,
&c., and the First Flowering of Plants in Dorset during 1896. Ibid.
185-195.

RoEsBuck, W. Denison. Bibliography: Mammalia, 1892. ‘The Natura-
list for 1898,’ 61-71, 1898.

Rowiey, F. R. Inaugural Address to the Entomological Section.
‘Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ rv. 386-399, 1897.

Sonarrr, Dr. R. F. (Dublin N. F.C.) The Land Mollusca of the Great

: Skellig. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ vir. 9-11, 1898.

ScHonuanp, Dr. S. Nesting Habits of Tockus melanoleucus, Licht.
, ‘ Trans. §. African Phil. Soc.’ rx. 1-7, 1897.

‘Scorr, R. J. H. The Bezoar Stone. ‘Proc. Bath N. H. A. F. C.’ vin.

347-349, 1897.

Scourriexp, D. J. The Entomostraca of Epping Forest, with some
’ General Remarks on the Group. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x. 195-210, 259-
__ 274, 1898.

SLATER, Rey. H. H. Notes on the Birds of Northamptonshire and

pelenbonrhacd for 1896. ‘Journal N’ton N. H. Soe.’ rx. 165-167,
897.

F2

68 REPORT—1898.

Surtu, Josern. The Structure and Development of Hydrozoa. ‘ Trans.
Manch. Mice. Soc. 1896,’ 39-57, 1897.

SmitH, THeoporA. Ant Neighbours. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ 111. 1-5, 1898.

Sorpy, Dr. H. C. General Remarks on the Marine Natural History of
the Colne Estuary. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ 166-169, 1897.

Notes on the Food of Oysters in Essex. Ibid. 169.

Sournwetu, THos. The Reproduction of the Common Hel (Anguilla
vulgaris).. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ v1. 262-268, 1897.

Some Additions to the Norwich Castle Museum in 1896. Ibid.
296-300.

Srencer, 8. H. Notes on Lepidoptera observed in the Neighbourhood
of Watford in the Year 1896. ‘ Trans. Herts. N. H. Soc.’ rx. 236-240,
1897.

StarrorD, Wm. Some Account of the Electric Fishes. (Presidential
Address.) ‘Report Nott. Nat. Soc. 1896-7,’ 1-11, 1897.

Steete-Enuiort, J. Stray Notes, Neighbourhood of Birmingham
(January to June, 1897). ‘Proc. Birm. N. H. Phil. Soc.’ 1. 126-131 ;
138-140, 1897.

Stuart, Dr. CHartEs. Birds in the Kastern Borders, 1895. ‘ History
Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xv. 825-331, 1897.

Swayne, 8. H. The Homologies of the Horn-Structures in the Ungulata.
‘Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ vir. 181-140, 1897.

THEew, Epwarp, jun. List of Birds in the Parish of Warkworth.
‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xv. 307-8308, 1897.

THew, Mrs. Epwarp. List of Shells found on the Shore between.
Alnmouth and Amble Pier. Ibid. 309-312.

Tuompson, M. Lawson. Notes on Coleoptera of the Family Staphylinide
in N.K. Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 141-144, 1898.

THORNLEY, Rey. A. Aculeate Hymenoptera of Nottinghamshire. A
Preliminary List. Ibid. 13-16.

Trssits, J. B. M. The Mammals of Northamptonshire, &c. ‘ Journal
N’ton. N. H. Soe.’ ix. 168, 1897.

Tuck, W. H. Aculeate Hymenoptera at Tostock, near Bury St.
Edmunds. ‘ Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 828-830, 1897.

TURNBULL, JoHN, and Winuiam Grant GutTuRiz. On Stenopteryx
lirundinis, L.; a parasite of the Swallow observed at Lauder. ‘ His-
tory Berwicksh. Nat. Club.’ xv. 853-354, 1897.

Tutt, J. W. The Scientific Aspects of Entomology. ‘Trans. Leicester
Lit. Phil. Soc.’ iv. 527-539, 1898.

UsHeER, ANDREW. Introduction of Loch Leven Trout, North American
Loch Trout and Rainbow Trout to Coldingham Loch. ‘ History
Berwicksh. Nat. Club.’ xv. 219-220, 1897.

Vacuet, Dr. C. T. Note on the Occurrence of Sirex juvencus in the
Society’s District. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxrx. 69, 1897.

VereEy, A. 8. Notes on the Observations of Swallows. ‘Trans. Herts
N. H. Soe.’ rx. 126-128, 1897.

Viczr, W. A. On the Genus Eristalis as represented in Britain. ‘Trans.
Leicester Lit. and Phil. Soc.’ rv. 428-481, 1897.

Waker, J. J. A List of the Coleoptera of the Rochester District.
‘Rochester Naturalist,’ 11. 441-468, 475-484, 1897 and 1898.

Wautis, H. M. On the Growth of Hair upon the Human Ear, and its
Testimony to the Shape, Size and Position of the Organ in past times. |
‘Rep. Brighton N. H. Phil. Soc. 1896-97,’ 19-27, 1897.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 69

WaterwortH, H. Birds of the Luddenden Valley. The Cuckoo.
‘Halifax Naturalist,’ 11. 82-34, 1897.

Wess, W.M. The Non-Marine Molluscs of Essex (conclusion). ‘ Essex
Naturalist,’ 65-81, 1897.

We ton, R. Land Shell Pockets: Ancient and Modern. ‘Proc. Belfast
Nat. F. C.’ rv. 427, 1898.

Wirxrns, H., and others. Pond Life in Nottinghamshire. ‘Rep. Nott.
Nat. Soc. 1896-7,’ 60-62, 1897.

Wits, H.G. The Defensive Devices of Lepidopterous Larve. ‘ Trans.
Manch. Mic. Soc. 1896,’ 61-72, 1897.

Woop, F.H. The Protection of Rare and Local Lepidoptera. ‘ Journal
N’ton. N. H. Soc.’ rx. 207-211, 1897.

Woop, the late James. Earthworm versus Beetle. ‘ History Berwicksh.
Nat. Club.’ xv. 346-347, 1897.

_Wooprorpe, F. C. Protective Mimicry in Insects. ‘Trans. Car. and
Sev. Vall. F. C.’ 1. 2-7, 1898.

WooprvrFre-PEAcocK, Rev. E. A. Lincolnshire Naturalists in the
Gainsborough Neighbourhood. ‘The Naturalist,’ 253-256, 1897.

— The Lincolnshire Naturalists’ Union at Holbeck, Somersby, and
Tetford. Ibid. 817-324.

Lincolnshire Naturalists at Frampton and Wyburton Fitties.

Ibid. 855-360.

Lincolnshire Naturalists at Linwood Warren. ‘The Naturalist

; for 1898,’ 49-51, 1898.

Wricut, C.E. Conchological Notes. ‘Journal N’ton. N. H. Soc.’ ix.
187, 1897.

Section H.—GEOGRAPHY.

Apamson, D. B. Yquitos. ‘ Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soe.’ v1. 73-75, 1898.

AvucuTreRtonis, T. B., and Jas. PINNOCK. wee City of Benin: the
Country, Customs and Inhabitants. Ibid. 5

Brake, J. C. The Northern Capitals of see) ‘Journal Manch.
Geog. Soe.’ x11. 2938-3138, 1897.

Bowss, Ald. J. The Danube and the Opening of the Iron Gates. Ibid.
xm. 107-114, 1897.

Brice, A. M. The Jackson-Harmsworth Polar Expedition. Ibid.
73-80.

Burmester, Capt. A.C. The Hill and Ruinsof Sigari, Ceylon. ‘ Proc.
Bath N. H. A. F. C.’ vit. 849-358, 1887.

Carneciz, Hon. D. W. Explorations in the Interior of Western Aus-
tralia. ‘ Journal Tyneside Geog. Soc.’ 1v. 1382-154, 1898.

Diosy, ArtHur. Turkey: the Subjects of the Sultan. Ibid. 52- 55,
1897. :

Dowxer,G. (E.KentN.H.Soc.) Onthe Mouth of the Stour. ‘South-
Eastern Naturalist,’ 1. 138-20, 1897.

Evans, W. A. Western Norway in Winter. ‘Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil.
Soc.’ rv. 475-482, 1898.

GREGORY, IDye dle W. Across Saar in ‘Trans. Liverpool Geog.
Soe.’ vi. 41-58, 1898.

Henry, Dr. Sven. Four Years’ Travel in Central Asia. ‘Journal Tyne-
side Geog. Soc.’ 1v. 107-131, 1898.

JACKSON, F.G. Three Years in the Arctic. Ibid. 13-20 1897

70 REPORT—1898,

Lancaster, Wm., jun. Notes of a Short Visit to the Island of Skye.
‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soe.’ x1. 101-105, 1897.

Metior, KE. W. The Cruise of the Dolphin in Dutch Waters, 1896.
Ibid. 1-46.

Nansen, Dr. F. The Furthest North.. Ibid. 47-72.

Oram, Dr. and Mrs. Notes of a Tour in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Ibid. 350-860.

Peary, Lieut. R. E. Journeys in North Greenland. ‘ Journal Tyneside
Geog. Soc.’ rv. 83-106, 1898.

Puayne, H. C. Some Wanderings in the North of Finland. ‘Proc.
Bristol Nat. Soc.’ vir. 94-108, 1897.

Smiruson, G. K. T. Tenth Anniversary of the Society. ‘Journal Tyne-
side Geog. Soc.’ tv. 7-9, 1897.

Sowersurts, Kur. Bibliography of Arctic Research. ‘Journal Manch.
Geog. Soc.’ x11. 97-100, 1897.

THomson, J. P. Queensland. ‘ Journal Tyneside Geog. Soc.’ rv. 21-51,
1897.

Weir, THomas. Within the Arctic Circle with the Eclipse Expedition.
‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soe.’ x1. 81-96, 1897.

Section F’.—Economic ScIENCE AND STATISTICS.

Barrowman, Jas. Slavery in the Coal-mines of Scotland. ‘ Trans.
Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ x1v. 267-276, 1898.

— Mining Mortality. ‘Trans. Mining Inst. Scot.’ xrx. 218-227,
1898.

Brapvuey, Naruanren. The Manchester Sewage Problem, with Sugges-
tions for its Solution, and Suggested Amendment of the Rivers
Pollution Act. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc. 1896-97,’ 181-158, 1897.

Daty, EK. D. The Struggle between the State and the Drunkard.
‘ Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 268-292, 1897.

— Crime, and How Best to Attack it. Ibid. 333-339.

Dawson, Cuas. The Valuation of the City of Dublin. Ibid. 320-825.
Dick, G. H. Some Aspects of Political Economy from a Commercial
Point of View. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxvii. 122-142, 1897.
Finuay, Rey. T. A. The Progress of Co-operation. ‘Journal Stat. Soe.

Ireland,’ x. 229-237, 1897.

Fuercuer, A.W. The Economic Results of the Ship Canal in Man-
chester and the Surrounding Districts. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc.,
1896-97,’ 83-108, 1897.

Fuux, A. W. Compensation for Industrial Accidents. Ibid. 1897-98,
267-306, 1898.

Gatitoway, J. R. The Municipalities of Manchester and Hamburg.
Ibid. 1897-98, 33-68, 1898.

GuaisteR, Prof. Jonn. The Pollution of Scottish Rivers. ‘ Proc.
Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxvm1. 50-95, 1897.

Graves, H. G. (8. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Irish Legislation on Mining and
Coal up to the Year 1800. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtv.
179-189, 1898.

Greic, Jas. R. Sugar Bounties. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxvut.
185-200, 1897.

Hooker, R. H. Is the Birth-rate still Falling? ‘Trans. Manch. Stat.
Soc., 1897-98,’ 101-126, 1898.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 71

Hovuxipsworty, Sir. W. H. Index Numbers and the Course of Prices as
indicated by them during the last Fifty Years. Ibid. 1896-97,
109-130, 1897.

— Bimetallism. Ibid. 1897-98, 307-320, 1898.

Kerr, Joun G. Educational Experiments. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soe.’
xxv. 143-160, 1897.

Leecn, Sir Bospin T. Tramways and their Municipalisation. ‘Trans.
Manch. Stat. Soc. 1897-98,’ 127-152, 1898.

Lennox, James. History of the Dumfries Savings Bank. ‘Trans. Dum.
Gal. N. H. A. Soe.’ No. 18, 70-74, 1898.

Louis, Professor H. Technical Education in Mining. ‘Trans. Fed.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ 5-18, 1898.

McDoveatt, Ald. A. The English Poor Law, with Special Reference
to Progress in its Administration during the Queen’s Reign. ‘Trans.
Manch. Stat. Soc. 1897-98,’ 9-81, 1898.

M‘Vain, Dr. J.C. The Vaccination Commission’s Report: a Plea for
Re-vaccination. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxvii. 236-245, 1897.
Mercer, Rev. J. E. _The Conditions of Life in Angel Meadow. ‘Trans.

Manch. Stat. Soc. 1896-97,’ 159-180, 1897.

-~ Mintne Institute oF Scornanp. Report on the Home Secretary’s
‘Explosives in Coal-Mines Order, 1896.’ ‘ Trans. Mining Inst. Scot.’
xvi. 89-92, 1897.

Puities, HerBert. Open Spaces for Recreationin Manchester. ‘Trans.

Manch. Stat. Soc. 1896-97,’ 49-64, 1897.

Prerce, Ernest W. Principles of the Law of Rating as affecting
Engineering Works. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soe.’ xvi. 121-135, 1897.

Pownatt, Geo. Some Aspects of Local Government. Ibid. 1-48.

Samurts, A. W. Private Bill Legislation for Ireland. ‘Journal Stat.
Soe. Ireland,’ x. 288-250, 1897.

— The Financial Relations between England and Ireland. The
Expenditure Account. Ibid. 292-320.

Sexton, Professor A. H. The Andersonian: a Centenary Sketch.
‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxvim. 161-171, 1897.

Synnort, N. J. Some Features of the Over-Taxation of Ireland.
‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 251-268, 1897.

Wess, Aurrep. The Sherborn Massachusetts Reformatory Prison for
Women. Ibid. 326-333, 1897.

Wetton, Tuos. A. On the English Mortality from Phthisis in the Years
1881-90. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc.’ 1896-97, 65-72, 1897.

_ — _ OnForty Years’ Industrial Changes in England and Wales. Ibid.
1897-8, 153-248, 1898.

-—- On the 1891 Census of Occupations of Males in England and
Wales, so far as relates to the Large Towns and to the Counties after
the exclusion of such Towns. Ibid. 245-266.

Wietey, J. The Registration of Parliamentary and Local Government
Electors. Ibid. 1896-97, 73-82, 1897.

Yersurex, R. A. Agricultural Banks and the Evils of the Money-
Lending System. Ibid. 1897-98, 65-99, 1898.

Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

AnvERSON, J. W. Mechanical Refrigeration. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’
Xvi. 88-99, 1897.

72 REPORT—1898.

Ayton, Henry. The Re-opening of Wallsend Colliery. ‘Trans. Fed.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 87-92, 1898.

Bary, H. Foster. Machine Coal-Mining in Iowa, U.§.A. Ibid. xm.
478-489, 1897.

Bannister, M. C. A Description of the Construction of Cold Stores for
the Preservation of Perishable Human Food. ‘Trans. Liverpool E.
Soe.’ xvi. 172-199, 1897.

Barton, Jas. Irish Channel Tunnel. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xiv. 255-261, 1898.

Biaa-Wirner, H. Notes on Electrical Shot Firing. ‘Trans. Manch.
Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 48-492, 1898.

Biatry, Tos. M. Electric Tramways to Connect Towns with Neighbour-
ing Districts. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xvi. 105-116, 1897.

Bropiz, Wm. Dock Gates. Ibid. 142-161.

Burt, ANDREW. The Methods of Working Minerals, Secondary Haulage,
and Ventilation in Fifeshire. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtv.
190-203, 1898.

Burton, G. L. Water Tube Boilers. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soe.’ xvmt.
37-52, 1897.

Cavett, H. M. Submarine Coal-mining at Bridgeness, N.B. ‘ Trans.
Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtv. 237-253, 1898.

’ Capman, Joun (N. Eng. Inst.). Notes on Rearer Workings. Ibid.
392-396.

CarMIcHAEL, Dr. Nem. House Sanitation. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’
xxvilr. 172-184, 1897.

Corbett, Jos. Sewage Sludge Removal and Shipment. ‘Trans. Liverpool
E. Soc.’ xvii. 208-221, 1897.

CortrELL, 8. B. Inaugural Address [The Development of Railways}.
Ibid. 1-16.

CrEMER, RicHarp. (Chesterf. Mid. Count. Inst.) Wagner Portable
Pneumatic Safety-stopping for Mining Purposes. ‘ Trans. Fed. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xv. 219-230, 1898.

—— (Midland Inst. Eng.) The Walcher Pneumatophore, and the Em-
ployment of Oxygen for Life-saving Purposes. Ibid. x1v. 575-585,
1898.

CricHton, JoHN. (Midland Inst. Eng.) Comparative Experiments on
Models of a Capell, a Schiele, and a Crichton Excelsior Fan, under
the same conditions. Ibid. 466-468.

Crone, E. W. Telescopic Spout for Saving Breakage of Coal in the
First Shipment. Ibid. xv. 72-73.

Drxon, Wattser. Latest Developments and the Practical Application of
Alternating Multiphase Machinery for Electric-Power Transmission.
Ibid. xrv. 328-3386.

Durnrorp, H. Sr. J., and R. Honmay. (Midland Inst. Eng.) The
Use of Electricity at Ackton Hall Colliery. Ibid. x11. 232-239, 1897.

Farren, Geo. Silting of Small Harbours and the Effect of a Stream of
Water. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xvii. 226-236, 1897.

Forster, T. EK. Historical Notes on Wallsend Colliery. ‘Trans. Fed.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 77-86, 1898.

GarrortH, W. HK. Suggested Rules for the Recovery of Coal-mines after
Explosions. Ibid. xtv. 495-588, 1898.

GLOVER, JAs., jun. Some Notes on Current Specifications and Tenders
for Public Works. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xvi. 66-78, 1897.

a

Se ee

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Be, Soe

Krexvp, Painire. The Manufacture of Fire-clay Goods from the Under-
clays of Thin Coal-Seams. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 45-61,
1898.

Lana, Wu. F. The Brown Hydraulic System for Underground Pumping
and Haulage. ‘Trans. Mining Inst. Scot.’ xix. 47-51, 1897.

Less, Tuomas G. (Chesterf. Mid. Count. Inst.) Internal Corrosion of
Wire Ropes. ‘ Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtv. 400-408, 1898.

— Explosions in Air-Compressors and Receivers. Ibid. 554-573.

Lours, Prof. Henry. (N. Eng. Inst.) Notes on the lron Industry of
the Urals. Ibid. 368-389.

Mavricz, Wu. (Chesterf. Mid. Count. Inst.) Electric Blasting. Ibid.
xiv. 142-163, 445-464; xv. 189-198, 1897 and 1898.

Mer, J. (Chesterf. Mid. Count. Inst.) The Walker Hollow Needle for
Firing High Explosives. Ibid. xrv. 164-165, 1897.

Mirton, A. Dury. An Underground Fire at Bridgewater Colliery. Ibid.
xu. 466-4738, 1897.

Moncrierr, G. M. Coal-Shipping Plant at Wallsend Colliery. Ibid. xv.
75-76, 1898.

Morison, JoHn. Coal-shipping by Belts. Ibid. xv. 67—71, 1898.

Muneauu, Wauter H. Screening-Plant at Mossbeath Colliery. ‘Trans.
Mining Inst. Scot.’ xvi. 83-86, 1897.

O’SuHea, L. T. (Chesterf. Mid. Count. Inst.) Report on an Explosives
Testing Station. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtv. 411-414,
1898.

— Memorandum on the Proposed Station for Testing Explosives at
Woolwich. Ibid. xrv. Part 8, 415-417, 1898.

Parrineton, T. E. (N. Eng. Inst.) Economical Combustion of Coal
for Steam-raising Purposes. Ibid. x11. 384-888, 1897.

Reynoups, Gro. B. (N. Eng. Inst.) A Method of Dealing with Running-
Sand when met with in Borings. Ibid, xtv. 107-108, 1897.

Ricuarpson, H. Shipment of Coal. Ibid. xv. 74, 1898.

Rosrnson, Leste 8. Light Railways. Ibid. x1. 445-456, 1897.

Rowan, F. J. A One-Rail or Trestle System of Light Railway. Ibid.
xiv. 280-285, 1898.

Sreavenson, A. L. On some Dangers attending the Use of Steam-pipes.
Ibid. xr. 563-569, 1897.

THIRKELL, E. W. (Midland Inst. Eng.) Adequate Ventilation, and
Noxious Gases: with Special Reference to the Recommendations of
the English, French, Prussian, and Austrian Fire-damp Commissions.
Ibid. x11. 389-405, 1897.

Tomson, Wu. S. On a Water Heater recently erected at Cadzow
Colliery. ‘Trans. Mining Inst. Scot.’ xrx. 258-260, 1898.

Toner, Jas. On the Patent Hydraulic Mining Cartridge. ‘Trans.
Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 405-409, 1898.

Waker, G. B., and L. T. O’'Suea. (Midland Inst. Eng.) Recent Pro-
gress in the Recovery of Bye-Products from Coke-Ovens. ‘Trans. Fed.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ x11. 302-324, 1897.

Warxinson, Prof. W. H. The Mechanical Propulsion of Tramway Cars.
‘Proc. Glasgow Phil Soc.’ xxvir1. 292-300, 1897.

Wincox, Ernest §. Some Notes on Railway Construction. ‘ Trans.
Liverpool E. Soe.’ xvi. 17-81, 1897. :

Woop, Linpsay. Presidential Address. ‘Trans. Fed. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xi. 484-444, 1897.

74 REPORT—1898.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Anprerson, ADAM. Prehistoric Camp on Primrose Hill. ‘ History Ber-
wicksh. Nat. Club.’ xv. 377, 1897.

AnprEews, Miss. Fairies and their Dwelling Places. ‘Proc. Belfast.
Nat. F. C.’ 1v. 426-427, 1898.

AnprEws, W. On Ancient Pottery Remains in Warwickshire. ‘Proc.
Warw. N. A. F. C.’ xxi. 27-80, 1897.

Arnott, 8. Children’s Singing Games and Rhymes current in Kirkbean.
‘Trans. Dum. Gal. N. H. A. Soc.’ No. 18, 99-113, 1898.

Barpour, JAMES. The Ancient Burial recently discovered at Lochar-
briggs. Ibid. 74-75.

Curistison, Dr. Davip. Prehistoric Camps near Coldingham Loch.
‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club.’ xv. 218, 1897.

Coats, Rev. W. W. The Antiquities of Girthon. ‘Trans. Dum. Gal.
N. H. A. Soc.’ No. 13, 75-81, 1898.

Cooke, JoHn H. Neolithic Life in Lincolnshire. ‘The Naturalist for
1898,’ 77-79, 145-148, 1898.

Corriz, JoHN. Glencairn Folk Riddles. ‘Trans. Dum. Gal. N. H. A.
Soc.’ No. 138, 115-122, 1898.

Cre~uin, Miss A. M. Report of the Anthropological Section. ‘Yn
Lioar Manninagh,’ 111. 285-287, 1898.

Dick, Rev. Jonn C. The Antiquities of Eskdalemuir. ‘Trans. Dum.
Gal. N. H. A. Soe.’ No. 18, 18-27, 1898.

Duncan, Dr. E. The Scottish Races: their Ethnology, Growth, and
Distribution. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxvur. 1-17, 1897.

Evans, Sir Jonny. On an Ancient British Coin found near Watford.
‘Trans. Herts. N. H. Soc.’ rx. 183-184, 1897.

— On some Roman Coins found at Brickendonbury, Hertford. Ibid.
169-174.

Fisawick, H. Rochdale Place Names. ‘ Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’
v. 65-76, 1897.

Forrest, Rev. J. Buchan Scots Words. ‘Trans. Buchan F. C.’ tv.
76-89, 1897.

Fraser, JAs. On a Stone Implement Found in Croy. ‘ Trans. Inverness
Sci. Soe.’ rv. 177-180, 1898.

Grant Bry. Ancient Egyptian Religion. ‘Trans. Dum. Gal. N. H. A.
Soe.’ No. 18, 4-8, 1898.

GURNELL, Jas. Aspects of the Celtic Question. ‘Trans. Inverness Sci.
Soe.’ rv. 9-26, 1898.

Harvie, Jonny, and E. J. Winson. Reports on the Discovery of Ancient
Graves, Cists, &¢.—(1) Dalcove Mains; (2) Makerstoun; (8) Redcoll.
‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xv. 858-861, 1897.

HeApPE, Cuas. Egyptian Hieroglyphics, Picture Writing, and the English
Alphabet. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ v. 89-62, 1897.

Houmes, T. V. Notes on Ancient Defensive Earthworks in connection
with those of Rayleigh ‘Castle,’ Essex. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x. 145-
158, 1897.

Horne, Joun. A Shell Mound at Tongue Ferry. ‘Trans. Inverness
Sci. Soc.’ rv. 29-35, 1898.

Horne, Wu. The Early Races in Yorkshire. ‘Trans. Leeds Geol.
Assoc.’ part x. 8-11, 1897.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 75

Hunt, Dr. Tuos. Place Names in the Heywood District. ‘Trans. Roch-
dale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ v. 3-5, 1897.

Jerrerson, Dr. A. Men and Manners in Manila. ‘Trans. Rochdale
Lit. Sci. Soc.’ v. 6-388, 1897.

Jouxston, Rev. Wm. Some Historical and Antiquarian Notes on the
Parish of Cummertrees. ‘Trans. Dum. Gal. N. H. A. Soe.’ No. 18,
82-94, 1898.

Kermope, P. M.C. Report of the Archeological Section. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ m1. 274-276, 1898.

Kinestey, Miss H. M. West Africa from an Ethnologist’s Point of View.
‘Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soc.’ vi. 58-78, 1898.

Law, Rosert. Hvidences of Prehistoric Man on the Moorlands in and
around the Parish of Halifax. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ 1. 29-31, 1897.

Lynn, Francis. Bunkle Edge Forts (Prehistoric). ‘ History Berwicksh.
Nat. Club,’ xv. 865-876, 1897.

Macpartn, Atex. The Picts. ‘Trans. Inverness Sci. Soc.’ rv. 66-97,
1898.

Marcy, Dr. H. Cottey. The Pagan-Christian Overlap of the Wise
Bird, with Dorset Illustrations. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xvi.
116-187, 1897.

Mnyricx, E. Discovery of Cinerary Urns in the [Marlborough] College

- Grounds. ‘Rep. Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 46, 79-80, 1898.

—— Anthropometrical Report. Ibid. 110-134.

Mitiigan, Seaton F. Ireland: its Ancient Civilisation and Social
Customs. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1896-97, 40-52,’ 1897.
Mircuent, H. B. The Parkhouse Circle. ‘Trans. Buchan F. C.’ rv.

92-96, 1897.

Moorz, A. W. Folk Medicine in the Isle of Man. ‘Yn Lioar Man-
ninagh,’ 111. 803-314, 1898.

Mortimer, J. R. The Danes’ Graves. ‘Report Yorks. Phil. Soc. for
1897,’ 1-10, 1898.
Moutz, H. J. The Assistance of the Sun in Finding Traces of
Destroyed Earthworks and Buildings. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F.C.’

xvi. 169-173, 1897.

Parrerson, W.H. A Recent Discovery of Worked Flints in Submerged
Peat at Portrush. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc. 1896-97,’ 32-34,
1897.

Puinirs, J.G. Prehistoric Graves in Moray. ‘Trans. Inverness Sci.
Soc.’ rv. 2138-218, 1898.

Roserts, Rev. W. ‘Mari Lwyd’ and its Origin. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat.
Soc.’ xxrx. 80-93, 1897.

he Line. Local [Halifax] Folklore. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ 11. 95-96,

5

Surcurre, W. H. A Neolithic Trader’s Store of Graphite. ‘Trans.
Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ v. 68-64, 1897.

Tarset, Rey. R. F. Antiquities of Buittle. ‘Trans. Dum. Gal.
N. H. A. Soe.’ No. 18, 27-29, 1898.

Tocuer, J. F. Ethnographical Survey of School Children in Buchan.
1. Introductory Paper, with Summaries. ‘Trans. Buchan F. C.’
Iv. 137-152, 1897.

i |
lor)

REPORT—1898.

Section K.—BorTany.

ApBEy, Geo. On the Destruction of an Elm Tree by Fungi at St. Albans.
‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ rx. 129-182, 1897.

Auptey, J. A. Sectional Report: Botany. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’
xxx1. 70-73, 1897.

Buack, Dr. 8. The Characteristics of the Flora of Scotland. ‘Trans.
Inverness Sci. Soc.’ rv. 292-294, 1898.

Botam, Grorar. On Blysmus rufus, var. bifolius, a new Plant for the
District. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club.’ xv. 362, 1897.

Boyp, D. A. In Memoriam—Profegsor Thomas King. ‘Trans. Glasgow
N. H. Soe.’ v. 1-17, 1897.

BREBNER, GeoRGE. On the Classification of the Tilopteridacee. ‘ Proc.
Bristol Nat. Soc.’ vir. 176-187, 1897.

Brieuton N. H. Pun. Soc. Botanical Report. ‘Annual Rep. Brighton
N. H. Phil. Soc. 1896-97,’ 31-38.

’ Burton-on-Trent N. H. Arcu. Soc. (Botanical Section.) The Flora
of Burton-on-Trent and Neighbourhood. Part um. ‘Trans. Burt.
N. H. Arch. Soe.’ 111. 269-282, 1897.

CARADOC AND SEVERN VALLEY Fienp Crus. Botanical Notes, 1897.
Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 7, 5-21 [1898].
Coatrs, Henry. Opening Address (on the Work of the Society during
the Year 1896). ‘ Proc. Perths. Soc. N. Sci.’ 11. exxiii-cxxx, 1897.
Cotean, N. (Dublin N. F.C.) On the Flora of the Shores of Lough
Derg. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ v1. 189-197, 1897.

Coutts, R. T. Notes on the Colour of Leaves. ‘ Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’
xxxi. 101-109, 1897.

Cooks, Dr.M.C. Sixty Years of British Mycology. ‘Essex Naturalist,’
x. 216-228, 1898.

Consett, H.H. Lathyrus nissolia and other Rare Plants at Sandal,
near Doncaster. ‘The Naturalist for 1897,’ 853-354, 1897.

CROSSLAND, CHARLES. Our Wild Violets and Pansies. ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ 11. 35-37, 1897.

— A New British Fungus, Pseudombrophila Pedrotiu, Bresad.
Ibid. 11. 58, 1897.

— The Snowdrop. Ibid. mt. 9, 1898.

— Moulds. Ibid. 1. 16-17, 1898.

— Fungus Foray at Barnsley, with List of Species Found. ‘The
Naturalist for 1897,’ 841-348, 1897.

Crump, W. B. The Flora of the Parish of Halifax. ‘Halifax Natu-
ralist,’ 11. and 11. (App.) 33-64,.1897 and 1898.

—- The Bell Vue Museum. The Botanical Collections. Ibid. m.
43-45, 1897.

Drxon, H. N. Northamptonshire Characew. ‘Journal N’ton. N. H.
Soe.’ rx. 2038-206, 1897.

— Notes on Northamptonshire Plants. Ibid. 262-264.

— Phenological Observations, 1896. Ibid. 265-266.

Dunn, R. H. List of Plants found at St. Abbs and vicinity in June
1896. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat Club,’ xv. 225, 1897.

Exxiot, Jonn. Liddesdale Plants. Ibid. 233-234.

a ea Rey. Dr. Jas. Corallorhiza innata in Whitmuir Bog.

id. 363.

CORKESPONDING SOCIETIES. 77

Farr, EK. H. The Origin of Double Flowers. Rep. Brighton N. H.
Phil. Soc. 1896-97,’ 17-18, 1897.

Fowrer, Rev. Wm. Notes on‘A List of Herbs used by the Halifax
Botanic Society.’ ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ 11. 113-115, 1898.

Goxtpina, Joun. The Nitrogen Question. ‘ Rep. Nott. Nat. Soc. 1896-
1897,’ 47-56, 1897.

Gossip, Jas. A. Orchids and their Fertilization. ‘Trans. Inverness
Sci. Soe.’ rv. 5-8, 1898.

Grinpon, Leo H. Ferns, considered as Illustrations of Unity in Variety.
‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc. 1896,’ 99-102, 1897.

Gunn, Rev. GeorcE. Plants on the Coast from Goswick to the Mouth
of the Low. ‘History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xv. 239, 1897.

Hatrrax §. S. G. F. C. (Botanical Section). Annual Report. ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ 11. 122-124, 1898.

Hamitton, W. P. The Study of Mosses. ‘Trans. Car. and Sey. Vall.
F. C.’ 1. 17-18, 1898.

Harpy, Dr. James. Further Observations on Excrescences and Diseases
Occasioned in Plants by Mites. ‘ History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xv.
354-355, 1897.

— On Lycium Barbarwn, L., and L. Huropeum, L., and their Local
Culture. Ibid. 362-363.

Henry, Joun. North Lancashire Plants. ‘The Naturalist for 1897,’
339-340, 1897.

Hepworts, J. Flora of our Ten-mile Radius. ‘Rochester Naturalist,’
1, 489-441, 1897. :
Howarp, Davip. The Past and Present Condition of Epping Forest.

(Presidential Address.) ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x. 82-86, 1897.

InaHam, Wm. Mosses New to Yorkshire, found in 1897. ‘The
Naturalist for 1898,’ 27-28, 1898.

Jackson, B. D. On some Overlooked Records of Hertfordshire Plants.
‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ rx. 121-125, 1897. :
Keecan, Dr. P. Q. The Tints and Shades in Autumn Woods. ‘The

Naturalist for 1897,’ 837-838, 1897.

Kerrmope, Rev. 8. A. P. Report of the Botanical Section. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ 111. 287-288, 1898.

Larper, J. Lincolnshire Mosses: being Part 1. of Notes for a Future
Cryptogamic Flora of Lincolnshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1898,’ 53-
60, 1898.

M‘AnpDREw, JAs. Botanical Researches, 1896. ‘Trans. Dum. Gal. N.
H. A. Soe. No. 13,’ 8-13, 1898.

— Botanical Notes from Galloway for 1896. ‘ Trans. Glasgow N. H.
Soc.’ v. 72-74, 1897.

Macvicar, 8. M. On some Coll and Tiree Plants. Ibid. 55-57.

Marquanp, E. D. Fresh-water Alew: a Sketch of their Structure,
Distribution, and Relationships. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x. 159-165, 1897.

Mayor, Professor Jonn E. B. Charles Cardale Babington.—In Memo-
riam. With List of his Contributions to the Local Fauna and Flora.
‘History Berwicksh. Nat. Club,’ xv. 818-821, 1897.

Merrine, Isaac. On some Experiments with the Active Principle of
Mesembrianthemum tortuosum, L. ‘Trans. 8. African Phil. Soc.’ rx.
48-50, 1897.

Meyrick, E. Botanical Notes. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.,’
No. 46, 88-50, 1898.

78 REPORT—1898.

Mort, F. T. Leicestershire Roads and Lanes. ‘Trans. Leicester Lit.
Phil. Soe.’ tv. 418-417, 1897.

Nerpuam, J. A New Yorkshire Moss. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ m1. 18, 1898.

Nicnotson, W. E. Mosses. ‘Rep. Brighton N. H. Phil. Soc. 1896-97,’
13-17.

Panter, Rev. W.H. The Botany of Biddulph. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’
xxx1. 74-100, 1897.

Perry, Lister. The Constituents of the North Lancashire Flora,
1597(?)-1893. ‘The Naturalist’ for 1897, 229-236, 309-316, 325-
332, 1897; ‘The Naturalist’ for 1898, 37-44, 149-156, 1898.

PRAEGER, R. Luoyp. Local Botanical Notes, 1895-97. ‘Proc. Belfast
Nat. F.C.’ rv. 483-437, 1898.

(Dublin F.N.C.) The Botany of a Railway Journey. ‘Irish Natu-

ralist,’ vi. 209-215, 1897.

On the Position of the Fructification in certain British Ferns
and Horsetails. Ibid. vir. 109-120, 1898.

Quaye, W., and P. G. RaALre. Manx Plant Names. ‘ Yn Lioar Man-
ninagh,’ 1. 314-316, 1898.

Rivaz, W. T. B. Plant Galls. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F.C.’ xxxt. 60-69,
1897.

Rosertson, Dr. Davin. A List of the Alge of Lamlash Bay, Arran,
collected during September 1894. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soe.’ v.
62-71, 1897.

Rorsuck, Wm. Denison. Bibliography: Phanerogamic Botany, 1891.

*¢The Naturalist for 1897,’ 285-297, 1897.

— Bibliography: Ferns, Fern-Allies, and Characee, 1890-1893. ‘The
Naturalist for 1898,’ 125-182, 1898.

Saunpers, Jas. Notes on some Plants collected in Hertfordshire by
Miss Maria Ransom, 1838-1840. ‘ Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ rx. 167-
168, 1897.

Scarcity, Rev. J. J. What can be done to save our Fauna and Flora
from Unnecessary Destruction? ‘Trans. $8. E. Union,’ 1. 8-9, 1897.

Scuénuanp, Dr. S. Morphological and Biological Observations on South
African Plants. ‘Trans. §. African Phil. ‘Soe.’ 1x. 31-41, 1897.

Scorr-Extiot,G.F. The Influence of Habitat on Plant Habit. ‘Trans.
Dum. Gal. N. H. A. Soe.’ No. 18, 131-138, 1898.

Preliminary Note on the Shape of Leaves. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H.
Soe.’ v. 80-84, 1897.

Spewet, 8. A. Floral Aspects of the [Epping] Forest. ‘Essex Natu-
ralist,’ x. 174-175, 1897.

Sopritt, H. T. A Remarkable Parasite. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ m. 108-
118, 1898.

SouTHam, S. C. Some Weeds and Wild Flowers of Shakespeare. ‘ Trans.
Car. and Sev. Vall. F.C.’ 1. 57-81, 1898.

StasBLer, GEorcE. On the Hepatice and Musci of Westmorland.
‘The Naturalist for 1897,’ 218-220, 261-268, 1897; ‘The Naturalist
for 1898,’ 117-124, 1898.

STEWART, Wm. Notes on the Mycology of Kelvingrove Park. ‘Trans.
Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v. 75-79, 1897.

SuTHERLAND, Dr. The Saxifrages of Ross-shire. ‘Trans. Inverness
Sci. Soe.’ rv. 47-48, 1898.

Tomas, T. H. Monstrous Form of Plantago peg ‘Trans. Cardiff
Nat. Soc.’ xxix. 58, 1897.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 79

Tomson, Ropert. The Rarer Flora of Ardclach. ‘Trans. Inverness
Sci. Soc.’ rv. 205-212, 1898.

TurNER, CHAs. The Method of Reproduction in Plants. ‘Trans. Manch.
Mie. Soe. 1896,’ 31-38, 1897.

Vacuett, Dr. C. T. Notes on the Flora of Wales. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat.
Soc.’ xxix. 74-75, 1897.

WavpeE Lt, Rev. C.H. Mosses and Liverworts. ‘Proc. Belfast Nat. F. C.’
Iv. 428-429, 1898.

Wanrpie, Sir THos. The ‘ Breaking’ [due to Alge] of Copmere. ‘Trans.
N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxr. 110-123, 1897.

Weiss, Prof. F. E. The Life of a Diatom. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.
1896,’ 23-30, 1897.

Wuirton, JAs. Meteorological Notes, and Remarks upon the Weather
during the years 1895 and 1896, with its General Effects upon Vege-
tation. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v. 89-118, 1897.

Witxrmson, H. J. Catalogue of British Plants in the Herbarium of the
Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Part 4. ‘Rep. Yorks. Phil. Soc.
for 1897,’ 26-88, 1898.

Meteorological Observatory, Montreal.—Report of the Committee for the
Establishment of a Meteorological Observatory on the Top of Mount
Royal, Montreal, consisting of Professor H. L. CALLENDAR (Chair-
man), Professor C. H. McLrop (Secretary), Professor F. ADAMs,
and Mr. R. F. Sruparr.

Tur Committee desire this year to present an interim report, and to ask
for reappointment, with a further grant of 50/. The object of. the
establishment of the observatory on the top of the mountain was to obtain
simultaneous records of temperature, humidity, &c., for comparison with
those taken at the College Observatory at the foot. The distance between
the two stations is rather more than a mile, and the difference of altitude
nearly 600 feet. A line consisting of four insulated copper wires was
erected to connect the two observatories. As a preliminary experiment,
an electrical thermometer was set up on the wooden tower on the summit
of the mountain, and connected through the line to a recording instrument
in the College Observatory. No difficulty was encountered in obtaining
continuous records of the temperature on the summit in this manner. It
is hoped that interesting results may be obtained by comparing continuous
records of temperature at stations differing so considerably in altitude
within a short distance of each other. The work has not yet progressed
for a sufficient length of time to enable the Committee to report any
general results, but the success of the method has been established, and it
is intended, if possible, to further extend the method to the recording
continuously at a distance of wind velocity and direction, barometric
pressure, and humidity. The intensity of sunshine has been recorded for
some months at the observatory by means of similar instruments, and it
is hoped to demonstrate the possibility of obtaining complete and accurate
records of al/ necessary meteorological data from a distant observatory in
a more or less inaccessible situation (such as that on the summit of Ben
Nevis), without the necessity of employing a special observer to make
daily visits to the station.

80 REPORT—1898.

Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor W. G. ApaMs (Chairman), Dr.
C. CHreE (Secretary), Lord Krnyry, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. CHrystaL, Professor A. SCHUSTER, Captain E. W.
Creak, the Astronomer Royal, Mr. WILLIAM ELLIs, and Professor
A. W. Ricker.

PAG
I. Magnetic Results at Greenwich and Kew Discussed and Compared, 1889 to

1896. By WILLIAM ELLIS, RS. . 80
Il. Account of the Late Professor John Couch “Adams's Determination of the
Gaussian Magnetic Constants. By Professor W. G. ADAMS, B.S. . 109

Tue Committee report that they have received the following two com-
munications bearing on the comparison and reduction of magnetic
observations :—

I. Magnetic Results at Greenwich and Kew, discussed and compared,
1889 to 1896. By Witiiam ELLs, F.2.S.

It is known that, in tabulating the photographic records of magnetic
declination and horizontal and vertical forces at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, it has been the custom to include all days, except those of
occasional extreme disturbance, so that many days of considerable dis-
turbance become included. It is also known that the diurnal inequality
so calculated differs from that obtained by the use of methods such as
those of Sabine and Wild. Theoretically, it is questionable whether it be
right arbitrarily to reject days of one particular character. The point
is one that occurs also in meteorology, and it is not usual in meteorological
tabulations to omit days of abnormal character. In dealing with mag-
netic records there is, however, this difficulty—that the abnormal variations
are at times of such magnitude as to defy treatment in the ordinary way.
And between these occasional outbursts and the days of quiet magnetism
intermediate degrees of intensity at different times occur. The arbitrary
exclusion, to any considerable extent, of days other than those of
extreme disturbance necessarily omits a certain portion of the diurnal
phenomena, since the diurnal movement as a whole is a combination of
the ordinary diurnal march with disturbance occurring apparently in an
unexpected or accidental manner that appears to some extent to have also
a local character. It having, however, become desirable to frame some
method of comparing together the diurnal inequalities of magnetism at
the different British magnetic observatories, at some of which it was
inconvenient to undertake any great amount of tabulation of records, this
circumstance led to the proposal to tabulate the curves for five days of quiet
magnetism only in each month, the selection of days being made by the
Astronomer Royal. This convention excludes entirely the influence of
seemingly irregular magnetic disturbance. But it furnishes diurnal
inequalities for the different observatories that are strictly comparable,
and, depending entirely on days of quiet magnetism, they represent the
undisturbed local diurnal variation.

In the Report of the Committee for the year 1895, Dr. Chree discussed
at some length the results for Kew for the years 1890 to 1894, as found
from the five selected quiet days in each month. In the same Report he
drew attention also to an effect which, influencing only to a small

ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 81

extent and producing no real inconvenience in diurnal inequalities de-
pending on all days of the month, in which also days of different character
become combined, became very pronounced in the five day results, because
of the small number of days employed and their restriction to days of one
kind, those of quiet magnetism. The effect in question is the non-cyclic
character of the resulting diurnal inequality, which in horizontal force he
found to be such as to cause the value at the terminating midnight
to be persistently greater than at the commencing midnight. And
in the Report for 1896 Dr. Chree discussed the matter at greater
length.

a present object may be.said to be to discuss to some extent the five
day results for Greenwich, in order to make comparison with results that
Dr. Chree has found for Kew, and also to compare for Greenwich alone
the diurnal inequalities and diurnal ranges as found from the five day
tabulation with those given by the ordinary Greenwich tabulation, in
which only days of extreme disturbance are omitted. When the all day
tabulation is spoken of, it will be understood as implying the omission of
days of extreme disturbance. The five day tabulation will be indiffer-
ently distinguished thus, or as the quiet day tabulation. I propose to
consider first the comparison of Greenwich results.

To avoid lengthened titles to the various appended tables, I would
first remark that the Greenwich results are all founded on mean results
for the individual months of each year, these being combined in the differ-
ent tables by months (that is, grouping together the same month in
different years), or in quarters, or years, as necessary. Thus, in Table I.
the results for each month depend on twenty-five days (five in each of the
five years combined), and the quarters on seventy-five days, and soon. In
the tabulation by quarters, first quarter is to be understood as comprising
the months of January, February and March, and second quarter those of
April, May, and June, and so on. In the seasonal tabulation, Spring is
to be understood as including the months of February, March, and April,
and Summer those of May, June, and July, and so on.

The values for declination are given in minutes of arc; those for
horizontal and vertical force are throughout in ¢.g.s. measure x 108,
excepting in Table V., in which they are in c.g.s. measure x 10°, The
approximate absolute value of horizontal force at Greenwich for the period
treated is 0-183 c.g.s, and of vertical force 0-437 ¢g.s., and nearly the
same at Kew. To convert declination values in are into westerly force
in ¢g.s. measure, to make comparison in the various tables with the
numbers for horizontal and vertical force, multiply the minutes of arc
by 53, excepting in Table V., for which the factor is 5°3. This it is
convenient to remember for the ready estimation of the comparative mag-
nitude of declination and horizontal and vertical force variations.!

In Tables I., II., and III., the Greenwich results for the years 1890 to
1894 have been combined to form mean monthly diurnal inequalities of
declination and horizontal and vertical force, both for the all day tabula-
tion and the quiet day tabulation, for comparison of the diurnal inequali-
ties resulting from the two different methods of tabulation. The days
omitted in the all day tabulation on account of extreme disturbance,

* When horizontal and vertical force values are hereafter quoted in the text with
the letters c.g.s. attached, they are to be understood, excepting for Table V., as
indicating c.g.s. measure x 10°

98. G

82 REPORT—1898.

adding to the list those of the years 1889, 1895 and 1896, years that
appear in subsequent tables, are as follows :—

1889. July 17, November 1.

1890. November 8.

1891. April 8,12; May 14, 15, 16.

1892. January 4, 5,6; February 13, 14; March 6,12; April 25, 26; May 1,
2,18, 19; June 2, 3, 27; July 12, 13, 14,16, 17; August 12; No-
vember 4, 5; December 5.

1893. April 26; July 16: August 7, 18; November 2.

1894. February 23, 24, 25, 28; March 30, 31; July 20; August 20; Septem-
ber 15; November 13.

1895. None.

1896. None.

Regarding the selection of five days in each month for the quiet day
tabulation, it should be explained that the days selected are really days
of quiet magnetism, to which, until the end of the year 1893, I can per-
sonally testify. And further, the selection was made so as to bring the
mean of days in each individual month as near to the middle of the
month as possible. Occasionally, on account of the prevalence of mag-
netic disturbance, this condition could not be quite fulfilled. Still, in
seventy-eight of the ninety-six individual months here treated, the mean
of selected days comes within two days of the middle of the month ;
besides which, in combinations of months grouped together in different
ways, the influence of deviation in this respect becomes greatly diminished,
indeed, usually nearly neutralised or destroyed. Further, whenever quiet
day values are compared, as the same quiet days are employed the question
of dissimilarity of epoch disappears. It is only in the comparison of the
Greenwich all day tabulation with the Greenwich five day tabulation in
Tables I., IT. and III., in the comparison of the Greenwich diurnal range
of the all day tabulation with that of the quiet day tabulation in Table
XI. (under columns b-c), and in Table XII., that the slight difference of
epoch comes in. But the corrections required in these cases are so small,
as compared with the magnitude of the variations and differences of
elements exhibited, that it can scarcely be said to be worth attempting
any correction, remembering further that, excepting in Table V., the
figures are throughout carried one figure further than that of the actual
tabulation. The effect on the values of Table XII. is the more important,
and will be considered when speaking of that table.

In the quiet day results of Tables I., II., and III. the non-cyclic incre-
ment—that is, the algebraic excess of the terminal midnight value over that
of the commencing midnight value—has been in each month eliminated
by assuming in each element a uniform change through the twenty-four
hours, and making correction accordingly. For the all day results no
similar correction was needed. In the further tabulation of the two sets
of numbers, they have been grouped by seasons in the way before men-
tioned, which represents more directly the seasonal effects than does the
ordinary quarterly grouping, since neither the combination of the first
three months of the year, nor of the last three months, gives due repre-
sentation of the midwinter effect, March and October being both months
having large diurnal inequalities. In declination, the values of hourly excess
of quiet. day value have, in the different seasonal periods, much the same
character, but the Spring and Autumn numbers are, on the whole,
numerically the larger, The sums of the twenty-four values of excess,

ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS, 83

taken without regard to sign, are in Spring and Autumn 13/92 and
12/97 respectively, and in Summer and Winter 7/54 and 9’34. The
larger values thus occur in Spring and Autumn, periods of the year
at which magnetic disturbance might more actively influence the
all day values. In horizontal force the values of excess in the different
seasons do not show such similarity as in declination ; indeed, there is
much discordance. Here the Spring and Autumn sums of excess are
247 c.g.s. and 280 c.g.s. respectively, and the Summer and Winter sums
210 c.g.s. and 260 c.g.s. In vertical force there is greater similarity in
the values of excess at different seasons than in horizontal force : the sums

Diurnal Inequality at Greenwich: Excess of quiet days ordinate above all days
ordinate, 1890-1894,

Lhialov. 6% Noon ik Lidhn.

8. measure *I0°
S

Cg
&
Ss

of excess of the Spring and Autumn values are 623 ¢.g.s, and 760 c.g.s-
respectively, and of the Summer and Winter values 688 c.g.s. and
408 c.g.s. The differences between the quiet day and all day diurnal
inequalities for the year are shown in the annexed diagram, in which,
for better estimation of comparative magnitude, the variations of declina-
tion are converted into variations of westerly force. It is curious to see
how in horizontal force the opposite seasonal effects (in part probably
accidental, rather than real) have tended so to neutralise each other that
ae aha yearly curve appears to be an insignificant accidental
residual.

The years 1890 to 1894 were selected for comparison of the Greenwich
G2

84, REPORT—1898.

all day and quiet day diurnal inequalities because affording opportunity
of also comparing the quiet day results with the corresponding Kew
results for deciination and horizontal force given in Tables ITI. and IV.
of the 1895 B.A. Report. It seemed unnecessary here to make direct
comparison of the monthly inequalities, and I have contented myself with
extracting only the quarterly inequalities for Kew for comparison with
the corresponding quarterly inequalities for Greenwich, formed by com-
bining the months in the same way as at Kew. The differences between
the two sets of quarterly numbers (see Table IV.) are not large; those of
horizontal force are, however, the larger (1’ declination = 53 of the
horizontal force unit of table).

It further seemed to be of interest to make direct comparison of
diurnal inequality on quiet days for single months of some year at Green-
wich and Kew. In Table V. this is done for the equinoctial and solstitial
months of March, June, September, and December of the year 1894, the
last for which the Greenwich results are published. The values are given
as derived directly from observation, no correction for non-cyclic variation
having been applied. Being single month results, depending each on five
days only, the differences in declination may be considered to be on the
whole small, excepting in September. In horizontal force and vertical
force the agreement is not so good, and especially in June for horizontal
force, and September and December for vertical force, remembering that
here 1’ of declination corresponds to only 5 of the horizontal and vertical
force unit of the table. The discordance in some months is mainly due
to difference of the non-cyclic increment at the two places. The values
in the several months are actually as follows :—

Non-cyclic Increment, Midnight to Midnight, 1894.

Declination Horizontal Force Vertical Force
Month l
Green- Excess | Green- Excess | Green- Excess
wich Kew of Kew wich Kew of Kew wich Kew of Kew
/ df ’
March . +01 +01 0:0 +2 +1 =i +2 0 —2
June. .| —10 —0°6 +0°4 +4 0 —4 —2 -—2 0
September —0°2 +0'8 +10 -1 +3 +4 0 +14 +14

December. —0'2 —O1 +01 —, +1 +2 -9 +2 +11

The horizontal and vertical force values are here in c.g.s. measure x 10°.

Thus in September in declination, and in September and December in
vertical force, the difference between the values at the two places is large,
amounting in vertical force to a considerable proportion of the whole
diurnal movement. If corrected in these months for the non-cyclic incre-
ment, as locally observed, the diurnal inequalities would be brought more
into accord,

In Table VI. further Greenwich declination and horizontal force quiet
day results, derived from Tables I., II., and III., are compared with corre-
sponding Kew results, as given in Table VIII. of the B.A. Report for 1895.
The sums of the hourly values of diurnal inequality in declination and
horizontal force, taken without regard to sign, also the diurnal range
(difference between the least and greatest values in diurnal inequality),

: ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 85

both as observed and after correction for non-eyclic variation, are the
elements compared. The sums of hourly inequalities in declination are
generally greater, and in horizontal force generally smaller at Kew than
at Greenwich. In the comparison of diurnal range attention may be
called to the comparatively small magnitude of the values of a—d, in
declination, and their general similarity in different months at Greenwich
and Kew. The corresponding values of a—d in horizontal force are larger
at both places, and larger at Greenwich than at Kew, but otherwise do
not accord altogether badly. The diurnal range in declination as made
eyclic is, on the whole, greater.(column, K—G) at Kew than at Greenwich,
on the average by 0'-40=21 of the horizontal force unit of the table, which
is precisely the amount by which on the average the diurnal range in
horizontal force, as made cyclic, is less at Kew than at Greenwich (column
K—G for horizontal force). In this table the monthly sums of inequalities
and monthly values of diurnal range are, for both places, necessarily
derived from the respective monthly diurnal inequalities, but the quarterly
and yearly values are formed directly from the monthly values (not from
the quarterly and yearly values of diurnal inequality), the Kew numbers,
_ with which the Greenwich numbers are compared, having been so formed.
_ If derived from the quarterly and yearly diurnal inequalities, the numbers
_ would have had a diminished value, since the grouping of monthly in-
equalities, in which the points of maximum and minimum vary somewhat
in different months, necessarily flattens the curve to some extent. For the
purpose of making comparison, either method would serve, but it must be
similar at both places. The method adopted is the better one of
the two.

Table VII. contains a comparison of the mean non-cyclic increment on
quiet days, in declination and horizontal and vertical force, at Greenwich
and Kew, founded on the observations of the six years 1890 to 1895.
The Kew numbers are those given in Table I. of the 1896 Report. The
non-cyclic increment in declination and horizontal force is at the two
places of the same character, both as regards variation of sign in declina-
tion in different months of the year and in the close correspondence in
magnitude in horizontal force throughout the year. The individual
months of positive and negative values are also very similar in number.
In vertical force there is by no means the same accordance in value at the
two places : in January the Kew value is 48 ¢.g.s. less than the Green-
wich value, and in February 49 c.g.s. greater, and similar discordances
occur in other months. The months of positive and negative values agree,
however, in number better than, remarking the differences in vaiue, might
be expected. It may be here explained, with reference to all the tables that
deal with the non-cyclic variation, Tables VII. to X., that the Greenwich
values are not likely to be influenced by any incomplete correction for
temperature. The diurnal range of temperature in the magnet basement
(of which an automatic record is kept) is small, and the difference between
the mean temperature of the successive midnights, or successive noons,
both in the monthly and yearly grouping, never amounts to more than a
small fraction of a degree. Further, the persistently large values in hori-
zontal force in different months at Greenwich (Table VII.) are corroborated
by the similarly large values observed at Kew.

It may be further noted that the character of the values of a—8, in
Table VI., both in declination and horizontal force, is generally such as,
considering the position of the points of maximum and minimum in the

86 REPORT—1898,

diurnal curve, the values of non-cyclic increment of Table VII. would
produce.

Table VIII. gives further information as to the non-cyclic increment on
quiet days in declination and horizontal and vertical force, as derived for
Greenwich from the records of the eight years 1889 to 1896, combining
not only the months of the different years to form mean monthly values,
but giving also values for the separate years. The mean values for
months, except in January and February for declination, are on the
whole very similar to those of Table VII., which includes six of the years

here employed. The greatest and least mean values of non-cyclic in- '

crement in individual months are here added, both for the monthly group-
ing and the yearly grouping. The mean of the differences between the
greatest and least values differs for the mean of months from that for the
mean of years in each element, since in the two groupings the extreme
values combine in a different way. The mean for years is the larger, but
this may have no significance, since the monthly differences depend on

extremes selected from eight months only, whilst the yearly differences |

depend on selection from twelve months.

Table TX. contains a comparison of the annual values of the non-cyclic
- increment at Greenwich for declination and horizontal and vertical force,
as appearing in Table VIII., with the corresponding annual values for
Kew, as given in Table III. of the B.A. Report for 1896. The years
are those on which the Kew values for months given in Table VII. are
founded.

At the conclusion of the Report for the year 1896, Dr. Chree sug-
gested that considerable light might be thrown on the question of the
uniformity or variability of the non-cyclic element throughout the day by
measurement of the curves for the noons preceding and succeeding each
selected quiet day. As such measurement of the Greenwich curves had
been made in the ordinary Greenwich tabulation, it appeared to be desir-
able to employ them for the suggested purpose, for which the Astronomer
Royal kindly gave me the necessary permission. The grouping of these
noon values, and, in the case of horizontal and vertical force, their cor-
rection for temperature, proved, however, to be a much heavier work than
I had anticipated. An abstract of the results arrived at is given in
Table X. The succeeding epochs alternately of noon and midnight
being :—

mM.
noon midnight noon midnight noon
De ee
P f

the middle midnight to midnight increment =m in Table X.is that of
the selected quiet days as appearing in Table VIII.; p= the increment
from the preceding noon to the middle noon, and f= that from the middle
noon to the following noon. The last twelve hours of p and the first
twelve hours of f thus together comprise the middle interval from midnight
to midnight of the selected quiet day. Care was taken to see that the
added initial and terminal half days introduced no vitiating element of
disturbance. For uniform variation of the non-cyclic increment, m would
be equal to the mean of p and f=7 in the table, as, for instance, in decli-
nation in October. Thus, positive values of m—vm indicate excess of the

a ee

LS ee ee eee

ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 87

non-cyclic increment in the midnight to midnight interval. There is
apparently considerable variation of value in each element in different
months, but, taking the elements separately, a certain order appears. In
declination there are nine months in which the values of p, m and / suc-
cessively increase ; these are January to April, June and July, and
October to December. And the value of p is in ten months of the year
negative, whilst that of / is in eleven months positive. Thus it would
appear that the selected quiet days on the whole fall at a time of
transition from a negative to a positive non-cyclic increment, indicating
change from a decreasing to an increasing value of declination, represented
in the general mean by values of p= —0':26, m= —0'-02,and f= +0':30.

‘In horizontal force there are three months in which the values of p,
m and f successively increase in value ; these are April, July and August ;
and there are four months in which the values successively decrease ;
these are January, March, May and December. In the remaining five
months—February, June, September, October and November—the value
of m is greater than those either of p or f, which may indicate a turning-
point in the value of the element. But there is altogether a preponder-
ance of positive values, showing that the selected quiet days, on the whole,
distinctly fall at times of increasing horizontal force.

In vertical force there are three months in which the values of p, m
and f successively increase—these are March, May and October ; and
there are two months in which they successively decrease—these are
February and June. There are five months—January, April, July,
August and September—in which the value of m is greater than those of
either p or f, and two months—November and December—in which the
value of m is less than those of either p or f, which again may indicate
turning-points in the value of the element. There is, however, an entire

reponderance of negative values, showing that the selected quiet days
fall altogether at times of decreasing vertical force.

All this, it will be understood, refers only to Greenwich. Further,
if the cases of progressive increase and progressive decrease of value. of
non-cyclic variation (that is of the values of p, mand fin Table X.) of
which there are nine months out of twelve in declination, seven months
out of twelve in horizontal force, and five months out of twelve in vertical

. force, can be taken as representing a real condition of things, and are not

due to any haphazard circumstances, it would justify to a certain extent
the custom of making quiet day non-cyclic diurnal inequalities cyclic, by
assuming uniform increase or decrease of the non-cyclic element through
the twenty-four hours.

The values of p, m and fin Table X. for years support generally the
conclusions derived from the values for months.

In Table XI. comparison of diurnal range in declination and horizontal
and vertical force, as variously determined, is made for Greenwich, em-
ploying the results for the eight years 1889 to 1896. It is compared as
found from the quiet day results (both as observed and corrected for non-
cyclic variation) and from the all day results (which require no non-cyclic
correction). Thedifferences between the observed and corrected quiet day
ranges, a—b, are generally small in declination and vertical force, but in
horizontal force they are larger. As regards declination and horizontal
force they have much the same order of magnitude as those for Greenwich
appearing in Table VI. (in the comparison for a smaller number of years
with Kew). In the comparison of diurnal range found from quiet days

88 REVORT—1898.

made cyclic, and from all days, b-c, the greatest and least monthly values
are given for each element, both as referred to months and years. As in
Table VIII., the mean of the differences between the greatest and least
values differs for the mean for months from that for the mean for years in
all elements, in regard to which the remarks made in speaking of Table
VIII. apply also here.

The mean values of b—c are most marked in declination in winter, and
in horizontal and vertical force towards or in summer. The deviations
between values of diurnal range, however determined, whether from quiet
days as observed, or made cyclic, or from all days, are in a sense small as
compared with the annual march of each element from its winter value to
its greatly increased summer value, and back again to winter value. In
the grouping for years the values of 6—c for vertical force show a progres-
sion from year to year for which there seems to be no sufficient explana-
tion. The mean diurnal ranges of this table are throughout combinations
of the diurnal ranges for individual months, formed from the monthly
tables of diurnal inequality, not from combinations of diurnal inequalities
for longer periods.

Table XII. contains for Greenwich the results of a determination of
the difference between the absolute values of declination and horizontal
and vertical force as found from all days and from quiet days in the years
1889 to 1896, combining the same month in different years for monthly
differences, and giving also differences for separate years. The quiet day
mean was found by selecting, for the several quiet days in each month,
the daily means in declination and horizontal and vertical force from
Tables I., III., and VII. of the Greenwich annual volumes, and comparing
the respective monthly means of the same with the monthly means for all
days taken from the Greenwich Table XI. Our table thus gives differences
only—the excess of the quiet day value over the all day value. In addition
to the mean excess of absolute value, there is given for each element also
the greatest and least monthly values of excess, both for the monthly
grouping and the yearly grouping. The mean excess in declination shows
that the quiet day value was slightly greater than the all day value in
nine months of the year, although the numbers in the column ‘ Least
monthly excess’ show that in each month the quiet day value was in some
years in defect. In horizontal force the mean excess shows that the quiet
day value was greater than the all day value in all months—in some con-
siderably so—although in eleven months of the year the quiet day value
was in some years in defect. In vertical force the mean excess shows that
the quiet day value was less than the all day value in nine months of the
year, although in each month the quiet day value was in some years in
excess. The mean of the monthly numbers in the column ‘ Difference’
is less than that of the yearly numbers, in all elements, as was found under
similar conditions in Tables VIII. and XI.

In regard to the circumstance that the mean day of the five selected
quiet days does not always fall exactly at the middle of the month, and
the influence that this may have on the quiet day value, and consequently
on the numbers of Table XII., it is to be remarked that in the monthly
grouping eight months of different years are combined, and in the yearly
grouping of course the twelve months of each year. And in neither of
these groupings does the mean day resulting from the combination of
months in any case differ by more than one day and a quarter from the
middle of the month. Taking the annual decrease of declination as 6’-0,

ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 89

the increase vf horizontal force as 180 c.g.s., and the decrease of vertical
force as 80 c.g.s., the correction required to reduce the quiet day value to
the middle of the month, that is the correction to the ‘Mean excess’ in
the respective columns of the table, would thus never exceed about the
shy part of the several annual variations above mentioned, and so may
be here disregarded. Neither would the numbers in the columns of
greatest and least monthly excess be sensibly affected.

The following comparison, referring to Greenwich, may be of in
terest :—

Declination Horizontal Vertical
f lic element } 002 <r. mei
Mean value of non-cyclic elemen —0"02
on quiet days. Table X. f (Ss 2hegs: +39 c.g.s. —licg-s.
Mean excess of quiet day absolute | +-0"-08
value above the all day absolute agi aa + 33 c.g.s. — 9e.g.s.
value. Table XII. | Sree eee

In Sections 4 to 6 of the B.A. Report for 1896, Dr. Chree gave for the
various magnetic elements the excess of Wild’s normal day absolute value
above the all day absolute value for St. Petersburg and Pawlowsk as
taken from Dr. Miiller’s paper in Vol. 12 of the ‘Repertorium fiir
Meteorologie’ and from the ‘ Annals of the Central Physical Observatory ’
respectively. Wild’s normal days correspond generally in character
with the Greenwich selected quiet days. I have therefore compared the
results mentioned with the excess of the Greenwich quiet day absolute
value above the Greenwich all day absolute value, as follows :—

Excess of Absolute Values of Magnetic Elements on Normal or Quiet Days
above the Values for All Days.

Declination west Horizontal Force Vertical Force
Years ;

St. Petersburg | ait ENS St. Petersburg se ia "| St. Petersburg ae

For years pre- ge ot ~ Ba. Med de
ceding 1885 } 28 ee ‘

1889-1896... — + 0°08 _— +33 = io

| Pawlowsk Pawlowsk Pawlowsk
i +03 +0:19 +40 +36 —30 —14
1894. E 3 +0°6 +0712 +60 +53 —10 +14

The horizontal and vertical force values are in c.g.s. measure x 10°.

The agreement in declination and horizontal force is on the whole
satisfactory, although the +0’°6 for Pawlowsk in 1894 seems large. In
vertical force the agreement is not so good ; the —30 at Pawlowsk in
1893 seems to diverge as much in the negative direction as does the +14
at Greenwich in 1894 in the positive direction.

It appears that in the years 1895 and 1896 the introduction of iron
in the construction of new buildings at Greenwich affected to some extent
the determination of absolute values, but the differential results here
employed would not be sensibly influenced thereby. A new magnet
pavilion is in course of erection in Greenwich Park, in a position appa-
rently free from disturbing effect, to which the instruments will be removed.

90 REPORT—1898.

TasLE 1—Diurnal Inequality of Declination from

wor fan| 2 | 2 | s fa] s |e |r] sf | w

Including all days excepting those

u i ul / / f / ‘ ‘ , ‘
January . - | —1°83 | —150 | —1:07 | —0°64 | —0°53 | —0:52 | —U'61 | — 0°64) —0°87 | —U°88 | —0-03
February. - | —2°25 | —2°06 | —1°62 | —1:34 | —1°09 | —1°12 | —1°14 | —1-02 | —1°15 | —1-16 | —0-12
March . - | —2°07 | —1°92 | —1°67 | —162 | —1°65 | —1°60 | —1°67 | —2-26 | —2:97 | —2-64 | —0-69
April Fy - | —142 | —1°41 | —1°38 | —1°51 | —1°79 | —1:90 | —2°57 | —3°60 | —4-41 | —3-79 | —1-44
May. . + | —1°31 | —1:50 | —1°67 | —1-86 | —2°34 | —3:29 | —4°12 | —4°65 | —4:30 | —2-92 | —0°31
June ° - | —0°89 | —1:26 | —1°43 | —152 | —2:29 | —3°68 | —4-69 | —4:98 | —4°73 | —3-46 | —1-11
July. “ - |—118 | —1:07 | —1°35 | —1°67 | —2-48 | —3°71 | —4-71 | —4°93 | —4°54 | —3°37 | —1-21
August . - | —1:22 | —1'53 | —1-73 | —1-91 | —2-27 | —3:03 | —3:96 | —4°43 | —4-03 | —2°51 | 40°15
September . | —1°73 | —2°06 | —2:22 | —2°38 | —2:26 | —2:32 | —2:75 | —3:12 | —2:86 | —1°54 | 41-12
October . + | —1:98 | —1°70 | —1°58 | —1-46 | —1-18 | —0°84 | —0°82 | —1-32 | —2-14 | —2.08 | —0-50
November. | —2°06 | —1°45 | —0 87 | —0-69 | —0°60 | —0°69 | —0°59 | —0°55 | —1:00 | —1-17 | —0-13
December - | —1°95 | —1°44 | —0:97 | —0°60 | —0:50 | —0°39 | —0°36 | —0:39 | —0°48 | —0°64 | 40°01
Spring . - | —1:91 | —1°80 | —1:56 | —1-49 | —1°51 | —1:54 | —1:79 | —2:29 | —2°84 | —2°53 | —0-75
Summer . - | —113 | —1:28 | —1:48 | —1°68 | —2°37 | —3°56 | —4°51 | —4:85 | —4°52 | —3-25 | —0°88
Autumn . - | —164 | 1-76 —1:84 | —1'92 | —1:90 | —2:06 | —2°51 | —2-96 | —3:01 | —2°04 | +0:26
Winter . - | —1°95 | —1°46 | —0-97 | —0°64 | —0°54 | —0°53 | —0°52 | —0°53 | —0°78 | —0-90 | —0:05
The Year. | —1°66 | —1°58 | —1°46 | —1-43 | —1°58 | —1°92 —2°33 | —2°66 | —2°79 | 248 —0°36

From five selected quiet days in each month

January . + | —1°36 | —113 | —0°83 | —0°61 | —0°67 | —0°55 | —0:75 | —0-91 | —1-21 | —1°37 | —0°45
February. - | —157 | —152 | —1°33 | —1:20 | —0°96 | —0°99 | —1:02 | —1-17 | —1°50 | —1°66 | —0-81
March . - | —1:07 | —0:90 | —0°74 | —1°01 | —1:20 | —112 | —1°57 | —2-48 | —3°64 | —3°31 | —1-52
April ° - | —0°69 | —0°67 | —0°79 | —1°05 | —1:17 | —1°49 | —2:29 | —3°63 | —4°71 | —-4°27 | —2°35
May. . + | —0°83 | —0°90 | —1°10 | —1°41 | —2°12 | —3:18 | —4:27 | —5-00 | —4°66 | —3°31 | —0-48
June > + | —0°49 | —0°72 | —0°92 | —116 | —1°97 | —3°32 | —4:72 | —5:12 | —5°03 | —3-74 | —1'52
July. . + | —0°65 | —0°82 | —1:16 | —1°34 | —2°00 | —3-40 | —4:53 | —4°74 | —4°84 | —3°86 | —1-66
August . -| —0°92 | —1°15 | —1:28 | —1°67 | —2°00 | —2°93 | —3-98-| —4:71 | —4-44 | —3-01 | —0-22
September . | —1:16 | —1:27 | —1°47 | —1°99 | —2:22 | —2-49 | —3-13 | —3-79 | —3°66 | —2°31 | +0:35
October . - | —151 | —116 | —1-11 | —]:02 | —0-94 | —1-19 | —1°38 | —1-93 | —2-90 | —3-02 | —1:55
November « | —1-21 | —0°82 | —0°75 | —0°68 | —0°53 | —0°72 | —0:97 | —1:20 | —1°75 | —1:90 | —0-77
December + | —117 | —0:80 | —0-46 | —0°31 | —0°36 | —0°52 | —0:77 | —0°80 | —0°92 | —1-09 | —0-30

Spring . - | —111 | —1:03 | —0°95 | —1-:09 | —1-11 | —1:20 | —1°63 | —2-43 | —3:28 | —3°08 | —1-56.
Summer . + | —0°66 | —0°81 | —1:06 | —1°30 | —2°03 | —3:30 | —4°51 | —4:95 | —4°84 | —3°64 | —1-:22
Autumn . + | —1:20 | —119 | —1:29 | —1:56 | —1-72 | —2'20 | —2°83 | —3-48 | —3°67 | —2:78 | —0-47
Winter . - | —1:25 | —0°92 | —0°68 | —0-53 | —0°52 | —0-60 | —0°83 | —0°97 | —1:29 | —1-45 | —0°51

The Year. —1°05 | —0°99 | —0-99 | —112 | —1°35 | —1:82 | —2°45 | —2°96 | —3:27 | —2°74 | —0-94

Excess of the quiet days value

Spring . . | +080 | +0°77 | +0°61 | +0°40 ) +040 ) +0:34 | +016 | —O-14 | —0-44 ) —0°55 | —0°81
Summer. . | +0°47 | +047 | +0-42 | +038 | +034 | +026 | 0-00 | —o-10 | —0-32 | 0°39 | 034
Autumn. . | +044 | +0°57 | +0°55 | +0°36 | +018 | —0-14 | —0°32 | —0°52 | —0°66 | —0-74 | —0-7 3
Winter . «| +0°70 | +0°54 | +0°29 | +0-11 | +002 | —0°07 | —0°31 | —0-44 | —0°51 | —0°55 | —0 -46

The Year. + | +0°61 | +0°59 | +0°47 | +0°31 | +0°23 | +010 | —0°12 | —0°30 | —0-48 | —0-56 | —0°58

. Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1890-1894,

il

ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS.

Noon

1 |

| ae | 7 | we | 9

|

\

20

21

to
tw

91

bo
oo

. of extreme magnetic disturbance.

41-28
+178
42°30

;
|
q
+199
i +-2'84
+1°80
+1°83
43:17
.

+402
+2°46
+1'85
+132

+ 2°02
+216
+3'22
+148

4261
43°61
+521
45°34
45°37
44:35
4472
+598
45:95
44:92
43°50
42°39
4472
+481
45°62
42°83

+340
44°44
+6742
+6°93
+6'42
+5°70
+613
+6°93
+6°64
+5°78
+413
+3°04

+593
+6:08
+ 6°45
+3°52

42:97
44:38
46-05
46°54
46°03
45°99
46°39
46:27
45°70
45-28
43°57
42°89

+5°66
+614
+5°75
+314

+450

+5°50

+517

49:10
43°22
+468
$485
$482
45-20
45°33
44°63
+400
43°84
42°47
42°30
44-95
4512
44:16
42:29

+3°95

41-43
41:91
42°61
4311
43°20
43°79
43°76
42°47
42-10
4218
41-48
41:56

+2°54
+3°58
+2°25
+149

+2°47

after elimination of the non-cyclic increment.

; +0°87
. +118
+170
+111
+2'86
+144
+1°30
+3:07
+3°41
+138
+1:28
+098

+ 2°52
+2'93
+457
+423
+5°75
+431
+433
+5:90
+538
+3'87
+311
+1:87

+3°37
+3°66
+572
+6°05
+6°62
+5°64
+6°04
+6°77
+577
+492
+3°68
+2°52

+2°91
43°75
+5°22
+5°49
+6°08
+5°62
+6°52
+5°96
+4°95
+469
+3:07
+2°38

+1:89
+2°80
+3°67
+3:93
+427
+458
+532
44:27
+313
+3°42
+2°10
+179

+123
41°44
+1°60
+233
+2°40
+323
+3°32
+218
+152
+1'88
+1:29
+1°04

+179

+0°83
40°73
+0°32
41:05
+0°98
+1:90
41°44
+0°41
+0°53
+111
+0°62
+0°52

+0°70

—daz | —0-85 | —i-44 | 1-77
—0'10 | —0:77 | —1:46 | —1:92
—0°66 | —1-:11 | —1°62 | —1°85
—0'56 | —0-91 | —1°05 | —1:24
—0:05 | —0-40 | —0°66 | —0°81
+0°38 | +0:07 | —0-:08 | —0-15
+0:27 | 0:00 | —0-27 | —0-41
—0-41 | —055 | —0-61 | —0-97
—0°68 | —1°32 | —1-42 | —1°54
—0-72 | —1°60 | —2°30 | —2:56
—0°53 | —1°34 | —1:87 | —2°11
—017 | —1:06 | —1:78 | —2°05
—0:44 | —0°93 | —1°38 | —1°67
+0:20 | —O'11 | —0:34 | —0-46
—0'60 | —1:16 | —1-44 | —1-69
—0-27 | —1:08 | —1-70 | —1:98
—0'28 | —0°82 | —1:21 | —1°45
+0°01 | —0°59 | —0°97 | —1°31
+0°21 | —0°30 | —0°80 | —1°07
—0°48 | —0°64 | —0-91 | —1-02
—0'21 | —019 | —0°05 | —0:27
—0'30 | —044 | —0°41 | —0-22
+0°42 | +0:29 | +0°30 | +0:24
+0:08 | +014 | +0:10 | +0:06
—0:13 | —0-28 | —0'31 | —0°52
—0:05 | —0'36 | —0°31 | —0:27
+0°05 | —0°38 | —1-04 | —1-25
—0'10 | —0°57 | —1:00 | —1°19
—0°02 | —0°46 | —0°91 | —1-24
—0'16 | —0:38 | —0:59 | —0-79
+0:07 | 0:00] 0:00 | +0:03
—0:04 | —0°34 | —0°55 | —0°68
—0:04 | —0:54 | —0°96 | —1:25
—0°04 | —0°32 | —0°53 | —0°67
+0:28 | +0°55 | +0°79 | +0°88
—013 | +011 | +0:34 | +0-49
+0°56 | +0°82 | +0°89 | +1°01
+023 | 40:54 | +074 | +0°73
+0:24 | +050 | +0°68 | +0°78

92 REPORT—1898.

Taste II.—Diwrnal Inequality of Horizontal Force from

Hour | Midn. 1 | 2 | 3 | ft | 5 | 6 | 7 8 | 9 | 10
Including all days excepting those
January. .|] + 4) +5] +9 | +14 | +33 | + 55] +57 | + 55] + 21] — 39) — 96
February «| + 38} +16 | +3 | +4 |] 415 | + 40|) 454 | + 45) + 7] — 68 | —-117
March . .| + 45/ +34 | +32 | +33 | +28 | + 35] +36 | + 6] — 64] —160 | —220
April . -| + 90) +73 +45 +35 +24 | + 27) +11 | — 35 | —114 | —222 | —300
May ‘ + 67| +48 | +28 | +14 | +1 | — 25} —61 | —127 | —198 | —245 | —253
June : + 66) +47 +30 +25 +17 | —18| —78 | —155 | —235 | —287 | —290
July . -| + 65 | +50 +35 +21 + 8 | —18} —70 | —141 | —220 | —281 | —303
August . .| + 95/ +84 | +59 | +49 | +38 | +, 4] —54 | —147] —248 | —319 | —322
September .| +100] +85 | +76 | +62 | +51 | + 51| +7 | — 61] —166 | —241.| —274
October . .| + 83 | +82 | +78 | +83 | +89 | +100] +86 | + 44] — 47 | —172 | —254
November .| + 41} +35 | 427 | 487 | +54 | + 70] +77 | + 65| + 7] — 80] —147
December ~-| + 5] +4 a +17 +35 | + 58) +73 | + 67 | + 51} — 9) — 65
Spring . + 56 | "+41 | 427 | 424 | +92 | + 34] 434 | + 5] — 57] —150| —219
Summer . -| + 66) +48 +31 +20 + 9 | — 20} —70 | —141 | —218 | —271 | —282
Autumn. ./ + 93] +84 | +71 | +65 | +59 | + 52 |) +13 | — 55 | —154 | —244 | —283
Winter . +17) +15 +13 +23 +41 | + 61} +69 | + 62] 4+ 26 | — 43 | —103
The Year .| + 58| +47 | +35 | +23 | +33 | + 32] +11 | — 32 | —101 | —177 | —220
From five selected quiet days in each month
January . +12) +15 | +17 | +18 | +40 | + 53] +55 | + 47) + 17] — 43] — 94
February -| + 45 | +36 +16 +17 +20 | + 86] +39 | + 57] + 17 | — 59} —128
March . .|/ + 69| +54 | +43 | +34 | +24 | + 88] +42 | + 9] — 61] —163 | —212
April . + 86 | +482 +62 +44 +42 | + 43) +33 | — 4] — 82] —195 | —275
May 3 + 82} +61 | +37 | 422 0 |—19| —54 | —133 | —220 | —275 | —965
June . + 72} +449 +37 +36 +18 | — 14} —75 | —151 | —224 | —276 | —272
Tei! 9 e + 78) +63 | +39 | +30 | 424 0| —55 | —110 | —184 | —253 | —288
August . -| + 90] +77 +68 +55 +51 | + 17] —33 | —130 | —221 | —299 | —308
September .| +101} +77 | +64 | +40 | +35 | + 19] —29 | —101 | —183 | —257 | —263
October. .| + 63] +60 | +59 | +66 | +65 | + 73] +68-| + 37] — 35 | —144 | —295
November .| + 39] +41 | +37 | +38 | +56 | + 65| 475 | + 55] — 9 | —102] —173
December ./— 5] —11 | —14 | —6 | +9 | + 25] +446 | + 44] + 99] — 24] — 75
Spring . -| + 67'| +57 +40 +32 +29 | + 39] +88 | + 21) — 42 | —139 | —205
Summer. .j| + 77 | +58 | +38 | +29 | +14 | — 11] —61 | —131 | —209 | —268 | —275
Autumn. ./ + 8/ +71 | +64 | +54 | +50 | + 36] + 2 | — 65 | —146 | —233 | —265
Winter . «| +15) +15 +13 +17 +35 | + 48|} +59 | + 49 | + 12] — 56 | —114
The Year .| + 61] +50 | +39 | +33 | +32 | + 98/49 | — 32] — 96 | —174 | —215
Excess of the quiet days value
Spring . -| + lly; +16 +13 | +8] +7/[+ 5) +4 ]+ 16); 4+15/+11]4+ 7
Summer . -| +11] +10) +7} 49/45 /)/+ 9] +9/]+10/ + 9/4 3/4 7
Autumn. -|— 8] —13 -—7 -11 —9}-—16}] -—11 | —10;} + 8} +11] 4+ 18
Winter. .|— 2 0 0} —6/}—6 }—18} —10 | —13}—14] — 13] —11
The Year -|+ 3] +3 |] +4 0}; —-1/;]— 4} —2 O;+ 5) + 3) 4+ 5

= ——_——

7

=

ee es a

ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS.

Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1890-1894.

11 Noon

93

| a | as | a | at | as

| 39 | 20 |» | » | 2

of extreme magnetic disturbance.

—112 ;}— 92 ;— 41; —8| +3 {[— 5) + Gy + 22) + 31) + 28) + 21) + 13) + 16
—139 | —109 | — 64] —20 | +15 | + 36] + 36] + 35] + 37) + 42] + 39 |) + 27] + 33
Eoigeii--iss | — 67) +7 | +48 | + 54 | + GL) + 77) + 86) + 90) +7) + 66 | + 73
—297 | —209 | —111| —25 | +45 | + 94 +118 | +134 | +143 | +137 | +124 | +109 | +104
—21g | —146 | — 77] —7 | +48 | +106 | +161 | +199 | +191 +167 | +133 | +105 | + 89
—245 | —170 | — 84] +1 | +79 | +128 | +178] +210 | +220 | +194 +154 | +118 | + 95
—970 | -177 | — 89| —2 | +77 | +127 | +169 | +210] +216 | +199 | +159 +129 | +106
—971 | —171 | — 60] +19 | +69 | +102 | +127] +159} +180 | +171 | +162) +146 | +128
246 | —133 | — 45] +8] +30 | + 33] + 50] + 83 | +114| +113} +101 +103 | + 99
—260 | —204 | —123| —57 | —17 | — 5| + 24] + 58) + 72| + 84) + 88 | + 86 | + £2
—162 | —128 | — 77] —44 | —22 | + 3] + 25] + 31 | + 33] + 33] + 42 | + 42] + 38
ea = 87 .| — 65)| =28 | —18)||— 1 | ee 842 10} 4 | 8) re 8
—918 | —157 | — 81| —13 | +36 | + 61| + 72| + 82| + 89/ + 90} + 78| + 67} + 70
—o44 | —164 | — 93] — 3 | +68 | +120 | +169 | +206 | +209 | +187 | +149 | +117} + 97
—959 | —169 | — 76] —10°| +27 | + 43 | + 67 | +100 | +122 | 4123 | +117 | +112 | +103
—124 | —102 | — 58| —27 | —12 | — 1] +13] + 21/ + 2 + 21 | + 22 | + 19} + 21
—211 | —148 | — 74] —13 | +30 | + 56 | + 80 | +102 |'+111 | +105 | + 91 | + 79 | + 73

after elimination of the non-cyclic increment.

—132 | —108 ;— 60; —19); —6)— 2) +19
—158 | —139 | — 96| —38 | —7 | + 9| + 27
—212 | —161 | — 77| — 8 | +44 | + 38| + 36
—276 | —217 | —132| —49 | +26 | + 66) + 89
—201 | —144 | — 65] + 8 | +60 | +120) +152
—243 | —155 | — 80| +11 | +94 | +113 | +146
—260 | —189 | —103 | —11 | +70 | +122/ +152
—262 | —163 | — 60| +24 | +78 | + 96 | +106
—207 |— 83 | + 8] +51 | +39 | + 28} + 43
—238 | —190 | — 99| —41 | —8] + 5] + 36
—178 | —154 | —106| —46 | — 5 | + 23| + 47
— 95 | — 83 | — 47] —10 O | + 21] + 44
—215 | —172 | —102} —32 | +21 | + 38) + 51
—241 | —163 | — 83| + 3 | +75 | +118) +150
—236 | —145 | — 50] +11 | +36 | + 43] + 62
—135 | —115 | — 71| —25 | —4 | +14] + 37
—207 | -149 | — 76 | —11 |] +32 | + 53] + 75
above the all days value.

+ 3 )—15 | — 21) —19 | —15 | — 23| — 21
a 0} +6) +7|- 2;-19
+23 | + 24 | +26) +21 | +9 ON so
—-ll |-13 |—13/ +2] +8) 415] + 24

+ 4/- 1 {—-— 2] +2 +2{— 3}—-— 5

94 REPORT—1898.

Tas.e III.—Diwrnal Inequality of Vertical Force from

Hour | Midn. 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10
Including all days excepting those
January. .{ —20 | —25 { —33 | —34 | —37 | —33 { —27 | —18 | —13 | —22 | — 21
February .| —15 | —31 | —38 | —34 | —29 | —22 | —26 | —25 | —10 | —19 | — 52
Mareh , .| —33 | —45 | —48 | —44 | —41 | —23 | -17 | + 5 +12 | -—23 | — 71
April . .| —8 | —28 | —34 | —32 | -20 | —8] +8 | +31 | +22 | —29 | — 91
May ; +4 | —14 | —18 | —i6 | + 2} +14:| +18 | +11 | —19 | —78 | —148
Tune’ . -| —5 | —15 | —95 | —21 | —4 417 |, +18 | +13 | —17 |, =69 4} —190
July . «| —20 | —40 ) —46 | —37 | —16 | 411 | +20 | +17 | —2 | —47 | — 93
August . .| —20 | —40 | —43 | —35 | —19 | +2 | +19 | +39 | +28 | —22 | — 78
September .| —28 | —44 | —55 | —62 | —51 | —45 | —33 | — 2 | —10 | —48 | — 83
October. .| —28 |, —41 | —52 | —55 | —59 | —52 | —42 | -19 | —1 | —14 | — 47
November .| —18 | —29 | —42 | —42 | —42 | —41 | —35 | —29 | —20 | —298 | — 44
December .| —22 | —34 | —39 | —36 | —31 | —20 | —23.]| —12 | —7 |} —11 | — 20
Spring . .| —19 | —35 | —40 | —37 | —30 | —18 | —12 | +4] +8 | —24 | — 71
Summer. '.| —7.| —23 | —30 | —295 | —6 | 444 | +19 | +14 | —13 } —65 |'—190
Autumn. .| —25 | —42 | —50 | —51 | —43 | —32 | —19 | +6 | +6 | —28 | — 69
Winter . .| —20 | —29 | —38 | —37 | —37 | —31 | —28 | —20 | —13 | —20 | — 28
mpeavear «| 18 [eae |emag | 2870 eens etrmler=10 4° 4 1 | cuas| ssaeeleeze
From five selected quiet days in each month
January . -| —16 —21 |,-—31 | —25 —24 —22 —19 —10 +2/!+3j)+ 3
February .| —7 | —30 | —35 | —24 | -—10] +4 0} +2) +20, +7 | — 22
March . .| +4/—8|—8]—21] +45 | 419 | +19 | +42 | +36 | —13 | — 65
April . .| +9|+9)|}—6] +7] +18 | +27 | +33 | +59 | +49 | — 4 | — 62
May . «| +24 | 428 | 423 | +28 | +43 | 450 | +48 | +40 | +6 | —63 | —139
June - «| +18 | +10 | +15 | +18 | +27 | +47 | +44 | +89 | + 6 | —57 | —103
July . _.}| +17 | 411 | +4 | +10 | 430 | 455 | +51 | 451 | 421 | —18 | — 75
Auguss . .| —14 | -11 | —9]—3]| 47 | +24 | +43 | +69 | +58 | — 4 | — 60
September .] +23 | +5 | +7 | +4) +11 +17 | +18 | +35 | +12 | —34 | — 89
October . Area —7 —14 —19 —20 -l7 —8|+6 +13 | —4 | — 55
November .| —16 | —19 | —19 | —21 | —le | —4 | —2 | +3] +419 / io} 16
December .| —24 —25 —23 Pale —11 +6 — 6 +38 +3 — 4 | — 15
Spring . .| +2 | —10 | —16 | —6 | +4 | +17 | +17 | +34 | +35 | — 3] — 50
Summer. .| +20 | +16 | 414 | +17 | +33 | +51 | +48 | +43 | 411 | —46 | —106
Autumn. 5 0 —4 —5 —-6)-—1 +11 +18 | +37 +28 —14 | — 68
Winter . .| —19 | —22>| —24 | —19 | -—17 | —7} —9|]—1|]+8)] +4]/— 9
i
The Year -} t+1{—-5 | —8{—4 | +5 | 418 | +18 | +28 | +20 | —15 | — 58
Excess of the quiet days value
Spring . . | +21 +25 ) +24 | +31 ) +34 { +35 |] +29 | +30 | +27 ) +21 | + 21
Summer . |. #27 +39 +44 +42 +39 +37 +29 +29 +24 | 419 | + 14
Autumn. | +25 +38 +45 +45 +42 +43 +37 +31 +22 | 414-1) 4 1
Winter . «| +21 | + 7)" | +18 | +20) Gp24 | Spa9 | +18] +21 | Span eee
—
The Year .| +19 | +27 | +31 | +33 | +34 | +85 | +28 | +27 | +93 | +19 | + 14

ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 95

Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1890-1894,

|
11 Noon 13 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 20 21 | 22 23
of extreme magnetic disturbance.
’ — 16) — 26, — 7) +27 +43 | + 53) + 53) + 50) + 47|/ + 37) +21 +7 — 6
| — 61| — 59| — 32| +7 +448 | + 70| + 75] 4 74| + 69| + 58] +37 +13 + 2
—112 | —117! — 76} +11 454 | +101 | +121 | +112 | +103 | + 78| +58 +28 —-11
—150 | —172 | —132 | —48 +23 78 | +118 | +133 | +120 | + 95 | +70 +40 +14

+
—198 | —198 | —137| —59 | +12 | + 73 | +124 | +156 | +153 | +126] +95 | +64 | +33
—169 | —167 | —116 } —48 | +12 | + 75 | +118] +136 | +134 | +109] +76 | +45 | +23
+
+

=146 | —153 | —121 | —51 | +20 77 | +128 | +144 | +131 | + 99] +63 | +45 | +17
= 194) —192 | — 84) —15 4) -+-51 95 | +109 | +105 | + 82| + 56] +29 | +5 | —18
= 1087] ‘—102 | — 51 | +17 +77 | +119 | +131 | +122 | +107) + 85 | +57 +17 —15
— 78| — 63 | — 23| +25 | +82 | +110 | +107) + 92] + 84] + 61 | +36 | +2 | —25
—'45|—28| + 3) +41-| +70 | + 82| + 74] + 68] + 58| + 43 | +23 0\)| z=19
=17)=— 5| +4 4]. +297 | +46 | 4+ 52) + 47 | + 42 | + 32) + 26) +16 |] +1 | —16
—108 | —116 | — 80! —17 442 | + 83 | +105 | +106 | + 97 | + 77 | +55 +27 +2
—171 | —173 |.—125 | —53 | +15 | + 75 | +123 | +145 | +189 | +111] +78 | +51 | +24
—102 | — 96 | — 53] +9 | +70 | +108 | +116 | +106 | + 91| + 67 | +41 | + 8 | —19
= 26) = 20) o|.+32 | +53 | + 62] + 58] 4+ 53] + 46 | 4+ 35] +20 | +3 | —14
|
—102 | —101 — 64} —7 | +45 | + 82] +100 | +103 | + 93) + 73:| +48 | +22 | — 2

after elimination of the non-cyclic inerement.

ae P= 10 0} +25) +40 ) + 88; + 30; + 28; +18) +15) —47 —8) —5
dB) — 42+} — 23] — 2 | 482°) 4-40 | + 88) 4 29} 18] 418) +13 | +0 | +1
—123 | —146 | —109| —45 | +31 | + 70| + 69] + 63] + 47 | + 45] +35 | 423 | +11
—132 | —160 | —136| —59 | +6 | + 41| + 60| + 66] + 59] + 50] +34 | +25 | +7
—200 | —213 | —146 | —61 | — 3 | + 54| + 93] 4106] + 91] + 70] +55 | +35 | +31

_ | 168 | —ies | —123 | —63 | —10 | + 39] + 71 | + 91] + 84] + 77| +46 | +37 | +28
—143 | —179 | —148 | —74 | —29 | + 31 | + 76 | + 88] + 78] + 56] +44 | +26 | 417
—109 |;—120 | — 93 | —17 | +25 | + 49] + 59 | + 56 | + 32/'+ 17) +10 | —5 | —14
—128 | —129| — 85| —37 | +14 | + 40| + 49] + 50] + 54] + 55] +48 | +33 | +427
— 89| — 82; — 55| —13 +32 | + 63 | + 61] + 52 | + 49] + 43] +433 +26 +13
Prag 97 | — 4) +98 | +35 | + 321 4+ 35) + 21) 410) + 9) —6) —8) —5
—11}/— 5|+ 9} +22 +29 | + 37 | + 31] +17) + 13 o| —8 —8 —19
— 98| —116 | — 89| —35 | +23 | + 50] + 56] + 53] + 41] + 38] 427 | +20 | +6
—170 | —187 | —139 | —66 | —14 | + 41| + 80} + 95] + 84] + 68| +48 | +33 | +25
—109 | -110 | — 78 | —22 | +24 | + 51} + 56] + 53] + 45] + 38] +30 | +18 | +9
— 20) —14| ¢ 2] +95 | +35 | + 36] + 32/422) 4+.14|/+ 8} —6} —8] —10

aon! -
— 99 | —107 | — 76 | —25 | +17 | + 45| + 56] + 56] + 46/ + 38] +25 | +16 | +8
above the all days value.
+ 10 0) — 9) —18 | —19 |] —33 | — 49) — 53; — 56 | — 89| -—28) —7) +4
+ 1) — 14} —14}) —13 | —29 | — 34] — 43 | — 50] — 55 | — 43 | —30 | —18 | +1
— 7| — 14} — 251) —31 | —46 | —57 | — 60| — 53} — 46) — 29] —11 | +10 | +28
+ 6)'+ 6) + 2] —7 } -18 | — 26 | — 26-| — 31} — 32] — 27} —26 | —11}] +4

+) 828 Gil, —18 We 18 ~23 | — a1 |— 4 =—o4g i Seay sp | 9 4 "6" ||) 210

96

REPORT—1898.

_ Taste TV.—Diwrnal Inequality of Declination and Horizontal

First Quarter .
Second Quarter
Third Quarter.
Fourth Quarter

The Year.

First Quarter .
Second Quarter
Third Quarter.
Fourth Quarter

The Year. .

First Quarter .
Second Quarter
Third Quarter.
Fourth Quarter

The Year. >

First Quarter .
Second Quarter
Third Quarter.
Fourth Quarter

The Year. .

First Quarter .
Second Quarter
Third Quarter.
Fourth Quarter

The Year. :

First Quarter .
Second Quarter
Third Quarter.
Fourth Quarter

The Year.

(After elimination of the

Jmia.| 1 | 2 s[e[s |e fa|e fo | w
Declination,

, 7 v y / , / ‘4 / / /
—1:33 | —1:18 | —0:97 | —0-94 | —0°94 | —0:89 | —1°11 | —1°52 | —2-12 | —2-11 | —0-93
—0°67 | —0:76 | —0:94 | —1:21 | —1:75 | —2°66 | —3:76 | —4:58 | —4:80 | —3-77 | —1°45,
—0°91 | —1:08 | —1:30 | —1-67 | —2:07 | —2:94 | —3:88 | —4-41 | —4°31 | —3-06 | —0°51
—1:30 | —0:93 | —0-77 | —0°67 | ~0°61 | —0:81 | —1-04 | —1-31 | —i-86 | —2-00 | —0:87
—1:05 | —0:99 | —0°99 | —1-12 | —1:35 | —1:82 | —2:45 | —2'96 | —3-27 | —2°74 | —0:94

Declination,
—1:28 }—1-18 )—1:02 | —0-97 | —1-03 ; —1-:09 | —1-26 | —1°67 } —2:31 | —2:26 | —0-86
—0°66 | —0:78 | —0-97 | —1-23 | —1-84 | —2:89 | —3:88 | —4:74 |\—4-93 | —3-84 | —1-25
—0°99 | —1-11 | —1:34 | —1°67 | —2°18 | —3-04 | —3:95 | —4°53 | —4-48 | —3-04 | —0-29
—1:26 | —0-90 | —0-76 | —0°69 | —0-75 | —0-83 | —1-12 | —1-41 | —1-97 | —2-11 | —0°86
—1:05 | —1:00 | —1:02 | —1:14 | —1-45 | —1:96 | —2:55 | —3-09 | —3-42 | —2-81 | —0-82
Lacess of Declination
+0:05 | 0:00 } —0:05 ; —0:03 } —0:09 ; —0:20 | —0:15 | —0°15 ; —0-19 | —0-15 ) +0:07
+0:01 | —0:02 | —0:03 | —0-02 | —0-09 | —0:23 | —0-:12 | —0-16 | —0-13 | —0-07 | +0:20
—0°08 | —0:03 | —0-04 | 0-00 | —0-11 | —0:10 | —0-07 | —0-12 | —0-17 | +0:02 | 40-22
+0:04 | +0:03 | +0:01 | —0-02 | —0-14 | —0:02 | —0:08 | —0-10 | —0-11 | —0-11 | +0-01
0:00 | —0:01 | —0:03 | —0-02 | —0:10 | —0:14 | —0-10 | —0-13 | —0-15 | —0-07 | +012
Horizontal Force,
+ 42)+ 35) + 25)4 23/4 28)4+ 42/4 45/4 38;-— 9 )— 88)—145
+ 80/+ 64/+ 45/4 34/4 20/+ 3]— 32/— 96 |—175 | — 249 | — 271
+ 90|+ 72)+ 57|+ 42|+ 37])+ 12]— 39 |—114 |—196 | — 270 | — 286
+ 32/+ 30/4 27/4 33/+ 43/4 54/4 63/+ 45/— 5|]— 90]—158
+ 61/+ 50/+ 39/4 3314 3214 28/4 91-— 32|— 96 }—174 | —215
Horizontal Force,
+ 34)+ 26/;+ 25)+ 26)+ 36)4 56/+ 59)+ 55)4+ 12)— 65 )—197
+ 74/4 66)+ 53/4 52/4 43/4 34/— 1]— 56 |--139 |—216 |—258
+°75|)+ 74/+ 59])4 57/4 49/4 30/— 14|— 82 | —166 | — 242 | —977
+ 29/+ 28/+ 30/4 40/4 53})+4 68/4 74/+ 57/+4 10]— 70|—145
+ 53/4 49|+4+ 42])4 44/4 45]4 4714 29/— 6|/-— 71 !—148 |— 202
Excess of Horizontal Force
- 8;— 9 O;+ 3);+ 8)+ 14)+4+ 1444+ 17)+ 21)4 23)4+ 18
— 6/+ 2)+ 8/4 18}+ 23/+ 381]}4 31])/4+ 40/4 36/4 33}+ 13
— 15/+ 2/+ 2/+ 15/+ 12/4 18]+ 25}+ 32/+ 30/4 28/+ 9
— 3/— 2/+ 3/+ 7]4+ 10]}+ 14]+4+ 11] + 12/4 15]+ 20]4 13
— 8/— 1)/+ 3)/+ 11/4 13]4 19}+ 20/4 26/4 25/4 26)4 13

——————— ss Sr

ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 97

Force at Greenwich and Kew on Quiet Days, 1890-1894, compared.
non-cyclic increment.)

m fron] a |u| | wf || oi» | a | »

ee Ee a nee

Greenwich.

41°84 | 44:27 | 45°35 | 44-90 | +3°59 | +2°01 | +0°84 +0:22 | —O11 | —0°38 | —0°60 | —0:73 | —0:91

at Kew.
40:04 } +011 } +0°17 | +014 ) +018 40°11 ) +0:04 ; —0°04 | +0:01 ; +0°03 0:00 | +0°03 } +0:05
40°15 | +0:23 | +0-29 | +0:21 | +016 | +0:04 —0:07 | —0-08 | —0:08 | —0:07 | —0:08 | —0:03 0:00
40:25 | +0°34 | +0°43 | +0°26 | +017 0:00 | —0-08 | —0-12 | —0-16 | —0'14 | —0-11 | —0'17 | —018
+0:09 | +015 | +0:25 | +013 | +013 | +0°09 0:00 | —0:04 | —0:04 | —0:09 | —0°10 | —0°08 | +0:01

+012 | +0°21 | 0-29 +018 | +016 | +005 | —0:03 | —0:07 | —0-07 | —0-06 —0°07 | —0:06 | —0-04

Greenwich.
mig7 |—136 )}— 78|— 22|+ 10)+ 15)+ 97 )+ 46|/+ 61)+ 66)+ 54)+ 42 )+ 44
— 247 |—172|}— 92]|— 10/+ 60]+100 4129 | +157 | +167 | +149 | +131 )+ 111 |}+ 94
— 243 |—145|— 52/+ 21/+ 62)+ 82 +100 ! +132 | +154 | +145 | +132 }+ 107 |+ 99
—170|—142|— 84/— 32/— 4)+ 16/+ 42)+ 55]+ 64|/+ 59/+ 47/+ 36 |+ 38

Ken
Saeias )— 74 ;— 3L;— 4)+ 2)4+ 9) 35 y+ 50; + 49;4+ 42)+ 33 ;+ 35
— 244 |—176|]—104|}— 32|/+ 32/+ 69 4105 | +129 |} +143 |+126|/+114/+ 99 [+ 86
— 236 |—148 |— 66] + + 43/4 64/4 89/4119 |+134]/4+126)+121/+ 94 | + 95
—160 |—137|— s7}— 44]/— 17}/— 4]4 28|+ 43 )4+ 52) + 45/+ 39/4 34 |+ 35

at Kew.
+ 12)+ 81+ 4}— 9)— 14)- Lope 1S ee en, |e 1 8 8
+ 8/— 4]/— 12|/— 22|— 28)— 31)/— 24)/— 28/— 24)/— 23/-— 17/— 12 |- 8
+ 7T/— 38|— 14/-— 18|— 19|—- ig |— 11 }— 13 |— 20|/— 19j)— hj— 13 )—. 4
+ 10}/+ 5/— 8i— 12)/— 13)— 20\/— 14)/— 12|/— 12)/—- 4/— 8/— 2/-— 3
+ 8i+ 2/— TI]— 1]- 19 |}— 20}/— 17|/— 16)— 17)— 18)—- wi- g9/— 6 |

98 . REPORT—1898.

TaBLe V.—Diurnal Inequalities at Greenwich and Kew on quiet days
(As observed, no correction for non-cyclic

Hour | Midn. | 1 2 | 3 | 4 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 10
Declination. '

March— i / / ’ i / ’ ' , ’
Greenwich .| —13] —Il1 —07) —11{] —16} —15] -18] —28|] —44] -—44}] —217
Kew . -| —l2}] —10] —11] —10] —16] —1:5] —19 |] —28] —44] -—45] —2:5
ExcessofKew | +01 | +01] —04] +01 0-0 00 | —01 | 0-0 0-0 O1| —04

June—

Greenwich .| —03 | —04/ —10| —13 |] —24] -—35|) —48 | —51/ -—49] -—3:9 |} —1-7
Kew < -}| —03) —05} —09 | —17] —23] —36 |] —49) —56} —50] —37| —16
Excess of Kew 00} —O1} +01] —04) 401] —O1);) —U1| —65} —O1] +02! +01

September—

Greenwich .} —16] —19] —16} —15] —14] —18] —25 |} —32] —31] —20 0-0
Kew « .| —23/ —23 | —23 |] —21] —25 | —26 —32 | —42 | —41] —26)} 401
ExcessofKew | —0'7] —04| —07|) —06 | —11]} —08! —07! -—1:0] -—10] —06] +01

December—

Greenwich ./| —05| —06] —05} —06 |} —05 |} —07| —08| —09 | —11] -—13 |] —06

Kew = -| —O7}) —05) —05 | —05 | —05 | —07 | —0-'9 | —1:0] —11] —14] —64

Excessof Kew | —02 | +01 00 | +01 00! OO}; —01, —O1; OO] —0O1]| +02
Horizontal Force.

March— | |
Greenwich + 6 A | Pee) ere eee 3 | + 3/41|—7] -17| —24
Kew. -| + 6] + 3} + 3] + 3] + 3] + 5) + 6) + 4] — 3] —13] —22
Excess of Kew 0; -1 Oo; +i1)4+1 Bab eG ot) ess) eee 2

June— | .
Greenwich 6/ +7 6 7) +1] — 2! — 8} —17!] —25|] —29|) —33
Kew 5 -| + 5] + 4] + 5] + 4} + 38] + 2] — 5} —12] —20 29| —34
Excess of Kew 1) —s38 ) = 1) = ssa oie a 4 8] + 8] St 0; -1

September— x
Greenwich +11 4) +5) = 5) eee oy 1 — 6] —18] —28} —28
Kew 4 -| +10) £7) + 6] +5) +5] +°5 Oo}; —*6 | —18 |}-—27 | -— 29
ExcessofKew | — 1 Oo; +1 0 1 0};--— 1 0 oj; +4i1;};=-41

December— | |
Greenwich .| + 2/] + 1 Oo{|—1,],+1)] + 2! +2!) 41) —1}]—7)] —
Mow jf. vs Oo; +1) —1)]—1)] +1] + 2] + 2) +1] — 1] — 4] —10
ExcessofKew | — 2 0}; —-1 0 0 0 0 | 0 0 3 uf

Vertical Force,

March— | | :
Greenwich +1]/-1/]/—1]—8 3/ — 1] 4+ 1) + 6| + 5] — 2] — 8
corr eet. | b= 1 0 Oj; +1} 4+ 2) + 3) + 5) + 7} + 5 Oo; —§
ExcessofKew | — 2} + 1|/ +1] + 4 DME sy pe 44) o|; + 2 0

June— |
Greenwich -} — 1|/-— 2) — 2} — 2) —9 0 3); + 5; +2} —1]—7
Kew cigs sees 00 2) ts eae eat ee) 4 B53 eect Ol 7
ExcessofKew | + 1 0o|-1 Oo; + 1] + 1; 1 0o';—1)/441 0

September— | ;

Greenwich 2 0 1 1 2) +1] 4+ 2) + 4/ + 2} — 2) —10

Kew, nfo 6) — 5) —- 4) — 35 =F owe —fo4 0; + 2] 0), = 44) -—F0

ExcessofKew | — 8} — 5] — 5| — 4 4/—3}] — 2}; — 2] — 2} — 2 0
: / |

December— | PF
Greenwich 2 1 2 0 i 0 0 0 0] +41 0
Kew. ~-| — LJ —1],—1]-1 —1}—-— 2; —2 2} — 1) — 27) — 2
ExcessofKew | — 2| — 2 3/—1 Pe a a = J — ‘yaa ee

In this Table the Values of Horizontal and

ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 99

eee mpared, for the Equinoctial and Solstitial Months of the Year 1894.
increment being here applied.)

. Noon 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 18 | 19 20 21 | 22 23
Declination.

, vy ’ ’ , / , / , / i , ,
415 | +40] +59] +55] +38] +20] +09] +05] +03] —02] —04 —07 —0:9
41:1 | +46] +61) +5:°9 | +42] +21 | +09] +05 | +04 00} —02| —04 —0'8
—04/] +06] +02) +04] +04) +01 0:0 00} +01] +02] +02 +03 +071
410] 43°83} +52] +49 | 442] 437] +21] 41:5] +08] +0°7 |] +09 +08 —10
411} +41] +59] +450] +43] +36] +20] +14] +09] +06 | +06 +0°6 —10
+01] +03] +07] +01] +01] —O1} —O1] —O1] +01] —O1] —03 —02 0:0
428) 449] +57] +48] +33] 421] 403] +04] —03] —05 | —06 —0'8 —12
+36 | 45:9] +74] +60] 43:7] +21] +07] +03 00 | —0-4| —03 —0'4 —0°9
+08) 41:0] +17) +12 | +04 00 | —O1} —O1} +03] +02} +03] +04 +0°3
+07 | 41:3 | 42:2] 426] +21] 41:2] +08] +04 00 | —O1 |] —O04 —l1 —12
+07 | 41:7) +26 | +26] 42:2] +12] +05] +02] —O1) —05 | —07 —10 —1°0

00 | +04) +04 00 | +01 00 | —03 1 —O2 1 —O1] —O4 | —O3| +01 +02

Horizontal Foree.

—25|} —19|] — 9 o; +5] +7] + 8{ + 9} +10] +01 +10 + 8 +10
aa — 18 | — 9) — 3) + 2] + 6] + 41.4 7] +7) + 8) + 7 +7 + 9
+1/+41 0; — 3} — 3] — 1] —- 47 —.2/ =] 3] — 3] — 3] -— 1 -—1
‘ —33| —25| —20| — 9] +11] +20] +20] +23) +27) +23) +18 +18 +14
‘ —30| —21/ —11} — 3] + 7| +16] +18] +22] +22 )'°+18) +16 +14 + 9
3) 4/ +9 6; —4]/—4]/—-—- 2};—-—1} -—5 5 D} 4 — 5

| —25| —14/| -— 3 0 2) + 3) + 6] + 9} +11] +15) +14 +11 + 9
—24} —16} —5| — 4; — 2 oOo; + 4] +10] +13) +15] +15) +15 +14

t}—2|/—- 2); —# 4); -— 3] - + 1] + 2 Oo; +1 + 4 + 5
-13 12}; —6;-1 1 5 9 8 7 7 3 0 + 1
—10 TyTN te ERIE Nie SSR ie Soe ale ao ee Ce We + 1 + 2
+3|+ 2 0o| —2!|-—- 3] -— 3 4,—-1/1—-1] -—11!--1 +1 +1

Vertical Poree.
—13 15| —11 2 5) +7 6} + 6 4 6} + 6) + 5 +2
—aaie—de | — §| — 3) + 3] + 6| + 5} + 3] +2) +2 0 0 0

Oo); +1] + 3 1f— 2) —1] = b} = 3] —|2 5} — 6 -— 5 — 2
—14/ -13}| —11 6 Oo} + 6) +7) +11) +11 8/ 4+ 5 5 — 1
Ae eee) SS he Le Te] OP EO fe) OP ee TP eS + 2 + 1

ieronmeeraa oS tok Dy be Bf = 2] — ill — 2 -— 1 + 2

17} —15/} —10 4) +3] + 5| + 5| + 5] + 6 8| + 6 3 + 3
=—15} —11)—6)/— 2| + 3| #7] + 8] 4-7/4 Th 4+ 7] +7 +7 + 7

2 4|/ +4 2 Oe: Si se Suh EBs Dea) 4 1 4 + 4
+ 3] + 3/ + 3) + 3] + 3/ + 3 Oot = 3} — 4} — 5] — 5] — 4 — 6
—-1/-1 O} +2) + 3] + 4] + 2] + 1 Oo} + i{+ 1 +1 + 2
—4/]/—4/—3)-1 Oo; +1/+ 2] + 4) + 4 G6} + 6 + 5 8

Vertical Force are in c.g.s, measure x 10°.
; H2

100 REPORT—1898.

Taste VI.—-Diurnal Inequalities and Diurnal Range at

Declination
Sums of Hourly Diurnal Range
Values of Diurnal
Inequality (corrected
er mga rae Greenwich Kew
Month or Quarter
Cor- Cor- K-G
pected rected as
As Ob-| _ for As Ob-| for made
pene Kew |K-G sa ealis a-b one pes a—b | Cyclic
Incre- Incre-
ment ment
b
, t t ' ' , ’ ’ , ’
January a . | 28°24 | 29°52 |+1:28] 4:98 | 4:78 |}+0:20| 5:22 | 4:99 |4+0:23/)+0-21
February : . |34:56 135-95 41:39] 5°54 | 5-41 |+0°13| 5-72 | 5-64 |+0:08/+0-23
March . : . |45°60 | 47-58 |4+1:98| +944 | 9:36 | +008] 9:78 | 9-73 |+0:05|+0-37
April. 3 . |48°68 | 51°45 |4+ 2°77] 10°78 |10°76 | +0-02/ 11°30 | 11-26 |+0:04|/+0°50
May 5 = . |58:02 | 59°32 |+1:30) 11°70 | 11-62 |+0-08) 12-00 | 11-93 |+0:07}+0°31
June. : . 158-02 | 59:26 | +1:24)10°76 | 10°76 0:00} 11:18 {11-25 |—0:07|+0:49
July 5 : . |58:20 | 57-46 |—0-74} 11°30 | 11°36 |—0:06 | 11:18 11-29 —0:11|—0°07
August . ; . {5712 |60°14 |+3°02}11°38 |11-48 |—0°10/ 12:16 |12:23 |~0-07|4+0°75
September . . |50°18 | 55°04 14486} 9°50 | 9:56 |—0-06| 10°50 | 10-47 | +0:03|+0-91
October . : . |43°68 | 45°48 |+1-80| 7:94 | 7:94 0:00} 8:54 | 852 '|+0-02/+0:58
November. . |30°92 | 32:59 |+1°67] 5°60 | 5:58 |+002| 5:92 | 5-88 |+0-04/+0°30]
December . . | 22:82 | 24:03 | +1:21| 3°98 | 3:80 |+0:18} 4:02 | 3:97 |+0:05|+0:17
First Quarter . |36:13 |37°68 |4+1:55) 665 | 652 |+0:13| 6-91 | 6-79 |+0:12|+0-27

Second Quarter . |54:91 |66°68 |+1-77| 11-08 |11:05 |+0-03| 11-49 | 11-48 | +0-01]+0-43
Third Quarter - |55°17 | 57-55 | + 2°38] 10°73 | 10°80 |—0-07| 11-28 | 11:33 |—0-05|+0°53
Fourth Quarter . | 32°47 | 34:03 e 1:56] 5°84 | 5°77 |+0°07| 616 | 6:12 |+0-04/+0:35

Mean. ° - {44°67 | 649 |4+1°82) 857] 853 |+0:04] 8:96 | 8-93 | +0:03}+0-40

'
: ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 101
f

Greenwich and Kew on Quiet Days, 1890-1894, compared.
-

ass. SS....88808 SS. ee

Horizontal Force

Sums of Hourly Diurnal Range
Values of Diurnal

Inequality (corrected aids a
| for Non-cyclic Incre-

Greenwich Kew
Month or Quarter

Cor- Cor- K-G
reored ie as
As Ob-| for As Ob-| .£°F made
served| Non- | g_% |servea| Nom- | a—o | Cyclic
cyclic %. cyclic
Incre- Incre
ment ory

187 | +10] 172} 180} -—8]| —7| January
230 | +20| 214] 205] +9 | —25 | February
298 | +9]| 290] 282] +8| —16| March
405 | +13 | 386] 381} +5 | —24 | April
449 | +17} 428] 411 | +17] —38 | May
A77 | +11 | 484 | 429} +5 | —48 | June
465 | +6] 444] 436 | +8 | —29 | July
476 | +15 | 450} 433 | +17 | —43 | August
381 | +14 386 | 372 | +14] -—9 | September
319 | +30] 332] 317 eC 15 | —2 | October
253 | +11 | 234) 245] —11 —8 | November
146 | 141 +5 |) 140; 142 —2 +1 | December
51) 238 | +13 | 225] 222 +3 | —16 | First Quarter
457 | 444] +13] 416} 407} +9 | —37 | Second Quarter

253 | 238 | +15 | 235| 234] +1 | —4 | Fourth Quarter

452 | 441 |] +11 427 414 | +13 | —27 | Third Quarter
2045 | 1893 | —2 353 | 340] +13] 326] 319 +7 | —21 | Mean |

102 REPORT—1898.

Taste VII.—Won-cyclic Increment at Greenwich and Kew on Quiet Days,
1890-1895, compared.

Declination Horizontal Force Vertical Force
| : $ s
Month Non-cyclic | Number of Indi- |} Non-cyclic | Number of Indi- Non-cyclic Number of Indi-
Esgartes Increment | vidual Months Increment vidual Months Increment vidual Months
Green- Green- Green- Green- = Green- Green-
ah Kew righ Kew wich Kew Th Kew at Kew Shin Kew
é ' |+ o —-l4+ o = + o—|/+ oF + 0-|+ o-
January ./+047/+0°63! 4 0 216 O Ol] +53] +4501/6 00/5 01 —4 -—52 |}3 0 3/0 0 6
February . |+0'45|+0°33| 4 0 2/4 0 2/| +63] +57/5 01/5 1 0 —44 +5/0 06/3 0 3
March. |+0:27/+918/ 3 3 0}3 O 3) +34] +2815.01]/]5 1 0 —45 +13 ||) 0 5 12 3 2
April -|4+017/4+012)4 1 118 1 2)) 4451 420/5 0 1/4 11 —4 —22;2 04/2 0 4
May. + |+013/+0°07/ 3 0 3)3 0 3]| +39] +388/5 01/5 1 0 —4 —12/22 2/3 0 8
June. - {+0°05/—0°17/} 4 0 233 0 3i] +27] +22/5 0 1/4 11 —20 —-28 ;1 14/1 0 5
July. —015|—0°23/ 2 1 3/3 0 3]/ +31] +27)/4 0 2/4 2 0 +6 -—13 |3 0 3/1 0 5
August . |—0°35/—0°30} 1 1 4/1 1 4]} +34] 4371/6 00/5 0 1 -—9 —-8/1 2 3/38 03
September |—0°33}+0:12} 2 0 4/3 0 3]/ +38 | +38/5 01/6 0 0 —14 +30 |}2 22/383 1 2
October . |—0:20/+0:03| 1 0 5/2 1 3i| +69] +50/6 00/6 0 0 —12 +65 | 2.1 3 138 O83
November |+0:13}+018/ 3 1 2/3 1 2] +60] +53/5 01/6 00 —44 —19 | O 2:5 1208
December. |—0:27|—0°10} 1 0 5)1 2 3] +293} 415/5 01/5 01 —34 —6/]10 5/2 038
1st Quarter |+0-40 |+0:38 — — +50 | +45 = = —31 Sah a =
2nd Quarter | +012 |+0-01 — —_ +37 | +27 = = —i 9) oe = =
3rd Quarter |—0°28 |—0-14 — — +34] +84 = =s 6 “fs = aes
4th Quarter |—011/+0:04) — = SEDI E39) ee SS 230" | ens on
Mean + |+0°03/4+0:07; — — +43 | +36 = — —19 | —8 = _
Totals of ;
Months .| — | — |32 7 33/35 6 31) — | — |e2 010/60 7 5|| — — {18 9 45 [95 3 49%

* The vertical force magnetograph at Kew was out of action in November and December 1890, reducing the
months from seventy-two to seventy.

Taste IX.—Non-cyclic Increment at Greenwich and Kew on Quiet Days, for
Years, compared.

Declination Horizontal Force Vertical Force ‘

Year z :

Greenwich Greenwich Kew Greenwich Kew

{|

’

1890 — 0:23 +19 +23 —12 +15* t

1891 + 0°08 437 +23 Fe 12 |
1892 — 0:20 +67 +53 —39 —20
1893 + 0°15 +44 +40 —24 —26
1894 + 0°24 } +33 +33 —4 +12
1895 + 0°15 +57 +44 —27 —15
Mean PD: + 0°03 448 +36 —19 a8

* This value depends on ten months only. See note to Table VII.

ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 103

TABLE VIIL.—Won-cyclic Increment at Greenwich on Quiet Days,
1889—1896.

Declination Horizontal Force | Vertical Force

Non-cyclic Increment Non-cyclic Increment Non-cyclic Increment

Difference
Individual
Months
Greatest
Monthly
Value
| Difference
Individual
Months
Greatest
Monthly
Value
Least
Monthly
Value
| Difference
Individual
Months

a Ron ek mR at

2 piee~ Tall ital te — ee

SR a ys es S|

nr

w
Ls)

Bae GS OS Oo De). So) VO 2) o's:
a 8 Fk ek ek eK Lr CO Le OD wD » |

to ow

Ist Garter
2nd Quarter
3rd Quarter
4th Quarter

ere war oO +, oO

woraanwr wo ow
Nwnwnro ono *, N WD
o of KF OY Fe &

Totals of
Months 38 10 48]; —

104 REPORT—1898,

TaBLE X.—Won-cyclic Increment at Greenwich on Quiet

Declination

Month, Quarter, or Year | Preceding | Midnight | Noon to

Neem | ASA | CE | keay=n| man
P mm
' ' a ' ' xi '

January - - : —0:04 +0°05 +0716 +0:06 —0:01
February . : : +0°05 + 0:25 +0°40 +0:22 +003
March . é : —0°35 +0°25 +047 +0:06 +019
April . 5 —0°81 +014 +0°60 —0O11 + 0°25
May . ° = : +019 +013 +0°25 +0°22 —0:09
June . . ‘ : —0:28 + 0°04 +011 —0:08 +0:12
July . a ; : —0°31 —0°15 + 0°44 +0:06 —0°21
August . : : . —021 — 0°23 —0:04 —013 —0:10
September . 5 é —0:12 -031 +011 —0°01 —0°30
October - : 3 —079 —0:24 +031 —0:24 0:00
November . 5 : —0°12 + 0:06 +021 + 0:04 +002
December . ‘ ‘ —0°31 —0°28 +063 +0:16 —0:44
First Quarter : : --0°11 +0718 +0°34 +011 +0°07
Second Quarter . F --0°30 +010 + 0°32 +001 +0:09
Third Quarter. ‘ —0:21 — 0:23 +017 —0:02 —021
Fourth Quarter . i —0°41 -—0:15 +0:38 — 0:02 -—0:13
Mean : ; : — 0:26 —0:02 +0:30 + 0:02 +0°04
1889. : 5 : —0:22 -0O11 + 0:06 0:08 —0:03
1890. : : —0:09 —0:23 —0:02 — 0:06 -—017
MS91 5) - ; ; —018 +0:08 +0°49 +0715 —0:07
1892 2 “ 4 +001 —0:20 +045 + 0:23 —0:43
1893. : : . —012 +015 +036 +012 + 0:03
1894. ; : : —0°53 +0°24 +0°24 —015 +0°39
1895. ° Se rac —0°48 +0°15 +0716 —0:16 +0°31

1896. : . 5 —0:47 —0:27 +0°70 +012 -—0°39

ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 105

Days, as variously determined, compared, 1889-1896.

Horizontal Force Vertical Force

Preced- | Midnight pret Preced- |Midnight |Noon to
ing Noon| to Mid- | fl- | 4 (p+f)| ,_,, |ingNoon| to Mid- |, fol-
ee

: - 3 (ptf)
to Noon | night | lowing to Noon| night |lowing| *°_,,° |™-”

p m oon Pp Fp Noon

+32 +30 | + 8 +20 +10} -—4 -— 1 —17| —Iil +10
+4 +58 +50 +27 +31 —15 — 48 —49 —32 —16
+45 +42 | 4 6/ +26 | +16) —45 —36 | -28| -37 | +1
+21 +52 +55 +38 +14 —27 + 8 —22 —25 +33
+61 | +48 Gara “| 41s) Rear Sof wae lie gl acs
+29 +35 | +380) +380 | + 5] -—12 —14 | —33| -23 | + 9
- 9 +34 | +47] +19 | +15] -—20 0 | -19| -19 | +19
—20 +32 | +47| +13 | +19] —10 =— 7% | —18,) =14°)| + 7
+13 +32 — 4 + 4 +28 — 46 —18 —19 —32 +14
+42 +56 +28 +35 +21 —34 —18 + 9 -—12 — 6
+20 +41 +22 +21 +20 —38 —43 —3l —34 -— 9
+44 +11 —12 +16 -— 5 —20 —22 — 3 —11 —11
+27 +43 +21 +24 +19 —21 — 28 —31 —26 - 2
+37 +45 +28 +32 +13 —22 -— 3 —13 —17 +14
— 6 +33 +30 +12 +21 —25 - 8 —19 —22 +14
+35 +36 +13 +24 +12 —31 — 28 -— 8 —20 | - 8
+23 +39 | +23 +23 +16 —25 -—17 | -18 —21 +4
+12 +19 eee +13 Pale —25 == (Shep = taal IA 4-6
iver ao: | + 5) +11 4 + 8) —19 Se eet) Cia ee
oe ae | 6b |, “4380 1% 4h) 289 = ger) SON, Sb ees
+44 +67 | +26} +385 | +32) —47 —39 | -19|; -—33 | — 6
+19 +44 | 427} 423 | +21) —53 —24 |—7}| -30 | + 6
+23 +33 +21 +22 +11 + 8 - 4 —39 —15 +11
+29 +57 +18 +24 +33 — 26 —27 —23 —24 -— 3

+43 +38 + 8 +25 +13 —34 —11 —24 |) -—29 +18

106 REPORT—1898.

TaBLE XI.—Diurnal Range at Greewwich as

Declination Horizon-|
Quiet Days b—c Quiet Days
Month, ea leet ie oo = > a ee eo
Quarter, or |
Year Cor- Cor-
rected rected
As for Great- |} Least As for
Ob- Non- All est |Month-| Differ- Menn Ob- | Non- b
served | cyclic} a—b | Days |Month-| ly ence served | cyclic | %—
Incre- ly Value Incre-
_ ment Value ment
a b c , a b
/ / / ‘ ‘ / ‘ /
January | 5°04 4°81 | +023] 5.58 | +0°7 | —33 4°0 |—0°77 || 188 179 +9

February .| 606 | 5:85 |+021] 711 | —02 | —32 | 3:0 |-126 || 257 | 232 | +25
March . .| 9:03 | 8:96 |+007| 944 | +05 | —o'8 | 1:3 |—018/] 319 | 299 | +20
April . .| 1080 | 1078 | +002] 1115 | +11 | -1:3 | 24 |-—037 |] 442 | 423 | 419
May . «| 11-00 | 1097 | +003 | 10-72 | +17 | -15 | 32 |+025 || 454 | 435 | +19
June . «| 10:88 | 1086 | +002 | 1085 | +17 | -1:3 | 3:0 |+001 || 479 | 464 | +15
July . .| 10:79 | 1084 |—0:05 | 1095 | +05 | -o08 | 1:3 |—o1 || 456 | 444 | +22
August. .| 10-77 | 1084 |—0-07 | 1069 | +18 | —o8 | 26 |+015 |] 471 | 457 | 414
September .| 9:54 | 9:59 |—005| 940 | +18 | -12 | 3:0 | +019 || 413 | 397 | +16
October. .| 7:47 | 7-49 |—002| 806 | 00 | -15 | 15 |—0'57 |! 353 | 329 | +24
November .| 5-21 | 5:12 |+009| 628 | —01 | —28 | 27 |—116 |] 951 | 241 | +10
December .| 4:09 | 4:01 | +008] 519 | —03 | —1:9 } 16 |—1-18 |} 147 | 147 0
Ist Quarter .| 671 | 654 /+017] 728] — | — | 28 |-074 |] 265 | 237 | +18
2nd Quarter . | 10:89 | 10:87 | +002 | 1091 | — | — | 29 |—004 |) 458 | 441 | +17
3rd Quarter .| 10:37 | 1042 |—005| 1035 | — | — | 23 |+0-07 || 447 | 433 | 414
4th Quarter .| 5:59 | 5:54 |+005] 651] — | — | 1:9 |-0-97/]] 950 | 239 | +11

Mean. .| 8:39 | 8:34 /+005| 876 | — | — | 25 |—o-42|/ 352 | 337 | +15
1889. Sw | «6-45 | 6-48 |—0-03] 667 | +11 | —07 | 18 |—O-19 |} 261 | 252 | +9

1890. s| 678 681 |—003 | 7:20 | +05 | —13 18 | —0°39 263 256 +7
1891 . -{| 818 | 808 | +010} 846 | +07 | —14 21 | —0:38 350 338 +12
1892 « «| 975 978 |—0°03 | 962 | +17 | —12 29 | +016 398 370 +28
1893 . . {| 1013 | 10°06 | +0:07 | 10-40 “+18 —15 28 | —0'34 || 428 414 +14
1894 lw - | 9:02 889 | +013] 945 | +05 | —17 22 | —056 414 403 +11
1895 . .| 878 | 875 | +003} 964 | +18 | —33 51 | —0'89 380 360 +20
1896 . «| 801 790 | +011] 864 | +18 | —3:2 50 | —074 326 306 +20

Mean. : — _ _ —_— _ = 30 oa _ _ —

ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS.

variously determined, compared, 1889-1896.

107

Vertical Force

ital Force
|)
b—c Quiet Days b—c
Cor-
an [Oe et one | a | BE: | a | ace | 4, face
Days er. e i hike! Mean aerved apeile a Days rig sees a : ental Mean
WRIGA Value ae Wee Value

¢c a b ¢
163 | + 73) — 51) 104 +16 114 100 +14 | 109 +22 | — 44 66 -9
200 + 95} — 5] 100 +32 125 131 — 6 175 +22 | —127] 149 —44
313 + 59} — 53] 112 —14 216 221 —5 257 +13 | —109 | 122 —36
447 + 33} — 88] 121 —24 245 243 + 2 298 —13 | —162| 149 —55
449 + 64] —117}| 181 —14 312 309 + 3 356 +17 | —105 | 122 —47
496 + 68} —108| 176 —52 257 253 +4 303 +26 | —118 | 144 —50
496 — 4 | —123] 119 —52 253 252 +1 277 +44 | — 79} 123 —25
470 + 64} — 82] 146 —13 212 210 + 2 233 +26 | — 70 96 —23
393 | + 64] — 51] 115 +4 195 194 +1 217 +26 | —101 | 127 —23
338 | + 38; — 91] 129 -—9 157 157 0 196 +17 | — 61 78 —39
212 +101 | — 26] 127 +29 115 114 +1 157 + 4 }—101 |] 105 —43
(150 | +16} —37| 53 | —3 || 105 96 | +9 | 105 | +35 |— 44] 79 =9
225 _ _ 105 +12 | 152 151 +1 180 — _ 112 —29
Meee | — | is9 | —93 || avi | aes | +3] 319 | — | — | 138 | +81
453 _ —- 127 —20 220 219 +1 242 _ _ 115 —23
233 _ _ 103 +6 126 122 +4 153 _ _ 87 —31
344 _ — 124 —7 192 190 + 2 224 _ —_ 113 —34
248 | + 66 | — 42] 108 +4 163 163 0 168 +35 | — 52 87 —5
253 + 44 | — 46 90 +3 176 170 + 6 173 +44 | — 66] 110 —3
323 + 73) — 55] 128 +15 192 189 +3 222 +22 | —101} 123 —33
402 + 64] —123| 187 —32 228 231 — 3 257 +31 | — 79] 110 —26
413 + 90} —108} 198 +1 202 199 +3 233 417 | —118]} 135 —34
411 +101 | — 77} 178 —8 197 192 + 5 248 417 | —1¢2] 179 —56
370 + 95] — 66] 161 —10 191 187 +4 242 +26 | —127] 153 —55
331 + 38) -117/ 155 —25 190 190 0 245 — 9 | —109} 100 —55
— ont no ane = — — 125 _

151

108

Taste XII.—£wcess of Absolute Values of Magnetic Elements on Quiet Days at

February .

June . .

September .
October .
November .

December .

Ist Quarter
2nd Quarter
3rd Quarter
4th Quarter

Mean

1889 . °
1890 . .
1891 . .
1892

1893.

1894 . .
1895. .
1886 .

Totals of
Months .

REPORT—1898.

Greenwich above the Values of the All Day J'abulation, 1889-1896.

Declination

Difference

to

Ce ll a aa a ap Se,

to w o tw bo _ os

Ln — i — i — a

—)
nu» owe © *

Individual
Months

wo

oo i]

w

wo Dm wo Mm 8

~ oO

woo me me wl

Horizontal Force

Greatest
Monthly
Excess

|
|

Least
Monthly

Excess

| Difference

|

tobe tt Ft tt tH + Ft H+

+ + + +

+

+ + t+ t+ t+ + + +

Individual
Months

oo =m wo two ol

ow NN 2k A HM AN DD wy
(— eet — 2 — lee — el — Gel — es — ee — ee — ee —
to

oF Fe Of

o
o.oo o& o @ .o' ©
ap OO = Be WO DH HT oH

70 1 25

Soa ae SO a a Pa ae

Greatest

Monthly
Excess

Vertical Force

Least
Monthly
Excess

|

—106

| Difference

Excess

aN WP Oa eI eae ee ee ee

Individual

Months

ooocm6UcomUCcCOOUCUCcCOUhrPMH OF Oe KO

i -

no ns oOo eke, OO OH w&

— ae — ee — ee — See — J ~ d

45

7 a ee ree eh

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 109

An Account of the late Professor Joun Coucn Apams’s Determination of
the Gaussian Magnetic Constants. By Professor W. GRYLLS ADAMS.

I propose to give the Conference a short account of the work done by my
brother on the theory of terrestrial magnetism, and to give his determina-
tion of the Gaussian magnetic constants. This work was first taken up by
the late Professor John Couch Adams just fifty years ago, not long after the
discovery of the planet Neptune. I find from his papers, which he delivered
to me before his death, and which he asked me to examine to see if they
could be brought into form for publication, that the earliest work which he
did on this subject was begun in the year 1849, and that he was led to it
by the study of the translation of Gauss’s Memoir on the Theory of Terres-
trial Magnetism given in Taylor’s ‘Scientific Memoirs’ which was published
in 1841. Gauss himself says in that memoir that he was stimulated to
undertake the work on the publication of Sabine’s map of the total
intensity in the seventh Report of the British Association (7.e. in 1837),
but that the data are very scanty for the accurate determination of the
magnetic constants. For their accurate determination data should be
supplied from accurate observations of magnetic declination, horizontal
intensity, and dip, taken at stations uniformly distributed, as in a net-
work, over the surface of the Earth.

Not only fifty years ago, when Gauss wrote, but even to the present
day, the progress made in the theory of terrestrial magnetism has suffered
from the lack of data derived from observations, because even now there
are few magnetic Observatories in existence, and those few are for the
most part grouped very close together, leaving other parts of the Earth,
and especially the southern hemisphere, almost entirely wanting in the
facts of observation without which all theories can be but visionary. ;

In his calculations on the magnetic potential of the Earth and on the
theoretical expression of the magnetic components X, Y and Z, to the
north, to the west, and vertically downwards respectively, Gauss expressed
them for any point of the Earth’s surface in series consisting of quantities
to which he gave the name of magnetic constants, with coefficients involving
Legendre’s coefficients, and which are functions of the colatitude of the
point.

From the very imperfect data which he possessed, Gauss determined
the numerical values of the magnetic constants by his equations up to
terms of the fourth order—z.e. he determined the values of the first twenty-
four magnetic constants, three of the first order, five of the second, seven
of the third, and nine of the fourth order.

No one could be more conscious of the fact than Gauss himself was
that his data were so meagre and so insufficient that he could by no means
rely on the values derived from them, and I fear that even now, at the
end of the nineteenth century, we must say with him that the observed
facts are far too scanty and that our stock of observations is still too small
to enable us to get out trustworthy values of the magnetic potential and
the magnetic elements for a given epoch. For this purpose the observa-
tions should be strictly contemporaneous, and we require more Observa-
tories where continuous records are taken.

For Gauss’s method, which was also the method followed in practice by

110 REPORT—1898.

my brother, it is important for the accuracy and trustworthiness of the
resulting values of the magnetic constants that the observations shall be
taken from stations distributed as uniformly as possible over the Earth’s
surface ; whereas we see that in the northern hemisphere the Observatories
which exist are very unequally distributed, and that in the southern
hemisphere there are only three first-class magnetic Observatories where
continuous records are taken, viz. those of Batavia, Mauritius, and
Melbourne.

For the more ready development of the theory of terrestrial magnetism,
Professor J. C. Adams established simple and convenient relations between
successive Legendre’s coefficients and their derived differential coefficients
regarded as functions of the colatitude 6 = cos".

Taking P, to represent Legendre’s n coefficient, he employed the
notation Qn to denote the value of

d™Pp.,
dp ™ (= wy

and found certain simple and useful relations between successive values of

Q for different values of 2 and m.
He also employed the symbol G7’ to represent the Gaussian function

n-m_(n—m) (n—m - Ly

n—m—2 &
M 2(2n— 1) i

and found it convenient to employ the symbol H” as = G™ (1—,°)**

He worked out very simple relations between successive values of G for
different values of n and m, and proceeded to determine the numerical
values of these functions (1) for every degree of latitude on a sphere, and
(2) for every degree of the geographical colatitude on a spheroid of
eccentricity equal to that of the Earth itself. He also obtained very simple
relations between successive values of H and its differential coefficients for
different values of » and m, and expressed the magnetic potential V and
the magnetic forces X, Y and Z in terms of these symbols H™. He also
determined the values of these functions H7” for belts of latitude 5° apart
(1) on a sphere, and (2) on a spheroid whose eccentricity equals that of
the Earth’s surface. Two distinct schemes of calculation were employed
to determine the numerical values of G” and also of H” for different
values of 2 and m, including all values of 2 and m from 0 to 10, and these
calculations were made by different people and the results of the calcula-
tions compared to ensure the accuracy of the results.

In the case of the spheroid, the functions G" and H” are regarded as
functions of the geographical colatitude 0, and » = cos 6, and the symbols
G’” and H’” are the same functions of the geocentric colatitude 6” of the
same point, ‘where p’ = cos 6.

A new theorem giving the values of G’—G’ for different values of
m and m is established, by means of which the accuracy of the calculated
values of G and G’ may readily be tested.

Taking V to represent the magnetic potential at a point of the Earth’s
spheroidal surface where A is the longitude, @ the colatitude, and r the
distance from the Earth’s centre, X, Y and Z the magnetic forces in three
directions at right angles to one another, X being the force towards the
north perpendicular to the Earth’s radius, Y the force perpendicular to the

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 111

geographical meridian towards the west, and Z the force towards the
Earth’s centre ; also taking cos €=p, we have

rdé r dp r dp’
reed ON es Cede
ry sin Ody 7 ‘aX
o, dV
as

if east longitudes be considered positive.

There are two systems of values of V corresponding to magnetic forces
whose origin is situated inside and outside the Earth’s surface respectively,
and by a convenient notation we may readily distinguish these two systems
of values.

Making use of the functions denoted by H” which I have above de-
fined, and taking g;’ and hj’ to represent the Gaussian magnetic constants,
gx and h7 are coefficients of cos mA and sin mA respectively in the series
of terms representing the magnetic potential.

The value of the magnetic potential V for magnetic forces whose
origin is situated in the interior of the Earth is expressed by a series of
terms of the form

1

go” +1

[He (gn cos mMA+A™ sin md) |

Taking g™, and h™, to represent the values of the magnetic constants
corresponding to this term of the series for forces situated outside the
Earth’s surface, the corresponding term in the magnetic potential will be

o"(Hir(g™, cos mX&+H™,, sin md)].
Hence

Ve=> a Hor cos mA-+h™ sin md) +2 ol Hing", cos m\ +h™, sin md) |

In the values of X, Y and Z there will be terms arising from each of
these series of terms for V, and we may conveniently express them by
modifying the notation in the same sense by using 7 subscript to refer to
internal forces, and —n subscript to refer to external magnetic forces, or
forces whose origin is outside the Earth’s surface, i.e. corresponding to

negative powers of ().
r
The corresponding terms are
in the value of X,
Fp?) Ze (9m cos mA--AM sin. ma)
gee? dp.
} dH™

and r"-(1—p?) on (gm, COS MA+h™, sin mX) 5
Be

112 REPORT—1898.

in the value of Y,
1

caval —p?)-} m A” (gm sin mk—h™ cos md)
and 7”-"(1—p?)-} m H7? (g@, sin mA—h™, cos m2) ;
in the value of Z,

n+1 H"

sy Hi (gi cos mA +h" sin mX) and —nr"- H™ (g™, cos m\ +h™, sin md
=

It is also proved that
(1— 2)! GE = (nm) Hemp (1-2)
Be
and (1—p?)! = we 1 (n—m) H™1_} (n+m) H® 1 -
and these relations are often useful in expressing the terms in the value
of X.
It is found convenient to employ the notation with n and —n subscript

more generally to refer to internal and external forces respectively, and in
this sense the following notation is employed.

Let
Vv" = a H" and V", = 7" H",
and let
Xp = a [b (nm) Heh — 3 (nem) Bey

be the coefficient of (9% cos m+” sin mX) in the expression for X, the
force towards the north, and let X”, be the corresponding coefficient of
(gz, cos mA +h”, sin mx) in the expression for X arising from forces outside
the Earth’s surface.

Then X", = 7° [} (n—m) Hp} (n-+m) Hy}

Using the notation Y”' and Y”™,, and also Z” and Z™, in the same way
for the forces Y and Z, we have the potential

V=2[Vi'(gr cos md +h” sin md)]+ 2[V™, (9%, cos MA-+h™, sin md)],
X= T[LAN(gi' cos mA +H? sin md)] + 3[X™,,(g™, cos MA+H™, sin mX)],
Y= =[Yin(gi' sin m\ —h7" cos mA)] + 2[Y™,,(9™, sin mA—h™, cos md)],
Z= >[Zr(gz cos m\ +h” sin mX)]+3[Z™,(9™, cos mr +h”, sin md) ].
Collecting coefficients of cos m\ and sin m) in the values of V, X, Y and
Z respectively :
The coeflicient of cos m\ in V is 3(V™g"+V™,g" n)s
” ” ” x ” S(Xrgn + xg n)>
” ” ” a ” S(Yrm+ Y™,h",),
” ” ” Zo X(Zrgt+ 22,9"). ,

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 115

The coefficient of sin m\ in V is 3(V"24+V™,h",),
X ,, SCXRAT +X, h™,,),
Ys, SLi gn + gn)»
Z ” SZ + Zh),

s2 ” ”
” Pd ”

” oP] ”

in which n takes all integral values for a given value of m.

In a portion of his work, in which he treats of the definite integral of
the product of two Legendre’s coefficients, Professor Adams proves the
well known formule, which I believe were first proved by Legendre, that
when and 7, are different from one another

a!
| Py P, du = 0, f
cal
and that when n,= »,
Ly)
Qn+1

(ee

He also proves that if

ie a1 aP,
ts (l—p, 3 dp”
1 text
th OOF dy OI PB dy.
en J O2 QR du = Ty |_ Pe Pn

Hence if n and 7, are not equal
1
| Qt Qi du = 0.

Ny

But if n,=n, then

o emndet.,, (em)! 2
jet eek (n—m) ! oye aD

Hence if

mm =(o) | on and TI" = [ee | m,
n+m)! +m)!
it follows that ,

1
| am Ti du=0 ;
and, when n=7,, we have

1 1 5 a

m2 __ (n—m)! m2 eae = P,)?d
jam ao (n+m) ! [_,(@) qi: -In+1 ix nd

It is also shown that

(n—m)! me

ci as RT Dk

And therefore, when 7 and , are not equal, we have

. i H” .H" dy = 0,
si
1898. I

114 REPORT—1898.

and, when 2,=, we have

{ ay. du = ioe ost F at
From the above formulz we see that, on a sphere of radius unity,
Xt = (n=) Hp —mp(1 8)! He = (12)
= mp(1 —p?)) He —(n4+m) He, 5
also Yr = m(1l—p?)? cc and Zr = (n+1)H”.
Hence pYy— XP = (n4-m) Hr,
and aes = (n—m)H"*},
also (l—p?)'¥" = mH".

From these formule we find

fede [eye lH) (ZE) aut [tay
and also

= Mont)? | ERY dut n— my | (EE) date (ER,
These definite integrals reduce to _

n(n+1) ib (H")'dp.

Hence since Z"'=(n+1)H™, we have

[ ardut |) Cerraet fF eyrdu= (n+) (2n41)]) (nap

(n— suk n+m ’
=e S.. we a fee

Putting », for in the above equations we get
pYn—xm — (nr, +m) ee,
eym +X™ = (n,—m) Hm,

and (1—p°)F¥® =mH™.

Combining these formule we get

hwy — Xp) (eV Xe) + eVe+XP) (WV +X") 4 (1—pyYeve
= XTX + YT Yn
=3(2 +m) (2, +m)He 1H" 4 1(n—m) (n, —m) B"H +14 PHA” ;

ny,

hence j _XnXndut ic Y"rY"dp = 0,

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 1d)

since we have seen that for any value of m and different values of n and
n,, the value of

ny

1
| HeH"dp = 0.
sii
For the same reason
1
| ZZ" dp = 0.
=1

ny

Now let us consider the application of these formule to the determination
of the numerical values of the magnetic constants of terrestrial magnetism.
For a given value of p (7.e. for a given latitude) we have a series of terms
forming the coefficients of cos mA and sin mA, in the values of the mag-
netic potential and of the magnetic forces X, Y, and Z, which are of the
forms

a, H+ Oy, Hm + &e.

Gy, x a, Xn + &e.

a, Y"+a, Y™ +&e.

a, LZ” +a, Zm + &c.

where a,, a,,, &c., are the magnetic constants to be determined.

The numerical values of H”, X™, Y™, and Z™ for different values of
m and m must be calculated, and in any belt of latitude of breadth corre-
_ sponding to the numerical value taken for du, these coefficients must be
equated to the values of the forces as derived from the magnetic observa-
tions taken in that belt of latitude.

The values of the magnetic forces X, Y, and Z are derived for every
10° of longitude and every 5° of latitude from the declination (8), the
dip (:), and the horizontal force (w), as given in the charts from which the
observations are obtained. These values of the forces X, Y, and Z are
analysed forbelts of latitude 5° in breadth around the Earth’s surface by -
a formula of the type a+, cos (+0, sin \+a, cos 2A+6, sin 2+ ke,

If we take x,, to represent the coefficient of cos md in the expansion
of the value of the force X for a given belt of latitude corresponding to
the colatitude 0 = cost:

then, a, X™ +a, X™ +a, X™+&C.=2 ps

where x,, is derived from the observations. Similar equations, involving
on one side the magnetic constants a,, a,,, &c., and on the other the
values derived from the observations, must be formed for all the successive
different belts of latitude from the north pole to the south pole—z.e., for
all values of between 1 and —1.

The numerical values of X™, X™, &c., as well as the values of H7 (as
above defined), have been determined for every degree of latitude and
recorded for future use, but, in the actual determinations of the magnetic
constants which have been made, belts of latitude 5° in breadth have
been taken, or 80 has been taken as 5°, and the area of the belt is pro-
portional to du.

Supposing the observations equally distributed over the surface of the
globe, or supposing the weight of any determination proportional to the
surface of the corresponding element about the point of observation,
then the weight of each of the above equations is proportional to dn,
and multiplying the equation in X for each value of by X7’, and

12

116 REPORT—1898.

summing up the separate equations for the whole surface of the Earth,
we get the final equation—

1 1 1
a, | (XMPdut+ | xen XT dp + ke. =| XO. oe
= —l =i)

Similarly, the final equation for a, is found by multiplying the above
equations by X13’, Y/”, and Z"' respectively, and we get

1 uf 1
a, | X”X” du + «| (Xm )'dp +he=| Xn x, Ofte
=] —1 |

In the same way, if v,, denote the coefficient of sin mA or —cos md
in the value of the force Y as derived from observations, we have

(an Yn) = Yv

and the final equations for finding a, and a, respectively will be
ie 1
«a (Y")2du + ap, iB YY" du + ke. =| Y" y,, dp,
=i ah

1
Bae. ae | ye yn Mean | (Y")? dude. ={ Y" yy, Ut
—l 1

Combining the final equations for a, from X and Y together, we have

auf (X24 (Y")2] du= fi X" 2, du+ j Y" oy, Ap,

since the coeflicients of «,, and all the other terms on the left-hand
side of this equation vanish when the integration is taken all over the
Earth’s surface.

1 1 1
Hence o,. n(n + 1) ah (HL)? dp =| Kno du tle Vy, dus
—1

se s !(n+m)! A
. (2n—1)/? (2n+1)

1
eo Xa, dp -| LP Yn Up
= Sit

1.€. a, X 2n(n +1) [1.3.5

Similarly, by putting n, for n, we may get the value of a,,.
In the same way the final equation for finding a, from the equations
for Z would give us

1 1 1
«.| (Zi)? du + «f Zn Zn" dy + be=| Li 5 Okie
=a

—J —1

1 1
or a,(m + 1)? | (H")? du =| Z™ 2, ap, Since i Zr Z" dp =0 ;
Si

-1 —1I

‘a Ympiye (om)! (n-tm) ! a
iT so [1. 3.5... (Qn—1)PQn+1) =|) mn

If we take into account separately the parts of the magnetic force at a
point due to the internal and external centres of magnetic force, the

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 117

general terms of the coefficient of cos m) in the potential function will be
th

of the form (Si + Pyr | 15 bigs

and the corresponding coefficients in X, Y, and Z will be—
in X= (Sat Bar") [ sem) — Yntm) Ee |
| in (l1—p?)' Y= (: = +Bn yn ‘) mH";

: nt L)a v
in Z =(‘ +1)cq _ mB, 1” ‘| Hr.

a+ 2
ys

If then, as before, we put r=1, we shall have the final equation for
a, as follows :

a,[ | xray +) (ny? det (n+) [area |

=f

+B [| (X")2dp + {¢

=

(Yr)? du—n(n +1) K (Ee)? de |

1
=| B.S a+ in Se qu (n+ 1)[ mm, ply
= 1
where the coefficient of 8,,=0.

And a.[ i (X")? du + i (Y")2dys —m(nt1)f (H™)2 au]

—1.

+B, [| (Xm)? dj +] (Yr)? dut nf (Hs)? dp]
4 =f si

3 | 1 1 "
=|. X" ay a+ ‘Yrynde—nl H” =, dp,

=!

where the coefficient of a, = 0.
Hence «a, and /3, are separately determined from the equations

(n— ee a !
Zeal Wr ge ORE

fel
=| x x" m 30 5 qr \ ya Ym dut+(nt+ if H em du
1

(n—m) !(n+m)!
WE 3.5... (2n—1)P

=| Xpondut Yn udn—nl F Hz, du.
my

and Pye a

Thus generally from the values of X and Y we derive

(an + B,)2n(n+ 1) ie b. 2 es aoe

=(2n+1) [|> ay dpe +{ "yn a |
= sy

118 REPORT—1898.

and from the values of Z we derive
1 1
[( ai )a,—n3, | | (H")? du = | Hz, dy
=I 7

The above theory assumes that the integration is taken over the whole
surface of the Earth, and that the observations are uniformly distributed
over the Earth’s surface, otherwise the coefficients of the neglected terms
on the left-hand side of these equations will not vanish, and each equation
may have other terms which are too important to be neglected, and so it
will not be so easy to separate the magnetic constants from one another.

Let us now take into account the spheroidal figure of the Earth. Let
r, 6’, X be the polar co-ordinates of a point on the spheroidal surface
referred to the Earth’s centre as origin and axis of figure as initial line ;
let 0 be the geographical colatitude (the: angle which the normal makes
with the axis), and let 1 = cos @ and «= cos 0’.

The angle of the vertical y = 0’—90.

The values of the sines and cosines of these angles for values of 0
differing by 1° from 0° to 90° have been computed, the eccentricity e of
the elliptic section in the plane of the meridian being derived from
Bessel’s dimensions of the Earth as given in Encke’s tables in the ‘ Berliner
Jahrbuch,’ 1852.

The expressions for the magnetic potential and for the magnetic forces
X, Y, and Z, in terms of the Gaussian magnetic constants g™, h” will be
of the same form as those given above (see p. 4). Where X is the total
force towards the north perpendicular to the Earth’s radius, Y the total
force perpendicular to the geographical meridian towards the west, Z
the force towards the Earth’s centre, or

dV ius Wav

= —— — tee 8 gat F On)
rde” rsind’ dy’ dr
(east longitudes being considered positive).
If X’ be the horizontal force in the meridian towards the north,

Y’ the horizontal force perpendicular to the meridian towards the
west

Z! the vertical downward force on the spheroidal surface of the Earth,

then X’/=X cos ¥4+Z sin p
i
Z' =—X sin ¥+Z cos yf.

We may conveniently denote the values of the coefficients of
grcosm\ and fh” sinm. in the potential function and in the forces
X’, Y’, and Z’ by the symbols V’", X’™, Y’", and Z’" respectively.

If r be the radius vector, »=cos 6 and p/=cos 6’,

then vn ele H’™, and V/™=r" H’™

ntl “1

H’” being the same function of p’ that H™ is of p.
The expressions for the magnetic forces on the spheroidal surface of
the Earth will be as follows :—

Taking a, and /3, to represent magnetic constants depending on in-

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 119

ternal and external sources of magnetic force respectively, the coefficient
of cos m\ in the general term of the potential function V is
(ta + Bur").

pd

The coefficient of cos mA in the general terms of the forces X, Y, and Z are—

ay n— L d a Ue
for X, az + Bot ‘) (1—p!?)! a
for Y, (aa aie Br me) m(1 =p?) 1s ae
for Z, eC dies ere ) :
pnt

In the following investigation of the coefficients of cosm, &e., in
which m remains the same, whilst may have different values, it will be
convenient to denote H” by H,, X” by X,, &c. We will denote the
corresponding quantities on the spheroid by H’,, X’,, &c., and regard them
as functions of p’, 6’ being the geocentric colatitude.

Taking the equatorial radius =1, 6S an element of the Earth’s surface
and e the eccentricity, and taking into account only the terms to the

order ¢?, we have zi =1+e%u?, snp=e'u(1—p?)! to the order e?,
7

/
y! = cos 0—sin 0 sin ¥ = p—e®n(1—p2) eet SPC:
fad

and e = — 2n(1—e7p?) ; .
1 EEN 109 =.
also oe jiee ale e2p?, andr? = 1 — > Gir.

/
Regarding H’, and Lid &c., as functions of pp’, we have by Taylor's
Uy

- theorem—
/ 2 2 d HL, 2
H’,=H,,—e?4(1 — 2”) a to the order e?,
fad
dH’, dH , 7H
and SiS Me Ey 2 62 1 (Me pe) ee
: du! du é pe B ) dy? ?
from which we derive the value of X,, for the spheroidal surface —
d H’
Me Saltese See 8
n=(1—p!® dul

= (1 = pay 022) 40% (Lp)! [nt 1)— | Ho
du 1l—yp?

If now we erbatiintc the values of X, Y, and Z in terms of H’,,
C7 als Gest :
pie c., in the equations—
X/=X cos W+Z sin y,
Bias,
Z’ =—X sin W+Z cos y,.

120 REPORT—1898. ,
the expressions for the magnetic forces become —

aH’.

ag re aey

+ a 1
X'= (S + Br )

al +2

+[ee ry —n ea H’, sin Y+similar terms,

bs =( eat By?) mH’,(1 —p?)-?+similar terms,

pnt

Te (1—p?) sin-ap

nt?

Zi=— (25+ Be

+ kp tl ae —n pe] H’, cos )+similar terms.
7 ta
dW’
Jn these expressions for the magnetic forces the values of H’,, = 8
fied
dH,

&c., in terms of H,, &e., are substituted for each belt of latitude, and

due
these theoretical expressions derived from the potential function for a
given belt of latitude, and containing the magnetic constants, are equated
to the corresponding coefficients derived from the magnetic observations
taken in that belt of latitude.

In the case of the spheroid, as in the case of the sphere, the values of
the forces X, Y, and Z derived for every 10° of longitude from the obser-
vations of declination, inclination, and horizontal force are analysed for
belts of latitude 5° in breadth around the Earth’s surface by a formula of
the type—

G+a, cos (+6, sin (\+a, cos 2A+6, sin 24+ ke.,

and the coefficients of cosm\, sinmA, in this expansion are equated
respectively to the coefficients of cos mA, and sin m\ in the expansion in
terms of the potential function and magnetic constants as given above :
thus for the force X, if a,, a,,, a,, &c., stand for the magnetic constants,
and if a,, be the coefficient of cos mA as derived directly from the obser-
vations,

then a, X/'+a,, X/" +a,, X/%4-&e., =x

m)

_ oe equations are obtained from the expressions for the forces Y’
and Z’.

The values X/", Y’, and Z/”, taken in these equations, are the values
derived for the spheroidal surface of the Earth from the potential function,
and these equations not only include the magnetic constants which were
determined by Gauss, of the class indicated by a in the above equation,
but they also include magnetic constants which may be spoken of for
distinction as the £ class, 7.e. including those forces which depend upon
sources outside the surface of the Earth.

The full values, then, of the coefficients of the magnetic constants will
be of the following form:

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 121

For the a class—

2 4

ag" +2

il ate n+l] :
Xin=_). E (n—m) Hm —3(n-m)H2 | cos pp tty sin y,

5 [ Lape) Hr |
n +1

Z'™= as | Mom) —t(n+ my He | sind) + —
1

gt? +2

H’" cos w.

Ib

For the class, which may be denoted by X’",, Y’",, and Z",,
x =r" "(4 (n—m) HT 1_1T(n+m)H’""] cos y—nr" A’? sin y,
5 piel =r" "[m(1 —p!?)- ts Wd B
Z™, =—r" {h(n —m)H/"*? —3(n+m) HH" | sin pP—anr"™ Hy cos Vp.

The numerical values of these expressions for all values of m from 0 to
10, and for all values of » from 1 to 10 for the spheroidal surface of the
Earth, have been calculated from the values of » for every 5° of colatitude,
and form the coefficients of the magnetic constants g””, hj’, and g™,, A”, of
the a and 3 class respectively in the equations for the determination of
these constants.

The number of magnetic constants contained in these equations which
have been completely formed is thus 120 of each class, or 240 magnetic
constants in all, in place of the 24 constants of the a class which were
previously determined by Gauss,

Regarding the Earth as a spheroid of revoiution, the values of p’=cos 6’,

where 6/ is the geocentric colatitude, have been determined for every

‘5° of geographical colatitude. Also the values of cos y/, sin ¥/, ©, @m, and
os

H’™ have been calculated for every 5° of geographical colatitude (i.e. for
the above values of ,’) for all values of m and m from 0 to 10. 3

The weights of the observations of the magnetic elements for these
belts of latitude have also been determined on the assumption that the
weight is proportional to the area of the corresponding portion of the
Earth’s surface.

The values of H’” as a function of the geocentric colatitude having
been determined for every 5° of geographical colatitude on the spheroid,
we next proceed to determine from them the values of X’”, X’,, Y’"; pS
Z™, and Z/™,, X/"(=X™ cos + Z™siny), X/™,, Z/™ (=—X7 sind + Zr cosy)
and Z’",, the resolved parts of the expressions for the horizontal and ver-
tical forces in the plane of the meridian on the spheroid.

These values are required in the formation of the equations of condition,
and their numerical values are calculated for every 5° of geographical
colatitude as well as for the Equator and the Poles. These values of a as
é&c., have been calculated and recorded in tables for all values of » and m
from 0 to 10, and have been employed as the theoretical coefficients of the
magnetic constants g™, h”, &c., in the equations of condition.

n?

Formation of the Equations of Condition.

When x—® is even, the value of X” contains only odd powers of p,
and the values of Y” and Z” only even powers, and similarly when »—m
is odd, the value of X” contains only even powers of », and the values of

122 REPORT—1898.

Yy7 and Z” only odd powers. Hence, if the coefficient of cos mA in either
of the quantities X, Y, Z be denoted by a,, and the coefficient of sin mA
by 6,, for a given north latitude, and if a’,,, 6’,, denote the similar quantities
for the corresponding south latitude, then we have, when 7—™m is even,

3(4m, a @'m) = >(X" mt Xm roa § and 4 (On —8' m) = S(XTAT Ke -
$n +5'n) =UYrg™+Y™,97%,), and —43(a,, + a, )=S(Yra™ + Y™,h™,),
B(Gin + Om) = 2(Zrgn+-Z™,g™,), and 4(By +5) = =(LZrhm + Zm,h™,), -
and when »—™m is odd
4(On +2 m)=S(Xg" + X",g™,), and (by +5’ _)=>(X7h™ 4+ X™h™,),
Bb n—O'n) =S(Virgn+¥rgr,), and —3(a,—a',)=S(YrA™+ Y™,h™,),
B(Gn— OU n= A(LZrgr +29"), and 4(b,—B',)=S(Lrh™ + Z™,h™,,).

Hence the equations for the quantities h”™ and h”, will be found from the
equations for g” and g”,, when m—m is even, by substituting

3(6,—0'n) for 4(a,,—a’',) in the equations for X,
—3(Gn +m) for £(b,,+6',,) in the equations for Y,
and 3(6,,+0',,) for $(a, +») in the equaticns for Z.

And similarly the equations for 4” and h”,, will be found from the equations
for gv and g”,, when n—™m is odd, by substituting

(On +0',) for $(a,,+a',,) in the equations for X,
—}3(4,—a',,) for $(b,—6',) in the equations for Y,
and 4(6,,—0',) for 4(a,,—a’,,) in the equations for Z.

In the first solution of the equations, the absolute terms (i.e. the terms
derived from the observed values of the magnetic elements) are taken from
Sabine’s magnetic charts for the period about 1845, as published in the
‘ Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.’ In the second solution,
the observed values of the magnetic elements are taken from the Admiralty
charts for 1880 prepared by Captain Creak, kindly lent by the Lords of
the Admiralty.

The values of X, Y and Z are calculated for every 10° of longitude and
every 5° of latitude from the declination (8), the dip (:), and the horizontal
force (w) as given in the charts. Then the values of X, Y and Zare
analysed for belts of latitude 5° in breadth around the earth by the
formula

%+a, cos A-+6, sin A+a, cos 2A+6, sin 2A + &e.

The values of these coefficients for the different belts of latitude were
obtained and tabulated. Then if a,,and b,, denote the values of two of
these coefficients for a given northern latitude, and a’,,, b’,, the correspond-
ing values for an equal southern latitude, then the values of }(a,,+a',),
2(Gn—@'n), 3(bmn+8'm), and 4(5,,—b’,, ) and of their logarithms are deter-
mined. The values of these quantities are determined for each of the
periods for which the magnetic constants are required.

Each system of equations of condition will involve a single value of
m combined with all even values of , or with all odd values of x.

There will be one system for the coefficients X”, X”,, another for the
coefficients Y”, Y™, and a third for the coefficients Z”, Z”,,.

——- si‘ tP:é‘( (ast

EN ee

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 123

Each belt of latitude will contribute an equation to each system. The
belts, 5° in breadth, are distinguished by the letters (a), (b), (c), &c.,
starting from 873° N. latitude.

Then if P, Q, R be quantities given by observation we shall have
equations of the form

XP GF AX GARE +X 9+ &e.=P,
Ye gt+Y 4g M+ Vrgr+Y¥ "9 "%+&e.=Q,
ZY gt +209 + ZP P+ Z% 9% +&e.=R,

for even values of , and Similar equations with other quantities P’, Q’, R’,
given by observation, for odd values of x.

Thus for latitude 60°, the set (f) will furnish the three following
equations to the respective systems X, Y, Z, corresponding to m=4,

1 _[9-6479108] g!—[9-6397698] y! ,—[9-3739435] g!—[9-3627519] gt =P,
[9-7120302] g/+[9-7022392] g!,+[9°5314878] g{+[9-5173452] g! ,=Q,
[95118188] g!—[9-4012092] g!,+[9-4766723] gi—[9-3934121] 94,=R;

and the three following to the similar systems corresponding to odd values
of 7,

—[9-5471920] g!—[9:5374280] g4,—[9-1267947] g!—[9°1145742] o! =P,
[9:6499180] 94 +[9-6379512] g!,+[9-3653414] 4 +[9:3490233] 9 =Q’,
[9°5284778] g!—[9-4344144] 4, +[9-3682450] g!—[9-2923736]g!,—=R’.

These equations of condition are multiplied by the weights w,, w,, &c., of
the observations for their respective belts of latitude, the weight of each
equation from the set (s) corresponding to 24° on each side of the equator
being 4 w,. Then the final equation for each magnetic constant g’” is
formed by multiplying each equation so formed by the coefficient of g” in
the corresponding equation of condition, and adding together the resulting
coefficients of g” from the different sets (s), (r), (q), &ec.

To form this final equation for each constant multiply each equation of
condition by / weight and then multiply the resulting equation by the co-
efficient of that constant g” in it which has to be determined. Then
integrating or adding up the coefficients of the several magnetic constants,
we get the equation in the form

S[(XM)2e0] gh + SL XT Ke] 9, +e. = >[X™ w. P],

with similar equations for Y and Z for even values of m, and with other
similar equations with P’, Q’, R’, for odd values of x.

We shall have a separate final equation for each value of n ; thus the
final equation for g” is

[Xt Xhw gn +X", Xi, w g™, + (Xn)rw gi + ke.] =X", w P, (3)

for even values of 7,, and a similar expression with P’ instead of P for
lo
odd values of 7).

Then adding up, for any constant g™, the coefficients in the final

} Where [9°6479108] is employed to express the number of which 9°6479108 is
the logarithm.

124 REPORT—1898.

equations for all the different belts of latitude we have the final equation
from the series (X), which may be represented by the form

Sl XT XM. w] gi? + ZX™, KM. w]g™, + S[(X™)? w] gm + de. => [X™. w. P](4)
Equations similar to the above will be derived from the series (Y) and
from the series (Z).

These equations may be solved separately, and the values of the
magnetic constants determined from each series, taking series (X),
series (Y), and series (Z) separately.

The series (X) and the series (Y) may also be conveniently combined
into one equation in the same way as the above equations for different

latitudes in X have been combined, in which case the coefficient of g”™ in
the final equation for g” will be

>[ Xe X™. w]+S[Y" Y™. w],
and the coefficient of g” in the final equation for g” will he
>(Xr)?w + SCY") ?20.

We have seen above that in the case of a sphere the coefficients of each of
the magnetic constants in this equation (4), except the coefficient of g’",
will vanish.

The corresponding coefficients on the spheroid will be small, depending
on the value of the square of the eccentricity ; but’ this will only be the
case when the summation is taken all over the surface.

The right-hand side of the equation becomes under these conditions
S[X". P.w]+ 3[¥".Q.w] for the equation of g” in turn for all values
of m,. Hence when the successive belts are sufliciently near together the
coefticient of (7"’+9”,) in the final equation for g” is approximately
1
nin+1)| (Hy? dy
a
or,

_2(n-+1) (@—™) !(n+m)! +
~ ntl ~A[L8D penn)’

and, as before, the right-hand side of the equation becomes

[ X".P.du+ | "Ym" Q.dp.
-1 =

In the present state of our knowledge as to the values of P, Q, R, &c.,
which are derived from the observations of the magnetic elements, the
charts giving the values of those elements are exceedingly defective for
our purpose, and the observations taken in high latitudes are not sufficiently
numerous and appear to be doubtful—no great reliance can be placed
upon them. Under these circumstances we propose to solve these equa-
tions, taking into account the data as derived from magnetic observations
over the portion of the surface of the Earth between latitudes 673° N. and
674° S., taking only the equations of condition for belts between these
latitudes, and taking only those terms in these equations for values of
m from 0 to 6 and for values of m from 1 to 6 inclusive. These equations
will give values for 48 constants, and no equation will contain more than
three unknown quantities.

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 125

The coefficients 3[X”X” .w], &e., on the left-hand side of the above
equations of condition will be the same for gm and for h”, but the right-
hand sides cf the equations »[X7"w P], &e., the absolute terms derived
from the observations, will be different. Hence the equations for solu-
tion may be conveniently arranged as follows.

From (X) taken separately

m Ym m ; Mm \27 75] ym bs ] t *] t
> [x XM .wlgn TF S[ (Xm) wlgn + &e.= f Rene os

and 3[X™X"™.w]i"-+ S[(X")Pw]h™ + &e.= Peri):
From the series for (X) combined with the series for (Y) we may also solve
the equations, of which the type will be as follows :

{s[X™ X™ 2] 4+ 3[¥"™ Y" w]} g™
+ (2[(X)e] + LCL) gt + he. = (APSIE Term)
and {3[(X" X"w)]+2/Y7 Yirw]} hz

+ {3[(Kz)'eo] + S[(Wmyro]} fn + he, = (APseiute term)
the absolute terms being derived in this case from the series for (X) and
for (Y) combined. In general the values of the same constants derived
from these equations will differ somewhat from one another, and the ques-
tion arises which solution will give the truer value.

Probably in the present state of our knowledge of the magnetic
elements over the surface of the Earth the equations derived from the
series for (X), (Y) and (Z) combined, for all latitudes from 673°S. to 674° N.,
will give the most trustworthy values of the constants of terrestrial
magnetism, that we may hope to attain from any magnetic charts derived
from observations previous to the Admiralty Charts of 1880.

Let us illustrate the mode of solving these final equations by taking
the case given above, in which m=4 and n odd, taking the equations of
condition up to latitude 774° inclusive, and combining the equations for X,
Y and Z, supposing the constant corresponding to negative values of 72 to
be non-existent. We will include the terms involving n=7.

The coefficients for gj and hi being the same, we may take a! to stand
for either (1) gj or (2) 3, taking the absolute term for g in the first case
a oe in a second, ad the final equations for gj and 43 for the period
1845 may be written thus :

From

(for g$) (for hi
(X) 3:4034960 uf—-3898572 at= 2416593 or _orsabes,
(Y) 9°4158541 af+-4092903 aj=-0589245 or +°3418323.
(Z) 15°3871472 a$+-0223528 af=-4657356 or +:1824818.

Adding these together, we have

28°2064973 af + 0417859 aj ="7663194 or 5084078 (a).

Similarly the final equations for ai and A} may be written thus :

(X) —'3898572 af+:2637326 af=-0204205 or -0140404.
(Y) +4092903 af+:3081774 aj=-0454171 or 0373065.
(Z) '0223528 af+ 6536612 at=-0056358 or 0882180.

126 REPORT—1898.

Adding these together, we have
(for g!) (for ft)
0417859 af+1:2255712 aj=-0714734 or 1395649 (().
Eliminating a} from the equations (a) and (8) we have
1:2255093 aj=-0703382 or :1388117.

1 Hence g!==-0573951, and A4=-1132686.

Substituting in the first equation, we get

gi='0270832 and hi=:0178567.

Hence it appears to be important to take gj and fj into account, as
they are larger than gj and hj.

Similarly in solving the equations with m=4 and n even, it is found
that

g3= 0029684, hi=-0217744
9s= 0642604, hi=-0603230.

So that gj and hj are more important than gj and hij.

The relative importance of magnetic constants of different orders is well
shown by the solution of the final equations for h?, h3 and A; for the period
1880. Keeping in the terms containing 7, the final equations derived
by combining the equations for X, Y and Z are

241400624 13—-2579706 A2—-1213933 A7=-19111,
— ‘2579706 h3+2°1784697 h2—-0719819 hi=-13841,
—+1213933 43—-0719819 h2++1887180 hi= —-02852.

The solution of these equations gives the values

hz=-00794, h?=-06041, h?=—-12298 British units.

Converting these into c.g.s. units we get

h2=-000366, h2=-0027855, h2= —-00567.

Comparison with the tables shows that the effect of keeping in the
constant fA? is to make a considerable change in the values of the con-
stants A} and h3.

The corresponding equations for g}, g} and g; are

—14-62295=24:1400624 g§—:2579706 g2—°1213933 g
—1:11044= — -2579706 g3+2°1784697 g3—-0719819 9;
05785= — 1213933 g3—-0719819 g2+°1887180 92,
and the solution of these equations gives the values
g3= — ‘613670, g2= — 592789, g7= —°314308 British units, or
G3= — 028295, g?= —-027332, gj= —:014492 c.g.s. units.

These values of g} and g G5 do not differ much from the values previously
obtained, which are given in the following table.

Let us further illustrate the mode of solvi ing these final equations by
taking the case of m=0 and m odd.

Since the observations of magnetic elements in high latitudes appear
to be doubtful, we will form the equations of condition, taking into
account the data only up to 675° N. and 8. latitudes.

1 The two extra magnetic constants gy} and f+ here determined make up the
number of constants which have been determined to 50.

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 127

‘The formation of the final equations for g%, g? and g3 will then be as
follows :
from equations for (X)
53°D75026=7°6331952 gi—1138565 9 —-088674792,
— 2:456863= —-1138565 9! + 2°8880836 g$—-1765112 9%,
—-4538875 = — 0886747 g}—"1765112 g3+ 3955108 gf ;
from equations for (Z)
85-065860=12-0636234 g§—2:1413469 g§—-7000106 9g?,
—16-292662= —2 1413469 g8+2°7856531 g§—-4744250 9f,
—4-6678164= —-7000106 gi— 4744250 g§ + 4394974 gf.
Solving the equations for (X) we get
p=7 01229, g = — 56367, g3='17302.

These values agree almost exactly with those found from the whole of
the equations for (X) up to latitude 775°.
Solving the equations for (Z) we get
g=6-951666, = — "524544, and y= — 11476.

These values agree very closely with those found from the whole of the
equations for (Z) to the same latitude.

The values of g? and g? agree fairly well with those found from the
equations for (X), but the values of gj have opposite signs. Probably the
neglected term in g$ may have some influence on this result.

Taking the negative values of » into account, let us find approximately
what values of 7°,, 9°. 9°; Will bring the two sets of results into harmony.

This may be done by substituting g?+g°, for g} in the (X) equations,
and g), — poate for g° in the (Z) equations.

Hence we get

(=6-971874, 9°,="040416, Y= — 541312, 9? ,= — 022358,
gi =:01605, and g° = "15697.
Hence the constant g°, seems to be of great importance.

The values found for the two first of the above constants are, in
in British units,

by Gauss by Erman
gi=T-0155 gi=6'9417
g§=— ‘1430. = — “4069.

The values of these constants, derived from the above series of equa-
tions for (X), (Y) and (Z), combined for all latitudes from 675° S. to 675° N.,
ee fi=6-98081 and y®=—-523986 for the period (1842-45) from Sabine’s
charts.

The values derived for the above constants from the above equations
of condition, taking m from 0 to 4 and n from 1 to 4 only and neglecting
the other terms (i.e. taking those only which were determined by Gauss),
are g{=6:9777 and g’= —-5310 for the same period.

The values of the constants given in the two following tables are
derived from the combined equations for (X), (Y) and (Z) to equations
(e) inclusive (i.e. between latitudes 674° S. and 675° N.), supposing the
constants corresponding to negative values of » to be non-existent.

128

REPORT—1898.

The second of these tables gives the values of the constants when we
include in the equations only those twenty-four constants which are taken

into account by Gauss himself.

This table also includes the values (in

British units) of these constants as determined by Gauss, and also by

Erman.

Table of the

(The sign + is understood when no sign is given.)

“alues of the Magnetie Constants as derived (1) from Sabine’s Charts
in the * Phil. Trans.’ of the Royal Society (1845), and (2) from the Admiralty
Charts for 1880, expressed in British Units, and converted into c.g.s. Units.

1880

1845
British C.G.8. British

698081 321871 6'87176

— 0275845 —'00127187 | 158464
— *523986 —°'0241595 — 58113
— *67352 —°0310546 — *73195
70513465 | ‘00236748 "27987
— ‘30013 —'0138385 — ‘07904
*602567 0277832 52644
—1:065495 — ‘0491279 —1:11386
*678817 ‘0312989 ‘91030
— ‘712584 — ‘0328558 — ‘79880
— *784390 — ‘0361666 — ‘61614
— °272348 — 0125575 — ‘59065
— ‘007649 — 0003527 — ‘11506
— ‘607671 — 0280185 — ‘61198
— 331346 — ‘0152777 — 41928
— °661354 — ‘0304937 — *58220
*300535 0129382 15864
— °044994 — 0020746 — *06274
‘076635 0035335 12123

— *023517 — ‘0010843 — -011915
"241583 011139 *37369
‘002980 *0001374 — ‘02346
02715 0012508 00433
*064652 0029810 07682
— ‘01512 —'0006970 =, — *01435
— ‘009531 —°0004394 — 02154
‘003132 ‘0001444 — ‘00047
—1:254179 — 0578277 —1:30780
‘039069 0018014 “28051
*297611 0137222 "16224
— 119841 — 0055256 — *23026
"5291705 "0243990 “58114
— °144530 — ‘0066640 — -06162
— °254829 — ‘0116484 — ‘27960
— ‘088692 — 0040894 ‘00861
"214592 “0098944 *11316
— ‘025210 —°0011624 "06455
— 069335 — 0031969 — ‘17877
— 146981 — ‘0067770 — *10697
084794 0039097 09392
“009588 0004421 “02851
"123986 ‘0057167 11457
‘021780 00100425 ‘02029
01799 ‘0008295 02489
060462 0027878 “03984
— ‘00864 — ‘0003984 — 00414
— ‘049244 — 0022705 — ‘02920
— 005664 — 0002612 00390

C.G.S.

316843
9073065
— 026795
— 033749
012904
— 0036446
024273
— 051358
041972
— 036831
— ‘028409
— 027235
— 0053054
— 0282172
— ‘019332
— 026844
0073145
— ‘0028928
0055896
— 0005494
0172301
—'0010818
0001996
0035421
— 0006615
— ‘0009933
— 0000218
— 0602998
0129335
0074808
— 010617
026795
— 002841
—0128917
‘0003968
"0052175
0029737
— 0082428
— 0049321
0043306
70013145
0052826
‘0009355 .
0011477
0018370
— ‘0001908
—0013465
‘0001799

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 129

Comparison of the Values of the Magnetic Constants in British Units as deter-
mined (1) by Gauss, (2) by Erman, (8) by Adams for 1842-45, (4) by
Adams for 1880, with their yearly rate of increase from 1845 to 1880.

Adams Yearly rate

Constants Gauss Erman 1849-45 | 1880 of change
gn 70155 6 9417 69777 6°8558 — *00325
g3 — 1672 + *0262 — ‘0124 + ‘1624 00466
g3 — 1430 — ‘4069 —- 5310 — 6194 — ‘00236
gr — $249 — °5937 — 6309 — ‘7207 —'00239
gi “6746 6149 "6145 5358 — 00210
hy —1:3545 —1:3036 —1:2622 —1:3166 —'00145
gh —1:0981 — °9659 —1:0598 —1:1014 —00111
ht — ‘0457 + ‘0156 + °0421 + °2818 00639
gh 9316 6477 ‘7300 “9505 “00588
hi +3622 3567 2631 1243 — ‘00370
Gua * —1:1563 — °8330 — “6904 — ‘7507 —00161
ht + °4858 — *0693 — ‘1081 — 2252 — ‘00312
93 + ‘0037 + ‘0271 — ‘0083 — ‘1154 — 00286
hz — °2956 — ‘2741 — °2547 — ‘2792 — 00065
93 — 5546 — ‘6664 — 6006 — ‘6057 —-00014
hg — 1725 — ‘1347 — *0884 + ‘0079 00257
Uri — ‘3470 — 3282 — ‘3376 — 4226 — "00227
aD *3226 2353 *2160 1169 — 00264
Gs + ‘0106 — °0276 — ‘0450 — 0627 —'00047
hi — 1421 — ‘1572 — ‘1470 — ‘1070 ‘00107
gi 1498 1455 0764 1209 00119
hi — ‘0013 + ‘0654 + 0847 + 0938 00024
9% + '0313 + 0194 + °0030 — *0234 —*00070
ht 0241 “0240 0218 0203 — 00004

The multiplier for the conversion from British units into c.g.s. units is 0046108.

It will be seen on examining these tables(1) that g? and gfare numerically
very much larger than g?, and (2) that the values of g? from the same.
equations differ greatly according as g3 is or is not included, the value of
gi being —‘0276 when gf is included, and —-:0124 when g? is excluded.
It also appears from the comparison of the solutions when the equations
of condition are included up to 774° latitude with the solutions above
(1.e., stopping at 674° latitude) that g3=—-0126 in the first case, and —-0276
in the second case, and that this arises from the fact that the sum of the
absolute terms in the final equation for g? is +:08815 when we stop at
latitude 675°, and —-07184 when we proceed to latitude 774°. Hence a
wide variation in the value of g3 is to be expected in the two cases, even
when gf is included in both sets of equations. It also appears from
the above tables that those constants in the values of which Gauss and
Erman greatly differ are those which have undergone the greatest apparent
changes in the interval from 1845 to 1880, and that the values for 1845
now determined for the most part agree more nearly with those of Erman
than with those of Gauss.!

The values of the magnetic constants have been determined from the

» It should be remembered that before the excellent Admiralty charts of 1880,
prepared by Captain Creak, the magnetic charts of the world were based on obser-
vations which were insufficient and not distributed widely or regularly enough over
the earth’s surface to lead us to expect a close agreement between the results of
Gauss’s theory as derived from the earlier observations as compared with the later
more trustworthy observations.

1898. K

130 REPORT—1898,

equations for (X) and (Y) and from the equations for (Z) separately as
well as from the equations for (X), (Y) and (Z) combined, and their
values have been compared. Also their values have been determined in
each case (1) by including all the equations up to (e), 7.e. between latitudes
674° N. and 674° S., and (2) by including all the equations up to (c), i.e.
between latitudes 775° N. and 773° S.,

The following table gives the comparative values of the magnetic
constants in British units, as deduced from different magnetic elements :—

1845 1880
From X Z, From X z
or X and Y or X and Y

ge 7012 6°952 6°869 6°877
g2 — ‘009 — ‘089 + ‘159 + ‘179
ge — ‘564 — 525 — ‘578 — ‘aT4
g — 596 — *846 — °800 — ‘630
ge + 173 — ‘115 + 245 + *329
g — 148 — ‘646 — ‘056 / — 005
gt 597 “605 497 536
ga —1:089 — 1-052 —1-097 | — 1-122
UE “682 675 “807 ‘973
gk — °704 — °726 — ‘709 — $73
ge — *858 — °722 — ‘620 — +643
Ge — ‘260 — ‘299 — +343 — "842
ga ‘000 — ‘013 — ‘098 — 126
93 — 596 — 617 — ‘590 — 628
G2 — 353 — 313 — 413 — +423
gz — ‘678 — *647 — ‘574 — ‘586
9k 416 206 156 165
g3 — °037 — -051 — ‘078 ~ ‘051
gi 093 “064 126 117
= — 028 — 019 — 032 + ‘005
g 221 "259 242 483
Gi — ‘001 + °006 — ‘018 — 028
g 023 030 029 — *016
gz 055 073 073 081
G2 — 013 — 017 — ‘013 — ‘016
Ge — O11 — -009 — 025 — 019
gé — 002 + 008 001 — ‘002
hi —1:287 —1-240 —1°273 —1°321
hi “043 "035 229 309
hi "285 299 190 152
hi — 192 — ‘063 — 284 — 192
hi 534 503 724 478
hi — ‘110 — 168 — ‘366 + 1223
hz — ‘247 — 260 — °265 — ‘289
h2 — ‘095 — ‘083 — ‘029 — ‘035
h2 176 *245 133 100
hz + 068 — 098 + °037 + 078
hz — ‘O11 — 120 — 172 — 176
he — ‘150 — 145 — ‘117 — -099
hz O77 091 092 096
= + ‘029 — *007 031 027
hz 026 205 135 098
hk 021 022 030 012
ht 025 012 051 003
hé 050 ‘070 054 028
hz — ‘009 — -008 — ‘006 — ‘002
he — 041 -- *056 — 029 — ‘029

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 131

Another method of testing the accuracy of the work of determination
of the magnetic constants is to substitute their values in the theoretical
expressions for X, Y and Z, and to compare the results with the values of
X, Y and Z as taken from the charts.

For this purpose we have to form for each parallel of latitude the value
of the expression

3 (4m +m) = Xigi + Kgs + Keys

+ (Xigh+ Xigi+ Xigé) cos A+ (Koha + Xihjg+ Xphj) sin r

+ (X2g2-+ X22) cos 2A + (X2h2+ X2Az) sin 2 r

+ (Xigi+ X8g3) cos 3A + (XfAj+ Xfhs) sin 3A

+ X4gt cos 44 + Xigi cos 5A + Xfhj sin 44+ XFh§ sin 5 A ;
and also the value of the expression

2(Gm ay a») = Xoo a5 Xigt + Xe 8

+ (Xigi+ Xigi+ Xig}) cos \+ (Xii+ Xi} + XZAt) sin d

+ (X3g3+ X3g?+ K2g8) cos 2d + (Kphp+ Xhi+ Xphe) sin 2V

+ (X3g3+ Xig2) cos 3A + (X3hj + XZh#) sin 3 r

+ (Xigi+ Xigs) cos 4d + (Xihi+ Xshg) sin 4 A

+ X595 cos 5A+ Xég8 cos 6A+ XZAF sin 5A + X Gh sin 6A;

and then to form the sum and difference of these expressions for the

yalues of X in northern or southern latitudes respectively, which may

then be directly compared with the charts.

Similar expressions must be formed in the same way for Y and Z for
each parallel of latitude, and their sums and differences taken as in the
case of X.

When the values of the magnetic constants had been determined, they
were substituted in the equations of condition for each belt of latitude,
the terms of which when added up gave the theoretical value of the abso-
lute term for that latitude. This calculated value of the absolute term
may then be compared with the value of the corresponding absolute term
derived from the observation which has been used in the solution of the
equations.

The following table gives some of these comparisons between the
calculated and observed values of the absolute terms of the equations of
condition for the period 1880, in the values of X and Z for gi, for
A i and n odd, and for X, Y and Z for both g” and hi’ for m=1 and
n odd.

The observed values are taken from the Admiralty charts, and are the
values used in the solution of the equations, and it will be seen by the
comparison of the calculated and observed values that a chart drawn to
give the results of the calculations would not differ much from the
Admiralty charts.

As a further test of the accuracy of the work in such laborious and
extensive calculations, it is interesting to compare the values of the
Gaussian constants as determined by different investigators from the
observations for different epochs.

K2

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WLI— O1S-1— 188-1 683-1 198. 186- 8h. — o8y — | 819-8 689-8 * * 989 (8)
690-[— FOLI— || OlmT 886-1 G18. | 996. 699-— Lg — | 660-8 160-8 oe oD Oa Sa)
£00-I- | FILI— GFT 6FG-T 698. 66+ $99— | ¥6L. — OL9G | 819% oe 690 £8}
= 990-1~ = G8T-T = | BIO-T — 968- — = FILS * o0L (PD
: — P0-1— _ ZOL-T — GG0-T = 696. — | _ | 009-1 * * 6G (2)
— 166. — || = 180-1 _ 620-1 = ¥00-[— — 910-1 J) 3? 0s™(a)
- 696. — = 616 _ 120-1 — 920-T— _ 0F9-0 * + 998 (8)
paaresqo pazBno[sp paarlesqo pezs[noleg pearasqo peyernoleg paarasqo paqepnorep paaresqo payeMoep
4 x Kk x x sopnaney
ppo uv pu [=u 107 ppo uw pus [=w 107 ppo wu pus [=u 10,7 ppo vu pus [=w 10 ppo uw pus 0=w IOT uBayy
{Y Joy suolgunby a2 uy 14 x0; suoyyunby oq9 UT 04 toy suorqenby 013 UT
i]
inn) wu u
nae ‘O88 yoodgy ay2 of wy pun wb

buyymsrgaq of suoyondy ey? fo suey agnjosgy yz fo samyA paawasggQ pun pajvjnojyg ay, fo waf v uaaajaq wosruduog

a on

133

The following tables give some comparisons. The first of these tables
ives the values of the first twenty-four constants (i.e, of those to the
fourth order) as determined by Gauss for 1830, by Erman and Petersen,
by Adams (1) from Sabine’s charts for the epoch from 1842-45, and (2)
from the Admiralty charts for 1880, and by Neumayer for 1885, as pub-
lished in Berghaus’ ‘ Physical Atlas.’

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS.

1829
; 1830 1845 1880 1885

Constants pean Gauss Adams Adams Neumayer
g° +°320074 + 323477 321871 *316843 *815720
g3 + 001210 —*007708 —'001272 ‘007306 ‘007906
g3 — ‘018763 — 006593 —*024159 — ‘026795 — 024363
ge —°027377 — 038035 — 031055 — 033749 — ‘034395
It + 028353 + 031106 027783 *024273 024814
ga — ‘044537 —'050635 —°049128 —°051358 — ‘049798
gh + 029863 + 042956 "031299 | *041972 “039560
gi — 038405 —°0538291 —°032856 — ‘036831 — ‘030597
hi —'060109 — ‘062456 —'057828 — 060300 — ‘060258
hi +°000720 — 002107 ‘001801 012933 012999
hi + 016446 +°016700 013722 ‘007481 ‘007383
hk —°003197 + 022402 — "005526 — 010617 —°011877
z + 7001249 + 000172 -- 000353 —*005305 —*005667
93 — ‘030728 —'025575 —'028018 — ‘028217 —'027857
92 — 015592 —'016000 —'015278 —'019332 — 019754
h2 —°012637 — 013631 — 011648 — ‘012892 — 012604
he — 006211 — ‘007955 — ‘004089 000397 — 000443
E + 010851 + ‘014876 “009894 *005217 ‘007147
gi — 001272 + 000488 — ‘002075 — ‘002893 —'003270
gi + 006708 + 006909 “003533 "005590 ‘006842
hs — 007248 — 006552 —°006777 — 004932 — 005492
he + 003014 — ‘000062 -003910 004331 005121
gi + 000895 —°001442 ‘000137 —'001082 — 000849
ht + 001109 +°001109 “001004 “000935 “000968

Tf we had expressed the magnetic potential and the magnetic forces,
X, Y and Z in terms of the functions Q”, Q”, &c., instead of in terms of
H™, H™, &c., we should have obtained another series of magnetic constants
but the two series are related to one another, and the one series may be
derived from the other by multiplying each constant in one series by a
factor depending on the values of m and m.

Thus let a™ and 6" be two magnetic constants derived from the
function Q” (as defined above), and let a, and £, be the corresponding
Gaussian magnetic constants as derived from the function Hy. Then these
magnetic constants a7 and 67’ are connected with a, and 8, by the relations

@ PBn_Qn 1.3.5 * * + * (Qn—1)
Gao Oy (~—m) !
for a given value of m ; and similarly
On, Bm — Qn, = 1.3.5 *** * (2m,—1), ;
fo, H,. (m—m) ! ‘

and in particular

Gye Pas Qn—a 1.3.5 > +++ (2n—5)
a -() Sie : ar (n—m—2) !
dinars Quen — 13.5 * +++ (n+)

HS), (n—m-+2)!

and

Gira Onis

134 REPORT—1898.

then we may find the final equations for a, and 6, from the final equations
for a, and £, respectively by multiplying the final equations by Q,. and then
substitute the values of a, and £,, in terms of a, and 6, respectively.

Hence, in the final equations for a, and £,, the coefficient of a, or of B,
will be multiplied by

(%) on (= eh Cea)"
H,, (n—m) !
in order to find the coefficients of a, and 6, respectively.
Also the coefficients of a,_, or of B,,, in the same equations will be
multiplied by
Qn-Qn-2 op 1:35 °° 7 (2n—1).1.3.5 ++ + + (Q2n—5)
HE (n—m) i” (n—m—2) !

to find the coefficients of a,_, and 6, _, respectively. And the coefficients
of a,,. and £,,, will be multiplied by

Q,Qne2 op 1-3-5 °° °° (2n—1).1.3.5-> + + +(2n+38)
HU. (n—m) ! (n—m-+2)!

to find the coefficients of a,,. and 6,,».
Or generally the coefficients of a, and 8, in the final equations for

a, and B, will be multiplied by — to find the coefficients of a,, and
b,,, in the corresponding final equations.
Hence the constants a and 6” will have to be multiplied by Qi 5 ties

Hy
nome cc ley
me e ma a) in order to obtain the corresponding

by the factor -

Gaussian constants a, and ,.
Again, let A,, B, be two magnetic constants connected with a, and /,,
by the relations

ay, pas - +--+ (2n—1)
A, B, H, [(n—m)! (n+m) !]*

Then the values of the magnetic constants A,, B,, &c., as determined
from the function II,, can be converted into the corresponding Gaussian
magnetic constants derived by means of the function H,, by multiplying
each magnetic constant A” or B” for each value of m by the factor

Ty 1.3.5 * Seen 1)

H” [(n—m)! (n+m) ie
In his paper in Vol. I., No. 1 of ‘ Terrestrial Magnetism,’ published
January, 1896, at the Chicago University Press, Dr. Ad. Schmidt has

introduced a symbol R%, which is connected with the symbol II” employed
above by the relation

Ri=vV (2n+1)e TI?

where e=1 when m=0, and e=2 when m >0.

DETERMINATION OF THE GAUSSIAN MAGNETIC CONSTANTS. 135

Hence in Sn ne LOnpecd VIL (2 ere }
FETT 8.5 On a

By means of this factor the magnetic constants determined by Professor
A. Schmidt for 1885 may be converted into Gaussian magnetic constants,
for the sake of comparison with the magnetic constants as determined by
Adams for 1880, and by Neumayer and by Fritsche for the epoch 1885.

Comparison. of the Values of Gaussian Magnetic Constants to the Sixth Order

in Centimetre-gramme-second Units.

Adams Neumayer Schmidt Fritsche
1880 1885 1885 1885

9 316843 *315720 -317346 “31635
9 0073065 007906 -007849 00526
93 —-026795 — 024363 —-023415 — ‘02556
9. — -033749 — 034395 —-034781 —-04014
2 012904 st 013320 01208
9° — 003645 a —-003932 — 01285
1 -024273 024814 023556 02414
gh —-051358 —-049798 —-048954 — 04962
a ‘041972 039560 -037750 ‘03807
gx —-036831 — -030597 — 028389 —-03104
g: —-028409 = — 040125 — ‘03028
1 — 027235 _ — 004089 —+01686
G3 —-005305 — 005667 —:005868 —-00589
G3 —028217 — 027857 — ‘027667 — ‘02667
92 — ‘019332 —-019754 — 020192 — 02128
G2 — 026844 = —-021920 —-01961
G2 0073145 = -008082 00572
Gg —-002893 —+003270 — 003158 — ‘00368
Gg 005590 006842 006463 -00601
Gg —000549 = —:000780 — 00272
G3 017230 = 015668 01503
Wr — 001082 —-000849 —-001176 —-00063
@ -000200 — 000147 00134
93 003542 = ‘00118 -00200
g2 —-0006615 = = — -00064
G —-000993 = _— —-00032
gs —-000022 == _ -00029
ht —+060300 —-060258 — 059842 —-05914
ni -0129335 012999 012432 -01307
hi 007481 007383 009073 ‘01005
Ai —:010617 —°011877 —'015772 — 01381
ht 026795 = 027312 03647
hi —-002841 — —-017039 —-01796
hy — 012892 —-012604 —-013342 —‘01230
hz -000397 —-000443 — 000512 -00013
hz 0052175 007147 006691 00652
he 002974 = 002549 -00227
he —:008243 — —-009699 —-01122
hg — 004932 —005492 -- 005396 — ‘00555
a3 004331 005121 004706 00525
hz ‘0013145 = 001093 —-00049
hi 005283 = -006267 00757
ht 0009355 000968 000555 -00103
ht 001148 Ss 001692 00132
hg 001837 wa 001377 -00346
hi —-000191 = = — "00043
he —-0013465 — = 00186
ns 000180 = = 00011

136 REPORT—1898.

The above table gives the values in ¢.g.s. units of the Gaussian
magnetic constants, as determined by Adams for the epoch 1880, and by
Neumayer for 1885, by Schmidt for 1885, and by Fritsche for 1885.
The last two determinations by Schmidt and by Fritsche were derived
from the observations employed by Neumayer, and the values of the
Gaussian constants, corresponding to those published by Schmidt in the
first number of the journal ‘Terrestrial Magnetism,’ are obtained by
multiplying each magnetic constant by the value of the above factor
Rn ¢
Hn © that constant.

n

Stream-line Motion of a Viscous Film.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso. |

(I.) Experimental Investigation of the Motion of a Thin Film of
Viscous Fluid. By Professor H. 8S. Here-Suaw, LL.D.

Art the International Congress of Naval Architects at the Imperial Insti-
tute in July of last year the author read a paper on the ‘Nature of
Surface Resistance,’ and there showed by means of lantern experiments
that the flow of water round solids of various forms could be made visible
by injecting air into the flowing water. In response to an invitation from
the Institute of Naval Architects to read a second paper on the subject,
he endeavoured to investigate the nature of a very well defined border
line which existed in all the experiments when air was used, such as by
employing water under various conditions, injecting coloured fluid into
the flowing mass on the skin of the bodies in the path of fiow. In
endeavouring to investigate the markedly different condition of flow at
the surface, instead of using a thick sheet of water of from three-eighths
to half an inch, a thin sheet of water was employed the thickness of
which was not greater than that of the abovementioned border line.
The result of doing this was to reveal a different state of flow in the
water, in which, though the air method now failed, colour bands remained
stable and enabled the behaviour of the water to be clearly seen. |

The hypothesis had been advanced in the first paper that, while the
general body of the water in the thick sheet was moving with sinuous or
turbulent motion, the water near the skin (which of course corresponds
with that of the thin sheet) was in a state of parallel flow. The author,
by means of a formula which Professor Lamb was good enough to furnish
him with, found that within reasonable limits of error true stream line
flow took place under these conditions, and gave a number of illustrations
of this method of obtaining the form of stream lines round bodies of
various cross section and in channels of various forms.

(1.) The Two Lines of Research possible by means of the Method of Thin Sheets.

It is obvious that there are two lines of research for which this
method might be employed. The first of these is the investigation of the
properties of fluids by using sheets of different thicknesses and varying

' The reproduction of the experimental results and diagrams which illustrated
the reading of this paper are given in Engineering and The Engineer.

ON STREAM-LINE MOTION OF A VISCOUS FLUID. 137

conditions of velocity of flow in questions of such importance as dis-
continuity of fluid motion and viscosity. The second purpose for which
this might be employed was obviously to investigate the nature of stream
line forms in many cases in which mathematical investigation was
impossible, not merely for the case of flowing water, but in ‘applications to
heat and electricity.

It was in experimenting with various liquids with the first mentioned
object in view that much better results were obtained than those given
with water, and after working out the test case with various fluids
(including water) under new and more rigorous conditions, these results,
together with certain new experiments, are brought before the Associa-
tion.

(2.) Description of Improved Apparatus.

In the earlier apparatus the main body of water was supplied in a
thin sheet by the pressure from the mains, coloured water being intro-
duced from a small reservoir kept under pressure by means of a hand
pump. Since exhibiting these experiments in the earlier part of the year
at the Royal Society, improvements have been made both in the general
mode of applying the fluid to the lantern apparatus, and also in the
lantern apparatus itself, thus rendering the appliance suitable for either
physical or engineering lecture purposes, as well as for actual experi-
mental work.

The arrangement consists of a lantern and two vessels, one containing
clear liquid and the other coloured liquid, connected by two pipes with
the lantern-slide. A pipe leads to the reservoir of compressed air, which
is attached to a circular cap, with which the vessels of liquid are con-
nected. Taps enable the connection between the lantern-slide and
receiving-vessels to be adjusted, the annular pipe with which the air. is
connected passing down to the bottom of the connecting-vessels, whereas
the taps are so arranged that the pressure of air from the reservoir comes
upon the surface of the liquid in each vessel. The containing vessels-
which have been used up to the present are ordinary glass aérated water-
bottles, capable of sustaining 2001b. per square inch. At the head of
the pipe on each containing-vessel a separate pressure gauge can be
attached, as well as on the reservoir itself, so that the pressures can be
adjusted accurately for any particular experiment. If different liquids
are required to be used, they can be connected with the circular head,
without the necessity of disconnecting the other containing- vessels.

The chief object with which this arrangement was designed, however,
was to enable high pressures, such as from 1001b. to 200 lb. per square
inch, to be employed when very thin sheets of liquid are used, a high
Sagi being necessary under such conditions in order to insure the

ow.

With regard to the lantern slide itself, the original apparatus, although
effective, was troublesome to make and manipulate, and did not insure
absolute uniformity of the thin sheet, or lend itself to rapid changes.
The new device merely consists of a small brass block containing two
chambers. It has two pipes projecting from it, communicating with the
chambers, one pipe being connected with the vessel of clear, and the other
with the vessel of coloured, fluid. The small brass block is merely
inserted between two plates of glass, together with a third exactly the
same thickness as itself. By then making in thin cardboard, paper, lead

138 ' REPORT—1898.

foil, or other material a border, together with the required obstacle or
channel, and clamping the whole together, an effective and simple lantern-
slide is obtained.

(3.) Result of using Liquids other than Water.

The four liquids other than water which were experimented with were
castor oil, glycerine, alcohol, and mercury, of which glycerine is so entirely
and surprisingly satisfactory in every respect as to make it undoubtedly
the best material which the author had hitherto worked with for obtain-
ing stream-line figures, and the whole results shown at the reading of
the present paper were obtained by using glycerine.

Of course after the glycerine has once passed through the lantern
slide the coloured portion has mixed up with the clear, and it can only be
employed again for colour bands, but at the same time the thickness of
the sheet of flow being small, while the velocity with which perfect results
can be obtained is low, there is no reason why this material should not
be always employed.

Alcohol has such a low viscosity that it can be employed in sheets of
remarkable tenuity ; but these sheets have naturally the disadvantage of
giving colour bands so thin as to be scarcely capable of photographic
reproduction, while the volatile nature of this substance makes it not
altogether desirable in close proximity to an are lamp.

Mercury is of course opaque, but its great density compared with its
viscosity makes it most valuable in connection with some experiments,
and its lines of flow can be traced if it is not quite pure by marks it leaves
on the glass. It is, however, troublesome, since it cannot be used in con-
nection with brass taps or with the brass lantern apparatus.

Castor oil also proved troublesome to work with.

(4.) Measurements made to compare the Flow with Water, Glycerine, and
Alcohol in Test Cases, and Explanation of these Results.

In the test cases above referred to Professor Lamb kindly sought for
and obtained an equation for the stream lines round a cylinder in a
parallel channel, and the results of the measurements, although warranting
the use of water under these conditions, showed that the flow was not in
absolute agreement with the lines plotted from the formula. The author
then remarked :—‘A though the differences are appreciable, they are to some
extent of a nature which must be attributed to the great difficulty, in the
first place, of making sufficiently accurate mechanical arrangements, and
also from the fact that it takes some little time to plot down the results ; and
that, during this time, it is extremely difficult with the present appliances
to keep a perfectly steady and uniform pressure both of the colouring
bands and the main body of the water, when each comes from a separate
source. Beyond this, however, there is no doubt that the stream lines are
slightly pushed away from the obstacle at the point of greatest velocity,
2.¢., abreast the mid-section. This may be due to the slight effect of
viscous resistance parallel to two containing glass boundaries.’

In view of the importance of the matter it seemed worth while
to attempt a new and more accurate comparison of the experimental
results with the flow for a perfect fluid. In the previous case the

’ ON STREAM-LINE MOTION OF A VISCOUS FLUID. 139

formula used was only an approximation, though used within limits that
should give a very fair accuracy. Now it was not really necessary to use
the special formula for a channel at all, since if one of the cases be taken
in which exactly mathematical results can be obtained for an infinite fluid
—e.g., a cylinder—it is only necessary to form a border for a given value of
the stream function, and the test could be made and stream lines suitably
plotted within the artificial border. Glycerine is capable of being used at
very low velocities, and is absolutely steady in flow—indeed, owing to its
viscosity the lantern slide may be actually removed with the pipes dis-
connected, and after a lapse of even half an hour the stream lines remain
perfectly clear and distinct. It therefore seemed possible to make an
absolutely severe and final test, and the case of a cylinder and infinite
width of fluid were taken, the stream lines being plotted from the well-
known formula. This plotting was done by Mr. E. Brown, B.Sc., University
and 1851 Exhibition Scholar, who kindly undertook this particular work
for the author, besides rendering him valuable assistance with the
experiments for the present paper.

On plotting the ae lines on a large scale, it was noticed that at a
distance from the cylinder corresponding to the distance at which colour
bands had previously been admitted, the stream lines were by no means
equally spaced, and moreover they were far from parallel to the direction
of flow of the fluid at infinity. To overcome this difficulty the stream
lines were extended to such a distance from the cylinder that they
became for all practical purposes parallel to the direction of flow at
infinity. The thin film slide was lengthened by a corresponding amount.
Further, it was noticed that at that distance the lines on the diagram,
which represent the theoretical stream lines, have a displacement from
the lines which correspond to the equal spacing of the stream lines only
actually attained at infinity. The colour bands were therefore admitted
to the film by holes which were so spaced as to correspond with the dis-
placement of the theoretical lines.

The following three conditions were therefore introduced into the test
experiment, viz.—

1. Theoretical stream line as boundary.

2. Longer film.

3. Unequal spacing of stream lines.

It was then found that the actual colour bands were in absolute
agreement with the theoretical lines.

It must be remarked that in the previous verifications referred to the
author had been content to throw the lantern picture so as to most nearly
approximate with the theoretical diagram, which involved an obvious
displacement of the section of the cylinder itself, but in the present case
no such approximation was allowed in the border ; the obstacle in the
lantern itself was placed in absolutely exact position, so as to coincide with
the border on the plotted diagram. It need scarcely be said that this
result was not obtained without much laborious work, and it is highly
gratifying to know that the correctness of the result has been verified
mathematically in the accompanying paper by Professor Sir G. G. Stokes,
the conditions which it there states as necessary—viz., considerable viscosity
and very thin sheet—being both found necessary in order to obtain the
theoretically correct result. It should be noted that on the large scale in
which the comparisons were made by the lantern there is not the slightest

140 RKEPORT—1898.

difficulty in detecting minute variations, and no hesitation or doubt as to
when accurate agreement is obtained.

Both water and alcohol have been tried in a similar test case, although
the conditions are much more difficult to comply with in these cases, thin
sheets, such as y;\; th of an inch, which have to be used, making the
experiments much more difficult.

The results of stream-line flow by this method may therefore be
received with confidence, and a number of cases of stream lines have been
obtained by using glycerine. These experiments were made in the first
case with the view of studying discontinuity under conditions which
involve a severe test of the stability of the thin film, which was through-
out of a thickness of ,},th of an inch, and in all cases forty-one colour
bands were used within a width of about 3 inches. Without the figures
themselves, which, as already mentioned, are published elsewhere, it is
impossible to do more than describe the general results; but it may be
said that the difference between using square corners and rounded edges is
very marked ; indeed, it was a matter of surprise to find the flow main-
tained so well over the sharp edge at all. It is evident that the liquid
which actually adheres to the edge of the obstacle enables a definite
though very minute rounding to take place at the corners, as is visible by
a close examination of the photographs. This was especially marked in
one case on one side of an experiment, whereas on the other side, when
the entering colour band actually touches the edge, the sharp corner takes
effect upon it, and completely breaks it up, destroying the continuity of
flow.

It may be said that in these examples the narrow portion of the orifice
is so small that it is impossible to detect the separate bands which pass ©
through that portion ; these colour bands, nevertheless, emerge quite
distinct from each other, and finally assume their original position in the
wider portion of the channel. One example may specially be mentioned,
viz., that of a flat plate inclined at 45° to the stream. The agreement of
this case with the theoretical result of Professor Lamb the author has
previously been able to verify in the case of water, but even with the
greatest care it was always possible to tell in which direction the stream
was flowing. With glycerine, however, the colour bands are practically
identical before and behind the plate ; and if it were not for the point
being clearly evident at which the central divided band reunites, it would
be impossible to tell which way the stream is flowing. This point of
union of the two portions of the central band is extremely interesting, as
a careful measurement of it verifies the exact position at which the central
stream line meets the plate, and is found to agree precisely with the
mathematical solution of the problem.

(5.) Method of Investigating Effects of Variable Resistance.

In order not to prolong the present paper beyond reasonable limits,
the author will only briefly mention a method by which variable resistance
can be dealt with. If within the thin sheet of flowing liquid an obstacle
of some transparent material less in thickness than the sheet itself be
placed, the flow will take place partly over the obstacle and partly round
it. This effect will correspond to that of an obstacle through which fluid
can flow, but which opposes resistance greater than the remaining portion
of the thin sheet.

ON STREAM-LINE MOTION OF A VISCOUS FLUID. 141

The converse effect can be produced by making a part of the thin
sheet rather deeper than the remaining portion. This of course will
correspond to the flow through an obstacle of similar shape, which opposes
less resistance than the surrounding space. The effects are obviously the
same as would be produced in the first case by a dia-magnetic body, and
in the second case by a para-magnetic body, and by varying the relative
thickness of the different portions of the sheet it is clear that the effects
which would be given by the body of any known resistance (7.e., of any
value of ,) can be produced.

The author at first attempted to produce these results by very thin
sheets of glass. It was seen that where the stream meets the edge an
effect corresponding to refraction is produced, but that while in the case
of the plate touching at both edges, although the velocity must obviously
be greater over the portion where the plate is partly obstructing the
channel, that is, makes the channel rather shallower, the width of the
colour bands remains the same. When, however, the obstacle does not
touch the edges, the effect is to produce very much wider bands over the
obstacle itself and narrower bands on either side, these bands giving an
indication of the great difference of velocity which results from the
greatly increased resistance over the surface of the obstruction.

Instead of considering merely the actual width of the bands, it is of
course possible, and generally more convenient, to consider the number
of bands in a given space. This method is applied to a circular hole in a
plate of different cross sections to the film itself, which is placed across
the entire width of the channel, and the number of bands or stream lines
in a given space in the hole or well is obviously greater than in the
surrounding portion—.e., the bands are close together, and the velocity
correspondingly greater. This result evidently represents the effect of
placing in a uniform magnetic field a circular cylinder of soft iron—i.e.,
a para-magnetic body. This sufficiently indicates the method, but other
examples may be given, the first two representing para-magnetic and dia-
magnetic cylinders, which are cases which can be dealt with by means of
mathematics ; also two other cases of cylinders of rectangular section,
representing respectively the result with para- and dia-magnetic bodies,
which are cases it has been hitherto impossible to deal with by mathe-
matical methods.

(6.) The Effect of Using a Wedge-shape Section.

The author attempted to solve the problem of obtaining the flow
round a solid of revolution by using a wedge-shaped section, the obstruc-
tion being also represented by a wedge representing a segment of the
body, the thinnest part of the wedge corresponding to the axis of revo-
lution.

Professor Stokes has been good enough to look into this matter, and
has found that the partial differential equation which the stream-line
function must satisfy in the case of a slender wedge of viscous fluid is

dy dy 3 du_

kay pity hace 1)
da? dy? y dy ’

x being measured parallel and y perpendicular to the edge ; whereas, for
a perfect fluid flowing axially over a solid of revolution, generated by the

‘

142 REPORT—1898.

revolution round the edge of the wedge of the body interrupting the
flow in the wedge of fluid, the equation is

Py Py 1 dy_o

dx? dy? ydy ”
which is not the same as the other, and therefore the stream lines are not
the same in the two cases.!

If we compare together the case in three dimensions given by Pro-
fessor Lamb of the flow of a perfect fluid round a sphere and the case
actually obtained by this method with glycerine, it will be noticed, as
might have been expected, that the lines round the section of the sphere
are crowded much more closer together for physical reasons which are
easily explained ; for it is obvious that, as the whole of these effects depend
upon viscosity, the effect of viscosity diminishes in the thicker portion of
the wedge in such a way as to make the general velocity of flow greater,
and hence the stream lines round the obstacle are not deflected from their
path to the same extent as they would be if they were of uniform flow in
a parallel portion of the stream.

One result, however, of great interest was obtained, and that was that
with less viscous fluids, such as water, the exact point at which the colour
bands broke up could be traced by this method, and the flow studied side
by side with stream-line motion.

This leads the author, in conclusion, to bring forward an experiment
upon continuity with thick sheets, which it may be interesting to show,
as indicating clearly the great difference between the flow according as
the motion is sinuous or otherwise, and particularly as throwing some
insight into the birth of eddies, at the sharp edges of the body. The
obstacle itself is of wedge-shape cross section, the edges of the wedge
being ground as sharply as possible. Coloured liquid is now allowed to
flow behind the plate by means of a small orifice, and the effect can be
immediately seen. As long as the water is flowing steadily, the shape of
the curves formed by the clearly marked border between the dead water
and the water flowing over the edges of the plate agrees more or less
with that given by calculation. When, however, the flow, instead of
being steady, takes place in a series of impulses, the: exact character of
the succession of eddies formed at the sharp edges of the plate is
clearly seen.

1 Since this paper was read Professor Sir G. G. Stokes has further investigated
the matter, and has been able to obtain the equation of the stream lines for the case

of a slender wedge of a viscous fluid interrupted by a wedge forming a section of a
sphere, which he finds in terms of polar co-ordinates to be as follows :—

a’ int @=
= nt ) sin @=constant.
The two following equations, therefore, may, for convenience, be expressed thus :
Case of flow of perfect fluid round a sphere:
( Ve <) 7? sin? @= constant.
73
Case of slender wedge with spherical sector :
(: - a) 7* sin* = constant ;

and Professor Stokes remarks that the equation shows, even without plotting, the
general character of the difference between the wedge lines and spherical lines.

ON STREAM-LINE MOTION OF A VISCOUS FLUID. 143

(II.) Mathematical Proof of the Identity of the Stream Lines obtained by
Means of a Viscous Film with those of a Perfect Fluid moving in Two
Dimensions. By Sir G. G. Stoxgs, /.A.S.

The beautiful photographs obtained by Professor Hele-Shaw of the
stream lines in a liquid flowing between two close parallel walls are of
very great interest, because they afford a complete graphical solution,
experimentally obtained, of a problem which, from its complexity, baffles
the mathematician, except in a few simple cases.

In the experimental arrangement liquid is forced between close
parallel plane walls past an obstacle of any form, and the conditions
chosen are such that whether from closeness of the walls, or slowness of
the motion, or high viscosity of the liquid, or from a combination of these
circumstances, the flow is regular, and the effects of inertia disappear, the
viscosity dominating everything. I propose to show that under these
conditions the stream lines are identical with the theoretical stream lines
belonging to the steady motion of a perfect (7.¢., absolutely inviscid) liquid
flowing past an infinitely long rod, a section of which is represented by
the obstacle between the parallel walls which confine the viscous liquid.

Take first the case of the steady flow of a viscous liquid between close
parallel walls. Refer the fluid to rectangular axes, the origin being taken
midway between the confining planes, and the axis of = being perpen-
dicular to the walls. As the effects of inertia are altogether dominated
by the viscosity, the terms in the equations of motion which involve
products of the components of the velocity and their differential coefficients
may beneglected. Gravity, again, need not be introduced, as it is balanced
by the variation of hydrostatic pressure due to it. The equations of
motion, then, with the usual notation, are simply

dp. (du , du os)

dx (a ih dy? a dz? ]’
with similar equations for y, v and 2, w, » being the coefficient of vis-
cosity.

A the present case the flow takes place in a direction parallel to the

walls, so that w=0, and the third equation of motion gives 2 = 0} 'so
Ps

that » is constant along any line perpendicular to the walls. The velo-
cities w, v, vanish at the walls, and along any line perpendicular to the
walls are greatest in the middle. As by hypothesis the distance (2c)
between the walls is insignificant compared with the lateral dimensions of
the obstacle, the rates of variation of u and v when x and y vary may be
neglected compared with their variation consequent on that of z. Hence
the equations of motion become simply

dee" dee” dy" ae? @)
which must be combined with
du dv
he esa temal()i 2
da i dy : .)

Over an area in the plane wy, which is small compared with the
obstacle, though large compared with c?, the whole velocity and each

144 REPORT—1898.
component vary, as we know, as c?—<* ; so that if w', v' denote the mean
components along a line perpendicular to the walls

2 o2
usu! (1 _ 2 os se (1 _ *),
and (1) and (2) give
: 1
a + Sones wae —— ote (3)

If W be the stream-line function, taken, say, with reference to the
mean velocities w!, v',

dy= u'dy—v'dx,

and the elimination of p from the first two equations (3) gives

de dy? i (4)

' The general partial differential equation (4), combined with the condition
that the boundaries shall be stream lines, serves to determine completely
the function Y. It may be remarked that the lines of equal pressure are
the orthogonal trajectories of the stream lines, and can therefore be
drawn from the photographs. If we suppose the stream lines equally
spaced out in a part of the fluid where the flow is uniform in parallel
lines, the velocity at any point will be inversely as the distance between
consecutive stream lines. This statement is subject to a qualification
which will be mentioned presently.

Let us turn now to the other problem, that of determining the stream
lines for the irrotational motion in two dimensions of a perfect liquid
flowing past an infinitely long body, a transverse section of which, by two
close parallel planes, would form the obstacle in our thin plate of highly
viscous liquid. In this case the stream line function satisfies the same
partial differential equation (4) as before, and the conditions at the
boundaries are the same, namely, that the boundaries shall be stream lines.
Therefore, notwithstanding the wide difference in the physical conditions,

‘the stream lines are just the same in the two cases. In this latter case
they cannot be almost realised experimentally by means of an almost
perfect fluid on account of the instability of the motion. The orthogonal
trajectories of the stream lines are lines of equal velocity-potential, but
not in this case lines of equal pressure.

It may be objected that the stream lines cannot be the same in the
two cases, inasmuch as the perfect liquid glides over the surface of the
obstacle, whereas in the case of the viscous liquid the motion vanishes at
the surface of the obstacle. This is perfectly true, and forms the qualifi-
cation above referred to ; but it does not affect the truth of the propo-
sition, which applies only to the limiting case of a viscid liquid confined
between walls which are infinitely close. Any finite thickness of the
stratum of liquid will entail a departure from the identity of the stream
lines in the two cases, which, however, will be sensible only to a distance
from the obstacle comparable with the distance between the walls, and
therefore capable of being indefinitely reduced by taking the walls closer
and closer together.

ON TABLES OF CERTAIN MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 145

Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Lord Kertvin (Chairman), Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN
CUNNINGHAM (Secretary), Professor B. Price, Dr. J. W. L.
GLAISHER, Professor A. G. GREENHILL, Professor W. M. Hicks,
Major P. A. Macmanon, and Professor A. LopGe, appointed
for calculating Tables of certain Mathematical Functions, and, of
necessary, for taking steps to carry out the Calculations, and to
publish the results in an accessible form.

Tur new ‘Canon Arithmeticus’ is a set of tables showing the solutions
of the congruence of 2*=R (mod. m) forall prime moduli (m=p) < 1000,
and also for all powers of primes as moduli (m=p”’, p,? &e.) < 1000.
The tables are twofold, one showing the value of R to argument x, the
other showing the value of x to argument R. The tables are on the
same plan as Jacobi’s ‘Canon Arithmeticus,’ differing therefrom only in
that the same base 2 is used throughout, whereas Jacobi uses a primitive
voot of each prime as base; these primitive roots (e.g. 967) are often very
inconvenient for purposes of practical computing.

The tables are now complete (in MS. 133 foolscap sheets), and ready
for printing. All the work has been done by two independent computers :
the work of each has been checked with that of the other ; all discrepancies
found have been examined anew and set right.

Experiments for improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor G. CAREY Foster (Chairman), Mr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK
(Secretary), Lord Ketvin, Professors W. E. Ayrron, J. PERRY,
W. G. Apams, and OLiver J. Lopar, Lord Ray.eicu, Dr. A..-
Murruead, Mr. W. H. Preece, Professors J. D. EVERETT and A.
Scuuster, Dr. J. A. Fueminea, Professors G. F. FirzGEraLp
and J. J. THomson, Mr. W. N. Suaw, Dr. J. T. Borromiey, Rev.
T. C. Firzpatrick, Professor J. VirtamMu Jones, Dr. G. JOHN-
STONE STONEY, Professor 8. P. Taompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Mr. E.
H. Grirritas, Professor A. W. Ricker, and Professor A. G.
WEBSTER.

AVPENDIX PAGE

I. Comparison of the Standard Coils used by Professors J. Viriamu Jones and
W. £. Ayrton in their determination of the absolute resistance of Mercury
with the Standards of the Association. By R.'T. GLAZEBROOK, F.R.S. . 147

Il. On the Determination of the Temperature Coefficients of treo 10-ohm
Standard Resistance Coils (Nos. 3873 and 3874) used in the 1897 deter-

mination of the ohm. By M.Souomon. . a - : - - Lol
II. =" Ampere Balance. By Professor W. E. AYRTON and Professor J. V.
ONMASEenrrame rota 3 |. Be hE deh é 5 pein” Ade 6 mpebnllng

Tue work of testing resistance coils has proceeded as usual during the

year.
The following is a list of the coils tested and of the values found in
“ia ee of the list published in the Report for 1896 :—
: L

146 REPORT—1898.

TABLE.
No. of Coil | Resistance of Coil in Ohms! Temperature
Miliofif 333 4c? aeypat ¢, No. 459 9:9953 13-49
Elliott, 322 o, No. 460 099662 13'6°
Elliott, 357 ; F -o No. 461 9°9938 13°5°
Elliott, 356 G, No. 462 ‘99921 136°
mot, S68. eS, 6, No. 462 100 (1—:00051) 134°
Nalder,5329 . |, @, No. 464 100 (1—-00049) 12:8°
Nalder,5330. . . ¢, No. 465 | 1000 (1—-00083) 12-6°
adn. Co.” eaten G, No. 466 | ~ 1:00032 15.8°
Muirhead, 6271. . . QD No. 467 99722 15:9°
Elliott, 329 =... @ No. 469 99994 15-9°
Paul, 39 =... No. 470] 10-0029 166°
Paul, 50 ee TE ¢, No. 471 1000 (4:00048) 167°
Nalder, 3873 . . ¢, No. 367 9-9901 13-9°
Nalder, 3874 . .; ¢, No. 362 9:9896 13-9°
Resistance in B.A. Units
BAU Te 0) 8 ee lay G No. 468 1:00021 17-42

The most interesting of the coils are those numbered G, 362, 367,
389, 390. (See Appendix I.)
Of these iy 367 and Ki 362 are two ten-ohm coils of platinum silver

and Nos. g, 389 and ¢, 390 are two tenth-ohm coils of manganine ; the
values of these are given in Appendix I, These were made for Profes-
sor J. V. Jones’ experiments on the value of the standard of resistance,
and were compared with the standards of the Association in 1893 and
1894.

It appears from the further comparisons, an account of which is given

in the Appendix to this report, that Gg, 367 has changed by possibly three
or four parts in one hundred thousand, but that no appreciable variation
has occurred in the other coils,

The temperature coefficients of the two ten-ohm coils have recently
been determined with great care by Mr. M. Solomon in Professor Ayrton’s
laboratory. An account of the determination is given in Appendix IT.

Another coil of interest is a British Association unit, one of those
originally made by Matthiessen in 1862 or 1864, which has been in India
since that date. This coil was brought home by Professor R. Ll. Jones, A
careful comparison with the standards shows that it is correct at 16°3°.
According to the stamp on the coil, it was originally correct at 16°2°.

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 147

In consequence of his appointment as Treasurer of the Association,
Professor Carey Foster has resigned the position of Chairman of the
Committee, which he has held for many years. The Committee in asking
for reappointment recommend that Lord Rayleigh be the Chairman.

The standards of the Association have, since the opening of the Caven-
dish Laboratory, been kept at Cambridge in the custody of the Secretary.
Mr. Glazebrook has now left Cambridge for Liverpool, and the Committee
at a meeting in London agreed that Mr. Glazebrook be authorised and
requested to retain the custody of the standards. In consequence, the
various standards will in the course of the autumn be installed in the
Laboratory of University College, Liverpool.

At the Toronto Meeting the Committee agreed that it was a matter of
urgent importance that the general question of the absolute measurement
of electric currents should be investigated, and a grant of 75/. was made
for the purpose.

During the year Professors Ayrton and J. V. Jones have concluded
some preliminary experiments with this object, and have designed a form
_ of current weighing apparatus calculated to give results of great accuracy.

Drawings of the apparatus have been laid before the Committee and the
details of its working explained to them. The estimated cost of the
apparatus is 280/.; to meet this the grant of 75/. made last year remains
in hand.

After careful consideration and discussion the Committee, at their
meeting at Bristol, agreed unanimously to the following resolution :—

The Committee, having heard from Professors Ayrton and J. V. Jones
an account of their preliminary experiments on the absolute determination
of the ampére and their plans for the construction of an absolute ampére
balance, are of opinion that, in view of the importance of the proposed
experiments, application should be made for leave to retain the unexpended
ey 751, of the grant made last year, together with a further grant
of 2251.

Accordingly the Committee ask for reappointment and apply for the
above grant. They recommend that Lord Rayleigh be Chairman, and
Mr. R., T. Glazebrook Secretary.

APPENDIX I.

Comparison of the Standard Coils used by Professors J. Viriamu Jones
and W. EH. Ayrton in their determination of the absolute resistance of
Mercury with the standards of the Association. By R. T. Guaze-
BROOK, F.R.S.

These coils consist of two tenth-ohm standards of manganine, and two
tenth-ohm standards of platinum silver. _

The method employed in comparing the tenth-ohm standard is de-
scribed in the Report of the Committee for 1894 (Oxford Meeting) ‘ Re-
port,’ p. 128. In certain of the experiments the same mercury cups were
used as in 1894 ; in others, the cups used by Professor J. V. Jones in his
absolute measurements were employed. The Standard Coils made use of
were the following :—Elliott, No. 269 ; Elliott, No..270; and Nalder,
3716, the last being a ten-ohm standard, the others units.

The following values were found :—
L323

148 REPORT—1898.

Nalder, 4274. o 389,

R.T,G.’s mercury cups used ° “100049 14:2
4 A - : . 1100051 141
. Fr 100045 14:3
” ” - - . 100030 134
” ” ° : . °100054 15:7
” ” : > « . °100050 16°
J.VJ.’s > : : . *100030 131
» x : 4 . 100042 13:7
R.1.G.’s : : ; . °100044 13-7
9 &e 5 ‘ . °100042 14:1
J.VWJ.’s zy ; 2 * 100043 141
Mean : : 3 ; : 100044 14:2

Nalder, 4275. "390.

—_—

R.T.G.’s mercury cups used é . 1100060 14:4
” 7 F . *100061 14:4
a4 a 100057 14:5
a , 100040 13°4
45 ah : . °100063 158
“ a : . . 100056 161
J.V.J.’s % ; : . 7100045 131
Ay 4 5 . *100052 13°7
R.T.G.’s ¥ 4 ; . *100055 13:7
- % : : . °100054 14:1
J.V.J.’s 4 : 5 . 100055 14:1
Mean ; : 5 100054 14:3

The values found in 1894 were ee yaly
100050 and -100053

in each case at 15:2°, and the differences are probably within the errors of
observation. If all the individual observations for both 1894 and 1897 be

Fie.l. No. 4274. Fig. 2. No. 4275.

60

oe “e 4s° 16° 17°

Results of observations on the *1 ohm coils used by Professors Ayrton and J. V.

Jones.
Observations in 1894, thus e
Observations in 1897, thus +
The horizontal divisions are 0°1 C.
The vertical divisions are ‘000005 ohm.

plotted, they will be found to overlap each other, and it is difficult to
assert that there has been any change. If any exists it is certainly very

small.

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 149

This is shown in figs. 1 and 2, in which the observations indicated by
dots give the results of the 1894 experiments, those indicated by crosses
the experiments of 1897. At a glance the observations do not appear very
good, but it must be remembered that the vertical ordinates are drawn to
a very large scale, the division being five-millionths of an ohm. For both
coils the resistance appears to reach a maximum at about 15°5° C.

The ten-ohm coils were compared in the usual manner on the Carey
Foster bridge with the Standard Coil, Nalder, 3716.

The following are the values found :—

Nalder, 3873. G, 367.

Date Value Temperature
December 9, 1897 : H 9:9913 14:3
at cE ; ; 9:9917 14-4
7 16 paar : : 9:9891 13°5
6 DS» ata : : 9°9877 13°15
os 30,3 - : 9:9909 14:2
Mean. . : : : 9-9901 | 13°9

Nalder, 3874. ©, 362.

December 9, 1897 : - 9:9907 14:3
= “i ; : 9°9911 14:3
% igh Bes 3 : 9:9886 13°5
- PA eae F z 9:9873 1371
“ 30) 3 : : 9:9904 14:05
Mean ,. : : 5 99896 139

The values found in 1893 and 1894 were as follows :—
For 3873, 9:9919 at 14°8°.

If we take the temperature coefficient as ‘(0028—the value given by
Messrs. Nalder—this becomes 9°9894 at 13:9°. Thus the coil appears to
have risen in value by -0007 ohms ;

while for 3874, the value found was 9°9926 at 14:9°.

Messrs. Nalder give the temperature coefficient as 003, and this leads
to the value, 9°9896 at 13:9°, agreeing exactly with the observations of
December 1897.

The results of these observation are shown in figs. 3 and 4._ The dots
refer to the 1893 observations, the crosses to those of 1897. It appears
that No. 3874 has not changed ; with regard to No. 3873, a change is
indicated. As to this change, it appears from the note-book that there was
some doubt as to the temperature of one of the observations in 1893; it
is recorded as 14° ; the observation shows that the temperature must have
been about 13°7°. Furthermore, the value of the ten-ohm standard used
for 3873 was not definitely determined in 1893. If allowance is made

150 REPORT—1898.

for these two facts, the value of 3893 at 13°-9 is raised to 9:9923 ; thus
the curve shown in fig. 3* is obtained, and the apparent change in "value
ig reduced to about 0003 ohms, or three parts in one hundred thousand.
On the whole, then, I conclude that 3873 has changed since 1893 by about

Fig. 3. No. 3873. Fig. 4. No. 3874.

fac had wal
ee
| a
4-H

See
er eS Se

Result of observations on the 10-ohm coils, used by Professors Ayrton and J. V. Jones.

Observations of 1893, thus e
Observations of 1897, thus +

The horizontal divisions are 0:1° C.
The vertical divisions are ‘0002 ohms.

Fig. 3*. No. 3873. Revised.

EEE
aR ae

tt YL
de hey

Observations of 1893, corrected to final value of|10-ohm standard, shown thus e
Observations of i897, thus +

this amount, while 3874 has remained stationary in value. The dis-
crepancy between this conclusion and that given, by Mr. Solomon in
Appendix IT. depends on the different values employed for the tempera-
ture coefficients.

ra

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 151

The vaiues of these coefficients obtained over so short a range are not
of much importance. Still, in view of Mr. Solomon’s determination, they
may be given. They are: For 3873, :000283; and for 3874, 000277,
These values are relative to the standard coils of the Association.

APPENDIX IL.

On the Determination of the Temperature Coefficients of Two 10-Ohm
Standard Resistance Coils (Nos. 3873 and 3874) used in the 1897
Determination of the Ohm. By M. Sotomon.

In the determination of the ohm made by Professor W. E. Ayrton
_and Professor J. Viriamu Jones in 1897 (Report, 1897, p. 212), four
standard resistance coils were used, two of which had a resistance of 10
ohms each, and two of 0:1 ohm each. Values for the temperature co-
efficients of these coils had been calculated from four accurate determina-
tions of their resistance made, two by Mr. Glazebrook in 1894 and 1897,
and two by the Board of Trade in 1896 and 1897 (‘The Electrician,’
vol. xl., p. 39). The values thus obtained neither agreed with one another
nor with the coefficients given by the makers, Messrs. Nalder Bros. & Co.
It therefore became necessary to make as accurate a determination as
possible to endeavour to find the correct values for the coefficients. The
following Paper gives the results of the tests made on the two 10-ohm
coils (Nos. 3873 and 3874), the tests on the other two coils being not
yet completed. These two coils are of the B.A. pattern, and are made of
platinum silver wire. A preliminary series of tests made on one of the
coils showed that to attain the required accuracy special precautions
would have to be taken to keep the coils at steady temperatures. Each
coil was therefore placed in an oil bath, the temperature of which was
automatically regulated. In making the determination of the tempera-
ture coefficient of one coil, the other was used as a standard, and was
kept at a constant temperature throughout the whole series of tests. -
The coil under test was maintained at a steady temperature for some
time, and a measurement of the difference of resistance between it and
the standard was then made by means of a Carey Foster bridge. The
temperature of the coil being tested was then altered and a fresh measure-
ment taken, this being repeated for several temperatures.

The apparatus used in the measurements was. arranged in the following
manner. The standard coil was placed in an oil bath with two vessels, in
the inner of which the coil itself and a carefully standardised thermometer
were immersed. In the outer bath was the bulb of an alcohol thermo-
meter, the mercury index of which, when the temperature rose too high,
completed the circuit of an electromagnet and battery, and caused
the gas which heated the bath to be put out. On the bath then cooling
the circuit of the electromagnet was broken, and the gas turned on and re-
lighted by a bypass. This thermostat was very sensitive, the temperature
of the inner bath rarely varying so much as 0°05° C. in a day, and in a
run of ten days undergoing a maximum variation of 0°3° C. The ther-
mostat in which the coil under test was placed was not so sensitive, but
was designed to work over a greater range of temperature. The coil and
thermometer were placed in an inner bath, and in the outer bath was a
large brass bulb filled with alcohol. The expanding alcohol either passed
into a small reservoir, or, when the passage to this was closed by

152 REPORT—1898.

shutting a stop-cock, it expanded into one arm of a glass U tube,
thereby forcing a mercury index at the bottom up the other arm; this
index cut off the gas supply by closing the aperture of the inlet tube.
On cooling the index sank; the gas was turned on and relighted by a
bypass. Regulation of the temperature accordingly did not take place
until the path leading to the reservoir was closed, so that regulation at
any desired temperature could be obtained by leaving the stop-cock open
until that temperature had been reached. In this case, as also in the
other thermostat, the bath was not heated directly by the gas jet, but a
baffle plate was interposed. The daily variation of temperature with this
apparatus was about 0:2° C., but the changes were so slight and so slow
that the probable error introduced would be less than that caused by
error in reading the thermometer. The bath was always kept at a constant
temperature for some hours before readings were taken. With these
arrangements it was safe to assume that the temperature of the coil was
the same as that read off from the thermometer. The terminals of the coil
dipped into mercury cups in one end of a pair of stout copper rods, half
an inch in diameter, the other ends of which rested in mercury cups on a
Carey Foster bridge. The leads from each of the coils were of very
small and approximately equal resistance, so that no appreciable error
could be introduced by alteration in their resistance with change of
atmospheric temperature. Also, as a part of each lead was inside the
thermostat, heat lost by conduction along the leads would be withdrawn
from this part and not from the coil itself.

The measurements were made with a Carey Foster bridge, the platinum
silver slide wire of which had been previously calibrated. This wire was
50 centimetres long, and had a resistance of 0:001859 ohms per half
centimetre at 13°5° C., and was graduated in half millimetres. Correction
was made for alteration in the resistance of the wire due to change in its
temperature, an increase of 1° C. producing an increase of 0-000011 ohms
in the resistance of half a centimetre. Determinations of the difference
of resistance between the two coils were made at intervals of about an
hour, and if two or three quite consistent readings could be taken these
were considered as correct, but where discrepancies occurred the mean of
several results was taken. The slight changes in the temperature of the
standard were easily allowed for, since it could be assumed that for such
small changes the two coils had the same temperature coefficients. So if
the standard, instead of being at the temperature ¢, were at the tempera-
ture ¢+6, and if the coil under test were at the temperature ¢’, it was
assumed that the standard was at temperature ¢, and the coil under test
at the temperature ¢/—8.

There are four principal sources by which error can be introduced—
viz., error in obtaining the correct position of balance, error in the vaiue
of the temperature coefficient of the slide-wire, error in reading the
temperature of the standard coil, and error in reading the temperature of
the coil under test. As regards the first of these, the sensibility of the
arrangement was such that a change of half a millimetre in the position
of the slider produced a deflection of about a centimetre on the galvano-
meter scale, so that balance could easily be obtained correct to 005mm.
The error due to not knowing the temperature coeflicient of the slide-wire
with certainty will not be great, as all the measurements were made at
temperatures near to 13°5° C., at which temperature its resistance was
known. The greatest error is introduced in reading the thermometers

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 153

which were graduated in tenths of a degree, each division being about
06mm. in length, so that the temperatures could not be read with cer-
tainty to less than 0-02°C. If all these errors should be made in one
direction in making one determination of difference of resistance, and all
in the opposite direction in making a second, there is a possible maximum
error of about 3 per cent. in the value of the temperature coefficient
calculated from these two determinations. This is, however, highly im-
probable, and, moreover, makes no allowance for taking the mean of
several readings. The error in the temperature coefficient is probably
not greater than | per cent., if as great.
The following summarises the results of the experiments :—

Ten-Ohm Standard Coil, No. 3875.

A series of tests was made on this coil in the manner above described,
lasting from March 22 to April 1, 1898. Determinations were obtained
of the difference between the resistance of No. 3873 at six different
temperatures, and the resistance of No. 3874 at 16°70° C., with the
following results :—

Excess resist. in ohms of Change of
Temperature of No. 3873 No. 3873, above No. 3874, resist. per
at 16°70° C. 1° C.
(a) 16°31° C. —0:001896 -— ——-—-=~ 0:00307
(b) 19°338° C. +0:007380 ~=~-= == 0:00291
(e) 22°10° C. +0:01545 =-<=7 >>> 0-00291 }
(d) 22:43° C. +0:01639 -=<=7~==-=0:00278 )
(e) 25-43° C. 002470) —aa—— == 0100277 fi
(f) 26°22° C. +0:02678 -—-———==-0:00274

From readings a, 5, c, and e, and from the measurement of the resist-
ance of the coil made by Mr. Glazebrook in December, 1897, giving
Ry3.0=9°9901 ohms, we get

R,=9-9398 (1 +0-000397¢—0-000002(4)22).

After testing this coil the other coil (No. 3874) was tested, and then
three check tests were made on this coil with the following results :—

Temperature of Excess resistance in ohms above No. 3874,
No. 3878 at 16°70° C.
(g) 19°62° C. + 0:008398
(A) 15°95° C. — 0:003074
(A) 18°13° ©. | + 0°003704

These points lie well on the curve obtained in the former tests (see
fig. 5). From the formula given above the coil will have the correct
resistance of 10 ohms at 17-0° C.

To compare the temperature coefficient here obtained with those

154. REPORT—1898.

previously determined we have four measurements of resistance, as
follows:—
A. My. Glazebrook in March, 1894. Resistance = 9°9923 ohms at 14°8°C.
; 4:

B. Board of Trade in Nov., 1896. . = 9°992994 » L4°86°C:
C. Board of Trade in Aug., 1897. aS =10:00712 spl 4973°:G:
D. Mr. Glazebrook in Dec., 1897. 3 = 9:9901 ne LBS.

These furnish data for calculating the temperature coefficient, and we

have also the value given by the makers, Messrs. Nalder Bros. & Co. :—

Temperature Coefficient from

Observer 1 Henge i f coefficient per these tests for

ee 1° C, same range | |

Messrs. Nalder Bros. & Co. | 17:0° —22-0°C. 0:000276 0000303
Tests AandC , : 14°8° —19°3°C. 0:000331 0-000315
ays . Ox43 : . | 14°86°—19°3° C. 0:000320 0:000315
PF = f |/ 13159 1424° 6, 0:000299 0000330
D ana Ce. 3 J} SBS — 19:32 C. 0:000317 0:000317

This table shows that the coefficients calculated fhaxn tests B and C
Fie. 5.

9 LRGESS resistance in ohms

“@ 0 16 17 18 19 2 tf 22 23 24 25 26 27
Temperature ta°t

Curve showing change of resistance of 10-ohm standard coil, No. 3873, with change
of temperature. Ordinates give excess of resistance of 387 3 above 387 4 at 16-70° C.

and from tests D and C are both in very close agreement with those I
obtain for the same range of temperature.

Ten-Ohm Standard Coil, No. 3874.
A series of tests on coil No, 3874, lasting from May 19 to May 31,

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.

155

1898, were made, and in addition we have one result from the tests on
coil No. 3875. Altogether we have the following :—

Temperature of No. 3874

(a) 16-70° C.
(b) 17-46° C.
(c) 18:08° C.
(d) 19:09° C.
(e) 21°37° ©,
(f) 22:22° 0.
(g) 24:46° C.

Excess resist. in ohms of “CHiahee of

No. 3874, above No. 3873, ere ie
ike 1° C.
—0:00095 ~~~ -___
+ 0:00159 —-—=—=== 0:00334
363 ——— — > 7 0'00332
+ 0:003868 === = 2
= ===-0:00323
+.0:00689-= === T_
_ = =>==— 0:00306
+ 0:01882 ——= ee
yal :
+ 001641 -~-_~ -= 7 eae
+0 02264——=-— -———

From readings a, ¢,e and g, and Mr. Glazebrook’s determination of
the resistance in December, 1897, which gave Ry:..=9°9896 ohms, we get

R,=9°9313 (1 4+.0:000481¢—0:000004(2)z?).

Check tests were made on this coil after those on coil No. 3873

been made, and gave the following results :—

had

Temperature of

Excess resistance in ohms above No. 8,873

No. 3874 at 17°25° C
(h) 187°C. +0°00583
(hk) 20°15° C. +0-01040

All the nine points lie on a smooth curve (see fig. 6).
make the coil correct at 16:9°C.

Fia@. 6.

024 éxcess resistance (n ohms.

~82

Mt 4%

ee
aay
eee
es oy Si APA

peo ve
a ce
Baad | Sicpon tee 7a]

@ 19 2 2 22. 23 24

Tempereture ia a

These tests

Curve showing change of resistance of 10-ohm standard coil, No. 3874, with change
of temperature. Ordinates give excess of resistance of 387 4 above 3873 at 17:25° C.

For purposes of comparison we have a similar set of data to those used

156 REPORT—1898.

for the other coil. The four measurements of resistance gave the following —
results :—

A. Mr. Glazebrook in March, 1894. Resistance = 9°9926 ohms at 149°C.
B. Board of Trade in Nov., 1896. ~ = 9:993213 se edl4-91° °C;
C. Board of Trade in Aug., 1897. ms = 10-00775 ie 19:3°'C:
D. Mr. Glazebrook in Dec., 1897. = 99896 s 139° C.

”

From these we get the following values for the temperature coefli-
cient :—

Coeff. from these
Observer Bee tare cam ete. Per tests for same
range
Messrs. Nalder Bros. & Co. | 17:0° —22:0° C. 0:000300 0:000316
Tests AandC :} . | 149° —19°3° C. 0:000346 0:000336
} BandC . . | 14:°91°—19-3° C. 0000333 0:0003836
eae D . a lioeiee lal, 0:000279 0:000365
> Diand.¢ 2 : ol s292 — 193°C; 0000338 0:000341

Here again the same two sets of tests, viz., tests B and C, and tests
D and C, give values for the temperature coefticient very nearly equal to
those I obtain for the same range of temperatures.

Since for both coils the temperature coefficients that I obtain agree
with those calculated from the three last measurements of resistance—
namely, the two measurements by the Board of Trade and Mr. Glaze-
brook’s last test—these experiments seem to show that the coils have not
changed since 1896, but that the resistances as measured in 1894 were a
little lower than those that would now be obtained at the same tempera-
tures.

This conclusion may be better illustrated by calculating what would
be the resistances at the temperatures of the various tests, on the assump-
tion that the coefficients I obtain are correct, and that Mr. Glazebrook’s
last test (in December, 1897) is correct. We then get the following :—

ane o Resistance as measured Resistance as calcu-
Temperature of test Shing lated an chats

| uo ht = H
148°C. (A) 9-9923 99930
wo | 1486° C. (B) 9-9930 9:9931
em Ne OTS .9 g.20c9 > ey 10-0071 10-0071
139°C. (D) 9-9901 9:9901
149°C, (A) 9:9926 9:9932
14:91°C. (B) 99932 99932
CIE HOTEY. 19:39 O6 -.-( Gy 1000775 100079
139°C. (D) 9:9896 99896

Thus we see that the 1894 measurements (A) are too low by as much
as 7 parts in 100,000 in the case of coil No. 3873, and 6 parts in 100,000
in the case of No. 3874. In the case of the other two measurements the
calculated results only differ from the observed results by 1 or 1°5 parts
in 100,000.

These experiments were carried out in the laboratory of the Central
Technical College, South Kensington, and I am much indebted to Pro-
fessor Ayrton and Mr. T. Mather for their valuable guidance and advice.

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 157

“APPENDIX III.

An Ampére Balance. By Professor W. E. Ayrton, /.2.S., and
Professor J. Vintamu Jonss, 7.2.8.

The Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards for 1897 ended
with the following paragraph :—‘ It thus appears to be a matter of urgent
importance that a redetermination of the electrochemical equivalent of
silver should be made and that the general question of the absolute
measurement of electric currents should be investigated. . . .’. This work
we were asked by the Committee to carry out, and a grant of 75/. was
voted in its aid. We were thus led to examine into the methods which
had been employed by Lord Rayleigh, Professor Mascart, and others, for
determining the absolute value of a current, as well as to consider some
other methods which have not, as far as we know, been hitherto used.

After much consideration we decided to adopt a form of apparatus
which, while generally resembling the type employed by some previous
experimenters, possessed certain important differences, and, before
expending any part of the grant of 75/., to construct, without expense to
the British Association, the following preliminary Ampére Balance.

On a vertical cylinder about 17 inches high and 6°8 inches in diameter
we wound two coils, about 5 inches in height, separated by an axial distance
of 5 inches. The coils consisted each of a single layer of about 170 convo-
lutions of wire and were wound in opposite directions. From the beam of
a balance there was suspended, inside this cylinder, a light bobbin about 4
inches in diameter, on which was wound a coil about 10 inches long consist-
ing of a single layer of 360 convolutions, and the whole apparatus was so
adjusted that when the beam of the balance was horizontal the inner and
outer coils were coaxial and the top and bottom of the inner suspended
coil were respectively in the mean planes of the outer stationary coils.

This arrangement was adopted because with coils consisting of only
one layer the geometrical dimensions could be accurately determined, and
because the shapes of the coils lent themselves to the use of the con-
venient formula, readily expressible in elliptic integrals, for the force, F,
between a uniform cylindrical current sheet and a coaxial helix, viz. :—

F=yy, (M,—M,)

where y is the current per unit length of the current sheet, y, the current
in the helix, and M, and M, the coefficients of mutual induction of the
helix and the circular ends of the current sheet.}

The value of a particular current of about 0°63 ampére having been
determined absolutely by means of this apparatus, the rate at which it
would deposit silver under specified conditions was ascertained indirectly,
by observing its silver value on a Kelvin balance which had been kept
screwed down in a fixed position for several years past and which had
been calibrated many times during that period by reference to the silver
voltameter.

The result of this preliminary investigation showed that the silver
value of the true ampere was so nearly equal to the reputed value, viz. 1-118
milligramme per second, as to require the use of an apparatus still more

_ * See Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. 63: ‘On the Calculation of the Coefii-
cient of Mutual Induction of a Circle and a Coaxial Helix, and of the Electro-
magnetic Force between a Coaxial Current and a Uniform Coaxial Circular
Cylindrical Current Sheet.’ By Professor J. V. Jones.

158 REPORT—1898.

perfectly constructed, and therefore of a much more expensive character,
to enable the error, if any, in this value to be ascertained with accuracy.

We, therefore, started on the design of the instrument, of which we
now submit the working drawings, and for the future construction of
which we would ask for a grant of 300/. including the unexpended grant
of 75/. voted last year. And we anticipate that this new piece of appa-
ratus may prove worthy of constituting a national Ampére Balance, the
counterpoise weight for which will be determined purely by calculation
based on the dimensions of the instrument, the number of convolutions
of wire in the three coils, and the value of the acceleration of gravity at
the place where the instrument may be permanently set up. In this par-
ticular it will differ entirely from the ‘ Board of Trade Ampere Standard
Verified 1894,’ which has had its counterpoise weight adjusted so that the
beam is horizontal when a current passes through the instrument, which
will deposit exactly 1-118 milligramme of silver per second under specified
conditions. In fact, the proposed Ampére Balance and the existing
Ampére Standard will differ exactly in the same way as doa Lorenz
apparatus and the ‘ Board of Trade Ohm Standard Verified, 1894.’

We have to express our thanks to Mr. Mather for taking charge of
the construction and use of the preliminary apparatus, for checking all
the calculations in connection with the determination of the electroche-
mical equivalent of silver that was made with it, as well as for superinten-
ding the making of the working drawings of the new Ampére Balance.
We have also to thank Messrs. W. H. Derriman and W. N. Wilson, two
of the students of the City and Guilds Central Technical College, for their
cordial assistance in carrying out the work.

Electrolysis and Hlectio-chemistry.—Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. W. N. Saaw (Chairman), Mr. KE. H. Grirritus,
Rey. T. C. Firzpatrick, Mr. W.C. D. WHETHAM (Secretary), on the
present state of our knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.

Tue grant of 35/7. made last year has been expended in improving the
apparatus for experiments on the electrical properties of solutions.
Measurements have been obtained by Mr. Whetham of the electrical
conductivity at 0° C. of dilute solutions of potassium chloride, barium
chloride, potassium ferricyanide, potassium bichromate, and sulphuric
acid. The freezing points of identical solutions have been observed by
Mr. E. H. Griffiths. The measurements are sufficient to indicate that
important and unexpected results will be obtained. The reduction of the
observations is not yet completed, and, in consequence, the account of the
experiments is not ready for publication.

The apparatus is now in working order, and it is hoped that measure-
ments may be obtained for other salts. Unfortunately the room in Mr.
Griffiths’s laboratory where the experiments have been carried out is no
longer available, and some considerable expense must be incurred in
reconstituting the arrangement in a different situation. To meet this
and the additional expenses incidental to the continuance of the observa-
tions it is estimated that at least 25/. will be required.

The Committee accordingly ask for reappointment, with the addition
of the name of Mr.S8. Skinner, one of the Demonstrators at the Cavendish
Laboratory, and with a grant of 25/7.

i a

ON THE USE OF LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES.

On the Use of Logarithmic Coordinates.
By J. H. Vincent, D.Sc., A.R.C.Sce.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed im extenso. |

PLATES I-III.

INTRODUCTION . - : ; : . : :

Definition and an example of a translatant .
CONSTRUCTION OF AN IMPEDANCE CHART

The equation represents a translatant .

The resistance line. ‘ : ile Jy 3 ; : E

The self-induction line ,

The complete impedance curve

Mechanical device for drawing above

Scale lines : : ; :

How to use the chart. - . - * : : 4
DISCUSSION OF A NON-TRANSLATANT

CONSTRUCTION OF A CHART FOR WAVES ON A FROZEN SEA
Short wave gravity and elasticity lines . :

Short wave curve . : : : : 5 4

Above to be made general. = : : -

The scale lines - . ; : : : c c E c

Recapitulation . F 3 5 ‘ : = 5
ANOTHER METHOD OF TREATING THE SAME NON-TRANSLATANT

The long wave elasticity line . : - 9 : - :

Short wave elasticity line. ‘ ; . .

Complete elasticity curve F é s . :

The two gravity lines and complete gravity curve .

The two complete curves are translatants

Translation of the elasticity and gravity curves

Scale lines for the two complete curves .

Scale lines for thickness : é : : : : 3
On several outstanding matters connected with the chart.

159

THE Use oF LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES TO FIND AN APPROXIMATE

EQUATION CONNECTING A SERIES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
TRI-DIMENSIONAL LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES : 2 " 2
SEMI-LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES . 3 , ‘

THE GRAPHICAL COMPUTATION OF THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
The meaning of a straight line on the chart . : . . .

Theeuline . : ‘ , : i
Other lines . 3 ; F ( 3 ; : é : 3
Semi-logarithmic graph of sinhw . : . , 5 ;
Of coshu . ‘ é ; ‘ , . ‘ -
Of cosech u and sech uw . . Fi 4 f : ; 5 ‘
Of tanh uand cothu . , A A : : 6 4
Points in the geometry of these curves. ‘ . . . .
CONCLUSION s ‘ A $ : ; c * . ° .
INTRODUCTION.

1. In discussing experiments upon the passage of gases through porous
plates Professor Osborne Reynolds employed a method of plotting curves,!
in which the logarithms of two variables are used to find the points on a
new curve. This new curve Professor Reynolds calls the logarithmic
homologue of the one from which it is derived, and pointed out the

’ Sir John Herschel used the logarithmic chart in reducing photometric observa-

tions, Art. 285, Cape of Good Hope Observations,

160 REPORT—1898.

following useful property possessed by the homologues. (We may omit
the adjective when no ambiguity is likely to arise.)

‘If for two curves (1) and (2) x,=ax, and y,=by,, then a}=2} + log a
and yi=y} + log b ; or the logarithmic homologues will all be similar
curves, but differently placed with regard to the axes, such that the one curve
may be brought into coincidence with the other by a shift of which the
coordinates are log a and log 8.’}

It should be noticed that this shift of the homologue is one of pure
translation.

The graphic method of homologues was again used by Professor
Reynolds in discussing experiments on the flow of water,”

2. Mr. Human has since patented the manufacture of sheets of paper
ruled logarithmically. A short account of the use of logarithmic
coordinates may be found in Greenhill’s ‘ Differential and Integral
Calculus,’ 1896 edition; directions for the use of the ruled sheets, with a
number of easy examples, are supplied by the publishers of the ruled
paper, and the valuable aid to computation which this method gives may
now be considered well known.

3. The power of readily moving homologues on the logarithmic paper
to represent changes in the original equation was greatly facilitated by
the invention of scale lines by Mr. Boys.* To explain the use and method
of construction of scale lines Mr. Boys drew a chart of wave and ripple
velocities, which by its wonderful generality was calculated to emphasise
the power of the new method of discussing curves by means of their
homologues.

Definition and an Example of a ‘ Translatant.’
4, Let us consider the equation

which is the equation that Mr. Boys took to illustrate the method. Iti
of the form ;

b
2—=ar+—.
v=a Ty

Let a, b, v, and X become a’, b’, v AVA ae and X a] ads The equation

remains unaltered ; thus, if g, 7, and p all change, it is possible, by merely
shifting the homologue, to represent the new equation. The homologue
of this equation possesses the property of translation.

5. It is of great service in any subject to have a definite nomenclature,
and a cwrve whose homologue possesses this property with respect to any
particular quantity might be called a ‘translatant’ with respect to that
quantity. The term translatant can also be applied without risk of
confusion to the homologue.

6. Definition.—A curve or its homologue is a translatant with respect
to any quantity when an arbitrary change in that quantity is equivalent

1 Phil. Trans., 1879, Part IL. p. 753.

2 Ibid., 1883, Part III, p. 947.

3 Published by Beaves and Stephenson, 8 Princes Street, Westminster.
4 Nature, July 18, 1895, p. 272.

Plate 1

68 Report Brit. Assoc, 1898.
2 == i t
i

fe pShe iii Sy Sh ! a

if te : tee
BS — }—t
> ane NN x {]
i)
< Y N Set Me
5 5 \
8 y ‘ oy
i) yu A
V S is
a i) Ne
“
a
RESISTAN | e

ee

ON THE USE OF LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES. 161

to the transformation x=ax,, y=by,, where a and b are some deter-
minate constants.

Many curves which occur in physics are translatants with respect to
all the quantities which are found in the equation; such curves are
particularly suitable for treatment by logarithmic coordinates,

CoNSTRUCTION OF AN IMPEDANCE CHART.

7. As a second example of a translatant, let us take the equation
I?= R?+ 47°L?n?;

which gives the impedance of a circuit whose resistance is R, self-induction
L, and subject to a periodic electro-motive force of frequency n, all
expressed in some consistent system of units.

Regarding m as the independent variable, a chart may readily be
constructed giving the value of I for any values of R, L, and 7 ; that is,
we can in a few minutes produce what amounts to a complete table of the
impedance of all circuits subject to a periodic electro-motive force of any
frequency.

The equation represents a translatant,' for if R and L become R’ and
L’ respectively, the equation remains unaltered if n and I be also changed

/ /
into 7 m and ze I. The first step is to draw the homologue for arbitrary
values of Rand L. Let R=2 and L=-002, these numbers being such
as might occur in practice, when L and R are expressed in henrys and
ohms.

8. The Resistance Line.—If I depended only on the value of R, this
would be represented on the chart by a straight line I=2. The line is
marked ‘ Resistance Line’ (see fig. 1).

9. The Self-induction Line.—If I were a function of L and x only,
then the value of I would be given by I=2zrLn. The homologue of this
equation is a straight line, making an angle of 45°, with the increasing
direction of the axis of m. To draw it in the proper position of the chart
some one point on it must be found; thus, if »=100,I1=1-256. The
line is marked ‘Self-induction Line’ on the chart.

10. The Complete Impedance Curve.—The actual impedance is due to
both effects, and the curve showing the relation of I to the other quanti-
ties concerned runs above the resistance and self-induction lines; it is
most distant from either line at their point of intersection, and approaches
them asymptotically. The curve very soon, however, becomes practically
coincident with the straight lines. The curved portion of the homologue
may be drawn by the arithmetical computation of a series of points on the
curve; it may, however, be drawn with facility by the following device.

11. Mechanical Device for Drawing the Curved Portion of the Homo-
logue.—For any value of read off on the chart the value of I due to
each effect. (In this case the value due to R is constant. It should be
noted that when the separate effects are represented by straight lines it is
only necessary to read off values through the range 7 to 10 », all other
values being given at once by appropriately shifting the decimal place.)

} The homologue of any equation of the form y'=aa™ + da” is a translatant. For
: _ , _ n i . :
if a, b, z, 4" become a’, b’, "x/ ca ate cae sie . y', the equation is unaltered.

1898. M

162 F REPORT—1898.

Take a millimetre scale and a sheet of squared paper ruled in millimetres.
Mark off OP and OQ at right angles, these lines being taken to represent

the magnitude of the two effects. PQ is the length required, being the.

root of the sum of the squares of the two separate effects.

12. It must next be shown how to adapt the homologue for any
values of R and L, This is done by means of scale lines,

A scale line is a line drawn on the chart and graduated by the
logarithmic rulings of the paper. It is so placed as to read directly the
particular value of the quantity to which it refers, such reading being
the indication of the position of the homologue on the paper, and is the
magnitude of the quantity in the equation which the homologue represents
in its present position.

13. Scale Line for R.—If R, n, and I be all multiplied by the same
quantity the equation is unaltered ; thus when R becomes mR the homo-
logue is to be moved a distance log m to the right, and log m upwards.
The direction of translation is along the self-induction line, which could
be used as a scale line; in fact any line not parallel to the axis of 7
could in this case be used as a scale line, the numbers of the graduations
being identical with the impedance. In the chart a line at 45° to the
axes is drawn and marked ‘Scale Line for Resistance.’ The direction of
motion of the homologue is, in this case, parallel to the scale line.

Scale Line for L.—If L and nm vary inversely the value of I is
unchanged. If L become mL the homologue must be moved to the left
through a distance log m. The scale line must then be parallel to the
axis of impedance ; when the homologue moves any distance to the left
the point of intersection of the self-induction and scale lines will then
move upwards by the same amount. To avoid specially graduating the
scale line it is drawn through a point on the self-induction line where
the impedance reading has the same significant figures as the value of L,
for which the self-induction line is drawn. The scale line on the chart is
drawn through the point of intersection of I=2 with the self-induction
line.

14. To find the proper position of the homologue for any value.of R
and L, move the whole curve with its attendant resistance and self-induc-
tion lines by a motion of pure translation until the resistance and self-
induction lines cut their respective scale lines at the appropriate readings
for R and L.

Discussion oF A NON-TRANSLATANT.

15. Even in the case of some curves which are not translatants the
labour of plotting their equations may be greatly reduced by the use of
this method. To illustrate this let us take an equation which does not
represent a translatant curve.

Professor Greenhill has given the theory of waves on a frozen sea in
his article ‘Wave Motion in Hydrodynamics.’! By retaining a term for
the density of the solid in this investigation we have the velocity of pro-
pagation and the wave-length connected by the equation

2 (9% “Seal ve ( eae? 222)
wu (f+ ors coth x a x)?

? American Journal of Mathematics, vol. ix. No. 1.

ON THE USE OF LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES. 163

where w, \, g have their usual significance, and

e=thickness of the solid assumed uniform
E=Young’s modulus for the solid

p=density of the liquid

s=density (not superficial density) of the ice
h=uniform depth of the liquid,

all expressed in some consistent system of units throughout this discus-
sion.
16. Fundamental Assumption.—Let us assume that h is large enough

compared with ts for us to write

a

5 .
coth anh =]
r

without appreciable error. The equation now becomes

gx 27eH
uw? = 27 prs
ik 27es
pr
which is of the form
b
" ch + <
reece

This is a non-translatant ; if we regard \ and w as the independent and
dependent variables, and change a, 6, and ¢ into a’, b’, and c’, it is impos-
sible to find two numbers ” and m such that the equation
/
a/m\ + —.
VOTE

nu? =

is identical with the preceding.

ConstRucTION OF A CHART FOR WAVES ON A FROZzEN Sra.
17. Short Wave Gravity and Elasticity Lines.—When } is sufficiently

small for unity to be negligible compared with i the equation becomes

w= ar? + s
where
mare A
des?
and
72e7
i ao

164. REPORT—1898.

For a, B, A, and p write
4 /ab! 4 /a'b!
a’, BX Sa are

ab

The equation is unaltered ; this shows that it is a translatant. If the
first term only in the right-hand member had to be considered, the homo-
logue would be a straight line, making an angle of 45° with the increas-
ing direction of the axis of A, on the chart ; if the second term only were
present this also would be represented by a straight line sloping in the
opposite direction and to the same extent. To put these lines in the chart
it is only necessary to calculate one point on each, and to draw through
this point the line in the proper direction.

These lines are drawn on the chart for the case when E!}=6 x 10%,
g=981, e=100, p=s=1. They are marked ‘Short Wave Gravity and
Elasticity Lines.’ (See fig. 2.)

18. Short Wave Curve.—To represent the united effect of gravity and
elasticity these two lines must be joined by a curve. The whole will then
be the homologue of the equation

wu? = a4,

The curve is asymptotic to the short wave lines ; it very soon becomes
practically identical with them. It is symmetrical about a line parallel
to the axis of w drawn through the point of intersection of the straight
lines ; only half need be computed, the other half being put in by geo-
metry. The curve may conveniently be drawn by the method of § 11.

19. It must next be shown how to adapt this curve to any values of a
and 8. It has been already shown that it is a translatant, and thus the
curve will not have to be redrawn, but merely shifted about.

1 Most of the experimental investigations into the physics of ice have been con-
cerned with the viscosity and not the elasticity. Professor Greenhill, in the paper
already cited, remarks that ‘ice was the first substance for which an experimental
determination of E was attempted, as described in Young’s Lectures on Natural
Philosophy.’ Morgan (Nature, May 7, 1885) points out that the value quoted in
Thomson and Tait’s Nat. Phil., Art. 686, is ten times too great. McConnel (Proc.
Roy. Soc., March 1891, p. 343) gives the following values for E :—

92,700 kilos per sq. c.m. (Moseley), Phil. Trans., 1871
23,632 33 (Reusch), Nature, xxi. 504

60,000 + (Bevan)

The last value is, presumably, computed from Bevan, Phil. Trans., 1826, Part 2,
Paper 21. Turning these values into c.g.s. units we obtain, to the nearest sing’e
significant figure—

9 x 10° (Moseley)

2 x 10° (Reusch)

6 x 10'° (Bevan)

McConnel considers Moseley’s value too great, and implies that Reusch’s method
was unreliable. By recomputing Bevan’s value I obtain 5 x 10'".

From this it seems that the value of E for ice is somewhere about 6 x 10’ inc.g.s.
units; in drawing the first short wave elasticity line on the chart it appeared unne-
cessary from a physical standpoint to allow for the density of ice and water when
the value of E was so uncertain.

Plate2.

68 Repor

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ates.

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giguss oF EF SEuaR 25 st = iba
eigtgen Ne & eases te By 33

ON THE USE OF LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES. 165

90. The Scale Lines—A change in a or #3 is equivalent to a definite
shift of one of the short wave lines, keeping it parallel to itself. This
shift might obviously by proper graduations be measured along any line
not parallel to the line shifted. By giving the line, along which we wish
to measure either of these translations, a proper inclination we can make
the lines already on the chart divide this line with the proper logarithmic
graduations for a or (3, as the case may be.

21. Scale Line for a.—This scale line will show how to move the short
wave gravity line and the curved portion so as to adapt the chart to new
values of gravity, density of liquid and solid, and thickness. The short wave
gravity line is the homologue of

we=anr?2.

r F
Tf a become na and \ become ——— the value of w is unchanged.
1

Therefore a shift to the left of }log must be made when « becomes n a ;
a point on the short wave gravity line must move one large square to the
left when the point of intersection on scale moves through two large
squares. The scale line will then make an angle tan™! 2 with axis of X.
Tt must be graduated so that its readings increase as we move upwards on
the scale line ; the point in which it cuts the short wave gravity line
must read the «a appropriate to values of g, Z, ¢, s, and p in § 17. But
the graduation of the u axis must be utilised to save regraduating the
scale line. Thus, look for the value of « on the w line ; or 10*”a where 7
is a whole number; a parallel to axis of \ through this point cuts the
short wave gravity line in a point through which the scale line may con-
veniently be drawn. The graduations are then those of the axis of w
multiplied or divided by some positive integral power of 10.

The scale line is inserted on the chart and marked ‘Scale Line for a.’

22. Scale Line for (3.—This scale line shows how to move the short
wave elasticity line and the curved portion so as to allow for changes in
the values of the density, elasticity, and thickness of the solid. (The short
wave elasticity line is not affected by a change in the density of the liquid.)
The short wave elasticity line is the homologue of

Tf 3 becomes 7/3 and \ becomes \/7X, w is unchanged.
A scale line for /3 is inserted on the chart.

_ To use the scale lines, move the figure consisting of the two short wave
lines and the curve derived from them, without rotation until each of the
short wave lines cuts the corresponding scale line in the proper point. The
whole operation can easily be accomplished by the use of tracing paper.
This translation will obviously move the curve to the correct new
position.

23. Complete Curve obtained from Short Wave Curve.—There is now
on the chart a curve and two scale lines which enable that curve to be
shifted so as to represent '

waar 4F

166 REPORT—1898.

for any values of g, p, e, s, and E. The complete curve to represent

must now be drawn. The above equation can be written

z BY
ak Ga eee

where a, /3, and ¢c have been previously defined.
When the short wave curve has been placed in its proper position on
the chart, calculate c from the equation .

Qares
c= ;
P
From each value of w, as read on the chart, the length

x {log (A+c)—log c}

has to be subtracted. The slide rule is an instrument specially designed
for the purpose of adding and subtracting logarithms ; the operation of
drawing the complete curve can be performed by one setting of a slide
rule, without other numerical computation. The top scale on Davis’s
10-inch slide rule is the same size as the scale of Human’s paper ; to find
a point on the complete homologue set the right hand 1 on the top scale
of the sliding piece under the appropriate value of c on the right hand top
scale of the rule ; the rule as thus set is a table of division of all numbers
by c. Add any desired value of \ toc; look for \+c on the top scale

and take off distance from the middle ‘1’ of top slide (if — is less than
10) to A+¢ on top scale. This length is log(A+c)—loge. Take off this
distance on a pair of proportional compasses set to reduce to one-half.
This is the length by which the point on the short wave curve must be
dropped to become a point on the complete homologue.

Without resetting the rule repeat the operation with other values of 2.1
In this way the complete homologue may be drawn without much trouble,
and with only so much mental labour as is involved in adding the chosen
value of \ to the appropriate value of c.

24, Kecapitulation.—We have now upon the chart a curve which is
the homologue of the complete equation for waves on a solid covering
Qh
rt
case where g, E, e, p, and s have the values given in sect. 17 is represented
on the chart by a thick curved line running beneath the short wave curve.
The arithmetical operations necessary to get’ a curve to represent the

liquid of sufficient depth for coth to be taken equal to unity. The

‘ Tf the scale of rule have any size other than that of chart the same method may
be used by setting the proportional compasses properly.

The whole operation can be performed without a slide-rule on the chart. Draw
a straight line through left hand bottom corner of the paper at an angle tan-! 2 with
the horizontal. Use the projection of the left hand coordinates as the one on which
to read A+c¢ and ¢; use the horizontal scale to read off length +{ log (A+ce)—log ec}.

;

ON THE USE OF LOGARITHMIC COORDINA'TES. 167

equation for any values of the quantities involved consist merely in the
computation of a, 3, and ec.

Thus it is possible to obtain by means of logarithmic coordinates a-
curve giving wu for any value of \ without a single operation of the nature
of substituting arbitrary values for a variable in the equation.

If it had been merely desired to draw such a curve the task might be
regarded as completed ; but the equation under discussion may be made to

yield many interesting illustrations of the method of homologues. Some

of these will now be dealt with.

AnorHerR MrrHop oF TREATING THE SAME NON TRANSLATANT.

25. Long Wave Elasticity Line If the motion were controlled by
elasticity alone the equation would be

and if \ were so large that . could be neglected with respect to unity, the

above becomes

b

2—
Y trig

The straight line on the chart marked ‘ Long Wave Elasticity Line’ is

the homologue of this equation. It makes an angle tan? with the

decreasing direction of the axis of A, and in the diagram is placed for
the case when e, E, and p have the values above quoted.
b

26.—Short Wave Elasticity Line.—This is the homologue of Was
ch?

and is already on the chart, for the case when the quantities concerned
have the values already taken.

27.—Complete Elasticity Curve.—lf the waves were governed by
elasticity alone, the homologue showing the value of w for a given value
of \ would be coincident with the short wave elasticity line when \ was
small, with the long wave elasticity line when \ was great, and would run
beneath both lines and leave them to the greatest extent where they
eross. To draw the complete elasticity curve we have only to multiply

each wu by VA — which can be done by one setting of the slide rule as
iF

previously shown.

_ 28. The Two Gravity Lines and Complete Gravity Curve.— By exactly
similar methods the two gravity lines and the complete gravity curve can
be inserted on the chart. The long wave gravity line is the homologue of

w=dan.,

The short wave gravity equation is
a

urn?
Cc

and the complete gravity curve is got by mechanical computation, by the

168 REPORT—1898.

same setting of the slide rule as used for the complete elasticity curve,
from equation !

29. The Two Complete Curves are Translatants.—If in the gravity
equation

1 lal

: cn are Pw

a,c, \, and wu are written a’, c!, ——, w _, the equation is unaltered.
Cc ac

Therefore it is a translatant with respect to a and c.
Similarly the elasticity equation

is a translatant.

Subsequently it will be shown how to shift the elasticity and gravity
curves to allow for changes in e, E,g, p,and s; but in whatever position
the two curves may be on the chart the complete homologue of the equa-
tion in which both effects appear is found by the method explained in
§ 11.

30. Translation of the Elasticity Curve-—I. New values for e. In the
elasticity equation it is seen that if e becomes ne and \, mA: w remains
unaltered. Thus to find new position of elasticity curve move it to the
right through a distance log n.

II. New values forE. If E becomes xE and wu becomes w/m equation
is unaltered. Thus to shift the elasticity curve move it through e log n

upwards.
III. New values for s. When s becomes ns, \ becomes nA and w

R

becomes wn-?, the equation being unaltered. Thus to adapt to new

: 3
values of s move curve log n to right, and 5 log w downwards.

} It is perhaps worth noting that the complete elasticity curve could have been
computed from

and the long wave elasticity line. Also the complete gravity curve could have been
obtained from

yee
A+e

and the long wave gravity line. But in the fraction both numerator and
c

denominator change, and a separate setting of the slide rule would be necessary for
every new point found on the complete curve.

ON THE USE OF LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES. 169

TV. New values for p. If p changes to mp then wv and X must become

r
nu and —.
vi

31. Translation of the Gravity Curve.—New values for e. Tf e, X. and
uw are changed to ne, nd, and /un the gravity equation is unaltered.
Thus if e becomes ne move the complete gravity curve log m to the right

and : log 2 upwards.

It is unnecessary to show that similar translations may be found for

changes in g, p, and s.

32. Scales Lines for Complete Gravity and Elasticity Curves.—Two
scale lines would be needed for each curve to permit of complete generality.
Thus the gravity curve would have scale lines for changes in g and in

se we ' ek se ;
- ; the elasticity curve, scale lines for —— and —. These scale lines would
p p

all be put in on the same principles as those in the former part of this
aper.
i P33. Scale Lines for Thickness.—Two scale lines are inserted on the
chart marked ‘ Elasticity Scale Line for Thickness’ and ‘Gravity Scale Line
for Thickness.’ The first of these lines will be understood at once from
paragraph 30, I.
From paragraph 31 the direction of motion of the gravity curve in order

to adapt it to new values of e must make an angle tan ~ : with the in-

a

creasing direction of the ordinate of \. Any line drawn on the chart in
this direction can be made use of as a scale line. It is convenient, how-
eyer, to have the scale line placed in a position so that it cuts the complete
gravity curve or its attendant short and long wave gravity lines on the ~
chart. The scale line has been drawn at the appropriate inclination
through a point on the short wave gravity line where \=10000. Now the
thickness of ice is here 100 ; if the scale line be marked 100 at this point
it must be graduated in either direction, so that when the curve (and its
attendant lines) is moved along the direction of the scale line, the point of
intersection of the short wave gravity line and the scale line shail read
the thickness on the latter. The scale line must be graduated by a loga-
rithmic scale, so that the readings increase ten-fold for every large
square moved through to the right : this is done at once by the graduations
on the paper without making a special logarithmic scale.

The complete curve for the case when the values of g, p, s, E are the
same as before and e=1 is inserted on the chart. It cuts the elasticity
scale line for e at graduation 1.

If it were only desired to make the chart give at once all values for w
and \ when one other quantity such as e was varied the second method of
treating the original equation would be the better ; but it would become
somewhat confusing to use a succession of scale lines in order to adapt the
chart to changes in a number of the quantities concerned. If more than
one of these has to be altered it would be more convenient to employ the
former method.

It must be noted that the complete curve is calculated from the
position of the gravity and elasticity curves by the method of $11. A
small portion only joining the two branches has to be drawn, as the

170 REPORT—1898,

complete curve soon becomes indistinguishable from the two component
curves.

On Several Outstanding Matters in Connection with the Chart.

34. The long wave lines of the chart may be joined by a curved portion
to represent the complete long wave curve, which is the homologue of

b
Ra
Uw OAT ae
This may be obtained by using the method of the root of the sum of two
squares ; or it may be got by one setting of the slide rule from the short
wave gravity curve, this latter curve being the homologue of
a b
u?==—)? + —
c rane

b\Xr
=(a\+_) —
(« +5).

In this case the A being read directly from the chart no thought is
necessary in the operation, the lengths being simply transferred by the
proportional compasses. On the chart when p, s, p, E have the quoted
values and «=100 the complete homologue to the original equation is
practically coincident with the long wave curve in the curved portion of
the latter.

35. It is interesting to compare one of the homologues of the original
equation with the wave and ripple curve of Mr. Boys. In the latter on
the left we have the capillary ripples where the curve is straight, then the
curved portion as far as the point of minimum velocity represents ripples,
in the propagation of which gravity has an increasing influence : this is
followed by a curved portion in which the surface tension effect is waning,
and the gravity influence waxing ; finally we have the straight portion
which represents waves in which the influence of capillarity is negligible.

The shape of the curve on the chart varies as the quantities g, e, E, p,
and s alter,as has already been seen. The elasticity and gravity branches
always become coincident with the short wave elasticity and long wave
gravity branches as we pass to the left and right respectively through a
sufficient range.

Consider now the complete curve on the chart representing approxi-
mately the facts when the solid is ice and the liquid water and e=1.
Waves whose length is less than about 420 correspond to ripples ; when
the wave length falls below about 80 we have the analogues of capillary
ripples.

"36. The value of \ for which wis a minimum is a solution of the
equation

P+ 2cr4 — 3b A— 2be_,,
a a

obtained by differentiating the original equation and putting em The

ordinary practical way of solving this equation (by numerical compu-
tation) is by Horner’s method. It has only one real root which is approxi-
mately 419 with e=1. This root is at once given approximately by the

eo

ON THE USE OF LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES. Lal

chart, and also the minimum value of w is obtained at once by inspection
without the trouble of substituting A=419 in the original equation.
Logarithmic coordinates may be of use to find the roots of equations of
high orders.

37. Lhe Homologues of Equations representing the Relation of u to X

when <=some constant.—In the original equation let c=. The equa-

tion becomes

gy , 2n3E
ant.
Bf eae ol a
ig. 2rs
P
For all values of ) included in the chart gx may be neglected with
aT
23
respect to 3” # ; the homologue is a straight line identical with the elas-

ticity scale line for thickness (if we take EH, p, s as before). In the same
way horizontal lines drawn through the points of intersection of lines X
=2, \=3, &e. with the elasticity curve for ice 1 unit thick give the velocity

of propagation of waves on ice which is always x, . &e. thick. The size of

the waves makes no difference so long as we confine ourselves within the maxv-
mum range of Xon the chart. This process cannot, however, be continued

indefinitely ; even when e becomes - the line becomes slightly bent
upwards as A approaches 10°; when e= = or less the relation is

expressed by the long wave gravity line already on the chart.

A horizontal line v=245000 gives the velocity of propagation of
waves when e=)/1°61 ; no matter what E may be, the velocity of waves
whose length is 1°61 times the thickness of the ice (when p=s=1) is
equal to the velocity of propagation of sound in the ice. The line is
marked ‘Sound Line’ on tbe chart.

Tue Usz or Locarirumic CooRDINATES TO FIND AN APPROXIMATE EQUATION
CONNECTING A SERIES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS.

38. In practical science this arithmetical problem often arises. If the
numbers are merely to be recorded graphically it is always better to plot
them logarithmically, as the sensitiveness of the record is independent of
the distance of a point from the origin.

Jf the law which governs the numbers is a straight line law, as is often
the case, of course ordinary section paper should be employed. But if on
plotting the curve on squared paper it seems to follow some other law,
recourse should be had to logarithmic plotting. If the observer com-
mences by trying to find an equation of the form

y=an"

by arithmetic he will probably restrict his trial to simple values of a and

_k. By the use of logarithmic paper he avoids the trouble of looking up

the logarithms (as Herschel had to do) and gains in accuracy.

172 REPORT—1898.

As an example we will find equations connecting two series of
experimental numbers (kindly furnished by Mr. Bruce Wade, of Trinity
College, Cambridge).

In fig. 3 these two curves are plotted logarithmically. They are each
represented very nearly by straight lines, and the equations may be ob-

Hinge.

a EH fo i
4

1 fi

|

x ———>

tained from the figure at once, the power of y being a tangent and the
coefficient of x a reciprocal of an intercept.

(ajay Ler.

(6) of @=29e.

When the equation connecting the values is of the form
P=aatt ba" + Ke.

the same method could be employed.

TRI-DIMENSIONAL LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES.

39. The construction of a surface to represent the mutual algebraic
relationships of three variables is in general a matter of great labour,
involving the computation of a series of curves which have then to be
placed at appropriate distances apart, and the surface constructed so as to
pass through all the curves. Many equations in physics lend themselves
very readily to discussion by nfeans of tri-dimensional logarithmic coordi-
nates. Writing down a few which occur, we have

pv=Ré, — Q=cr, ron /—.

As one of the simplest of such equations we may take v?=gh, which is
the equation of seismic ocean waves.

Regarding v, g, h all as variables, the surface representing the equa-
tion in logarithmic coordinates is drawn in fig. 4. This figure is a tri-
metric projection of a model of the logarithmically ruled planes and the
homologue of the surface v?=gh.

It is obvious that scale lines could be used to represent changes in the
quantities occurring in equations involving more variables.

174 REPORT—1898.

SEMI-LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES.

40. For some purposes it would be an advantage to plot the logarithm
of one variable against the real value of the other. For instance, suppose
it were desired to find the logarithmic decrement of an amplitude which
we were investigating. This could be done by setting out the logarithms
of swings against the number of the vibration. If the logarithmic decre-
ment did not vary the curve would be a straight line, and the logarithmic
decrement would be proportional to the tangent of the angle which this
line makes with the decreasing direction of the axis of the number of the
swing. If, however, the logarithmic decrement varied with the time, the
tangent to the curve at any point would give the logarithmic decrement
at that instant. This example is only one of many which suggest them-
selves ; the usefulness of the method in practical work would chiefly
depend on the fact that it is easier to ‘smooth out’ a series of points
which should be in a straight line than it would be to draw a logarithmic
curve with an elastic rod, as would have to be done if the results were
plotted on ordinary square paper.

THE GRAPHICAL COMPUTATION OF THE HyprrRBoLic FUNCTIONS.

41. By the use of semi-logarithmic coordinates it is easy to construct
a chart which shall give the values of the six usually used hyperbolic
functions for a given value of the independent variable. I have drawn a
diagram of this sort which has an accuracy of about one in two hundred,
and hope to be able to publish one on a larger scale which shall have a
greater accuracy.

For the sake of clearness let the logarithmic scale be regarded as the
vertical one and the scale of equal parts as horizontal ; further, let the
component logarithmic scales in the vertical scale be equal toa unit of
length on the horizontal scale.

42. The Meaning of a Straight Line on the Chart.—If a straight line
be drawn arbitrarily on such a chart (see fig. 5) it gives a series of values
for uw and f such that—

J=10 c=:
where / is the reading on the logarithmic scale and w that on the horizontal
scale ; c is the reading on the logarithmic scale of the point of intersection
of the line with the vertical line w=o ; & is the tangent of the angle which
the line makes with the increasing direction of the axis of w.
_ Thus any curve having an exponential equation of the form

§: —elew

is traced at once by drawing a straight line on the semi-logarithmic chart.

No numerical computation is necessary ; the value of c is marked on the °

vertical scale when w=o ; if k be then marked on the vertical line
through w=1, a line joining this last point to the point /=1, w=o (which
may be called the origin) gives us the graph of
T=.
A line parallel to this through the first marked point gives the
graph of
S=ch,

vVX———

mil

flate 3.
TTT
TTT
URUUUUUOHEOROSORE

HTT

OTT

HUET TEE UEEEUT
IUNIUGUERUG EEO

nn

CUUPEAAAUUONUONUEHOUROGUONOOSOONONNONRONUH
NOPUUUUTET AG sSUTELEGEE TOG EE
TTT TTT
SLUT ST
nase Hime!

Hilt
< <

Ne
Eo
rs
z
ca
E
=
4
E
=
5
5

IAAT

a
3S Pi

68a Report Brit. Assoc. 1598,

Hi

I
WUT ET

Hill Ht Il ! - !

AHI HII

HT

A

CUNSNNNLLLNATTH
HY

rfl!
il

mil
HAH
Mitt i MI

UU elf

ARI

mM mi
ii)

TTT
I) AM TT |

|

Ulityy
ae

TUustrating mes ie TI. Vincent's Paper on the Use of Logarithmic Coordinates.
er

i
ATT

i ss

HATTA
a | i Ht) | Hill
INTENT

TTT
MITT
Mitt

| an nl
NH
qi !

is

1

MU

. 6,—Bemi-Logarithmlo Ohart of tho Hyporbolio Functions,

AE
a

ON THE USE OF LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES. 175

A line through the origin and the point f=10, w=1, gives
S=10",

and this line (which is at 45° to axis of wu, since log 10=1 by hypo-
thesis) is a table of common logarithms ; the readings | of the w scale are
the logarithms of the readings of the J scale.

For a line representing

y= ke

the w is in any case the logarithmic of / to the base 4, so that the semi-
logarithmic chart constitutes an infinite series of logarithmic tables to
any base.

43. To draw a line representing e“. This line passes through the
origin and the point f=e, uw=1l. The e“line is a table of natural
logarithms, « being the natural logarithmic of /

The accuracy with which such graphic tabulation may be performed
is limited by the size and accuracy of the graduations. The size of the
w graduations is a matter of choice, as semi-logarithmic charts have to
be made and cannot be bought. The logarithmic scales are only obtain-
able in one size on the ruled paper, but other logarithmic scales can be
obtained from slide rules.

Semi-logarithmic charts are free from the defect of ordinary gaol
paper (as regards the proportionate accuracy of plotting) in the vertical
direction. The percentage accuracy of the horizontal scale varies as the
distance from zero of the abscissa.

44, To proceed to compute the hyperbolic functions other straight
lines must be ruled on the chart. These are inserted without computa-
tion. The line representing

f=*~

is parallel to the e“ line, and is drawn through the point f=:5, w=0.
The reflexions of these lines in the line f=1 give us the e“ and 2e~“ lines,
while a line drawn through f==‘5, w=0, parallel to the last two, gives

us ——
45, The Semi-logarithmic Graph of Sinh w.—Any point on this curve
is found by reading off the values of a and = from the appropriate lines

for a chosen value of 7. Subtract the latter from the former numerically
and mark the result on the vertical scale through uw. In this way the
curve can be readily drawn.

46. The Cosh w Curve.—This is conveniently drawn at the same time
as the sinh w curve, the values being added. Both curves are asymptotic

to the a line.

47. The Graphs of Cosech w and Sech u.—These functions being the
reciprocals of those just traced, we have only to make the diagram
symmetrical about the line he 1 to obtain the two new curves, They
are asymptotic to the line 2e—

48. The Graphs of Tanh u ‘and Coth u.—These are drawn in from the
sinh w and cosh w curves; the vertical distances between these curves

176 REPORT—1898.

when set out above f=1 give the coth w curve, and when set out. below,
the tanh w curve.!

49. A figure constructed thus forms a check on more elaborate
numerical computation. It should be noticed that it can be drawn almost
entirely by graphical methods, the only numerical value required being
the number e.

It is obvious that the semi-logarithmic chart provides a short and easy
method of calculating the coordinates of catenaries of which cosh w (on
squared paper) is one.

On some Points in the Geometry of the Semi-logarithmic Graphs of the
Hyperbolic Functions.

50. If we write down the other hyperbolic functions of «w when
sinh w=a we find that the values of the six functions are identical with

Fic. 6.

those of wu’, where w’ is defined by sinh —— The six equations thus

obtained may be expressed by saying that any function of @ is equal to that
function of a’ which stands opposite to it in the table—

sinh cosech
cosh coth
tanh sech.

Thus (see fig. 6) if a straight line such as AA’ be drawn perpendicular
to the axis of w and C be the intersection of this line with any of the six
curves (in the figure with coth u); then if a straight line be drawn
parallel to the axis of w to cut the curve indicated in above table at the
point c (in this case cosh w) a vertical straight line through c will cut all

When w is small, put tanh w=u and coth w=".

ON THE USE OF LOGARITHMIC COORDINATES. Anz)

the curves in values for f which are equal, each to each, to the inter-
sections on the first straight line.

Thus on the diagram the figure Aa’ is a rectangle whose sides AA’,
aa' are bisected by the axis of wu, and the lines aA, bB, cC, a’ A’, 6'B’,
e'C’ are all equal and parallel.

This property would be of great value in the origination or verification
of tables of these functions.

If D be the intersection of the sinh and coth curves, it follows that
DD’d'd is a rectangle whose sides are parallel and perpendicular to the
axis of w.

If Q be the intersection of sinh w and cosech uv, Q must lie on the
axis of wu. It follows at once that EQE’ is a straight line perpendicular
to the axis of w.

51. For the point E we have

eh — et = a
whence et= 14/2,
e“= /2—1

Thus when w has the value given by
(w=°88 approximately),
sinh w=cosech w=1_
cosh w=coth w= VJ 2_
fA)

sech w=tanh uw.

a)

The lines w=2 and w=} are inserted in fig. 6. RR’ is divided into

four equal parts by E, Q, E’.
52. The value of w which makes cosh w=cosech w is given by

sinh 2u=2,
whence Gif o+ 7
eM / 5—2.
The value of wu is given by
2Mu=logio ( /5+-2);
and is approximately 0°72.
The value of cosh w is given by
2 cosh? w=cosh 2u4+1

=/d+1.
Thus
5+1
cosech w—=cosh w= a
all
sinh w=sech w= py pied
tanh w= Vv a 1

a

1898. N

178 REPORT—1898.

coth w= v a 1
53 When sinh w=2
Os=sK

and cosh w=/5

cosech u=}

sech w= —

tanh w=—

mS
| oy

and coth w=

to]

Sinh u/=} has the same values for the functions according to the
table in § 50.
On the figure we have
FK= /5, i.e., the vertical reading at F is /5.
GK=2

:
II
iE

The lines FG, HK, KH’, G’F’ are equal.
54. To find uw when sinh w=coth uw, we have

u=sinh w%

=log, (sinh w+ V7 sinh? w+ 1

V5+1 5+1
Mulog : +/ va

w=1-06 approximately.

whence

ConcLUSION.

55. It may be noticed that just as some equations are more suited to
plotting by means of semi-logarithmic coordinates than by logarithmic
coordinates, so advantage may be gained by having only one, or two, of
the axes in three dimensions graduated logarithmically.

The more frequent use of logarithmic geometry would tend to simplify
many theoretical investigations, and, apart from theory, the aid which the
method gives in computation seemed to be sufficient justification for the
publication of this paper.

In conclusion I wish to thank Professor J. J. Thomson for several
valuable suggestions.

Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. . 179

Seismological Investigations.—Third Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. G. J. Symons (Chairman), Dr. C. Davison and
Mr. Joun MILNE (Secretaries), Lord Ketvin, Professor W. G.
ApvamMs, Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. J. T. Borromury, Mr.
C. V. Boys, Sir F. J. BRaMwELL, Mr. M. Watton Brown, Pro-
fessor G. H. Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin, Major L. Darwiy,
Mr. G. F. Deacon, Dr. G. M. Dawson, Professor J. A. Ewine,
Professor C. G. Knott, Professor G. A. Lesour, Professor R.
MELDoLA, Professor J. PERRY, Professor J. H. Poyntine, Dr.
Isaac Roperts, and Professor H. H. Turner. Drawn up by
Secretary, JOHN MILNE.

CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. Progress made towards the Establishment of Karthquake-observing
Stations round the World. By JOHN MILNE. - : c - . 179

II. Notes on Special Earthquakes. By JOHN MILNE . - & ° . 185
Ill. Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded in Tokio, December 17, 1896, to
December 16,1897 . : F ; F : é : : g . 189
IV. Earthquakes recorded at Shide (Isle of Wight), Edinburgh, Bidstone, and
certain Stations in Hurope, with Discussion on the same. By JOHN
MILNE. + : : : : : 5 : : : : . 191
V. On Certain Characteristics of Earthquake Motion. By JOHN MILNE , 218
VI. Magnetometer Disturbances and Earthquakes. By JOHN MILNE. . 226
VII. Suboceanic Changes in Relation to Earthquakes. By JOHN MILNE . . 251
VIII. A Time Indicator, By JoHN MILNE - : » 255

IX. On the Civil Time employed Throughout the World. “By Joun MILNE » 255
X. Great Circle Distances and Chords of the Earth. By JOHN MILNE, » 256

XI. Certain Small Fractions of an Hour. By SHINOBU HIROTA . . . 257
XII. Harthquake Observations in Italy and Europe. By JOHN MILNE . . 258
XIU. Preliminary Examination of Photograms obtained with the Seismometer
in the Liverpool Observatory. By W. E. PLUMMER . é : . 272
XIV. A List of Reports relating to Earthquakes, published by the British
Association : : : : 5 - : . . : . 276

I. Progress made towards the Establishment of Larthquake-observing
Stations in various Parts of the World.

Ty the report for 1897 there will be found a copy of a circular inviting
co-operation in the establishment of a seismic survey of the world, which,
with the kind assistance of the Foreign, Colonial, and India Offices, was
forwarded to many countries and colonies. The result of these communi-
cations, together with private correspondence, has been to establish or
arrange for the establishment of instruments at twenty-two stations.

The following notes indicate the position we hold in regard to these
stations, and the direction in which further co-operation may be expected.

The instruments at Shide, in the Isle of Wight, are indicated as Nos. 1
and 2, but it is only No. 1 that is of the type recommended by this com-
mittee. No. 2 consists of a pair of horizontal pendulums writing on
smoked paper. Both were purchased by Government grants from the
Royal Society.

N 2

180 REPORT—1898.

1. Canada: Toronto. Meteorological Observatory.
Professor R. F. Stupart, Director.

The instrument (No. 3) reached this station during the meeting of the
British Association in August, 1897, when arrangements were made for
its installation in a small building outside the Magnetic Observatory. It
has already yielded several good seismograms, the most important being
that of a. West Indian earthquake on December 29. This and other
disturbances were also recorded in the Isle of Wight, and are described in
this report. Much trouble was occasioned by the frequency and magni-
tude of ‘tremor’ storms, especially on frosty nights. Although the
marked character of these was reduced by copious ventilation, Professor
Stupart writes me that with the hope of getting rid of them altogether
he intends to move the instrument inside the main building of the
observatory.

This instrument was provided by the Meteorological Observatory,
Toronto.

2. U.S.A.: Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University.—Professor E. C. PrcKERING.

This instrument (No. 4) was shipped from London in September,
1897. On April 13, 1898, Professor Pickering wrote that the instrument,
‘which was purchased by the Harvard University, is to be shipped to their
observatory in Peru.

3. India: Madras. Nungumbaukum. The Astronomical Observatory.
Dr. Micnin Smiru.

This instrument (No. 5), after being tested in the Isle of Wight, was
delivered at the India Stores in October, 1897. It is now in Madras.
It was provided by the Indian Government.

‘4. Spain: Cadiz. San Fernando. Instituto y Observatorio de Marina.
; Captain J. VINIEGRA.

For this instrument (No. 6) the thanks of our committee are due to
Mr. R. K. Gray, at whose expense it was constructed. It was shipped in
December, 1897, and Captain Viniegra has sent a sample of its records,
together with a plan of the observatory, showing the position in which it
is installed.

5. US.A.: Philadelphia, Penn. Strathmore College.
Professor S. J. CUNNINGHAM.

This instrument (No. 7) was constructed at the expense of Mr. Joseph
Wharton, 206 Philadelphia Bank Building, Philadelphia, and presented
by him to the above institution.

It was shipped from here in November, 1897.

Mr. Wharton very kindly offers further co-operation in the work of
this committee.

Professor Cunningham has written describing the installation.

6. Japan: Tokio. Imperial University.—Dr. F. Omori.

In a despatch, dated November 22, 1897, Her Majesty’s Minister, Sir
Ernest Satow, has the honour to inform Lord Salisbury that he communicated
with the Japanese Government respecting our circular to which a reply

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 181

was received from Baron Nishi to the effect that the authorities concerned
have decided to co-operate with the British Association.
The instrument (No. 8) was shipped in February, 1897.

7. England: Surrey. Richmond, Kew Observatory.—Dr. CHARLES CHREE, J.R.S,

The instrument (No. 9) was delivered on March 8, 1898. It was pur-
chased by the Kew Committee, and is now in operation.

8. Canada: British Columbia, Victoria.—E. Barnis Rewp.

The instrument (No. 10) was sent on March 21, 1898, to the care of
Professor Stupart, who will see to its installation. It was paid for by
means of the British Association grant given in Toronto, 1897.

9. Java: Batavia. Magnetisch en Meteorolgisch Observatorium.
J. P. VAN DER Srox, Director.

This instrument (No. 11) was shipped May 1, 1897. It was purchased
by the Dutch Government.

10. Africa: Cape Town. The Observatory.—D. Giut, F.RS., Director.

On March 19, 1897, Dr. Gill placed our circular before the Admiralty
recommending that co-operation be granted. He also pointed out to the
Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty that the British Association
Committee undertook the labour and cost of discussing results. The
instrument (No. 21) was purchased by Her Majesty’s Government.

11. South America: Argentina. Cordova. The Observatory.
W. G. Davis, Director.
In Nevember last, after showing Mr. Davis seismograms, he visited Mr.

Munro’s workshop, where he ordered an instrument. This instrument
(No. 14) was shipped from London on May 13, 1898.

12. India: Bombay. Colaba. The Magnetic and Meteorological Obscrvatory.
N. A. F. Moos, Director.

The orders for instruments to be established at Bombay and Calcutta
originated through a letter of recommendation from the Government of

India, Department of Revenue and Agriculture, dated October 7, 1897,
addressed to Her Majesty’s Secretary of State for India.

13. India: Calcutta. Alipore. Meteorological Observatory.
(See Note relating to the Bombay Instrument.)

These instruments (Nos. 12 and 13), which were purchased by the
Indian Government, were delivered at the India Stores on April 27, 1898.

14, Mauritius: Royal Alfred Observatory —tT: F. Cuaxton, Director.

On April 29, 1897, Mr. Claxton wrote that if our committee were
prepared to grant 25/. towards an instrument he might spare 25/. from the
Government Grant for 1898. Mr. Claxton’s offer was accepted, and the
instrument (No. 17) was despatched in July, 1898.

182 REPORT—1898.

15. New Zealand: Wellington.Sir James Hector, F.R.S.

Sir James Hector referred our circular to the New Zealand Govern-
ment, who agreed to ask Parliament for the necessary grant to purchase
instruments. On July 30, 1897, Sir James ordered two instruments
(Nos. 16 and 20). The former of these was despatched in June, and the
latter was despatched on August 31, 1898.

16. Egypt: Cairo. Abbasich. The Observatory.

Mr. W. J. Wilson, Inspector-General of Irrigation for Upper Egypt,
forwarded to the Ministry of Public Instruction our circular, with the
result that H.E. Yacoub Artin Pasha, Under-Secretary of State for
Public Instruction, directed that an instrument should be supplied to the
above observatory. This (No. 22) will be despatched in September, 1898.

17. Scotland, Paisley. The Coats Observatory.

The Rev. Andrew Henderson, Chairman of the Coats Observatory
Committee, kindly brought our circular to the notice of that body, with
the result that an instrument (No. 18) was ordered on February 21, 1898.
It was sent to Paisley in July.

18. Mexico.

On May 25 C. Romero, Esq., Acting Chargé d’Affaires at the Mexican
Legation, 87 Cromwell Road, London, wrote the Chairman of our com-
mittee that he was carrying out instructions received from the Minister
of Encouragement (Fomento) of the Mexican Government to purchase
a horizontal pendulum. This instrument (No. 19) was despatched on
August 15.

19. Syria; Beyrout. Protestant College.—Professor R. H. West, Director.

On the recommendation of Professor R. H. West an instrument
(No. 15) was ordered for the observatory at the above college. It was
despatched in June, 1898. Professor West says that all records will be
at our disposal.

20. U.S.A.: Washington, D.C. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
W. W. Dorrrexp, Superintendent.
Mr. Dutftield wrote on July 16, 1897, that to take up the work proposed
would need special authorisation and consequent provision of means. He
would send copies of our circular to the United States Naval Observatory,

Dr. J. G. Porter, Director of the Cincinnati Observatory, and to the
Director of the Lick Observatory.

21. U.S.A.: Washington, D.C. US. Naval Observatory.
Professor WM. HARKNESS.

On July 19, 1897, Professor Harkness wrote saying that he hoped in
the not distant future conditions may present themselves enabling him to
co-operate.

22. S.A.: Colombia, Bogota.

A despatch, dated August 12, 1897, from Montagu Villiers, Esq.,
British Vice-Consul at Bogota, to the Marquis of Salisbury stated that

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 183

the Director of the National Observatory at Bogota hoped before long to
purchase the necessary instrument and co-operate in the work of our
committee.

23. Australia: Sydney. The Observatory.—H. C. RussetL, F.R.S., Director.

Mr. Russell regretted that, owing to want of funds, he was unable to
take a share in the work. He will let us know whether his own pendulum
is of any use.

24. China: Shanghai. Zikawei Observatory.—L. FRoc, S.J.

~ On April 5, 1897, Father Froc wrote regretting that he had neither
the means nor the facility to establish an instrument at Zikawei, at which
place, he states, the most severe shocks originating in Japan are not
experienced.

25. Malta: Gozo. The College.—Rev. Jamns Scorzs, S.J,

Father Scoles, writing from Beaumont College, Old Windsor, said :
‘No doubt some interesting results would be obtained in Malta, but in the
College there no one has sufficient leisure to attend to such a work, nor
are there any funds available.’

26. Spain: Cadiz—W. G. FORSTER.

Mr. Forster would like an instrument were he at a more favourably
placed station, but not where he is.

27. Brazil: Rio de Janeiro. The Observatory —TuxE DIRECTOR.

On April 20, 1897, the Director of this observatory wrote that he had
received through Her Majesty’s Minister, Sir Edmund Constantine
Henry, the circular issued by this committee. Last June a similar pro-
posal had been received from Dr. Gerland, of Strassburg, to which he had
replied favourably. Because nothing further had been heard from Dr.
Gerland, the observatory at Rio was prepared to undertake the observa-
tions we proposed. The letter concludes with instructions respecting
payment for the instrument.

On Jan. 20, 1898, the Fereign Office forwarded to me the translation
of a note which Her Majesty’s Minister at Rio de Janeiro had received
from the Brazilian Government, from which it appears that they are not
disposed to co-operate in the scientific observations indicated by this
committee.

28. Hawaii: Honolulu—W. J. Kenny, Her Majesty's Acting Commissioner and
Consul-General.

Shortly after the death of Commissioner Hawes, Mr. T. R. Walker,
Acting British Consul-General, placed our circular before Professor W. D.
Alexander, who wrote on July 16, 1897, that the proposed station would
have to be established in connection with the Hawaiian weather service
or at Oahu College, but at present he did not think that the necessary .
funds were available. The subject should be taken into consideration by
the next legislature.

On December 27 Commissioner W. J. Kenny wrote suggesting that
seismological investigations be taken up in Hawaii, and if I could send a
seismograph he would see to its installation and working.

184 i REPORT—1898. ;

29, Physikalisches Central Observatorium.—Admiral Ryxatcunrr. Wass,-Ostr.,
23 Linci Haus No. 2, 12/24, February, 1898. St. Petersburg.

The Russian Meteorological Office think of establishing two instru-
ments of the type recommended by the Seismological Committee of the
British Association. It would, however, be first necessary to obtain the
opinion of the directors of observatories where the instruments might
be installed. Copies of instructions respecting the working of the instru-
ments were required.

Three copies of instructions were forwarded to St. Petersburg on
March 3, 1898.

80. Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien. March 5, 1898.

The earthquake commission of the above Academy inquired respecting
the cost of a seismometer.

I replied stating the price of instrument and its accessories, gave the
address of the maker, and sent the Toronto Report for 1897.

31. Australia: Melbourne. The Observatory.—P. Baraccui, Esq.

The Director of the above observatory wrote on February 1, 1898, in
reply to the circular issued by our committee that he had applied to the
Victorian Government to take part in our work, and had laid the matter
before Section A of the Australian Association for the Advancement of
Science. It is hoped that co-operation may be extended to us in the
early future.

The following abstract of a report of the Seismological Committee, of
the Australian Society for the Advancement of Science is taken from
‘Symons’ Monthly Meteorological Magazine,’ March 1898, p. 26 :—

‘ Sersmological Commuttee.

‘This report was presented by the Secretary, Mr. George Hogben, M.A.,
of Timaru, New Zealand, and stated that the most interesting result ‘of
the labours of the observers was the fact, based upon rough calculations,
that the great South Australian earthquake of May 10, 1897, proceeded
from a line parallel to the coast near Beachport and Kingston, and
was possibly due to a sliding of one part of the crust upon another, such
as forms what is called in geology a “fault.” This was probably deep, but
the later and slighter shocks were surface ones, caused by readjustments
of the immediate crust. The subject was still under investigation by the
Secretary. But Mr. Hogben pointed out that it was as part of a world-
system of seismological observations that the work of the Committee might
be most useful. An international seismological committee had been set
up, embracing all the ablest workers in every part of the world, and in
co-operation with that committee were committees of the British Associa-
tion and of the Royal Society. They desire especially to be able to track
the microseismic vibrations or minute earthquake waves, which travelled
from the sources of disturbance all round the earth’s surface, or it might
be right through the solid mass of our world (if it is solid). The speed
of these finer waves was many times greater than that of the larger waves
felt by us, reaching a velocity as great as 12 miles per second, or even
more. For the purpose of observing them the international committee
had agreed upon a certain type of instrument—the horizontal pendulum—

ee ———

i

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 185

to be used by all stations alike, as it was important that instruments of
the same kind and of the same degree of sensitiveness should be employed
for purposes of comparison.’

32. Norway: Hammerfest.

Dr. F. Nansen very kindly offered his co-operation in an endeavour to
establish the station ‘ farthest north.’

38. Ireland : Dublin.

Professor W. F. Barrett is actively endeavouring to establish a station
in Ireland, towards which I understand that Lord Ardilaun has given
substantial support.

It is interesting to note that this co-operation, and that referred to in
notes (4) and (5), followed lectures bearing on a seismic survey of the
world

II. Notes on Special Earthquakes.
34. Foreign, Colonial, and Indian Offices.

I was able to inform the Foreign and Colonial Offices that the official
notification stating that there had been interruption of two West Indian
cables connecting us with Venezuela on December 31 probably referred
to the effects of a submarine earthquake, which happened at 11.30 a.m. on
December 29 (see p. 214). I received letters of thanks for the information,
the correctness of which was not confirmed until March 1.

From the Foreign, Colonial, and Indian Offices I have received many
communications relating to the establishment of instruments abroad and
other matters connected with the work of this committee. These are
referred to under other sections.

35. Correspondence respecting Earthquakes in the West Indies.

Mr. Secretary Chamberlain directed that the following two despatches
should be sent to me, adding that if I were disposed to interest myself in
the matter he would take steps to obtain information on points about
which it might be deemed worth while to make inquiry. The first
despatch is from the Governor of the Leeward Islands, and the second
from the Administrator of Montserrat :—

Springfield House, St. Kitts :
February 28, 1898.

Si1r,—I have the honour to transmit to you the duplicate of a despatch
from the Commissioner of Montserrat reporting that several severe shocks
of earthquake have recently occurred in that island, which have caused
considerable damage to buildings, although it does not appear that any
lives have been sacrificed.

2. Mr. Baynes remarks in paragraph 5 of his despatch that these
shocks of earthquake have been of frequent occurrence since the floods of
November, 1896 ; a fact to which I have had occasion to refer in previous
correspondence.

186 REPORT—1898,

3. What has caused this to be the case I am not prepared to say ; but
I agree with Mr. Baynes that the subject is one of peculiar interest, and
I should be glad if it could form the subject of scientific investigation.
I have, &e.,
F. FLEemine.
The Right Hon, JoSsEPH CHAMBERLAIN, M_.P., P.C.

Commissioner’s Office, Montserrat :
February 21, 1898.

Str,—On Tuesday, the 15th instant, severe shocks of earthquake
occurred in this island, which have since been followed by shocks of
nearly equal severity, and have caused considerable damage to buildings.

2. The principal shock was at 11.16 a.m. on Tuesday, and was the
most severe I have ever experienced. This was followed by shocks so
numerous as to seem almost continuous until 3.45 p.m., when there was
one of equal severity but shorter duration ; and during the rest of the day
and the following night numerous shocks continued to be felt. On Friday,
at 7 Am. and 4.25 p.m., and on Sunday, ‘at 9.20 a.m., very severe shocks
occurred, and in the intervals minor shocks have been of constant
occurrence.

3. The windmill tower at Gage’s Estate has been seriously damaged,
and the chimneys on the Grove, Dagenham’s, Weeke’s, Gage’s, Paradise,
and White’s Estates have sustained injury. One house at Gage’s has
been so much damaged as to be made uninhabitable, and several houses
in various localities have been injured. St. George’s Church and St.
Anthony’s Church and Rectory have also sustained some damage.

4, The only serious damage to any Government building has been at
the Poor House, where the walls of a small detached building have been
so seriously damaged that it has been necessary to remove the inmates.
There are cracks in the walls of the Court House and Treasury, but these
appear to be superficial. On the public roads, especially those of recent
construction, large quantities of earth and boulders have been shaken
from the cliffs on to the roadway, but no further damage is reported.
Several breaks in the water pipes supplying the town occurred through
landslips in the ravines through which the pipe track passes, but these
injuries were at once repaired.

5. These shocks of earthquake have been of frequent occurrence since
the flood of November, 1896, and in my letter of May 3 last I gave some
account of them up to that date. Of late they have greatly increased in
severity. Some months ago a number of shocks occurred in Guadeloupe,
but I have no recent information from that island. With this exception
they have not been felt in the neighbouring islands. They would there-
fore appear to be of local origin, and some disturbance of the volcanic
springs in Gage’s Mountain has evidently taken place. The subject is one
of peculiar interest, and seems to be well deserving of scientific investi-
gation.

I have, &c.,
Epwarp BAyngEs,
Commissioner.
His Excellency Sir F. FLEMING, K.C.M.G.

The following two letters bearing on the same subject are also of
interest :—

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 187

Richmond Hill, Montserrat, West Indies:
March 2, 1898.

Dear S1r,—I beg to inform you that since the flood of November 29,
1896, which caused great injury to life and property in this island,
innumerable shocks of earthquake have been experienced.

There are in this island several craters and sulphur springs, and there
are also a few hot-water springs, all of which go to prove that the
volcanoes here are by no means extinct, and it is thought by some per-
sons that the mouth of one of the numerous craters has been filled up by
a landslip caused by the above-mentioned flood, on the night of which
there were several shocks of earthquake—the first experienced in Mont-
serrat for a great number of years. It is possible that the filling up of
this crater has been the cause of all the earthquakes we have been feeling
here lately.

Since November 1896 there have been experienced at least one
_ thousand shocks of earthquake.

The most severe shocks took place on the following dates :—November
29, 1896 ; April 22, 24, 25 and 29, 1897 ; July 28, 1897 ; December 4,
1897 ; February 15, 18 and 20, 1898. Those on February 15 exceeded
all the others in point of severity. Some persons state that there were
eighty-one shocks that day, of which forty-one were felt in three hours.

The shock on April 29, 1897, though one of the longest, was felt
throughout this portion of the West Indies, but was of slight force, and,
notwithstanding its very long duration, did no injury here, though a great
deal of damage was done at Pointe-a-Pitre, in the neighbouring French
island of Guadeloupe.

All the other earthquakes have been entirely local, having not even
been noticed at Antigua, an island about thirty miles away, though those
in April were felt at the isolated rock of Redonda, a few miles off the
north coast of this island.

Only the most severe earthquakes have been mentioned above ; but
scarcely a day passes without our feeling a few shocks, and excluding
* February 15 as many as thirty shocks have been felt in one day.

During the last month or two the smell of sulphur from the craters
has been very strong and disagreeable, silver tarnishing in town very
easily.

All the earthquakes seem to have had the same direction, viz., from
*Gage’s’ Mountain, where the Soufritre is located (see Admiralty Chart
of Montserrat), with the exception of that of April 29, which appeared to
come from the direction of Guadeloupe, viz., the south.

I am thankful to say that the shocks are usually of very short
duration, averaging four or five seconds.

Some of the oldest inhabitants of the island affirm that the worst
shock, on February 15 (11.16 a.m.), was just as severe as the great earth-
quake of 1843, but being of shorter duration did not do so much damage.

Several buildings have been very badly damaged. Innumerable
cracks have appeared in nearly every stone building in the island,
including the Court Hall and the churches.

These shocks of earthquake, which have been continually felt for the
last sixteen months (i.e. since November 1896), are causing great anxiety
among the inhabitants, and it is not known but that they may culminate
either in a volcanic eruption or the numerous stone buildings, weakened

188 REPORT—1898.

as they already are by these continual shocks, must in course of time be
thrown to the ground unless the earthquakes cease.

The whole subject seems well deserving of scientific investigation.
The Government of the island is in a very bad financial state, and could
not afford any pecuniary aid to an investigation, though it would doubt-
less give as much encouragement as possible to the investigators ; but
probably in the interests of science your committee or some other scien-
tific society would bear the expense of making a scientific investigation
which would be most interesting to science in general.

Official reports in connection with the recent earthquakes have
doubtless been sent to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and I
would suggest your communicating with the Colonial Office in considering
the question ; but if your Society cannot send out a scientist I should be
glad if the substance of this letter could be published in the English
newspapers, and perhaps some scientist would take the matter up.

I am, dear Sir, yours faithfully,
H. pe Courcy HaAmizton,
Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute.

JOHN MILNE, Esq., Secretary, Seismological Investigation Committee, London.

Extract from Letter of Joseph Sturge, Esq., Wheeley’s Road, Birmingham,
dated February 3, 1898.

‘JT think you may be glad to know of a somewhat curious phenomenon
that has taken place in a small island in the West Indies, Montserrat,
with which I am connected.

‘The island is the tip of a submarine mountain : it is 12 miles long by
7 wide, and 3,000 feet high. The sea is 2,000 fathoms deep all round
the island. There are sulphureous springs of hot water which emit
vapour, but no more active volcanic action, and for forty years there have
been no serious earthquakes and very few noticeable ones.

‘On November 29, 1896, there was an extraordinary rain-storm, 20
inches of rain falling in the centre of the island in about twelve hours.
Since that time the island has been subject to constantly recurring slight
shocks of earthquake. They come almost every day, and sometimes
several ina day. They do not do much harm, but keep people more or
less in a state of alarm, and the curious problem is what happened on the
day of the rain-storm that set the earthquakes going.

‘The sulphur springs have emitted a much more copious volume of gas
since the change, so that silver now goes black three miles off.

‘It may be worth while to mention that in 1880 there was a similar
flood in the neighbouring island of St. Kitts, and that the same night
there was a volcanic disturbance in Dominica (150 miles from St. Kitts),
and a boiling lake came into existence among the mountains there.’

On April 15 Mr. Sturge writes that the earthquakes increased in
frequency and violence until the end of February. Almost all stone
buildings were more or less injured. Since then there has been a great
drought, coincidently with which the shocks have almost entirely ceased.
Js this a propter hoc or only a post hoc ?

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 189

Ill.— Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded by a Gray-Milne Seismograph at the Central
Meteorological Observatory, Tokio, December 17, 1897, to January 27, 1898.
(Continuation of Catalogue commencing in the British Association Report, 1886.

Maximum Maximum
Period and | Period and

a a Amplitude of i te of
we} z Be | ‘ é Horizontal ertica: 4
No. | 3 | Day Time = Direction Motion Wotion. Bios of
I EI
A
secs.| mm. | secs. | mm.
—————————_ —————————————Ee anna
1896.
H. M. 8. M.S.
1,816| XII. | 17 117 25 A.M. |0 47] S.S.E., N.N.W. | 0:2 1:9 02 04 quick
sae) yy 17 6 14 06 P.M. | — — — = = = slight
1,818 9 20 5 03 38 a.M. | — — — == — = Ps
1,819 me 29 7 06 06 AM. | — — = = 7 3 %
1897.
1,220) I 8 5 57 25 AM. | — — — — = +. slight
HGH | 4, 9 9 27 18 a. | — = cis ww Se = *
1,892] ,, 13 | 6 3939 am. | — = as aes 258 ae cf
1,823 Er 16 10 58 52 A.M. | -- — — 7 = = A
1,824) » 7 0 49 28 aM. |3 32) N.E.,S.W. 07 40 02 | 03 | clocks stopped,
slow
1,825] 5, 17 5 36 36 A.M. | — — == = = = slight
1,826) 5 18 9 27 03 P.M. | — — — — pes = a
1,827} 5 20 10 46 22 A.M. | — — —_ = — = Z
1,828] 5; 23 212 42 pm. | — — — ae = Pam -
1,829; ,; 25 1 48 55 pM. | — — —- — = ‘= ie
1,830) ,, 27 3 46 38 PM. | — — = = a ae <
1832)| II. 1 10 33 35 P.M. | — — — = — — Me
1,832] ,, 4 213 46 P.M. | — — = = a3 pa F
1,833] ,, 4 3 51 56 P.M. | — — = = 2% 3
1,834] 4, 7 4 38 33 P.M. |5 47) N.W.,S.E. O7 17 —_ _ weak, slow
1,835) ,, 8 5 25 17 AM. | — = — = as a2) Fe
1,836| ,, 8 8 07 51 am. | — = Bie a SEN a i
1,837] 5, 9 10 1 35 pM. | — — = Aa = 2, cS =
1,838) ,, 11 0 5218 am. | — = = = = Ss es
1,839) ,; 11 7 2412 AM. | — — — — — = is
1,840} ,, 13 21911 am. | — = = — pas aé ie
y 1,841) ,, 17 9 13 56 p.m. | — = = ate = an Ka
1,842) ,, 18 8°11 30 P.M. | — — 2 = = = a
1,843] ,, 20 9 52 28 P.M. | — — —_ = = = -
1,844] ,, 21 0 0417 P.M. | — — — = _— a ne
. 1,845| 28 1 14 58 A.M. |2 22) N.N.W.,S.S.E. | 14 3H PaO |i 0s2 i
; 1,846] Ill.| 5 | 114 20 pm. | — = a aa LEP Fas s
1,847) ,, 5 5 27 41 P.M. |0 37 8.W., N.E. 0:2 06 O1 O1 quick
1,848] ,, 6 | 53612 am. | — = — — Sse | slight
1,849} ,, 7 3 22 46 p.m. | — — — = ms x2 cs
1,850] ,, 13 | 10 14 55 a.m. | — = = = Re, A -
1,851} 5, | 14 | 206 25 pm. | — = BSW | BB &
1,852) ,, 17 6 13 58 A.M. | — _ — = = pas >
4 1,853] ,, 20 5 32 34 aM. | — — ae = = — e
1,854] 5; 26 | 21157 am. | — = = ee El wt 2 3
1,855] 5 27 | 74926 pm. | — = ae a BES apes
1,856] 30 | 916 41 pm. | — = 2 a =| ee ‘9
1,857] IV. 3 8 30 45 am. | — = = nat BE | ab s
1,858), 4 | 3 32 38 am. | — = a3 uD Ss oo ss
7 1,859 ” 13 3 47 52 AM _ —_ — —, — = n
1,860) ,, 16 0 13 37 a.m. | — = = a BE ag eae a
| 1,861 ” 16 3 42 08 A.M. | — — — = = Ss: Fs
1,862] ,, 24 | 9 48 49 PM. | — = = = BR is
1,863 ” 27 10 31 54 P.M. — _ — = —e a os
1,864 ” 30 403 06 P.M —— _ — —e — ies “
1,865 3 4 42 59 AM. | — — = = mt ae ue
‘ 1,866 ” 3 6 29 39 A.M. | — —_ — — A nd ie
1,867] ,, 4 | 11 36 47 pM. | — = 33 ak ae a ei
1,868 ” 5 8 57 21 P.M. | — —_— = = Fa, — at
y 1,869) ,, 6 | 6 46 35 am. | — -- La Se Ee het e
1,870 ” 6 7 34 0 AM = — — = a Sy i
‘ Beri) 6 | 94051 4m. | — = AN RS Var, ° |
1,872 ” 6 7 53 43 PM. | — —s = = = 25 a
1,873| 5, 7 | 25915 am. | — — ae ee i |
1,874! ,, 9 1110109 am | — — oe = ae = Ee

190 REPORT—1898.
CATALOGUE OF EARTHQUAKES—continued.
: Maximum Maximum
Period and | Period and
et a Amplitude of |Amplitude of
2 : s a. Horizontal Vertical Nature of
No. 8 | Day Time S Direction Motion Motion Shock
=| 2)
A
secs. | mm. |secs. | mm.
H. M.S. M.S.
1,875| V. 12 3 30 11 A.M. | — _ = _ = _ slight
1,876] , | 12 | 61936 pw. | — - = [= f= :
1,877| » 13 2 28 59 pM. | — _ _— — — _ quick
L378 18 | 1009 49 am. | — _ — — — _ slight
1,879 7 19 6 25 13 aM. | — _— = = >= — »
1880!) us 23 923 0 PM. |3 40) N.W., S.E. 157, 17 _ _ slow
1,881 ” 27 | 10 25 32 a.m. | — — = = _ - slight
1,882] VI ll 9 59 31 am. | —’ _ _— _ — _ 5
1,883 ” 13 11 24 14 A.M. | — — => = = — »
1,884] ,, 18 1 23 40 =M. | — —_ = = — _ ”
1,885} , 19 2 03 43 A.M. | — _ = = — _— ”
1,886 ” 22 12218 pm. | — _ = = — _- ”
1,887} _,, 27 5 48 23 am. |1 12) S.E., N.W. sli}ght sli ght quick
1,888| VII. 8 11 33 44 P.M. | — — = = —— slight
1,889] ,, 21 | 101252 pu. | — — — — —-|— *
1,890 <4 22 9 54 53 a.m. | — _ = — — _ ”
1,891 9 22 6 31 44 p.m, |4 34] W.S.W.,E.N.E. | 1:3 73 0-2 03 slow, weak
1,892] ,, 22 6 50 57 pM. | — — — — —|— slight
1,893| ,, 28 3 30 50 pM. | — — — — —|— a
1,894| ,, 29 6 3459 am. | — = = —_ —-}|— =
1,895] ,, 29 6 57 46 a.m. | — _ _ _ — _ »
1,896 = 29 10 31 54 AM. | — _ — — = = ”
1897) 5,, 29 10 44 50 p.m. |1 50) N.N.W.,S.S.E 07 07 slight -
1,898 OF 31 6 51 30 am. | — _ = _ —_ _ ”
1,899 | VIII. 2 2 02 47 a.m. | — _ — = _— _- »
1,900 = 4 10 19 22 p.m. | — _ — — =< — »
abt.
G01 ,, 5 912 23 a.m. |7 0 _ _— — _ _ slow, weak
1:902|'' ,, 5 929 22 am. | — — — = — | — slight
1,903 3 5 9 45 51 A.M. | — = = —= = po ”
1,904 - 5 10 21 09 a.m. | — _ _ _ _ _ =
1,905 Bs 5 10 44 23 aM. | — — — — — _— »
1,906 5 5 11 31 04 a.m. | — == = — — — ”
1,907 5 420 40 pM. | — _ _ —_ _— _ S
1,908 a 5 6 54 42 PM. | — = = = cs 3 ”
1,909 is 6 3 59 30 AM. | — _ _- _ _ _ ”
LO, ug 6 415 39 am. | — _ _ — — _ a
1,911 4 6 8 48 57 A.M. | — = =e = = a ”
1,912] ° ,, Soi) 237009: Aaa a) — — _— = —-|]— *
1,913 4 8 11 55 36 a.m. | — = — = os oS »
1,914| ,, 8 6 28 46 A.M. | — _ _ — = = »
OTS, sy 12 | 10 51 04 am. | — _ = ~ _ _ »
1,916] ,, 16 | 1148 01 am. | — _ — _ —-|—- os
VOLTA” Gs 16 | 453 33 pm. |3 0| N.N.W., ESE, | 10 3 a slow, weak
1,918] , | 16 | 5 36 25 pM. | — = Se lee slight
1,919] ,, 16 6 11 35 pm. | — a = zk = r -
1,920/ ,, 18 | 11 55 27 am. | — = a as eS a= :
1,921 ae 21 0 28 16 AM. | — _ _— _ _ _ »
1,922] ,, 21 6 29 28 am. | — —_ — _— a =
1,923 3 22 0 23 58 A.M. | — _ = — = i »
1,924 25 25 5 14 33 AM. | — _ — — == == »
1,925] ,, 27 | 108 46 am. | — _ — — —-|—- =
1,926 a 27 6 19 20 A.M. | — _ _ == == — ”
LT gy 27 8 46 19 AM. | — _— — _ - _ »
1,928) ,, 28 402_0 PM. | — _ = = — = 2
1,929| Ix 8 | 11 44 36 am. |1 15) N.N.E., SSW. | 08 06 slig} ht quick, weak
1,930 2% 11 14013 PM. | — — _— _— _ — slight
1,931] ,, 21 9 02 12 A.M. | — = = = Te = A
1,932; ,, | 23 | 6 27 03 am. | — _ —~/—-]—-]-—
1,933{ ,, 26 95918 PM. | — _ = — = = ae
1,934) X. 2 9 45 19 P.M. |3 25) W.S.W., E.N.E. at 1:8 0-4 0-2 quick, weak
1,935) ,, 7 140 02 pm. | — _ — _ _ _ slight
1,986] ,, 13 | 516 57 pw. | — = — = _ — 5
1,937} 5, 15 | 10 57 47 pm. | — — _— _ = = ”
1,938) , | 17 | 75405 pm. | — = — =e | = of 3
1,939 “9 20 3 01 18 P.M. |2 0 S.E., N.W. 03 1:0 0:2 0-3 weak, quick
1,940 °° 25 10 11.10 A.M. |0 50} N.N.W., S.S.E. | 02 05 _— — quick
1,941) ,, 26 | 1018 39 p.m. | — — _ _— —{- slight
1,942! XI. 2 1 42 26 am. | — — _ _ -/i- »

teeta ar i

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 191

CATALOGUE OF EABTHQUAKES—continued.

ee ee EERE EEINCEISSSSIN SEES

Maximum | Maximum
Period and | Period and

a a Amplitude of |Amplitude of

= : 3S be i Horizontal Vertical Nature of
No.| co | Day Time ¢ Direction Motion. Motion Shock

| 5

A
secs. | mm. | secs, | mm.
H. M.S. M.S A
1,943} XI. 5 6 44 11 aM. | — — — — — — slight
1,944] ,, 9 9 39 28 AM. | — _ _ - _ — ”
1,945) ,, 11 5 29 53 am. | — _ _ _ _ _ a
1,946) ,, 13 3 06 36 A.M. | — > = = _ _ »
1,947| ,, 13 6 16 24 A.M. | — _ —= _ — = ”
1948| ,, 14 913 43 AM. | — = = _ =— = ”
1,949] ,, 15 6 06 39 AM. | — _ _ _ _— _ #
1,950| ,, 16 8 03 16 AM. | — _ — _ _ = ”
O61 | 19 | 10 16 22 AM. | — — — — —|— x
1,952| ,, 20 3 05 01 AM. | — _ _ _ — _ *”
1,953] ,, 22 | 10 04 36 A.M. | — _ _ _ —_ _ 39
1,954] ,, 23 5 56 54 pM. | — _— — — — | — a
1,955| ,, 24 9 06 54 AM. | — — — — —) || = S
1,956; ,, 27 0 12 56 AM. | — —_ — —_ _ _ +
1,957 | XII. 2 | 112315 pm. | — _ — _— _— _ BS
1,958] ,, 3 924 0am. | — — = = _ = »
959) ,, 4 918 10 a.m. |1 14] SS.W.,N.N.E. | 08 05 _ — quick
1,960) ,, 5 8 08 21 A.M. | — _ _ _ — a slight
A1,961| ,, 6 2-03 45 A.M. | — _ —_ —_ —— — of
1,962| ,, 7 5-25 31 P.M. | — _— _ _ — _ =a
1,963; ,, 8 56 23 11 P.M. | — _ — _ _— _— ie
1,964; ,, 10 8 04 42 pM. | — — —_ — _ — =
1,965; ,, 12 6 40 49 A.M. | — _— = _— _ _— id
1,966; ,, 13 10 57 57 P.M. | — _— _— —_ _- _— a
1,967) ,, 16 8 47 43 P.M. | — — — _ _ _— a
1,968; ,, 17 9 26 19 P.M. | — _ —_ —_ —_— _— if
1,969; ,, 19 3.16 26 A.M. | — — _ _— — _ =
1,970! ,, 19 1 21 26 p.m. | — —_ = — —|— ys
OTL | *y 21 5 14 41 aM. | — _ _ — _— — =
1,972) ,, 23 3 36 11 AM. | — _— —_ _— _ —_ =
1,973| , 23 8 45 53 AM. | — —_ —_ — _ _— x
1,974| ,, 23 0 26 04 P.M. | — _— — _— — — a
1,975) -,, 95 | 1 03:27) Pw, | — = = = = |S
1,976| ,, 24 3 36 26 PM. | — _ — — -- _ a
ir 26 4 41 25 P.M. |3 20 S.E., N.W. 12 14 _— _— weak, slow
1,978) ,, 31 | 11 6214 PM] — — — _— — _ slight
1898.

1,979; I. 5 5 21 01 pM. | — _ —_ — — {| — =
1,980) ,, 13 8 16 22 am. | — _ — — — — i
gst} ,, 14 30 — — — — _—

TV.—EARTHQUAKES RECORDED AT SHIDE, AND ALSO AT OTHER STATIONS.

Earthquakes recorded with a Milne Horizontal Pendulum at Shide, Isle of Wight,
1897-98. The time used is Greenwich mean (civil) time. Midnight =24 or 0
hours. P.T.s=preliminary tremors. Duration means the interval of time over
which movements continued.

An asterisk (*) indicates Earthquakes which are discussed separately, or of which
seismograms are reproduced.

No. | Date Time of Com- Remarks
mencement
1597.
H. M. S.
96* | Mar. 23 16 19 12 Small.
O7*"| May 96 22 44 20 33
98* + 9 | 23 50 88 | Large. Exact commencement lost. P.T.s at

least 3m. Duration 47m.

192

REPORT—1898.

EARTHQUAKES RECORDED AT SHIDE, ETC.—continued.

Time of Com-
mencement

iio 20
Sor9 48 45

4 56 44
9 34 22

Remarks.

Moderate. P.T.s6m. Duration 36m.
Small.

Moderate.

Smali.

Large. P.T.s 17m. Duration 2h.

Large. Exact commencement lost. Period of

large waves 15s. Range 10mm.
Assam. P.T.s exceed 10m.
Small. Duration 10m.

Origin,

” ” 7m.

a » 10m. Three maxima.

* zs 16m.

” r ” 8m.

” ” 8m.
Ends 20h. 43m. 15s. Large. Origin, Albania.
Small. ;
Slight. Origin, Epirus.
Small.

Very large. P.T.s 7m. Two large maxima.

Moderate. Commencement lost.
Small.

Very large. P.T.s 30m. Duration over 3h.

Origin, Japan.
Slight. Ends 8h. 56m. 22s.
Small.

”

Moderate. P.T.s 2m, 44s.
” ” 4m.
Small.

Large. P.T.s 8m. Duration 40m.
PA » 8m. 4 38m.
- » 40m. + 2h. 56m.
E. of Borneo.

Large. P.T.s 43m. Duration 2h. 56m.
E. of Borneo.

Slight. Ends 13h: 20m. 20s.

Small.

”
Moderate. Duration 27m.
Small,
Large. P.T.s 41m. Duration 2h. 30m.
> 42m; + 2h. 33m.
Slight. Ends 3h. 28m. 29s.
Small.
About this time. Small.
aster Sao en Large.
Small. Duration 22m.

Origin,

Origin,

+, =~.

a Re

ee ee

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 193

EARTHQUAKES RECORDED AT SHIDH, ETC.—continued.

Time of Com-

mencement Remarks

No. Date

152* | Nov. 25 10 1 48 Large. Ends 12h.
153* | Dec. 11 10 4 31 | Small. Duration 45m.
154 Brie fe 10 20 58 Moderate.

155* » 17 | 1830 0 | Slight. Ends 10m. 30s. on 18th.
» 156* » 28 | 20 54 21 | Moderate. P.T.s 8m. Duration 24m. Observed
in Toronto at 20h. 24m. 37s.
157* » 29| 114048 | Large. P.T.s 19m. Duration 1h. 22m. 28s.

Origin, N. of Hayti. Observed in Toronto
1lh. 32m. 29s.

158* — — Dec. 29 to Jan. 1, slight tremors.
1898.

159 | Jan 3| 1441 2 | Small.

160 7 BA ealisaers Palla +

161* = 24 23 45 49 Large. P.T.s 16m. Duration 33m. Onsmoked
paper, NS component, 8m. 34s. Toronto,
13m. 30s. on the 25th.

162* “ 29 | 13 44 8 | Small. P.T.s5m. 47s. Duration 13m. 1s.

163* » 29] 15 525 | Large. P.T.s 9m. 30s. Duration 1h. 1m. Smoked
paper, NS component, 15h. 5m. 26s.

164* | Feb. 8 36 13 | End 9h. 19m. 28s. Record on smoked paper.

5

165 5 7 | 23 35 20 | Small.
166 » 8 1 47 32 fe
167 ” 8
168 “5 9
169 Be veh

22 BT 36 ” Duration 15m.
UB) &3 and three others within 54m.

Nots.—On February 5, about 9 A.M., when there were slight disturbances in
Catania, Catanzaro (Calabria), Rome, and Livorno, and February 18, between
16h. 30m. and 17h. 30m., when there were feeble movements recorded at Catania,
Ischia, Rocca di Papa, and Rome. The clock driving the photographic film at Shide
had stopped. On the 5th it will be observed that a record was obtained on smoked

paper.

Note on the Edinburgh Bifilar, Extracted from a Letter received from Mr.
Tuomas Huatu, of the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.

An inspection of the photograph shows but little trace of the diurnal

wave. Measurements of the change of position of the light spot for every
four hours throughout the month of March 1898 results in an irregular
curve, which apparently indicates a slight movement to the north from
noon to midnight, and to the south from midnight to noon. Maximum
and minimum thermometers are being established in the bifilar room.
_ _The mean of daily measurements between February 28 and April 2
indicate that the new movement of the light spot corresponds to a tilt of
174 of the frame. The photographs have not been subjected to the
examination necessary to show whether there is a lunar effect.

The instrument was first mounted in March 1894, at Carlton Hill,
and removed to its present site, on Blackford Hill, in October 1895. It
was mounted with photo-recording apparatus in August 1896. A second
pendulum purchased out of grant from the Scientific Research Committee
of sets - Society was mounted in May 1898.

. 0

194

REPORT—1898.

Movements recorded by a Darwin Bifilar Pendulum at the Royal Observatory,
Edinburgh. Director, Dr. R. CopELand.

The instrument was presented to the Observatory by the late
M. ANTOINE D’ABBADIE in 1894.

H. M. 8.

1 104 June 3 10 57 O | Slight oscillations and widening of line.

2 105 | a 12 J1 18 0 Ends at 13h. 12m.

3 116 | Huecct 13 40 0 | Fine oscillatory disturbance until 14h.
4m,

4 119 Aug. 5 1 239 | Fine oscillatory disturbance until 1h.
40m, 30s.

5 131 Sept. 17 15 55 O | Small oscillatory disturbance until
16h. 5m.

6 132 an lt, 18 2 0 Small oscillatory disturbance until
18h. 12m.

7 133 c 20 19 56 O Small oscillatory disturbance until
20h. 28m. Smaller oscillations 20h.
17m. to 20h. 28m.

8 134 sat gel 6 7 30 | Like preceding until Gh. 38m. 30s.

9 139 Oct 3 14 58 O | Very slight tilt to N.

10 140 55 iS) 028 O Small oscillatory disturbance until
50m.
11 141 HA 20 15 20 O Small oscillatory disturbance until
15h. 33m.
12 146 Noy. 14 15 29 O Tilt to N.
13 163 Jan. 29 1515 O | Small oscillatory disturbance until
15h. 25m.
Observations at Rocca di Papa. By Dr. A. Cancani. :
Instruments described on pp. 264-266.
No. mee Dati ig Seal Maximum Remarks
1897 HM. S Hy) Mes:
1| 100 | May 23 — 13 17 10 | Small undulation.
2! 104 | June 38 54 30 | 10 34 O]| Endat10h. 40m. Period 24s,
3} 105 » 12/1118 Oj] 11 47.10 | At1llh.36m. Period 16s.
4/116 | July 21 = 13 50 O| At13h.45m. Period 10s.
5 | 117 sree — 11 26 0 —
6] 119 | Aug. 5 0 32 40} 1 8 380] End 2h. 12m,
Tol boo » 26/16 46 30|17 O O| Period 18s.
8} 124 » 26] 22 8 30] 22 15 30 | End 22h. 30m.
9 | 131 | Sept. 17 | 15 50 0} 15 55 O | Period 18s.
10 | 132 » 17;1748 0/18 6 O —
11 | 433 » 20/19 25 0] 19 40 OJ] Period 18s, End 21h. 5m.
12 | 134 » 21] 58382 8] 5 46 O| End7h.
13 | 140 | Oct. 19] O 5 30] 051 O| Period 32s. At 25m. End 1h, 15m.
14] 141 » 20]}15 O 0] 15 80 O| End17h. Period 16s.
15 | 157 | Dec. 29] 1156 0/12 5 30| End 12h. 23m. H.W. component
1898 large. N.S. small.
16 | 161 | Jan. 24 | 23 49 0; O15 15 | End 45m., January 25
17 | 162 » 29]13 39 O| 13 39 17 | End 18h.45m. E.W. component.
—| — — 13 40 0 — End 13h. 40m. 30s, N.S. component
. small,
18 | 163 | Jan. 29/15 5 15/1511 O} Max.in P.Ts. 15h. 9m.50s. Waves
commence 15h. 10m. 45s.
—_ — —_— — 15 11 45 | End 15h. 40m. for E.W.
— |, — — —_— 15 13 30 | N.S. component not so distinct.

————

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 195

Records from W. E. Plummer, Esq., Liverpool Observatory, Bidstone, Birkenhead,
Instrument a Darwin Bifilar Pendulum, provided by the British Association.

No.

~ or] our wonbor

Shide
No.

Date

Time

Remarks

1897.

H.

12 20 to 12

18 10,,
722,

1 rd nee

16 50 ,,

18
7

12

16
18

M.

25
19
30

20

55
30

Small.

Very small.

Small. September 20 to 22 records
not taken,

Motion 0'008.

Small. September 28 to October 1
records not taken.

Small. October 24 to 26, records
imperfect.

Slight disturbance. October 29 to
November 21 instrument dis-
mounted.

Displacement 0:12.

Slight and irregular.

”

Slight. ”

Displacement O72
Slight disturbance.

Very slight. January 20 to 22 clock
stopped.
Uncertain and very slight.
Moderate.
Slight.
as movement.

”» ”

»” ”
Most considerable disturbance. Mo-
tion 0/17.
Disturbance.
Slight.
Moderate. On 15th no record.
Trace irregular.

Slight,
Slight
Trace irregular,

Slight.
Moderate.

02

196 REPORT—1898.

Records received from Professor Kortazzi, Nicolaiew. The recording instrument
was a von Rebeur-Paschwitz Horizontal Pendulum. Max = maximum.
Dur = duration.

. Commence-
No. oeee Date ment Remarks
5 G.M.T,
1897 Fiery Eig PS:
1 97 May 5 | 22 12 0] Max. 22h,27m. Dur. th.
2 99 » 13 |12 2 0} Very large. P.T.s18m. Dur. 2h. 8m.
3 | 100 » 23 | 12 48 0 | Moderate. Max. 13h.9m. Dur. 59m.
4 101 aoe 23 57 O| Large. P.T.s 9m. Max. 20m. Dur.
lh. 4m.
No observations from June 3 to 29.
6 | 113 June 30 3 50 0} Moderate. Max. 4h.16m. Dur. 44m.
6 | 115 July 17 7 48 O|} Small. Max. 7h. 50m. 5s. Dur. 26m.
fay) 116 » 21 | 138 43 O} Large. Dur. 35m. P.T.s 4m.
Si aly i, 22 9 52 0 = 3 ofr. Prom Wart
a pects: Aug. 2 |15 29 0] Small. ,, 10m.
10 | 119 . 5 0 17 0} Very large. Max. 31m. Dur. 3h.
35m,
11 122 a6 16 32 O} Small. Max.16h. 46m. Dur. 45m.
12 | 123 pi 2b. | 62 AO eG 3 » 21h. 57m. » 42m.
13 | 131 Sept, 17 | 15 40 0/j Very large. Max. 15h. 45m. Dur. 44m,
Origin, Tashkent.
14,| 132 » 17 |18 O 0O| Small. Details lost. ¥
15 | 133 » 20 | 19 23 30] Very large. Max. 19h. 29m. 5s. Dur.
4h.
16 | 134 gen! 4 57 0 | Very large. Max. 5h. 7m. The end lost.
17 | 138 Oct. 6 Zaz 680 | 7 Max. 13h. 30m Dux
1h. 36m.
18 140 eae 0 13 O| Very large. Max. 42m. Dur. 3h.
lm. Pts Fm:
19 | 141 » 20 | 14 49 0] Very large. Max. 15h. 37m. Dur.
3h. 4m. P.T.s 11m.
20 | 153 Dec. 11 | 10 9 0} Moderate. Max. 10h. 28m. Dur.
1h. 10m.
21 156 | » 28 | 20 53 0] Small. Max. 21h. 4m. 30s. ~Durn
} 29m.
22 | 157 | » 29 | 11 47 O| Small. Max. 11h. 55m. and 12h. 7m.
1898 Dur. 2h. 5m.
23 | 161 Jan, 24 | 23 49 30] Very large. Max. 5m. Dur. 37m.
5s.
24 | 162 » 29 ; 13 33 O |} Small Dur. 19m.
25 =| 163 » 29 |15 4 0} Very large. Max. 15h. 10m. Dur.
58m.

—_—_—_—_—_—_=—_—=—=—“_—$—<—<—<—<—_—_————————————

~

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 197

Earthquakes recorded at Shide and also at Distant Localities.

For a collective statement regarding earthquakes recorded in Italy I
am indebted to Professor P. Tacchini, Director of the R. Ufficio Centrale
di Meteorologia e di Geodinamica al Collegio Romano, Via del Caravita
N° 7, Roma. He writes me that records from Padua have not been
received since August 1897.

Professor Stupart’s records from the Meteorological Observatory,
Toronto, date from December 28, 1897.

The Shide
Numbers
Rome
Rocca di
Papa
Padua
Sienne
Pavia
Ischia
Italy
generally
Catania
Toronto
Edinburgh
Bidstone

Lt | Nicolson

8
|
|
|
||

_
—
i)
|

iS a
| |
|

Lie |

198 REPORT—1898.

Observations at the R. Osservatorio di Catania e dell’ Etna.
By Dr. A. Riccd. 1897-1898.

Instrument a long pendulum, p. 259.

: Commence-
No. ow Date ment’ Remarks
: G.M.T,
H M.S.

1 100 Mar. 23 13 20 61] Small

2 101 af 24 O 51 46 | Small. Also 1h. Om. 2s. and Lh. 5m. 49s.

3 104 June 3 Drvbsee 42, ms Duration lh. 35m. 37s.

4 105 ARCs 11 17 22) Very large. Duration 4h. 51m. 38s.
Max. range 32mm. Period of large
waves lls.

5 116 July 21 13 39 4] Moderate. P.Ts. Im. 23s. Duration
ih. 15m. 29s.

6 117 " 22 9 4 653 | Small. Exact commencement lost

7 118 Aug. 2 TDP OMEILT el 5's, ae 2 35

8 119 ; 5 0 24 35] Moderate. P.Ts.10m.29s. Duration
2h. 40m. 53s.

9 131 Sept. 17 15 15 6560] Small. Duration 2h. 36m. 47s.

10 133 4 20 LOM Ze - Period of large waves 11‘5s.
Duration 2h. 10m. 45s.
11 134 “~ 21 5 29 32 | Small

12 138 Oct. 2 | 13 381 51 | Small. Period of large waves1ls, Du-
ration 32m. lls.

13 140 “s 19 0 6 36 Small. Period of large waves 12s. Du-
ration 52m. 42s. ;

14 141 x 20 14 49 26 |.Small

15 153 Dec.~ 11 9 51 28] Small. P.Ts. 14m. 21s. Duration ih.
20m. 54s. ’

16 157 AS 29 11 29 10] Small. Period of large waves 23s. Du-

ration 1h. 30m. 50s.
17 162 Jan. 29 |14 4 41] Large. P.Ts.1h.2m.19s. Range 18mm.
Duration lh. 33m. 51s.

Deductions based on the Preceding Records.

In order to determine the areas over which each of the earthquakes
recorded at Shide had been perceptible a list of these (see p. 191) was
sent to observatories at the following places :— ;

Edinburgh,* Bidstone,* Strassburg, Padua, Rome,* Rocca di Papa,*
Catania,* Ischia, Nicolaiew,* Charkow, Potsdam,* Toronto.*

Replies have been received from those stations marked with an asterisk.
Dr. P. Tacchini, Director of the Ufficio Centrale di Meteorologia e di
Geodinamica at Rome, in replying, called my attention to several earth-
quakes which had been well recorded in Italy, but which did not appear
on my list. A re-examination of my seismograms led to the discovery of
certain of these, and the numbers on the Shide list were increased from
160 to 169.

Records which ought to be strictly comparable are those from Shide,
Toronto, and other stations at which the free horizontal pendulums adopted
by this committee have been established.

The records from Strassburg, Nicolaiew, Potsdam, and from stations
at which there are free horizontal pendulums of the von Rebeur-Paschwitz
or Ehlert types, provided that these instruments have been adjusted with
like degrees of sensibility, should also be comparable amongst themselves.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 199

If, however, certain of these instruments have been so arranged that their
stability is feeble, or, in other words, so that their free period is large as
compared with that of others, they can hardly be expected, even when
placed side by side, to yield similar seismograms. A small horizontal
pendulum with a period of, say, 50 seconds and a large multiplication may
be continuously in movement over a considerable period of time. This
being the case, it may often happen that the exact commencement of an
earthquake may not be determinable. In the Strassburg records, for
example, we find commencements of movement given so many minutes in
- advance of other stations in Europe that for the present, at least, we are
inclined to accept the conclusions to which they lead with some reserve
(see Earthquake No. 83).

In Italy there is a great variety of instruments which, for the most
part, record with ink upon the surface of paper, or by means of indices
writing on smoked paper.

The ordinary pendulums vary in length from a few metres up to
25 metres in length. In Catania, for example, there is a pendulum
25 metres in length, carrying a bob of 300 kgs., and with writing indices
multiplying its movements 12°5 times. It appears that these exceedingly
long pendulums are sometimes affected by the action of the wind upon
the building in which they are suspended. When this occurs it becomes
difficult to determine with exactness the time at which an earthquake has
its commencement.

The horizontal pendulums are also characterised by their great size.
The horizontal booms of such instruments at Rocca di Papa, which carry
25 kgs. near their outer end, are 2:7 metres in length, the tie running to
a point 5°25 metres above the foot of each boom. They write with ink on
a band of paper moving at a rate of 60 cm., or 2 feet, per hour. The open
diagrams obtained from both types of instrument are excellent (see
p- 207). Unfortunately, the enormous dimensions of these instruments
preclude any extensive adoption by private observers. When these
dimensions are reduced, as, for example, with the ordinary pendulums,
the smaller of these, not having sufficient multiplication or inertia to over-
come the frictional resistance of writing indices, fail in a greater or lesser
degree to record the small preliminary tremors, with the result that the
time at which an earthquake commences is apparently retarded.

It is probably sometimes this which explains the great difference in
the recorded times at which earthquakes originating at great distances
have announced themselves at different recording stations in Italy and
Europe.

For description of instruments in Italy and at Strassburg see
pp. 258-272.

Since writing the Report for 1897 I have obtained a list. of records
from Japan and the catalogue issued from time to time by Professor
Pietro Tacchini in the ‘ Bollettino della Societa Sismologica Italiana.’ Mate-
rials extracted from these sources enable me to throw further light upon
records published in 1897.

Wo. 1, June 15, 1896. (B.A. Report, 1897.)

This is the disastrous shock the sea waves accompanying which occa-
sioned the loss of nearly 30,000 lives on the N.E. coast of Japan, a
description of which will be found in the Report for 1897.

200 REPORT—1898.

Velocity of Propagation of Earth-waves.

ice Ma pak, Maa 48.
Time at origin. =) 10 Gol a0
Padua . . PLO AGN Time to travel. E s peay
Ischia . : . ‘10 450 29 Sa . 119.2829
Rocca di Papa + $0) 456.4 18 4s oa i tO J » 26; V8
Catania (about) . 11 O O 5 heii eta E ool ene
Rome . P a ee eee) fe. 47a a teste ; . 48 20
Distance on | Distance on kgs ere ppg a
arc kms. chord kms. per sec. per Bee.
Padua. : : 3 9490 8592 99 8-9
Ischia ; . : a 9879 8910 8-4 76
Rocca di Papa . : . 9879 8910 65 58
Catania . é : : 9990 8993 57 5-1
Rome : : ; : 9879 8910 3-4 3:0
Instruments employed,
Padua . . Microseismograph (Vicentini) Pendulum, 1:5 m. Bob, 50
kgs. Free period, 2°4 secs. Multiplication by indices,
70 to 80.
Ischia. . Horizontal Pendulum. Bob,12kgs. Free period, 11 secs.
Rocca di Papa. Pendulum,15m. Bob, 200 kgs.
Catania . . Pendulum, 25°3m. Bob, 300 kgs.
Rome . - Pendulum, 8m. Bob, 100 kgs. ‘

No. 83, February 7, 1897. (B.A. Report, 1897).

Bs eS Pts. 26min. 40 secs, Duration, 1hr. 6 mins.

Strassburg 7 45 4 Horizontal pendulum and photo record.
Edinburgh 7 49 7 Bifilar pendulum and photo record.
Padua 7 49 30 Pendulum (Vicentini).

Ischia 7 50 6 Horizontal pendulum, 12 kgs.

Potsdam . 7 55 O Horizontal pendulum and photo record.
Nicolaiew Wea we 4 + 55 5
Shide et TO OENS c 4 +
Rocca diPapa. 8 20 0 Pendulum, 15 m., 250 kgs.

Catania . 8 22 43 Pendulum, 25 m., 300 kgs.

Rome 8 25 0 Pendulum, 16 m., 200 kgs.

Tokio 7 38 33 Duration by seismograph, 5:47. Slow movement.

At Ischia the period of the large waves reached 18-5 secs. The natural
period of the pendulums in the meridian and at right angles was 12-9 secs.
and 16:4 secs.

At Rocca di Papa there were also two horizontal pendulums carrying
30 kgs., and with periods of 20secs. The N.S. component commenced at
8hrs. 25 mins., and the E.W. component at 8 hrs. 23 mins. 40 secs.

At Catania the N.W.-S.E. component commenced at 8 hrs. 22 mins.
43 secs. ; N.E.-S.W. component commenced at 8 hrs. 27 mins. 49 secs.

Velocity of Propagation.—For reasons similar to those given for Earth-
quake No. 100, I shall assume that this disturbance had the same origin
as No. 100, and that it occurred at least 2 mins. 30 secs. earlier than it was

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.

201

noted in Tokio. The time at which it originated is therefore 7 hrs. 36 mins.
On this assumption the following table has been calculated :—

: Distance on : Velocity on | Velocity on
— emake are in degrees pega are ae chord Ea.
and kms. *| per sec. per sec.
M. S. S
Strassburg é 9 4 85:2 = 9457 8592 170 15:0
Edinburgh n 13 7 85:0 = 9435 8592 12:0 109
Padua 5 2 13 30 85°5 = 9490 8592 a ey 106
Ischia + 4 14 6 89:0 = 9879 8910 11°6 105
Potsdam . A 19 0 797 = 8846 8172 ET 71
Nicolaiew. Piles 77:5 = 8658 8000 6:8 63
Shide : 4 23° (3 86°5 = 9601 8700 70 63
Rocca di Papa. | 44 0 89:0 =9879 8904 37 3:3
Catania . ; 46 43 90:0 = 9990 8993 35 3:2
Rome é : 49 0 89:0 = 9879 8910 33 30
No. 84, February 7, 1897. (B.A. Report, 1897.)
H M.S.
Shide . : : é : : 7 . 23 54 50 (Corrected)
Potsdam - : ¢ : = : SeEZ Seon) 20
No. 85, February 13, 1897. (B.A. Report, 1897.)
Hy Me Se
Shide 2 Sad
Potsdam ame ytaU,
Rome 2) 5. 1b0
Nicolaiew 29-6 aM
Edinburgh Qe at ele
Strassburg - ‘ 2 31 54
Not recorded at Catania, Teal and Rocca ai en
No. 86, February 13, 1897. (B.A. Report, 1897.)
Hoy Mes 8s M.S.
Shide . : 5 . - 15 23 36 Duration 9 20
Potsdam : : ¢ Slop 5, 3.0.
No. 87, February 15, 1897. (B.A. Report, 1897.)
H. (M.." [8s
Nicolaiew . a é é : : : 3 < ue 22re12. 10
Edinburgh . ‘ é ‘ ‘ ‘ - - 5 Cy Oe ete. O
Potsdam . Z DO POO
At Shide on the night of ie 15th-1 oth Hot et were intermittent

switchings of the boom.

February 19, 1897.
At Shide instrument not working.

He aM {S:

Padua. F - 20 51 23 /

Verona 4 . 20 58 O Pendulum (Vicentini)
Rome. . . 20 59 50

Ischia . , . 21 1 25 Period reached, 22°6 secs.

Catania. . 21 5 25 N.E-S.W.component. Period reached, 32 secs.

” A - 21 #6 42 S.E_N.W.
Rocca di Papa . 21 11 0 ;

202 REPORT—1898.

Het FM, Pye
Pavia . : - 21 42 12 Pendulum, 44m. 40kgs,
Nicolaiew . oe te a
Potsdam : a2 S20 (about)
Strassburg . - 21 11 39 §S.W.—N.E. component
. : o) | 2D Memes) tu. Wi
Edinburgh . eee etsor 70
Japan . - 20 41 O Not recorded in Tokio

No, 88, February 20,1897. (B.A. Report, 1897.)

H. WGK (8. H, M. 28.
Shide . 3 - O 17 47 Four separate maxima ending1 16 27
Rocca di Papa . 23 55 O Onthe 19th
Verona . : «) O RlZe 10 !
Padua . - -o Of 0
Ischia . s - O 15 35 Period reached, 29 secs.

Rome 0 15 40
Catania . O 15 47
Pavia 0 16 30
Strassburg 0 11 15 S.W.-N.E. pendulum
Nicolaiew . op oe plies ie:
Potsdam OI 0.
Edinburgh 0 32 #O
At nearly all the above stations several distinct maxima were
observed.
No. 91, March 2, 1897. (B.A. Report, 1897.)

HM 5.
Shide . : 221) Asp aL
Ischia . A - 21 25 22 KE. and W. horizontal pendulum, 12 kes.
Nicolaiew . oue21 Tay ph
Potsdam . *. 21 22 0 (about) 7

March 7, 1897.
At Shide record hidden by small tremors.

H. M. 8.
Rocca di Papa. : : . : : - 4 51 O (about) y
Tokio . 5 . > : . = . - 6 24 46

No. 93, March 16, 1897. (B.A. Report, 1897.)

H M. Ss. M.
Shide . 2 ; é : ‘ 7 @ 30-28 Duration. 5 ed
Nicolaiew . 5 ‘ = 5 26. Blea:

No. 96, March 28, 1897.

On this day the following cables were reported as having been inter-
rupted :—Tenedo-Dardanelles, Malta-Alexandria, Emden-Vigo (Bay of
Biscay), and the Aden-Zanzibar. A shock was also reported from
Montreal.

A small disturbance was noted at Shideat 4 hrs. 19 mins. 12 secs. P.M.,
but it is not likely that it was connected with any of the above events.

No. 97, May 5, 1897.
Bag.) pss
Shide . . - » 22 44 20 Small
Nicolaiew . . - 22 12 0 With maximum at 22 hrs. 27 mins.,
which probably corresponds with
the Shide record

a i ce i el

Not recorded in Italy,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 203

No. 98, May 9, 1897.

Tt is remarkable that this earthquake, with two maxima and a
range of motion of 6 mm., does not appear to have been recorded in
Europe. I should be inclined to place its origin west of Great Britain.

No. 99, May 183, 1897.

Hy My 8s
Shide . : ° ; . : : . 12 16 24 Moderate
Nicolaiew - : : : - - 12> -2) 0 Very large

Apparently not recorded in Italy. It most likely originated to the
east of Russia (see No. 97).

No. 100, May 23, 1897.

In Tokio, on the above date, a long, slow earthquake was felt at
12 hrs. 23 mins. G.M.T. In Hakodate and Sendai the times given are
12 hrs. 20 mins. and 12 hrs. The time records render it probable that
the origin was nearer to Sendai than to the other places; whilst the
character of the motion recorded in Tokio and Hakodate makes it probable
that the focus of the disturbance would be 200 or 300 miles from those

laces.

With this assumption the time at the origin, which is likely to be in
the Tuscarora Deep, would be about 2 mins. 30 secs. earlier than the Tokio
record. The time registers are therefcre as follows :—

He Mee Ss o M. Ss.

Time of origin . i/V12 20!) 30
Nicolaiew . s . 12 48 O Time to travel 76 27 30
Ischia 4 5 SAS) bt Bie ins! 89 36)939
Shide F - = pli wills A Cece EP 86 54 50
Rocca di Papa . S io. i 10 ante, eps 89 56 40
Catania z ee 20 <6 1s AE BS 91 59 36

with one exception, increase with the distance of the same to the four
observing stations.

From the magnitude of these intervals it is not unlikely that only the
maxima phases of motion have been recorded, the preliminary tremors
having been so small that they are not shown upon the seismograms.

Velocity Table,

Velocity in km. per

— Arce Chord reat
Arc Chord
Nicolaiew 2 ¢ .| 76°= 8436 km.| 7829 km. 51 47
Ischia a . és nl Ooo 5 Oey S910, 5 45 4
Shide a 5 $ . | 86°= 9546 ., 8668 ,, 2°8 26
Rocca di Papa. 2 Sal OOe = GOTO! sss 8910 ,, 29 2°6
Catania . ; i aH 91S = T0101) 4 9069 ,, 2°8 2°5
No. 101, May 24, 1897.
: , H M. OS.

Nicolaiew (23rd) ‘ 5 StS : . 23 57 O Large

Shide. A 5 a ; 4 : - O 18 659 Moderate

Catania . F - - O 51 46 Small

Also recorded at other stations in Italy.

204 REPORT—1898.

No. 104, June 3, 1897.

Hy) pang 8:
Catania. : - 5 : é ? ; : > _ Oo Dp) ae
Rocea di Papa” . c : ; : : - : - 9 54 30
Shide . : : : : : : , . : YI 19% SH ALS
Edinburgh . : : : : : 5 : : « S10 670

Nicolaiew not working. Also recorded at other stationsin Italy. At
Shide there are three maxima phases of movement.

Wo. 105, June 12, 1897.

This earthquake is one which created so much destruction in Assam
that it is intimated, in order to repair roads and buildings of the Public
Works Department only, more than thirty-five lakhs of rupees will be
required. The total cost of the earthquake is probably many times this
sum. To meet the expenditure for the restoration of roads, &c., appli-
cation has been made for a grant from the Imperial revenues, and we
have here an illustration, which is repeated yearly, of the manner in
which an earthquake in a distant country may affect directly or indirectly
the finances of people in this country. To mitigate the effects of these
disasters it is necessary that the ordinary practice of the engineer and
builder should be modified, and to this end I am glad to say that this
Association has lent support by the publication of several reports bearing
upon construction in earthquake countries. The more important of these
were issued in 1889 and 1891, and the substance of them has been most
carefully considered in connection with the reconstruction of railways and
other works now in progress in North-eastern India.

This earthquake, which had its origin in a well-known seismic district,
is probably the most severe and disastrous which, during historical times,
has been experienced in this region. One evidence of this is the snapping
and overturning of a number of ancient monoliths in the Khasi Hills.
J. C. Arbuthnott, Deputy Commissioner of this district, who describes
these stones, says :—‘ It would possibly give people in England an idea of
the severity of the shock were the Druidical stones at Stonehenge and
Stennis, in Orkney, similarly overthrown or broken in two.’ Similar
evidence is found in the destruction of a stone bridge in the Kamrup
district of very great antiquity.

Records.—In the Isle of Wight, strange to say, the movements of the
ground commenced whilst the photographic film was being renewed, an
operation that only happens once a week. ‘The time record, therefore,
only refers to maxima phases of motion and those which followed.

The greatest range of motion was 15 mm., corresponding to a change
in slope of about five seconds.

A horizontal pendulum recording N.-S. motion on smoked paper indi-
cated a maximum range of motion of 10 mm. and a period of 15
seconds. The following are the time records :—

Bee. Poe.

Shide 3 s - 11 29 10 Max. The preliminary tremors exceed
10 minutes ; therefore the commence-
ment may have been 11 hrs. 19 mins.

Catania . - So ir 22

Rocca di Papa . teat 18° 0

Edinburgh . : et 18" 70

Strassburg . : Soe Rs 2

Batavia. : - 11 16 40 Byelectrometer disturbance.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 205

Velocity of Propagation :

Time at origin, 11 hrs. 5 mins. 1 sec.
Velocity Velocity

on are. on chord.
M Sz Km. Kun.
Time to reach Catania . F 64° 12. 21 9°5 9:0
Rocca di Papa 65° 13. 59 86 81
Edinburgh . (ule 13 49 9:3 88
Strassburg . 66° 13 31 9:0 85
Shide ; 72° 14 59 88 8-2

The maximum angular tilting, as indicated on the photographic film,
would be about five seconds of arc.

Since writing the above several papers bearing on this earthquake
have been received. From one, by Dr. G. Agamennone,! I have combined
two tables giving the velocities of propagation on arcs of the preliminary
tremors (P.T.s) and the long waves (L.W.s), and added notes respecting
the character of the instruments yielding the records on which these
determinations were made.

Dis-

tance P : :

from | Observing Gur. | re | TW | ee at

ee. Station of P.T.s | Kms. per sec. | Kms. per sec. Pendulum

Ku.

H. M. 8.
ll 4 6
or

400 | Calcutta . Tah yy) eee ONS am — _ — —

5980 | Petersburg -| » 17 0} 80 or 93 | 2°59 or 2-78 | H.P. photo-
graphic

7020 | Potsdam . Pel all Oy ie 8:0) seal O — — | H.P. photo-
graphic

7150 | Catania . -| » 17 4] 88,, 10°8 | 2°51 ,, 2°65 | Long pendulum
writing

7150 | Portici . Siler LO SStbis we lOrd) 2a wero =

7170 | Mineo Sil ye =O) |) Oe eS — — _

7170 | Ischia by -| 9 17 2) 90,, 111 | 2°63 ,, 2°78 | H.P. writing

7220 | Spinea . | a SG: 81, 98 — — —

7240 | Padua. .| 4, 17 0} 92 , 11-4 | 2°66 ,, 2:81 | Pendulum writ-
in

7250 | Velletri . PIE ME TMO OG 25 1 ih4: Soe Phe

7250 | Rocca di Papa. | ,, 17 5 8:9 ,, 10°99 | 2°66.,, 2°82 | H.P. writing

7260 | Rome 4 i an) Wy fae | 92 ,, 11°3 | 2°67 ,, 2°82 | Long pendulum
writing

7310 | Florence . Solis Se 00) 8:6. 5,7 00:5 — — —

7330 | Wilhelmshaven. | ,, 18 9] 81,, 97 | 2°52 ,, 2°66 | H.-P. photo-
graphic

7390 | Livorno . Silerss) ge, 0) |F1974.75. 1 0°G — —_— —

7440 | Pavia 3 sale, 18. 2 86 ,, 10°5 | 2°73 ,, 2°90 —

7560 | Utrecht . » 17 0, 96,, 11°9 | 2°37 ,, 249° | Magnetometer

7700 | Grenoble . les 10 «L’| S44, 10-1 _- _ —

7840 | Paris , ai 20 6) 6:4 5, .6:0 — —- | Magnetometer

7970 | Edinburgh ail, 18 0 94 ,, 115 | 2:78 ,, 2°93 | Bifilarpendulum
photographic

Mean 83 o0r10°6 | 2°61 or 2°76

* Tend, della R, Accad. dei Lincei, vol. vii. 1889, pp. 265-271.

206 REPORT—1898.

It is worthy of note that we have here instances where higher velo-
cities have been obtained from the records of instruments with frictional
writing indices than from those where the records have been photographic,
from which it must be inferred that the former indicated earlier phases
of motion than the latter.

At Rome the long waves had a period of 10 seconds and a maximum
amplitude of 12’’.. The complete length of these waves, as computed from
the above data, would be 54 kms., and the height of their crests about
half a metre.

When in Italy (see last section of this report) I saw the original
seismograms of this earthquake at nearly all the stations I visited.

The preliminary tremors and the greater portion of the succeeding heavy
motion, as given by two different instruments, are reproduced (figs. 1, 2 and
3) from the ‘ Bollettino della Societa Sismologica Italiana,’ vol. ili, No. 9.
They are appended to a paper by Dr. Cancani, describing his horizontal
pendulums and the Assam earthquake. The upper figures show the
E.—W. and the N.-S. motion as recorded by the large horizontal pendu-
lums (for a description of which see p. 265). The lower figure gives the
corresponding motion, as obtained from an ordinary pendulum of 250 kgs.
and 15 m. in length, the movements of which are multiplied 12-5 times.
The original diagrams are about two-and-a-half times greater than the
present reproduction.

The horizontal pendulums when writing have a complete period of
22 seconds. With the Indian earthquake the maximum range of motion
was for the N.-S. component 5:5 cm., and for the E.-W. component
4 cm.

The maximum change in the vertical for the N.-S. component was 13’.
The 15 m. pendulum showed a change of 12”, whilst with a third inStru-
ment, a simple pendulum, 7 m. in length, it was 10. For the large
waves the complete period was 18 seconds. For these waves, with a
velocity of 2‘7 kms. per sec., their length becomes 48-6 kms.

If 7=length of wave, and a=the maximum angle of tilting, then

height of a wave = = tan a = 45 cm.
Tv

No. 106, June 12, 1897.

HM.) 78.

Shide . = s - 19 53 19 Duration 10 mins.

Strassburg . : . 19 23 27 t08 hrs. 35 min. 7 secs. with maxi-
mum at 7 hrs. 51 mins. 33 secs.
and 8 hrs. 0 min. 31 secs.

Not recorded in Italy or Russia.
No. 107, June 13, 1897.

H. M. Ss. M.
Shide . ° . - 2 “ : . 7 39 33 Duration 7
Strassburg . > - ‘ : 5 : Ww 28 55

Not recorded in Italy or Russia.

No. 112, June 24, 1897.

A disturbance was recorded in Ischia, Padua, and Rome, but it com-

menced about 20 hrs. 30 mins., and not at 19 hrs. 34 mins. 53 secs., as
noted at Shide.

eet

(‘tavoueg oJfopy) “LEST ‘ousnTy ZI ‘[esueg 9 WUSSY Ip ‘AOI ‘OIpUL o[[ap OJOWOIIOT, WIG] Ip OJeISoIjoMOMSIG ‘edeg Ip vODOY—'E “DIV

‘SN 9[v}UOZTIO OJopueg "LEST ‘ousNTH ZI ‘edeg Ip voooy ‘aIpuy eTap oyomemey—'zZ ‘IW

na

"G81 ‘ouSsnTyH ZI ‘[esueg o WesSY Ip VIOULAOIg ‘eIpuy o][ap OJoMMAIIET, “M-"M S[e}UOZIIO Ojopueg

vedeg ip vo00y—'T “DIT

208 REPORT—1898.
No. 118, June 30, 1897. :

Bo nie! 16;
Shide . : : : : ; : : : . 4.39 33
Nicolaiew . ; - - : - ° 5 5 - 3s poe 0
Not recorded in Italy.
No. 114, June 30, 1897.
H. M. s.
Shide . : x . z c - 2 . (Loses
In Italy about . . : : : : - : - JA oo 6
Origin Epirus.
No. 115, July 17, 1897.
aS
Shide . ; : “ 3 : : s : PE (ms
Nicolaiew : . : : : : : : : a a)
Not recorded in Italy.
No. 116, July 21, 1897.
H OM. 8S. M. 8.
Shide . » . 13 33 32 Preliminary tremors . m0
Nicolaiew . . 13 43 =O +5 5 4 0
Catania : +, 135 39) 34 ~ os 1 23
Rocca di Papa . 13 50 0 (maximum)
Edinburgh . . 13-40 0
*Also noted at other stations in Italy.
Wo. 117, July 22, 1897. “

Origin Japan :
H OM «Ss.
Shide before .11 20 O
Rocca di Papa . 11 26 0 (maximum)
Catania . . 9 4 58 (exact commencement lost)
Nicolaiew apo. oe, O
Tokio 3 . 9 381 44 Duration 4 mins. 34secs. Slow movement.

No. 118, August 2, 1897.

H: “MES:
Shide < . : . 15 46 39) All small, and it is likely that
Catania. 4 s ; a5 80) aL the records refer to different
Nicolaiew és 5 > LS S290 shocks.

Wo, 119, August 5, 1897.

This earthquake was felt over the whole of Japan, from Nemuro, in the
north-east, to Nagasaki, more than 1,000 geographical miles distant, in
the south-west. The following notes taken from the ‘Japan Weekly Mail ”
of Saturday, August 7, give the times at which movements were observed
at different towns lying between the above-mentioned places. These times
are expressed as Japan mean time, which is exactly nine hours in advance
of Greenwich mean time.

The earthquake of Thursday morning was of very long duration, but
fortunately, owing to its gentleness, no damage was done. Starting at
9 hrs. 11 mins. 56 secs. A.M., the motion continued for 7 mins. 59 secs.,
the vibrations moving from E. to W. Four minor shocks were felt at
9,23, 10, and 11.31 o’clock the same morning,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 209

Hakone, 9 a.m. (August 5),

A strong earthquake was felt here this morning at about 9.20 o’clock
Tt lasted for several minutes, but was quite regular (horizontal) in its
movement. The Japanese say that they seldom have such a long or
strong earthquake here, and they rushed out of their houses very
quickly.
Shizuoka (August 5).
A slight earthquake was felt here at 9.20 a.m.

Sendai (August 5).
A strong earthquake occurred here this morning at 9 o’clock.
Mito (August 5).
A strong gale swept over the locality last night, and this morning a
sharp earthquake was felt here.

Mayebashi (August 5).

An earthquake occurred here this morning at half-past 9 o’clock.

Uyeda, Shinshu (August 5).

An earthquake was felt here this morning at half-past 9 o’clock.
The earthquake is also reported from :—

Gifu, 7.57 A.M., slight. Gifu, 9.11 A.M., feeble.
Nagasaki, 8.06 A.M., slight. Utsunomiya, 9.12 A.M., feeble.
Kumagaya, 9.07 A.M., strong. Tokio, 9.12 A.M., feeble.
Ishinomahi, 9.10 A.M., strong. Yokosuka, 9.12 A.M., feeble.
Mito, 9.10 A.M., strong. Nagoya, 9.13 A.M., feeble.
Aomori, 9.11 A.M., strong. Ahita, 9.20 A.M., feeble.
Yamagata, 9.11 A.M., strong. Choshi, 9.12.A4.M., slight.
Mayebashi, 9.11 A.M., strong. Numazu, 9.12 A.M., slight.
Niigata, 9.12 A.M., strong. Nemuro, 9.12 A.M, slight.
Kofu, 9.12 A.M., strong. Kushiro, 9.13 A.M, slight.
Puhushima, 9.10 A.M., feeble. Hachihi, 9.15 A.M., sight.
Nagano, 9.11 A.M., feeble.

By reference to the catalogue of earthquakes recorded at the Central
Meteorological Observatory in Tokio, p. 190 (Nos. 1901 to 1908), it will be
seen that on the 5th the first disturbance was followed by seven smaller
disturbances.

From these reports, and from private correspondence with Japan, we
learn that the movements were slow. This means that the period of the
earth waves would be about three seconds. This being so, experience
teaches us that places like Tokio were at a distance of 200 or 300 miles
from the origin of the disturbance.

The fact that movements commenced at and near to Tokio at about
the same time they commenced at and near to Nemuro, whilst at Ishino-
maki, Mito, Aomori, Yamagata, and other places lying between Tokio
and Nemuro, movements commenced one or two minutes earlier, leads to
the conclusion that the origin was off the east coast of Japan.

From the time observations generally, the locus sought for may be placed

ww be as centre of a circle which would approximately pass through Tokio,
: P

210 REPORT—1898,

Niigata, and Nemuro. This would ‘lie about 150 miles east of Sendai,
at a depth of 4,000 fathoms, exactly at the bottom of the Nippon slope of
the Tuscarora Deep. This is practically the same origin as that given for
the shock of June 15, 1896,! as it is for many other disturbances which
have shaken the whole of the Japanese islands. Facts to be noticed about
this particular group of earthquakes are that they are the largest, that
they originate along the base of the steepest slope, and that it is only
occasionally that they are accompanied by sea waves. The disturbance of
June 15, 1896, was accompanied by waves which resulted in the loss of
nearly 30,000 lives, whilst the shaking of the ground was barely percep-
tible at Tokio. The earthquake about which I now write as a producer of
earth waves which could be felt was much more marked than that of
June 15, and yet sea waves were not recorded. The inference is that the
earthquake of August 5 was not accompanied by any marked displace-
ment of large bodies of material at the bottom of the ocean, and its origin

‘was practically beneath the sub-oceanic crust. It is therefore possible
that we have in the Tuscarora earthquakes examples of disturbances due
to accelerations in the secular flow of a quasi-rigid subterranean material
under the influence of continental load. If this is the case we should
expect to find records of local magnetic perturbation.

Velocity of Propagation of Earth Waves.

Assuming the origin of the earthquake to have been 250 geographical
miles to the north-east of Tokio, and the wave to have been propagated
to that place at a rate of about 8,000 feet per second, then the time at
which the earthquake originated in G.M.T. was August 5, 9 mins. 23 secs.

G,.M.T.—Times at which Preliminary Tremors commenced in Europe.

H. M. 8. M. §.
Shide . . ; . O 22°35 Time to travel Z A 2 T8sl2
Rocca di Papa . 0 32 40 5 os ‘ " - 23.17
Catania F : . O 24 35 is 3 A 3 15 12
Nicolaiew . : .017 O a . ; i Don
Edinburgh , : .1 2 30 Pr » (Large waves?) 53 7

Apparent Velocity of Preliminary Tremors.

Distance Velocity in km. per sec.
a On Are On Chord | On Are | On Chord
Nicolaiew . a : .| 76°= 8436 km 7829 18? 172
Shide : 4 5 » |. 86° = 9546.50,, 8668 11 10
Rocca di Papa . : GO Se Skenls) 55 8910 7 63
Catania . : “ Sele WS cKO! a 9069 11 9:9

Wo. 120, August 16, 1897.

H M. Sz
Shide . . . . 8 6 29
Italy about . : - §8 15 O at Catania, Ischia, Rome, Rocca di Papa.

Tokio . 3 5 . 7 58 33 Duration 3 mins. Slow movement.

1 Also see British Association Report, 1896, p. 153.

| Shide 5
Nicolaiew .

: Tokio

Shide
Nicolaiew .

Rocca di Papa .

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 211

No. 122, August 26, 1897.

And at, several places in ae

Tokio

Shide

| Rocca di Papa ;

And other stations in Italy.

Shide

Catania .
Edinburgh .
Nicolaiew .

o_o

Rocca di Papa .

And other Italian stations.
Origin probably Tashkent.

Shide
Edinburgh
Nicolaiew .
Rocca di Papa

fg At
16 32 -0
14 46 30
16 8 46
No. 123, August 26, 1897.
HM. S
. 21 40 30
21 40 0O
21 19 20
No, 124, August 26, 1897.
HA MSs:
: 22 13 14
. 22 8 30
No. 181, September 17, 1897.
H. M.S.
15 59 58 Preliminary tremors.
15 15 50 Small
TD 2555 4,0
15,40... 0
lay -bO) 0
No. 182, September 17, 1897.
TE ee Ms Ss M.
17 59 58 Preliminary tremors. 8
1S il 0)
18 O O Details lost
17 48 O

And other Italian stations.
The similarity of the Shide seismograms for Nos. 131 and 132 suggests

that they originated at or near the same place.

Shide
Edinburgh
Catania .
Rocca di Papa
Nicolaiew

No. 133, September 20, 1897.

ie ae M.
19 24 47 Large. Preliminary tremors, 40
19 56 O

19 25 2Small

19 265

0
19 23 30 Very large

Also at other stations in Taly.

Batavia F

Shide .
Edinburgh
Catania .
Rocca di Papa
Nicolaiew

- 19 14 30 by disturbance of an electrometer
No. 134, ae aa 21, 1897.

M. M.
28 Bl Large. Preliminary tremors. 43

Ie, 30
32 Small

moa aw
bo
Ze)

8
57 0 Very large

Also at other Italian MiGs apt

212 REPORT—1898.

The above earthquake evidently refers to one of two shocks which were
felt in Sandakan, on the north coast of Borneo, at 1.10 p.m. local time
(about 5.20 a.m. G.M.T.) on September 21. It was sufficiently severe to
crack a house and stop the town clock.

These and other shocks accompanied the throwing up of a volcanic
island in E.L. 115° and N.L. 5° 14’, about which on October 25 the ‘Times’
writes as follows :—

‘A New Votcanic Istanp.—The ‘Straits Times’ of September 29
states that, according to telegraphic advices from British North Borneo,
an earthquake was felt at Kudat on September 21, as also a slight tremor
at several places along the coast. About the same time a new island was
thrown up from the sea between Mempakul and Lambeidan, 50 yards from
the mainland, opposite Labuan, The island is of clay and rocks, and
measures 200 yards long by 150 yards broad and 60 feet high. The island
appears to be increasing in size, and emits inflammable gas in several
places, with a strong smell of petroleum gas. The earthquake was not
felt at Labuan.’

Comparing this disturbance 134 with 133, both which are large at
Shide and Nicolaiew but small in Italy, we have an example of earthquakes
apparently from the same origin, and as measured by the distance to
which they propagated their vibrations of equal intensity, but which had
very different effects locally. The former only slightly disturbed a magneto-
graph in Batavia, 13° or 1,400 kms. distant, whilst the second created
marked disturbances in such instruments at Batavia and other places,
p. 243. Also the second was felt severely in Kudat and Sandakan (but
not at Labuan), and is reported in the newspapers, whilst the first is passed
without notice. :

The similarity of the Shide seismograms for 133 and 134 also suggests
that these shocks originated at or near the same locality.

No, 135, September 21, 1897.

Hye me iB? Hi) MP8s
Shide : : 5 ° : : - ll 36 44tol3 20 20

About 13 hours in Central Italy there was a violent earthquake, which
was recorded at all the observatories in Italy. It is hardly likely that
this is represented by the latter portion of the slight disturbances at
Shide.

No. 138, October 2, 1897.

E.. | Mp8: HM. 6S
Shide . 13 36 389 Moderate Duration. 0 27 0O
Catania . 13 31 51 3 nO ss2r ad
Nicolaiew. 12 56 30 Very large - 1, (36° 40
Also at Rome.
Tokio SONA Oi FS. gh ‘3 - 0 3 25 by seismograph

No. 139, October 3, 1897.

By as
Shide ‘ 5 : : 4 shy TB aS
Edinburgh = : a or -) 7) 14-585 90 Slight tilt to N.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 213

No. 140, October 19, 1897.

H. M. . . H. M, 8
Shide ; 0 6 52 Preliminary tremors. 41 Duration 2 30 0
Edinburgh O28 0 * 0 32 O
Catania 0 6 36 Small 9 0 52 42
Rocca di Papa . oa | ies as (0) Fs li OF 30
Nicolaiew 0 13 ._0 Very large. P.T.s 7 is & er

Also at Rome and Ischia.
No. 141, October 20, 1897.

Howey ES M. Pye IP Ss
Shide + . 14 43 29 Preliminary tremors. 42 Duration 2% 33 0
Edinburgh wr te 20) 0 - Qa SUB Bea)
Catania . 14 49 26 Small

Rocca di Papa . 1a ig Clo s(t a Pie AN foe eV
Nicolaiew . 14 49 O Verylarge. P.Ts 11 4 3 42

Also at Rome and Ischia.

The similarity of the Isle of Wight seismograms for Nos. 140 and 141
together, that in each case the aentaines icone commenced its records
6 or 7 minutes after the Isle of Wight, indicate that these earthquakes
had a similar origin.

No. 142, October 23, 1897.

H. M. &.

Shide eae OO
Atabout. 3 15 Oa disturbance was noted at Catania, Ischia, and Rome.

No. 146, November 14, 1897.

H. M. s. M.
Shide : E . : . ae tans) 35 Duration 22
Edinburgh ; : : . So a FAS ee) Tiit to N.

Not recorded in Europe.

No. 152, November 25, 1897.

H. M. s. Mi
Shide i : é A H PP LO) el eas Duration 2 0
Catania . 3 ‘ z : a LOR Woes A te 23
Yo. 153, December 11, 1897.
H. M. Ss. i. M. 5
Shide ¥ - 10 4 31 Small Duration 0 45 O
Catania . . 9 51 28 P.T.s 14h. 21m. small - 1 20 54
Nicolaiew . 10 9 O Moderate re el Oe
Tokio. . 9 40 49 Slight
No. 155, December 17, 1897.
H. M. Ht REM: sek
Shide c Se ityass 0 Up to Dec.18 10 30 OU Slight
ltaly, a a shock, Dec. 18 about 7.30 a.m.
No. 156, December 28, 1897.
} eh aes M.S. M.
Shide . e200 64” 21 Moderate. P.Ts 8 UV Duration . 24
Nicolaiew crew? 163'" 'O Small 3 229

Toronto . - +20 124 37 » Pat spi * 10 a ei

214 REPORT—1898.

Tt will be observed that we have here the records from three instru-
ments not controlled by the friction of writing pointers, and therefore
fairly comparable.

No. 157, December 29, 1897.

1 epee ee mu. Ss. HM «6S
Shide ; . 11 40 48 Large P.T.s 19 49 Duration 1. 22 28
Catania . 5 29 0 A 1 30 50
Rocca di Papa. 11 56 O = 0) 2i4.10
Nicolaiew . » 11-47’ -sOsF Sarai > 2 on 0
Toronto . . 11 32 29 No preliminary tremors in 1 Ona O

Port-au-Prince. 11 22 7 Near the origin

Also at other stations in Italy.

In connection with this earthquake Professor R. F. Stupart, of
Toronto, sends me the following note taken from the ‘U.S. Monthly
Weather Review,’ January 1898 :—

‘December 29th. 6hrs. 32 mins. 43 secs. A.M., Port-au-Prince, Hayti, W.I.

‘ Professor T. Scherer reports as follows :—“ A severe earthquake was
experienced at Port-au-Prince, lasting 1 minute and 31 seconds. The
following are the conclusions to be drawn from the curves traced by the
Secchi seismograph at the meteorological observatory of the College of
St. Martial :—

«« The entire phenomenon consisted of five consecutive shocks, the total
duration of which was 48 seconds, and of a series of feeble move-
ments very perceptible to an attentive observer. The first shock lasted
8 seconds: it began from east-north-east and from west-south-west. —
The vertical component was quite strong at about the fifth second. The ~
movement immediately began with more force in the horizontal direction
and less in the vertical : this lasted 11 seconds, and the direction from
which it came was more toward the east. The third shock lasted
3 seconds, and was characterised by a very regular oscillatory movement.
The first shock was the strongest, Jasted 10 seconds, began from the
north-east, and died away in the south-west, with a vertical component
that was scarcely appreciable. All the other movements, after the forty-
eighth second, were feeble with the same horizontal direction. During
all this time the seismic pendulum described ellipses in the sand whose
major axes varied from north-east through the south to south-west. The
Bertelli microseismometer was for a long time agitated, and finally main-
tained a north-south direction.

«« The same earthquake was felt in the neighbourhood of Port-au-Prince
and with the same features. It seems to have been very violent in the
interior on the island of Dominica.”’

This earthquake had a submarine origin, and interrupted the Cape
Haytien-Puerto Plata and Puerto Plata-Martinique cables, together
with the Dominican land lines.

No. 158, December 29, 1897, to January 1, 1898.

During this interval slight tremors were recorded at Shide. In Italy, —
on December 29, between 11 hrs. 30 mins. and 13 hrs,, perturbations were
recorded in several observations. On December 31, at about 17 hrs., a
slight disturbance at Ischia and Florence was noted.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 215

No. 161, January 24, 1898.

Hy aca 8% HM S
Shide 3 . 23 45 49 LargeP.T.s16mins. Duration . Oo 33° 0
Rocca di Papa 23 49 .0 % a1 056) 10
Nicolaiew . . 23 49, 30 Very large + 0 37 30
Toronto (25th). O 13 30 P.T.s 13 mins. 80 secs.

No. 162, January 29, 1898.
Be Me “B: Hw, 1S
Shide 2 . 13 44 8 SmallP.T.s5mins.47secs. Duration 0 13 1
Catania . . 14 +4 41 Large P.T.slh.2m.19s. 5 1 33 51
-Rocca di Papa . 13 39 O 3 Om ape
Nicolaiew . . 13 33) Oh Smail -s OLLI G
Also at other stations in Italy.
No. 168, January 29, 1898.
HA. M. s. H. M. =)
Shide é . 15 5 25 Large P.T.s9mins.9secs. Duration 1 1 0
Edinburgh a Bilisyrna lay ye: = 0. 10750
Rocca di Papa . 15 5 15 ~ 0 35 +O
Nicolaiew . - 15 %44 =O Very large 33 0 58 O
Laibach . saat ts paumem [ere ay i 0 49 #O

At Shide the period of the large waves was 10 secs.
The records evidently indicate the severe earthquake in Asia Minor, re-
specting which London papers published the following Reuter telegram :—

© Constantinople, February 3, 1898.

‘The earthquakes in Asia Minor continued at intervals from Saturday
till Monday. At Balikesri, the military prison, two minarets and fifteen
houses were totally destroyed, and every house in the town was more or
less damaged. Twenty persons were killed and fifty injured.

‘Considerable damage was done also at Bighadidj, Inegeul, and other
villages, though with what loss of life is unknown.’

No. 164, February 5, 1898.

H. M. s. H. M. s.
Shide . . . 8 36 13to9 19 28 Record on.smoked paper

About 9hrs. perturbations were observed in Catania, Rome, Livorne, &e.

From the preceding lists and notes it appears that between March 23,
1897, and February 16, 1898, 74 earthquakes were recorded at Shide,
38 of which were also recorded in Europe or America.

The following are sketches of Seismograms obtained at Shide, Pots-
dam, and Toronto.

The times given are for the commencement of movements. Other
phases of movement may be calculated on the assumption that for

Shide, Nos. 85 to 138, 45 mm.=1 hour ; Nos, 140 to 157, 60 mm.=1 hour.

Potsdam, 20 mm,.=1 hour.
Toronto, 60 mm.=1 hour.

2.8.11 A.M. 0.16.24 P.M.

ie
No. 85.—Shide, Feb. 13, 1897. No. 99.—Shide, May 13, 1897.

216 REPORT—1898.
9.57.18 A.M,
—_——— ee I Ie On

No. 104.—Shide, June 3, 1897.

0.32.51 p.m,

No. 105.—Shide, June 12, 1897.

1.33.32 P.M.

No. 116.—Shide, July 21, 1897.

iV
——4[ =»

No. 19.—Shide, Aug. 5, 1897.
10.13.14 p.m.

Se oe

No. 124.—Shide, Aug. 26, 1897.

ara oe —_—__—

No, 124.—Potsdam.

a

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 217

3.59.58 P.M. 5.59.58 P.M.

Nos, 131 and 132.—Shide, Sept. 17, 1897.

7.24.47 PM.

No. 133.—Shide, Sept. 20, 1897.

jis agro

No. rls

5.28.51 am.

No. 134,—Shide, Sept. 21, 1898.

ey)

No. 184.—Potsdam.

1.36.39 P.M.
Do H fn,
—— eee h —
No. 138,—Shide, Oct. 2, 1897. No, 138,—Potsdam.

No, 140,—Shide, Oct. 18, 1897.

218 REPORT—1898.

No. 140.—Potsdam.
2.43.29 P.M.

No. 141.—Shide, Oct. 20, 1897.

LN
ne “i Litebhhmoene———

8.54.21 P.M.

No. 156.—Shide, Dec. 28, 1897.
8.24.39 P.M.
— Hee
No. 156.—Toronto.

11.40.48 a.

No. 157.—Shide, Dec. 29, 1897.

11.32.20 am.

fh

No. 157.—Toronto,

V. On Certain Characteristics of Earthquake Motion.

1. The Character of Earth Waves near to their Origin.

From the feelings of those who reside in earthquake districts, and
more definitely from seismograms, we have learned that the movements
of the ground constituting an earthquake of moderate intensity, which
in an epifocal area may shake badly constructed chimneys and loosen
tiles upon a roof, as observed at distances of approximately 20 or 100
miles from its origin, consist of preliminary vibrations, a shock or shocks
separated by more or less irregular waves, and a series of concluding
vibrations. At distances of from 100 to 200 or 300 miles the pre-
liminary vibrations may not be felt, or even recorded, on an ordinary
seismograph, and instead of a shock or shocks we obtain a record of
a series of long-period but irregularly recurring waves. These movements

a

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 219

give rise to a sensation not unlike that felt upon a floating stage rising
and falling upon a swell. The movement of hanging pictures and that of
seismographs indicate that an intermittent tilting is taking place. The
heavy masses of metal in bracket seismographs, conical pendulums, and
other instruments, no longer act as steady points, but swing fitfully with
varying amplitudes from side to side, and, rather than giving records of
horizontal displacement, they are roughly recording the maximum slopes
of the earth waves which tilt the supporting piers.

Beyond the 300-mile limit nothing is felt, and it is seldom that an
ordinary seismograph, writing with frictional indices, gives a record.
Now and then, where the friction of writing pointers has been exceedingly
low, records of unfelt earthquakes have been obtained from ordinary
seismographs. It was the magnitude of these diagrams obtained by the
writer, coupled with numerous observations made by astronomers on
the movement of the bubbles in levels, the tilting of water in ponds,
and kindred observations, which enabled him, in 1883, to venture the
opinion that with suitable instruments the movement of all large earth-
quakes might be recorded in any portion of the world (see ‘ Harthquakes
and other Earth Movements,’ Int. Sci. Series, pp. 226 and 342). The
ample manner in which this has been confirmed is known to all seismo-
logists.

Preliminary Tremors.—The period of these, as recorded on seismo-
graphs with frictional indices, has varied between } and ;}, of a second.
Along paths of from 1 to 4 geographical degrees (111 to 444 kms.) the
velocity is apparently about 2 kms. per second. This, however, is the
velocity of the larger waves, which the preliminary tremors most certainly
outrace. Strange to say, we know less about the difference in rate of

_ propagation of these small movements and their larger followers over

short ranges than we do over long ranges. As a working hypothesis,
founded on the interval of time that elapses between the screaming of
pheasants and the arrival of sensible motion and the records of seismo-
grams, I anticipate that this interval will be found to be about 10 seconds
for about every 100 kms. of travel ; that is, if a shock originates at a dis-
tance of, say, 200 kmns., these preliminary tremors may be noticed 20 seconds
before the arrival of pronounced motion. If this is so, then the velocity
of propagation for preliminary tremors over short ranges will be about
2-5 kms. per second.

If, for the time being, we accept this factor, then if J is the length of
a wave, ¢ its period, and v its velocity, because

l=vt

with a period of 51, second, the length of a wave is about 125 km.
(410 feet).

Their amplitudes, as shown on seismograms, are exceedingly small,
say >> mm.

Large Waves.—The large waves have periods of from 1 to 2-5 seconds,
which, with velocities of 2 kms. per second, would indicate lengths of
2 to 5 kms. (6,560 to 16,400 feet). The maximum amplitudes of these,
which represent shocks which will shatter ill-constructed chimneys, lie
between 20 and 70 mm.

Concluding Vibrations. —Seismograms clearly show waves having
periods of from 3 to 5 seconds, the lengths of which may therefore reach
as much as 10 kms. (32,800 feet).

220 REPORT—1898.

Figures like the above, representing the length of seismic waves,
although especially for the large waves we can rely upon the data for
velocity and period, must yet be accepted with great caution. For the
earthquake of October 28, 1891, as recorded in Tokio, it would appear
that seismographs were tilted through an angle of about one-third of a
degree, whilst the actual height of the waves was about 10mm. If these
measurements, referred to symmetrically, formed wave-surfaces, the con-
clusion is that the lengths of the waves did not exceed 20 or 40 feet ; the
difference between which and, say, 1,600 feet is so great that all confidence
in the determination of wave-lengths is apparently destroyed within an
epifocal area, or, to be more precise, within five or six miles of an origin.
Where waves can be seen rolling down a street, we are here at least cer-
tain that the distance from crest to crest-of an earth-wave is measured by
10 or 20 feet rather than by hundreds or thousands of feet.

2. On the Velocity of Propagation of Large Waves.

From the table on p. 221, where we find the length of arc along which
motion may have travelled, the velocity of the preliminary tremors along
sach a path and the duration of their movements, which is the interval of
time by which they outraced the succeeding large waves, it is easy to
calculate the velocity with which these waves were propagated. The
results of such calculations, together with results obtained from somewhat
different data by von Rebeur-Paschwitz and Dr. A. Cancani, are given
in the following table :—

Velocities of Large Waves in Km. per sec.

Von Rebeur Cancani
Are Along are Along chord along chord along chord
°
20 271 271 1 to 2°5 2°5
60 28 27 — 27
80 2-9 27 3 to 3°5 =
110 33 2°8 -— 31
|

3. On the Character of Earth-waves after having travelled Great Distances.

The following remarks are based on records of earthquakes obtained
at distances from their origin so great that movement of the ground could not
be felt, whilst ordinary seismographs failed to indicate any movement of the
piers on which they rested. Many of them, for example, refer to seismo-
grams obtained in Europe or England of earthquakes which originated at
places so far distant as Japan.

Preliminary Tremors.

Velocity.—In the Report for 1897 (p. 173) a table is given of the
highest apparent velocities with which the preliminary tremors of about
seventy disturbances have been propagated over or across arcs of great
circles on the earth’s surface. These arcs have varied in length from
about 2° to 156°. The observations on arcs of from 2° to 18° and from
70° to 85° have been fairly numerous. For arcs of intermediate length
the observations were only three or four, but inasmuch as these take up

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. vp A |

their proper position on a curve of velocities, it may be assumed that they
are the result of fairly accurate observations. This also applies to the
two or three records on wave paths exceeding the 85° limit. In the
original diagram (‘ Report’ for 1897, p. 174) those observations which by
reference to orginal records are found untrustworthy are surrounded
by circles.

The general results arrived at are easily remembered. If it is assumed
that motion is propagated rownd the earth, then the velocities over arcs
of 20°, 30°, 40° up to about 100°, which have lengths of 2,200, 3,300,
4,000, and 11,100 kilometres, are about 2, 3, 4, and 11 kilometres per
second. Along wave paths less than 20° the velocity of 2 kilometres per
second remains constant. For arcs greater than 100° the velocity
apparently increases at a rate somewhat less than the rate at which the
length of the arc increases.

With the hypothesis that the vibrations travel along paths approxi-
mating to chords through the earth, then the above velocities must
be reduced. The actual velocities obtained as mean values from a
number of observations are given in columns 9 and 10 of the following
table :—

Table showing the Relationship between the Apparent Velocities with which
Preliminary Tremors are propagated round or through the Earth, and dimen-
sions of the same, Sc. The first fou Velocities are derived from Observations.
The last two are inferred."

Diff. in < 4
Length | Length re Asa,.| Velocity Velocity
De- Length} Max. |Average A Aver- c
grees ee oF Cota of Are |Depth of| Depth of Bees age of Le / of eae Deration
of oni Radius | 204_ | Chord | Chord Ch f\Depth yl] REE lad | BR etsy fen ects
Are a acus= | Chord |in Kms.|in Kms. oe Ghord.||, BE" See: RETIRES.) ao Tes
° Kms. 6,360 Kms. Tana on Are onChord
20° 2220 2208 12 97 67 97 818 2°75 2°75 0 to 4
60° 6660 6360 300 | 853 608 29:20 | 24°6 6 57 20
80° 8880 8175 707 1487 1053 38°8 324 82 75 30 to 34
110° | 12210 10419 1791 2712 1977 52 44-4 11 9:3 41 to 43
140° | 15540 11952 3588 4197 3149 64:8 56 13°8 ? 9-9 unknowa
180° | 19980 12720 7260 6360 5097 79°6 71 17-4? M11 ey

It will be observed that the quantities given in the eighth column are
approximately four times those in the ninth column.

In questions relating to the direction taken by a wave in passing
through the earth, it must be remembered that this may not necessarily

be along a chord, but in consequence of refraction follow a path that is
curved,

Apparent Duration of Preliminary Tremors.

The following table gives the time intervals by which preliminary
tremors have outraced the longer period and larger waves constituting
the main portion of various earthquake disturbances. Beneath these
time records, inclosed in brackets, the distances of the various observing
stations from epifocal areas are given in geographical degrees or kilo.
metres :—

1 See British A'sociation Report, 1897, p. 174.

222 | REPORT—1898.

Apparent Duration of Preliminary Tremors. (m=minutes ; s=seconds.)

bo 7
* H © a
© = Ey 2 ad g |
3 2/13 B58) ¢ | 2 | A:fosoledgeae 1 ae
ca) ‘Ss 2 3 he og 2 5 4 a so] Be BZ ag
2 a 2) ue hee eaal se) S| 3) Bee eae 5 |
re) wm Wie We oe fe Bio oe le ey epee a |e
Oct. 27. 48m.| 40m.| __ al eF eats ~~ =
sactingo }|{ 1804 (1042) (204°)
Z Nov. 2, ™. | o4m 35 4 23 = #2 = ak = =e =
Mexico } { 1894 }(102°) : fg
Merida, { Apr. 28, is =. | 1 = ms ons ie ‘< iy pew
Venezila t Fane 1b i 27m. | 30m.| 32m.| 29m
une po) pe: -| 32m. Shree me A = es
a { 1H50 oo hone (86°) | (84°) | (88°) |(88) |
Japan Oct. 18, 18m. am wre 2 is uns = 86° — _ a
momo} /{ 192" Pct) | — Gio
} { Nov. 4, ay Fi ee. pie 23 antl ae — | (eeey = == a
is en AS 13m. | 34m. | 34m
Oct. 31,f 14m.{ __ an Seeiesarm. | o> * | 20m. m. m. n. >
see Myles iauee (71°) (86°) ade ie Men baa | if ee
Japan, } { Apr. 17. Ts ahs or “= =a = = — — a (80°) (81°)
enn Mar 16 24m.
Fant ar. 16, A hee we ze =. = me =, = as ae =e
Philippines | { 1892 | (78°)
Luzon } { ” 7625) Fo i | ema (amma Mi da) ea Neo
May 11) 33m. feb, s ls af ae — © )27m: of ws = Pad
n pea
"TED } { 1892 (719-2)
} { oy. eo Wiis) eel ge) Resin pa ae || ei eae —. , Ares —-|>-|j-
” 1892 4 (71°)
- Jan. 18, ee “= #2 23 ae = és = mn — — =
» } { 1895 || 73™ ies
} { Dec. 20) __ i uf nak = Be bi — | ase) = =% ss
Quetta 1899 ol
SoG! OEP pink. OLE ier a AM UR SD fh 8) NEY
ie } { 1893 (45°°7)
Asia Minor, } { Apr.16f ae =i = = Gries) = pes a = = =e =
Amed,. f epi € On. *,
—- —_— — — _ _ ° le
re ob as ea, (ee pee a te, ; (15°)
May 23. = a or a 2 = a es _ = a
Thebes } { 1t08 Om. | — ott E: =
Bucharest } { Ose Ma = = ae — ry 7 an fea Ge)
} { Jan. 25 = is 2s ae == = = — (9°) = _— — —
Naples 1893 ‘
Mount Aug. 10 mes 2} | ese ee
a } | 1853 = = a (9°)
June 29) 12m.) 4m. | _ | _ | 4m. | 6m. Lite mes -{/—};—}]—] =
Cyprus 1896 | (12°) | (17°) (18°) | (19°) | (gy | (5°) care
7m. | 14m.| 5m. m. rg bie
Iceland j { Aug: 26) im. | Wm | — | — | 10m] — (30°) (33°) (21°) | (16°)
Hei 1896 Gs ) at a ke
ee Sept.21, moi 2. ype * a3} po ise as
le at 1896 | 7™ | (209) (21°) eA fat
Feb. 19, = rior 26m.| — 21m. or = — =— llm.| —
Japan | 1897 10m. | 20m. Sh
Junel2 Pk = = = — — |8m.?)10m.?} — — a
Assam — { ore | ee a
Aug.4,[ __ pins wtb ta &, als ee oie ey be,
Japan| 1897 ° 40m. &
Sept.20. Ree ce. Uae 2 Age Nee
N. Borneo } { 1807 a) rip | ane
Dec. 29. ae 2 et <4 = _ — — | 4%. | — — oa
Hayti } \ 1897 | — | | (64°)

ee ee ee

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 223

Apparent Duration of Preliminary Tremors.

ee eeeeeeeeeeeeee—eeeEeyeeye————————eEeEeEEEEe
bo
28 Ea el tess 5 2 a
fs ie =F nO ¢| 2 | 8s
co — Ss a n Z
23 e\/2/2|#8|gel2|/3|2| 2/2 |e8| 2 |e8
S Ovi pos seed Mh ares ead} vamp |S poe of BY
Persian Gulf,
| Kishim, Jan. 7 _ _ _ — | 13m. |} 15m.?} 13m — _ — 2.
| 2 1897" q
mbria, Jan. 4 ze, 2h ee = = = ae oe
| 19, 1897 j oe TA a
Sicily, Calabria,
| Feb. 11-12, Brie OIG Sanne REE OPEN core eo 2a eee. SAS ea hob eieitls Ly ary
1897 / | |
‘Romana, Apr. ‘s Ei Lap) os it is é& pel | pen en == fe
3, 1897, a | os
Romana, Apr. Se Si ll a= el ealiGeal: -47 ie ale
3, 1897 ‘ae ital oat

These time intervals and their corresponding distances are shown
graphically in the following figure, in which the free curve indicates the
general result towards which the observations point :—

Fia. 4.

‘
4
]
;
,

Min

180 ——«*160 140 72
Intervals by which Preliminary Tremors have outraced Long-period Waves.

224 REPORT—1898.

Inasmuch as these records have been obtained from different types of
instruments which have had different degrees of sensibility, it is clear
that they cannot be regarded as individually comparable ; but when
plotted on squared paper and taken in groups, it is evident that these
time intervals increase with the length or depth of the wave-path over or
at which a disturbance has travelled. In a few instances, as for example
in the case of disturbances originating near Japan, Borneo, and Hayti,
which have been recorded by the same or similar instruments in the Isle
of Wight and Toronto, such observations are comparable, and they take up
expected positions on the average curve of duration drawn through the
groups of observations which are not so strictly comparable.

The expectation from this is that this curve will, by future observa-
tions, be found to be approximately correct.

An inspection of the same shows that the preliminary tremors up to
distances of 12° or 15° only outrace the succeeding waves by intervals
seldom reaching a minute. On paths between 20° and 85° the intervals
are proportional to the length of the arc, but beyond this range it seems
that they may increase at a somewhat higher rate.

Between Europe and Japan, or a distance of 85°, observations have
shown that the interval by which the larger waves are outraced varies
from 30 to 34 minutes. If we take 32 minutes as an average, then it is
easy to compare what should be expected, and what has been observed on
ranges lying between 20° and about 100°. This is done in the following
table :—

.

Japan to Shide, 85° Observation, 32 minutes.
Borneo to Shide, 112°, 42 min. expected. 3, 40 to 43 i
Hayti to Shide, 62°, 23 ,, 3 i 20 x
Hayti to Toronto, 20°, 7 ,, > », about 4 55

Although these observations indicate a working rule, enabling us to
determine the distance of an origin from an observing station which, with
a knowledge of the surface configuration of our globe and localities where
seismic activity is frequent often, are the means of locating an epicentre,
the last of the series suggests that the duration of the preliminary tremors
are more directly connected with the depth of a wave-path rather than its
length, as represented by the arc of a great circle.

Trial, however, shows that the duration of preliminary tremors is not
proportional to the length of the chord along which it may be supposed
the movements travelled, or to its maximum or average depth.

The table on p. 221, which is derived from fig. 4, shows that the dura-
tion of preliminary tremors in minutes is, for the given ranges, nearly
equal to the square root of the average depth of the chord expressed in
kilometres.

On the Period of Earthquake Waves at Great Distances from their Origin.

All that we know about the period of earthquake waves after they
have travelled great distances is derived from the open diagrams of the
Italian workers, a few records obtained in the Isle of Wight, and a single
but exceedingly valuable record obtained by Dr. F. Omori when in Pots-
dam. ‘The Italian and Isle of Wight records were obtained from simple
or horizontal pendulums writing on smoked paper. The Potsdam record,
which refers to an earthquake originating in Japan on February 19, 1897,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 225

is photographic, and shows the movements of a pair of von Rebeur pen-
dulums. It has yet to be described.

In the following few examples of records referring to period the fol-
lowing abbreviations are used :—

Pt. = Preliminary tremors, the periods of which are expressed in seconds,

Lw. = Large waves, 33 = sy Pe

Pp. =Simple pendulum, the length of which is given in metres, ‘These
pendulums have multiplying indices.

H.P. = Horizontal pendulums.

G.L. = Geodynamic level (see p. 263, also ‘ B.A. Report,’ 1896, p. 227).

The first name refers to the place at which a given earthquake
originated.

1895. Jan.18. Japon. At Rome P. 16m. gave for Lw. 164s.
, July 8. Caspian Sea. ,, Ischia G.L. Sem ayth cdot YOR
Aug. 9. E. Italy. , Rome P.16m. ,, ,, ,, 88s. and Pt. ‘46s.

,», Rocca di Papa P. 7m. gave for Lw. 7s.

,, Padua P. gave for Lw. 40s.

,, Ischia H.P. (with a natural period of 11s )
gave Pt. 6s. to 12s., and Lw. 20s. to 50s.

», Catania gave Pt. 3s., Lw. 15:5s.

,, Rome P. 8m. gave 21s., P. 16m. 14s. to 20s.

,, Ischia H.P. gave Pts. 4s., Lw. 10s.

,, Rocca di Papa P. gave Pt. 4s., Lw. 6s.

1896. June 15. Japan.

1896. June 29. Cyprus.

a Aug. 26. Iceland. , Rome P. 16m. gave Lw. 10s., P. 8m. gave
Lw. 10s.
,, Rocca di Papa P. 15m. gave Lw. 14s., P. 7m.
gave Lw. 14s.

,, Ischia H.P. gave Lw. 18s.

,, Ischia H.P. gave Lw. 60s. down to 13s.

,, Rocca di Papa H.P. Lw. 30s. to I4s., ?. m
gave Lw. 14s., P. 15m. 30s. and 14s.

,, Rome P. 16m. 8s. to 13s.

,», Catania P. Lw. 48s. to 72s., Pt. 14s. to 28s.

», Rome P. 16m. gave 11'5s.

,», Catania Lw. 15s. to 18s.; also 8s. to 16s.

,», Rocea di Papa P. 15m. gave I4s., H.P. gave
16s., P. 7m. gave 16s,

,, Ischia H.P, 2 2s. to 17s.

», Ischia H.P. gave Pt. 2°5s., Lw. 19s.

,», Rocca di Papa H.P. gave about 17s.

» Rocca di Papa H.P. gave 18s.

,, Ischia H.P. 6s. to 25s.

» Padua P. gave 35s. to 16s., Ischia H.P. gave
25s. to 12s.

,, Catania P. 25m. gave 6s. to 18s.

- June 12. N.E. India. », Shide H.P. gave 15s.

“3 Aug. 31. Japan.

As Sept. 6. Iceland.

* Sept. 22. Tiflis.
ef Nov. 1. Tashkent.

1897. Jan. 10. Persian Gulf.

When reading the above records it must be remembered that they
refer to the shortest and longest periods which were observed, or to waves
with the smallest and largest amplitudes. Near to an origin, after a
shock, a disturbance dies out with an increasing period, but at a great
distance from an origin the maximum movements which: probably corre-
spond to a shock or shocks are those which have the longest period.

Also the fact must not be overlooked that the records refer to seismo-
grams obtained from different instruments, located at different stations,
and that it is not certain that comparisons are made between similar

sages motion. The following table is therefore tentative, and when
C Q

226 REPORT—1898.

we are in possession of records more strictly comparable it may be sub-
ject to considerable alteration :—

‘ oie Period in Seconds
Distance from Origin in

Degrees Preliminary Tremors Large Waves
0 to 3 ‘05 to °2 1 to 4
8 to 10 42 av
23 to 28 2:2 19
35 to 40 62 ab
85 3 to 8 20 to 60

All that this table tells us is that both preliminary tremors and large
waves exhibit a marked increase in period as they travel, and, whatever
the period of a given wave may be in the vicinity of its origin when it has
travelled a distance represented by a quarter of the circumference of the
earth, its period has increased twentyfold.

VI. On Certain Disturbances in the Records of Magnetometers and the
Occurrence of Earthquakes. By Joun Mitne.

Although we are aware that the records from certain magnetic obser-
vatories rarely, and then only slightly, show that the magnetographs have
been disturbed at or about the time of large earthquakes, it is certain that
at other observatories these movements of the ground are accompanied
and possibly preceded by perturbations as shown upon magnetograms of
a very marked character. In some instances these disturbances have
evidently resulted from the mechanical shaking to which the magnetic
needles have been subjected, but there are other cases where such an
explanation is not so clear.

To determine how far these movements may be attributed to mechani-
cal action, whether there is any reason to suppose that certain of them
may be the result of magnetic influences, to explain the observation that
what are apparently similar earthquakes with like origins are accompanied
by different results at the same observatory, and generally with the object
of throwing additional light upon a class of phenomena which at present
are not well understood, I have collected the materials contained in the
following notes.

In addition to sending the list of ‘ Earthquakes recorded at Shide,
1897-98’ (see p. 191), to various earthquake observatories, the same was
forwarded to magnetic observatories at the following places : Kew, Stony-
hurst, Greenwich, Falmouth, Potsdam, and Bombay. Accompanying
the list there was a request that the same might be returned with
notes respecting any magnetometer perturbations which might have
been noted at about the times of the earthquakes which were more pro-
nounced.

Some time later I drew up a second list of earthquakes which had been
recorded in Italy, Germany, and England, the greater number of which
had originated at great distances from these countries, and appended to
the same a request similar to that attached to the Shide list. On April 5
this was forwarded to magnetic observatories at the following places :—

Pawlowsk (Odessa), Kasan and Tiflis, (Russia), Irkutsk (Siberia),
Prague, Vienna, and Pola (Austria), O-Gyalla (Hungary), Utrecht
(Holland), Nice and Perpignan (France), Copenhagen (Denmark), Madrid

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 227

(Spain), Coimbra (Portugal), Kew, Greenwich, and Stonyhurst (England),
Zi-ka-wei and Hong Kong (China), Manila (Philippine Islands), Batavia
(Java), Mauritius, Melbourne (Australia), Loanda (West Africa), Havana
(Cuba), Toronto (Canada), Washington (United States), Bombay (India),
Tokio (Japan).

Earthquakes recorded in Germany, Italy, and England, many of which originated at
great distances from these Countries.

The time employed is Greenwich Mean Time.

Magnetometer Disturbances |
8 ae n | eg | al
No.| Date Hour Origin : 3 3 s . & E Eg g 2 | g re
MiS/S181/0/ 8/2 Sele] 8] S18
D|a|> AGE tT sigin isi
| s) ea |= | o|
H. M Peaks}
1889. Hy Medd
1 | Apr. 18} 5 21 a | Japan : —)|— ||
2 | July 11) 10 22 p} Quetta. = he == S|
3} , 28| 3 30 p | Japan ‘ -— |
Bali. | 6 Op : : | a)
5 | Aug. 25| 7 37 p| Greece. . |— | — —|
1891. | |
6 | Oct.27} 938 p| Japan. . _ ea; Brea
1892
7 | Mar. 16} 122 p| Manila. . —|—j|—!
8 mo” 5 22 Pp 0 je Ale
9 | Apr. 19} 11 30 a | California . =
10 | May 12} 5 43 a] Japan . .|—|— — pak
11 | Oct. 19} 4 21a *s Sy hee =)
12|Nov. 4} 5 24p fe as Gee i Si
13 » 27) 5 57 p | California. = Sy
waDec. 9) 1194 | Japan .. — =5
15| ,, 20| 0 34a | Quetta. | Bi
1893.
16 | Jan. 28} 11 46 p| Italy . .|—|-- = ai
pent!) 419 a) Zante ... =
Mepeens 2) 0O39a; 4, i. |
Panes) 5° 7 p| Japan t . Be ey |
20 ” ” 7 4 p ” a7 ae mh
21 » 9] 613 p| Turkey. . |— —|— == —|
22 wees, 9 40 p| Japan . . — = Es
23 ale. Op . aw at
24 ” 13 5 0 p Quetta etd —— hes
25) ; 16) 5174] Japan. . Aaa es
26 7” 0 4 p ” —— Z|
Setewectigisn | ,, 4 =
28 ” oo» 2 18 p ” . —
29 » 22} 1116p 3 4 MI
30 | Mar. 2} 11 6 p/ Turkey. =| =| = oe =F
31 » 14) 6 20a| Italy . = a
|| 5 201 610p | Zante: |
33 » 23} 843 p| Japan . . = = =
34 | Apr. 8/ 151 p/|S.W. Ger-
many —|— |— |— eid us
35 » “LT 5 48 a | Zante rs Ect bas
36 » 23) 1 32 p | Italy —
37 » 29| 6 2p Fs Hh

228 REPORT—1898.

EARTHQUAKES RECORDED IN GERMANY, ITALY, AND ENGLAND—continued.

Magnetometer Disturbances |
Peli ; FL
No.| Date Hour Origin Mf a | Sp at le KH flee 2 Z -s ‘al
olo/a\/sicle/S/Sel Sie] ala
MSE /S | S| ole 8) 61 Sle | 3
Po is) ele
38 |May 2] 9 58a . al
39 » 18] 2 39 p Hf ee
40 ey AIG) Sale Sto oe wo: — 4
41 > 28] ouoe) Pp |sGreece.) —-|-— | — _ _
42 |June 3| 4 25 p| Unknown . — |! = —| |
ASS ie) aie eLO CLO’ pal Italy fee. |
44 Pn Mle goed) p 2 oer pet by le |i
45 » 13) 11 5a 3 :
46 » 14] 6 47 a | Greece .
47.| July 3/10 5a PS RE
48 » 5| 11 24 a | Italy
49 » 10} 014p 5
50 /Aug. 2} 1 43a 5 aS
pla erent As| 0 (ber, FG =
52 ee (16) +7 42) p s att Lee) She
6:10) Oo Dipel We. a
54 ae) f 489 5 (== on
1894.
55 | Mar. 22| 10 37 a | Japan . . | —| — = == = |—
56 | Apr. 20| 5 42 p| Greece. . | ||
57 » 27] 7 55 p rfotiheccy v8 == | — js
58] ,, 29| 3 25 a| Venezuela. ee
59 | June20| 5 45 a) Japan . . =
60 | July 10| 10 30 a | Constanti- |
nople . |—}—)|— | =
61 by eal) ee alae on es os = |
62 | Oct. 7| 11 40a/ Japan. . a
63]. 4,) 2219" Oa si gy 2 Ved | eu | vale
64| ,, 27| 9 8 p| Argentina. | —|— ——-
1895. | )
65 | Jan. 18} 237 p| Japan . . te SS
66 | July 8} 10 43 p | Caspian Sea he et) ;—|— |} —|— | — |
67 | Aug. 9! 5 38 p/| E.Italy . as 2.1/2 ae
68 | Nov. 13) 9 31 p | W.Asia Mi- |
NOLS euaes is ba
1896. }
69 | June15| 11 46 a | Japan . . |-—|— — he hes
70 | ,,. 29] 9 2p} Cyprus. . | a ess
71 | Aug. 26} 11 22 p | Iceland. . = i —
72 5 ol) 8 23a | Japan . . <8) Gu = Pal
73 |Sept. 6) O 2a/| Iceland. . _ { (eae Ke
74 » 14/10 30a/N.W. Asia {
Minor La
75 » 22) 4 53 a | Tiflis SES obs Canes
76| Nov. 1| 5 18a) Tashkent . rea 4) -2= be
1897 | | )
Jan. 10} 9 18 p | PersianGulf au =f)
June 12| 11 29 a | N.E. India. | —|— ) — = = aie
Aug. 5| 0 22a) Japan. . = |
Sept.20) 7 24 p | E. Borneo. | | —)
» 21) 628 Bt GO as ey <%
Dec. 28| 8 54p|W.Indies.; | | | | )
» 29} 11 404 | . | =

|
|
|
t
|
|

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 229

The chief feature in this list is that with one exception it refers to
earthquakes of which we know the origin. The exception is No. 42, and
it is here included because it refers to an earthquake which probably dis-
turbed the whole of the globe, and had a duration greater than any yet
recorded. In Japan I recorded it as having a duration of 5 hrs. 24 mins.
In Strassburg it continued 11 or 12 hours.

In the columns for magnetometer disturbances, especially for Kew and
Mauritius, it must not be inferred that the marks necessarily indicate any-
thing more than that slight magnetic perturbations have occurred at about
the times specified. The Potsdam, Wilhelmshaven, and Pawlowsk records
date from 1895.

Farther information has been obtained from the earthquake catalogues
published from time to time by Professor Pietro Tacchini in the ‘ Bollettino
della Societa Sismologica Italiana.’

These records date only from 1895, and refer to Utrecht, Potsdam,
Wilhelmshaven, and Pawlowsk.

What has been gathered from these lists, together with that from
replies to circulars, more of which may yet be expected, is tabulated in a
uniform manner in the following lists :—

, 0, as, for example, ‘ Potsdam = 0,’ means that the magnetographs at Potsdam were
not disturbed.

D means Declinometer or the unifilar record.

H means Horizontal Force record.

V means the Vertical Force, or Lloyd’s balance record.

The times are given in hours and minutes G.M.T.

Replies relating to the List on p. 191.
(Zarthquakes recorded at Shide, Isle of Wight, 1897-98.)

1. Records from the Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey.
Superintendent, Dr, CHARLES CHREE, J/.R.S.

Dr. Charles Chree, F.R.S., superintendent of the above observatory,
tells me that he and Mr. Baker have looked at the curves, chiefly for
horizontal force, at the times of the large movements in the Shide list,
and he points out that near these times—as near any other set of arbitrary
times—there are movements of the ordinary magnetic small wave type.
Such movements go on for hours, if not for days; and by some the view
is held that they are always, or nearly always, existent, and might be
seen if we had only delicate enough instruments and an open time scale.
When earth movements have affected the trace there is a ‘burr,’ but such
a ‘burr’ might be equally well caused by an assistant entering the room
with keys or a knife in his pocket. In only one case—No. 104, June 3—
was there evidence of a movement not due to natural magnetic causes,
excepting one on October 20, No. 141, which might more naturally be
assigned to human creation. The June 3 movement would pass for an
earthquake, but it took place at an hour when there are frequent move-
ments in the building, as absolute meteorological observations are taken
then. Traces free from small movements, excepting the vertical force, are
rare. On a moderately disturbed day the movements are in dozens, or
rather hundreds. In the following list the numbers refer to those on the
Shide list, and if these are followed by =0 this means that at the corre-
sponding dates the magnetometers were not disturbed: 98=0. 104. At

230 REPORT—1898.

119=0.

10 a.m. a slight movement, apparently not magnetic. 116=0.
131=0. 132=0. 133 probably =0. 134=0. 140=0. 141. At
2.58 P.M. movements probably due to an assistant. 145=0. 157=0.

163. A slight movement, about 2.50 p.m., of a doubtful kind.

Records from the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
Through the kindness of the Astronomer Koyal, the following note
relating to the Shide register, p. 191, were drawn up by Mr. Nash :—

Shide No. Movements noted at Greenwich.

Sistine » Small movement in H and D at 23h. 30m.
JOR Mats . 51 * Ae about 12h. 20m,
100. : a3 < , at 13h. 15m.
OT Sie . Very small movements in H and D.
LOZ a s5 ; Aa 5 ‘ D.
LOS. Aas Small movements in H and D at 4h. 45m. #

104*" .

Small wave in H and D at 9h. 50m.
NOS Fs . Very small movement in D at 11h. 45m.
TUG. . Small =n in D at 19h. 55m.
ORE re 3 5 wave in H and D at 7h. 30m.

10s. : i movement in H at 10h. 55m.

TNO =A 5 5 wave in H at 20h. 15m.

TL . * movement in H at 14h, 15m.

1 ie . Very small fluctuations in H and D.

GRE 2 : es » movement in D at 15h. 10m.

118* ” i “A in D and H, Gh. 10m. to 6h, 45m.
120 ay * P in H and D at 21h. 45m.

122 es » wave in D.

123 Small decrease in H and D at 15h. 10m.

125* “ +» wave in H and D at lh. 20m.

130 . Very small movement in H about 19h. 28m.

131 « Small movement in H.

132% . » wave in H and D at 28h. 50m.

134 > movement in H and D at 13h. 40m. +

136 .- Wave in H and Dat Oh. 15m.

L3Ts Small movement in H at 14h. 40m.

142 3 os in H and D 3h. 30m.

143 + Wave in D.

144 4 + movement in H at 9h. 48m.

147* Active movements in Hand D, commencing a 4h.
155 Small a in H and D.

156 . Very small ,, in D.

160 . Small 3 in H, again in D & H, 17h. 40m. to17h. 45m.

We have here 33 instances where it is possible that a connection may
exist between earthquake movements and the movements of magnetic
needles. In the cases marked with an asterisk the movements of the
needles preceded those of the ground.

ee lee

SES ULC

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 231

Replies relating to the List on p. 227.

— Magnetometer Movements noted at the Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey,
England. Superintendent, Dr. Cuartes Carne, F.2.S,

ma ns Month! D Time of | M Distunh
No. 5 oh : ont ay Earthquake | agnetometer Disturbances
1889.
| H. M.

1 fete) STN 18 5 21 A.M. | D and H no trace of earthquake. The
previous two days were very quiet
except for some small movements on
the 17th—1 to 3 P.M. and 5 to 7 P.M.

2 5 | VIE-| (25 7 37P.M. | On D some very small, apparently
ordinary, magnetic movements about
7.37. On H small movements—all
say on 25th—the largest between
4 and 6 P.M., but no trace of earth-
quake. The 24th distinctly quiet,
but for slow moderate movements of
D about 10 P.M.

1892.
3 10 We 12 5 43 a.m. | D trifling movements, but they look

magnetic. H shows no trace of
earthquake. On the 11th very quiet.
H shows lots of small movements,
the largest (not big) shortly before
midnight.

4 11 X. 19 4 21am. | D and H no earthquake movement.
Noon 17th and 10 p.m. on 19th many
varied movements. The fastest large
change of H on the 18th about 5 and
8 P.M. Sharp change of D on 18th
between 5 and 5.30 P.M.

5 12 XI 4 5 24p.M.|/D many small movements, but no
certain earthquake. No trace of
earthquake on H. Many small dis-
turbances on the 4th up to 4.30 P.M. ;
pretty sudden commencement on the
4th about 2.29 A.M.

19 A.M. | Dand H no trace of earthquake. On
the 8th many smallish movements
from 8 A.M. to 11 P.M. Largest on
D about noon.

6 14 | XII.

i)

i893.

1 II. 9 6 13 p.m. | Certain small movements might be
earthquake effect, but there are
several not dissimilar at no great time
interval. The 9th, but for many
small vibratory movements, w2s
quiet. The 8th was generally quiet.
A small slow movement of H at 10.40
to 1].20 P.M.

11 6p.m. | No trace of earthquake on D. Some
movements but apparently magnetic,
on H. ‘The 2nd was generally quiet.
On the 1st two well-marked move-
ments last 7.20 to 8.30 P.M.

9 ol Il. 14 6 20 a.m. | No trace cf earthquake on D and H.
13th and 14th, on the whole, quiet ;
on 13th some slow waves cn H
between 1.45 and 8 PM., alsoon D
about 12.30 to 2 P.M. and about 6 P.M.

3
te

8 30 III.

to

REPORT—1898.

MAGNETOMETER MOVEMENTS—continued.

List |Month| Day make | Magnetometer Disturbances

== ——!

11

H. M.
Soils ame 1 51 P.M. | No trace of earthquake of E or H.
D a little irregular, but nothing
special, at 151. The 8th and 7th
generally quiet, but many small
vibrations on D on 7th and early on
the 8th.
42 VI. 3 4 25 P.M. | Some slight movements, apparently
magnetic. The 3rd and 2nd gene-
| rally quiet. A few small movements
| on D on the 2nd and early on the 3rd.
45 VI. 13 11 5 A.M. | No trace of earthquake on H or D.
On the 12th H shows a slight hump
from 0 to 1 A.M., otherwise very
quiet; D shows a lot of very small
movements, a noticeably sharp one
about 6.15 A.M., and a hump on curve
from midnight to 1 A.M.

Magnetometer Movements noted at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich y from | 1889

to 1896. Drawn up by Mr. P. H. CowEtt.

[For a more detailed description see the Greenwich volumes. |

No. on

< 3 Time of Beginning of Magnetometer
ae et ees oe Earthquake = Distnrban eos
1889.
H. M.
1 1 IV. 18 5 21 A.M. | Very small, from 17d. 9h, A.M. to 6h. P.M.
2 2 VII. 11 10 22 P.M. | 2h. P.M.
3 Bes VALI || 25 7 37 P.M. | From noon.
1891.
Tesolin oe | O9sS PM lien. Ab. Abmerps Me
1892.
5 if III. 16 1 22pm. | From 15d. 8h. P.M. to 16d. 3b. A.M.
6 10 IV. 12 5 43 A.M. | Smalldisturbance from 11d.11h.30m.P.M.
q 11 X. 19 4 21 A.M. | Storm from 17d. noon.
8 12 XI. 4 5 24 p.m. Ps » 4d. 2h. A.M.
9 13 = 27 5 57 P.M. | From 26d. 2h. 30m. A.M. to 5h. A.M.
10 14 XII 9 119A... | Disturbance from 8d. 2h. A.M. to mid-
night.
a7, ) eae eleanor. || Rrom 19d. 10,30. P20.
1893.
12 16 I. 28 11 46 p.m. | From Oh. 30m, A.M.
13 ik - 31 | 419 A.M. » 1h, 30m. a.m.
14 19 If. 6 5 7 P.M. || Storm from 4d. noon to 6d. noon, Sub-
15 20 as ss 7 4PM. sequently a large disturbance.
16 21 4 9 613 p.m. | From 9d. 6h, P.M.
17 22 8 Al 9 40 P.M.
18 23 “f 1l OPM. |
19 26 Pre Mites JUS 5 17 A.M. Considerable disturbance from 165d.
20 26 ast alee 0 4PM | lh. P.M.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.

bo
ee)
vo

MAGNETOMETER MOVEMENTS—continued.

No. on : oe
: Time of Beginning of Magnetometer
eee | Month! | Day Earthquake ~~ Disturbances
p. 227
H. M.
27 3 21 7 13 A.M. | Disturbancefrom 20d. 5h. P.M. tol0h. P.M.
28 “e n 2 18 P.M. . », 21d. noon.
29 = 22 11 16pm. | Slight ,, » 22d. noon — princi-
pally at 8 P.M.
30 IIL. 2 lit 6PM. From 10h. 30m. P.M.
31 x 14 6 20 A.M. 7rols AGM:
33 os 23 8 43 p.M. | Very small disturbance from 6h. P.M.
34 IV. 8 1 51 P.M. 53 ms - 7 lh. to
10h. A.M.
35 17 5 48 a.m. | Disturbances from 16d. 3h. P.M. Small
disturbance 17d. 4h. A.M.
38 V. 2 9 58 AM. | A small, sharp disturbance 1d. 10h. P.M.
39 ie 18 2 39 P.M. Disturbance at noon.
40 Py 19 13. A.M. |; Small at 18d. 8h. P.M., and a smaller at
19d. lh. A.M.
41 5 23 8 38 p.m. | At 6h. P.M.
42 VI. 3 4 25p.M. | Register interrupted for Visitation Day.
43 a3 ai 10 10 p.m. | A great disturbance 6d. 9h. P.M. Fluc-
tuations subsequently.
44 Es 11 9 9Pp.M. | Disturbance from 10d. 7h. P.M.
Aon AV LL. 3 | 10 54m. | Very small disturbancesince 2d. 11h. A.M.
51 | VIII 4 0 52 A.M. | From 3d. 7h. P.M.
52 of 6 7 42 P.M. | Storm beginning 6d. 4h. A.M.
53 5 10 9 9P.M. | From 3h. P.M.
54 a4 14 7 48 p.m. | Very small disturbance 5h, 30m. P.M.
1894.
55 III. 22 10 37 A.M. | Storm commences 21d. noon.
56 IV. 20 5 42 p.m. | Fluctuations from 5h. A.M.
57 5 27 7 55 P.M. | Slight irregularity at 3h. A.M.
58 3 29 3 25 A.M. | From 1h. A.M.
59 VI. 20 5 45 A.M. | Moderate disturbance for some time
past. Wave at 4h. A.M.
60 VII. 10 10 30 A.M. | From 9d. 8h. P.M.
62 X. 7 | 11 40 a.m. » 6h. AM,
63 sy 22 9 OAM. » Oh, A.M.
64 i 27 9 8PM. yi) DHAES MM
1895.
65 1 18 2 37 P.M. | From 17d. noon.
66 VIl. 8 | 10 43 P.M. » 6h. A.M. and 1h, P.M.
67 | VIII 9 5 38 P.M. » Sh. AM.
68 XI. 13 9 31 P.M. » «th. PM.
1896.
69 VI. 15 11 46 A.M. | From 14d. 2h. Am. to 15d. 3h. A.M.
Sharp waves 14d. 3h. 30m. to 6h. P.M.
70 7 29 9 2PM. | From 3h. P.M. to midnight. Waves
6h, 30m. to 9h. 30m. P.M.
“TL. je VLbE 26 11 22 p.m. | Almost continuous from 23d. 2h. P.M.
to 25d. 9h. P.M.
72 3 31 8 23 a.m. | From 29d. noon to 30d. noon. Marked
at 29d. 4h. P.M.
(i IX. 6 0 24M. | From 4d. noonto5d.10h. p.m. Marked

on 5d. 8h. 30m. to 10h. A.M.

234. REPORT—1898.

It will be observed that these records, unlike those in the next register
for Utrecht, do not refer to ‘burr’-like markings produced at the time
of earthquakes, but to magnetic movements which have had a considerable
duration, and which commenced some hours before the occurrence of the
earthquakes to which they are in juxtaposition.

For fourteen earthquakes it will be noticed that there is no corre-
sponding magnetic disturbance, but, singularly enough, at least ten of
these earthquakes were small, originating, for example, in Italy, the
mechanical movements accompanying which were not recordable even at
so short a distance as England. Apparently, therefore, the greater
number of perturbations recorded at Greenwich have only preceded
very large earthquakes representing internal adjustments of the earth’s
crust. Something analogous to this will be found in the Zikawei
register, p. 245.

Magnetometer Disturbances recorded at the Royal Meteorological Institute of the
Netherlands, Utrecht. Director, Dr. M. SNELLEN.

N Bot Monti | D: nee: Magnetometer Disturb |

oO. Ip. 227 | on 7 ay Earthquake Magnetometer Disturbances

1689.
H. M.

1 Se al Vel eal: | 10 22 p.m. | D 10h. 42m. max. at 10h. 50m.,and
llh. lm. H 10h. 39m., with max.
at 10h. 41m., 10h. 52m., 11h. 2m.,and
13h. 20m.

1so9l.
2a lo X. 27 9 38 P.M. | D 9h. Om. 8s.; 9h. 28m.; 9h. 44m. 50s. ;
| 10h. 2m.; 10h. 8m.; 10h. 32m. H.=0.
1892.

11 30 A.M. | D and H 11h. 33m.
5 43 a.m. | D and H 7h. 14m.?

13893. .
5 16 1 28 11 46 P.M. | D 9h. 24m.; 10h. Om.; llh. 2m. H
9h. 26m.; 10h. Om.

6 26 Il. 16 0 4pm. | D 10b. 46m.; 11h. 34m.; 11h. 56m.
H 10h. 48m.; 11h. 24m.; 12h 4m.
Tf 30 Ill. 2 11 6PM. | D1lh.56m. H 11h. 56m.
8 33 23 8 43 p.m. | D 8h. 54m. H not registering
9 34 TV. 8 1 51pm. | D lh. 42m.; th. 56m. H ih. 40m.;
lh. 57m.
10 36 23 1 32pm. | D2h.40m. H 2h. 40m.
11 38 Ve 2 9 58 Am. | D 9h. 51m.; 9h. 58m. H 9h. 51m.;
9h. 58m.
12 40 — 19 1 SAM | Dih.19m. H= 0.
13 41 23 8 38 P.M. | D7h.36m. H 8h. 20m.
p if

43 aM. | Aug. 1, D 11h. 20m. p.m, ; 11h. 36m. P.M.
H 11h. 36m. P.M.

1894.
15 55 Ill. 22 10 37 A.M. | D 10h. 27m.; 19h. 26m., &c. H 10h.
27m.; 1jh. 21m., &c.
16 57 Ve 27 7 55 P.M. | D 7h. 57m. H 7h. 57m.
17 59 Not registering
18 60 | VII. | 10 10 30 a.m. | D 10h. 28m. H 10h. lm.; 10h. 32m.
19 63 X. 22 9 OAM. | D7h. 51m. H 9h. Om.
20 64 — 27 9 8pm. | D 9h. 0m.; H 9h. 8m.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 235

MAGNETOMETER DISTURBANCES—continued.

No. on | | Tj f
No. | List |Month| Day E bene oe Magnetometer Disturbances
p. 227 | | arthquake |
1895.

Ziee|P66, | Ville jens 10 43 p.m. | D10h.27m. H 10h, 26m.

1896.

22 69 Vi. 145; jl 46 a.m. |] D 11h. 23m. H 11h. 26m.

23 vel VIII. 26 11 22 p.m. | D1lh. 30m. H 11h. 28m.

24 73 IX, 6 0 2am. | D12h. 7m. H 12h. 8m.

25 76 XI. 1 5 18 D 5h. 31m. H 5h. 23m.

4897.

26 78 VE; 12 11 29 aM. | Dilh. 18m.; 11h. 58m. H 11h. 56m.
(See records from Bombay.)

27 rN pg 8 5 0 22am. | Di1h.4m. H Oh. 59m.

28 $l IX, 21 5 28am. | D6h. 24m. H 6h. 20m.

To the above is added 1896, August 27, D, 10h. 54m., H, 10h. 55m.,
which agrees with an earthquake recorded in Europe, as, for example, at
Catania at 10.52.

Out of the Utrecht records there are apparently thirteen instances, viz.,
Nos. 2, 5, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 26, in which the
magnetometer perturbations have preceded the records of the seismographs
by intervals varying between a few minutes and two hours.

The disturbances due to earthquakes are usually easily distinguished
from ordinary magnetic disturbances and from those produced artificially,
as for example by the approach and removal of masses of iron.

A copy of these disturbances was forwarded to Dr. Charles Chree, who
very kindly compared the same with his own records obtained at Kew.
The results were as follows :—

No. 2. Nothing special at the times specified. For several days about this date

innumerable small movements occurred from time to time.

. D, a little movement about 11.25, but not at times stated. H, small

movement at 10, but various similar movements both before and after.

» 9. D, no movement at 1.42, 1.51, or 1.56. H, asmall movement at 1.57.

» ll. D, nothing at the time stated. H, nothing at 9.51 or 9.58.

», 13. D, numerous very small tremors for some hours before and after time
stated. H, nothing at 8.20.

» 14. D, nothing at 11.20 or 11.34, or 1.34 A.M. on the 2nd. H, nothing at
11.36 P.M. on the Ist.

» Lb. a disturbed this and previous day. Hundreds of movements.

», 18. D, nothing at 10.28 specially. Very small tremors 10.25 to 11.30. H,
nothing at 10.1; burr on curve at 10.35.

» 19. D, microscopic tremors about 7.48 and later. H, nothing at 9.0.

», 20. D, considerable magnetic movement 6 to 10 p.M. Nothing special at

9pm. H, ditto.

21. D, nothing at 10.27 or 10.43. H, nothing at 10.36 or 10.43.

» 22. D, nothing at 11.23 or 11.46 a.m. H, lot of tiny tremors 10 A.M. to
1 P.M. ; nothing special at 11.26.

» 26. D, nothing at 11.18, 11.29, or 58 ; but at 11.38 somewhat abnormal jerk,
and small movement at 11.50. H, nothing at 11.29. Movement that
might well be an earthquake from 11.47 to 12.10. This is certainly
not a normal magnetic movement.

or

”

Referring to the Utrecht times given for the above thirteen cases,
Dr. Chree says that in some cases there was in progress either a moderately

236 REPORT—1898.

developed magnetic storm, or a series of vibrations such as are every
now and then conspicuous for some time—hours or days. At such times
fifty or a hundred tiny wobbles may be observed within a comparatively
small time, and it would be almost impossible, in fact, not to have one within
a minute or so of any specified time.

Magnetic Disturbances recorded at Det Danske Meteorologiske Institut,
Copenhagen. Director, Dr. ADAM PAULSEN.

| No. on| Time of
No. | ae lies Day Earthquake Magnetic Disturbances
1893.
H, M.
1 30 Ill. 2 11 OPM. | Very weak traces inH F at1lh.3m.P.M.
2 34 DV; 8 1 51 P.M. | Shocks in D and H at 2h. 3m. to
| 2h. 13m. P.M.
1894.
SN bey f 1% 27 | 755 P.M. | Disturbances by details not received
(J. M.)
4 60 | VIL. 10 10 30 A.M. | Commenced 10h. 36m. A.M. At 10h.

39m. severe shock, succeeded by
¢ several shocks until 10h. 52m. A.M.
5 61 VII. 12 2 17 P.M. | Between 2h. 15m. and 2h. 21m. P.M.

1895.

6-))|_ 66)- ||: Valde 8 | 10 43 Pm. | Between 10h. 47m. P.M. and 11h. 12m
P.M. Severe shocks particularly in
HE.

1896.
XI. ; 1 | 5 18 A.M. | Traces of earthquakes between 5h. 22m.
| | | and 5h. 28m.
1897.

8 | 78 | Vie | ao | 11 29 A.M. | Severe shocks between 11h. 18m. and

1lh. 57m. A.M.

Magnetometer Disturbances recorded at the K. K. Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und
Erdmagnetismus, Wien, Oesterreich. Director, Dr. J. M. PERNTER.

= |
= He; os | Time of ye
No. | <<" Month) Day Earthquake Magnetometer Disturbances
Pa |
1893.
H. M.
1 34 IV. 8 1 51 p.m. | Apparently strong movement
2 42 VI. 3 4 25 P.M. | Strong swinging
ia) 0 52) WELL. 6 7 42 P.M. | Much disturbed
1896.

4 | 69 | VI. | 2 | 11 46 A.M. | On the 16th much disturbed

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 257

To the above is added the disturbance caused by the Laibach earth-
quake, April 14, 1895, at 10.18 a.m.

The origin of No. 1 was South-west Germany ; that of No. 2, which is
one of the largest and longest earthquakes yet recorded, is unknown ;
No. 52 was in Italy ; while 69 was in Japan. :

The magnetographs are but rarely disturbed, and then, with one
exception, only by local shocks.

Magnetometer Disturbances recorded at the K. und K. Hydrographisches Amt. Pola.
Tae Drrecror.

No. on | Time of
No. ae ak | Day Earthquake Magnetometer Disturbances
1893.
H. M.
1 10 IL. 1 0 39 A.M. | 10h. 45m. P.M. (?)
2 21 — 9 613 P.M. | 3h. 35m. P.M. and 5h. 5m. p.m.
3 54 | VIII.| 14 7 48 P.M. | 4h. 37m. P.M.
1894.
4 55 | IIL. 22 10 37 A.M. | 10h. A.M.
5 61 | VII. 12 217 P.M. | 1h. 10m. P.M.
1895.
6 65 I. 18 2 37 P.M. | 55m. P.M.
7 67 | VIII. 9 | 5 38 P.M. | 1h. 5m. P.M.
1897.
8 77 I. 10 918 P.M. | 8h. 35m. P.M.
9 | 18 | IX. 21 5 28 A.M. | lh. 10m. P.M.

To the above is added a magnetometer disturbance, April 14, 1895,
10 hrs. 22 mins. p.M., which probably corresponds to an earthquake /el¢
and recorded throughout many parts of Italy, April 14, at 10 hrs. 18 mins.
(in Rome). The origin of this was near Laibach, in Austria.

For the earthquakes recorded but aot felt in Europe, the Pola dis-
turbances, with one exception, are from one to four hours in advance of
the seismograph records.

Meteorological Office, Toronto, Canada. Director, Professor R: F. Stuparr.

Professor Stupart writes me that he has compared the list of earth-
quakes with the magnetometer traces prior to their disturbance by the
electric trams, and does not find upon them any irregularities at the
specified times.

Magnetometer Disturbances recorded at Bombay Government Observatory.
N. A. F. Moos, Director.

In the list on p. 238 the earthquakes referred to are those which were
recorded in Europe. Several of these had submarine origins the positions
of which are unknown (see List, p. 227).

The peculiarity of the movements of the magnets, the fact that they
are disturbed hy movements which are not perceptible, that the same
movements originated at great distances, and that in some instances they

REPORT—1898.

238

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9B ON

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 239

_ were but feebly pronounced near to their origins, inclines Mr. Moos to the
opinion that the disturbances are at least partly magnetic.

Fic. 6.

en POT No. 2, July 12, 1889,

SE No. 3, Aug. 7, 1889.

Y

. 12, June 8, 1891.
—aaa No. 13, May 16, 1892,

a No, 15, Jan. 11, 1893.

—— No. 18, Nov. 5, 1893.

No. 34, Sept. 21, 1897.

SE Usual type.

Sketches of Magnetometer Disturbances recorded at Bombay. N. A. F. Moos.

: Fig. 7.

Bombay, June 12, 1897. Disturbance of Declination Needle. Multiplication,
2i times. N. A. F. Moos. .

In the Bombay Magnetic and Meteorological Observations Mr. Moos

24.0 REPORT—1898.

describes in some detail the disturbances he noted in connection with the
Assam earthquake of June 12, 1897.

Dines’ Pressure Tube Anemometer Chart did not show any trace of
atmospheric disturbance. The barograph trace was, however, disturbed,
the maximum effect being about 1 min. later than the maximum disturb-
ances in the declination and vertical force magnetograms. These instru-
ments are of the Kew pattern. The needle of the declinometer has a
period of 5:33 seconds, and the disturbance it suffered is here shown
enlarged about 2} times. The time of vibration of the needle of the
horizontal force magnetograph, which shows an equally large disturbance,
is 8 seconds. The disturbance in the vertical force magnetograph, which
is also pronounced, continued over three minutes. There are fourteen
fairly regular waves in 29 mins.; that is, the magnet which, if mechani-
cally disturbed and allowed to return to rest, would do so in double
swings of 5-33 secs. came to rest with periodic movements, each of which
had a duration of two minutes. In Europe the earth-waves from the
earthquake had periods of from 10 to 15 secs., and it is likely that when
they passed Bombay their periods would be about five seconds. It is
difficult to understand how a movement of this description would result
in the displacements recorded; and, as Mr. Moos points out, it is equally
difficult to see why earth-waves could mechanically cause a change in the
scale reading of this type of instrument. His conclusion is that the
seismic convulsion was in some way the cause of a magnetic action, every
seismic wave having its companion effect in a magnetic wave. ‘

The following is a summary of disturbances of magnetic needles at
various observatories by the shock of June 12, 1897 (see Earthquake No.
105, p. 204) :—Time at origin, about 11 hrs. 4 mins. a.m.; arrival of pre-
liminary tremors in Europe, about 11 hrs. 17 mins.; arrival of large
waves in Europe, about 11 hrs. 47 mins.

Place D H V Remarks
H. M. H. M. / eer NG) He Ma) a
Bombay . | 11 14-11 16 11 11-11 14 11 14-11 19 | Ist Shock
11 17-11 43 max. |; 11 45 End 11 19-11 23 | 2nd Shock
Batavia . | 11 £2 JJ 23,11 34, 11 29 max. 4 Shocks for H
11 37,11 54 |
Utrecht . | 11 17-11 19 max. | 11 45-12 20 | Dhas two max.
11 45-12 3 |}. 12: 3b=31"'30 | of 1O&15mm.,
which for H are
10&7 mm.
Wilhelms- | 11 19-11 2h (ecibiher fe ik 319) 11 26-11 59
haven | 11 44-12 0 |
Pawlowsk | ei fy | Max. of H at |
| J1 19-11 42 | | Tihy22mi
ParaSaint | 11 27 Pati 7 | Small
Maur |
Kew . | Small& doubtful
Copen-
hagen | Disturbed

Magnetographs at Lyons, Perpignan, Pola, Vienna, Uccle, and Lisbon
were not disturbed.
The barograph disturbance at Bombay was at 11 hrs. 14 mins. to
11 hrs. 21 mins., with max. at 11 hrs. 13 mins. ; the electrometer dis-
turbance at Batavia was at 11 hrs. 16 mins. (exact).

aa

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 241

Magnetometer Disturbances recorded at the Royal Alfred Observatory, Mauritius.

Disturbances are indicated as:

s=small; vs=very small; a=abrupt ;

va=very abrupt ; sa=small abrupt. Director, T. F. Craxton, Esq.

No. on .
No. list |Month| Day Mi acckb Magnetic Disturbances
p. 227
1889
ul i IV. 18 5 21 A.M. | H 7h. 35m. A.M.-8h. 10m. vs, 9h. 45m.—
10h. Om, vs, 11h. 10m.—13h. 10m.
2 2 VII. 11 10 22 p.m. | H 3h. 40m. P.M.—4h. 40m. vs, 5h. 30m.—
6h. s, 7m. vs. V 3h. 40m.—6h. 10m. vs
3 3 VII 28 { 3 30 P.M.) | H 5h, 50m, P.M.—th. 30m. vs, 7h. 10m.—
6 OP.M.)| 9h. 10m. vs, 10h. 10m. to 2 A.M. on
29th, vs
4 5 | VIII 25 7 37 P.M. | H 3h. 40m. P.M.—5h. 20m. vs, 5h. 50m.—
6h. 40m., 7h. 37m.—Yh. 10m. vs. V
4h. 10m.—8h. 10m. vs
1891
5 6 X. 27 9 38 P.M. | H 4h. 40m. P.M.—d5h. 40m., 7h. 30m.— |
| | 8h.10m.s. D 4h. 46m. vs—7h. 35m. vs |
1892
6 |7&8) III. 16 |; 122PpmM.)| H 15d. 8h. 40m. pP.M—9h. 20m. V
(5 22 pM.) 9h. 10m.—9h. 20m. a
7 11 X. 19 421 A.M. | H7h.0m. A.M.-7h. 40m. vs. D 4h.10m.—
5h. 40m. vs. V 4h, 40m.—5h. 10m.,
7h. Om.—7h. 40m. vs
8 12 XI. 4 56 24 P.M. | H 2h. 28m. A.M.—5h. 40m. vs. D, like
H, also on the 5th. V, like H, also
on the 5th, sa
9 14 | XII 9 119 AM. | H 8d. 8h. 10m. A.M. and 11h. 10m.-
5h. 10m. p.m. s. D like H, but vs.
V 8h. 10m.-1h. 10m. P.m.
1893
10 16 I. 28 11 46 P.M. | H 7h. 25m. p.m.-1lh. 10m. vs, 29d.
9h. 10m. a. V 7h. 38m. p.M.-7h. 43m.,
8h. 10m.—8h. 20m.
11 19 II 6 5 7 P.M. | H 1h. 10m. P.mM.-7d. 9h. 10m. A.M. vs
12 21 — 9 6 13 P.M. | H 6h. 10m. P.M —7h. 10m. vs, a wave
13 22 —- 9 940Pp.M. | H 10h. 10m. P.M.—10h. 40m. vs,
10d. Oh. 10m. A.M. vs, 1h. 40m. vs.
D 10d. 4h. 10m. a—5h. 10m. vs
lf | 24 —_ 13 5 Op.M. | H 4h. 10m. P.m.-5h. 10m. vs. D
11h. 50m. A.M. -12h. Om. vs
16 | 25 — 16 5 17 AM. | D 15d. 4h. 10m. A.M. s_S8h. 40m. vs,
9d. 40m. P.M.-1lh. 40m. vs, 16d.
Jhr. 10m. A.m.-5h. 10m. s. V 15d. |
9h. 40m. P.M.-10h. 40. H, a small
magnetic disturbance, february 14-18 |
16 30 Ill. 2 ll 6AM. | H 11h. Om. P.M.—Oh. 10m. A.M. shallow
wave
17 31 — 14 6 20 A.M. | H 5h. 50m. A.M.-1h. 11m. P.M.
Ey 85433 —_— 23 8 43 P.M. | H 5h. 40m. P.M. s
19 34 Vis 8 1 51 P.M. | H 5h. 10m. A.M.-11h. 10m. s. D like |
H but faint
20 35 — 17 5 48 a.m. | D 4h. 40m. A.M. vs J
1898.

REPORT—1898.

MAGNETOMETER DISTURBANCES RECORDED AT THE ROYAL ALFRED
OBSERVATORY, MAURITIUS—continued.

No. on | ,

list |Month| Day oe ot 3 Magnetic Disturbances
p. 227 | q

37 | 29 | 6 2pm. | H 6h. 40m. P.M. vs

ool Se 18 2 39P.M. | H 9h. 40m. A.M. s-lh. 10m. P.M. vs,
2h. 40m.—3h. 25m. s. D 1h. 10m. P.m.—

| | 4h. 10m. P.M. vs

41; — 23 8 38 p.m. | H 10h. 25m. P.M.-llh. 10m. s wave.

j D same as H, but vs wave

42 | VI 3 | 425 p.m. | H 2d. 10h. 10m. p.m.—3d. Oh. 10m. A.M.
vs, Oh. 40m. A.M.-2h. 10m. vs
44 — 11 | 9 9PM. | H 8h. 10m. P.M.-10h. 10m.s wave. D

same as H, but vs wave

52 | VIII.| 6 | 7 42pm. | H 4h. 45m. A.M., 7b. 40m.—8h. 10m. va,
| | and movements until 4h. 1lm. P.M.
D like H, but not abrupt |

1894

55 | Ill. | 22 | 10 87 A.M. | H small movements all day. Active
| | from 8h. 10m. A.M.—9h. 10h., but vs.
| | D same as H

58 | IV. | 299 | 3254.m. | H 28d. 4h. 10m. p.M.-5h. 10m. P.M. s,
: 29d. 8h. 10m. A.M—lOh. 10m. A.M.,

11h. 10m.-Oh. 10m. P.M. vs, Oh. 30m.
| j P.M.-2h. 10m. vs, 6h. 50m. 8h. 10m.
| D 29d. 8h. 10m. A.M.—10h. 10m. vs,
| 6h. 50m. P.M._8h. 10m. vs. V_ occa-
| sional small movements, 29d. 8h. 10m.
A.M.—3h. 10m. P.M.

59. |. VI. 20 | 5 45 AM. | H19d.4h.10m. P.M. sa, 21d. 1h. Om. A.M.
| D 20d. 4h. 10m. A.M.—8h. 10m. s.

| / V 20d. 7h, 40m. A.M. vs

62 | IX. | 7 | 11 404M. | H 11h. 40m, vs

64 | — | 27 | 9 SPM. | H 8h. 15m. p.M.-11h. 40m.s wave. D
' like H. V like H, but vs

1895
65 , I. j 18 ) 237 P.M. | H 9h. 10m. Am.—Jh. 25m. P.M, vs

| } | / tremors, 4h. 10m. P.M.—6h. 10m. P.M.
| / | | wave, 8h. 10m. p.M.—9h. 10m. P.M.
| D 2h. 10m. A.M.—4h. 10m. A.M. vs, V
| 8h. 10m. P.M.-9h. 10m. P.M. s wave
66 | VIl.; 8S | 10 43 pM. | H 9d. 4h. 10m. A.M.--7h. 40m., 9h. 10m.—
. | | 4h, 10m. P.M., 5h. 10m. P.M.-7h. 25m.,
8h. 25m.-10h. 25m. vs tremors
| H 5h. 10m. p.m.—7h. 10m. vs, 9h. 25m.
/ / P.M.-Oh. 25m. A.M. vs
68 | XI. 13 | 9 31pm. | H 7h. 40m. p.M.-8h. 40m. P.M. wave,
) 10h. 10m. to midnight occasional s
tremors. D 7h. 40m. P.M.—8h. 40m.
. | P.M.s wave. V like D

or
a)
oro)
Li}

1896

]1 46 A.M. | H 7h. 40m. A.M.—10h. 10m. P.M.,a small |
disturbance. D and V like H
| 9 2PM. | H 12h. 19m. P.M.-30d. Ih. 10m, A.M.,
| slight movements
42 OLE de 1 | 8 23 AM. | V 29d.11h.10m. P.M.-20d. 0h. 10m. A.M.,
/ 8h. 10m. A.M.-9h. 10m. A.M.
75 IX. | 22 | 4 53 a.m. | V 4h. 10m. 4.M.—5h. 10m. vs

—_

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 243

MAGNETOMETER DISTURBANCES RECORDED AT THE ROYAL ALFRED
OBSERVATORY, MAURITIUS—continued.

No. on :
No. | List | Month} Day Harthquak * Magnetic Disturbances
p. 227
1897

40 LIC I, 10 918 P.M. | H 4h. 40m. P.M. va, small distance after
until midnight. V like H

41 78 VI. 12 | 11 294.M. | H 2h. 10m. P.M. a

42 80 IX. 20 7 24p.M. | D th. 10m. A.M.-5h. 10m. vs

43 | 81 IX. 21 | 5 284M. | H 5h. 40m. A.M—10h. 10m. vs

44 83 | XII. | 29 | 11 40 A.M. | H small disturbance all day, sharp at
4h. 15m. P.M.-4h. 35m _ V like H,
only very small

An examination of the above table, for which I am indebted to Mr.
T. F. Claxton, the Director of the Royal Alfred Observatory, shows the
following results :—

Cases in which magnetic needles have been disturbed at intervals
varying between a few minutes and 30 hours before an earthquake, 32.

Cases in which magnetic needles have been disturbed at intervals
varying between a few minutes and 6 hours after an earthquake, 11.

Case in which the disturbances of magnetic needles have accompanied
an earthquake, 1.

Observations at the Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory, Batavia.
By Dr. J. P. vaN DER STOK.

June 12, 1897 (Assam Earthquake) (see Earthquake No. 105),

G.M.T.
BH. MAS,
Horizontal Force, first shock 5 c . : 11 23 40 AM.
+ » second ,, S : : - 11 34 40
3 awe third ©, : 11 37 40
» last Po ‘ ; . : 6 11 54 40
Declination, mid. of motion . : 3 A P ° 22 £0
Vertical Force, maximum 3 11 29 40
Electrometer (Mascart), exact commencement . ll 16 40
September 20, 1897 (see Earthquake No. 1383).
H MM. S&S.
Horizontal Force . 5 . 5 cl : 7 16 20 P.M. very small.
‘Electrometer . 6 x : > 5 : 7 14 20 large.
The declinometer and balance were not disturbed.
September 21, 1897 (see Earthquake No. 134).
H: MM. Bet Meng 18 He aM." si
Horizontal Force , ° e 5 19 20AmM.5 24 20
5 25 20 5 30 20 535 20
5 39 20and 5 42 20
Declination at . 3 5 . 5 26 20 4.mM. slight.
Vertical Force . < . 5 5 23 20 (maximum). Duration 20 mins.
5

Electrometer . 21 20 A.M. (commencement).

The distance from Batavia to the origin of these last two disturbances
is 1,500 kms. The last of them also “disturbed magnetometers in the

Mauritius, Bombay, Pola, and Utrecht.
R2

244 REPORT—1898.

Fig. 8.

ee ee

Bifilar, Sept 20. Eqke. 133,

aI

‘ A a .

Electrometer, Sept. 21. Eqke. 134.

Electrometer, Sept. 20, Eqke. 133. : >

Bifilar, June 12, Eqke. 105.

— eee

Bifilar, Sept. 21. Eqke. 134. Vertical Force, June 12. Eqke. 105.

Magnetometer and Electrometer disturbances. Batavia, 1897.

Magnetometer Disturbances noted at the Magnetisch en Meteorologisch
Observatorium, Batavia.

Month} Day Hour | Magnetometer Disturbances

|
|
|

No. on |
No. List
p. 227

1892

H. M.
1 | 15 | XII. | 20 | 0 34 A.M. | Dec. 19, 11h. 3m. p.m. Very slight.

1893
2 | 21 | I | 9 | 6 13 P.M. | Gh. 19m. p.m. Pretty distinct.
1895
8 BB: ie le 18 2 37 P.M. | 2h. 14m. p.m. Faint (?).
4 66 | VIL. 8 10 43 p.M. | 4h, 5m, p.m. to 4h. 11m, P.M, Clear(?).

MAGNETOMETER DISTURBANCES NOTED AT BATAVIA—continued.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 245

No. on |
No. | List |Month| Day Hour Magnetometer Disturbances
p. 227
1896
5 “| VIDE: |: 26 11 22 p.m. | 2h. 45m. p.m. and 2h. 49m. P.M.
6 76 XI. 1 5 18 A.M. | Nov.2,11h. 58m, AM. to 0h, 8m. P.M, (2) |
1897
7 ee) aac 12 11 29 A.M. | 11h. 25m, A.M. to 11h, 50m. A.M. Strong.}
8 80 IX. 20 7 24p.M. | 7h.17m. P.M.to7h.33m. P.M. Notstrong.
9 81 IX. 21 5 28 A.M. | 5h. 24m, A.M, to 5h. 45m, A.M. Strong.
|

_ Magnetometer Disturbances noted at the Observatory, Zikawei, China.

nore

oe

15
16

No. on
List |Month| Day Hour Magnetometer Disturbances |
p. 227 |
ee |
1889 |
H. M.
1 Vi: 18 5 21 A.M. | 2h. 54m. and 4h. 24m. Small serrations.
4 (LUE ets} 6 Op.m. | 4h. 49m. to lh, 54m, Small notched
movements.
1891
6 X. 27 9 38 P.M. | 9h.39m, A remarkable mechanical dis-
| | | turbance. See ‘La Nature,’ 1892,
No. 975, p. 149.
1892
if II. 16 | 1 22 p.m. | 1h. 54m. to 5h. 54m. Slight agitation.

1l Xx. 19 9 41 A.M. | Perturbations the day before and after.
On the 4th, perturbations from 2h.
9m, A.M,

1893

19 IL. 6 5 7Pp.M. | 3h. 54m., trepidations, Large pertur-
bations at 5h. 27m.

24 II. 13 5 Op.M. | 4h. 14m. to 5h. 4m. Slight undulations.

25 II. 16 5 17 A.M. |, All day on the 16th and 17tha great per-
turbation, but nothing exceptional at
the time of the earthquake.

44 VI. 11 9 9PM. | 3h.54m. to 9h.9m. Light undulations.

53 | VIII.| 10 9 9Pp.M. | 3h.54m. to 7h. 54m. Small serrations.

1894

55 | III. 22 10 37 A.M. | Great perturbations on the 22nd and
23rd, but nothing special at the time |
of the earthquake.

59 VI. 20 5 45 A.M. | Two days of remarkable perturbations,
but nothing remarkable at the time
of the earthquake.

62 xe a 11 40 A.M. | 9h. 54m. A.M. to 3h. 54m. P.M. Slight
serrations.

64 X. 27 9 8 P.M. | 3h.54m. to 9h.54m, Marked oscillations. |

1895

65 I, 18 2 37 p.m. | 11h. 54m. to 1h. 54m. Several insigni-
ficant movements.

67 | VIII. 9 5 38 p.m. | At 3h. 54m. a disturbance lasting two

days began.

246 REPORT—1898.

Father Chevalier, who kindly sent me the above notes, remarks that
the most striking feature of the comparison appears to be that there is no
relation between earthquakes and magnetic disturbances. <A slight earth-
quake which was felt at Zikawei on June 4, 1898, was, however, recorded
by a mechanical motion of the magnetic needles. In the sixteen cases
where something has been noted at or about the time of large earthquakes,
it must be observed that eleven of these refer to disturbances which
originated in Japan or Manila, and in nine of these eleven cases perturba-
tions preceded the occurrence of the earthquakes. We have here some-
thing analogous to what has been observed in Japan. If we omit the
three instances (nine, ten, and sixteen) where there have been slight move-
ments of the magnetic needles at about the time when small shocks were
recorded in Italy, it hardly appears to be a mere coincidence that the
Zikawei register is practically confined to records of earthquakes which
have originated in localities not far removed from that observatory. If it
were a coincidence, then we should expect to find similar perturbations
preceding at least a few of the remaining sixty-seven earthquakes on our
list. Inasmuch as certain of these earthquakes, as, for example, those
originating in Borneo and N.E. India, in every probability gave rise to as
much mechanical movement at Zikawei as those originating in Japan, it
seems that the instruments at that station are but very rarely disturbed
by the mere movement of the ground.

Extracts from the ‘ Bollettino della Societa Sismologica Italiana, 1895,,

1896, 1897.
[fea | |
| SF z = : Earthquake |
No. | z= al | Magnetograph Disturbances
oer
| See] Place of |
|=" | | Month Day | Hour terrain
1895
| | | H. M. } Place
1 | | ll. | 6| 9284A.M. | Rome | Potsdam = 0.
2 | Foetal | TDi ee eOee eM. | Utrecht. Magnetographs dis-
}

| No disturbances at Pola, Pots-

| | dam, Pawlowsk, Wilhelms-

| | haven, Toronto, Stonyhurst,

} | and Vienna.

3; 66 | VII. 8.|.10 43 pa. | Padua Pawlowsk. D and H dis-

turbed.

Potsdam. D, 10h. 44m. 4H,
10h. 50m. V, 10h. 50m.

| Wilhelmshaven. D, 10h. 47m.
HF, 10h. 49m. V, 10h.

| | turbed 4h. 5m. P.M.

| 40m.
| Utrecht. D, 10h. 27m. 4H,
| 10h. 26m.
| Pola. D, 10h. 52m.
| Toronto, Stonyhurst, and
/ / Vienna = 0.

|

a
a
to

Potsdam. V, 32m. to 35m.

0 25 A.M. | Rome
| Amplitude 1’.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 24.7

EXTRACTS FROM THE ‘BOLLETTINO DELLA SOCIETA SISMOLOGICA ITALIANA,’
1895-7— continued.

ee:
2. 2 a Earthquake
No. ES 6 Magnetograph Disturbances
@ WE Month|Day|°’ Hour page et
oA a el ata an Observation
1896
5 I. 9 | 12 14pm. | Rome Potsdam. V, 2h. 8m., 2h. 13m.,
and 2h. 18m.
6 TED. 4 4 33 AM. of Potsdam. D, 2h. 52m. to 5h.
| 9m. H, 4h. 43m. to 5h. 2m,
V, 4h. 50m. to 4h, 56m.
Utrecht. D slight. H, 4hr.
55m. to 5h. 23m.
iu IV. | 10 9 28 A.M. - Potsdam. V, 9h. 38m. to 9h.
42m. Amplitude about 05.
8 Y. 2 1 21 P.M. 3 Potsdam and Utrecht = 0.
9 3 2 55 P.M. ” ” ” ” ”
10 5 | 11 39 PM. a +; = 4 ai
HE. |- 69 VI. | 15} 11 19 a.m. 5 Utrecht. D, 11h. 23m. to 11h.
46m. H, 1lh. 26m. to 12h.
16m.
12 71 {ViIII.} 26.) 11 23 p.m. e Wilhelmshaven. D, 11h. 28m.
to llh. 3lm. H, 11h. 29m.
to 11h. 32m. V, 11h. 25m.

to 11h. 44m.

Utrecht. D,11h. 29m. to 11h.
49m. H, 1lh. 27m. to 11h.
55m.

Potsdam. D, 11h. 31m. to 11h.
59m. Amplitude 2"5.
Potsdam. H, 1llh. 29m. to

| 11h.40m. Amplitude 1’.

Potsdam. V, llh. 35m. to
11h. 37m. the maximum.

13 27} 11 OAM. ri Wiihelmshaven. Ail three in-
struments disturbed at 10h.
57m., 11h., and 11h. 1m.

Utrecht. D,10h. 53m. to 11h.
6m. H, 10h. 54m. to 1th.

| 3m.

Potsdam. D,11h. 2m. to 11h.
gom. ei. Ph nh eet,
5m.

14) 72 31 8 21 A.M, By Wilhelmshaven. D, 8h. 54m.
to 9h. 2m. H, 8h. 56m. to
9h. 9m. V, Sh. 30m,

Potsdam and Utrecht no dis-

turbance.

15 | 73 IX. 6 0 2A.M. rr Wilhelmshaven. D, 29m. to
13m. H,7m.tol0m. V,4m.
to 29m.

Utrecht. D, 6m. to 19m. H,
7m. to 31m.

Potsdam. D, 12m. to 24m.
H, 11m. to 24m. Amp. 2’.
V, 12m. to 20m.

16 12 8 24 A.M. - Wilhelmshaven. D, 8h. 51m.
to 8h. 54m. H=0. V, 8h.
30m. to 9h. Im.

Potsdam and Utrecht = 0.

248 REPORT—1898.

EXTRACT FROM THE ‘BOLLETTINO DELLA SOCTETA SISMOLOGICA ITALIANA,
1895-7 —continued.

vs
5 2 g Earthquake )
No. ES 6 is Magnetograph Disturbances
SBR
is |Month’ Day) Hour lobs Bete
17 75 22 4 53 A.M. H Wilhelmshaven. D and H =0.
V, 5h. 3m. to 5h. 12m.
Potsdam. D, 5h. 4m. to 65h.
20m: HS Siy“buire! Vi, bbe
, 7m. (1).
| Utrecht = 0.
18 1 2 |e 52) PM * Wilhelmshaven. D, 3m. to 4m.
H =.0, VV, 1h 758m, to
17m.
| Potsdam. D,4m. to 14m. H,
9m. to 13m. V (2)
| Utrecht = 0.
Oa © XI. 1 Boer AGM. | 55 Wilhelmshaven. D, 5h. 27m, |
to 5h. 28m. V, 5h. 22m. to |
| 5h. 38m.
| Potsdam. D, 5h. 21m. to 5h.
4l1m. H, 5h. 50m. to bh.
35m. V, 5h. 26m. to, 5h.
35m.
Utrecht. D, 5h. 30m. to 5h.
46m. H, 5h. 27m. to dh.
53m. f
20 10 | 10 43 A.M. 15 Wilhelmshaven, Potsdam, |
| Utrecht = 0. |
1897
21 Il 7| 7 59am. | Shide | Utrecht = 0.
22 15 | 10 20 P.M. | Potsdam x ss
23 19 8 59 P.M. | Rome Potsdam. V, 9h. 41m. to 9h. |
44m. Amplitude 1’. .
24 20| 0 18am. | Shide | Utrecht = 0. |

Until magnetograph records have been obtained from other observa-
tories, and until special experiments have been made, as, for example, to
determine the effect of artificially produced earthquake-like motion upon
magnetic needles and the effect of actual earthquakes upon non-magnetic
bars so suspended that their periodic movements are identical with those
of magnetic needles upon the same supporting pier, we cannot say with
certainty whether earthquake waves are or are not accompanied by
magnetic waves.

In discussing the records brought together, which refer to the move-
ments of magnetic needles at the time of earthquakes, it is important to
consider the mechanical movements which occurred at the time of their
production.

When a great earthquake has originated, as, for example, in Japan,
seismographic records indicate that about 16 mins. later Europe has
been swept with a flood of motion, and it might be imagined that one
observatory has practically been subjected to as much movement as any
other.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 249

The effects on magnetic needles at various observatories have, however,
been very different.

At magnetic observatories in England, Pola, Vienna, Copenhagen,

Toronto, and other observatories only the slightest perturbations are
noted, and these only rarely. On the contrary, at Utrecht, Potsdam,
and Wilhelmshaven movements of magnetic needles and the occurrence of
seismic waves are comparatively of frequent occurrence.
_ One explanation for this marked difference in the behaviour of mag-
netic needles at different stations rests on the fact that these three latter
stations stand on the vast plain of alluvial drift which stretches from
Hoiland eastwards across Northern Germany into Russia, and it may be
assumed that the seismic waves on this ocean-like expanse of soft materials
are slower and larger than those exhibited in the harder materials on or
near to which other observatories are situated. Exceptions to such an
explanation are, however, found in the records from Copenhagen and
Zikawei, and before we can say with certainty that there are great
differences in the character of the mechanical movements at different.
stations, seismometric records must be obtained from the same.

Other reasons which may be adduced to explain why at one set of
stations magnetic needles are disturbed, whilst at another set they are
practically quiescent may be as follows :—

First, we may assume that at one set of stations the needles have
periodic movements which more nearly synchronise with the period of the
earth waves than those of needles at stations where magnetometer
disturbances are rare.

The only notes hitherto collected which bear on this point are con-
tained in the following table, in which the times given are the intervals
in seconds taken to complete a double or back-and-forth circular vibration
of declination (unifilar) and horizontal force (bifilar) magnetometers :—

Unifilar. Bifilar.
Ss. s.
Stonyhurst . . : . : 6 ~ 14°30 13°20
Bombay z - = . : 3 4 5°33 8:00
Greenwich . : : : : 50:00 42-00

There is also an upper declination magnet
(for eye observations), with a period for
double swing of 61" approximately.

Vienna : : ‘ 3 5 ; 5 5°35 15°36
Pola . = - 2 ¢ : ; 7-98

Potsdam . ks F 3 A 3 4 10:00 8:00
Wilhelmshaven . 7 ' is 2 ‘ 159 16:7
Kew . i : f K E z . 10:5 13°6
Falmouth . , a , : = 17:0 18°8
Antwerp. 7 . : : : - 14-4 18°6
Copenhagen , - ; 5 - : T1 49

The magnet for horizontal force at Antwerp is kept at right angles to
the meridian by deflection magnets.

From the table it will be noted that the periods given for Kew, where
disturbances at the time of earthquakes are rare, are not very different
for those given for Potsdam, where disturbances are frequent.

A very much more important point, however, is that all large earth-
quakes commence with a series of short-period waves. Five-second
periods are marked. These are followed with others having periods of
10 secs., whilst later there may be waves with periods of 20 and even

250 REPORT—1898.

60 secs. From this it may be assumed that at all observatories,
whatever be the period of the magnets, each of them for a considerable
interval of time is subjected to identical or nearly identical periodic
movements of their supports.

From this we should expect to find that large earthquakes would
disturb magnetometers at all stations.

Sometimes the magnetic needles appear to be disturbed by the short-
period preliminary vibrations, and at other times by the succeeding long-
period earth waves; and the question arises, whether the mechanical
movement these represent is likely to establish a rotational movement in
a suspended magnet.

If we regard a magnet and its suspension as an ordinary pendulum, then
at all stations we should expect to find that the preliminary tremors of
an earthquake would establish a swing accompanied by more or less
rotation. When, however, we have rotational movements of magnetic
needles accompanying the larger earth waves the explanation of this is
not so clear, The tilting which such waves represent may, as an illus-
tration, be taken at 10 secs. of arc. For such a tilt a magnet with a
suspension of 12 ins. would be displaced through a distance of about
one hundredth of a millimetre, and because the movement would be
extremely slow, taking from 5 to 10 secs. of time in one direction, it is
likely that the magnet would closely follow its point of support.

When movements of this character take place the resultant move-
ment recorded in the photographic film is a displacement having a
range of from 2 to 15 mm., indicating that the magnetic needle has
rotated through an are of from 1 to 7 minutes.

To determine whether tilting so slight and so slow results in so much
rotation is obviously a matter which without great difficulty may be
solved by experiment,

The second assumption to account for the disturbance of magneto-
graphs at certain stations only, is the hypothesis that with regard to the
surface of the earth there is an unequal distribution of a subjacent
magnetic material the movements of which influence magnets in its
vicinity.

On the surface these movements are apparently represented by waves
20 to 50 km. in length and 20 to 50 em. in height.

To explain the fact that magnetic storms and perturbations so often
precede large earthquakes and but seldom appear to precede small ones
(see Registers for Greenwich, Utrecht, Mauritius, Zikawei, &c.), we may
assume that the earthquake is preceded by chemical, physical, or mecha-
nical changes in the constitution of the materials where it originates. All
that we are certain about is that with many earthquakes there have been
enormous mechanical displacements of material sufficiently large to dis-
turb the Pacific Ocean for a period of twenty-four hours.

Other earthquakes from submarine centres which have not disturbed
oceans, but have created equally large earth waves, indicate equally large
subterranean reliefs in strain and material readjustments.

These large earthquakes, originating beneath the bottom of the steeper
slopes of the earth’s surface, suggest that at such places a secular flow in
subterranean material may be in progress, accelerations in which result
in violent shaking, which as it radiates is transformed into slow earth
waves.

Near to the scene of such subterranean changes, prior to and at the

———

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 251

_ time of the same, magnetic perturbations should be observable. In Japan
_ such appears to have been the case.

The large sudden subterranean adjustments may not occur on the

: average more than twenty times per year ; but if we attribute the smaller

earthquakes to similar activities, one of these may, on the average, take
place every half-hour; and although none of these latter is likely to

_ produce an appreciable magnetic effect on the surface of our earth, their

cumulative effect after a sufficient interval of time, as representing a re-
arrangement and new condition of magnetic materials, might possibly

_ result in measurable changes in magnetic elements.

——_

VII. Sub-oceanic Changes.

In Section 9 of the Report for 1897 (p. 181) it was stated that off coast
lines there was a tendency for sediments and detritus derived from the

land accumulating under the influence of gravity to assume unstable

contours. That such contours had an existence was shown by reference to

soundings. By excessive deposition of sediments, the sub-oceanic escape

of waters from subterranean sources, the sudden release of waters backed
up in bays by gales, changes in the magnitude and direction of ocean
currents, and by sub-oceanic seismic and volcanic action, sudden and
extensive yieldings might take place along the faces of slopes in a critical
condition. That such sub-oceanic landslides had often taken place was

_ proved by an appeal to the experience of cable engineers, who often found

that cable interruptions were the result of their burial along lengths of
several miles, the materials covering the lost sections having fallen from
the faces of slopes along the base of which the cables had been laid.
In a few instances it was noted that there had been a considerable

_ increase in the depth of the ocean along a line of slip. Many examples

were given where cable interruption accompanied an earthquake which
had a submarine origin, and therefore it may be presumed that it was the
earthquake which caused the landslide beneath the ocean, in the same
manner that severe earthquakes result in similar displacements of what are
probably much more stable surfaces on the land.

It is believed that most of the deep-water cable interruptions on the
west side of South America are attributable to sub-oceanic activities of
this description, and it was shown that in the Mediterranean, off the coast
of Java, and in other parts of the globe, we had from time to time evidences
of re very close relationship between seismic activity and the failure of
cables.

The fact that earthquakes originating in deep water, as, for example,
at a depth of 4,000 fathoms off the N.E. coast of Japan, have been
accompanied by a series of sea waves which may agitate an ocean for
24 hours tells us that there must have been a sudden sub-oceanic displace-
ment of a very large body of material, accompanying some form of brady-
seismical adjustment.

Although the earthquakes which result from these sudden movements
may not be felt or be recordable on a coast at a distance of 200 or 300
miles from their origin, they may often be noted in the records obtained
from instruments which are capable of registering the slower movements
of the earth’s surface at distances of many thousands of miles from their
origin. The object of the following table, the materials for which were
almost entirely gathered together by my friend Mr. M. H. Gray, of
Silvertown, is to indicate the frequency of sub-oceanic disturbance, but by
no means to attribute more than a fractional portion of the same to

252 ’ REPORT—1898.

seismic action. The hours at which unfelt earthquakes the origins of
which have been at great distances from the stations where they were
recorded are given with some accuracy, but the times at which cable
interruptions have been notified are some time after the interruptions
actually occurred. Only those who are in a position to correct these latter
dates, and know the circumstances attending the various failures, can
determine which of them are likely to have originated from seismic
disturbances.

In order to extend our knowledge of sub-oceanic changes, and throwing
more certain light upon operations leading to cable interruption, I shall
regard it as a great favour if officers of cable companies who may read this
report will send me an exact statement of the times at which failures took
place, which we know to have happened at about the same time as unfelt
earthquakes have been recorded, addressing the same to me at the British
Association Rooms, Burlington "House, London, W., England.

Approximate Time of Cable Failures, and exact Greenwich Time of Unfelt

Larthquakes.
Approximate | Exact time of Earthquakes
No. Name of Cable ST =
Month | Day Time | ‘Day Hour, G.M.T., & Remarks
1897.
H. M. ! ?
1 1G 5 | 420 P.M.| Hong Kong-Macao | 4| 11b. 22m. A.m., & 10h.
52m. P.M.
2) MII. 4 | 915 A4.M.) Grenada-Trinidad . 5| 7h. 52m. A.M.
3 Maranham-Ceara 4 i
4 Ceara-Pernambuco é: 4
5 6 | 9 5A.™M.} Jamaica-Colon . +3 a
6 10 | 255 P.M.) Emden-Vigo . | 7) Th. 59m. 3s. A.M.
: r | ( 20) Oh. 17m. 47s. A.M.
7 23 Tenedos-Dardanelles . {ai 3h. 22m. Os. A.M. \
8 20 | 320p.M.| Assab-Massowah . .| ,, -
9} III..} 23 Tenedos-Dardanelles . | | Due to ship’s anchor.
10 Malta-Alexandria . | ==
11 24 Emden-Vigo . 23) 4h. 19m, 12s. P.M.
(see, § Electrician, |
April 2, 1897)
12) Iv. | 14 | Benguela-Mossamedes | =
13 19 | 630Pp.M.) Chio-Syra. .. . | 17) 10h. 43m. P.M. ?
14 20 | 3 Op.mM.| Hong Kong- Macao .| 19 12h. 45m. p.m. ?
15 25 | 10 20 A.M. Assab- Massowah --
16 28 Konekry-Sierra Leone. _—
Vi 3 | 255P.M.| Hong Kong-Macao. 1) 7h. 15m. A.M.
5 | 320P.M.| Para-Maranham --
8 | 840 A.M.| Perim-Assab . 8) lh, 52m. 30s. P.M. ?
21 | 8 204.M.| Assab-Massowah —-
29 | 8 304.M.| Lourengo Marques- | 23) lh. 15m, 20s. P.M.
Durban.” . his: 1.) 24) Oh. 18m. 59s. A.M., Lh.
48m. 19s. AM, &
4h. 30m. 59s. A.M.
VI. 2| 9254.M.| Grenada-Trinidad . .| 3) 9h. 57m. 18s. A.M.?
Puerto Plata - Mar-
tinique . woe | ”
24 Shanghai-Foochow Pd at G8in. ae ce
Shanghai-Hong Kong. aa x ee ret oe
25 | 545 A4™M.)} Bonny-Cameroon | 94 0 Le ee

24| Th. 3im. 53s. P.M.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.

1)
or
ee)

APPROXIMATE TIME OF CABLE FAILURES—continued.

Approximate
No.
Month | Day Time
VII. 4| &20A.mM
13
15 50 P.M
19 |} 235 P.M
21
23.| 829 a.m.
28 | 8104.M,
VIll.| 7| 230P.M.
IX. |lor2
4} 410P.M.
13 | 330P.M. |
28 | 230
29
Xx. 5} 310P.M.
T1 | 2:35 P.m.
18 | 220P.M.
23 | 320 P.M.
25) 5 30P.M.
26 | 3 20 P.M.
29 | 845 A.M.
7
XI. 4 /11504.M.
8 | 230P.m.
22) 9 OAM.
27 | 915 4.M.
XII. 3 | 825 4.M.
6| 340P.m.
13 | 225p.M.
20 | 410
23 | 540P.m.
29 | 940 4.mM.
31 | 420P.M.

Name of Cable

Exact Time of Earthquake

Hour, G.M.T. & Remarks

No. 1 Cable ¢ Elec-
trician,’ 29.10.97)
Bundaberg-New Cale-
donia . -
St. Thomé- Loanda . :
Cayenne-Para
Amazon-Manaos

Ceara-Pernambuco.

Vigo-Borkum . .
San Thomé-Loanda
Sitia-Rhodes .
San Thomé-Loanda
Saigon, Thunauf Cable
Ceara-Maranham
Grenada-Trinidad .
CapeHaytien,Puerto
Plata, and Puerto
Plata-Martivique.

(20
| 22
25

17

28
29

Day
Emden-Vigo . .

Zanzibar-Mombassa _—
Accra-Kotonou * (or \ Shock at Laibach. Not
Porto Novo) recorded at Shide.

Cape Town - Mossa-
medes 17| 7h. 57m. 9s. A.M.
Cie P { 21) 1h.33m.32s.P.M. Large.
BNGBRSS SOTA 1 | 22) 11h. 20m. Am. Mode-
rate.
Chypre-Lattique. ”
Aden-Zunzibar . =
Cape ‘Town - Mossa-
medes mA aces 5| Oh. 22m, 35s. A.M.
Syra-Chio. . . . % ”
St. Vincent-St. Jago 1} 6h.29m.41s.P.a1. Small.
Mozambique- Lourengo
Marques 5) Ih. 21m. 59s, P.M. ?
Small, but long.
Boulama-Bissao . 12! 10h. 54m. 18s. P.M.
Small.
Hong Kong-Macao . 25) 6h.3m.39s. P.M. Small.
Cayenne-Pinheiro .
9
Zanzibar-Seychelles { 3 a Peete.
Otranto-Vallona —
Mozambique-Lourenco
Marques 19) Oh. 6m.52s. A.M. Large.
Amazon beyond Santa
Venta: . | 20) 2h.43m.59s.P.m. Large.
Paramaribo- Cayenne .| 23) 3h. 19m. Os. AM. &
5h. 49m. 56s. P.M.
Cadiz-Teneriffc . 23) 3h. 19m. Os. AM. &
5h. 49m, 56s. P.M.
Santiago de Cuba-
Guantanamo . ; we
St. Vincent - Pernam- { 2) Lh. 36m. 39s.
buco 3) 3h. 7m. 9s.

5h. 33m. 21s. P.M.
9h. 48m. 45s. A.M.
10h. lm. 48s A.M.

6h, 30m. P.M.

8h. 54m. 21s. P.M.

11h. 40m. 48s, a.m. This
earthquake known
cause of failure.

254 REPORT—1898.

APPROXIMATE TIME OF CABLE FAILURES—continued.

Approximate | Exact Time of Hier thquake
No. Name of Cable '——_
Month | Day | Time Day| Hour, G.M.T. & Remarks
1898.
I. 3 | 850A.M.) Para-Maranham . . 3] 2h. 41m. 28s. PM. &
5 | 6 5P.M.| Curagao-LaGuayra, . 3h. 7m. J5s. P.M,

6 | 915A.M.| Saigon-Hong Kong

13 | 6 OP.M.| Para Camela Cable . —

23 }10 OA.M.| Para-Maranham :

26 Puerto Plata-C. Haiti.. 24) 11h. 45m. 49s. P.M.
27 | 3 30P.M.| Paramaribo-Cayenne . —-

28 | 245 p.mM.| Bolama-Bissao ,. —
f 5) 8h. 36m. 13s. A.M.

a

II. 7 | 835 Am.) Emden-Vigo. . .. 1th, sbrateiel ale
10 | 555p.m.| Lattique-Chypre . . 8] 11h. 5m. 47s. P.M.
| ; 9} 10h. 57m. 36s. P.M.
14 | 4 OP.M.|} Bolama-Bissao ... .| 16) 5h. 9m. 8s. P.M.
18} 5h.0m.0s. P.M. Toronto
record.
19 | 345pP.M.| Bolama-Bissao . . . 19
28 | 2 Op.m.| Aden-Zanzibar . . . Owing to repairs.
III. 6 | 2 5p.M.| Amazon cable __be-
yond Obidos
17 | 845 A.m.| San Thomé-Loanda . To effect repairs.
19 | 825 4.M.| Gibraltar-Tangier . . ’
19 Lourengo Marques-

1D Ni oh okey eee
24 | 8 20 A.M.| Cayenne-Pinheiro .
28 | 8 45 A.M.| Havre-Waterville
28 | 2 40 P.M. | Odessa-Constantinople
IV. 4} 5 OPp.m.| Amazon Cable Paipre
Gurupa . .
9 | 340P.M. | Sierra Leone- Accra
14} 8 OP.™M.| Cape Town - Mossa-
medes .. 5A
17 |10 15 A.M.|} Maranham- Para
20 | 2 30P.M. | Benguela-Mossamedes

* Kotanu; is also called Porto Novo sometimes. (Kotanu is is on . the ES Porto
Novo, a few miles inland.)
t? Thunau, also called Hué.

The earthquake records are not continued beyond February 19, 1898.

The three breaks which took place in November and December, 1897,
on the San Thomé-Loanda line did so at the same place abovt 150 miles
off the north of the Congo, where there is a depth of some 1,300 fathoms.

Mr. R. Kaye Gray points out that here we have a river bed extending
seawards as 1 deep gulley the walls of which are 2,000 feet in height.
In 1,550 fathoms a strong under-current renders it difficult to obtain
soundings. In the mouth of the Congo there is a depth of only ten
fathoms, and it does not seem likely that the rivers flowing over this
shallow would dive down to produce the under-tow observed at a distance
of 150 miles off the coast. Mr. Gray’s idea is that we have here a case of
subterranean water bursting out in the bed of the ocean, moving heavy
detritus across the cable to cause interruption, whilst lighter particles rise
to the surface to discolour the ocean. There is no evidence suggesting
that these failures were any way connected with seismic phenomena.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 295

VIII. A Time Indicator.

A slight modification in the method of obtaining time marks on the
photographic film connected with the Milne Horizontal Pendulum is
shown in the accompanying sketch :—

Fig. 9.

1

5 ———

The watch, with its eclipse hand (see Report, 1897, p. 138), is replaced
“by a small electromagnet which every hour, by a current lasting about
20 seconds, holds an eclipse plate over one end of the slit in the lid of the
_ box containing the clock driving the bromide film. The two wires con-
nect with two brass studs in the lower edge of the upper part of the film-
box, which fit into brass sockets in the upper edge of the lower half of the
same box. From these sockets wires connect with the wheels on the two
sides of the box, the rails on which these run leading to a clock giving
the required length of contact.

To get this length of contact the Shide arrangement is to prolong the
minute hand of a regulator with about {inch of platinum wire, which
every hour passes through a globule of mercury about the size of a pea,
standing wp in a small insulated iron cup fitted in the brass frame which
carries the glass covering the clock face. The only advantage of this
arrangement is that it saves a little time in winding and comparing the
watch. Two platinum contacts rather than a platinum mercury contact
would be preferable.

IX. On the Civil Time employed throughout the World.

With the kind assistance of the Foreign Office, the Colonial Office, and
the India Office, copies of the following letter have been circulated
throughout the world. The text of the circular explains the object in
view. Numerous replies have been received from our Colonies, India
and its dependencies, but until these have been supplemented by replies
from many foreign countries the general report which it is desired to
draw up cannot be made. It is hoped that the necessary tabulation may
be undertaken for the Report for 1899.

256 : REPORT—1898.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE:

Burlington House,
London, W.

Sir,—It is, I think, remarkable that there appears to be no publica-
tion which shows the corresponding value in Greenwich mean time of
the local time employed throughout the world.

Such a table is indispensable in order to determine accurately the
instant of occurrence of earthquakes, sea waves, magnetic phenomena, the
despatch of telegrams, and many other events, the sequence of which in
absolute time has to be determined.

Although application has been made to the Royal Observatory at
Greenwich, to the Royal Geographical Society, to the Central Telegraph
Office in London, to the offices of cable companies, and to other possible
sources of information, very little has been obtained.

As a Secretary of the British Association Committee whose names
are appended, I desire to publish in their forthcoming Report a table
showing the differences between Greenwich mean time as used in England
and Scotland and that of the civil times used in various parts of the
world.

By civil time I mean the time used by railways, telegraphs, and for
ordinary public affairs.

If different times are used in various parts of your country, T trust
that you will be able to give information relating to the same.

Feeling assured of the value of the table it is intended to compile, I
sincerely trust that you will favour me with a full and explicit statement
of the time generally employed in yourcountry. If it is mean time, state
the meridian ; the observatory, or the place to which this refers ; and
also, as a check against any misunderstanding, please state distinctly the
equivalent of December 1, 9 a.m. G.M.T. in the local time, or times adopted
in your own country.

I have the honour to remain, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
JoHuN MILNE.

X. Great Circle Distances and Chords of the Earth.}

The highest velocity which can be calculated for the transmission of
an earthquake wave is that which is determined when we assume that its
path from its origin to an observing station has followed a great circle over
the surface of the earth, whilst a lower velocity is obtained on the hypo-
thesis that the movement has passed along a chord through the earth.

Inasmuch as an earthquake origin, especially if submarine, cannot be
determined with any degree of accuracy, whilst the origin itself may have
dimensions measured by several tens of miles, a simple and sufficiently
accurate method of determining great circle distances is to measure the
same with a flat steel tape ora piece of thread upon the surface of a
globe.

1 A table giving the lengths in kilométres of aics and chords of the earth has been
drawn up by Mr. James Arnott, and the same may be had on application to Mr, J.
Milne, a secretary of this committee.

ae

.

—_— =

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. Pasi)

XI. Lables of Certain Small Fractions of an Hour.

The film used with the Milne Horizontal Pendulum is supposed to be
driven at the rate of 60 mm. per hour. In consequence of changes in
temperature, varying resistances in the unrolling of the film, and for other
reasons, measurement between the time marks will sometimes slightly
vary. The result of this is that the observer when determining the exact
commencement of a disturbance finds he has to work out certain fractions
ofanhour. For example, he may require to know the value of 31 of an
hour, or =2,, of an hour, which are respectively 31 mins. 31:5 secs., and
31 mins. 07°7 sec.

Such results are shown in the following table drawn up by my assistant,
Shinobu Hirota.

Inasmuch as measurements less than 0:1 mm. cannot be made on the
time scale, it is evident that for all ordinary computations the decimals in

the following table are not required (see British Association Report,
1896, p. 183).

£ ee INTERVALS BETWEEN TIME Marks ON A FILM
Time Mark
to some MM. MM. MM. MM. MM. MM. MM. MM. MM.
Phase of a 68:0 58°25 58°50 58°75 59°0 59°25 59°50 59°75 60:0
Disturb- per per per per per per per per per
ance 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour
MM. ML S. M.S. M. S. M. S. M. 5S. M.S. M.S. M. S. M. 8.
0-25 0 15°51 Q 15°45 0 15°38 0 15°31 0 15°25 0 15°19 0 15°12 0 15°06 0 15
6°50 0 381-03 0 30°90 0 30°77 0 30°63 0 30°50 0 30°38 0 30°25 0 30°12 0 30
O75 0 46°55 0 46°35 0 46°15 0 45°95 0 45°75 0 45°97 0 45°3 0 45:18 0 45
1 1 02°07 1 01°80 1 01°53 1 01°27 1 01°01 1 00°76 1 00°50 1 00°25 10
3 2 O14 2 03°60 2 03:07 2 02°55 2 02°03 2 0151 2 01°00 2 00°50 2 0
3 3 06°20 3 05-41 3 04°61 3 03°83 3 03°05 3 02:27 3 01°50 3 00°75 3 0
4 4 08'27 4 07°21 4 06°15 4 05°10 4 04:06 4 03°03 4 02°01 4 01°00 4 0
5 5 10°34 5 09°01 5 07°69 5 06°38 5 05°08 5 03°79 5 02°52 5 01°25 5 0
6 6 12°41 6 10°81 6 09°23 6 07°66 6 06°10 6 04°55 6 03°02 6 01°50 6 0
7 7 14°48 7 12°61 7 10°77 7 08:93 7 07-11 7 05°31 7 03°52 7 O75 4.0
8 8 16°55 8 14:42 8 12°31 8 10°21 8 0813 8 06°07 8 04:03 § 02°01 8 0
9 9 18°62 9 16°22 9 13°84 9 11°49 9 09°15 9 06°83 9 04°53 9 02°26 9 0
10 10 20°69 | 10 18°02 | 10 15°38 | 10 12°76 | 10 10°16 | 10 07°59 | 10 05°04 | 10 02°51 | 10 O
11 1k 22°76 | 11 19°82 | 11 16°92 | 11 14:04 | 11 11°18 | 11 08°35 | 11 05°54 | 11 02°76 | 11 0O
12 12 24-83 | 12 21°63 | 12 1846 | 12 15°31 | 12 12°20 | 12 09°11 | 12 06°05 | 12 03°01 | 12 0
13 13 26-90 | 18 23°43 | 15 20:00 | 13 16°59 | 13 13°22 3 09°S7 | 13 06°55 | 13 03°26 | 13 0
14 14 28:96 | 14 25°23 | 14 21°53 | 14 17°87 | 14 14:23 | 14 10°63 | 14 07°05 | 14 03°51 | 14 0
15 15 31°03 | 15 27:03 | 15 23°07 | 15 19°16 | 15 15°25 | 15 11°39 | 15 07°56 | 15 03-76 | 15 O
16 16 33°10 | 16 28°84 | 16 24°61 | 16 20°42 | 16 16°27 | 16 12°15 | 16 08°06 | 16 04°01 | 16 O
17 17 35°17 | 17 30°64 | 17 26°15 | 17 21:70 | 17 17°28 | 17 12°91 | 17 08°57 | 17 04:26 | 17 O
18 18 37°24 | 18 32°44 | 18 27°69 | 18 22°97 | 18 18:30 | 18 13°67 | 18 09°07 | 18 04°51 | 18 O
19 19 39°31 | 19 34:25 | 19 29°23 | 19 24°25 | 19 19°32 | 19 14°43 | 19 09°58 | 19 04:77 | 19 O
20 20 41:38 | 20 36°05 | 20 30°77 | 20 25°53 | 20 20°33 | 20 15°19 | 20 10°08 | 20 05:02 | 20 O
21 21 43°45 | 21 37°85 | 21 32°31 | 21 26°80 | 21 21°35 | 21 15°95 | 21 10°58 | 21 05:27 | 21 0
22 22 45°51 | 22 39°65 | 22 33°84 | 22 28:08 | 22 22°37 | 22 16°70 | 22 11°09 | 22 05°52 | 22 O
23 23 47:58 | 23 41°46 | 23 35°38 | 23 29°36 | 23 23°39 | 23 17-46 | 23 11:59 | 23 05:77 | 23 0
24 24 49°65 | 24 43°26 | 24 36°92 | 24 30°63 | 24 24°40 | 24 18:22 | 24 12:10 | 24 06°02 | 24 O
25 25 51°72 | 25 45:06 | 25 3846 | 25 31°91 | 25 25°42 | 25 18°98 | 25 12°60 | 25 06-27 | 25 O
26 26 53°79 | 26 46:86 | 26 40°00 | 26 33°19 | 26 26°44 | 26 19°74 | 26 13°11 | 26 06°52 | 26 O
27 27 55:86 | 27 48°67 | 27 41°53 | 27 34°46 | 27 27°45 | 27 20°50 | 27 13°61 | 27 05-77 | 27 O
28 28 57:93 | 28 50°47 | 28 43:07 | 28 35:74 | 28 28:47 | 28 21°26 | 28 14°11 | 28 07°03 | 28 O
29 30 00°00 | 29 52:27 | 29 44°61 | 29 37:02 | 29 29°49 | 29 22°02 | 29 14°62 | 29 07-28 | 29 0
30 31 02°07 | 30 54°07 | 30 46°15 | 30 38:29 | 30 30°50 | 30 22-78 | 30 15:12 | 30 07°53 | 30 0
SL 32 04:14 | 31 55°88 | 31 47°69 | 31 39°57 | 31 31°52 | 31 23°54 | 31 15°63 | 31 07°78 | 31 O
32 33 06:20 | 32 57°68 | 82 49°23 | 32 40°85 | 32 32:54 | 32 24:30 | 32 16°13 | 32 08:03 | 32 0
33 34 08:27 | 33 59°48 | 33 50°77 | 35 42:12 | 33 33°55 | 33 25:06 | 33 16°64 | 33 08:28 | 33 0
34 85 10°34 | 35 01:28 | 34 52°31 | 34 43°40 | 34 34°57 | 34 25°82 | 34 17°14 | 34 0853. | 34 0
- 35 36 12°41 | 36 03°09 | 35 53°84 | 35 44°68 | 35 35°59 | 35 26°58 | 35 17°65 | 35 OS:78 | 35 O
36 37 14°48 | 37 04°89 | 36 55°38 | 36 45°95 | 36 36°60 | 36 27:34 | 36 18:15 | 36 09°03 | 36 0
87 88 16°55 | 38 06°69 | 37 56°92 | 37 47:23 | 37 37°62 | 37 28:10 | 37 18°65 | 37 09:29 | 37 O
38 39 18°62 | 39 0849 | 38 5846 | 38 48°51 | 38 3864 | 38 28°86 | 88 19°15 | 88 09°54 | 38 O
39 40 20°69 | 40 10°30 | 40 00:00 | 39 49:78 | 39 39°66 | 39 29°62 | 39 19°66 | 39 09:79 | 39 0
40 41 22°76 | 41 12°10 | 41 01°53 | 40 51:06 | 40 40°67 | 40 30°38 | 40 20°16 | 40 10:04 | 40 0
41 42 24°83 | 42 13:90 | 42 03:07 | 41 52°34 | 41 41°69 | 41 31°14 | 41 20°67 | 41 10-29 | 41 O
42 43 26°90 | 43 15°71 | 43 04°61 | 42 53°61 | 42 42°71 | 42 31°90 | 42 21:17 | 42 10°54 | 42 0
43 44 28°97 | 44 17°51 | 44 06°15 | 43 54°89 | 43 43°72 | 43 32°66 | 43 21°67 | 48 10°79 | 43 0
44 45 31°03 ) 45 19°31 | 45 O7°67 | 44 56°17 | 44 44-74 | 44 33-42 | 44 22-18 | 44 1104 | 44 0

258 REPORT—1898.

ee INTERVALS BETWEEN TIME Marks ON A FILa

Time Mark, iG ee : «rs == Le
to some MM. MM. | MM. MM, MM. MM. MM. MM. MM.

Phase of 2 580 58°25 58°50 58°75 590 59:25 59°50 59°75 60°0
Disturb- per per | per per per per per per per
ance 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour

MM. M.S. M. S. | M.S. M. 5. M.S. M.S. M. S. M.S. M.S.

45 46 33°10 | 46 21°11 | 46 09°23 | 45 57-44 | 45 45°76 | 45 34°18 | 45 22°68 | 45 11°29 | 45 O
46 AT 85°17 | 47 22°92 | 47 10°77 | 46 58:72 | 46 46°78 | 46 34°94 | 46 25°19 | 46 1154 | 46 0
47 48 37°24 | 48 24°72 | 48 12°31 | 48 00°00 | 47 47°79 | 47 35°70 | 47 23°69 | 47 11°79 | 47 0
48 49 39°31 | 49 26°52 | 49 13°84 | 49 01:27 | 48 48°81 | 48 36°45 | 48 24:20 | 48 12°05 | 48 0
49 50 41°38 | 50 2832 | 50 15°38 | 50 02°55 | 49 49°82 | 49 37-21 | 49 24°70 | 49 12°30 | 49 O |
50 51 43°45 | 51 30°13 | 51 16°92 | 51 08°83 | 50 50°84 | 50 37°97 | 50 25°21 | 50 12°55 | 50 0 |
51 52 45°51 | 52 31°93 | 52 1846 | 52 05°10 | 51 51°86 | 51 38:73 | 51 25-71 | 51 12°80 | 51 O
52 53 47°58 | 53 33°73 | 53 20°00 | 53 06°38 | 52 52°88 | 52 39:49 | 52 26°22 | 62 13°05 | 52 O
53 54 49°65 | 54 35°53 | 54 21°53 | 54 07°66 | 53 53°89 | 53 40°25 53 13°30 | 53 0
54 55 51°72 | 55 87°34 | 55 23:07 | 55 08°93 |.54 54°91 | 54 41°01 54 13°55 | 54 0
55 56 53°79 | 56 39°14 | 56 2461 | 56 10°21 | 55 55°93 | 55 41°77 “Te 55 13°80 | 55 0
56 57 55°86 | 57 40°94 | 57 26°15 | 57 11:49 | 56 56-94 | 56 42°53 | 56 28-23 | 56 14:06 | 56 0 |
57 58 57°93 58 42°74 | 58 27°69 | 58 12°76 57 57°96 57 43°29 | 57 2874 | 57 14°31 | 57 O |
58 60 00°00 59 4455 59 29°23 59 14°04 | 58 58°98 | 58 44°05 58 29°24 | 58 14°56 58 0
58:25 —_ | 60 00°00) | GO 00:00 — — 7 — — 58 15
58°50 — | . — _— - | = 58 30
58°75 — | — | = 60 00:00 — — — | _ 58 45
59°00) — | ; GO 00°00 | 59 44°81 | 59 29°75 | 59 14°81 | 59 O |
59°25 —= | a -- — | — GU O00 — | — 5915 |
59°50 _ a — | 60 00:00 | — 59 30 |
59°75 — | -- ' — = = — — 60 00:00 | 59 45
60 = | =4 9 a Ml (ae ME ee ah ee ses a 60.00 |

XII. Notes on a Visit to Earthquake Observatories in Italy and at
Strassburg. By Joun MItne. .« :

With the object of more clearly understanding the nature of certain
forms of seismographic apparatus referred to or described in various pub-
lications, to see instruments and experimental apparatus descriptions of
which have yet to be published, to learn something respecting their various
degrees of sensibility and their installation, to see the manner in which
they are manipulated—which in many instances it is difficult to express in
words—and, above all, to make myself acquainted with certain European
organisations for the study of movements of the earth’s crust, in May of

this year I visited seismological observatories and offices at Catania,
Cassamicciola, Rome, Rocca di Papa, Padua, and Strassburg.

At these particular stations there exist types of all the most important
seismometers, seismographs, and seismoscopes whichare at present employed
in Europe, and it was for that reason that they were visited.

In the following few notes it is not my intention to describe all that
I saw—inasmuch as that would be a repetition of much that is published—

but only to say a few words respecting that which was striking and to
record general impressions,

Caranta.—Gli Osservatorit di Catania e dell’ Etna.
Director, Professor A. Ricco.

For a detailed description of these observatories see ‘Memorie della
Societa degli Spettroscopisti Italiani,’ vol. xxvi. 1897.

In 1669 a great part of Catania was destroyed, and 27,000 lives were
lost, by an eruption from one of the many parasitic craters which flank
the mound-like mass which with its central peak constitutes Etna. One
feature of the eruption was a flow of lava which passed over and through
the city, and only stopped when it entered the sea. This stream is now
patched over with yellow lichen, and along the sides of the railway which
passes through it as it enters the city from the north many cuttings in

Mar

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 259

rock and scoria give a good idea of the character of the materials on which
Catania and its observatory are founded.

The observatory, which overlooks the city and the sea, stands on the
top of one of the steps indicating the contour of the country now buried by
the molten flood of 1669.

The buildings are rugged, large, and massive, and apparently form
‘portion of an uncompleted church ; and it is in the spacious vaults of this
church (Convento dei Benedettini) beneath the astrophysical observatory
that the Seismological Laboratory is established.

The foundations of these buildings, like those of many of the buildings
in Catania, follow the very irregular contour of the lava bed from which
they rise.

The Instruments.

The entrance to the Physical Observatory on the north side is a hall
at the end of which stone stairs lead to upper storeys. In the open space
between these there is a thin metal tube reaching from the roof above, and
passing downwards through the floor into the vaults beneath. This tube,
which is steadied by horizontal wire ties, protects the supporting wire of
the great pendulum, which is about 25:3 metres (83 feet) in length. At
its upper end it is supported from a double T-iron beam, and at its lower
end it carries a cylindrical mass of metal weighing 300 kilos. The bob
hangs freely in a case standing on the floor of a special chamber in the
erypt-like vaults below.

The movements of the pendulum or of the ground relatively to the
same are recorded by pens charged with glycerine ink, somewhat similar
to the pens employed in the Richard meteorological instruments, upon a
band of paper moving at a rate of one cm. per minute. These pens,
which are balanced so that they barely touch the recording surface,
are attached to the ends of aluminium levers which multiply the relative
motion of the pendulum and the ground 12-5 times. The shorter arms of
these levers (A c and BC) are slotted, and embrace the wire of the pendulum,
which is 6 mm. thick, just above the bob (fig. 10).

The motion is recorded by suitable levers. At each hour, by means of
an electro-magnet in connection with a chronograph, the pens are gently
raised from the paper for a period of about six seconds. In this manner
time intervals are obtained.

Fig. 10.
»

Inasmuch as the period of the pendulum relatively to that of local earth-
quakes is long, it acts as a steady point, and a record of the movements of
the ground magnified about 12-5 times is obtained upon the moving band
_ of paper. Two such shocks were recorded on the morning of my arrival in
Catania.

With the long-period earthquakes originating at great distances it is
assumed that the pendulum follows the slowly tilting ground.

s2

260 REPORT—1898.

If this is the case, then 1 mm. deflection of the writing indices corre-
sponds to 0°6 sec. of are.

When the pendulum has given to it a swing with a range of motion as
shown by the writing indices of 3-5 cm. after nine complete swings, it
comes to rest in 1 min, 42 secs.

The shortness of this interval indicates that in the recording apparatus,
especially perhaps with the pens, there is considerable frictional resistance ;
a feature in the apparatus which I understood Professor Ricco has the
intention of improving.

High winds and waves beating on the coast result in a tremulous
movement of the writing indices, so that if an earthquake occurred at such
a time I presume the rapid movements at its commencement might be
eclipsed.

In the centre of a spacious chamber adjoining that in which the large
pendulum is installed there is a massive column in the form of a truncated
cone, the greatest visible diameter of which is 5 metres. It rises from the
floor in the form of a solid circular wall, to the centre of the annular space
-which this incloses there is an opening. Instruments standing on this
can be examined either by walking round the outside or round the inside
of this horseshoe-formed pedestal.

At the time of my visit there were standing upon it eight or ten seis-
moscopes, the microseismoscope of Guzzanti and the seismograph of
Brassart.

Amongst the seismoscopes I noted a light spiral spring carrying a
weight with a style: if this moved slightly downwards—say less than
‘5 mm.—it came in contact with a surface of mercury and closed an electric
circuit the time of which might be noted in various manners. The
essential feature in two other seismoscopes was a small column standing
upon an exceedingly small base. In one instance the column stands freely.
To place the column in such a position directly by hand would for many
people be almost an impossibility. It is therefore suspended by a collar
to hang freely in a tube. When the tube is lowered between guides the
_ bottom of the column comes down upon its base and it remains standing
upright.

In another instance the column is brought to a practically upright
position by leaning it against a support which by means of a screw is
gradually advanced until the column is on the verge of falling. In both
cases the columns are in an extremely unstable condition, and, should they
fall either by their weight or by making an electric contact, they start a
clock or actuate other apparatus which gives the times at which they were
disturbed.

The apparatus employed to yield open diagrams of local shocks is a
Brassart seismograph. This consists of a pendulum, 3 metres in length,
carrying as a bob a ring of metal weighing 26-4 kilos. Embracing a style
which projects from the bob downwards are two levers arranged as in the
large seismograph. These multiply motion relatively to the pendulum ten
times, and their outer ends rest side by side on the surface of smoked glass
plate which at the time of an earthquake is set free by electric contact from
one of the seismoscopes to run at a rate of about 445 mm. per minute.

The vertical component of motion is obtained either by making a
portion of the suspension of the pendulum a spiral spring and treating the
heavy bob of the pendulum as a steady point, or from a spring lever
seismograph attached to the frame carrying the ordinary pendulum. By

——

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 26]

a system of levers from the bob of the latter, or from the weighted
extremity of the spring lever, a third pointer writes the vertical com-
ponent of motion side by side with the horizontal components.

I particularly wish to draw attention to this type of instrument,
because I found it at several observatories, and it is a type that has
evidently found favour in the Italian Peninsula.

For disturbances of short period it has no doubt been found effective,
but for the long rolling movements produced by earthquakes originating
at distances of 100 or 200 kilometres, when we have periods of from one
to four seconds, my own experience is that with such pendulums a more
or less violent swinging is established.

The microseismoscope of Guzzanti consists of three inverted pendulums
of different periods arranged to make electric contacts. Should they be
set in a state of vibration, these contacts are recorded by an electric
magnet actuating a pen upon a moving band of paper.

The Cecchi seismograph at Catania, as at other stations I visited, was
not in working adjustment, the reason for this being, I presume, that the
records from a Brassart type of instrument were found more satisfactory.

Hanging against the wall of the same chamber with the large column
is a Bertelli-Rossi tromometer. This consists of a pendulum several
metres in length, a style from the bob or plummet of which is viewed by
a microscope with a micrometer scale.

Another tromometer is that of Dr. Agamennone. This consists of an
ordinary pendulum with a multiplying lever, which actuates two small
mirrors, the movement of rays of light reflected from which are recorded
on a moving photographic surface.

A very useful apparatus which I found here and at other observatories
is the photochronograph of Dr. Cancani.

In a box attached to the wall is a chronometer, above which there is
a camera containing a plate and a small electric lamp. At the time of an
earthquake one or other of the seismoscopes on the great column make an
electric contact, which actuating an electric magnet turns on a current
for a second or so to the electric Jamp. The result is that the face of the
chromometer is photographed. The last piece of apparatus to which my
attention was drawn was a tide gauge-like recorder for a well. The
bottom of this well is, I understand, in the Pliocene strata beneath the
lava on which the observatory isfounded. The depth is 32 metres, and is
9:5 metres above sea level. At the time of large earthquakes the puteo-
metric record shows that the water at that depth has been disturbed.

Island of Ischia

Until this year on the island of Ischia there have been two seismo-
logical observatories—one at the town of Ischia and the other at Cassa~-
micciola, Dr. Grablovitz, the director of these stations, told me that
the former of these was to be abolished, and all the instruments brought
together at Cassamicciola. From the jetty at Cassamicciola you see the
observatory on the highest portion of a colline some 300 feet above sea
level beneath the cliff-faced pinnacles of the extinct Epomeus. On reach-
ing it you look down upon the newly built houses and many ruins, which
testify to the disaster of 1883.

The walls of the observatory, like those of the modern buildings,
instead of being built of stone and rubble, are of framed timber largely

262 REPORT—1898.

strengthened with iron straps. A few yards distant from the observatory,
and in the same garden, is the residence of Dr. Grablovitz and his office.

The observatory is practically a lofty, well-lighted room 30 feet or
so in diameter.

In the centre of this there is a massive horseshoe-formed column, on
which stand a variety of instruments, On one of the walls is the regu-
lator, which is from time to time corrected by noting the time when a spot
of light crosses a meridian line drawn upon the floor. This takes place
when the sun passes a slit in the wall in line with the mark upon the floor.
Here, as at Catania, there was a three-component Brassart pendulum.
Another pendulum had a length of 1 metre, and only records two com-
ponents of motion, each of which is multiplied ten times.

With apparatus of this description, in which the record is received
upon a drum revolving on a horizontal axis, Dr. Grablovitz arranges the
pen or style so that it hangs vertically, and therefore comes in contact
with the side of the recording surface instead of being, as is usually the
case, upon the top of the same. Although in the latter case the pens
or styles are balanced, I understood from Dr. Grablovitz that his
arrangement, especially when the styles are made of a small thin strip of
aluminium, is one that minimises frictional resistance. One apparatus
provided with these pens was a pair of horizontal pendulums the lead
weights of which were cylinders measuring about 30 cm. by 5em. The
short arm of these pendulums was 2 cm. and the long arm 40 em. Quick
motion, due tolocalearthquakes, would therefore be multiplied twenty times.
As I saw them they had a period of three or four seconds. If they are to
be used to record earthquakes originating at a distance this quantity will
be increased ; but even then it is doubtful whether they will do more than
record the most pronounced portion of such disturbances. This instru-
ment, which is yet in an experimental stage, is the only one I saw whilst
in Italy which approximated in its design to modern types of ‘steady
point’ seismographs which have yielded such good results in Japan.

Side by side with these horizontal pendulums were a pair of large
astronomical levels, oriented at right angles, cemented to the pier, and
covered with glass cases. They are read twice daily.

The next instrument was a pair of conical pendulums, the outer
extremities of the booms being so arranged that if they moved to the right
or to the left they came in contact with a surface of mercury, completed
an electric circuit, and set in action an alarm.

There were also other seismoscopes, but these were not in action.

My attention was next drawn to a model of an astatic suspension,
which Dr. Grablovitz hopes to introduce into seismometry. This con-
sisted of a swinging platform carrying an inverted pendwum. By raising
or lowering the bob of this pendulum the period of the system is changed,
the moment of the platform and that of the loaded mass acting in opposite
directions.

In a room outside the main building of the observatory I saw a vasca
sismica and a pair of geodynamic levels.

The vasca sismica may be described as a shallow circular tank about
1-5 metre in diameter and 1 metre in depth. Floating on the surface of
the water which this contains there is a disc-formed tray nearly filling the
whole tank. From two points 90° distant from each other, on the edge of
this floating tray, connections are made with the short arms, each 8 mm.
in length, of two light levers. The long arms of these levers are 80 em.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 263

in length, and therefore multiply any motion of the tray nearly 100
times. Their outer ends carry writing points, resting against the face of
a drum, driven by clockwork. To prevent these pointers following the
same line as the drum revolves a cylindrical sinker is gradually lowered
by means of clockwork into the water. The water therefore gradually
rises, and with it the floating tray, and the writing levers gradually
change their position on the recording surface. The natural period of
this tray when set in oscillation is about one second.

The geodynamic levels consist of two zinc tubes, each 2:5 metres in
length, terminated at each end with vertical cylinders. These stand on
the floor of the room at right angles to each other. On the open ends of
these there are floats attached to the short arms (each 8 mm. in length) of
levers. The long arm of each lever (80 cm. in length) carries a writing
pointer, resting on a recording surface moved by clockwork. The
natural period of these water levels is 2:5 seconds.

(For further description in English and reference to original descrip-
tions see Report of the British Association, 1896, p. 226.)

These instruments give an exaggerated representation of the pre-
liminary, and therefore fairly rapid, vibrations of an earthquake origi-
nating at a great distance, whilst they show but little of the succeeding
slower but larger waves. The general character of their records is there-
fore the reverse of what is usually obtained from a horizontal pendulum.

The chief instrument at Porto d’ Ischia, a few miles distant from
Cassamicciola, is a pair of horizontal pendulums. The vertical height of
these is 2 metres. The weights, which are 12 kilos., are carried on booms,
10 cm. in length, supported by double ties, one from each side of the
weight, but coming together at a point at their attachment above the
pivot of the boom. The object of this is to prevent wobbling. The boom
is prolonged 80 cm. to its hanging writing point, which rests against a
smoked surface of paper moving at a rate of 1 cm. per minute.

Rome.

The U fiicio Centrale Meteorologico e Geodinamico Italiano, which forms
portion of the Collegio Romano, is a huge block of buildings surrounded
by streets, which stands back about 40 yards from the Corso, one of the
principal thoroughfares in Rome. The effect of the tratlc is extremely
slight, and only occasionally to be observed. Here I met Professor P.
Tacchini, the director-in-chief of the meteorological and seismological
work of Italy, who very kindly explained the general working of the
departments, showed me the instruments, and indicated how I could
obtain materials I might require.

One of the upper rooms is devoted to the storing of seismological
records and their analysis. When an earthquake occurs in any portion
of Italy the observers in the shaken district fill up a postcard-like form
and forward the same to this bureau. If the shaking was confined to the
island of Sicily, then some thirty of these forms would be received,
whilst if it were in the peninsula some hundreds might come in.

A digest of this information, together with many detailed observations
from stations provided with seismographs, is from time to time published
in the ‘ Bollettino della Societa Sismologica Italiana.’ Fuller accounts of
observations and instruments appear in the ‘ Annali dell’ Ufficio Centrale
Meteorologico e Geodinamico Italiano’ (see vol. viii. Part IV. 1886).

264 REPORT—1898.

Although continuous records of earth movements are made at Rome,
the chief work beyond the compilation of the official records is that of
testing and experimenting with new forms of apparatus.

The continuous recorders are three pendulums. The larger of these,
which is 16 metres in length, and carries a mass of 200 kilos. relatively,
to which motion is magnified twelve times, had, I understood, gone to the
exhibition in Turin. One which I saw, and known as the Seismometo-
grafo Medio, is 8 metres in length, and carries a mass of 100 kilos.,
with pointers magnifying ten times. These pointers are pens carrying
an ink containing much glycerine.

In general form they are like the pens used on the Richard meteoro-
logical instruments, but there is some difference in their construction.

They rest upon a band of paper usually moving at a rate of 30 cm. per
hour, but at the time of an earthquake, for a period of 14 minute, this
speed is increased to 120 cm. per hour, and until the earthquake ceases-
this speed is continued.

When the pendulum is caused to swing, so that the writing indices
have a range of 2-5 cm., it comes to rest after ten complete oscillations
within a period of 11 minutes. The period therefore is a little over
one minute ; that is to say, a pendulum with a free period of hardly six
seconds is increased to more than sixty seconds in consequence of the
damping action of writing indices (1).

This apparatus, together with other instruments, is in the basement of
the building, and I understood, like that at Catania, indicates tremors due:
to wind and occasionally the effects of traffic.

Near to it is a Brassart three-component seismograph, 1:5 metre
long, carrying 10 kilos., and multiplying motion ten times.

There were also three seismoscopes : one consisted of a light spiral spring,
carrying a weight from which depended a second spiral with a weight, the
style of the. latter being at rest just above a surface of mercury.

A second seismoscope was a pendulum the style of which hung freely
in a small hole in a brass plate. By a slight movement the style comes in
contact with the plate, when an electric circuit is completed.

The third seismoscope, designed by Dr. Agamennone, was the most
sensitive. It consists of two inverted pendulums having different periods...
The upper end of the quicker of the two passes through but without
touching the sides of a small hole in a metal plate carried on the slower
vibrator. A movement of either results in contact, when an electric
circuit actuating a magnet releases the record-receiving surface of a
Brassart seismograph, or by some other means records the fact that there
has been movement.

Rocca di Papa.

I left Rome to visit Rovca di Papa in company with Dr. A. Cancani,
the director of the observatory at that place, and the veteran seismologist
Professor M. 8. di Rossi. As far as Frascati we travelled by rail,
after which came a drive of 14 hour, when we found ourselves oppo-
site the Albergo Angelletto in Rocca di Papa, some fifteen or twenty
miles S.E. from Rome, looking down upon the Campagna. From this
point there is yet a steep climb, up streets and lanes through the garden of
Professor Rossi, past the caves in which he made his historical tromo-
metrical researches, and then by a zigzag pathway through a wood before
the observatory is reached.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 265

At the doorway you stand 760 metres above sea level on a boss of leucite
basalt, the nucleus of a once extensive crater. Looking down, you see the
roofs and gardens of Rocca di Papa beneath, towards the left is the
erater lake of Albano, and towards the right the villages and towns which
dot the Campagna, Rome with its St. Peter’s, domes and towers, and in
the far distance the Mediterranean. There is nothing above you, and
you see homesteads and hamlets, with here and there a town below as in
a plan.

The first thing to be noticed is that the observatory, although built of
stone, is covered with galvanised iron sheets. The object of this is to
prevent the absorption of moisture, which in consequence of mist and an
annual rainfall, which at this elevation exceeds one metre, would be
excessive.

An ascent up a few steps takes the visitor through glass doors, whicle
are opened by a custodian in official uniform, into a lofty, well-lighted
octagonally-shaped room about 8 metres in width. From the basement a-
column of masonry 6 metres in diameter rises up to the floor of this room,
where it is continued upwards into the room itself as an annular table
about 3 feet in width and 3 feet in height. This, which is faced and
covered with white marble, carries about twelve instruments.

In the centre of the annular space a circular column 1:25 metre in
diameter rises nearly to the roof of the building. I understood that the
object of this was to study the behaviour of certain instruments placed near
its top as compared with that of similar instruments placed at lower
levels.

At the time of my visit five seismoscopes were installed on small
shelves attached round the summit of this shaft. These are electrically
connected with a Brassart seismograph, and when one or any of them are
agitated the recording surface connected with this apparatus is set in
motion. Experience shows that seismoscopes installed upon the top of
this elastic column move sooner than similar apparatus placed upon the
circular desk.

Hanging round the sides of the column are a series of tromometers,
varying in length from about 15 feet to 6 inches (see description of the
Catania tromometer). At the present time I believe it is only the
longest and shortest of these which are observed, records being taken five
times daily.

On the circular table there are a large number of seismoscopes, including
the original designs of Professor M. 8. di Rossi,! Brassart’s Seismograph,

‘and the Photo Chronograph of Dr. Cancani.

At this observatory there is another example of the long pendulums,
Itis 15 metres in length and carries 250 kilos. The multiplication is, as at
Catania, 12°5 times, and the record is with ink. On the opposite side of
the room and hanging from the wall is a Vicentini pendulum, which wilt
be described with the instruments I saw at Padua.

Among the most striking pieces of apparatus at this observatory are a
pair of horizontal pendulums constructed by Dr. Cancani, which of their
kind are the largest in existence. The height of the vertical axis is 5:25
metres (17 ft.), and the length of the horizontal boom is 2-7 metres
(8 ft. 9 in.). Each pendulum is constructed from two pieces of T-iron
brought together and joined to form two sides of a triangle. The free

} See La Meteorologia Endogena, vol. ii.

266 REPORT—1898.

ends of the base, which if joined would form the base of the triangle, are
provided with pivots which bear in steel cups.

The plane of the triangular frame is placed parallel to a wall, and its
upper pivot hooks into the upper cup, whilst the lower pivot bears directly
into the cup near the floor, which has a lateral and fore-and-aft adjustment.
On the apex of the swinging triangle a weight of about 25 kilos. is placed.
In one case this was pig-iron and in the other a block of marble. Pro-
jecting from each apex is a film of glass resting on a drum moving a band
of smoked paper at a rate of 60 cm. per hour. At each hour by electrical
connections with a chronometer the pointers are lifted for a short interval
of time from the recording surface, and time marks are obtained.

At first these pendulums carried pens writing on paper, and it is
instructive to notice the great difference in the frictional resistance of
these and the ends of rounded glass fibre on smoked paper.

After a deflection of 3 cm. the ink pen continues to move for 12
minutes with a period of 22 seconds, but after a similar deflection with
the fibre resting on smoked paper the movement continues for more than
one hour, the period being nearly the same.

This apparatus has yielded several instructive diagrams of earthquakes,
the most striking of which is that of the Assam earthquake of June
1897.

Whilst examining the seismoscopes Dr. Cancani sketched one of his
own, which he considered extremely sensitive. It consists of six inverted
elastic pendulums arranged to stand round the circumference of a small
circle. Each of these is a vertically placed steel wire the upper end of
which is a spiral terminating with a style. These styles are adjusted in
close juxtaposition with the edges of a metal disc with which, if they
should vibrate, they come in contact. Each of these wires is loaded, but
at different heights from their base, with a metal ball, and therefore they
have different periods of motion. Contact with the disc completes an
electric circuit.

In the Cecchi seismoscope a'small column stands freely on a horizontal
plate fixed on the top of the style of an inverted pendulum similar to
that just described. When this falls, because it is attached by a thread
to a catch-controlling clockwork, this catch is released, and the clockwork
set in motion.

Padua.

Although the time spent at Padua was, I regret to say, extremely
short, in consequence of the kindness of Professor Vicentini and his
assistant Dr. Pacher, who had arranged seismograms and apparatus for
my inspection, much was learned during the visit. The instruments,
which are of the heavy pendulum type, are established on the walls of one
of the physical laboratories of the University Buildings, which are
surrounded by the traflic of the city. Considering the position in which
they are placed on an upper storey, which, as Professor Vicentiniremarked,
was only occupied from necessity, it is remarkable that so many new
and valuable results have been obtained. Although the walls of the
University, like most old buildings in Italy, are remarkably solid, they
rise from an alluvium foundation, which is very elastic. One result of
this is that the movements of the soil due to passing traffic, the ringing
of a bell at no great distance, and the pulsations of she ground appa-

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 267

rently accompanying fluctuations in barometric pressure at the time of a
storm in the distant Alps are all recorded.

Two pendulums which hang side by side had lengths of 1:50 metre, and
earried weights of 100 kilos. Side by side with one of these was a bar of
steel, about 1:5 metre in length and 10 cm. broad, firmly fixed at one end
and bent downwards at the other by a load of 45 kilos. The object of
this is to record vertical motion.

The full period of this loaded spring is 1:1 sec. Its outer end is
connected by a system of levers with a writing point which rests on a
surface of smoked paper side by side with the writing indices of hori-
zontal motion connected with the ordinary pendulum. (For a short
description of the ordinary pendulum see British Association Report,
1896, p. 221. For a complete description see ‘I Microsismografi dell’
Instituto di Fisica della R. Universita di Padova :’ Dr. Giulio Pacher.
Atti del R. Instituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettre ed Arti, tomo viii.
serie vil. 1896-97).

In another room there is a similar pendulum, which is, however, 11
metres in length and carries a much heavier load (400 kilos.). In addition
to the two systems of levers for horizontal motion, projecting from the
bottom of the pendulum is a light pantograph, which gives a resultant
motion. The diagram from this latter arrangement is one from which
the direction of various vibrations can be easily seen.

The principal feature in the Vicentini and Pacher seismographic
arrangements are, first, the large masses that are used as steady points ;
and secondly, the ingenious and beautiful manner in which movements
relatively to these are mechanically magnified and recorded with a mini-
mum of friction. In all instances the magnification is 100-fold. Light
levers to magnify movement relatively to an approximately steady mass
have been used by Wagner, Gray, Bouquet de la Grye, Agamennone,
Brassart, and very many others. I myself have had perhaps 100 pieces
of apparatus thus provided, but in no instance when the multiplication
exceeded 20 have I been successful—so long as the method was mecha-
nical—to reach conditions so satisfactory as those attained by Vicentini.
Rather than multiplying the relative motion of the pendulum by a single
lever, Vicentini employs two short levers, each with a multiplication of
10. These are extremely light, balanced, and connected by an ingeniously
constructed link (see references mentioned above). The last lever carries a
writing index made from a glass fibre. A piece of glass rod is heated by
a blowpipe and flattened with pincers. The flattened portion is again
heated and drawn out as a long jlat fibre about 1 mm. broad. This when
broken into lengths each of + or 5 ins. is sufficient to form several
pointers. One of these is taken and one end of it heated and drawn out
to still smaller dimensions. The thin end of this is rounded by bringing
it for an instant into contact with the edge of a small flame. To attach
such a fibre, say, to the end of the boom of a horizontal pendulum this
latter is tipped with a fragment of wax. This is heated with a taper and
the thick end of the fibre stuck on to the boom.

We may now imagine the fibre to be floating freely as a prolongation
of the boom a centimetre or so above the smoked surface on which it is
to write. To bring it into contact with this surface a very small flame
is placed for a moment beneath the fibre within 3 or 4 cm. of its end,
when the rounded point falls upon the smoked surface and is then in
adjustment.

268 REPORT—1898.

For rapid motion the pendulums behave as steady points, and the
movements of the ground are multiplied 100 times, whilst for slow move-
ments the angular deflections of the pendulum are similarly enlarged.

The records are received upon a continuous band of smoked paper
moving at a rate of 2 cm. per minute. This band hangs vertically,
passing over a roller above and round one below. The axes of these two
rollers are not parallel, with the result that the paper travels laterally
along the upper drum, and the traces drawn by the pens are parallel
spiral lines. Every minute, by electrical connections with a clock, time
marks are made upon the band. The Vicentini seismographs are now
installed at Rocca di Papa, Verona, Siena, and Laibach.

Strassburg.

When I entered the magnificent buildings which constitute the
University of Strassburg I felt that I was upon ground which the
investigations of the late E. von MRebeur-Paschwitz had made
classical. In a few minutes, in company with the genial Professor.
Gerland and his assistant Dr. R. Ehlert, I was engaged in inspecting
seismograms from the Ehlert three-component pendulums. These are
recorded on a band of photographic paper, about 21 cm. broad, moving
at a rate of 12 cm. per hour. ‘This, with chemicals and other materials,
costs about 36/. per year. By examining the traces with a magnifying
glass, it seems that they consist of a fine series of zigzags, indicating that
the pendulums are always in motion. Inasmuch as the removal of the
calcium chloride from the pendulum cases does not affect their move-
ments, and because the temperature changes in the chamber where the
pendulums are installed is small, it is just possible that these movements
may be the result of the city traffic. If this is so, then the movements
should be less pronounced at night and more pronounced on public
holidays, and at times when trafic is unusually increased. The fact that
the tremurs produced in a seismograph by a passing carriage or train
commence and end suddenly, however, weakens such a supposition.

At present the pendulums are installed on an insulated column in a
chamber beneath the Astronomical Observatory (for description of the
apparatus see ‘ Beitrage zur Geophysik,’ Band III. Heft 1-3). In the
original design of Von Rebeur a complete pendulum weighed 42 gms.,
and two might be used at right angles to each other,

Each of Dr. Ehlert’s pendulums weighs 200 gms., and three are
arranged, at angles of 120° with each other, inside a cylindrical iron case.
The weights of these pendulums are at their outer ends, near the centre of
the casing. By screws from the outside of this case the vertical axes of
each of three pendulums can be inclined forwards or laterally. The adjust-
ments, therefore, are not dependent upon screws in a bed plate. The
greater weight concentrated at the outer end of each pendulum results in
greater certainty of obtaining a steady point for rapid movements of the
ground, and hence, perhaps, the continual movement. With three com-
ponents a direction of motion can be obtained, whilst a very slight move-
ment (the components of which might not be visible on two pendulums)
might be recorded on a pendulum to which its direction was nearly at
right angles. Each pendulum carries a mirror which reflects a beam of
light from a lamp standing near the record-receiving surface 4 metres
distant. In front of this there is a cylindrical lens to bring the beams to
a focus before impinging on the paper. The clock which drives this band

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 269

every hour raises a screen which eclipses the beam of light from a fixed
mirror in the pendulum case, and in this way gives on the datum line a
series of time marks. With a period of 12 seconds one millimetre deflec-
tion on the record corresponds to a tilting of 0'’:058.

After visiting the director of the observatory, Professor Becker, who
for so many years carried on observations with Von Rebeur’s pendulum,
Dr. Gerland showed me the site of the Seismological Institute, which next
year will be erected within the University grounds. The Government
grant for this building is 70,000 marks, or 3,500/., with an annual allowance
of 5,500 marks, or 275/., for its maintenance. It isexpected that the latter
sum will be increased. To commence with, the instruments which it is
proposed to instal are Dr. Ehlert’s pendulums, a Vicentini pendulum, and
a Milne pendulum similar to those established by the B.A. Committee.

As a correction and extension of the second and third paragraphs of
the Report of 1897, p. 129, I learned from Dr. G. Gerland that the idea
of an international organisation for the observation of earthquakes was
first brought forward by the late Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz and him-
self in October 1894. At the end of 1894 and the beginning of 1895 they
prepared a definite appeal to the scientitic world to carry out their sugges-
tions : this appeal, written by Dr. von Rebeur, was subscribed by a
series of prominent learned men and was published in the ‘ Beitrige zur
Geophysik,’ edited by Professor Gerland, Band II. p. 773.

After the death of Dr. von Rebeur Dr. Gerland naturally felt pledged
to continue the work which he had co-operated to inaugurate. Subsequent
issues of the propositions therefore appeared under the name of Dr. Ger-
land, who in 1895 brought the same to the notice of the International
Geographical Congress in London.

Briefly stated, they were to establish a centre for the collection and
publication of reports relating to a// earthquakes which are from time to
time recorded throughout the world.

It was proposed to issue these reports in Dr. Gerland’s geophysical
journal.

The most important records would be those obtained from horizontal
pendulums, ordinary long pendulums, and bifilar pendulums, and as a
commencement it was suggested that ten observing stations should be
established round the world.

The positions of these stations were chosen with regard to Japan, from
which country large earthquakes frequently radiate.

The Congress passed a resolution respecting the desirability of carrying
out Dr. Gerland’s proposal.

Very shortly we may expect to see the publication of the first part of
the great work which Dr. Gerland has undertaken, in connection with
which the reports issued by this committee will undoubtedly prove an
assistance.

CoNCLUSION.

In connection with the instruments which I saw in Italy and at Strass-
burg, I will first consider those which are employed to record local
disturbances or the short-period movements which we can feel.

In Japan I once used a pendulum carrying 80 lb., and 40 feet in
length ; two pendulums, each of which carried 32 lb., and were 36 feet in
length, and very many 3 or 4 feet in length, carrying heavy disc-like bobs.

Some of these recorded by light pointers resting on stationary or

270 REPORT—1898.

moving smoked-glass surfaces, whilst others recorded the relative motion
of the pendulum with similar pointers attached to the end of light levers,
which multiplied the movements of the pendulums.

Professor J. A. Ewing established in Japan a heavy pendulum 20 feet
in length, the movements of which relatively to the ground were recorded
as two components by means of short levers.

The result of our experience with these instruments, which extended
over several years, was that, although they occasionally yielded useful
diagrams of local disturbances, it so often happened that an earthquake
took place which had a period approximately agreeing with the natural
period of the pendulums that these were set in violent motion.

Inasmuch as the period of local earthquakes is for the most part less
than three seconds, whilst the period of the long pendulum at Catania is
ten seconds, the bob of this instrument becomes a practically steady point
for such disturbances.

Directly, however, we turn to the pendulums one or two metres in
length which we find so largely employed in the Italian Peninsula, it seems
impossible that the character of the seismograms of local shocks which
they furnish should not be largely affected by the free period of these
instruments. .

I—and I think I may add all observers who have had experience with
the ordinary pendulum type of apparatus, and also with the long-period
duplex pendulums and the steady point bracket seismograph used in
Japan, not only in recording actual earthquakes, but also in testing such
instruments by subjecting them to artificially produced earthquake-like
movements, which movements were absolutely measurable—would not
hesitate in adopting the two latter types of apparatus in preference to
those in which the principal feature is the bob of an ordinary free
pendulum.

Directly we turn to a consideration of the form of apparatus best
adapted to record the movements due to earthquakes which have origi-
nated at great distances we are upon uncertain ground.

What is chiefly required is to determine the time at which a movement
commences, the duration of its various phases, and to measure its varying
amplitudes, periods, and directions.

A source of error, especially with regard to the measurement of
amplitude or angular motion, rests in the fact that the periods of various
phases of earthquake motion may vary between as much as five and sixty
seconds. The consequence of this is that at some time or other thereis
synchronism between the natural period of the instrument and that of
its moving platform, with the result that records may be greatly distorted.

A good illustration of the difference in records obtained from different
instruments is seen when we compare the records of horizontal pendulums
and those of the vasca sismica (see p. 263).

Dr. Cancani’s observations on the great Indian earthquake of 1896
(p. 207) also show the amount of difference which may be expected in
seismograms obtained from pendulums varying in period.

From what we know at present, seismograms which are trustworthy
in their main features are yielded by apparatus which for rapid preliminary
tremors records the same relatively to a steady point ; andif the pendulum
has a natural period of ten to fifteen seconds it apparently follows the
slow movement of the succeeding waves.

—_*"

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 271

To extend our knowledge on this subject a central station might be
provided with a number of instruments having different periodic motion.
Inasmuch as very long pendulums, as at Catania, shorter pendulums: or
horizontal pendulums with a high multiplication, as at Padua and Strass-
burg, are affected by wind and other activities disturbing their supports,
which at the latter place result in what appears to be continuous
movement, it is likely, and in some instances it is certain, that the
preliminary tremors of an earthquake have been eclipsed, and its com-
mencement therefore been rendered uncertain.

The general direction in which motion has advanced is known from
the time records obtained at several stations. The varying directions at
which the ground has moved at a given station may from an instrument
recording movements as two rectangular components be sometimes
determinable. Usually, however, we are left to choose between two
directions.

The records from Dr. Ehlert’s pendulum and the apparatus of Vicentini
remove such doubts.

As to whether a seismogram can or cannot be analysed with regard to
the period and amplitude of separate waves simply depends upon the
speed at which the record-receiving surface is moved.

Contrasting the various types of instruments last referred to with the
type of instrument adopted by this committee, considering the object in
view, there does not appear to be any necessity to regret the choice which
they have made.

Each instrument has its merits, and for particular purposes may be
better than any other. It was impossible for the committee to have
adopted either the long pendulums or large horizontal pendulum of Italy
on account of the difficulty of their installation. The Strassburg pendulums,
although most desirable at a central station, require a too carefully
insulated installation, and entail too much expense for photographic
materials to put them within the reach of ordinary observers.

Like the Ehlert pendulums, another instrument equally desirable at a
central station is the Vicentini pendulum. However, as this requires
the addition of a chronometer and delicate manipulation to insure simi-
larity in adjustment, and a somewhat high and solid supporting wall or
pier, it is likely that private observers might find difficulty in its adoption.
' For further information respecting the various types of seismographs
here mentioned the reader is referred to the British Association Report
for 1836, p. 182.

From the preceding notes it is clear that in Italy and Germany
seismological investigation receives substantial recognition.

For many years past in the former of these countries observatories
have been established, at each of which we find a resident observer, his
assistant and custodian with their necessary dwellings, offices, and work-
rooms. When first established the object of these institutions was to
record and study the more or less violent movements of the earthy crust
which can be felt. To this was added the observation of the ubiquitous
so-called earth tremors, and partly, perhaps, because it was found that
these latter in particular were closely associated with certain meteoro-
Syste conditions, the system was incorporated with the Meteorological

ureau.

During the last few years the observations have been extended to

212 REPORT—1898.

embrace those of movements due to earthquakes which originated at great
distances. These unfelt movements of the earth’s crust, which are as
frequent in Great Britain as they are in the Italian Peninsula, are those
which at present receive the greatest attention.

It has no doubt been largely due to the discovery that earthquakes
can be recorded in any one country as well as in any other that the
German Government has been led to devote so large a sum for the esta-
blishment of a central observing station in Strassburg, and at the Uni-
versity of Gottingen provision has been made for a professorship of earth
physics.

‘ae Austria, for some time past, the Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissen-
schaften has had its earthquake commission, which has issued publications
and established several earthquake stations provided with the Rebeur-
Ehlert pendulums.

The Central Observatorium of St. Petersburg has established several
stations somewhat similar to those in Austria, and in both countries the
means for observing especially the unfelt earthquakes is being extended.

The elaborate system of earthquake observation which has been in
existence for many years in Japan is too well known to require descrip-
tion. This is now being extended to embrace observations on earth
movements not recordable by ordinary seismographs. In addition to the
bureau which reports upon ordinary earthquakes, which forms portion of
the meteorological department and a chair of seismology at the University,
there is a large committee composed of practical engineers and others
whose chief work it is to carry out investigations which may lead to the
mitigation of earthquake effects. In connection with the first year’s work
of this committee the Government grant was 5,000/. Inasmuch as prac-
tical results have been obtained from this committee every year, I believe
a substantial sum of 1,000/. or 2,000/. appears in the Parliamentary esti-
mates for a continuation of their investigations.

It will no doubt be of interest to this committee to note that means
which experience has demonstrated lead to the mitigation of earthquake
effects, have during the past year received the consideration of the English
Government and private companies in connection with reconstruction
after severe earthquakes in the West Indies and Assam.

The inauguration of the investigations which led to the demonstration
of these means was in great measure due to the support which this
Association has from time to time given to their committees.

XTIL. Preliminary Examination of Photograms obtained with the Seis-
mometer in the Liverpool Observatory. By W. E. Puummer.

In August 1897 the Seismological Committee of the British Association
entrusted one of their seismometers to my care. It was mounted by
Mr. Horace Darwin in a cellar of the Observatory, and the photographic
record of the motion of a spot reflected from the mirror has been main-
tained since, save for a few interruptions arising from the failure of the
clock or some temporary disturbance. The instrument itself has been
described by Dr. Davison in ‘ Nature,’ ]. 246, and the general arrangement
of the apparatus there detailed, the method of determining the scale, and
the directions for the use of the instrument, have been followed without
alteration at the Liverpool Observatory. The instrument is arranged to

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 273

measure tilts or displacements in the plane of the prime vertical : the
mirror being in this plane, that of the suspending wires being at right
angles, Disturbances are shown by the motion of a spot of light being
carried to the east or west of its normal position. The more noticeable
deviations from uniformity have been reported to Professor J. Milne as
produced probably by earthquake shocks ; the dates of these interruptions
appear in another part of the report. The instrument, however, does not
seem very well adapted for the measurement and discussion of these irre-
gular motions. Some difficulty arises from the smallness of the time scale
(10 m.m. of paper passing in an hour), in consequence of which small rapid
vibrations are indistinguishable, while the sensitiveness of the instrument
as at present used does not seem to be sufficiently great to record the
characteristic motion. In Dr. Davison’s instrument a displacement of the
spot of light through 3-44 inches corresponded to a tilt of the mirror of one
second of are. I endeavoured at first to reach this degree of sensitiveness,
and met with difficulties, some of which will be mentioned later. Buta
recommendation was sent to me last May by Professor Milne to so arrange
the instrument that a tilt of the ground of two seconds should move the
spot of light on the scale 1:74 inch. I have endeavoured to conform to
this direction with the result that the instrument appears more stable,
and the trace produced on the sensitised paper seems still more adapted to
the discussion of the bending of the earth’s crust throughout considerable
periods of time than for the observation of the pulsations produced by
irregular and violent shocks. The following discussion is therefore
confined entirely to the uniform behaviour of the spot of light.

For a very considerable time after the instrument was mounted the
photographic trace showed such a continual and rapid motion towards
the east that all other effects were completely masked. This was no
doubt due to a want of stability in the steel rod carrying the instrument,
which had not yet come to a position of rest. The frequent alteration of
the foot-screws, always in one direction, necessary to bring the spot
of light back on the scale, disturbed the level to such an extent that the
sensitiveness varied considerably. This was no doubt assisted by a motion
of the rod in the plane of the meridian, which would alter the horizontal
distance between the points of suspension of the wire carrying the mirror :
a motion which would not be visible on the photographed trace. About
November the constant motion of the mirror became less recognisable, and
the series of measures here described was begun in January of this year,
at which time it is hoped the instrument had settled into its normal con-
ditions. The scale for converting the linear displacement of the photo-
graphic trace into seconds of arc still continues, however, to give some
trouble, and this feared irregularity in the scale has prevented the use of
many of the records in the following discussion. The scale, it may be as
well to explain, is determined by turning the mirror through a known
angle by means of a rocking-arm, capable of being moved from a distance
by the alternate inflation of one or other of two india-rubber balls. It
has been the rule to move this rocking-arm once a day, and those records
are considered trustworthy when the linear displacement of the light is
the same at the beginning and end of the day. When the displacement
is not accordant there seems to be no way of making the observations
available for discussion. Moreover, it is found practically that very

ere intervals of time are required to bring the mirror to a state of
8. T

274 REPORT—1898.

rest. Sometimes the motion goes on for three or four hours after the
initial disturbance, usually much less. I can offer no explanation of these
anomalies. I merely mention them here to show that the amount of
material at my disposal is not so great as I could wish: that a much
longer time is necessary to remove the instrumental and systematic errors,
and that the present result is a preliminary inquiry now offered to show
what use has been made of the instrument entrusted to my care.
However distrustful one may be of the result, and however cautiously
one nay feel it necessary to speak of the numerical values obtained, it is
impossible to doubt the general character of the motion of the mirror,
notwithstanding the small angles with which we have to deal. A mere
glance at the record for any one day is suflicient to show the general
features of the curve, and herein I believe the motion in the prime vertical
agrees with that derived from meridional displacement, though to what
extent the motion precedes or follows that on the meridian I have no data
to offer. On all days on which the photographic trace has offered no
suspicion of unsteadiness in the scale value, or where no interruption of
the trace has been made for more than twenty-four hours, the ordinates
of the curve have been measured from the time traced for each hour.
These ordinates have been read off to the tenth of a millimetre, corre-
sponding usually to about 0-004 of a second of arc, consequently the third
place of decimals has been retained, but simply as a matter of calculation.
These measures have been grouped in monthly periods, for it was soon
apparent that the time of maximum displacement was not constant
throughout the year. The mean values of the ordinates for each month
have been compared with Bessel’s Interpolation Equation for expressing in
the usual periodic formulz the reading at any hour of the day, reckoned
from noon, in terms of the mean value and the hour of the day. Sup-
posing the general expression for the value of the measured ordinates at

the hour Me after noon to be represented by the formula

D.=D-+a sin(a+A)+6 sin(2z+4+B)+c sin(3z+C),

the following table will give the value of the constants D, a, b, c, A, B, C,
derived from the solution of the equations formed by the substitution of
the mean monthly ordinates for every two hours in the general
expression :—

TaBLe I.

| 7

Month D Saatval t) ih c + Bert pikeg |

uw wt iad wt o , ° re ° ' /
January . .| 0-000 | 00194 | 0-:0421 | 0-0145 8 5 | 27029| 65 30
February . — -005 | -0281 | -0457 | -0143 4 54 | 257 53 | 358 2
March + 001} -0292 | -0529 | -o092 | 32 11 | 285 30 | 142 11
April — 004 | -0264 | -0496 | -0079 | 30 50 | 322 16 | 196 30
May . — 011 | -0185 | -0572 | -0046 | 45 0 | 309 30 | 278 51
June — 008 | -0363 | -0583 | -0170 | 92 32] 287 9] 29 27
July . — 003 | -0527 | -0483 | -0074 | 112 17| 343.17| 72 33
August — 003 | -0136 | -0670 | -0069 | 118 36 | 283 38 | 288 11

The principal maximum values, both positive and negative, for each
month as derived from the forementioned equation are as follows :—

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 275

er SA Re SSE Sit wee a SE ce

TaBieE II.
| Time of | Time of
Month Maximum | Amplitude | Month | Maximum | Amplitude
Displacement | Displacement |
H. M. i H. M. Hy
January | 617 P.M. | +0:0603 | May 4 27Pp.M. | +00781
c 0 34.a.m. | — 0602 || ,, 11055 ,, | — :0635
ay 5.24 ,, + *0323 .. eek yard Bete + ‘0377
: Pa) Bol — *0353 oH 10 34 _,, — °0524
February 6 34P.mM. | + ‘0597 || June 410P.M. | + -0516
a 1 26 A.M — 0645 | ,, 0 34M. | — °1006
“ 615 ,, + :0319 =f, h PovaGes. . Clete -O735
3 tO See — 0497 | 10) 30° 45° >) = 0279
March 5 48 P.M + :0841 || July 3 20 P.M + +0690
a 1132 ,, — 0732 || ,, 936, — +1038
35 5 27 A.M + 0221 || ,, 438 AM. | + 0351
a 1elires py}, — ‘0337 : DOs S45, + 0048
April 4 31 P.M + ‘0803 || August . 4 57P.M. | + 0642
3 | 10 30 »,, — *0592 Asa Me 11 24 ,, | — :0727
aa 3 43 A.M + °0210 |) Fe 5 57 AM + ‘0738
35 eat.“ coay gilt O12 it Ps | 11 32, — ‘0612
‘TasLE III.
\ | January February, March April May June July August
at aa a“ “a “i ad
Noon | —0:005 | +6:009 | —0-001 | +0-011 | +0-001 | +-0:019 | —0:017 | —O-014
| 1p.m.| — -003 |— -006 | + -017 |— 002 | + O11 | + :004 | + -019 | — -012
; 2,, |— ‘007 | —--008 ; — -013 | — 004 | — ‘O11 | — ‘008 | + 004 | + -003
1 3,, | + ‘017 }— :012 | — :006 | + :017 | — ‘008 }— ‘010 | — -021 / + ‘O11
fete, | 003) + “O13 | 000 | — 005 | + 010 | + -005 | — ‘O14 | + ‘018
fees jt 006 | + 005 | + 022) = 003 | — 019 | + 013 | — ‘005 | + -016
er) | + 003 | -01E + 013 | — 010 | — “001 | — 005 | + 006 | — “007
1 7, |— 019 | — :001 | — ‘011 000 | + °013 | — 015 | — ‘001 | — -014
; 8, | + °010 | — -014 | — -017 | + -006 | + -005 | + -009 | + -001 | — -017
| 9,, | + 006 | + ‘001 | — :020 | + :022 | + 003 |} + *001 | — -001 | -- :019
10,, | + 005 | + -013 | + -003 | + 012 | —.-024 | + -004 | + -001 | +. -008
Te 000 | — -002 | + -007 | + -:003 | — -009 | — -010 000 | + -006
: Midnt. | — 009 | — ‘015 | — 004 | — ‘017 | — -011 | — -005 | — ‘001 | + -019
( LAM.) + °021 | + -003 | + -002 | — ‘006 | + -008 019 “000 | — -002
| 2, |— 002 | — :002 | — ‘011 | + -602 | — -008 006 | — -009 | + -007
| 3, | + 003 | — ‘001 | — -019 | — 019 | — -006 |} — 008 | + 015 | + -005
fee; | + OOD | + O15 | + “O16 | — “014 | + 006 | + “008 | — 003 | —_-022
Po, |— 0137 — 008 | + 010 | + 001 | — 006 |— 019 ‘000 | + +005
| 6,, | + 003 | + :021 | — -003 ; — :007 | + 014 | — -013 |} — :001 | + 021
; 7, |— 019} + -002 | ~— -001 | + *003 | + 025 | + ‘017 | + -009 | — ‘O11
mein | — “007 | — :002,| +, 00% | — 014 | — O01, | —,-014 | +7006) — 010
| 9, | + 006} + :002 | + 014 | — :016 | + :012 | + -001 | + -016 | + -013
}10,, |— :008 | + :007 | — 016 | + 022 | + -007 | — ‘001 | — -007 | — :003
| 11 ,, |— :010 | — ‘006 | — :008 | + -009 | — -002 | — ‘G05 | — -019 | + -007

The meaning of the positive sign in Table II. and elsewhere is that
the spot of light has travelled towards the east. So far as Table II.
shows anything, it exhibits a tendency for the first eastern elongation,
that in the afternoon, to occur earlier in the day as the year advances, also
that the amplitude of the afternoon excursion, whether east or west, is
greater than that in the morning, and that the maximum effect occurs in

T 2

276 REPORT—1898.

the summer months. It would be wrong to insist too strongly even on
these tendencies considering that only a part of one year has been
examined, and certainly premature to suggest any physical interpretation.
I hope, however, that this partial result may prove of sufficient interest to
induce the Committee to sanction further inquiries of the same nature,
for which I think the instrument is peculiarly well fitted. Lastly, I give
in a tabular form (Table III.) the difference (C—O) between the mean
monthly result at each hour of the day, derived from the photograms,
and the values computed from the interpolation equation.

XIV. Reports on Seismological Investigations published by the
British Association.

PAGE
1841. Report on Instruments to record Earthquakes in Scotland and
Ireland. Drawn up by Lord GREENOCK and DAVID MILNE i 46-50
1842. Report on Registering Shocks of Earthquakes in Great Britain.
By DAVID MILNE . : ; ‘ : 92-98
1843. Report on Registering Shocks of Earthquakes. WM. BUCKLAND,
DAVID MILNE 5 5 - 120-127
1844. Report on Earthquake Shocks in n Scotland. DAVID MILNE : . 85-90
1847. Report on Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes.
WILLIAM HOPKINS, M.A., F.R.S. . j ‘ 33-92
1850. First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena. ROBERT
MALLET, C.E., F.RS. : : 1-89
1851. Second Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena. ROBERT
MALLET, C.E., F.R.S. : . 272-320
1852. Third Report on the Facts of ‘Earthquake Phenomena. Roserr
MALLET, C.E., F.R.S.. ‘ied
1854. Third Report (continued) on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena.
ROBERT MALLET, C.E.,F.RS. 1-326
1854. Report on Earthquakes and Seismometers. Col. PortLocK,
5A ee 370-372
1858. Fourth Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena. Robert
MALLET, C.E., F.R.S.. 1-136

1861. Experiments at Holyhead on the Transit Velocity ‘of Waves
analogous to Earthquake Waves. ROBERT MALLET, C.E., F.R.S. 201-236

Reports on the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan, drawn up by John
Milne, were issued, under varying titles, yearly from 1881 until 1895.

In 1895 the ‘Earth Tremor’ Committee, appointed to investigate
earth tremors in Great Britain, issued the last of a series of Reports
dated 1893, 1894, and 1895, the Secretary being Mr. C. Davison.

In 1896 Committees on the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan and
Earth Tremors were united under the joint secretaryship of C. Davison
and J. Milne for the purpose of carrying on seismological investigation,
and have issued their First, Second, and Third Reports.

The British Association has issued since 1841 about thirty-seven
Reports relating to earthquakes.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF BEN NEVIS. 277

Meteorological Observations of Ben Nevis.—IReport of the Committee,
consisting of Lord McLaren, Professor A. Crum Brown (Secre-
tary), Sir Jonny Murray, Dr. ALEXANDER BucHan, and Professor
CopeLaND. (Drawn up by Dr. BucHaN.)

Tur Committee was appointed, as in former years, for the purpose of co-
operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making meteoro-
logical observations at the two Ben Nevis Observatories.

The hourly eye observations by night as well as by day, which are a
specialty of the Ben Nevis Observatory, were made with complete regu-
larity during the year 1897 by Mr. Angus Rankin, the superintendent,
and his assistants. The Directors of the Observatories tender their best
thanks to Messrs. T. S. Muir, A. Drysdale, M.A., B.Sc., John 8. Begg,
T. G. Kay, D. Macrae Aitken, A. Aitken, George Ednie, and T. Kilgour
for the invaluable help they have rendered as volunteer observers during
the past year, by which the much-needed relief has been given to the
members of the regular staff. In addition to this, Messrs. Muir and
Drysdale have given much time and labour in discussing, under the
superintendence of the Directors, the observations made in the summer
months at the intermediate station, together with the observations at the
two Observatories at the same time, in connection with the weather which
prevailed at the time, more especially the anticyclones and the cyclones
which occurred. The result, which the Directors consider to be of con-
siderable value, will be referred to in a subsequent part of this report.

Table I. shows for 1897 the mean monthly and extreme pressures and
temperatures ; amounts of rainfall, with the number of days of rain, and
the days on which the amount equalled or exceeded one inch; the hours
of sunshine ; the mean percentage of cloud ; the mean velocity of the wind
in miles per hour at the top of the mountain ; and the mean rainband at
both Observatories. The mean barometric pressures at Fort William
Observatory are reduced to 32° and sea-level, but those at the Ben Nevis
Observatory only to 32°.

TABLE I.

“1897 Jan, | Feb. |March| April | May | June | ae | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. Nov. | Dec. | Year

Mean Pressure in Inches.

Ben Nevis Ob- } 25°255 | 25°285) 24889) 25°199) 25°350| 25°482) 25-463) 25-229) 25-356) 25-504) 70 a aa all
servatory
Fort William | 29-937] 29902] 29°453) 29°800| 29917] 29°986| 29°927| 29°657| 29885 30°057| 30°072) 29°661|29°855
Differences .] 4°682| 4°617| 4°564| 4:601| 4°567| 4504] 4°464| 4-428] 4°529| 4°553) 4:593| 4°571| 4°557
Mean Temperatures.
BenNevisov-| 20 | 283 | of | 284! a3 | she | ast 48s | 381 363 | a86| of3 | ava
servatory
Fort William | 35:7 | 40:5 | 41-6 | 43:3 | 481 | 551 | 58:5 | 58:7 | 51:0 | 488 | 45:6 ) 396 | 47-2
Differences .| 16:7 | 14:2 | 17-1 | 17-9 | 15°83 | 149 | 134 | 15:9 | 15:9 | 125 | 12:0 | 123] 148
Extremes of Temperature, Maxima.
r ° | |
BenNevisOb-| 311 | 37°3 | 364 | 378} 483| 580 | 640 aire | 483 | 388:| 'sf0| aba | efo
servatory |
Fort William | 51:0 | 545 | 52-7 | 60-1 | 70:6 | 77-1 | 80-4 | 77:0 | 67:6 | 61-9 | 57-8 | 54:9 | 804
Differences .| 19°9 | 17:2 | 16:3 | 22°3 | 223 | 191 | 164 | 168 { 193 [| 93 | 58 | 155 | 164

278 REPORT—1898.

TABLE I.—continuwed.

1897 | Jan. | Feb. |Mareh| April | May | June July

Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dee. | ae

i
Extremes of Temperature, Minima. |
/

: s if ° ° ° ° ° | ° ° | ° ° ° ° ° °
Ben eal 4:0 | 12°77 | 102) 11°3 | 16°9 | 24°7 | 29°0 | 33°7 | 25:0 | 17°6 | 13:0 | 17:0 40
servatory |
Fort William | 243 | 25-6 | 263 | 27-2 | 308 | 40°9 | 41-1 | 43-4 | 34°8 | 288 | 26:2 21-9) 21-9
Differences .| 20°3 | 129 | 161] 15°9 | 13:9 } 16°2 | 12:1 97; 98] 2] 132] 49 | 179
Rainfall, in Inches. |
Ben NevisOb- | 3:42| 16°22| 17:24] 6:55] 10°91] 8-46] 14°13 | 11°88 | 17-04 a8 17°78} 20°07 ;155°78
servatory | }
Fort William | 1°67) 8:06) 8-47] 4:24 | 479) 412) 6:93 5°24) 9°75] 6°28) 6°50} 11:79) 77°84
Differences .| 1:75] 816{ $77! 2:31| 612] 4:34] 7:20 | 6°64 7:29| 5:80] 11:28 8:28 | 77°94
Number of Days 1 in. or more fell.
Ben Nevis Ob- 0 5,2 oi8 0 3 2 6 2 7 4 8 7 49
servatory |

MersWilbem | Ota aif beow ae) o | a [oa | Agohoak ll an healed

Differences . 0 ae 2 2 5 1 3 3 7 | 4 35

Number of Days 0:01 in. 07 more fell.

BenNevisOb-| 16 16 23 17 18 18 18 23 | 26 20 |! 20 23 | 238
servatory

Fort William} 14 20 25 14 19 19 Ta’ "25" tees 17 20 23 234

Differences .| 2 | —4 | —2 Se pete ls —. 0 ONE 4 3 0 0 4

Mean Rainband (scale 0-8).

BenNevisOb-} 1:0 | 2 2°6 21 70 hale I? 4 273) 2°4 | 27 17 2-0 2:3 21
servatory |

Fort William | 2-1 | 2:8 43 3°3 31 38 ol a7 42 | 3°6 | 36 36 34

Differences ./ I'l “18 17 1:2 tet 26 b= eal li! 15 19 16 l3e] 13

Number of Howrs of Bright Sunshine.

Benes Db-| 22 22 21 98 | 159 77 | 170 35 87 80 43 27 841
servatory {

Fort William 40 27 59 158 200 139 | 188 | 107 | 112 94 | 38 22 | 1,184

Differences . 18 5 38 60 | 41 62 18 72 25 14 —5 | —5 343

Mean Hourly Velocity of Wind, in Miles. 4

Ben Nevis Ob-| 22 | 18 | 23 | 14 | 14 13 | 12 13 1 12 20 13 | 18 16

servatory | \

Percentage of Cloud.

Ben NevisOb-| 89 88 | 95 79 71 89 72 92 87 73 82 89 84

servatory
Fort William | 69 79 79 62 60 79 68 76 70 60 77 71 71
Differences .| 20 9 16 i 1l 10 4 16) 17 13 5 18 13

At Fort William the mean atmospheric pressure for the year was
29°855 inches, being 0-011 inch higher than the average of the forty years,
1856-95. The mean at the top of Ben Nevis, reduced to 32° only, was
25-298 inches, and was nearly the average of the observations made since
the opening of the Observatory in December 1883. The difference for
the two Observatories was thus 4°557 inches for the year, being nearly the
average difference of past years. At the top of the mountain the absolute
highest pressure for the year was 26:029 inches in September ; and at
Fort William 30°584 inches in December.

The differences from the mean monthly pressure very greatly exceeded
the averages in October and November, the excesses respectively being
for Fort William 0-278 inch and 0-280 inch, and at the top of Ben Nevis
0-234 inch and 0-242 inch. The evidently anticyclonic character of the

ee eee eee

7

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF BEN NEVIS. 279

weather of these two months is well shown by the mean temperatures of
the two Observatories, thus :—

Fort Ben Nevis
William. Observatory.
oO °

Change from September to October —2:2 +1:2
5 », October to November a —3'2 —27
i » September to November — 54 —15

On the other hand, when the weather is strongly cyclonic, the reverse
holds good. Thus in March the mean pressure was 0°300 inch under
the average of March, the weather being decidedly cyclonic, when the
change of temperature from February to March was +1°-1 at Fort William,
but —1°°8 at the top of the mountain.

The following shows the deviations of the mean temperature of the
months from their respective averages :—
Fort To

of
William. Ben Nev vis. Difference.
° °
January . —3°5 Bald —0°3
February 1-4 2-4 1:0
March 15 07 —08
April —2:2 —2:1 01
May —1:9 —0°5 14
June —0'6 1:3 1:9
July 1:2 4:8 3°6
August 1-2 29 ners
September —2:3 —2'8 —0°5
October . 1:2 50 38
November 3:8 56 18
December —0°3 2:3 2°6
Year 0-0 1:0 1:0

Hence, owing to the frequent occurrence of well-marked and long-con-
tinued anticyclones, the mean annual temperature at the top of the
mountain was relatively one degree higher than that of Fort William ;
and the differences of the means of some of the months—notably of July
and October—were very striking.

The absolutely highest temperature for the year recorded for Fort
William was 80°'4 on July 15, and at the top 64°°0 on July 16. The
absolutely lowest temperature was 20°-0 at Fort William on December 23,
and at the top 4°°0 on January 25. The most noticeable feature of the
extreme temperatures at the top is the high extremes during October and
November when the anticyclonic type of weather was predominant. In
November, temperature rose on the 4th to 52°:0, being higher than
that recorded in any previous November.

As regards the extremes of temperature, the difference between the
two maxima was greatest in April and May, when it was 22°°3, and least
in October and November, when it was respectively 9°°3 and 5°°8; and
the difference between the two minima greatest in January, when it was
20°°3, and least in December, when it was only 4°°9.

The registration of the sunshine recorder at the top shows 813 Boies
out of a possible 4,470 hours, being 118 hours more than in 1895, and 57
hours more than in 1896. This number of 813 hours is greater than any
annual amount recorded since 1891, but is 157 hours fewer than in 1888,
when the hours of sunshine numbered 970. The number 813 is 18 per

280 REPORT—1898.

cent. of the possible sunshine. The maximum was 170 hours in July, and
the minimum 21 hours in March, these being respectively the absolutely
largest and the smallest numbers of hours of sunshine recorded in any
previous July and March. At Fort William the number of hours for the
year was 1,184, being the largest annual number recorded since 1891,
when the number was 1,220 hours. The maximum was 200 hours in
May, and the minimum 22 hours in December. As regards the 22 hours
in December, this number is larger than that of previous Decembers since
1890. Theannual number of hours, 1,184, at Fort William is 34 per cent.
of the possible sunshine there.

In the subjoined Table II. there are given for each month the lowest
observed hygrometric readings :—

Tasie II.
_— Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April| May | June July | Aug. | Sept.} Oct. | Nov. | Dec.
io} ° ° ° ° o ° ° ° °o °
Dry Bulb . | 25:7 | 26°0 | 23°9 | 29:2 | 39°38 | 47°9 | 52°77 | 51:0 | 31°3 | 48:5 | 49°6 | 28:9
Wet Bulb . - | 188 | 191 | 21-9 | 21°8 | 27-1 | 36°8 | 36°8 | 38:9 | 27°5 | 34°9 | 34°9 | 20°8
Dew-point = . |-17°8 | -16°1 99 | -41 | 10°6 | 23:3 10°3 | 26°38 | 17-4] 199 | 187 | -88
Elastic Force . - | °018 | °020 | *067 | 036 | 069 | +125 | *104 | *146 | °095 | -107 | ‘101 | ‘028
Relative Humidity 13 14 52 22 28 37 26 39 55 bl 28 18
(Sat.=100)
Day of Month 2 12 5 22} 20 4 13 2 9 25 4 22
Hour of Day .__. |Midn. 7 a.m. 10a.m.17 am. 4 a.m. 3 a.m. |8 a.m. |10p.m.9 a.m. |ila.m./10a.m./3 a.m.
| |

Of these lowest monthly humidities, the lowest occurred in January,
when the dew-point was —17°°8 ; the elastic force of vapour ‘018 inch,
and relative humidity 13. Very low humidities also were recorded in
February and in December. Just as happened in the previous year, no
very low humidity occurred in September, the lowest relative humidity
being 55.

At the Ben Nevis Observatory the mean percentage of cloud was 84,
which is nearly the average, the maximum being 95 in March and the
minimum 70 in November ; and at Fort William the mean was 71, the
maximum being 78 in November and the minimum 60 in May.

The mean rainband (scale 0—8) observations at the top was 2:1 for
the year, the maximum being 2°7 in September and the minimum 1-0 in
January. At Fort William the mean for the year was 3°4, the maximum
being 4:3 in March and the minimum 2°] in January.

The mean hourly velocity of the wind at the top of Ben Nevis was
16 miles per hour, being the highest since 1891 ; the maximum velocity
was 23 miles in March, and in January the number was 22 miles, The
lowest velocity was 12 miles in July and again in September, this being
the lowest minimum hitherto recorded in any previous year.

The rainfall for the year was 154-76 inches, or fully 6 per cent. above
the average. The previous large annual rainfalls exceeding the above
were 197-95 inches in 1890, 17874 inches in 1891, and 165°77 inches in
1893. The largest monthly amount was 20:07 inches in December, and
the smallest 3°42 inches in January, or only 22 per cent. of the average
rainfall of the month. The heaviest fall on any single day was 4:52
inches on the 25th of February.

At the top of the mountain rain fell on 238 days, and at Fort William
on 234 days, these being respectively twenty-two days and four days
under the averages. At the top the maximum number of rainy days was

ee

te ania

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF BEN NEVIS. 281

26 in September, and at Fort William twenty-four in March, and the
minimum number sixteen in January and again in February at the top,
and fifteen in April at Fort William.

During the year the number of days on which 1 inch of rain or more
fell was forty-nine at the top and fourteen at Fort William ; at the latter
place an inch of rain did not fall on any day in January, April, and June.
At the top this amount was exceeded on eight days of November, and

_ seven days both in September and December.

Auroras are reported to have been observed on the following dates :—
February 26 ; March 3, 29, 30, 31; April 2, 5, 6, 23, 24, 25 ; October 1 ;

December 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 ; the number being thus relatively few, the

sun spots being near the minimum of the eleven-year period.

St. Elmo’s Fire was seen on March 10, 24; May 13 ; December 29, 30.

Zodiacal Light, not observed during the year.

Thunder and lightning was reported on April 15; August 5;
December 8, 29. Lightning only, July 24; August 1, 2, 4, 13.

Solar Halo, March 30; April 27 ; May 27 ; August 1, 3; September
10, 11, 26 ; October 4, 20.

Tunar Halo, January 13, 21; February 12; May 13; August 9, 12,
22; October 4 ; November 10, 16.

As stated in our last Report, the observations at the intermediate
station on Ben Nevis, at a height of 2,322 feet, were resumed in the summer
months. The observations were made from July 19 to September 30, by
Messrs. T.S. Muir of the Royal Hill School of Edinburgh, Alexander
Drysdale, B.Sc., Dollar, and A. Aitken. By the great enthusiasm and
self-denial of the observers, aided by several self-recording instruments
gifted by Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, an invaluable complete series of hourly
observations have been obtained. Hence, for the first time, complete
series of hourly observations have been secured at heights of 42 feet,
2,322 feet, and 4,407 feet, the three places being in the same line and
differing but little in horizontal distance from each other. These hourly
observations from the three Observatories on Ben Nevis are really
indispensable data in investigating the problems relating to the vertical
gradients of the temperature, pressure, and humidity of the atmosphere
and its movements.

Messrs. Muir and Drysdale have undertaken, under the superinten-
dence of the Directors, the laborious work of discussing these observations,
and at the Meeting of the Scottish Meteorological Society, Mr. Muir sub-
mitted an elaborate preliminary report. Among the important results
either disclosed or indicated in the discussion may be noticed the relations
which obtain between different vertical distributions of temperature and
pressure on the one hand, and cyclones and anticyclones on the other,
thus :—When the reduced barometer at the Ben Nevis Observatory, for
a series of observations, comes out higher than that of Fort William,
the accompanying disturbance of temperature takes place inthe lower half
of the mountain, that is, below the intermediate station, and denotes the
approach of an anticyclone. Conversely, when the reduced Ben Nevis
Observatory barometer reads lower than that of Fort William, then the
disturbance of temperature takes place in the upper half of the mountain,
and denotes the approach of a cyclone.

In the further prosecution of this line of research, it has been
arranged that in the summer of 1898, in addition to the hourly observa-
tions, the observers make temperature and humidity observations at

282 REPORT—1898.

different heights above and below the level of the intermediate station.
The observer takes with him dry and wet bulb thermometers (Assmann’s)
with which the temperature and humidity are observed. Special atten-
tion is given to the particular height where at the time the more rapid
changes of temperature and humidity occur, which are so striking
features on the slopes of Ben Nevis, of the cyclones and anticyclones as
they sweep past the mountain. These observations will continue to be
made for some time at short intervals, to which are added eye observa-
tions, such as mist and haze as they appear or disappear ; of marked
changes of wind, both direction and force ; of the heights of the clouds
on the neighbouring heights and mountains, of the rainfall, &e.

Mr. Omond has undertaken a discussion of the hourly observations
at the three observatories, carried out in sequence from day to day, with
the view of ascertaining, among other points, the times which elapse
between the first appearance of the indications of a cyclone or anti-
cyclone, and its actual arrival in the British Islands.

Dr. Buchan has been for some time engaged in the preparation of a
paper on the annual rainfall of Scotland, and its variations from year to
year in different parts of the country. In carrying out this inquiry, the
relation of the whole subject to the sun-spot period of eleven years is
under consideration. The last four periods, commencing respectively
1855, 1866, 1877, and 1888, are alone dealt with. The result is that the
mean annual variation of the rainfall of Scotland, considered as a whole,
from 1855 to 1897, shows a course of variation for the eleven years period
closely accordant with the variation of the sun spots. As the sun spots
increase from the minimum to the maximum in the sixth year of the
period, the rainfall is under the average; but as they fall from the
maximum to the minimum during the next five years, the rainfall is
above the average.

__ The averages have been calculated for upwards of 300 stations in
Great Britain, and the remarkable result has been arrived at that, for
stations in the west, well open to the westerly winds from the Atlantic—
and such stations are numerous—the above relation between the distribu-
tion of the rainfall and the sun spots during the eleven years periods
obtains without exception in the strongest marked form.

An examination of the annual direction and force of the wind for the
eleven years period has been made, and sorting the results into two
groups, comprising respectively N.W., N., N.E., and E. winds, which
may be regarded as dry winds, and 8.E., 8., S.W., and W. winds as
wet or rain-bringing winds, the following is the striking result: the
maximum occurrence of the dry winds is coincident with the years when
sun spots are increasing to the maximum and the rainfall is under the
average ; and the maximum occurrence of the wet winds is coincident
with the years when sun spots are diminishing towards the minimum and
the rainfall is above the average.

Further, the minimum force of the wind is during the former half of
the eleven years period when the sun spots are increasing, and the maxi-
mum when they are falling to the minimum.

In your Committee’s last report it was intimated that there is in
course of construction a map for each day of each of the years over which
the Ben Nevis Observations extend, on which is entered the amount of
the day’s rainfall at 120 places in Scotland ; the storms of wind from the
night and day observations at the Scottish Lighthouses ; hours of sun-

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF BEN NEVIS. 288

shine ; fog, in hours’ duration ; thunderstorms ; halos, auroras, and other
phenomena. These are collated with the bi-daily weather maps of the
Meteorological Council, and also with the hourly observations of the
Ben Nevis Observatories. These have been designed mainly to see what
light would thereby be cast on the dynamic effects produced by the con-
densation and precipitation of the aqueous vapour of the atmosphere.

Now, among other matters, these maps reveal the existence of two
very different types of westerly winds. One type has the wind unusually
strong and steady, nearly in the same direction at the top of Ben Nevis
as at sea level, with the hygrometer showing a great humidity at both
observatories, and continuing long and steadily humid. Under these
cenditions the accompanying rains are more than ordinarily heavy, and
virtually overspread all Scotland. The other type is accompanied by a
wind at the top of the mountain, nearly in a direction the opposite to
what obtains at sea-level at the time, with the hygrometer at one or both
observatories indicating great fluctuation in the amount of vapour.
Under these conditions the rains deposited do not penetrate far east-
wards, and even in strictly western situations are neither very heavy
nor protracted.

Somewhat analogous to these westerly winds are the accompanying
phenomena of easterly winds, with the notable exception that easterly
winds bring with them a rainfall that seldom penetrates to any consider-
able distance inland from the east coast.

Now in the case of districts which are well protected by mountains in
the west-south-westerly direction, but well open to the rain-bringing south-
easterly winds, it happens that their curves of rainfall for the sun spot
period are diametrically opposite to the rainfall curves of strictly western
districts. These local climatological considerations have an important
bearing on the methods to be employed in collating the spots of the sun
with the varying phenomena of meteorology.

The Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological
Phenomena.—EHighth Report of the Committee, consisting of My.
G. J. Symons (Chairman), Professor R. Mentpoua, Mr. J.

Hoprxinson, Mr. H. N. Dickson, and Mr. A. W. CLAYDEN (Secre-
tary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue work has been continued throughout the year whenever possible,
and the number of separate observations made in the course of the last
three years amounts to more than 200, about 150 of which were observa-
tions of high-level clouds.

It has been found that the low-level cumulus clouds very frequently
fail to give any results, as the parallax due to the base line often gives
two such very different pictures that no corresponding points of the cloud
ean be identified. For such clouds a base line of 100 yards would be
ample. With the present base line of 200 yards it is not possible to be
sure of getting a reliable measurement unless the cloud is at a height of
at least 2,000 feet.

Some slight difficulty has been experienced in so drawing the vertical
and horizontal lines as to intersect exactly in the centre of the disc given
by the image of the sun, . This has been especially the case with negatives

284. REPORT—1898.

which give a very dense image of the sun with a considerable amount of
deposit around it. But a local reduction of the image has obviated most
of the difficulty. This is effected by applying a weak reducer, in the form
of a dilute mixture of hyposulphite of soda and ferricyanide of potassium.
The plate is wetted, and when the gelatine is thoroughly moistened the
reducer is applied with a paint brush to the parts which are too dense.
The image of the sun may thus be brought down to any convenient
density without risk of diminishing the value of the plate. It is not easy
to effect the reduction without showing some streaks and irregular
markings, but for the purpose in view these are of no importance.

Few measurements have so far been possible in the winter months,
not a single opportunity having presented itself during December, January,
or February, and very few during November or March. The determina-
tions made are, therefore, difficult to compare with those which have been
made elsewhere, and of which only the mean value has been published,
and it is possible that the greater average altitudes observed may be
partly explained bythe absence of observations during these winter
months.

Great altitudes seem especially frequent in hot weather under thunder-
storm conditions, in which case the clouds may frequently form at five or
six different levels, reaching in some cases to such a height as 80,000 or
90,000 feet, which is three times as great as the mean given for the same
type of cloud by the International Meteorological Committee in 1894.

Under similar circumstances around the margins of large thunder
depressions clouds of the alto-cumulus and cirro-cumulus “ty pes also
reach altitudes much greater than the usually accepted means.

At the same time instances are not wanting in which clouds which
cannot be distinguished from those types by their appearance occupy
much lower levels.

Observations made in different months and at different times of day
show a well marked rise of the various cloud planes in hotter weather,
and an equally well marked rise during the morning and early afternoon.
Both phenomena are, as we should expect, considerably varied by the
changes in atmospheric pressure, the greatest altitudes having been
recorded at the beginning of a barometric fall after a prolonged spell of
anticyclonic conditions, while the lowest altitudes seem to accompany or
follow a.series of cyclonic disturbances.

There seems reason for suspecting that the high-level clouds reach
greater altitudes over the West of England than at other places where
observations have been taken, but the variations in the level of a particular
type of cloud are so great from week to week, and sometimes even within a
single day, that a very prolonged series of determinations ought to be
secured before a comparison is made with the researches which have been
carried on elsewhere. :

The installation remains in an efficient state, little trouble having
been experienced with the electrical arrangements, in spite of the long
drought and consequent poor ‘ earth.’

The Secretary proposes to continue the work, and if possible to move
the whole installation, which is now arranged with an east and west base
line, to some neighbouring site with the line north and south, whereby
observations in the early morning and late afternoon will be greatly
facilitated. As he is willing to continue to bear the expense no grant is
sought, but the Committee ask to be reappointed.

9% 4.

iA.

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 285

The Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. T. E. THorPE (Chairman), Professor J. J. HUMMEL
(Secretary), Dr. W. H. Perkin, Professor W. J. RussELL, Captain
ABNEY, Professor W. Stroup, and Professor R. MELDOLA.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue Report of the Committee presented this year refers to the results
obtained during the year 1896-97, in which period a large number of wool
and silk patterns, dyed with various natural and artificial brown and
black colouring matters, were exposed to light.

It is with regret that the Committee have to announce the death of
James A. Hirst, Esq., in whose grounds at Adel, near Leeds, all the
patterns experimented upon since 1892 have been exposed. Mr. Hirst
took great interest in the work of this Committee, and the same interest
is shown by his son, E. A. Hirst, Esq., who has expressed the pleasure it
gives him in being able to aid in the continuation of the work.

The general method of preparing the dyed patterns and the manner of
exposing ; them under glass, with free access of air and moisture, were the
same as already adopted in previous years.

Each dyed pattern was divided into six pieces, one of which was pro-
tected from the action of light, while the others were exposed for different
periods of time. These ‘periods of exposure’ were made equivalent to
those adopted in previous years by exposing, along with the patterns,
special series of ‘standards,’ dyed with the same colouring matters as were
then selected for this purpose. The standards were allowed to fade to the
same extent as those which marked off the ‘fading period’ in previous
years, before being renewed, or before removing a set of dyed patierns
from the action of light. The patterns exposed during 1896-97 are,
therefore, comparable, in respect of the amount of fading action to which
they have been submitted, with the dyes already reported upon.

The patterns were all put out for exposure on July 22, 1896, eppatn
sets being subsequently removed on the pecans dates ‘August 2 22,
September 29, November 5, 1896 ; May 22 , September 6, 1897. Of these
five ‘ periods of exposure ’ thus marked off, periods 12; 3 were equivalent
to each other in fading power, whereas periods 4 and 5 were each equivalent
to four of the first period in this respect ; hence five patterns of each
colour have been submitted respectively to an amount of fading equal to
20,7, and 11 Jee that of the first ‘fading period’ selected—viz.
July 22 to August 22, 1896.

The dyed and faded patterns have been entered in pattern-card books
in such a manner that they can be readily compared with each other.

The following tables give the general result of the exposure experi-
ments made during 1896-97, the colours being divided, according to their
behaviour towards light, into the following “five classes : Very fugitive,
fugitive, moderately fast, fast, very fast.

The initial numbers refer to the order of the patterns in the pattern-
books. The S. and J. numbers refer to Schultz and Julius’s ‘Tabel-
larische Uebersicht der kiinstlichen organischen Farbstoffen.’

In the case of colouring matters » requiring mordants, the particular

286 REPORT—1898.

mordant employed is indicated in brackets after the name of the dye-

stuff.
The colours marked thus (*) appear to be somewhat faster than the

rest of the class in which they are placed.

BROWN COLOURING MATTERS.

Crass I. Very Fueirive CoLours. (W001.)

The colours of this class have faded so rapidly that at the end of the
first ‘fading period’ (July 22 to Aug. 22, 1896) only a very faint colour
remains, or it has become very materially altered in hue. At the end of
the fifth period (about one year) all traces of the original colour have
disappeared, the woollen cloth exhibiting merely a yellowish, brownish, or
greyish tint, according to the colour of the original pattern.

Azo Colours.
Wool Book XII.

Basic Colours. 1. Leather Brown R. Constitution not published.
at 2. Chrysoidine AG. From aniline and wm-phenylene-diamine.
S. and J. III. 16.
3 3. Chrysoidine FF. From aniline and m-toluylene-diamine.
- 8. Leather Brown V. Constitution not published.
Direct Cotton 1. Titan Brown Y. Constitution not published.
Colours. 2. Benzo Brown 5R. From Primuline and phenylene-diamine.

S. and J. III. 110. ‘

*4. Cloth Brown (red shade). From benzidine, salicylic acid, and
a-naphthol-sulphonic acid NW. S. and J. III. 193.

+i 13. Benzo Brown G. From sulphanilic acid and Bismarck Brown.
8. and J. III. 273.

25. Hessian Brown MM. From sulphanilic acid, tolidine, and
resorcinol. §. and J. III. 278.

sory Colours.
Wool Book XII.
Direct Cotton 21. Mikado Brown M. Constitution not published.
Colours.

Norrs.—In the case of Chrysoidine AG and FF, and Cloth Brown,
the colours alter very rapidly during the first ‘period of exposure,’ the
altered colours then fade more slowly, without any further change in hue.

Cuass II. Fucirive Conours. (Woot.)

The colours of this class show very marked fading at the end of the
second ‘fading period’ (August 22 to September 29, 1896), and after a
year’s exposure they have entirely faded, or only a brownish, drab, or
grey tint remains.

Azo Colowrs.

Wool Book XII.
Acid Colours. 1, ResorcinBrown. From m-xylidine, sulphanilic acid, and resorcinol.
8. and J. III. 163.
. Fast Brown G. From sulphanilic acid and a-naphthol. S. and J.
IIL. 165.
; 4, Acid Brown G. From aniline and m-diamido-azo-benzene-p-mono-
ulphonic acid. §8. and J. II. 136.

bo

a

i ti i i

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 287

Wool Book XII.
Acid Colours. 7. Naphthylamine Brown. From naphthionic, acid and a-naphthol.
8. and J. III. 92.
io 8. Sulphamine Brown. From a-naphthylamine and nitroso-6-naph-
thol-sodium-bisulphite. §. and J. III. 57.

ey 9. Acid Brown R. From naphthionic acid and Chrysoidine. S. and
J. II. 91.

“ 10. Alkali Brown. From Primuline and m-phenylene-diamine. 8S, and
J. III. 110.

x 11, Fast Brown 3B. From f-naphthylamine-sulphonic acid Br and
Wool Book XIII. a-naphthol. §. and J. III. 103.
Basic Colours. *1. Chrome Brown RO (Cr). From naphthionic acid and a-naphthol.
S. and J. IIL. 92.
35 *2. Chrome Brown BO (Cr). Constitution not published.
= *3. Chrome Brown R(Cr). Constitution not published.
PS 4. Nut Brown. From m-toluylene-diamine and m-toluylene-diamine.
8. and J. ITI. 174.
rr *5, Bismarck Brown 2G. From wm-phenylene-diamine and m-
phenylene-diamine. §,. and J. III. 172.
53 *6. Leather Brown. From amido-p-acetanilide and m-phenylene-
diamine ; products treated with HC]. §S. and J. III. 160.
a. *7, Leather Brown O. Similar to Leather Brown. f
Direct Cotton 8. Diazochromine BS. Constitution not published.
Colours. 11. Toluylene Brown R. From sulphanilic acid and Bismarck Brown
sulphonic acid.

a 15. Direct Brown Y. From m-amido-benzoic acid and Bismarck
Brown. 8. and J. III. 275.

- 19. Cloth Brown (yellow shade). From benzidine and salicylic acid
and dioxy-naphthalene (2:7). S. and J. III. 194.

$5 26. Catechu Brown. From Bismarek Brown and m-phenylene
diamine. S. and J. II. 220.

7 27. Congo Brown VBB. Constitution not published.

+ *28. Catechu Brown DDX. Constitution not published.

9 *29. Catechu Brown DDDX. Constitution not published.

es *30. Hessian Brown B. Constitution not published.

re *31. Azo Brown. Constitution not published.

= *32. Toluylene Brown R. Constitution not published.

7 *33. Benzo Brown. Constitution not published.

= *34. Benzo Brown BR. Constitution not published.

+ *35. Benzo Brown B. From naphthionic acid and Bismarck Brown.
8. and J. III. 274.

% *36. Benzo Brown NB. Constitution not published.

a *37. Toluylene Brown M. Constitution not published.

- *38. Toluylene Brown B, Constitution not published.

ae *39. Cotton Brown A Constitution not published.

5 *40, Cotton Brown N. Constitution not published.

ai 42. Toluylene Brown VO. Constitution not published.

34 44. Toluylene Brown 2BO. Constitution not published.

$3 46. Benzo Black Brown. Constitution not published.

. 47. Sulphon Brown R. Constitution not published.
si *48. Sulphon Dark Brown. Constitution not published.
Direct Cotton 2. Diazo Brown R (extra). Constitution not published. Azotised
Colours and developed with 8-naphthol.
developed. *3. Zambesi Brown G. Constitution not published. Azotised and
developed with toluylene-diamine.

% 4. Diazo Brown G. Constitution not published. Azotised and
developed with £-naphthol.

is 5. Zambesi Brown 2G. Constitution not published. Azotised and
developed with toluylene-diamine.

+ 6. Diazo Brown Y. Constitution not published. Azotised and
developed with 8-naphthol.

5 7. Diazo Brown V. Constitution not published. Azotised and de-

veloped with 8-naphthol.

288 REPORT—1898.

Wool Book XIII.
Direct Cotton *8. Diamine Brown V. From benzidine and amido-naphthol-sulphonic
Colours acid and m-phenylene diamine. §. and J. III. 182. Azotised
developed. and developed with phenylene-diamine.
Natural Colouring Matters.
Mordant 6. Sanderswood (Cr). Pterocarpus santalinus (wood).
Colours. 7. Barwood (Cr). Baphia nitida (wood).
+ *8. Ventilago (Cr). Ventilago madraspatana (root-bark),
10, Camwood (Cr).
st 11. Limawood (Cr) (Cu). Czesalpinia echinata (wood).
a *13. Catechu (Cr). Areca catechu (extract).
Nores.—Leather Brown and Leather Brown O might almost equally

well be classed as ‘ moderately fast’ colours. In the first ‘fading period’
they become somewhat greyish in hue, but the altered colour fades very
gradually, leaving at the end of a year a fairly good drab-grey colour.

Crass III. Moprrarery Fast Contours. (Wo00z.)

The colours of this class show distinct fading at the end of the second
period (August 22 to September 29, 1896), which becomes more pro-
nounced at the end of the third period (September 29 to November 5,
1896). A pale tint remains at the end of the fourth ‘ period of exposure’
(November 5, 1896, to May 22, 1897), and at the end of a year’s exposure
the colour has entirely faded, or at most only traces of colour remain.

zo Colours. :
Wool Book XII.
Acid Colours. *3. Azo Acid Brown. Constitution not published.
5 6. Fast Brown. From xylidine-mono-sulphonic acid, and a-naphthol.

8. and J. IT. 80.

A 12. Fast Brown. From naphthionic acid, and resorcinol. §S. and J.
III. 164.

Pr 14. Diamond Brown. Constitution not published.

Direct Cotton 7. Congo Brown G. From sulphanilic acid and benzidine, with
Colours. resorcinol and salicylic acid. S.and J. III. 269.
a 9. Thiazine Brown G. Constitution not published.
9

. Congo Brown R, From a-naphthylamine-sulphonic acid L and
benzidine, with resorcinol and salicylic acid. S. andJ. III. 270-

+ 14. Hessian Brown 2BN. Constitution not published.

eS 16. Hessian Brown 2B. From sulphanilic acid and benzidine, with

resorcinol. §. and J. III. 277.

ae 17. Thiazine Brown R. Constitution not published.

a 20. Diamine Bronze G. From benzidine, with salicylic acid and

amido - naphthol - disulphonic -acid-H-azo-m-phenylene-diamine-

8. and J. IIT. 263.

3 41. Diamine Brown M. From benzidine, with salicylic acid and
‘y-amido-naphthol-sulphonic acid.
- 43. Diamine Brown B. From benzidine, with phenyl-y-amido-naphthol-

sulphonic acid.
5 45. Benzo Dark Brown. Constitution not published.
Direct Cotton *1. Diamine Cutch. Constitution not published. Naphthylene Violet
Colours azotised and developed with sodium carbonate. §.and J. III.
developed. 256.

Azoxy Colours.

Direct Cotton 22. Mikado Brown 2B. Constitution not published.
Colours. 23. Mikado Brown G. Constitution not published.
Pe 24. Mikado Brown B. Constitution not published.

FL. Sh

teen

SE —————— Eee SC CC eee

oe

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 289

Natural Colouring Matters.

Wool Book XIII.
Mordant Colours *Ventilago (Cu) (Fe). Ventilago madraspatana (root-bark).

PH Sanderswood (Cu) (Fe). Pterocarpus santalinus (wood).
5 Barwood (Cu) (Fe). Baphia nitida (wood).
= Camwood (Cu) (Fe).

Norrs.—Diamine Brown M loses its reddish hue and becomes appa-
rently darker during the first ‘fading period’; the altered colour fades
slowly, and finally leaves at the end of a year a pale drab colour. Azo
Acid Brown acquires a more yellowish hue during the first ‘fading period’ ;
the colour then fades very gradually without further change of hue,
leaving at the end of a year a very pale brown. It might fairly well be
classed as a ‘ fast colour.’ The Mikado Browns are by no means so fast to
light as the Mikado Oranges and Yellows : they experience the greatest
change in depth of colour during the first ‘fading period’; the altered
colour, which is yellower than the original one, then fades very gradually,
and leaves at the end of a year a fairly good buff colour.

Crass IV. Fast Cotours. (Woot.)

The colours of this class show comparatively little fading during the
first, second, and third periods. At the end of the fourth ‘period of
exposure’ a pale shade remains, which at the end of the year’s exposure
still leaves a pale shade.

Azo Colours.

Wool Book XII.
Direct Cotton 5. Toluylene Brown G. From toluylene-diamine-sulphonic acid and
Colours. m-phenylene-diamine. §. and J. III. 241.
ae 6. Direct Cotton Brown R. From amido-nitroso-stilbene-disulphonic
acid and aniline.

Natural Colouring Matters.
Wool Book XIII.

Mordant Colours. 12. Cochineal (Cr). Coccus cacti (insect).

Cuass V. Very Fast Contours. (Woot.)

The colours of this class show a very gradual fading during the
different periods, and even after a year’s exposure a moderately good
colour remains.

Oxyketone Colowrs.

Wool Book XIII.
Mordant Colours. Alizarin Bordeaux B (Cr) (Cu). Tetra-oxy-anthraquinone
(1.2.5.8). Quinalizarin. 8. and J. IIL 403.

“E Alizarin Bordeaux G (Cr) (Cu).

“5 Alizarin Bordeaux GG (Cr) (Cu).

hy Alizarin Maroon (Cr) (Cu). Amido-purpurin. §. and J. III. 394,
” Alizarin Brown (Cr) (Fe). Diamido-alizarin.

= Anthracene Brown (Cr) (Fe). Tri-oxy-anthraquinone (1.2.3)

Anthragallol. §. and J, III. 396.
1898, U

290 REPORT—1898.

Natural Colouring Matters.

Wool Book XIII.
Mordant Colours. Morinda Root (Cr) (Cu) (Fe). Morinda citrifolia (root).

y Mang-kudu (Cr) (Cu) (Fe). Morinda umbellata (root-bark).
. Chay Root (Cr) (Cu) (Fe). Oldenlandia umbellata (root).
3 Munjeet (Cr) (Cu) (Fe). Rubia cordifolia (root).

“ Madder (Cr) (Cu) (Fe). Rubia tinctorum (root).

a Lac-dye (Cr) (Cu) (Fe). Coccus ilicis (insect).

Cochineal (Cu) (Fe). Coccus cacti (insect).

Additional Colours.

Oxidation Colour. Chromogen I. (1.8) Dioxy-naphthalene- (3 . 6) disulphonic acid ;
oxidised with bichromate of potash. 8. and J. III. 504.

BLACK COLOURING MATTERS.

Cuass I. Verry Fuaitive Cotours. (WOootz.)

Azo Colours.

Wool Book XIV.
Acid Colour. 4. Violet Black. From p-phenylene-diamine, with a-naphthylamine
and a-naphthol-sulphonic acid NW. S&S. and J. III. 502.
Direct Cotton 1. Nyanza Black B. From p-phenylene-diamine-azo-a-naphthyl-
Colours amine and amido-naphthol-sulphonic acid +.
2. Tabora Black R. Constitution not published. 4

Nores.—During the first ‘fading period’ Violet Black changes to a
dull vinous red colour.

Crass II. Fuairive Cotours. (WO00t.)

Azo Colours.
Wool Book XIV.
Acid Colours. 6. Azo Nigrine R. From phenol-disulphonic-acid-azo-a-naphthyl-
amine and £-naphthol.
s 12. Wool Black. From amido-azo-benzene-disulphonic acid and
p-tolyl-8-naphthylamine. 58. and J. III. 139.
13. Jet Black G. Constitution not published.

af 19. Phenylene Black. From a-naphthylamine-disulphonic acid-azo-a-
naphthylamine and diphenyl-m-phenylene-diamine. 8S. and J.
IL. 152.

21. Anthracite Black R. From a-naphthylamine-disulphonic acid and
a-napht hylamine-azo-dipheny!-2-phenylene diamine.
26. Azo Acid Black B. Constitution not published,
is 27. Azo Acid Black G. Constitution not published.
Direct Cotton 10. Direct Deep Black T. Constitution not published.
Colours 11. Columbia Black 2B. Constitution not published.
is 12. Columbia Black B. Constitution not published.
13. Oxy Diamine Black N. Constitution not published.
is 14, Union Black 8. Constitution not published.
35 16. Oxy Diamine Black SOOO. Constitution not published.
is 18. Columbia Black R. Constitution not published.
Direct Cotton 1. Diamine Black BH. From benzidine, and y-amido-naphthol-sul-
Colours phonic acid, and amido-naphthol-disulphonic acid H; developed
developed. with Fast Blue Developer AD.
2. Diazo Black B. From benzidine and a-naphthylamine-sulphonic
acid L; developed with §-naphthol.

”

ft

— — —- —_— | eee eee

—

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 291

Wool Book XIV.
Direct Cotton *3. Diamine Black ROO. From benzidine and f-amido-naphthol-
Colours sulphonic acid; developed with Fast Blue Developer AD.
developed 8. and J. III. 187.
$ 4. Diazo Black R. Constitution not published. Developed with
B-naphthol.
+ 5. Diazo Black H. Constitution not published. Developed with

B-naphthol.
" *8, Diamine Black BO. From ethoxy-benzidine and amido-naphthol-
sulphonic acid y; developed with Fast Blue Developer AD.
8. and J. III. 229.
Oxazine Colours.
Basic Colours. 1. Cotton Black. Constitution not published.

Natural Colouring Matters.
Mordant Colours. Limawood (Fe). Czsalpinia echinata (wood).
Nortes.—The following colours acquire a reddish or purplish tint

during the fading process: Azo Acid Blacks B and G, Columbia Blacks
B and R, Union Black $8, Oxy-diamine Black SOOO, Diamine Black RO

and BO. An olive tint is acquired by Direct Deep Black T.

Crass IIT. Moperarety Fast Cotours. (Woot.)

LInduline Colours. ©
Wool Book XIV.
Acid Colours. *9. Nigrisine. Sodium salt of aninduline-sulphonicacid. S.and J.
III. 475.
a3 *10. Brilliant Black EB. Constitution not published.
Basic Colours 2a. Nigrisine J. Condensation product of p-nitroso-dimethyl-
aniline
4 3a. Nigrisine. Similar to Nigrisine J. S. and J. III. 502.

Azo Colours.

Acid Colours *5. Naphthol Black 4R. Constitution not published

id 8. Jet Black R. From amido-benzene-disulphonic-acid-azo-a-
naphthylamine and phenyl-a-naphthylamine. S. and J. III.
150.

3 11. Naphthylamine Black. From a-naphthylamine-disulphonic-
acid-azo-a-naphthylamine and a-naphthylamine. S. and J.
III. 153.

3 *41. Acid Black B. Constitution not published.

Fs 16. Acid Black 2B. Constitution not published.

ay *17. Naphthol Black 6B. From a-naphthylamine-disulphonic acid-

azo-a-naphthylamine and £-naphthol-disulphonie acid R.
8. and J. III. 154.

ce *18. Naphthol Black 3B. Constitution not published.

ss *20. Victoria Black B. From sulphanilic acid-azo-a-naphthylamine
and 8-naphthol-sulphonic acid S. §S. and J. III. 149.

a *22. Naphthol Black B. From £-naphthylamine-y-disulphonic acid-

azo-a-naphthylamine and £-naphthol-disulphonic acid R.
S. and J. III. 157.

» 25. New Victoria Black Blue. Constitution not published.

” 28. Naphthylamine Black 6B. Constitution not published,
”» *29. Victoria Black Blue. Constitution not published,

” 30, Naphthylamine Black 4B. Constitution not published.
» 31. New Victoria Black B. Constitution not published.

3 *32. Victoria Black G. Constitution not published.

” *33. Victoria Black 5G. Constitution not published.

” 34. New Victoria Black 5G. Constitution not published.

U2

292

Wool Book XIV.

Basic Colours. *3.

Direct Cotton 3.
Colours.

>
Je}

— pd

Direct Cotton
Colours

6
developed ib

Mordant Colour

RASH

- Chicago Grey.

“1 ore

REPORT—1898.

Diazine Black. From Safranine and phenol.

Benzo Black Blue G. From benzidine-disulphonic acid, with
a-naphthylamine-azo-a-naphthol-sulphonic acid NW and
a-naphthol-sulphonic acid NW. S. and J. III. 266.

Lenzo Black Blue R. From tolidine, with a-naphthylamine-
azo-a-naphthol-sulphonic acid NW and a-naphthol-sulphonic-
acid NW. S.and J. III. 266.

Benzo Black. Constitution not published.

Benzo Black § extra. Constitution not published.

Diamond Jet Black OO. Constitution not published.

Constitution not published.

Diamine Jet Black 8S. Constitution not published.

Diamine Black HW. Constitution not published.

Benzo Black Blue 5G. From benzidine-disulphonic acid, with
a-naphthylamine-azo-dioxynaphthalene-sulphonic acid S and
dioxynaphthalene-sulphonic acid 8. S. and J. III. 267.

Diazo Brilliant Black B. From tolidine and a-nuaphthylamine-
sulphonic acid L; developed with B-naphthol.

Diazo Brilliant Black R. Constitution not published. De-
veloped with B-naphthol.

Chrome Black (Cr). Constitution not published.

Diamond Black (Cr). From amido-salicylic-acid-azo-a-naphthyl-

amine and a-naphthol-sulphonic acid NW. S. and J. III. 159.
Diamond Black NG (Cr). Constitution not published.
3. Diamond Black GA (Cr). Constitution not published.

”

1
» 3.
4
iz

e

Natural Colouring Matters.

Mordant Colours. Logwood (Cr) (Fe*). Hmatoxylon campechianum (wood).
Cochineal (Fe*). Coccus cacti (insect).

Nores.—The colours dyed with the two Nigrisines are medium shades
of grey : they do not alter materially in hue during the fading process,
and at the end of the third period of exposure they still appear as pale
greys. The following colours alter very little in hue while fading, and
fade so gradually that they might fairly well be thought worthy of being
classed as ‘Fast Colours :’ Nigrisine, Brilliant Black EB, Acid Black B,
Naphthol Blacks 3B and 6B, Victoria Blacks B, G, and 5G, Victoria
Black Blue. Diazine Black acquires a somewhat yellowish cast at the end
of the first period of exposure, ard then fades so slowly that even at the
end of a year a full grey shade remains.

Several of the artificial black colours in this class are quite as
fast to light as the black obtained with logwood on chromium mordant ;
some indeed seem to be more permanent, and they do not acquire the
characteristic olive tint of the faded logwood and chromium black.
With iron mordant logwood gives a somewhat faster black than that
obtained with chromium ; the same appears to be the case with Chrome
Black and the various marks of Diamond Black.

Crass IV. Fast Corours, (Woot.)
Azo Colowrs.
Wool Book XIV.
Mordant Colours. 5. Chrome Black (Fe). Constitution not published.
af 6. Diamond Black (Fe). From amido-salicylic acid-azo-a naph-
thylamine and a-naphthol-sulphonic acid NW. S. and J.
III. 159.
At 7. Diamond Black NG (Fe). Constitution not published
~~ 8. Diamond Black GA (Fe). Constitution not published.

ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 293

Oxyketone Colowrs.

Mordant Colours * Alizarin Black SW (Cr) (Fe). Sodium bisulphite compound of
dioxy-naphthoquinone. S. and J. IIT. 385.

* Alizarin Bordeaux G (Fe). Constitution not published.

* Alizarin Bordeaux B (Fe). Tetra-oxy-anthraquinone (1.2.5.8),
Quinalizarin. §. & J. III. 403.

”

Crass V. Very Fast Contours. (WO0L.)

Oxyketone Colowrs.
Wool Book XIV. f i
Mordant Colours Alizarin Bordeaux GG (Fe). Constitution not published.

Sik Patterns.

Most of the foregoing colours were also dyed on silk, and the patterns
were exposed to light along with the woollen patterns. The relative
fastness of the various colours is generally the same as on wool, and a
special classification for silk seems unnecessary.

The Carbohydrates of the Cereal Straws.—Third Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor R. Warineton (Chairman), Mr.
ManninG PRENTICE, and Mr. C. F. Cross (Secretary). (Drawn
up by Mr. Cross.)

Tur work, which was carried out in the agricultural season of 1897, has
been reported upon in a paper published in the ‘Journal of the Chem.
Soc.’ 1898, p. 459. The purpose of these later investigations was to
trace the effect of removing the seed-bearing organs upon the carbo-
hydrates of the stem. The results were, however, negative, adding
another confirmation to the conclusion previously arrived at, that the
carbohydrates of the stem tissues are built up with a constant ratio of
‘furfural-yielding’ to normal hexose carbohydrates. Further evidence
was also obtained that these two groups of carbohydrates are in the earlier
stages of growth similarly attacked by boiling dilute acids, and after such
hydrolysis are similarly fermented by yeast.

It must in fact be admitted that as condensation to furfural is by no
means an exclusive characteristic of C; Carbohydrates, there is no evidence
whatever that the furfuroids of the barley straw are, in the early stages of
growth, pentose-anhydrides or pentosanes.

There now appears in the ‘Journ. Fed. Inst.’ Brewing, 1898, p. 438,
an article by Tollens under the title ‘On the Carbohydrates of Barley and
Malt, with special reference to the Pentosanes,’ in which, as a result of
yeast fermentations of the products of acid hydrolysis of brewers’ grains,
the author arrives at the following conclusions :—‘ From the behaviour of
these furfural-yielding substances on fermentation we are forced to the
view that they behave, to some extent, similarly to the ordinary hexoses,
and somewhat different from the pentoses, for when brought into contact
with yeast they exhibit certain manifestations of fermentation ; but they
give rise to the formation of but little alcohol and much acid. It must be
concluded from this that the furfural-yielding substances . . . contain a
certain amount of other substances more susceptible to fermentation than
“ota and xylose. They may contain glycuronic acid or oxycellu-

loses... .
We are very glad to have this confirmation from so great an authority

294 REPORT—1898.

as Professor Tollens, and we will not quarrel with his decision ‘ to retain the
old name pentosanes for this group of substances,’ instead of ‘ the indefinite
name of furfuroids proposed by Cross and Bevan.’ We will only remark
that, as the idea has been abandoned that they are exclusively and defi-
nitely pentosanes, it appears more logical to adopt a term of corresponding
significance,

We ourselves have recently carried out a more extended series of
fermentation experiments which further define these products, and the
results of this work will be published in the course of the autumn.

Generally, the position for which we have long contended may be taken
as fully established, viz. that the plant worla affords a group of furfural-
yielding bodies, probably carbohydrates, which are susceptible of fermen-
tation by yeast. ,

. We have next resumed the study of the problem of the relationship of
such compounds to the normal hexoses, on the basis of the purely chemical
probabilities. We have previously shown that furfuroids are produced
from the hexoses by many processes of oxidation. One such process, which
we had overlooked, appeared from the researches of Fenton in the province
of the dicarboxylic acids to be capable of extension to other hydroxy
compounds, such as the carbohydrates—that is, the action of hydrogen
peroxide in presence of iron salts. A research in this direction has led to
positive results. We have not only succeeded in producing furfuroids in
some quantity—7 to 9 per cent. of the hexaldoses—but we find that dicar-
bonyl derivatives are produced reacting with phenylhydrazine acetate in
the cold to form dihydrazones, which appear to be osazones. We have
published a preliminary account of this research in the ‘Journal -of the
Chem. Soe.’ 1898, p. 463, and since the publication of the paper we have
been joined in the investigations by Dr. R. S. Morrell. Results have been
obtained confirming and extending those of our preliminary paper, and
these wili be published in the course of the autumn. We have every ex-
pectation that the investigations will lead to results of physiological

significance by elucidating processes actually taking place in the plant-
cell.

The Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.— Fifth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. EMERSON REYNOLDS (Chair-
man), Dr. C. A. Koun (Secretary), Professor P. FRaNKLAND, Pro-
fessor F. Clowes, Dr. HucH Marsuatu, Mr. A. E. FLETCHER,
and Professor W. CARLETON WILLIAMS.

PAGE
The Determination of Zinc. By Professor W. CARLETON WILLIAMS, B.Se. - 296

The Determination of Nickel and Cobalt (Part T.). By HuGH MARSHALL,

D.Se., F.R.S.L. ; - : : : 5 : , d : : . 300
A CONSIDERABLE portion of the experimental work in progress last year
has now been completed, and the investigations on the determination of
zinc, cobalt and nickel are included in the present Report. Further work
on the determination of bismuth, the first portion of which was published
in the third report of the Committee, is in hand, but is not yet ready for
publication. It is proposed to proceed with the study of the methods
for separating cobalt, nickel, iron and zinc respectively from other metals.
The Committee ask for reappointment, without further grant.

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS.

The Determination of Zinc.

295

By Professor W. Carteron WIix.iaAms, B.Sc.

Reinhardt and Ihle

Warwick, H. Ss.

Bibliography.
Author Journal Year| Vol.| Page| Composition of Electrolyte
Wrightson,F,. . . Zeits.anal.Chem. | 1876 | 15 297 | Ammonium hydrate
Mimllot; A... els Bull. Soc. Ohim. | 1877 | 32 482 | Potassium cyanide
Riché, A, . f : Compt. Rend. .| 1877 | 84 226 | Ammonium sulphate, hydrate,
and acetic acid
Parodi, G., & Maseazzini, A. | Zeits.anal.Chem. | 1877 | 16 469 | Ammonium acetate
‘ oa ee Ate Bere ie J . | 1877 | 10 | 1098 lean? acetate and citric
- a5 ¥ » | Zeits.anal.Chem. | 1879 | 18 587 acid
Beilstein, A.,and Jawein,J. | Ber. . ¥ - | 1879 | 12 446 | Potassium cyanide
Alkali acetate, tartrate or ci-
aoe + trate
Luckow, C. e . «| Zeits.anal.Chem. | 1880; 19 1 Ammonium hydrate
Potassium cyanide
Classen, A.,and Reis, M.A. | Ber. . “ . | 1881 | 14 | 1622 | Ammonium oxalate
J. prakt. Chem. .| 1881 | 24 193 | Potassium oxalate
Millot, A. . hy 2 . | Bull. Soc. Chim.. | 1882 | 37 339 | Alkali hydrate
Riché,A. . 5 - . | Ann.Chim,etPhys.| 1882 | 13 508 | Ammonium sulphate and sul-
phuric acid
= ( Hydrochloric acid ; as amalgam
Luckow, 0. . 3 . | Chem. Zeit, 1885 9 338 {Sulphuric acid ; a¢ amalgam
( Sodium phosphate, ammonium
Moore,T. . . « «| Chem. News 1886 | 53 209 earbonate, and potassium
{ cyanide
Brand, A. . . . . | Zeits.anal.Chem. | 1889 | 28 581 | Sodium pyrophosphate and
ammonium carbonate
Ammonium oxalate
Kohn, C. A., & Woodgate, J. | J.Soc.Chem,Ind. | 1889 8 256 |/ Ammonium sulphate and hy-
drate
Gibbs, W. . a . Amer. Chem. J.. | 1891 | 13 570 | Sulphate; as amalgam
Nahnsen, G. x = Berg. u. hiitten. | 1891 | — 393 | Sulphuric acid
Zeit.
Smith, E. I.,and Muhr, I. | J. Analyt.& App. | 1891 5 488 | Tartaric acid and ammonium
Chem. hydrate
Ammonium oxalate ; as amal-
5 On gam
Mermmann (Gs. <6 6 | Ber.’ : . | 1891 | 24 | 2749 WecbAniG: neiaamda Aenoniaes
( hydrate ; as amalgam
Riidorff, F. . a 5 . | Zeitsangew.Chem.| 1892 | — 198 | Sodium acetate and acetic acid
. . | Zeits.anorg.Chem.) 1892 1 285 | Formate and formic acid
Vortmann,G. . : . | Monatsh. Chem.. | 1893 | 14 536 | Potassium tartrate and sodium
hydrate
Ber. = c J
( ara y * | 1894 27 2060 | (Ammonium or potassium oxa-
GisssenjA. 5 Od Seer: i a ne See 1894 1 280 || late and tartaric acid
Thomiilen,H. . = Zeits. Electro- 1894 | 1 304 | { Sodium acetate and acetic acid
Chem. | % | Potassium oxalate and sulphate
Jordis,E. . A 2 Zeits. Electro- 1895 - “ ) Ammonium lactate, glycollate,
C4 .
Chem. 655 | and sulphate
Nossensiin, H. . : . | Zeits. Llectro- | 1895 2 183 | Ammonium lactate, glycollate,
Chem. and sulphate
Nicholson, H.H.,& Avery,S. | J. Amer. Chem. | 1896 | 18 654 | Sodium formate
Soe.
Wagner, E. . ry . Zeits, Llectro- | 1896 2 614 | Ammonium oxalate and tar-
Chem. taric acid
mie ws . . . | Zeits. lectro- | 1896 3 19 | Ammonium oxalate and tar-
Chem. taric acid
Wolman, L. . . . - | Zeits. Electro- | 1897 3 539 | Comparison of different me-
Chem. thods for estimating zine

The preceding references show that a large number of electrolytic pro-
cesses for the estimation of zinc have been proposed during the last twenty

years, many of which are said to yield accurate results.

Seven of these

methods have been investigated. Since the completion of these experi-
ments in 1897, a comparison of the different methods for the estimation
of zinc has been published by Wolman (v. ante). This has made further
work on the simple estimation of zinc unnecessary ; our comparative con-

296 REPORT—1898.

clusions are contrasted in the sequel. The methods examined were based
on the deposition of zinc from a solution containing :—

i. Sodium pyrophosphate.

ii. Alkaline oxalate in neutral or alkaline solution.

iii, Alkaline oxalate in presence of potassium sulphate.

iv. Potassium or ammonium oxalate and free tartaric acid.
v. Potassium cyanide.

vi. Potassium cyanide and sodium phosphate.

vii. Ammonium lactate and ammonium sulphate.

In the following experiments the zinc was always present as sulphate,
and the metal was deposited in platinum basins, which were protected
from the action of the zinc by a deposit of copper, which extended three
or four millimetres beyond the surface of the liquid, during the electrolysis.
The basins are coppered by means of a hot solution of copper ammonium
oxalate containing free oxalic acid, with a current density of 0°5 to 1
ampere ; the operation only requires two or three minutes. Unfortunately,
the layer of copper must be renewed for each zinc determination.. Experi-
ments were made with the object of protecting the platinum with layers
of gold or silver, but, on the whole, better results were obtained with the
coppered basins. If the zinc is deposited on the unprotected surface of
the platinum a black stain is produced, when the zinc. deposit is dissolved
in acid. According to Vortmann (Ber. 24, 2753) the black deposit con-
sists of finely divided platinum.

The end of the reaction was generally ascertained by tilting the vessel
or increasing the volume of the solution, so that the liquid came in
contact with an unaltered layer of copper. In a small number of
determinations the end was ascertained by hanging a narrow strip of
metallic copper over the side of the basin ; if the colour of the copper
remains unchanged, the precipitation of the zinc is complete. As the
last traces of zinc are deposited with difficulty the current density is
always increased to one ampere at least towards the end of the operation.
The deposit was washed with water without interrupting the current.
It was finally washed with alcohol and dried at 80°. No signs of oxidation
were noticed.

I.— Deposition of Zine from Solution of Pyrophosphate.

Brand’s method is simple and accurate. The solution of zine salt is
mixed with 4 grme. of sodium pyrophosphate and with about 5 c.c. of
a saturated solution of ammonium carbonate ; water is added until the
liquid measures 120 or 150 c.c., and the mixture is electrolysed. The zinc
is obtained as a bright bluish-white deposit, adhering firmly to the basin.

Experi- | Zinc taken: | Zine found: C.D.400 Time: | E M.P, Error in
ment grme. grme. Amperes hours Volts mgrme,
1 0:2342 02347 0:2 Uf a= +05
2 _ 0:0507 0:0502 02 —1:0 a = —05
3 0-0733 0:0738 0:16—0°8 7 = +05
4 0°1551 01551 0-45 6 = 0-0
5 0:2174 0:2171 0°53 — 2: 4 75 -—0°3
6 0°2185 0:2190 05 -1 4 | 91. fide elt egtlanaatwayt 77 +05

|

_—-

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 297

II.—Deposition of Zinc from Solution of Double Oxalate.

In 1881 Classen, and also Reinhardt and Thle, suggested the addition
of potassium or ammonium oxalate, or of both oxalates, to the zinc salt.
The electrolysis is carried on at the ordinary temperature.

The method yields good results when the quantity of zinc does not
exceed 0-2 grme. ; when larger quantities of zinc are taken the deposit
is liable to be dull and spongy instead of firm and bright.

Experi- | Zinc taken: | Zine found: C.D.100 Time: | E.M.F, Error in
ment grme. grme. Amperes hours Volts milligrms,
1 0°1635 0:1638 0:18 3 4:0 +03
2 0:2103 0:2098 0:67 4 4:0 —0°5
3 0°3154 0°3148 0:22 4 37 —06
4 0:1087 071091 0:2 5 4:0 +0°4
5 0:0384 0:0382 0:2 4 4:0 —0°2
6 0:0362 0:0359 0:2 4 4:0 —0°3
7 0:2044 0:2043 0°22 4 4:0 —O1
8 0:2044 0°2041 0°22 4 39 —0°3
9 0:0719 0:0717 0:22 4 4:0 —0:2
10 0:1087 0°1084 0:22 4 4:2 —0°3
11 0:0740 0:0740 0:22 4 6:0 0:0
12 0:2861 0:2852 0:22 4 4:0 —0°9,

loose, spongy

In experiments 1, 2, 3 and 12 the zinc salt dissolved in water was
poured into a hot solution of potassium oxalate (8 grme.); in 4 and 5
ammonium oxalate (8 grme.) was substituted for the potassium salt ;
and in experiments 6 to 11 a mixture of potassium oxalate (6 grme.)
and ammonium oxalate (2 grme.) was used. This mixture gave the
best results.

III.—Deposition of Zine from Solution of Alkaline Oxalate
and Sulphate.

The addition of potassium sulphate (3 grme.) to the potassium
oxalate (4 grme.), as recommended by Miller and Kiliani, does nat
appear to improve the process.

Experi- | Zinc taken: | Zine found: C.D.100 E.M.F. | Error in R 2
ment grme., grme. Amperes Volts | mgrme. emarks
il 02044 0:2032 0-4 4 —1:2 Black spots
2 0:1051 0:1047 0:14 4 -—0-4 Bright
3 0:0732 0:0733 0°17 6 +01 Black spots
+ 0:2729 0:2726 0:28 78 —03 Bright
5 0:0740 0:0734 0-2 4 —06 Bright

The zine is deposited as a bright, firmly-adhering film, occasionally
marked by black spots. Classen quotes experiments in the fourth edition
of his ‘ Quantitative Analyse durch Elektrolyse’ showing that this method
yields low results.

IV.-—Deposition from Hot Solution of Alkali Oxalate in Presence of
Tartaric Acid.

The solution of zinc sulphate is mixed with 4 grme. of potassium or
ammonium oxalate, diluted with water, and electrolysed at a temperature of

298 REPORT—1898.

about 60° C. After the current has passed through the mixture for three
minutes, the solution is acidified with tartaric acid, and kept acid through-
out the operation by the addition of a 6 per cent. solution of tartaric acid.

Wagner recommends that the hot solution should be electrolysed with
a current of 0:2 ampere for fifteen minutes ; 5 c.c. of 6 per cent. tartaric
acid solution are added and the current density increased to 0:5 ampere.
The addition of the acid is repeated at intervals of fifteen minutes,

In the following experiments Wagner’s directions were followed, with
the exception that the tartaric acid was slowly added from a burette
instead of in quantities of 5 c.c. A large excess of acid is to be avoided,
and its addition should not be continued up to the end of the operation.
The current is continued until the mixture has a neutral or feebly acid
reaction, in order to prevent a small quantity of the acid tartrate of potas-
sium or ammonium separating out.

Experi-| Zinc taken: | Zinc found: C.D.100 E.M.F.) Time: °C Error in
ment grme. grme. Amperes_ | Volts | hours a mgrme.
1 0°2103 0:2098 0°56 4 3 60 —0°5
2 0:0580 0:0582 05 8 3 60 +02
3 0°0435 0:0436 0°56 6 3 60 +01
4 0:2339 0:2344 0°56 8 3 60 +0°5
5 0:0909 0:0929 0-4 6 23 60 +2
6 0:2446 0:2457 0°5 8 2s 60 +1:1
7 0°1087 0°1092 0-5 6 24 60 +0°5
8 0:0363 0:0369 0-5 6 24 60 +06

Bright, firmly-adhering deposits were obtained.

In experiments 1 to 6 potassium oxalate was used ; in 7 and 8 ammo-
nium oxalate was employed. In 5, 6 and 7 the mixture was strongly acid
when the electrolysis was stopped.

V.—Deposition from Solution in Potassium Cyanide.

The solution is neutralised if necessary with potash, and a 20 per cent.
solution of potassium cyanide is added until the precipitate redissolves.
A large excess of cyanide is to be avoided.

Experi-| Zinc taken: | Zine found: C.D.400 E.M.F.| Time: | Error in
ment grme. grme. Amperes Volts | hours | mgrme. | °° KCN
1 0°2209 0°2213 05 8 6 +0°4 55
2 0:2175 0:2187 0°5 8 6 +1:2 6
3 0°2198 0:2209 0°5 8 7 +11 5
4 0:2173 0°2189 0-4 8 7 +1°6 7
5 0:0732 0:0728 0-4 8 42 —0-4 5

A bright film is obtained which leaves a smal] quantity of black
deposit undissolved when treated with acid. The residue collected from
several analyses proved on examination to be carbon. The presence of
carbon no doubt accounts for the high results obtained. The platinum

electrodes are attacked by the cyanide in this and in the following
process.

Ee

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 299

VI.— Deposition from Solution of Zine Phosphate in Potassium Cyanide.

Moore recommends the precipitation of the zinc from sodium phos-
phate solution as rapid and complete. Potassium cyanide is added to the
mixture to redissolve the precipitate. Ammonium carbonate is then added,
and the mixture electrolysed at 80° C.

Experi-| Zinc taken: | Zine found: C.D.499 |E.M.F.| Time: ‘0 Error in
ment grme. grme. Amperes Volts | hours : mgrme.

1 0°1630 0°1556 0-9 57 2 80 —T4

2 0:2174 0:2091 1:53 78 2 80 —83

3 0°2174 0:2133 06-11 73) 22 80 —41

4 0°1451 0:1433 0-4 75 6 60 —1°8

5 0°1569 0-1564 0:3 75 53 60 —05

6 0:2016 0:2023 0-4 v5) 6 60 +07

ih 0:2175 0:2187 0°5 8:0 6 60 +12

Experiments 1 to 3 show that the precipitation is not complete in
two and a half hours. The method cannot be considered rapid. The
deposit is firm and bright. On solution in acids a small quantity of
carbon remains.

VII.— Deposition from Solution of Ammonium Lactate and Sulphate.

Jordis recommends the addition of 5-7 grme. of ammonium lactate
and 2 grme. of sulphate to the zinc salt. The solution is acidified with
lactic acid, and the hot solution electrolysed in a platinum basin. A
mechanical stirring arrangement should be used. The operation lasts
about one hour and a half. The author states that when 0°3 grme. of
. zine are used the error does not exceed 1 milligramme.

The following determinations were made without a stirring arrange-
ment :—

Experi- Zine taken ; Zine found : C.D.100 Time: Error in
ment grme. grme. Amperes hours mgrme.
1 O-1571 071559 05-1 2 —12
2 0:2558 0°2558 0:5 2 0-0
3 0:1839 0°1850 0:5 2 +1:1
4 0:1813 0-1779 0°5 2 —3-4

Conelusions.—Both the methods in which potassium cyanide are used
yield too high results and are objectionable on account of the action of
the cyanide on platinum. Small quantities of zinc not exceeding 1 deci-
gramme can be accurately determined by either of the three oxalate
methods or by Brand’s pyrophosphate process. For larger quantities of
zine Classen’s oxalate process (IV.) in presence of free tartaric acid and
Brand’s method are recommended. These conclusions agree with Wol-
man’s ! as regards the accuracy of the oxalate methods and the inaccuracy
of the Beilstein cyanide process, but differ as to the merits of Brand’s
pyrophosphate method, which Wolman condemns. Wolman also recom-
mends Riché’s method, in which a slight excess of ammonia is added to
the zinc solution and the mixture acidified with acetic acid, C.D. ))0°1—0°2

1 Zeits. Hlectro-Chem., 1897, 3, 540.

300 REPORT—1898.

ampere, 4 volts, 3 hours. He also obtained excellent results with the
process of Vortmann and Foregger. Three grammes of pure caustic soda
are added to the neutral zinc solution. At a temperature of 50°, with a
current density of 0:5 to 1:5 amperes, the precipitation of the zinc is com-
plete in one hour and a half.

The Determination of Nickel and Cobalt. (Part I.)
Sy Hucwu Marsnatt, D.Sc., FRSL.

Bibliography.
Author Journal Year | Vol. | Page Composition of Electrolyte

Gibbs, W. . r < . | Zeits.anal.Chem, | 1864 3 334 Ammonium hydrate
*Mansfeld Direction . . | Zeits.anal.Chem. | 1872 | 11 1 Ammonium hydrate
*Wrightson, F. , . - | Zeits.anal.Chem. | 1876 | 15 297 Ammonium hydrate

Herpin,— . > ° . | Zeits.anal.Chem. | 1876 | 15 335 Ammonium hydrate

Riché, A. . : 5 - | Compt.rend, .| 1877] 85 226 Ammonium hydrate
*Schweder, E: P. . . - | Zeits.anal.Chem, | 1877 | 16 344 Ammonium sulphate and

hydrate
*Ohl, W. . « « «| Zeits,anal.Ohem. | 1879] 18 523 Ammonium hydrate
{ Alkali acetate, tartrate, citrate
Ammonium hydrate
{ Potassium cyanide
* Fresenius, F,, and Zeits.apal. hem, | 1880 | 19 314 ere sulphate and

*Luckow, C. . 5 . - | Zeits.anal.Chem. | 1880 | 19 1

Bergmann, F. hydrate
*Olassen, A., and Reis, M.A. | Ber. . : - | 1881 | 14 | 1622 Ammonium oxalate
Riché,A. . 4 . . | Ann.Chim.etPhys.| 1882 | 13 508 Sulphuric acid
*Moore,T. . . J . | Chem. News - | 1886 | 53 209 Phosphoric acid
*Brand,A. . ° . . | Zeits,anal.Chem, | 1889 | 28 581 Sodium pyrophosphate
Ammonium oxalate -
*Kobn,C.A.and Woodgate,J. | J.Soc.Chem.Ind. | 1889] 8 | 256 Ee sulphate’ .and
Potassium cyanide
*Gibbs, W. . > . . | Amer. Chem. J.. | 1891 | 13 570 Sulphate ; as amalgam
Het J. Anal.& App. Tartaric acid and ammonium
*Smith, E. F. and Mur, F.. { er } 1s91| 5 | 488 { aie
Ammonium sulphate and
*Riidorff, F. . 2 a - | Zeits.angew.Chem.| 1892 | — 3 | hydrate
Sodium pyrophosphate
5 Ammonium hydrate
*Freudenberg, H.. . - | Zeits.phys.Chem. | 1893 | 12 97 { ignition cance ee
*Vortmann,G. . = - | Monatsh. Chem.. | 1893 14 536 Alkali cyanide; as hydrate
*Classen, A. . ° ° - | Ber, . = - | 1894 | 27 | 2060 Ammonium oxalate
Oettel, F. . 3 4 . | Zeits.Electrochem.| 1894 1 196 Ammonium sulphate and
hydrate
- . Sodium sulphate and ammo-
Riidorff, F. . . Ss . | Zeits.angew.Chem.| 1894 | — 388 { nium hydrate
*Thomilen,H. . . . | Zeits.Hlectrochem.} 1894 1 304 Ammonium sulphate and
hydrate

* The references marked with an asterisk refer to both nickel and cobalt, the remainder to nickel only.

Of the various methods of determining nickel and cobalt electrolyti-
cally, that employing the sulphates in presence of ammonium sulphate
and ammonia is by far the best known and most frequently employed.
Next to it Classen’s oxalate method and Brand’s pyrophosphate method
are probably those most frequently referred to. Of these three the former
is, primd facie, the preferable one, owing to the great simplicity of work-
ing it and the everyday character of the reagents employed, which are
readily obtainable in a pure condition. Unless other methods can be
shown to have a marked superiority in some important respect, we may
assume that it will continue to be the general method for ordinary work,
though the others might prove advantageous in special circumstances.
The greater part of the investigation so far has therefore been devoted
chiefly to a study of this method, and although only a limited number of
experiments have been carried out with the other methods, the results

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 301

obtained indicate that it is not excelled by any of the latter, for the
determination of nickel.

The apparatus employed for most of the determination consisted of the
usual cathode basins of about 200 c.c. capacity, roughened on their internal
surface, with perforated anodes of watch-glass shape. In some experi-
ments with small quantities of substance ordinary platinum crucibles were
employed in place of the basins; in these cases a stout platinum wire
coiled at the end served as anode.

The electrical measurements were made by means of Davies’ ammeter
and voltmeter, described in the third report of the Committee. !

When the large basins were employed the solutions were generally
made up to a volumeof 130-135 ¢.c. This left plenty of room for further
additions, in case these should be found necessary, and the active cathode
surface was then approximately 100 sq. cm., so that the ammeter readings
corresponded to current density as generally stated. With the crucibles
the volume was 18-20 c.c., and the cathode surface was roughly calculated
to be 20-25 c.m.

The salts‘employed for analysis were generally the ammonium double
sulphates, specially prepared for the purpose. Sometimes these were
directly weighed out for each experiment, but solutions of known strength
were also prepared, and measured quantities taken for various determina-
tions. For-some experiments the pure chlorides were employed. It was
considered unnecessary to analyse the material by the other usual methods,
as they are not more accurate than the electrolytic process. The results
were simply judged relatively to one another, that result being considered
best which gave the lowest percentage result, provided, of course, the
metal was completely deposited in each case. Great attention was also
paid to securing deposits of good general appearance, as a bright, lustrous,
and firmly coherent deposit is always much more satisfactory and much
less liable to be injuriously affected. A dark powdery-looking deposit
was therefore considered unsatisfactory, even although the numerical
result came out all right.

It is usually recommended to test for complete deposition by with-
drawing, from time to time, portions of the liquid and adding hydrogen
sulphide or potassium thiocarbonate. If this is done, however, the current
must be continued for some time after no reaction is observed, otherwise
a distinct quantity of metal may be left in solution. It was several times
found that the whole volume of liquid after decantation gave a very dis-
tinct reaction, although none was visible when a small portion was tested.
It was therefore considered more convenient to determine what time was
necessary for average experiments conducted under suitable conditions,
and to adhere to this generally, unless there were marked indications,
for example in the rate of decolourisation, that deposition was not pro-
ceeding normally. The decanted liquid was always tested, and any case
of incomplete deposition duly noted.

In the case of nickel the liquid can simply be poured off at the con-
clusion of the experiment, and the basin quickly rinsed with distilled
water, as the deposit undergoes no apparent deterioration by such treat-
ment, provided it is carried out quickly. In the case of cobalt it is not
quite safe to work in this way, as the deposit is more liable to tarnish,
and it is preferable, if the best results are desired, to employ the usual

1 Transactions, 1895.

302 REPORT—1898.

siphon arrangement for decanting and washing without interruption of
the current. After thorough rinsing with distilled water, and draining,
the deposits were next treated with a few cubic centimetres of absolute
alcohol, and finally dried in the steam oven. In each vase the outside of
the basin was carefully wiped clean and rubbed with chamois leather.
Previous to beginning a determination the clean basins were not ignited,
but treated in the same way as when they contained deposits, in order that
the two weighings might be made under as nearly as possible similar con-
ditions. It was found that basins, cleaned by hydrochloric acid and treated
as above, fluctuated in weight both upwards and downwards on successive
occasions. This at first seemed to indicate considerable liability to error,
and yet very concordant results were obtained. The discrepancies would
seem to be due to the difficulty of removing the last traces of a deposit by
means of hydrochloric acid. It almost appears as if slight alloying took
place, for the surface of the platinum becomes marked up to the level at
which the liquid has stood during several experiments. From time to
time the basins were cleaned as thoroughly as possible by means of nitric
acid, ignition, treatment with concentrated hydrochloric acid, &ec.

The substances to be added to the solution must of course be free from
any metal which can be deposited electrolytically. Those employed were
tested by means of ammonium sulphide and also by performing a blank
experiment. Both the ammonium sulphate and the ammonia were em-
ployed in the form of ‘ 20 per cent.’ solutions, i.e. 100 c.c. contained 20 grme.
of substance. The required quantities were measured out approximately
in graduated tubes or pipettes, and the total volume made up to 130 c.c.,
or whatever volume was desired, by adding the necessary quantity of dis-
tilled water.

Determination of Nickel.

The determination of nickel by the ammonium sulphate and ammo-
nia method presents no great difficulty, and exceedingly good results are
easily obtainable in ordinary circumstances. The first experiments were
carried out in order to determine the general conditions under which the
best results are obtained. From these the following were adopted as
standard conditions for quantities of nickel ranging from 0:1 to 0°5 grme.
or more, the volume of solution in that case being always about 130 to
135: ¢.¢.::—

Substances added to Solution: 5 grme. of ammonium sulphate (25 c.c.
of stock solution), and 5 grme. of ammonia (25 c.c. of stock solution).

Current: 0°5-0-8 ampere per 100 sq. cm. of cathode ; potential differ-
ence of electrodes 3-3:5 volts.

Temperature: Ordinary temperature of laboratory (15°-30°C. In
warm weather the temperature rises to the latter amount by the heating
effect of the current).

Time : 33-4 hours.

Under these conditions the metal is completely separated as a firmly
adherent, well-coloured, and reguline deposit, entirely soluble in dilute
hydrochloric acid. In appearance it differs but slightly from the interior
surface of the basin. It undergoes no apparent change when left for
several days exposed to air, and the weight also remains constant. In
successive or simultaneous experiments results are frequently obtained
differing by less than would correspond to 0:0001 grme. in the weight of
the deposit.

ee

"

'ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 303

Although the above conditions may be considered as practically en-
suring a good deposit, it must not be supposed that they need always be
strictly adhered to. Considerable latitude is allowable in certain respects.
The influence which each factor exerts may next be considered.

If ammonium sulphate is omitted or added in insufficient quantity, the

' resulting deposit is dark and rough. The amount stated may be largely

exceeded, however, without influencing the character of the deposit. The
only effect which a considerable excess of ammonium sulphate seems to
possess is possibly to make it slightly more difficult to completely remove
the last traces of metal ; that it does so is not quite certain.

The proportion of ammonia is more important. When nickel salts are
electrolysed with a platinum or other non-soluble anode, nickelic hydroxide
is formed on the anode. This does not take place if a sufficient quantity
of free ammonia is present, hence the necessity for employing the amount
stated. If much less is taken, a brownish-black deposit forms on the
anode, and causes loss of nickel if not removed. If noticed, it must be
dissolved by interrupting the current and adding more ammonia. If the
experiment has been left unattended for the usual period of four hours,
the formation of nickelic hydroxide involves prolonging the electrolysis for
a further period till all the redissolved nickel is deposited. It is therefore
much more satisfactory always to add sufficient ammonia at the beginning.
The above-mentioned quantity may be exceeded by several grammes with-
out very marked effect, but a greatly increased quantity retards deposi-
tion, and may cause an unequal deposit.

The quantity of ammonia which is necessary apparently depends chiefly
on the strength of current employed, not so much on the amount of nickel
present. During the electrolysis ammonia is neutralised at the anode, but
with a weak current the partially neutralised liquid is replaced by fresh
solution sufficiently rapidly to keep the liquid at the anode alkaline, even
although there may not be a great amount of free ammonia present.

The current density may vary somewhat, but should not be greatly
increased. If that is done, the deposit suffers in quality, being much
rougher ; the rate of deposition is increased, principally in the earlier
stages. With a weaker current than that stated good deposits are still
obtained, but the operation is more prolonged. When the quantity of
metal to be deposited is not very great, a current density as low as 0°3
ampére may be employed, but it is advisable to decrease the quantity of
ammonia (though not of ammonium sulphate) in that case. With a
current density of 0:15 ampere it is not possible to get good deposits,
even with small quantities of metal, if the usual quantity of ammonia is
employed (7.e. 5 grme.) ; the metal forms irregular patches, and much
remains in solution even after prolonged electrolysis. By diminishing the
amount of ammonia to 1 grme., or even less, these drawbacks are practically
removed. One grme. of free ammonia is sufficient to prevent formation of
nickelic hydroxide with the last-mentioned current, even when the quantity
of nickel is considerable, say 0:2 grme. For most of the experiments
in the latter part of this investigation, using 0-15—0-2 grme. of nickel,
a current density of 0°6—0-7 ampére was adopted as generally the most
suitable.

There is no special advantage in conducting nickel determinations at
temperatures higher than the ordinary. Deposition is then somewhat
more rapid, but sometimes less regular, and the quality of the deposit is
apt to suffer. As such determinations require more frequent attention

304 REPORT—1898.

than is the case with cold solutions, it is much more convenient to employ
the latter.

The time stated is sufficient for all ordinary quantities of metal under
the other conditions given. For small quantities it may be curtailed
somewhat, but it is preferable rather to reduce the current and the pro-
portion of ammonia. Even when the quantity of metal is considerable,
the great bulk of it is deposited in a relatively short time, and it is the
removal of the last portions which prolongs the duration of the ex-
periment.

In connection with the electrolysis of nickel sulphate solutions, the
formation of nickel sulphide has sometimes been noted, becoming evident
when the deposit is dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, as a slight black
insoluble residue. Though this was observed in several experiments, it
was not possible to fix the particular conditions which determine it.
Apparently it is not formed to any appreciable extent under the general
working conditions specified above.

Where it is possible to select the quantity of metal to be used in a
determination 0°15 to 0-2 grme. will be found to be very convenient. For
many purposes, however, the quantity available may be much less than
that. In dealing with small quantities there is no need to employ the
ordinary large electrolytic basins unless a large volume of solution cannot
well be avoided. Very good determinations can be carried out in ordinary
platinum crucibles. In that case the quantity of ammonium sulphate
and of ammonia should bear the same proportion to the volume of the
solution as when the ordinary apparatus is employed. With a crucible
holding about 20 c¢.c. of solution that would mean barely one gramme of
ammonia and of ammonium sulphate, while the current to correspond
would be about 0°15 ampére. It has been found that in this way deposi-
tion is more rapid than when working with a large volume of solution
containing the same quantities of metal and ammonia, and with the same
actual current (not same current density). When working on a small
scale with small quantities of metal, there is, of course, less liability to
accidental errors, owing to the more compact nature of the deposit, and
the greatly diminished size of the vessel to be handled.

Numerous experiments have been carried out in order to determine
the influence which may be exerted by other substances present in the
solution during electrolysis; partly to discover if any are decidedly
beneficial, but chiefly to find out those which are distinctly objectionable.

Potassium or sodium sulphate cannot be employed in place of the
ammonium salt without very considerably lowering the character of the
resulting deposits ; they are invariably dark and rough, but with care the
numerical results are hardly, if at all, affected. The presence of these
salts, however, is not of itself harmful, for perfectly good deposits can be
obtained by employing ammonium sulphate along with them in the usual
manner.

Until recently it was quite generally stated that the presence of chlorides
in the solution was objectionable, but this has been contradicted by
F. Oettel,! and the present experiments fully confirm his result. Ammonium
chloride may be added in considerable quantity along with the sulphate,
or it may be employed in place of it ; the resulting deposits and the
numerical results obtained are in all cases excellent. There is a pcint to

' Zeits. Electrochem., 1894, p. 194.

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 305

be noted, however. In several experiments with chloride present it was
found that there was deposition of nickelic hydroxide on the anode,
although the normal quantity of ammonia was employed. This is pro-
bably due to the destruction of ammonia at the anode in this case, over
and above that lost by neutralisation. If the discharged chlor-ions act
like free chlorine, we can compare the action with sulphate and with
chloride, as represented by the equations

12NH, + 680, +6H,O=6(NH,),8O, +30,
16NH, +12Ci=12NH,Cl+2N,

Assuming that these are the only actions which take place, it is evident
that for the same quantity of current the quantity of free ammonia lost is
one-third greater with the chloride. It is therefore advisable in this case
to increase the amount of ammonia to 6 to 7 grme., unless a weaker
current is employed.

In cases where nickel is to be deposited from a solution originally
containing chloride only, ammonium chloride might perhaps be employed
with advantage in place of ammonium sulphate. The formation of
sulphide would then be quite impossible.

Nitrates, unless present only in small quantity, should be destroyed
previous to electrolysis, as their presence considerably retards the deposi-
tion of the metal. This is evident from the much longer time necessary
to decolourise the solution. In course of time the nitrate becomes reduced
by the current, and the deposit ultimately obtained is perfectly good, being,,
in fact, exceptionally lustrous in appearance.

The presence of phosphates in the solution is immaterial, provided the
precipitation of nickel phosphate is avoided when the ammonia is added.
To reduce the risk of precipitation, the ammonia should be added last of
all, after the ammonium sulphate and water, and it can be taken that it is
all quickly mixed with the liquid. Perfectly good results may also be
obtained by using ammonium phosphate alone in place of the sulphate.

What has been said of phosphate applies equally to arsenate, a matter
of considerable importance in connection with the assay of nickel ores.
There is apparently not the slightest reduction to arsenite, which would
undergo further reduction to arsenic. The decanted liquid gives no trace
of an immediate precipitate on the addition of hydrochloric acid and
hydrogen sulphide.

The presence of arsenite is wholly inadmissible, as in that case the
deposit is quite black, powdery, very loosely coherent, and contains large
quantities of arsenic. If it is desired to determine nickel in solutions.
containing arsenic compounds, it is therefore necessary either to completely
oxidise them or to remove them previous to electrolysis.

Chromates have a very marked and striking effect. The presence of a
very small quantity completely prevents deposition, even when electrolysis
is continued for a long time. When present it would therefore be neces-
sary to get rid of them by one of the ordinary methods before proceeding
to determine the nickel electrolytically.

The addition of sulphites to baths for electroplating with nickel has
been recommended, and experiments were tried with varying quantities
of ammonium sulphite present in solution. The resulting deposits are
exceedingly bright and lustrous, but this seems to be the only advantage.
An excessive quantity retards deposition somewhat, so that there is no
open benefit attending the use of sulphite for analytical work. This

: x

506

\

REPORT—1898.,

applies also to the employment of borax, which is recommended as a
In presence of it deposits of very
good appearance are obtained, though not so brilliant as in the case of
sulphite, and the results are otherwise quite normal.

constituent of some plating baths.

Nickel Determinations in Nickel Ammonium Sulphate.

| |
go |
= Wei ght Reagents Volume Current BALE | Temp
No. | taken, | 20ded in Isqintion| © Pio | “Votts' | °C
Grammes | Ampere | c
Grme. C.C.
1 1°0701 | 5 Am,SO, 130 0°7-0°6 | 3°3-3°8 | 13-20
5 Amm.
2 2°7372 =3 x 0°8-0°7 | 3°1-3°3 | 12-20
3 5°4462 4 » | | O7-0°6 | 3°1-3°4 | 14-20
4 0°5300 cs 4 0°7-0°6 | 2°7-3°2 | 13-22
5 01966 oa | oo» 0°6-0°5 | 3°3-3°5 | 14-21
5a | 01452 es pe 0°7-0°6 | 3°7-3°2 3-22
6 11700 |10Am,S0, 5 0-7-0°6 | 2°9-3°3 | 12-21
; 5 Amm.
7 1:0134 {15 Am,SO, + 0°7-0°G | 2°9-3°2 | 12-21
5 Amm.
8 11309 | 5 Am,SO, 3 10 | 40 13-27
5 Amm.
9 1:2193 | 5 K,SO, P- 0'7-0°6 | 3°6-4°0 | 12-22
5 Amm.
10 1:3726 | 9 K,SO, a 0'7-0°6 | 5°3-3°7 | 12-20
5 Amm.
11 1:2959 | 5 Am,SO, = 0'7-0°6 | 3°1-3°5 | 14-22
3 K,SO,
5 Amm.
12 1°6255 | 3 Am,SO, 9 0°7-0°6 | 2°8-3°5 | 13-20
2 AmCl
5 Amm.,
13 1:1033 | 5 AmCl 0°7-0'6 | 2°9-3°6 | 12-21
5 Amm
1, later
14 0:9420 | 6 Am,SO, » 07 3°2-3°4 | 11-22
1 KNO,
5 Amm.
15 10116 | 5 Am,SO, 140 0°7-0°6 | 35-4 13-22
2 Am,HPO,!
5 Amm.
16 10738 | 5Am,HPO,) 130 0°7-0°6 | 3°5-4 11-23
6 Amm.
17 11428 | 3 Am.SO, » 0'7-0°6 | 36-4 12-2.
: 2Am.HAsO,
5 Amm,
18 1:3833 | 5 Am,SO, 140 0°8-0°7 | 3°2-3°8 19-30
2Am,HAsO,
5 Amm.
19 1:1365 | 5 Am,SO, 130 0°7-1°0 | 3°6-4°1 | 10-22
5 Amm.
1 Am,S0,
20 1:2097 |10 Am,SO, 5 0°9-1'7 | 3°1-3°7 | 13-23
5 Amm., |
21 11775 | 4 Am.SO, “J O'7-0°6 | 5°4-3°9 | 15-24
2 Na,B,O,
5 Amm
22 1:3827 | 5 Am,SO, i 0°8-0°7 3-3'°3 | 12-22
1 Am,Cr,0,
5 Amm,
23 0°9431 | 5 SO, “S 07-11 3-3°5 | 11-26
0°01 K,CrO, |
5 Amm. |
24 14621 | 5 Am,SO, “g 0°7-0°6 | 3°3-3°8 | 10-22
1MgS0,7H,O | |
5 Amm. |

Time.
Hours

Weight Pe
of = Nature of e
Deposit. = Deposit Remarks
Grme. a
01571 | 14°66 | Very good _
04018 | 1468 | Good Slight reactio.
0°8002 | 1469 | Rough, E *
dark
0°0780 | 14°72 Fair —_—
0:0286 | 14°57 | Very good _
00210 | 14°46 = Distinct reac-
tion
O1717 | 14°67 ss —
0°1487 | 14°67 LA _
01663 | 14:71 | Rough Very slight
reaction
01795 | 1472 | Dark, —_
rough
0:2013 | 14°67 | Very dark —
& rough
01903 | 14°68 | Very good =
025391 | 1471 | Good —
.
01626 | 14°74 | Very good -_
0:1378 | 14°63 | Very good) Marked reac-
tion
01486 | 14°69 | Very good =
0°1580 | 14:71 | Very good -
0°1677 | 14°67 | Very good ~
0:2032 | 14°69 | Very good ad
0:1671 | 14°70 | Very good) Distinct re-
action
01794 | 14°83 | Very good -
01732 | 14:71 | Very good _-
0°0003 _ No metal _
deposited
= = - —
02149 | 14°70 | Dull, but | Faint reactio:

The employment of various organic salts in the determination of nickel
has sometimes been recommended, but, generally speaking, the presence of

organic substances in the solution appears to be objectionable,

In some

| ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS, 307
cases (tartrates or citrates, for example) the resulting deposits are of very
good external appearance, but frequently the numerical results are high
and the deposits leave a distinct brownish residue when dissolved in dilute
acid ; further, the presence of considerable quantities of organic salts may
retard deposition. This apparently does not apply to owalates. While, on
the whole, the use of organic salts, in dealing with ordinary straight-
forward depositions, appears to be attended with no real benefit, but in
some cases the reverse, it is quite possible that they may be employed
with advantage in certain separations.

The influence of salts of the alkali metals when present in the solution
has already been discussed. It is sometimes stated that the presence of
magnesium salts is objectionable, but this dves not seem to be the case to
any considerable extent, when only moderate quantities are present. The
deposits obtained in the experiments tried were somewhat rougher than
otherwise, and the results a trifle high.

The metals of the alkaline earths are of course excluded in presence of

_ sulphate. Neither is it possible to determine nickel by deposition from
solutions containing these metals by replacing the ammonium sulphate by
the chloride. In that case alkaline liquid attracts carbonic anhydride

from the air in sufficient quantity to give a distinct deposit of carbonate,
so that the results obtained are much too high.

The examination of the behaviour of other metallic salts brings us to
the question of the electrolytic separation of nickel from other metals,
which will not be discussed fully here. It may be stated generally, how-
ever, that those metals which yield ammoniacal solutions are deposited
electrolytically along with nickel, The most important of these are copper
and zinc. The former can be removed by electrolysis in acid solution.
The presence of even a relatively small quantity of zinc greatly retards
the deposition of nickel, but ultimately both metals are completely removed
from solution.

Determination of Cobalt.

_. The electrolytic estimation of cobalt has apparently not been the

subject of so much investigation as that of nickel ; it is generally stated

__ to be exactly similar in method to that of nickel, no further instructions

_ being given. There is, however, a very considerable difference in the two

~ eases. Good nickel deposits are obtainable with the greatest ease, but

_ the reverse is the case with cobalt, and the best conditions for depositing

the one are by no means the best for the other.

Tf an experiment with cobalt is conducted under the standard con-
ditions given for nickel, the metal is not completely precipitated, and
a very poor deposit is obtained. Apparently ammonia has a much greater
effect in this case than with nickel, prohably due to the formation of
stable cobalti-ammonium compounds. On the other hand, the tendency
to form cobaltic hydroxide on the anode is not nearly so great, and the
quantity of ammonia can be reduced as low as 1-5 grme. Even then,
four hours is barely sufficient for complete deposition with moderate
quantities of metal, using cold solutions.

The best determinations obtained even with small quantities were
very much inferior to those of nickel as regards the physical character
of the deposit, and an extended series of experiments was carried out
in the hope of securing the metal in better condition. These experi-
ments varied considerably as regards the composition and proportions of

x 2

308 REPORT—1898.

the reagents employed, the current density, &c., but they led to no marked
improvement. It had been decided to adopt 5 grme. of ammonium
sulphate and 1:5 grme. of ammonia to 130 c.c. of liquid as the standard
solution, and the influence of other substances present was being investi-
gated as in the case of nickel, when, quite unexpectedly, a solution of the
problem was indicated. The influence of nitrates was being studied,
in the expectation that it would be at least as marked as with nickel,
probably more so. This was found to be the case, 1 grme. of ammonium
nitrate was sufficient to prevent the decolourisation of the solution even
when the current was passed for several hours longer than would other-
wise have been necessary. The experiment was continued overnight, and
in the morning the solution was found to be quite decolourised, and on
decantation proved to be free from cobalt. The deposit was bright and
lustrous, much superior to any formerly obtained, but not so white as a
good nickel one. Most important of all, the percentage result, which in
former cases with complete precipitation varied mostly from 15:05 to 15-10,
had in this case fallen to 14°90.

Acting on this, experiments were conducted with varying quantities
of ammonium nitrate, when it was found that satisfactory results were
obtained with only 0°2 grme. of the salt, but that less was not of much
benefit. The presence of nitrate of course increases the time necessary for
complete deposition, but, if so desired, this can be counteracted by con-
ducting the electrolysis at a higher temperature, say about 60°C. A
good deposit can still be secured when {hat is done, and the duration of
the experiment need not exceed about four hours. If time is no object
the electrolysis may still be conducted at the ordinary temperature, and
even a larger quantity of ammonium nitrate employed.

Assuming that it is desired to keep the time limit fairly low, the
following may be taken as standard conditions for quantities of cobalt,
from 0:1—0°3 grme., the volume of solution, as usual, being about 130 c.c.

Reagents added : 5 grme. of ammonium sulphate, 2 grme. of ammonia,
and 0-2 grme. of ammonium nitrate.

Current : 0‘5—0°8 ampére per 100 sq. em. of cathode surface ; 3—3°5
volts.

Temperature : About 60° C.

Time: 4 hours.

The deposits obtained under these conditions are generally fairly gocd,
but there is not the same regularity of results that is obtainable with
nickel. The metal in this case is much more readily altered by various
reagents, and greater care is necessary in the treatment of the deposit.
As already stated, it is advisable to remove the liquid and wash the
basin, in the first instance, by means of siphons without breaking the
circuit.

As in the case of nickel, an excess of ammonium sulphate is com- °

paratively unimportant, though in some of the earlier experiments,
conducted at ordinary temperature without nitrate, it seemed as if the
last traces were more difficult to remove in presence of much of this
salt.

The amount of ammonia is more important here than in the case of
nickel, as already indicated, the latter metal being apparently less liable to
attack by ammoniacal solutions than cobalt. The proportion of ammonia
should therefore be kept as low as possible, not only because the necessary
time is thereby diminished, but also because better and more regular

i i

a> %>

{

”
.

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS, 309

deposits are secured. The quantity stated above is greater than that
formerly mentioned, because there is a greater loss with warm solutions
than at the ordinary temperature.

The temperature should not be allowed to rise too high, otherwise
ixregular deposits may result, and there may be excessive loss of ammonia.
A very small flame is sufficient to keep the liquid warm enough.

Tn dealing with small quantities the remarks made with reference to
nickel apply with greater force here ; for accurate results the quantity of
ammonia and strength of current should both be moderated, or the whole
experiment carried out on a reduced scale. Thus, it was found that a
certain volume of cobalt solution which gave 0:0612 grme. of cobalt when
electrolysed in a large basin in the usual way, gave only 0:0601 grme. in
a simultaneous determination carried out on a reduced scale in a platinum
erucible ; although deposition was quite complete in the latter case, the result
is decidedly lower, and this is explained by the fact that the deposit was
entirely soluble in hydrochloric acid while the former left a slight black
residue. A similar pair of experiments at another time gave 0-0603 and
0:0595 grme. respectively, again showing an advantage in favour of the
crucible experiment.

The influence of other substances present in the solution is in many
cases similar on the whole to what was found to be the case with nickel.
There are, however, some exceptions to be noted in this respect.

In the early cobalt experiments without nitrate, ammonium chloride
was occasionally tried in place of sulphate, and the results thus obtained
seemed generally superior. One of the best results obtained was got by
employing 10 grme. of ammonium chloride and 2°@rme. of ammonia. It
was found, however, that solutions containing both chloride and nitrate
were rather erratic in their behaviour, sometimes giving very poor and
irregular deposits. It is also more difficult to regulate the quantity of
ammonia in such cases. If it is desired to determine cobalt in a solution
containing ammonium chloride, it would appear preferable to conduct the
electrolysis without the addition of ammonium nitrate.

The most striking difference from nickel is shown when cobalt solutions
are electrolysed in presence of arseniate. We have seen that the presence
of ammonium arseniate in large quantity has no effect on the nickel
deposit. This is far from being the case with cobalt. Deposition is re-
tarded, the deposit is very dark and rough, and the numerical result is
far too high. The deposit contains a large quantity of arsenic, but the

' solution is apparently free from arsenite. Metallic cobalt would appear

to be readily attacked by ammoniacal arseniate solution, which is pro-
bably reduced to arsenite. But any arsenite formed would be promptly
reduced electrolytically to arsenic, which would contaminate the
deposit.

Another point which shows how unsafe it is to assume that what holds
for nickel does so also for cobalt is the behaviour in presence of zine salts.
This comes into the domain of separations, but it may be mentioned here.
With small quantities of zinc in presence of nickel, the deposit obtained
by the usual method contains the whole of both metals, as already noted.
In the case of cobalt a solution containing zinc gives on electrolysis by the
ordinary method a deposit which is not very good in appearance, but is
practically normal as regards numerical result. The decanted liquid gives
a pure white precipitate of zinc sulphide on the addition of hydrogen
sulphide. To what extent, if at all, this difference depends on the some-

ao ew

310 REPORT—1898.

what different conditions prevailing in the two kinds of experiments has
not yet been investigated.

Chromates completely prevent precipitation as with nickel.

With some oryanic salts, tartrates for example, the deposits are of very
goo appearance, but the results are apt to be too high, as in the case of
nickel.

Cobalt Determinations in Cobalt Ammonium Sulphate.

Weight is Volume! ,_..
of Salt ae ae of jeecereent i.M.F.| Temp. |Time.| of Per | Nature of Remark
tiken. | © G ee Solution Ampere| Volts °C. |Hours| Deposit.| Cent. | Deposit StS
Grme, yee C.C, ele Grme.
|
1:2740 | 5 Am,SO, 139 | 0°68 38 13-25 4} 01905 | 14°95 | Dark and! Very distinct
5 Amm, | irregular reaction
1°3660 “9 » | 0'°5-0°7 | 3°7-4°0 = Fe 0:2013 | 14°74 | Bad, black! Very marked
| | / reaction
0°5344 ee re Leo es +) hy 0:0775 | 14°50 =4 5
| 12264 | 5 Am,SO, a 0-7-0'°6 3°83 a 4 01838 | 14°99 | Poor Slight reac-
2 Amm.
0°8845 |10 Am.SO, = rie I o'd, 55 7 01327 | 15:00 3
2 Amm.
13488 |10 Am,SO, ny 0°75-0°'7 3°7-3-4 | 13-30 5 01847 | 13°69 \
6 Amm.
14139 | 5 Am,SO, ef 0°8-0°7 39 11-27 4 02129 | 15°06 | Fair
1 Amm. | reaction
0°4 ,, later
10189 | 5 Am,SO, o 13 5-4:2 15-45 3h 01526 | 14°98 |Dark,poor) Distinet re-
5 Ainm. } action
15960 | 5Am,HPO, » 0°8-0'7 | 4-3°7 17-40 4 02102 | 15°05 | Poor Very distinet
2 Amm. reaction
10027 (10 AmC1 4 0°8-0°85 3°3 15-30 ” 01501 | 14°97 | Fair No reaction
2 Amm. |
13011 | 5 Am,SO, » | O7-O0°6 | 31-34 | 45-55 32 071963 | 15°09 | Dark rs
15 Amm
19674 | 5 Am.SO, 7: § 3-3°6 | 45-50 2 02950 | 15°00 3
15 Amm. |
11169 | 5 Am.SO, ” 0:7-S°68| 35-4 | 16-30 | 24 01664 | 14:90 | Very good
15 Amm |
/ 1:0 AmNO, |
14069 | 5 Am,SO, » | 9°75-0°7 | 3°1-3°5 | 60-80 4 02092 | 14°87 es
2 Amm. |
0-2 AmNO, | )
| 11443 | 5 Am,SO, » | 07-06 | 36-4 16-30 | 53% | 0°1707 | 1492 | Dark
2 Amm., | |
0'1 AmNO
13728 | 5 Am.S0, » | 0°850°6 34 60-70 4 02053 | 14°95 | Good,
2 Amm. rough
0-2 AmNO, |
0°3682 a és a a * . 0:0554 | 15°05 | Very good
1:0001 nr * 072 | 31-33 | 50-60 a 01503 | 15°03 | Fairly
| good
1:0001 AS *s 0°7-0°6 | 3°0-3°4 “5 ct, ‘01497 | 14:97 | Good >
3°0207 5 a 0°65 31 60 44 04535 | 15°01 | Fair Deposit not
all soluble’
04028 tB5 24 0°6-0°7 | 3°2-3°5 | 60-70 | 33 0:0612 | 15°19 = co
0°4028 | 08 Am,SO,} 19 O'7-0°5 32 50 es 0-0601 | 14°92 a Deposit all
0-4 Amm. soluble
0:03 AmNO,, |
10001 | 5 Am.SO, 130 06 a 40-60 4 0°1691 _ a Partly inso-
2 Amm.
0-2 AmNO,,
2Am,HAsO,
1:0001 |5Am,HAsO,) , | 4, 31 50-65 y 01723 — Black and |
2 Amm. / spongy
10001 | 5 Am,SO, ee es 2:8-3'1 | 60-70 4} 0°1511 | 15°11 | Fairly Left — slight
2 Amm. good residue
0:2 AmNO,
2MgS0O,7H,O

Other Electrolytic Methods,

As already stated, the great majority of the experiments so far carried
out have dealt with the ammonium sulphate and ammonia method, as it

.

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 311

seems on the whole preferable for ordinary simple determinations. The
further investigation of other methods will be conducted more from the
point of view of their application to special cases, such as separations.

The tabulated experiments given in this paper are only a small portion
of those obtained, as experiments were often repeated under similar or
slightly varying conditions, so that general opinions might be more con-
fidently formed. In the case of cobalt especially the total number of
experiments was considerable, owing to the much greater difficulty of
obtaining deposits which were really satisfactory. The selection has not
been made so as simply to give a series of the most concordant results,
but may be taken as fairly representative.

In conclusion, I have to express my indebtedness to my brother, Mr.
Ralph Marshall, for assistance in carrying out the routine work of
numerous experiments during the latter part of the investigation.

Tsomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor W. A. TILDEN (Chairman) and Dr. H. E. ArM-
STRONG (Secretary).

ALTHOUGH it is established that when betanaphthol is acted on by bromine,
at first bromine enters the hydroxylated nucleus in position 1, and in the
second place the non-hydroxylated ring in position 3’, the structure of
tribromonaphthol remains undetermined ; but it is certain that the third
bromine atom is introduced either into position 3 or into position 4, as
both these are occupied in tetrabromonaphthol.

Considerable difficulty has been experienced in settling this point.
Meanwhile, in extending the inquiry, in order to obtain complete infor-
mation of the influence on substitution exercised by the OH group in
betanaphtnol, the discovery has been made that the two possible homo-
nucleal forms of tribromonaphthol are both produced when betanaphthol
is acted upon by three molecular proportions of bromine. The crude
product cannot be directly purified, but by converting it into acetate and
repeatedly extracting this with boiling acetone, about half is dissolved ;
the residue almost entirely consists of the acetate, of the tribromobeta-
naphthol already described by Armstrong and Rossiter. A further
quantity of this acetate is obtained by fractionally crystallising the solu-
tion, and also about 15 to 20 per cent. of the acetate of a new tribromo-
betanaphthol. Although the two isomerides resemble each other very
closely, and cannot be directly separated, their derivatives differ consider-
ably ; thus—

A. and R. New

fe} fe)
Tribromobetanaphthol . : : F : - mp. 155 159
re a acetate > A f 4 seep 149
as benzoate » 187 164
Nitrodibromobetanaphthol he lo6 163
Dibromobetanaphthaquinone . plod) 187

The comparative investigation of the dibromonaphthoquinones ob-
tained from the tribromonaphthols and other sources is being undertaken
with the object of determining their constitution and that of the naphthol
derivatives from which they are prepared. That melting at 171°, obtained

7

3812 REPORT—1898,

as the principal product of the action of nitric acid on dibromobeta-
naphthol, is converted by alkali into a dibromohydroxyalphanaphtho-
quinone, and therefore does not contain a bromine atom in position 4.
As the dibromoquinone melting at 150°, obtained from the tribromo-
naphthol melting at 155°, is converted by alkali into a condensation
product, it appears probable that the tribromonaphthol from which it is
derived is the 1; 2:4: 3’ compound. The writer is indebted to Mr.
W. A. Davis for carrying out these experiments.

Mr. Davis has obtained interesting results by comparatively studying
the amounts of ether formed on boiling the various naphthol derivatives
with alcohol and sulphuric acid. Whilst betanaphthol gives as much as
85 per cent. of the amount of ether indicated by theory, 1 bromobeta-
naphthol yields only about 10 per cent., and an even smaller proportion is
obtained from 1 : 3’ dibromobetanaphthol, although 3’ bromobetanaphthol
yields about 70 per cent. of the theoretical amount of ether. <A single
chlorine atom in position 1 exercises about the same influence as a single
bromine atom, but 1 : 3 dichlorobetanaphthol and the tribromonaphthol

melting at 155° are entirely unaffected by boiling with alcohol and sul-
phuric acid.

The Promotion of Agriculture.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir JouHn Evans (Chairman), Professor H. EH. Arm-
STRONG (Secretary), Professor M. Foster, Professor MarsHaLL
Warp, Sir J. H. Gitpert, Right Hon. J. Bryce, Professor J. W.
Rosertson, Dr. W. Saunpers, Professor MiLus, Professor J.
Mavor, Professor R. Warinatron, Professor PouLton, and Mr.
S. U. PICKERING, appointed to report on the Means by which in
Various Countries Agriculture is advanced by Research, by Special
Educational Institutions, and by the Dissemination of Information
and Advice among Agriculturists.

THE Committee was appointed at the Toronto Meeting, largely in conse-
quence of the deep impression produced by the visits paid by members of
the Association to the Canadian Agricultural Experimental Stations, and
by the evidence there afforded of the value of the support given by the
Government to Agriculture. The object in view is to prepare an account
of the work done in Canada, in the United States of America, and in
Europe in promoting Agriculture by special educational institutions, by
research, by experimental demonstrations, and by the dissemination of
information among farmers and others. Such an account will serve to
draw attention by contrast to the backwardness of this conntry in such
matters, and to the directions in which it is desirable that efforts should
be made. The task is necessarily a difficult one, as it involves the collec-
tion and discussion of the very extensive literature of the subject, besides
much personal inquiry. Although much information has already been
collected it is not yet possible to present a report that will effect the
desired purpose ; nor was it supposed that such a report could be pre-
pared within a year. It is therefore requested that the Committee be
reappointed.

ai

_

re

SL |

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 313

Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. H. Roscoz (Chairman),
Dr. MarsHatL Warts (Secretary), Sir J. N. Lockyer, Professor
J. Dewar, Professor G. D. Livernc, Professor A. ScHuUSTER, Pro-
fessor W. N. Hartiey, Professor Wouicorr Gisss, and Captain
ABNEY.

Tron (Spark SPECTRUM).

Exner and Haschek : ‘Sitzungsber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien.,’ cvi. 1897.
The measurements of Kayser and Runge are in the arc spectrum.

Reduction to
eet Intensity : : Vacuum Oscillation
Serie and Previous Observations [| _ Frequency
Dat Character 1 in Vacuo

Spectrum A+ ete,

(4736°96) 1 4736:96 Rowland 1:30 | 5:8 21104°8
4710°45 1 4710°37 K. & R. 1:29 a 21223°6
4707°50 1 470745 ,, i 5:9 21236°8
4691°60 Ul 469i°52 ,, 1:28 a 21308'8
4679°02 1 467897 ,, =) An 21366'1
4673°4 In 4673'29 ,, “ “fi 21392
4669°4 in 4669-30 ,, op i 21410
4668°30 1 4668:23 ,, “ o 21415:2
4667°62 In 4667-56 ,, - Bs 2141873
4647-62 1 4647°54 ,, 1:27 of 21510°5
4638'20 1 463813 ,, rH x 215542
4637-70 1 4637°66_,, s 3 21556°5
4635°50 in & fe 21566°7
4633°06 uk 4633°02_,, “- 6:0 21578:0
4629°51 y! 4629:44 ,, ns i 215946
4625°22 1 462519 ,, 5 an 21614°6
4619-45 1 4619-40 ,, os i 21641°6
4613-45 In 461335 ,, 1:26 A 21669°8
4611°45 1 4611-38 ,, 11:437 R. i cf 21679°2
4607°73 1 4607:79 ,, i” “ 21696:7
4603°11 2 460303 ,, 5 rh 21718-4
4598°31 1 459826 ,, 35 “A 217411
459556 1 459548, » a 217541
4592°83 1 4592°75_,, A A 217€7-1
4584-01 4 458393 ,, i = 21809-0
4576°48 1 1:25 - 21844:9
4556°25 1 4556:22 ,, i> 61 21941°8
455604 1 ‘is 55 21942'8
4554-20 1 Ba 455416 ,, , an 21951-7
4552-72 In 4552°66 ,, . eS 219588
4549-65 3 4549'57 ,, » “a 21973°6
4548-00 2 454795 ,, a a 21981°6
4541°68 1 454143 ,, 1:24 a 22012°2
4531°32 2 4531:25 ,, 5 ea 220625
4529°80 In 452975 ,, mn 8 22069°9

(4528°80) 6 452878 ,, 28:80R. i 7 22074'8
4525°31 2 4525°27 ,, a5 3 22091°'8

314 REPORT—1898.

ITRON—continued.

Wave- Reduction to
length Intensity Vacuum ees)
Spee oat Cl and Previous Observations |~ Getoion
naracter 1 brequency
AS —— in Vacuo
4522°80 2 29-79 K.&
4520-41 1 aot ana 126.| 61 221041
4517°68 1 451764 ld ” ” 22115'8
451549 if 4515°36 “2 ” ” ’ 22129°2
451431 1 4514-29 » ” ” 22139°9
4494-74 2 4508-40, eee 221748
494°74 5 ee a ie ” 7 D 8
4491:58 1 areite » 94725 KR. | 12:3 6:2 22242-0
4490°24 1 4490-19 a? ” ” 22260°9 .
4489-88 1 448984 2h 7 ” ” 22264°3
4489'34 In 4489-08 |, SP her = ” 222661
4488°3 1b 4488-26 ” ” 22268°8
4485:82 1 4485-77 a ” ” 22274
4484-40 2 4484-36 4 Hg Tas ” 22286°3
4482°94 1 4489-86 i ” ” 22293'3
4482-40* 4 4482-35 ¥ ” ” 22300°6
4480°31 i 4480°26 PS | ” ” 22303°3
4479°76 1 4479°73 » ” ” 22313°7
4476-19 5 4476-20 24 ” ” 22316°4
4469°54 2 4469-53 ” ” ” 22334-2
4466:70 5 4466°70 oe. edi ” 22367°5
4464-91 1 Sacaca 122 | ,, 22381-7
4462-15 ln 4462/11 an ” ” 22390°7 .
4461-80 3 4461-75 9 ” ” 22404°5
4459-28 4 4459-24 te ” ” 22406°3
4458-22 In 445835 ” » 22418'9
4456-46 1 4456-46 ” ” ” 224243
4454-89 1 22 ” ” 22433:1
4454-53 2 x ” ” 22441°0
4451-70 ele (eee mS 2449-9
4450-46 1 4450°44 22 ”? ” pre
(4447-90 3 QF 4 . ” 9 22463°4
ance 3 ee » 47°90 R. a iS 224763
4443-00 ii 4442-97 a3 ” ” 22499°3
4442-51 4 4442-46 | |» ” 225011
4440-05 1 4439-96 oa ae 22503°6
4438°50 il 4438°50 4 ” ” 22516°1
4437-06 1 4487-04 od ” ” 22523'9
4435°31 yt 443527 # ” 9 22531:2
4435°20 1 a” ” » 225401
4433-97 1 4433-98 ” ” 22540°7
4433°39 2 443332 ” » 22547-0
4432-73 4432-68 = ” ” 22549°9
4430°79 D 4430°74 Re, eH ” 22553°3
4430°35 1 443032 121 | 63 22563-0
4427-49 3 4497-44 » ” ” 22565°3
4424-6 lb 4424-96 a ” ” 225799
4422-74 3 4499-67 ” ” 22595
4419:93 1 ih ay ” a) 226041
4419-70 1 } » ” 22618°5
4415-98 1 ” ” Ree
4415-29 8 Moc 9 ” 26387
4413-70 1 ge elt ee 22642'3
44109 lb | ” ” 22650°4
” ” 22664'8

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 315

TroN—continued.

Wine piction to
length Intensity see Oscillation
Spark and Previous Observations Frequency
Spectrum Character Pe hi in Vacuo
A
4409°44 1 1-21 | 63 22672°3
4409°34 1 4409°25 K.& R. f <5 22672°8
4408°59 2 440854 a sy 8 22676°7
4407°89 2 *4407-80 fee BASED pass ” 22680°5
4405°65 1 per kee 22691°8
440494 10 440488 K.& R. ys oF 22695°5
440160 1 5 34 22712°7
4401-50 a 4401-46, 1 ee 22713'2
4400°55 In ist Mie bs 22718°1
4396°88 in | 49 ” 227371
4392-50 in | 1.20 cs 22759°8
439115 1 *4391-152 R. 4 A 22766°8
4389°4 In 438935 K. & R. ‘s * 22776
4388°61 2 4388°57 ff * As 22780°0
4388°07 2 438801 zs $s s 22782'8
4385°55 1 438540, i x 22795°9
4384°39 2 4384:38 rs “ 22801°9
4383-71 10 4383°70 . 53 22805°4
4382-96 1 ” ” 22809°3
4379:40 In 437936 _s,, * A 22827°9
437696 In 437689 % 1:20 | 63 22840°6
4376710 4 437604 9 sr LOZ S;, a 22845:1
437467 1 437459 K. & * % 22852°6
4373°74 1 4373°67 "3 “ a 22857°4
4370°52 1 4370°59 ,, 3 A 228742
4369°96 3 4369-89 GAGA es, Ph 22877°2
4368°11 1 4368:00 cs f 6:4 22886'8
4367°75 2 4367°68 x + 8 22888°7
436613 in 436602 __,, a 5 22897°2
4361°5 In 2 5 22921
4361:0 in 2 a 22924
4358-68 1 435862 r Sp 22936°3
4357°73 In 38 22941°3
(4352-90) 3 4352°86 » PLORAe1S Fs 22966°8
4351°89 2 4351°67 ” if “+ 2297271
4346°63 1 434666 7 % 5 22999°9
4343-80 1 4343°81 xz , 5 230149
4343°37 1 4343°39 ,, es A) 23017°2
4338°89 1 Bs 35 23041:0
4338°39 1 4338°38 A! o ar 23043°6
4337-22 5 4337:14 ” ” 23049°8
4334-55 1 5 * 230640
4330°35 In s i 23086°4
4330°15 In 5 “P 23087°5
4328:02 1 432802 9 45 rp 230989
4327:22 2 4327°22 ss, a a 23103°1
432687 1 432686 ,, ay 3 23105°0
4326°50 1 0 a 23107°0
4325-94 10 $4325°92 so Oa) Ets, 33 23110°0
4321-93 1. 4321-90 3 “A Pe 23131°4
4321°67 1 x - 23132°8
4321-55 i a 3 23133°4
4320°92 1 4320°89 7 + e 23136'8
* Double. { Triple.

316

Wave-
length
Spark

Spectrum

Intensity
and
Character

4318-75
4315:26
4314-46
4312°88
4312-48
4312°31
4309°51
4309°16
4308-70
4308°06
430559
4304-76
430332
4302-67
4302°32
430094
4299-43
4298-17
4296°73
4295°12
4294-32
4292°4

4291°62
4291:05
4290°55
4290:08
4289-47
4289-0

428827
4287-10
4286'55
4285 56
428313
4282°60
4280:00
4279°65
427833
4277-6

427680
4276:27
4276-11
427402
4273-42
4272°53
4271-93
4271°32
4269:90
4269-78
4268°86
4267°95
4267-68
4267°56
4267-08

La]

i=]

Ste veep, Peer gita kn eaters Soe Seer, ee a

In

on

bet) oH 1 ll el hl lll de

REPORT—1898.

Tron—continued.

Previous Observations

Reduction to”

Vacuum

A
nN

4315°21
4314-43

4312-28
4309-50
4309714

G 4307-96
4305°58
430466
4303°25

4302°68
4302°31
4300°86
4299-42
4298-16
4296°56
4295:08
4294°26
4292-36
4291-69
4290°99
4290°50
4290°04
4289-84
4289:08
4288:25
4287:05
4286°58
4285°57
4283°20
4282-58
4279:99
427959
4278°35

4276°80

427399

4272°61
4271:93
4271°30
4269-89

426887
*4267-97

4267-08

4318°78 K. & R.

» ‘941 KR.

* Double.

6-4

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

23148°5
23167°2
231715
231800
231821
23182°4
23198°1
23200°0
23202°4
23205°8
23219°1
23223°6
23231°4
23234'9
23236°8
23244'2
23252°4
23259°2
23267:0
232757
232801
23290
232947
232978"
23300'5
23303°1
23306°4
23309
233129
233193
23322'3
233277
23340°9
23343°8
233580
23359°9
233671
23371
23375°5
23378'4
23379°2
23390°7
233940
23398'8
23402°1
23405°5
234132
23413'9
23419°0
23424-0
23425°4
234261
23428°7

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave

length

Spark
Spectrum

Intensity
and
Character

4265°35
4264-85
4264-34
4260°64
4259-07
4258°76
4258°40
4256°40
4255°61
4255:25
425506
4254-45
4251-55
4250°95
(4250°30)

4248-37
424758
4246-14
4245°32
4943'45
4249-82
4240°46
4239:88
4238-90
4238°10
4237-22
4236-09
4233-74
4233-26
4931-9

4229'83
4229:58
4227-60
4226'88
4226:53
4226-06
4225-57
4994-63
4224-26
4223'30
4992-35
4220-46
4219:51
4217-67
4216-29
4215-56
4213-77
4210°52
4208-73
4207-26
4206'84.
4206°33
4205°69
4204-10
4202'86

In
ln
1
10
i
1

i
6

B

RP ROO NRWRE RP RWW PRE QOH Be eee

o

Q
&

Fe a SORT NIRS IAD ICD ROI HNC a 0 tote Ait >

IRoN—continued.

Reduction to

Vacuum
Previous Measurements
A+ ae.

A

4265°37 K. & R. LAT } 6:5
426488 » ”
426437 ,, 9 te
426064 v7 1% +
4259°06 = * is
495875, al ae
4258-43, ee
4256°32 = Pill ieee,
4255°64 % " PS
” ”

4255:08 . fr =
4254:45 jah), (LOOMER I ys =
S 6-6

4250:93 = % *
4250:°28 > = &
4248°35 ee s &
424760. ,, a r
4246-18 ¥ is is
4245°39 ‘ ae -,
4243°44 _ 1:16 *
4242°85 wv = .
4240°50 Ps bs &
4239°90 pe 45 >
4238°98 . is eS
4238°14 ra i. x
4237-26 fe Wass a
4236°09 - a fe
4233°76 a ih x
423325 os + s
4229°86 ~ a .
4229°61 es = a
4227-60 5 a %
4226°84 - he P
4226°52 ss * *
4226:08 “a “ ie
4225°61 a * -
422463 x ¥ if
4224:27 a Rs S
4223°40 * + B
4222°35 ee 2 *
4220°44 7 Es es
4219-47 aS % -
4217°69 a + 7
4216:28 - * a
4215:52 e 1:16 -
4213°75 3 x <
4210-48 * Ra 2
420871 pe % 3
4207:22 as ee a
4206°78 <5 RS a
4205°63 es 115 2
4204-07 a "3 he
4202°85 > ‘ =

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

234382
23441:0
23443°8
234642
23472°8
23474°5
23476°5
23487°5
23491:9
23493'9
234949
23498°3
235142
23517°6
235212
23431°8
235362
23544-2
23548°8
23559°1
23562°6
23575 7
23579:0
23584°4
23588°9
23593°8
236001
236132
236159
23623
23635:0
23636°4
23647°5
23651°5
23653°5
236561
236588
236641
23666-2
23671°6
256769
23687°5
23692°8
23703'2
23710°9
237150
237251
237434
23753°5
23761-8
237642
23767-1
23770°7
237797
23786-7

ol?

318

REPORT—1898.

Tron—continued.

Wave-

length

Spark
Spectrum

4202-20
4201-07
4200°13
4199-27
4198-86
4198-50
4196-46
4195-75
4195-50
4191-80
4191°61
4188-00
4187-22
4185-03
4182:54
4181-94
4179-01
4178°16
4177-74
4176-70
4175°77
4175:06
4174-10
4173:59
4172:88
4172-29
4171:80
4171-05
4168-07
4165°57
41638
4161-63
4161-2
4158-94

(4157:95)
4156-93
4164-92
4154-61
415410
4152°32
4150:40
4149-49
4147°79
4145-68
4145-45
4144-62
4144-06
4143-54
4142-01
4140-02
4139-85
4137-12
4136-68
4136°31
4134°83

Intensity

and

Character |

Previous Observations

Reduction to
Vacuum

i=)

RP WE WNNDE ERNE ED NNER Rw Wen OHDHN so

4202°15 K.
4201-01
420001
4199°19
4198-75
4198-42
4196°66
4195-71
4195-46
4191:72
4191°57
4187°92
4187:17
4184:99
4182:46
4181°85
417895
417811
4177°66
4176-62
417571
4174:98
4174:00
4173°52
4172°81
4172-20
4171-79
4170:99
416796
4165:51
4163°74
4161°57
416113
4158-89
4157-91
4156°88
4154-95
4154:57
4154-04
4152:25
4150°42
4149-44
4147-74

4145-29
4144-72
4143°96
4143°50
4141°94
413996
4137-06
4136°58

4134-77

054 R.

936 R.

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

23790°5
23796°9
23802'1
23807:0
23809°3
23811°3
23822°9
23826°9
23828°4
23849°4
23850°5
23871°1
23875°5
23888-0
23902:2
23905°6
23922°4
23927°3
23929°7
23935°6
239410
23945°1
23950°6 ‘
23953°5
23957°6
23961°0
23963°8
239681
23985'2
23999°6
24010
24022°3
24025
24037°9
24043°6
24049°5
24061°2
240629
240659
24076°2
240874
24092°6
24102°4
241147
24116-0
24120°9
24124:1
24127°2
24136°1
24147-7
24148°7
241646
241672
24169'3
24178°0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-

length

Spark
Spectrum

4134-54

4134-03
4133-73
4133-05

(4132-24)
4128°89
4127-92
4127-74
4126:35
4126-05
4125-78
4123-90
4122-69
4121-99
4120°37
4118-72
4115:1
411461
4113-14
4109-99
4109-23
4107°65
4106-60
410640
4104-32
4101:73
4101°45
4100-92
4100:37
4098-37
4096'85
4096'16
4092'5
4091-76
4091-2
4090:2
4089-40
4088°73
4088°15
4087-26
4085:50
4085'16
408460

4083-96
4083-72
4082-60
4082-28

4081°47

4081:02
4080°40
4080°02
407852
4077°85
407681

Intensity
and
Character

Mme OOR RR Ee
BB

i=}

Io et at rat a Het 29 ISH BD BO BO et BD GH

BOB B

BB

ears Roe eit pp te

wn

wee H fF

TRoN—continued.

319

| Reduction to

Vacuum yo as
Previous Observations |- Tee
Aa Bow in Vacuo
A
413450 K. & R. 114 6°8 24179'7
4133°96 ‘9 aa - 24182°7
4133°67 oc a * 24184°4
4132°96 3 * f 24188°4
4132715 a * “ 241932
4128°91 +7 1:13 #3 24212°8
4127°86 9 ™ r 24218°5
4127°68 5 i i 24219°5
4126°25 i . = 24227°7
412594 3 - ~ 24229°5
412571 Fe * . 24231:0
4123°81 a ; 3 242421
4122°59 i * # 24249-2
4121°88 # Ap PH 242533
4120°28 95 a » 242629
4118-62 Ef a 5 24272°6
4114°98 *H a - 24294
4114:53 ye) Oa eEelan hy A 24296°'8
411308 9 » FA 24305°5
4109°88 rf ; 5 24324-2
~ 4109°23 o ,, 3 24328°7
4107°58 $34 (OSGIEV LOO,» 5 24338:0
4106°55 fs RE; is 24344:2
4106°37 Pe a # 24345°4
4104:20 PH Lb P 24357°8
4101:76 op 5 # 24372°9
4101°37 3 My Fr) 24374:'8
4100°82 A s Fe 243780
4100°26 3 :, # 243812
4098:26 3 3 6:9 243930
4096°67 a oa 7 24402:1
4096-06 a ty 4 244062
4092-43 = 1:12 ie 24428
4091:66 or 3 a 24432°5
4091°12 - - 24436
4090717 a % 3 24442
4089:°28 Fr 3 #8 24446°6
4088°65 os D a 24450°6
4087°95 cf a a 244540
4087°16 3 ‘ a 24459-4
4085°38 FA e Ps 24469°9
4085:07 3 :, Pe 24471°9
408459 a . an 24475'3
4083°90 3 3 a 24479'1
4083°70 if } ms 24480°6
4082°55 Pe A Pe 24487°3
4082°20 a :; A 24489°2
4081°67 ’
(ences) Ay hae 24494-1
4080:°96 7s * % 24496°8
4080-30 mf 4 is 24500°5
4079°91 - ‘, An 24502°8
4078-41 nA ‘. a 245118
4077-74 pe + 3 24515'8
4076°72 of 245221

320

REPORT—1898.

Iron—continued.

ae Ree to
TE * acuum
rate Pow Previous Observations
Spectrum | Character nash ee
A
4074:97 3 407487 K. & R. 112 6:9
4073°97 2 4073°84 4) SOLS MREE rs}
4071-92 10 407179, » | oo
4070-96 2 4070°85 ,, Bede
4068715 3 4068:07 ” | ” | ”
4067°77 1 ” ”
4067-45 2 4067°36 ” ” ”
406712 3 4067-04 ” | 49 ”
4066°77 1 4066°66 ” ” | ”
4065:57 1 406548 aay ne
406461 1 4064°55 ” | ”» | ”
4064°35 i 4064°55 ” ” | ”
4063°75 10 4063°63 » » | »
(4062-60) 3 406251, ope tae
406213 In 406200, » | 9
4061°3 1b 4061:24 » ” ys
4059°89 1 4059-80 ” ” ”
4059°75 1 ” ”
Or. f 4058-99
405893 1 | 4058°86 ” ” ”
4058°40 1 4058°30 » ” ”
4057°55 1 4057-43 ” ” ”
4055°58 1 4055'63 fe - 5
4055712 In 405512 » ” ”
4054°95 in 4054°94 “5 1-11 33
4054:00 in 4054:25 ” ” ”
4053°37 In 405331 ” ” ”
4052'8 1n 405275 ss, pt Nera
4052°6 In 4052°56 Bs By iy | tise
405212 In 4052°03 ” ” ”
4051°52 In 4051°40 +h “A +
4050°86 In 4050°83 5 + 70
4050:02 2 4049:92 + + rr
4049°50 1 4049°40 ” ” ”
4049-03 In 404882 , ‘S75Ri , a
4047'46 1 4047°40 ” ” ”
4045°98 10 4045-90 + 3 os
404479 2 4044°69 »” ” ”
4044-08 2 4044-00 » » ”
4042:00 2 4041°44 ”? ” ”
4040°86 2 4040°74 as ° =
4038°95 In 4038°83 ” ” ”
403465 1 4034'59 “ + “
4033'82 1 ”» ”
4033°24 1 4033716 ” ” ”
4032°80 2 4032°72 7 ” ”
4032°14 2 4032°06 ” ” ”
4030:89 2n 4030°84 +" oF =
4030°69 2 4030°60 ” ” ”
4030°37 1 4030°26 ” ” ”
4029'80 2 4029°72 ” ”
4025°99 1 4025-93 » ” ”
4024:°94 2 402486 ” ” ”
4024°26 1 4024 20 + Le oF
4022-05 3 4022°25 oP

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

24533'2
24539°2
24551°5
24557°3
24574°3
245766
24578°5
24580°5
24582°6
24589'9
245957
24597°3
24600'9
24607'9
24610°7
24616

246243
24626°2

24630'1

24633-4
24638°5
246505
24653°3
24654°3
2466071
246639
24667-0
24669-0
24671°5
24674'8
246791
24684-2
24687°4
24690°3
24699'9
24708-9
247162
24720°5
247332
24740:2
24751:9
24778-3
24783-4
24787-0
24789°7
24793-7 |
24801-4
24802°6
94804-6
248081
i]

24831°6
24838°1
24842°3
24855°9

—_

Wave-
ength
Spark

Spectrum

401842
4017-29
4016-57
401470
4013-96
4011°50
(4009:86)
4009°37
4008-95
4007°41
4006'79
4006-47
4005-94

400540 ©

400305
4003-91
4002-75
4002-20
4001-80
4001:49
4001'37
4000°60
4000°35
3998°16
3997°52
3997°10
3996-11
399422
3990'50
3990:00
398629
3985°48
3984:09
3982°35
398190
3977-89
3976:97
3976°72
3973°75
3972°55
3971-47
3970-51
3969°40
396858
396810
3967°58
3966°75
3966°20
396466
3963-25
3961:30
3960°40
3957°15
3956°82
3956'58
1898.

Intensity
and
Character

Reet beet et G0

Be ae pce ee ee

Eo rete Gath A et HR, Heh

BB

Meow wr oar ts
Q

OR eee
eSB

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 321
TrRoN—continued.
Reduction to
Caprg Oscillation
Previous Observations Frequency
x Li in Vacuo
A
4018:36 K. & R. peistn | 70 24878°4
4017°23 - Pirds ” 24885°4
4016°55 5 HORS 5 oe 24889°9
4014-63 s | 1:10 ” 24901°5
401391 a % 3 24906'1L
401149 3 PA 24921:9
4009°80 ” ” ” 249315
” ” 24934'6
4008:97 Pe me ” 24937°2
4007°36 ee i ” 24946°8
4006 71 is as ” 24950°6
4006°39 ” ” ” 24952°6
” ” 24955'9
400533 Pe i ” 24959°3
4005:07 #3 3 ” 24961°5
4003°88 e Sie + eee, 24968°6
4002°77 9 3 T1 249757
F ” 24979°2
4001 77 a + 7 24981°7
” ” 24983°6
” ” 249843
4000°57 PA Ys ” 24989°2
4000°36 x6, » ” 24990°7
399816 ty) 9 op 25004:4
3997°49 Fr} af Fr 25008°4
3997:06 s 9 A 25011:0
3996:08 ” | ” ” 25017°2
3994:22 3 o ne 25029°0
3990°48 - “A bs 250524
3989-94 = a a 25055-°6
3986°27 3 wee 7 25078°9
398546 i ieee. a 25084:0
*3984:08 i OGTR, - 25092°7
- Pe 25103°7
3981°87 * iy 3 25106°5
3977°83 Pe zy rE 251319
3976°95 5 45 on 25137-7
3976°71 3 is * 25139°3
3973-75 109 | 3 251580
i re 251656
3971°41 + - ap 251725
3970°51 a 3 " 251786
3969°34 + a on 25185°6
396855 i - 25190°8
396805 - Be Pr 25193°9
3967°51 3 6 oe 251972
3966°70 * 59 * 25202°5
396616 - 59 Pe 252060
3964°61 . 35 3 25215°7
3963°24 is hs a 25224-7
3961-24 y 3 rh 252371
396038 ies 5 4 25242°9
395717 3 * # 25263°6
3956°77 ES es i 25265-7
3956-54 & 3 a3 252673
* Double. Sf

REPORT—1 898.

Iron—continued.

Reduction to

——_—..

* Double.

aca Intensity Vacuum ae
Spark oe ; Previous Observations Teotaeeee
Spectrum erecuet A+ ‘Ley in Wao.
A
3955°50 In Mr. —
3953:25 1 ened K. & R. 1:09 7:2 252741
3952°74 » 3952-71 4 ” ” 25288'4
3951°30 2) 3951-25 ” ” ” 25291°7
(3950°10) 3 3950-05 ” ” ” 25300°9
3948-88 4 3948-87 ae ” ” 25308°6
3948°31 3 3948-23 z ” ” 25316°4
3947-64 2 3947-64, » | oo» 253201
3947°10 1 39471 1 ae ” | ” 253244
3945°22 if n 3945-22 a ” | ” 25327°9
3945-00 In 3945-00 i Boot) 398 25339°9
3943°45 i] 3943-43 ”? ” ” 25341°3
3942°55 2 *3949-54. 22 555 RB ” ” 25351°3
3941:40 ln 3941-40 v cl eau ” 25357°1
3940°99 2 3940-98 4 ” ” 26364°5
3939-06 In ue ” ” 25367°1
3937-67 i| ” ” caneg
3937-42 il ¢ 7) ” ” 5388°5
3935-90 2 Sel ae hes 25390-1
3935-41 1 apakaOe 108 | » 25399°9
393418 ] v2 ” ” 25403°1
3933°80 8 Ca “4 ” ” 25411°1
3933-05 1 ae ” ” ‘5 25413°5
3932-75 2 3932-71 |, bok 25418;4
3931-96 ] 44 ” ” 254203
3931-22 1 7) ” ” 25425°4
3930°43 6 hae P ” ” 25430°2
3929°82 1 de ” ” 25435°3
3929-26 1 99: ” ” 25439°3
3928-09 7 ccadaa| ” ” 25442°9
3926-06 9 3926-05 -Y. ” ” 25450°6
3925°76 ] 3925°74 dy ” ” 25463°6
3925°33 In 392531 | ” ” 25465°6
3923-05 6 3923-00. ” » 25468°4
3920°40 5 3920°36 ‘be ” ” 254832
3919°17 +14 $919°18 oF. ” ” 25500°4
3918°75 3 3918-74. ee ” ” 25508°4
3918-47 3n 3918-49 ti ” ” 25511°1
ae yn 3 3917-29 7 ” | ” pete
916784 3 me fe < ” ” ‘4
3914-39 t ae aces ee 25523'6
3913-74 ] 3913°74 3? ” ” 25539°6
3910°95 1 3910-95 di ” ” 25543°8
3909:95 In 3909-95 iy ” ” 25562-0
3908:°06 l 3908-02 sd ” ” 25568°6
3907-60 J 3907-58 2 ” 73 25580°8
3906°87 in 3906-84 id ” ” 255839
3906-59 5 390658 | ” ‘3 255886
3906°2 1n ? ” ” 25590°5
3904-00 2 ° ” ” 25593°0
3903-65 1 BBO) «ob 5 ds ee 25607°5
8903-09 ¢ 2. ” ” 25609'7
3900-63 1 oe” are 25613-4
oo 25529°6

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 3

JRon—continued.

Reduction to

2

od

3

pee: Intensity Vacunm Oscillation
S 8 ih and | Previous Observations |~ |, Frequency
g Loeb | Character ; i in Vacuo
pectrum | Ae he a
Bou9'84 6 389980 K. & R. 1:08 | 7-3 256348
3899°12 1 389913, :: 5 25639°5
3898-05 4 3898-05 si, s 25646°6
3897°58 1 Seg754 «,; -COBRI-;. 1 ¥ 25649°6
3895°78 5 389575, 1:07, |» 25661°5
3894-10 1 389409, ; 5 25672°6
3893-50 3 3893-47, ¥ 25676°5
3892:05 2 389202, . As 256861
3890°96 1 389094 . . 25693°3
3888°95 2n 3888-92, 5 > 25706°6
3888-65 6 388863, L, * 25708°6
3887°18 5 SGT |, 4 ; 25718'3
3886-41 8 388638 : ; 25723°4
3885-63 3 388561 _,, 5s ” 25728°6
3885:30 1 388525, . % 25730°7
3884-49 2 388446, ; - 257361
388344 2 388339, * s 25743'1
3278:71 8 387882, ¢ * 25775°5
387815 7 387812 —,, 4 257782
3876°15 1 387614 ,, + A 26791°5
3873-89 4 387388, 2 * 25806°5
3872°65 6 387261 —,, » 25814'8
3871-88 3 387186, ¥ 4 258200
3869°69 2 386969, % . 258346
3868-03 1 386803, * fs 25845-6
3867°33 3 386733, .. 3 25850°3
3865°67 6 386565, 4 ; 25861-4
3863'86 1 386387, ¥ i 258736
3861:46 1 386146 ,, ‘- ‘ 25889°6
3860-07 9 386003, , 4 25899-0
3859°36 4 385934, ‘ : 25903:7
3857:03 1 " is 25919°4
385651 8 3856-49, 0Gl| 5s 25922°9
3855°45 In 385545, 4 - 25930'0
385452 In 385451, 4 i" 25936'3
3853'6 1b 385360 __,, Ss = 25943
385271 2 385271, Bee oka: 25948°5
3850-99 3: 385096, te oe 25960°0
3850°69 1 ee Uae 25962°1
3850°15 6 S8b011. «,, om Vicuee 25965°7
3848-47 1 3848-42, AR files 259771
3846-91 3 384696, ;, Ys 25987°6
3846:54 2 3846-55, F ‘. 25990°1
3846-18 1 384618, i, 259925
3845-82 1 384584, ;, is 259950
3845:30 1 3845:30 ,, - r 259985
3844-45 In a. 26004:3
3843-41 4 3843-40, bass 26011°3
3841-21 8 384119 4 "a 26026:2
3840-61 8 384058, hs Agnes 26030'2
3839°87 2 SBAD TS. | 45 ia 26035°3
3839-40 4 383938, ee 26038'4
3838-2 lb ¥ is 26047
383725 1 383727, f ‘ 26053-0
3836-44 2, 3836-48 —,, .. 4 26058°5

¥ 2

324. REPORT—1898.
TroN—continued.
Reduction to
| ie | Intensity Vacuum
Spark and Previous Observations
iS Character 1
Spectrum ie aw!
A
383482 1 1:06 | 7:3
383438 8 3834:37 K. & R. — ”
383344 3 3833°44 fe ” ”
3832°4 1b ” ”
383177 1 ” ”
3830°96 1 3830°95 9 ” ”
3830°53 In 3830°54 ” ” ”
3829°85 1 3829°86 9 ” ”
3829°56 1 3829°59 ae ” ”
3829°25 l 3829 30 ” ” ”
3827°98 9 3827°96 ” ” ”
3826°96 1 3826'99 Ay ” ”
| 3826°04 9 3826:04 ” ” ”
| 3825710 i ” ”
382458 7 382458 ” ” ”
3821-96 2 3821-98 ” ” ”
3821°30 4 3821°32 e ” ”
3820°57 9 3820°56 ” ” ”
3819°80 In 3819°75 AD ” ”
3817°77 In 3817°84 = as T4
2816°46 1 3816°48 ey 1:0 ”
3815°99 9 3815:97 a ” ”
3814°90 1 3814°94 ” ” ”
| 3814°65 2 3814°66 ” ” ”
} 381401 il 3814:03 ” ” ”
| 3813°77 1 3813°77 ” ” ”
| 3813-12 5 3813°12 ” ” ”
| 3812-04 In 3812:03 9 ” ”
3810°87 1 3810°89 a ” ”
| 3809°70 1 3809°70 se, ” ”
| 3808°85 1 3808'86 ” ” ”
| 3807°65 2 3807°68 ” ” ”
| 3806-81 4 380684, 4 %
| 3806734 1 3806°36 ” ” ”
| 3805-48 5 380547 i, “4 ”
380415 1 380415 “a cis ”
3802-40 1 380241 rs Hs Fi
3801°87 In ” ”
3801-80 1 3801-81 a 7 ”
3799-70 ‘é 3799-68 “0 ” ”
3798°68 6 3798°65 + ” ”
3797'64 4 3797°65 ” ” ”
379515 6 3795°13 =) ” ”
379448 2 379446 i ” ”
| 379400 1 3793:99 + ” ”
3793°60 In 3793°60 a ” ”
3792-29 1 3792°28 “f ” ”
3790°92 1 3790°88 ss ” ”
3790°23 3 3790°22 e ” ”
3789°31 1 3789°31 + ” ”
378802 5 378801 “ ” ”
| 3787:30 1 3787°30 a5 ” ”
| 3786°82 2 378681 ‘3 ” ”
3786°30 2 3786'30 ” ” ”
378606 3 378607

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

26069'5
26072°5
26078'9
26086

26090'3
26095'8
26098'8
26103°4
26105"4
26107°5
26116'1
26123-1
26129°4
261358
26139'4
26157°3
26161'8
26166'8
261721
26185'9
26194'9
26198'1
26205 6
26207'3
26211'7
26213°4
26217°8
262253
26233°3
26241'4
26247°2
26255'5
26261°3
262646
26270°5
26279°7
26291'8
26296'4
26295°9
26310°5
26317°5
26324:7
26342:0
26346°7
26350-0
26352'8
26361°9
26371°4
263762
26382°6
26391°6
26396'6
26400:0
26403'6
264053

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Iron—continued.

Reduction to

3:

)
pa

)

Wave- Intensity bs es
Pen and | Previous Observations
ark |
pesicom Character ae i-
3782:°07 In 378205 K. & R. 1:05 | 7:4
3781°31 1 378131 ” ’ ”
3779-59 1 3779°58 ” ” ”
377864 1 3778°63 i ” ”
377756 1 3777°56 » ” ”
3777-22 1 3777°20 7 Fee FA
3776°67 it 3776°58 +5 | 1:04 ite ee
3774-95 1 377495, ea 3
3773°83 1 377384 ” ” ”
3771°10 In Rare pre
3770°44 1 3770743 oF aes ”
377013 1 3770°12 ” ris aa
3768°14 il 3768715 » ” ”
3767°32 {( 3767°31 "7 | ” ”
3766:78 1 3766-74 a, easy ,
3766-20 1 376619 ,, ress ‘i
3765°70 5 3765-66 ro Tess ”
3763-91 7 376390, | »
37631 1b | ” ”
3762:2 1b 3762°30 ” ” ”
3761°50 In 3761°52 = iaitiss ”
3760°68 2 3760°66 ” a) ’
3760°19 3 3760°17 ” ” ”
3769°62 1b ” ”
3759°35 1b 3759°30 ae 1mirSs ”
, 3758:92 1 betes Ss fiartas
3758°39 8 3758°36 ” | ” ”
3757°60 1 3757°60 “p PP ”
3757-08 2 3757 06 - ” ”
(3756-21) 1 375617 + titi ss ”
375462 In *3754'63 ». 002 Ritesy,; 3
3753°74 3 375374 “- | 99 ”
3753°4 in 7) eal ee
3752°56 1 3752°57 ” aie lee 93
3752:2 1b ” } ”
3749°64 10 3749°61 ~- beth Ss ”
8749-05 2 374906, linea ”
3748°41 Tf 3748°39 =p tS iliss ”
3747-02 2 *3747:09 so (O04 Dal aiiess ”
3746°55 1 3746°56 ” ” ”
3746:04 if 3745°95 2 ” ”
3745-71 16 3745°67 ” ” ”
3744:70 1 : ”
3744-60 il ” ”
3744:20 1 3744:21 ” ” ”
. 374358, | |
3743 51 7 { 3743°45 - | ” | ”
3742°73 al 3742°77 ” ” ”
3741°95 In ” ”
3740°9 in ” ”
3740°39 i! 3740°44 A “3 ”
3740°18 il 3740°22 3 ” ”
3739-65 1 3739°73 Fr ” ”
3738°40 3 3738°44 a? PP ”
3737-27 8 3737°27 1:0: ”

”
* Double,

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

26433°2
26438°5
26450°5
26457:2
26464°7
26467-1
264710
26483°0
26490°9
26510:0
26514°6
26516°8
26530°8
26556'6
265404
26544°5
26548:0
26560°6
26566

26573

26577 6
26583°4
26586'9
26590°9
26592°8
26595°9
26599°6
26605°2
26608°9
26615°1
26626°4
26632°6
26635

26641°0
26644

26661°7
26665°9
26670°5
26680°4
266837
26687°4
26689-7
26696°9
266976
26700°5
26705°4:

26711°0
267165
26724

26727°7
26729-2
267330
26741°9
26750:0

326 REPORT—1898.

IRoN—continued.

| | aaa
ue Reduction to
ee Intensity | y Vacuum bee
Spark and | Previous Observations |—— oe
Spectrum Character eee Hrequency
ne = in Vacuo
3725°44 3 3735" oR Teche
3735°01 10 313500 ea ee srr
3733°46 6 3733°46 $4 | Dow 193 26766°2
3732°50 4 373254 2 | ‘i | V 26777°3
3731-05 1 8731:07 4 rh ” 26791°4
3730°51 2 3730°53 p? ” ” 26794°6
3728'78 a 3728°81 id » ” 26798°5
3727-78 7 1 oe es 26810°9
3l2t'23 2 372713 4 fi ” 76 | 26818:0
3727-02 2 2 ” eee
3725°60 1 5 ” ” | “ 23°5
3724-49 3 ha » |» 26833-7
3722-73 6 3722°69 ad ” ” 26841-7
3722-06 1 3722:07 a2 ” ” 26854-4
3721-68 In 3721°69 sig ” | ” 26859°2
3721°35 1 3721°41 2 ” ” 26862-0
3720°10 8 3720-07 dd ” ” 26864°4
371853 1 3718-55 + 2 ” | 26873°4
3716754 3 8716°59 ay | ” ” | 268847
3716°01 if 3716 04 Ld 9 ” 26899°2
3711°52 1 3711°54 ” \ ” | ” 269030
3711°33 14 3711°35 a | °F ea ” 26935°5
3709°40 6 3709:37 z td } ” 26936'9
| 370806 5 3708:03— latte 26950-9
| 3708:01 | 2 ” hee Ap ae ms
3707°65 | In - | 2? | ” 61:0
| 3707-16 2 Boche ‘f nea ptt 26963'7
| 3705°73 6 3705°70 4 ” | ” 26967°2
370459 3 aig |e 2697-6
3703°95 1 3703:96 e? ” ” 26985'9
3703°81 1 3703°83 4d | ” } ” 26990°6
370367 1 3703'68 ad | ” | ” 26991°6
3702-60 1 ies: 3” ee 26992-6
370217 1 3702°16 ee tongs » 270005
3701-20 4 3701:20 Wa | ” ” 27003°6
3698-75 1 3698-73 “4 | ” | ” 27010°7
3697-58 2 369758, Lea» 270286
(369520) | 3 369518 |. 1302 | os 27037'1
3694-13 4 iat ie ane 27054°5
3693°20 1 369316 Ry | ” ” 27062°4
2 ~ ’ } on
3690 87 2 3690°86 3 ee!) ” 27069-2
3690°60 | 1 3690°60 = ” ” 270863
3689°57 | 3 3689°58 a? ” i ” 27088°3
3688°64 In 3688°65 a? | ” | ” 27095'8
3687°70 3 3687°77 sos | ” ” 27102-7
3687°55 6 3687°58 ¥? | ” ” 27109°6
3687-24 1 368721 ” ” 27110°7
3686°38 1 3686-40 a } ” ” 27113°0
365613 3 368610 ,, ee i 27119°3
3684-25 4 3684-24 » | oo» 271211
3683-19 3 3683°18 a | ” | 2? 27135:0
3682°35 4 368235 eee Na Me 271427
368088 | Ib ” an ee 27148-9
3680-90 |
3680-06 bea 3680:03 a? jn | ” 271597
4 ” ” 27165'8

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 327

Jron—continued.

ie | ; aaa to |
ave- acuum * .
I i Oscillation
fe per = Previous Observations |——7]____ Frequency |
igscbram | Character A+ x mn ua
3678:97 1 3678-99 K. & R. bROe |) FF | 27173°8
Sorvwias| - 4 3677-76 —,, rt tear 27183°1
Soig4en.'| 2 367742 —s, heme ot 27185°3
3676-42 | 2 367644 ,, Leone ol) 27192°7
B674:88 1 367489 _,, asm |) as 27204°1
36746 | In 367455, AGS hss 27206
367092 {| 1 367095 eae (ea | 272334
3670-19 2 367020 __,, eras yt 55 27238°8
3669°63 3 366965, lip pr ea 27243-0
366926 | 1 3669°29 __,, ath 5 al 27245°8
366811 | In 366811 _,, Tne eee 27254:3
366738 = 1 3667-45 —,, a | 27259°7
366638. = = _In 3666-41 re a 27267°2
3664-71 In 366474 _s, SPAN ye] 27279°6
3663°56 In 366360 __,, pet... | 272882
3662-98 ln 366304, le taereot 27292'5
365963. | 2 365965 ls tx ‘ 27317°5
365807 | in 365807 _,, Be ah 273291
3657-25 | 1 365727 —, POU) ss at 27335'3
3656°33 1 365637 __,, = c 273421
3655-70 In nf | 27346'8
3655°57 1 365560, em ont 273478
3653-71 1 365390, ass in el 273617
3651-60 4 365161 a, Le (as etal 27377°6
3650-40 2 3650°42 ” | ” ” | 27386°6
3650-13 1 3650714 _s,, 3 * 27388°6
3649-62 4 364965 so, Wats . 27392°4
3649°41 1 364944, as * 27394:0
(3648-00) 9 * 364799, re me | 27404°6
8647-56 1 3647-57, 33 Ae 27407°3
3645:93 2 3645:96 fixes ve 27420°1
3645-65 1 364563, lpastaateett? casamatt 27422:3
3645-20 ew 364522, le Os | 27425°6
3643-80 In 364380, lanes a € 27436°2
3640:53 5 364053, a‘ a 27460°8
3638-42 4 363844, Boh 78 274767
3637-98 1 363798 _,, neue x 27480:0
3637:40 1 363739 _,, ese ae Ae 274844
3637-11 1 363716, lsbas FF 27486°6
3636-77 1 3636-73 si, Pers ne 27489°1
3636-32 1 363632 —,. % a | 27492°5
36353 1n 363539 si, tpt , 27500
3634-8 1b 363480 _,, (pars - 27504
3634-45 In 363448 le bey 8 275067
3633-97 In 363398 a ae 27510°3
3633:12 1 363316 _,, a ee 27516'8
3632°65 1 363271, Wyobes 0 275203
3632715 2 363220 ,, mend i S/ 27524-0
3631-64 10 363162, eng +, >| 27528:0
* 3631-23 2 3631:23_——s, | 275311
3630°50 1 363050 __,, WERE ii 5s 27536'6
3628-0 In 3627-91 _,, A 27556
3625:27 1 3625:30 _,, vi Es 27576°4
3625:00 In 3624-95, . 2Q7578°4
3624-5 In 3624-46, 2 al} anes

—————

328

Wave-

length

Spark
Spectrum

3623-92
3623°58
3623°31
3622715
3621-7

3621°60
3620°65

3619°7

3618°92
3618-50
3617-90
3617-44
3616-68

3615-30
36148
3614-27

3613°6

3613°3

3613°1

3612°6

3612°24
3610°82
3610°30
3609°51
3609-02
3607°30
3606°S5
3605°60
3605-40
3603°96
3603°35
3602°64
3599-77
3599-30
3597-20
3596°3

3595°4

3594-78
3589°58
3589°24
3589°05
3588°75
358787
3587°56
358710
3586-25
3585°85
3585-49
358510
3584-81
3583-48
3582-35

REPORT—1898)

ITRoN—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

ella dal a ol alas

DS eB OO OUR ROT et ee

Reduction to |

Vacuum nee
Oscillation
Previous Observations ti, Frequency
AG iL in Vacuo
A
3625°94 K,& R. 101 | 7°8 27586°6
2623°58 5 a a 27589-2
3623°33 * “= “a 27591°3
3622715 = ane ae 27600°1
3621°87 aA Pn hemee 27604
3621°61 - ieutoetss 27604°3
3620°62 oe Seale 27611°6
3619°89 | =
{ 361954” | sf |
3618°92 “4 + - 27624'8
3618°54 » ” ’ 276280
3617-94 2 1:00 Po 27632°5
3617°47 "ad 5 3 2763671
3616°76 | >
hate” pe ween ee
3615°41 “dl sy Pa 4 27652°4
3614:78 ee e a 27656
3614-26, ok) = 2reeoe
{ 3613°75 | ane
| 3613-58 | ” | ” 3 | 27665
3613-26 a NO ori ; 27668
3613710 oases 3 27669 .
a - 27673
3612°25 43 ries, Fe 27675°9
3610-86 - ‘a AS 27686°7
3610-29 a = 5 27690°7
ewe seile = o55 276968
3608:99 fs heey i ee 27700°6
eee Si. G 27713°8
3606-83 __s,, rEtee wry 277172
3605:62 4, pikes te # 27726°8
‘i Be 27728'4
3603°98 ie 1 a 27739°5
3603°34 z= 277442
3602°64 se $5 ae | 27749°6
3599°77 = [Paks ace Mt 277718
3599-30 . ron ile | 277754
3597:22 B reGGhy to 27791'6
3596°35 Ae y | 27799
3595°43 > 3 sv) Al 27806
3594-71 “ ; 79 | 27810°2
3589°58 4 cae, aS 27850°5
3589°25 - hisses 27853°1
3589-05 ” | Pease be 278546
3588°75 5 es i 27857'0
3587-87 * jae of 27863'8
3587°55 » HF . 2786671
3587-10 “A ee ee 27869°8
3586°24 a oa ee: 278764
3585°84 , an 27879°5
3585°43 - Sane a oc 278823
358508, “3 ne 27885'3
3584:78 a eerie » 278876
3583°45 ie ¥ pas 27897°9
3582°32 ;. | hammers 27906°7

———

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 329

TRON—continued.

ie. Reduction to
length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and Previous Observations Frequency
Spectrum Character ee bes in Vacuo
r
3581°36 10r 8581°32 K. & R. 1:00 | 7.9 279145
3578°78 1 3578°80 “5 Se ler 279346
3578°53 1 357849 3 ee aes 27936°5
3577°8 in 0:99 | ,, 27942
3576°90 1 3576°89 i ea 27949°3
357617 in Sere il, ,; +a epee: 279550
3575°52 1 357549 + * i 27960°1
3574-04 2 357400, Te ee 279716
3573°55 1 3573°52 ae 3 es 27975'5
3572°75 In 357279 i, ef i 27981°7
357213 2 357212, ‘3 ‘ 27986'6
3571°38 1 3571°34 - 34 rf 27992°5
3570-42 8 3570°45 s VT) eta ee 28000-0
357018 8 357023, aa ae 28001°9
3569'12 1 3569-:09 34 : 28010'2
3569-00 1 3568-94, A is 28011°2
3568-55 1 356853, | ; 280147
3567-20 1 356715 mth 2 28025°3
3566'75 In 356670, . x 28028'8
3566-25 In 3566-46, : My 28032'8
3565°54 8r 356550 + aie 28038'4
3564-67 1 356461. + OP ars 28045°2
3562-0 1b ‘ i 28066
3560°83 1 356081 _,, ell ee 28075'4
3559°65 1 3559°62_—iw, - ‘ 28084'3
3558°68 6 3558°62 e - 280924
3557-02 3 355699 __,, 4 ‘ 28105'3
3555-09 5 355504, i 4 28120°8
3554-7 In 3554-62 fi A 28124
3554:32 1 355424, 2 4 28126°9
355391 2 3553'84 —_, ¢ Ps 28130'1
3553-01 si 355295, eat <., ght =) eee
3552-28 1 355224, iin, nied ms he
3549-98 1 3549°97 sp POLAR TEE 8:0 28161°2 |
3548-17 1 354813, e " 28175'5
3547-33 1 354731 4 . 281822
3545°76 2 3545°74 —_, ‘ a 281947 |
3544-75 1 3544-74, i a 28202°7
3543-82 1 3543-78, I i 2821071
3543-60 In 354353, Z Hs 28211-9
3542-21 5 354220, 2 . 28223-0
3541-23 4 3541-22, gs iliard 282303 |
3540-90 In 3548-82, vi %: 28233°4
(3540 27) 1 354024 ., -266R) ,, : 28238-4
3538-06 1 3538-01, : Pol 28856
3537-88 1 3537°84 _,, 098 |. 282575 |
3537-68 1 3537°60 45 2 oe 28259'1
3536°59 4 353665 ,, is ki 28267-8
3533'36 3 353330, 3 "| 982937
3533-12 2 3533-08, % a 28295'6
3530°55 1 3530-48, Z 3 283162
352997 2 3529°90 45 “ Ps 283209
3527-94 2 352790, si :: 28337°2
352683 | 2 3526-76, - 28346-1
352660 | 3 352651 | ae ae 28347:9

300 REPORT—1898.

TRON—continued.

|
bid inigiey | | Warten re
Spark oy | i vati : :
a ark Chavackde Previous QCbservations 1 eaaeuy
7 | | axe Bios in Vacuo
3526°31 4 .
352631 3526-25 K.& R. | 098 | 8
san co 0:98 | 8-0 28350°3
2 2 = ” ” 2 5 ar)
ahasin 1 3524°34 ” ’ | 28365 7
Seo ! 352415 fi , ” 28365'7
nt ee e 34 28367°1
sa a * » | 283781
a , 2521°93 : ” | ne 28381°5
— 2 3521°36 s ” ” 283850
a) : 3518-96 és ” ” 28389'7
3513-96 5 351650 ,, : | ad depen
3513°17 ln 351391, oa 281499
3510-65 1 351315 __,, ct sl 281563
3510-0 ih See ag ‘ $1 DSt7T5
3508-63 1 350995, i | geen
3506°64 1 350858 jogs "| ggag3
co y » | © 28498'1
3505°20 eect gee | aa
t 3505°15 } ”” 9
3504 ’ . z
BuO : ae | 01
3498-00 5 3400°64 —,, yf | apser
3497-26 349792 55 i » 285107
B 3497, 97 | ’,, 28579:
3495-44 2 Sl 7
34949 fa 3495°37 y atl 286005
3493-63 2 3494-76, i "| 38605”
3490-73 3493°78 i 5 28615
6 349065 ” ” 28615°4
3489°82 1 a
348982 3489-74. Be 986467
9 3486" | ” ” 28646:
3483°15 1 cae
3478:80 In 3483-09, af ; 8701.5
3478-00 In 347869, if ‘ 287374
3476-85 5 347793, . ; os74t-1
3475-6] 7 ie a " " ass
347459 1 3475°52 _,, it ” | 387688
3471-46 9 347451, fs . 287723
3469-97 1 3471-40, # . 28798-2
3400-97 1 3469-91 p ” 8:2 287982
315023 Sen ee ” 28810°5
345894 3468-99 4 ” ” 28817°5
3466-01 7 ie ; 25002
3460-04 1 3465°95 —s, ‘ 8843-4
3458-44 1 See = . : 28895:
3457-05 In 345839 yy o%v6 | 8906-6
: 345839 | x 28906'6
3453°13 1 a
3452-41 3 345310, ‘5 $ 8951-0
3452°16 2 345235, i i 289571
3451:80 In 34 hos 2952
3450°47 9 51:99, ‘ 28962-2
3447-43 9 3450°41 —,, i Wey 289734
3445-30 4 3447-37, badge 280989
(344403) 5 3445-22, i “ 290169
3449-89 1 3443-96, i i 29027°5
3442°51 1 3442°75 yy ‘ 4 290878
3441°16 6 3442-44 ,, Ce 2040-4
344077 | 344107, fi ; 29051°8
7 344069 |, Fs sais 290551
is As 29055'1

7:

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE

j

Iron—continucd.

ELEMENTS. 331

Wayve-

Intensity : :
Tae) and Previous Observations
ark

debs aa Character
3440°02 1 3439°93 K. & R.
3438-42 1 3438°36 ,,
3438°19 1 343802 _—s,
3436°25 In 343606 ,,
3433°72 1 3433°64
3431-98 1 343190 __,,
3428°35 2 3428:26 ,,
342729 5 3427-21 —,,
3426°81 2 342671 sy,
342653 2 342644
3425°17 1 3425:08 __,,
3424-45 3 342436 ,,
3422°82 2
3422°68 a 342269 __,,
3418°6€ 3 341858 ,,
3417:99 3 3417:92_—,
3415-70 1 341561
3413°31 5 3413:22
3411°50 1 341143 ,,
8410°30 1 3410°26_,,
340762 6 8407°55 i,
3406°96 2 3406°88 __,, :
3406°62 In 340650 ,, ‘566 KR.
3404'50 3 340441
3402-42 2 340233 __s,,
3401-68 1 340160 __,,

(8399-49) 5 3399°39 ,,
3398-45 In 3398'29 si,
3397-75 In 339768 ,,
3397-10 1 3397-05,
3396°1 1b 339613 sy,
339546 In
339472 1 339465,
3392°80 3 3392°74 i,
3392-43 2 3392°37 sé,
3392°13 1 3392712 _—,
3389°85 1 3389°83 ,,
3387°50 1 338748 _,,
3384-11 2 3384:05
338384 1 3383°80 __,,
3383-00 1
3382-52 1 338248
3381°15 In -
3380°25 3 338017 ,,
337911 2 337911,
3378°76 2 3378°77 i,
3372-90 1 3372°90
3372°18 i 337218
337092 4 3370°87 sy,
3369°69 3 3369°62
3366°92 2 336688
3361-31 1 3361°03 __,,
3360°2 1b
3358-4 1b 335841 —,,
3356°49 1 335644,

Reduction to
Vacuum
]
Pw eas
2A
0:96 | 82
” / ”
” | ”
” | ”
” ”
A $3
” ”
” ”
” ”
” } ”
” | ”
” ”
” ” |
” ” |
|
39 ’
0-95 3
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
a ” |
” ” |
” 2 |
” ” |
” 2 al
” ” |
” ”
a 8-4
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ” |
” ” |
” ” |
” ” |
” ”
” ”
0:94 7
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
a 8:5
” ”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

29061°4
29074'9
290769
29093°3
29114-7
29129°4
29160°3
29169°3
291734
291757
29187°3
29193°5
29207°4
29208°6
29242°9
29248°7
29268°3
29288°8
29304'3
29314°6
29337°7
293434
29346'3
29364'6
29382°5
29389°2
29407°9
29416°9
29422°9
29425°6
29437
29442°7
29449°1
29465°8
29469-0
29471°6
29491°4
295119
29541°5
295438
29547°6
295554
29567'3
295752
29585'2
29588°3
29639°7
29646°0
29657°1
29667'9
29692°3
29741°9
29752
29768
29784°5

32 REPORT—1898. |

IRON —continued.

Wave- Reduction to
length a hed Vacuum eesti:
Spark an Previous Observations. |~ | ou
Ch: Frequenc
Spectrum aracter eee | i 3 a eat
3355°35 7 i =
3354-14 : hes | 0-94 | 8:5 297947
3351°89 1 f a ” | ” 29805°4
3351-83 1 | 3351°85) ” } 9 29825-4
3351°63 1 3351-65 | dese ” 298260
3349-48 1 a eas | ethsee, jh 95 29827-7
3349-11 1 / ” ” eaten
(3348-01 1 - eat eee 850-2
ue 1 Soiree <i | ” | ” 298600
3342°37 1 3342-35 = | ” | ” 29869:0
3341°99 1 3349-01 ” , | ” | ” 29883°4
3340°65 1 3340-64 ag ” ” 29913°8
3339-28 7 8339-24 a2 ” j ” 29925°S
3338°65 1b 3338-76 a Hh ae 29938"1
333786 1 333773 |, O95) » 29943-7
3336°33 1 3336°30 a | ” pil ap 29950'8
3335°36 1 : ” ” ” mas
3334:32 1 : Ta 73°3
3331-70 1 ene Ptetan ae 29982'6
3328-95 2 3329-00, jo» ” 30006'2
3325°56 1 3325-56 ad ” oe) fal 30031:0
3324-65 1 3324-62 i ” ” 30061°6
3323°87 1 oe? , oo» 8-6 aoe
3323'°83 2 S ” ” 76°8
3323-21 3 3323°84 ,, pa bs 300772
3322-65 In . ” ” 082°8
3319-40 1 Poe... & ae ie 30087:9
3318-7 1b : ” ” » 301173
3316-21 1 feria | 9 ell 30124
331487 ‘| ” | ” | 30146°3
331057 : aoe on eres em
3310-48 1 is ” » all aor
3307°85 iy j be fa 1985
3306-49 6 pe : ae a 30222'5
3306-10 6 EADBD.ae ” ” 30235-0
3303°65 In 380369 {sth » | 80238-5
3303-00 In : ae | ” | ” | phir te
3302-0 1b ' eee ee | 2669
3301-3 1b ee y res | = || * ee
3298-26 1 3998-95 4 Bate} pass 30283
3298-04 1 ee hee | 092), s0n0
3297:00 if a | ” | ” 12°4
3295-95 4 oh ae luge 1 os 1, gs
3295-35 ln : a? | ” | ” 30331°7
3292-74 2 3292-70 | ” ” 30337°2
3292°16 2 3999-13 ” | oP ” | 30361-2
3291-15 1 329110 |. » 9 | 80366°6
3289-49 2 nason1 | 9» » | 30375'9
3286'30 5 3286-87 » f » | 803913
3285-65 a 328550. » | 87 | 308151
3284-72 1 3984-71 ”? j ” | ” | 30426°7
3283-02 1 3283-00 ” ”» ” 30435-3
3281-44 2 3281-40 ” ” ” | 30451°1
3280 42 2 328037. ” ” 30465°7
3279-8 1b 327987 |, ” » | 30475°2
* ” ” 30481

—

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 333

TRON—continued.

Wave-

length

Spark
Spectrum

3278°87
3277-48
3276-75
3274-11
3273-70
3271:16
3268°67
3268°34
3267-13
3267-06
3265-76
326516
3264-64
3262-45
3260-40
3260°11
8259-20
3258°90
3257-73
3256-01
(3254-50)
3253-75
3253-06
3251-40
3250°80
3249°81
324935
3248-31
3247-66
3247:32
3247-10
324660
324612
3244-31
324385
3239°55
323795
3237-53
3236-70
3236°33
323472
323411
3233°19
3232°94
3231°85
323112
3230°36
3230°14
3230°00
3229-27
3229-03
3228-36
3227-92
322590
3222°19

|

Intensity
and
Character

In
3
in
3

ew
i=]

wilelediadl <i e en

5B BOB

aa ete er ee ee NNO et 0.109 Pi

Bb

ROR eRe

Reduction to
Vacuum

Previous Observations

3277-42
3276°55
327405

3271°12
326833

3265°73
326515
3264:60
3262°40
3260°32
3260-09
3259°15

3257°69
3255°97
325447
3253-70
3253-00
3251°31
3250°75
3249-94
3249-27
3248-31
3247-70
3247:°39
3247-08
3246°55
3246°09
3244:27
3243°94
3239°63
323792
3237°43
3236°88
3236°31
323471
3234-07
3233°14

3231-72
3231:05
3230°29

3230°C1
3229°19
3228:97
3228°36
3227-88
3225°90
3222°12

A+

3278°83 K. & R. 0:92

”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

30489°6
30502°6
30509°3
305340
305378
30561°5
30584-8
30587°9
30599°2
30599°9
30612°0
30617:7
306225
30643°1
30662°4
30665°1
30673°7
30676°5
30687°5
30703°7
30718°0
30725°1
30731°6
30747°2
30752°9
307622
30766°6
30776°4
30782°6
30785°8
307879
307927
307972
30814°4
30818°8
30859°7
308749
308789
30886°9
308904
30905°8
30911°6
30920°4
30922°8
30933°2
30940°2
30947°5
30949°6
30951°0
309580
30960°3
30966'7
30970°9
30990°3
31026:0

334. REPORT—1898.
TRoN—continued.
Reduction to
ent Intensity ; ] ie be wie Oscillation
Spark ot ae Previous Observations | 7 ine os
naracter acuo
Spectrum | A+) [=
3219:93 2 3219°92 K. & R. | 0:90 | 88 31047°8
321967 | 2 3219°67 sa, a a 310503
Sci7dgo | |B 3217-49, ” ” 31071°5
3216-04 2 3216-03, :; 8-9 31085°2
321449 | 1 321448 =, ip P 311002
321413 | 8 321414, “ , 31103:7
821345 5 321343, He. 5 311103
3212-13 3 321208 __,, : - 31123°1
321182 1 OU TT. 5, y .: 31125°5
321094 1 321092 __,, ‘f 311346
3210-56 3 321035, ‘4 ; 31138°3
3210°35 1 3210°35 < 99 31140-4
3209-45 1 3209-45, abt rnsas 31149-1
3208°6 In 320860, HB | |” op 31157
3205°50 2 320545 ss, res s 31187°5
3202-75 1 320265, bOes 1» 31222°8
3200'58 2 320058 __s, nce, es 31235°4
319963 | 1 319962 __,, nae a 31244-7
319706 | 38 319704 _,, belts a 312689
319621 | 3 3196-24 - ,, Pee» » 312781
3193-95 | 3 319392 _,, bog, $s 31300°3
3193:39 2 319337 _s, lr, is 31305:7
3193-05 2 3192-93 eae. nN 31309-1
3192-15 In bites z 313179
3191-77 1 3191-77 __—s, ¥ ~ 31321°7
3190-95 In 3190:80 _,, , > 31329°7
3188-92 1 3188-96, ., - 31349°7
3188-70 In 318867 _,, ., Be 31351°8
3187-40 1 318735, 4 - 313646
3186:87 3 318683 _,, 4 Ss 313699
3185°43 In 3185°34 i, 4 a 31384-0
3184-98 1 3185-00 _,, :, $ 313885
318324 1 318311 _,, ., bs 31405°6
3181-67 1 318160 _,, 0°89) | ,, 31421:1
318085 | In 3180°85 _,, ee, 90 31429+1
318032 2 3180°30 _,, ., “3 314344
3179°61 2 317961 __s, 4 2 31441-4
3179-07 1 317906, % 5 31446:7
3178-09 1 317808 __,, leet, 6 314564
3177-64 3 317764, [rea Z 31460°9
317554 1 317553, 3 B 31481-7
3171-43 1 317144, be . 31522'5
3170-47 1 3170-43 __s,, - - 31532'1
3167-96 4 316797 — ,, a ii 31557°1
3166°52 1 316655, - 3 31571-4
3165:95 In 316597 _,, # = 31577°1
3162-90 1 :, 3 31607°6
3162-05 1 316204 __,, . Ss 31616°1
3160°74 1 3160°74 _ * 31629°2
‘| 3159-0 1b 315908 ___s, % is 31647
‘| 3157:97 1n 315799, , f 31656°9
3157-12 1 315715, :, a 31665°4
(315432) 5 315429, :. a 31693°6
|} 3153°33 In 315331 Lose ic 31703'5
‘| 3151-46 1 315142, A 31722°4

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 335

TRON—continued.

w. | Reduction to |
length Intensity } | acoum | Oscillation
Spark | and Previous Observations | (aan | Frequency
Spectrum | Character ap (ee in Vacuo
A
3144-88 1 | 3144-61 K.& R. 089 | 91 31788°6
3144-08 1 3144-06 5 ” ” 517967 |
3142°95 1 | 3142-97 Fa ” oF 31808°1 |
3142752 In 314254 _,, ” ” 31812°5 |
3140°48 In 3140°47 ie 0:88 is 31833°2
3140:00 In 3140-00 » ” ” 31838°0
3135°49 2 3135°51 ” HeMaye 95 31883°8
3134:20 1 313421 ” » | oo” 31897:°0
3133°17 ln ” | ” 31907°5 /
3126-25 In 312625 =, Leia ee 319781 |
3125°77 1 3125°77 7 HAM | ge 31983:0 |
3120-50 1 3120°54 - fst | mss _ 32037:0
3119-60 1 3119°58 + | 49 ”» 32046°3
3116°70 if 3116°73 iz . | a 32076:1
3114-40 1 Ie oerriay Mie oe 32099°7
3106°65 In 3106°59 op hed Aa 32079'8
3105°65 In 3105-69 pe Vhs snes SE een 32090:2
3105°25 ln Metso AIP -y5 321943
3100-76 2 3100°77 os Osta. 32241:0
3100-44 2 | ” ” 32244°3
3100 05 2 3100°04 8 iake, A 32248:3
3098-30 1 3098-25 Pe mt 3 32266°6
3096-45 1 psy Ae 32285'8
3091°70 2 3091°67 ap ; oo» ” 32335°5
3089°5 In 3089°64 5 ely as 32359
3083°85 2 308381 ” ” 9:3 32417°7
3078°9 1b A Fi 32470
3077°30 2 3077°32 is Bs oh 32486°7
3075°84 2 3075°80 - “4 a 32502°1
3068°27 In 3068°25 ” ” ” 32582°4
3067-35 3 3067°30 BS + + 32592°1
3065°50 in 3065-40 % 4 7 22611°8
i £ 3062°47 > :
3062-33 2 | 3062.29 \ . 086 | ,, 326456
3059-20 3 305919 * +} op 32679°0
3057°56 3 3057°55 a = -- 32696°5
3056-95 In ” ” 32703:0
3055-40 1 3055°35 3 s Pr 32719°6
3053°17 1 305315 ” » ” 327434
(8047:72) 3 3047°71 ae a 9°4 32802°0
3045-1 1b 304516, 4 ” 32830
3042°77 1 3042°75 6 fi = 32855°4
3042712 1 3042713 oe af - 32862°5
3041-88 1 3041°83 - aD 328650
3041-80 1 ” ” 32865'9
3040°55 1 3040-54 e A A 32879°4
3037-50 3 3037°54 re - no 32912°4
3081-75 1 3031°74 Pa a _ 329749
3031°34 1 3031°31 Se Rs $ _ 32979:3
3030°25 1 3030°24 re aA a 32991°2
3026-57 1 3026°57 * - = 33031°3
3025-96 2 3026-00 Fe a =n 330380
3025-75 1 3025-75 a ° ss 33040°3
3024-14 1 3024-13 Pe a 95 33057-7
3021-18 2 3021:15 pe 0°85 aa 33090:1

36 REPORT—1898.

Iron—continued.

/ Reduction to |

ns Intensit Vacuu |
ength by T= if mit ge
Spark an Previous Observations 7 eg a oT Ska
Spectrum Character 1 : $ y
A+ LN in Vacuo
| A
3020°79 2 | 90990: - ep =e
3020-60 2 i ia 0°85 | 95 33094-4
3019'11 . i} 83019: ” ” } 330965
3017-73 1 Ree fai 1 Ps 33112°8
3016°30 uf 3016-29 au ” | ” 33128°0
3016-05 ln 3016-04 ij i hl ees 33143°7
3011°60 1 3011-57 an ” 7 33146°4
3009-70 2 3009-66, et), Yas 331954
3008°26 2 | 3008-23 a } ” | ” | 33216°4
3007-42 | 1 | 300730 .. ° 2 » | 832823
3003°19 | 1 | 3003-14 ” ” | ” | 332416
300280 | 3 | 3002-74 x eA tS) 332884
3001:08 | 2 | 3001-05 a in? ” 33292°8
3000°57 | 1 3000°56 am H tid ” | 33311°8
3000:20 In i af | ” ” | ne
2999-65 2 | 9999- (aie noe 21°6
2997-45 1 25 ae Hes tT 33327-7
2994'56 3 | 9994-54 | OE S| OR 33352°1
2990°51 1 2990-48 a ” | ” 33384°3
2987-41 i. 2987-40 3 Mister 2 ” 33429°5
2985°70 4 2985-65 23 } age ” 33464°2
2984/97 6 2984-92 2 | ” ” 33483°4
2983°71 2 2983-68 a2 } 99 ” 33491°6
2982-20 1 2982-31 y | 0-84 ” 335047
2981°59 1 2981-54 us | 8 ” 33522°7
2981°12 In ” fruits ” Br teen
2980°70 In 2 “62 | ” ” 335348
2979°48 1 Aad my, fe ge ” 33539°6
2976°70 1 2976-66 a ” ” 33553°3
2976°05 1 os ” ” eked
2973°39 A 5 fle) ” 35920
2973°28 2 hie 3 ” ” |33622 0
2970°64 2 2970°60 2 ” ” 336233
2970°25 2 297020 ee. a4 33653°1
2970°05 1 Be ” ” 336575
2969°63 1 ” ” | sate
2969°53 1 ‘ ” rm 336645
2967°03 2 ae * ” ” 33665°7
2965°39 | 2965°35 a, ” ” | 336940
2965:17 2 2965'12 sf ” ” 33712°7
9964°76 if 2964-72 ay, ” ” 33715°2
2964:25 1 2964-30 # ” a8 33719°8
2961°40 1 2961-30 ¥ ” ” / 33725°6
2960711 1 2960-07 3 ” re | 33758°1
2959°70 1 2959-76 ie ” ” 33772'8
(2957°49) 1 2957-48 2 Poy » | 337775
2954-06 2 2953-99 oy eae? » | 33802°8
2953°88 3 2953-86 33 ” ” 338420
2950°35 In 2950°34 ag ” ” 338441
2948°52 1 2948-52 p? ” ” 33896°7
2948-00 2 2948-00 |, ” ” 33905-6
2947-78 3 2947-77. ” ” 33911°6
2944-55 4 2944.49 » ” 239141
2941°46 1 294142 ” 98 339512
— ” 0°83 ap | 33986°9

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 337

IRoN—continued.
Reduction to
Wave- é
length Reo CPT ad pe Oscillation
par. revious Observations | |, requenc
@peetram Character ie. _ in vacko.
A
2939-62 1
0:83. | 9:8 ;
2937-02 2 ' 34008:2
ey a 2936-99 K. & R. ¥ ve 34038'3
2929-13 2 2929-20 ” ” 34099°5
2926-71 3 292665 Rah ak tne
2925°52 1 292543, x ds be ee
2923-99 1 2993-94, “ - peel 2
gsi | | eesso | |) ataee
2920-82 1 2920-76 ” ” 342115
291814 1 291811 C = oe
291 7°65 In 2917-58, 4 58°6
2917-20 In ; ” ? ae
2912-27 1 2912: t ” :
2910:9 1b oT * a ” ae
2907°98 1 2907-94 ” ”
2907-60 1 2907°59 2 % ” pone
2906°25 1 2906:23 ”? ” nd 3 pig
2902-57 In 290255, os2 | 7 4398°7
2902:03 In 290202, ” 34442°3
2901-52 1 2901-46, 2 ” 34448°7
2899-50 1 2899-49 ; ” 344548
2897-37 2 2897: 3 ” ” 34478'8
289769,
2895'35 2 2 gee pes 34504°2
2895:17 1 289511, mig) 180 34528-1
2894-90 2 : ” ” 34530°3
2894-65 1 9894-59 ” » 34533°5
ges | i jae Ctr) ees
2887-95 1 2887°88 era ae 346136
#2887°4 In 2887-43 |. ” 34616°6
a en
2884-9 1b ai ln 34639'8
2883-80 3 2883:80 . & 653
2880'89 3 288084 ¢ ” 34666°5
2879-35 1 r » 34701°5
2877°38 1 2877°37 ” ” 347201
287686 2 287680, _ ” 34743:8
2875-44 2 287535, eS ” 34750'1
2874:27 1 2874-24 * : ”» » 9 34767°3
2873-49 4 287348, Pen gt 34781-4
2872-47 3 987238 Re 34790°9
2871°19 2 287116, ” 34803-1
2640 | 1 7 | 2 | Basae8
‘ 1 2869: % ig ‘6
2869:28 1 Sg a ie tee? 248404
96 7 2868-94 a sd pees
236632 |, 1 286668 ” ‘ 34851-1
ose | | ok | BeBe
: 1b 3 ” 33
2863-95 1 2863-92, O81 | 34901
2863 53 1 2863°46 ”» ” 34906°7
2861-26 1 2861:29 ” ” 34911°8
27 | 349395

1898. > »
, Zz

338 REPORT—1898.

TRON —continued.

Reduction to
icy Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
aie and Previous Observations | ———__~__ Frequency
Spar Character | 1 in Vacuo
Spectrum Nu: prea
A
2858°95 In 285896 K.& R. 081 | 10:1 34967°8
285840 5 2858'41 55 Fi 25 349745
2857°53 1 ” ” 349852
2857°28 2 2857°29 s 6 “c 34988°2
2857:07 In 2857:09 - a = 34990°8
2856°52 ln as - 34997'5
2856°25 1 2856719 + a Fr 35000°8
2855°77 3 2855°75 * > 8 35006°7
2853°85 In 2853°81 es “r % 35030°3
2853°33 In ; + as 35036°7
2853°02 In 2853°02 i as Fe 35040°5
2852°24 1 Mg 2852°19 A Sy " 350501
(2851°90) 2 2851-85 4 a Pr 350542
2849°70 2 2849-67 Ss ” rh 35081°3
2849:02 1 ” ” 35089°7
2848-52 2b 2848°77 . = a 35095'9
2848°15 2 284813 or as 10:2 35100°3
2847-34 i ” ” 35110°3
2845'8 2b 2845°75 A * - 35129
2845°72 1 ” ” 35130°3
2845°51 In ” ” 351329
2844:08 2 2844-04 By his 3 351506
2843°75 1 - aS 35154-7°
2843°58 1 2843°69 “6 * 3 351567
284343 in 2843°30 “5 33 3 35158°6
2842°85 In 2842-96 = hy 3 35165°8
2842°20 Ll 2842-46 * 5 i 35173°8
2841-47 iL 2841°32 a i 3 35182°9
2840°82 3 2840°73 a + 4 35190°9
2840°46 2 2840-50 Ay 55 * 35195-4
2839°85 2b 2839°66 a 5 i 35202°9
(2838°23) 1 283819 ry ‘ a 35223°0
2837°43 1 ” ” 352330
2836°63 1 ” ” 35242°9
2836°31 1 2836°45 Pa Sy 45 35246-9
2835°82 4 2835-76 4 7 FA 352530
2835°58 1 2835°51 ay a rn 35256-0
2833°3 1b 5 is 35284
2832°57 2 2832°47 “6 :, s 35293°4
2831°67 5 4) oy 353046
2831°15 1 2831:04 °°, “5 = 3531 1-1
2828-75 3 282887 4%, sy rn 35341°1
2828-02 1 2827°98 + 5 = 35350°2
2827-55 2 2827-68 * ; “5 353561
2826°16 1 2826:07 ; ‘f 35373°5
2825°85 1 282575 E , F 35377 +
2825°66 2 2825°60 080 5 35379°8
2823-41 3 2823°32 * -. 10:3 35407°9
2819°45 1 2819°35 i >) “A 35457°6
2817-60 In 2817°55 .; f A 35480°9
2817°25 In ” ” 35485°3
2813-74 1 2813°67 tes Es - 35529°6
281340 2 2813°36 “a 35533°9
2812°2 In 2812°36 Ps f r 35549
2811°36 1 2811:23 zn > . 35559°7

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 339

TRon—continued.

Wave- Intensity

length and Previous Observations

Spark Character

Spectrum

2810°0 1b

2807:10 2 2807:038 K. & R.

2805°91 1 2805°87 uA

2805744 In

2805°02 1

2804°64 2 2804°56 Fe

280413 In 280413 on

2803°72 In 2803°68 >

2802°82 2 Mg?) 2802-76 i

280118 In Mn) 2801:15 +

2800°9 In 2800°73 By

2799°83 1 2799°87 93

2799°42 2 2799°34 Pei

279840 1 Mn| 2798:31 A

2798-06 1

2797-92 ] 2797°82 6

27975 1b

2796°9 1b 2796°91 is

2795°65 3 Mg; 279558 os

2794:9 In 2795:00 a
| 2794-02 3 279397 of
| 2793:40 1
| 2792-55 ] 2792°44 fs
| 2791-94 1 2791:84
| 2791:65 1 279151 7
1 2791-20 1

2790°70 1

2789°87 1 2789°87 A)

2788:23 3n 2788°19 Be

27875 1b

278546 3n 2785°25 ss
| 2784:43 1 2784-40 Er

2783'81 a 2783°75 FS
| 2781:96 1 2781:89 $3
| 2780°9 1b 278093 fe
| 2780-19 1 2780°28 =:

2780:07 1

2779-40 5 2779°34 “A
| 2778-96 1 2778°89 Be

2778°34 2 2778'29 FP

2778-01 2 277815 3

2777-15 1b

2776:31 1 2776°47 oF

2775°5 In

2774°82 3 2774°76 rf

2773°38 1 2773°28 aH

27726 In 2772'56 Ay

2772°23 2 277215 as

2771°70 ul

2771-34 1 2771°30 ”

2770°64 2 2770°75 <r

2769°49 4 2769°37 7

2769:°03 o 2768°98 <5

2768°50 1 2768°52 a

2767°62 Tr 2767°56

| Reduction to
Vacuum

| A+

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

35710°9
357243
35728°6
35730°4
35736

35744

35759 5
35769

35780°3
35788°3
35799'2
35807:0
35810°7
3581675
3581279
358336
35854°6
35864-0
35890°3
359030
35911°5
35935°5
35949°2
35958°5
35959-9
35968°6
35974:3
35982°3
35986-6
35997°7
36008°6
36019-0
360279
36043°6
360567
36061°5
36068'4
36073°1
36081-2
36097°2
36103°2
3611071
36121°6

Ze

340 REPORT—1898,

Tron—continued.

Wave- Tateant Reduction to
leet sedee | iipeta ee isin Oscillation é
Dar Character revious Observations | | | Frequence
Spectrum ae ay on Vane,
A
2767:06 766: :
27663 ii = 080 | 105 |36128-9
2765°6 1b 2765-73 29 a 136138'9
2764°93 1 2764-80 ” ” ” /36148-0
2764-50 1 2764-41 a2 ” ” } 36156°8
2764-05 1 ? ” ” S663 3
2763°25 9 = ” ” 168°3
2762-60 i ee” Sr alee 36178°7
2762-19 2 2762-12 4 P ” ” 36187:3
2761°88 3 2761°83 24 ” ” 36192-7
2761:00 1 2760-96 2, ” ” 36196°7
2759°95 1 | 2759-86 ea ” ” 36221°4
2759-45 In | 2759-42 22 ” ” 36222°0
2758°60 in = ay ” 2 peed
2758-02 BT: » 99 36239°8
2757-45 - et» rah Ee 36247-4
2757:16 os ” ” 362549
2756:65 1 215685 cs o |» 36258-7
2756-45 2 ” » : 36265°4
2755°82 10 2755-77 ” ” 36268:0
2754-55 1 2754-48 | ” » 36276°5
275419 1 2754-09 4d ” » 362941
2753°83 if 2753-74 @ Ry ” 36298:0"
2753'32 if 2753°37 - ” ” 36302°6
2752°3 1b 275220 |, » |» 36309°3
2751-26 2 2751-20 a ” ” 36322°8
(2750-24) 1 275021 » | 106 36336-4
2749-40 10 2749-42. » » 36349 9
2747-08 7 2747-03 ” » 36361°0
2746°58 q 2746-54 ” ” 36391-4
2744-98 1 274513. ” » 363983
2744-60 1 2744-60 ta ” ” 36419°5
2744-15 it 2744-12 ar ” ” 36424°6
2743-34 8 2743-23 ” S 36430°6
2742°51 2 719-45 ” ” 36441-4
2742-36 1 mie » : 364524
2741-46 2 : ” 50 0 364544
2739-67 10 pags? Ae 36466°3
737-74 1 2737-72 a2 »” ” 36490°1
2737-43 2) 2737-37 mf ” 9 36515°9
2737-05 5 273702 ” ” 36520:0
2734-92 1 2734-98 - ” ” 365449
2734°38 1 2734-39 a7 ” ” 36553°5
2734-12 1 2734-07 ai) vas 36560°7
2733-69 2 2733-65 uF ” ” 365642
2733-06 1 ” » < 36570°0
2732-59 1 9. »» S 365784
2732-15 1 ee 5 lee 365847
2730°85 4 2730°79 2 ” ” 36590°6
Panes : cae ah 36623
| 272899 | 2 » 4 6623°5
' 979810 | 4 Brean cP ol 36633°0
anos oi} 8 2761 ” »? 36€44-9
\ Byeeme | oa cs » n || 107 36651:7
» » 366647

QN WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE

Wave-

length

Spark
Spectrum

2726-34
2726-15
2724-99
2723-69
2722'86
2722:18
2721-94
2721-00
2720:30
2719°40
2719-13
2718°73
2718°54
2718-2
2716-77
2716:30
271451
2712-48
2711-94
2710-66
2710:0
2709°51
2709'14
2708-69
2707-23
(2706°68)
2706'14
2704-66
2704-10
2701'8
2701-4
*2699-22
*2697-52
2696'35
2696-1
2695-4
2694:5
2693-96
2692-92
2692'68
2691:83
2690'17
2689:93
2689-26
2686'5
2686-2
2684-84
2683'10
2682'63
268116
2680:98
2680°77
2680°55
(2679°15)
2677-00

Intensity
and
Character

ha algal a ae a ie EB De a a

os

PS ee ee Ott re os
mon

_ es Sr Co oll ell cell aol
SOD Sp Speen eis

Inon— continued.

Previous Observations

ELEMENTS. 341

272620 K. & R.

2724:97
2723-66

2722710

272099
272028
2719-51
2719711

2718-51

2716°31
271448
2712-42
2711:92
2710°61
2710-08
2709°47
270913
2708 64
2707-13
270663
270607
2704-80
2704-06
2701-99

2699-18
2697-58
2696-41
2696712
2695°64
2694-63

2692-91
2692-71
2691-80
2690°17
2689-92
2689-28

2684°86

268099

2680°53
2679-14
267697

Reduction to

Vacuum
1
At | —-
A
0:80 | 10:7
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 7
” ”
” ”
” ”
% ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ’
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ’
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” | ”
|
” ’
” ”
” ”
” ”
’ 9
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
’ ”
” ”
in|, LORS
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ’
’ ”
” ”
” ”?
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
9 ”
” ”
ys 10:9

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

36668°5
36672'3
36686°7
367042
367154
367145
367278
36740°5
36749°9
36762°1
36765°7
367712
36773°6
367783
36897°7
36804°1
368283
36855'9
36863°3
36880°7
36989°7
36996'3
36901°4
36907°5
36926°8
369349
36942°3
36962°5
3697071
37001°7
37007°1
37037°0
37060°4
370765
37079°9
37089°4
37101'8
37109°3
37123°6
37126°9
37138°6
37161°6
37165°2
ST174-1
37212°4
372165
37235°3

37259°5

372661

37286°5

37289°0

37292°0
37295°0
373140
374443

$42 REPORT—1898,

TRoN—continued.

Wave- Reduction to
oneth Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark Cl and Previous Observations |— |. iby ea
Spectrum naracter A+ ides in Vacuo
Aa
2672°7 In 0:80 | 109 374045
2672'3 In 2672°30 K. & R. £ Ps 374100
2671°6 In 2671-49 PS 4 5 37419°9
267062 1 ZeT0i59 =, ak] SSSR 374348
267005 1 2670-00 ss or kel Dees 37441°6
2669°60 1 2669°55 35 se ar eae 374479
2669°3 1b BAS 37452°1
2667'45 In 2667°36 _,, 2) SS 374781
2666°75 if 2666°72 95 * 5 37487'9
2665 77 In 2665°87 + Pn Ad ler, ~ 8750L-7
266478 7 2664:74 2 i - 37515°6
2664°34 2 ssnell Sones 37521°8
2662°8 In ai ee 37543°6
2662713 In 2662:13 5 Fe Mf 375570
2660°50 1b 266048 - ,, ” , 375760
265838 3 2658-48 ss ns + 37606-0
2658-05 1 55 a 37610°6
26506°26 In 2656:22 ss a 27636°0
2654°8 1b a 11-0 37656°6
2653°8 lb 2653-87 Ks 5 Ul Re 37670°8
265268 | 1 2652-53 cs Bae pal ed ak 37686:7
2651°82 il 2651:78 5 ee cal ie 377989
2650°70 2b i bs 377149
2649°59 3 eh || ae 377380°7
2647-70 In 2647-64 pt ed 37757°6
2646°36 ik 264640 si, ay ce 377725
2645 49 2 2645°52 - Pe ee 37889°2
2645°26 2 - oe 37892°4
2644-12 2 2644-07 a - ie 378088
2642°13 3 Solas | 37837-2
2641°77 In 2641:74_~—C,, eh ee 378424
2641:23 In 2641:13 __,, bet) (med 37850°1
2639°66 3 2639-60 si, sy Pel at 37872°7
2637-72 4 2637769) |, Saal eke 37800°5
2636°82 In el ee att 37813°5
2636°68 In 263654 —,,, eee 37815°5
263591 2 2635°87 ' ., =: Be, 378266
2635°50 2 = ies 37932°4
263507 In 2635:00 “3 ee A 37938°6
2634-00 1 ” ” | 379540
2633°75 1 263368 —,, ” ” 37957°8
2633°31 2 ms A 379640
2632-70 1 2632-66 ae * ee 27972'8
2632°35 1 263230 sé, re, iS 379778
2631°79 3 2631°72 4, at al wae 37985:0
2631°46 4 2631°37 3 (a 38090°6
2631:14 4 Zip uOT ” ;, ime, opel 38095:2
268016 “| 38 263013, Al 38009°4
2629°67 1) 262966 __,, i a at 38016-°5
2628-40 | 8 2628°35 3 :. Et 38034-9
262660 | 3 2626-52 os 34 Y 38060°9
2625°80 7 eee { . af 38072°5
2625-67 5 Ao Aa Re IGE em ee
2624:35 1 262421 =, he en 38093°6

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-

length

Spark
Spectrum

2623°88
2623°65
2623°26
2621°78
2620°81
2620°54
2620°27
2619-16
2618°16
2617:70
2616°49
2615'50
2615-00
2614°60
2613:91
2611-95
2611°16
2609°96
2609°57
2609-20
2608-92
2607°17
2606°60
2606-03
2605°44
2605°10
2604°80
2604:52
2604-13
2602-08
2601-25
2600°55
2599-50
2598-43
2596-87
2595-75
2595-37
2595-06
2594-17
2593'80
2592-87
2591-65
2590°65
2588'87
2588-05
2585-96
(2584-63)

2583°43
2583-15
2582-62
2581°22
2580°82
2580°6
2579-48
2579°22

Iron—continued.

Intensity |
and Previous Observations
Character

2

2 262358 K. & R.

2

6 2621-72 ~=C

3 2620°'73 sy,

3 262047 ~=s,

2n

4 2619:06_,,

1 261810 ,,

7 2617-70 ss,

1 261650 __s,,

1 2615°50

1

In 261462 =,

9 2613°91

9 2611:94 =,

3 261116

2 2609'79 ,,

1

2 2609°30 i,

1 260865 =,

bY 260716 ,,

4 2606'92_,,

1

5 2605°77 -,,

4

In 260490 ,,

1

1

In

1

1 2600'25 ss,

10r 2599°53 iy,

9 259844 ,,

In 259660 ,,

In

1 2595°41 so,

iL

In 259420,

4 2593°75 sy,

6 259290 ,,

6 2591°65 =,

3 2590°65 ss,

2 258896 ,,

5bY 258811 ,,

8by 2585:93 ss,
2584:59

i

i!

7 2582°50__—sé4y«,

2

1

1 2580°52 =,

2n

2n ZT OO 55

Reduction to
Vacuum

At

0:80 |

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

343

a
Lm
bo

38100°4
38103°3
38110°4
38130°9
38145:0
38148°2
38152:9
381691
38183°7
38190'4
38208-0
38222'5
38229°8
38235°7
38245°8
382745
38286 0
38303°7
38309°4
383147
38318°8
38344°6
38357°0
38361°5
38370:0
38375:2
38379°5
38383°5
38393°9
38419°7
38421°8
38449°2
38457°7
38473°5
38496°7
38413°6
38419°6
38425°4
38437°4
38449°5
38456°2
384746
38489°5 *
38415°8
38627:9
38659°1
38678-9
38796-9
387011
38705-6
38730°1
387361
38739-4
387562
38760-1

344. REPORT—1898,

IRON—continued.
Se ee

pein to
Wave- i pone Oscillation
length rete Previous Observations Pe se: Frequency
Spark Charact 1 in Vacuo
Spectrum eet (Neos ae
2577-98 5 Q80 | 11:3 38778°8
2577°50 1 2577-41 K. & R. rs of 38786:0
257689 5 2576°76 5 - 38895°2
2576:18 1 Mn 257620 =, . » 38805°9
2575°83 1 257583, $ -) 38811°1
2574:46 5 257443, i of 38831°8
2573°85 1 2573°84 ” ” ” 38841:0
2573°32 2 2573'23 si, 5 op 38849:0
2573:06 2 i ” ” 38852°9
2572°3 1b | 9 “ 38864°4
2571°65 tI .2571°67 Paes x 38874:2
2570°94 4 257092 __,, ” + 38885°0
2570714 2 Sy ” 389971
2569°86 3 2569°73 ” ” 38901°3
2568°96 2 2568°97 _s,, ss % 38915-0
256848 4 256849 es 11-4 38922°2
2567-01 4 256699 ,, [teehee ” 38944-4
256671 2 moll: Ske 38949:0
2566°49 2 eee i 38952°3
256631 3 hola eae | Wie 38955°0
2565'1 In ea: Sem | aa 38973°4
2563:95 2 2563'99_ _,, [US (alice 38 38990;9
2563'54 5 2563°53 i, (WEES. 5 38997:2
2562°59 6 2562°63_—si,, t's Se - 39011°6
2562°16 3 2562°35 i, laters i 3901571
2561:70 In 2561°87 fe 39025°2
2561°02 1 | 4 1 39035°5
2560°39 4 2560°43 __s,, ores es 39045°2
2560-01 3 | ” ” 39051:0
2559°84 3 2559°91_—,, Pree 5 39053°5
2559°35 2 2559°25 i, eee 3 39061-0
2558-70 1 255860, Whee . 39070-9
2557°60 3 2557:42 i, I (ree Fs 39087°8
2557°18 1 255692 ,, a 3 390941
2556-40 1 255638, iene t 3910671
2555-54 3 2555:59 (homes $d 39119°3
2555°12 3 2555°37 i, (iret . 39125°7
2554:52 1 2555:04_ ae a 391349
2553°85 2 ie i 39145°2
2553°30 2 255332 _ ,, a + 39153°6
2552:93 1 ss _ 391593
2552°68 1 2552°74 SC, s ss 39163°1
2552-06 In ia fe 6 39171°6
2551-32 a 255119 ,, cm el. mes 39184:0
2550:°87 5 2550°75 om Fes 39190°9
2550-20 5 255007 __—s«s, = a 39201:2
2549-60 4 2549°63 Ci, * a 39210-4
2549-20 3 ss 115 392166
2548:89 3 = 3 39221°3
2548-73 3 2548-76, ee) oo 39223-7
2548-42 3 254817 __s,, ” ” 39228°5
2547-43 4 2547:06 i, ns = 39243°7
2546-80 5 2546°26 __s,, - * 39253°5
2546-06 2 2545°95 5 r 39263-9
254560 | 2n e E 392704

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 345

TRon—continued.

Reduction to

ae Intensity Vacuum Oscillation

Spa k and Previous Observations —|——————— Frequency
Biveutruin Character | _ qt ; bd in Vacuo
254532 3 0:80 | 115 peta
2545:05 3 Cu ie pei:
2544-82 1 2544-83 K. & R. A 2» 392840
2544-02 3 264402, aa ieee S0296°3
2543-49 5 2543-47, ” ” 39304°6
2542-24 3 264220, is ” 39323°9
2541-91 5 4 » | 393290
2541-20 5 24118 ib od rescue
2540-72 5 254090, $ 39347-4
2539°91 1 254000 __,, ” » | 393600
2539-10 4 ee re i ea
2538-95 5 2538-98, . ee ea
2538-65 2 6 | all) sae
2538-25 4 és wh) — aeeRand
2537°3 3b 263721 4, 4 wi | —- 394005
2536-95 5 253690, po | Tael | = gaeae
2536-84 3 ” ” 3894075
2535°59 5 2535°67 | eee en
2534-50 6 263452, a » | 394440
2533-71 7 253386, ” » | 394663
2532-2 Ib 253237 By al. aul fe, eee
2531-16 1 :, » | 396016
2530°77 2 258079 - » ok ee) -( Seaoem
2530-18 4 253003 - 11-6 | 39511°2
2529:59 6 252965, » | » | 388206
2529-36 2n 252940, mi Nb oe). “eee
2529-24 2n 252903, Bs | | SBeRRee
2528-58 1 2528°37 —,, : 39536'3
2527-80 3 2527-67 4, dle eae en
2627-51 3 252730, s » | 396530
2527-16 3 » | on | 395585
2526-40 6 252630, ” 3 SO570i4
2526-16 2 a F 395742
2525-95 1 ig eet 395775
2525-50 7 252548 % 7 395845
2525-22 3n 22511, " " Beeelad.
2524-41 3 252452 _,, » [om Sasol
2523-76 3 2523-76, bee [tis pearl
2522-96 6 252293, al Seo 39624-4
2522-31 2 252267 _,, Bot (bags ap ea
2521-93 4 252197, bit | aes aes
2521-60 2 ” 39644°2
2521-22 5 252109, Taha Su65h8
2520-76 2 td oe 39659°0
2520-45 In if i 396639
2519-70 2 2Ie7L «5, ” ” 39675°7
2519-49 1 251930, » ” 39679°0
2519-14 5 2518-93, : Y Sy dies
2518-19 4 2518-25 . - 39699°4
2517-75 1 2517-76, ., 397065
2517-21 5 2517-21 =, rs 397149
2516-68 1 2516-65 __,, . ” 9723-4
2516-19 2 2516-19 _,, ” ” 39731°0
2515-21 2 e ‘ 39746'5
2514-95 2 251484, Be dee 39750°6

346

REPORT—1898.

TRON—continued.

| Reduction to
Wave- Intensity Vacuum Oscillati
length and Previous Observations BeLpeuon
Spark Character 1 Frequency
Spectrum ee ar in Vacno
2514-49 6 251438 K. & R. 0°80 | 11°6 39757°9
2513-40 2n 261333, %: 4 397751
2512-60 3 251238 —,, OR | BP 397878
2511-85 7 251184, 5 || 117 39799°6
2511-46 1 2511-41, e ds 39805°8
(2510-93) 3 { 2511-05 39814-2
; 2510°87f ” ” "
2510-00 In “ 2 39828-9
2509°18 3 250943, s if 398119
2508'82 1 250878 4 ‘ 39847°7
2508-40 2 st if 398543
2507°98 2 250799, . * 398610
2507-73 In is 39863-9
2507-11 1 a ee 39874'8
2506°95 In 250698 __,, ‘3 4 39877°4
250653 1Cu 4 i 39883-9
2506715 4 250625 ~=s«y a Be 3989071
2505-30 2 4 i 39903°7
2505 05 In 250509, 3 A 39907°6
2503°97 5 2503'89 si, : i 39924°9
2503-67 3 2503'89 ss, e 4! 39929°7
2503'39 4 250350 sy, ie 8 39934-1
250249 4 250253, Me ieee 39948°5
2501-79 1 2501:87 si, aR re 39979-°7
2501-55 1 ihe 39963°5
2501-25 2 es 399683
2501-00 3 2501:00 sy, :. if 39972°3
2500°47 In 4 2 39979°8
2499-98 1 y ri 400886
2498-95 7b” 2498-96, a ae 40005:1
249846 il 2498:37 <3 ores ‘i ant 40013:0
2497-88 5 2497°88 ss, A ae: 40022°3
2497-36 1 a | ieee’ 40030°6
2497-07 1 249715, ay th ae 40035°3
2496'61 2 2496-60 _,, babe: 40042°6
249591 3 2496-01 Rr Bi ag 40053'8 *
249412 2n 249410, Pa oS: 40082°5
2493-31 8 2493-34, q . 40095°5
2492°41 3 2492-72 is - 40110-0
2492-05 1 249212 :; iS 40115°8
249147 4 249150, 4 3 40125°1
2491-22 2 # ss 40129-2
2490°91 3 2490'98 ¥ a 401342
2490-75 3 249050, # is 40136:7
248992 5 249001 —s,, Co ee 40150:1
2489°52 3 248963, Bigs 401565
2489-00 A 2489:04 Aleta 40164-9
2488°40 In Pe dati 40174-6
2488-23 2n 2488-23 “8 hee 40177°3
2487-43 1 2487-44 =, atk a 40190°3
248712 1 248718 ,, Wek te 40195°3
248676 1 2486-77, Bebe) ,: 402012
2486°39 5 2486-42 —s, i ot Pa ee 40207°1
2485°15 1 2485-21, M4 . 402272
248463 2 40235°6

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 347

TRoN— continued.

g Reduction to
‘hn Intensity , Vacuum Oscillati
Spark and Previous Observations ea tance
Spectrum Character ne 4. in Taone.

2484:30 3 ; c |
2483-33 4n 2483: Deh ee 40248°6
2482-78 4 ke i 2 ” 40256:7
2482-38 2 Le oh pecs
2482718 4 2482- ae ” 272-1
2481-66 9 #83 ue 2 ” ” 40265°4
2481-11 3 2481-11 eon ” 40283°8
2480-22 5 2480-25 |, fee Ale 40292°7
2479-83 3 2479°64 ” ” 40307:2
2479°53 1 ” 29° 40313°6
2479-29 1 By |) as 403184
2477-40 3 2477-41 » ” ” 40340°1
2476'74 2 247677 uw) ”» ” 40353°1
2476°31 2 247640 |. » | | 119 40363°8
2475-70 on ; ee ph) a5 40370°8
2475°25 ln ” | ” 40380°7
2474-82 3 QAT4A88 ” ” 40388:0
2473°41 3 2473°30 y ” ” 40395°1
2473-00 2n 2473-15 2 ” ” 404181
2472°65 In ss ” ” 40424:°8
2472-45 3 79.4 downs ” 40430-0
2472°14 2 aoe sh ” ” ” 40433°8
2471°72 1 Gag} 9s 40437°7
2471°40 1 CEO cE seta
2470°73 4 2470: ee 51:0
2470-44 3 ayes 2 2) ” pee
2469°92 i 9470: ” ” 466°7
2469°53 4 epee 2 »” ” 40475°2
2468-95 2 2468:97 a ” ” 40481°6
2468°67 il 22 ” ” 404912
2468°34 3 2468- ” ” 40495°7
2467°80 1 2467 80 ‘ ea 40501-2
2466°87 4 2466°81 He ” ” 40510:0
2466°73 4 2 rE % 405253
2466-00 4 ? ” ” 40528°6
2465°28 4 Peas ” ” 40539°6
2464:95 4 | 2465-05 xv | ” ” 40551°4
2464-10 4 } 2464:09 Az 2 ” 40556°9
2463:79 D) 2463°86 2 ” ” 40570°9
2463-36 4 2463°39 % ” ” 40576:0
2462-73 2. 2462°81 7 } ” ”? 40583'1
2462°24 1! 2462-30 eY ” fea 40593°4
*2461:90 5 2461-89 Ba ” ” 40601°5
2461°36 5 2461-28 9 ” | ” 406071
2460:60 5n 246037 ,, mi) oo 40616:0
2459-50 1 2459-53 a ” ” 40628°6
2458-98 3 Se ¢2 » | 120 40646°7
2458°80 6 ‘ ” ea 406553
2457-64 2b’ sae fs % ” 40€58-2
2456-40 2 245667, ” » 40677°4
2456-18 2 245614 » ” » 40681-4
245698 2b 2455'66 2 ” ” 40685°1
99 * ” 407049

348

Wave-

length

Spark
Spectrum

2454-63
2454-2
2453°85
2453°56
2452:98
2451-40
2451-29
2451-20
2450°28
2450-00
2449-87
2449-37
2449-28
2448'80
(2447-79)
#944731
2446°50
2446-15
244588
2445°67
2445-21
2444-57
2443-90
2442-62
2449-18
2441-62
2441-23
2440-48
2440°16
2439-79
2439.35
2438-29
2437-75
2437-22
2436°70
2436-24
2435°84
2434-98
2434-70
2434-3
2433-55
2432-92
2432-30
2431°35
2431-02
2430°90
243018
2429°95
242945
2429:08
2428:80
2428:41
2427°32
2426'67
2495-97

REPORT—1898,

TRoN—continued.

Intensity
and

Character

hm i DO bo He
o>

i=]

EA Go Oy SU C3 SUR IRS C800 He re ea Bae be teal gies aera ee cas a

low

WAndwnwrne-E

Previous Observations

245267, |
245155,
245128 ,

244993 i,

}
2448°88 i,
2447°81 3
2447-25,
244653,
2446°30 i,

2445°68 ,,
244523,
2444-58,
244394,
244268 ss,

2441-73,

244025,

2439-82,
2439°36 i,
2438:27

243733,

2436-45
2435-93, |
2435-04
243354,

2432-97

2432-34,
243138 | :
2431-08 | |

2430°16 +

2429:53

2429-00, |
2428-41,
2427-11, :
2426-46, |

* Double.

Reduction to |

Vacuum
1
a+ | =-
A
0°80 | 12:0
” ”
” | ”
” ”
” ”~
” | ”
” | ”
” | ”
” ”
” ”
” | ”
” | ”
” } 7
” ”
” ”
” | ”
|
” ”
” ”
” | ”
” | 7
” 0
” } ”
” | 12-1
” ”
bid 0
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
7? bh)
” ”
” ”
” ”
3? 9
” ”
” ”
3) : bb
|
” | ea
” ”
” | 1
” ”
” th)
” ”
3° ”
2 |)
” ”
” 7
” | ”
9 | ”
” ”
a
ie

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

407273
407345
40740'3
40745°1
40754'7
407810
40782°8
40784:3
40799°6
40804:3
408065
408148
40816°3
40824°3
40841°2
40849°2
40862°7
40868°6
4087371
40876°6
408843
40894-9
40906°1
409275
409349
40944:0
40950°8
40963°5
40968°8
40975:0
40982-4
41001°4
41009°3
410182
41027:0
41033°7
41040°8
41056:0
4£1060°7
41067°5
41080°1
41090°8
411009
41117°3
411229
411249
411371
41141°0
41149°5
41155°7
41160°4
41187-1
41185°5
41196°5
412084

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 349

Wave-

length

Spark
Spectrum

Intensity
and
Character

2425°73
2425°41
2424-70
2424-49
2424°18
2423°28
2423°00
2422-75
2421-98
2421-82
24210

2420-1

2419-42
2418-7

2418-6

2417-91
2416°75
2416°54
241585
2415°49
2415-12
2414-16
2413-36
2412-57
2411°95
2411°72
2411°15
2410-59
2409°78
2409-43
2408:80
2408:00
2407-08
2406°73
240618
2405°89
2405°82
240498
240449
2403°92
2402:70
2402-37
2402-14
2401-45
2400-40
2399°31
2398°77
2398°05
2396°80
2395'73
2395°51
239498
2394°20
2393'35
2393'13

ke Or OT bo H bo &

Be Ob Were wwob bebe
i=] BB i=) Bb lomo”

Pe eas NS Ni a any Haat ot a RO IROL Sat CO SS

BB

mee Woh At
logon

Irnon—continued.

Previous Observations

2425-68 K.& R.
2424-22,
249325,
2422-73,
2421-79,
2421-02,
242039,
2419-49,
2417-94,
2416-68,
2416-00 ,,
241529,
241337
241245,
2411-79,
2411-16 _,,
241056,
240813 4,
240672 45
2405-02,
240448 ,,
240267
240223,
240160 ,,
240125,
240039,
239931,
2398-29
2395°62 oy,
239433,

Reduction to |
| Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

41212°5
41217°9
41230°6
412336
41238-7
41254-2 |
41259:0 f
41263-2
41276°3 !
412979-1 |
41293-0
41308°4 |
41320:0
413323 {
413340 =f
41345'8
41365:7 |
41369°3
41381°1
41387°3
41393'6
41410-0
41423'8
41485-3
41491-3
41502:1
41515°9
41568-1
41576:6
41586-4
41607°5

41437:2
41447°9
414519
41461°7
41471°6
41531°8
41537°9
41547-4
41552-4
415536
41613:2
41617°2
41629-2
41647°4
41666°3
41675°7
41688:2
417099
417285
41732°4
41741°6
41755:2

41770°1
41773°9

50 REPORT—1898.

Iron—continued.

Reduction to
Mare Intensity | Vacuum. Oscillation
Spark and : Previous Observations | i | Frequency
Spectrum | Character 1) Ree | cht, in Vacuo
| | '
2392°75 in 2392°70 K. & R. 080 | 12-4 | 41780°5
2392:27 In Ash » 3 417889
2391°59 4 2391:53 ee (ap pS 41800°L
2391°10 in 1 igs ” 41809°4
2390°92 In rhe “ 41812°5
2390°31 In | 99 Wee: 418232
2390-04 in 2390-03 " ee id Bete 418279
2389°51 1 ” ” | 418372
2388°71 7 238871 35 WO Bel” <3, Peat | 41851-2
2388-46 2 2388-42 9 Bef. sR 41855°1
238828 2 ” » | 41859°7
2387°51 3 : ” ” | 41872°2
2386:53 2b. | ¥ » | 41889-4
2385°10 2 2385°07 sy, ” 2 419146
2384:49 5 238448 ” ” ” 41925°3
2383°40 4 ” ” 41944°5
2383°17 2 | 2383°24 ” ” 125 41948°5
2383-00 2 | ” rH 41951°4
2382°13 9 2382715 » 222 BR ” ” 41966°7
2380-86 5 2380°82 _,, s ty | 41989-1
2380°35 1 ” 2 419981
2379°36 tf 2379°38 ” ” ” 42015;6
2379-05 1 cr er | 42021°1
2378°57 2 ” yo] 42029°6
2377:63 1 ” rr | 42046°2
2376:60 6n 237654 ne ” reas 4 420644
2373-30 6 2375°30 “A Af ‘an! 42087°4
2374-61 af 237459 ” ” ” | 42099°7
2373°82 8 2373°79 ree TIE Lite “h es 42013°7
2372-73 4 237265, sal » i) es
2372°50 In ” 35 et 421371"
2371-90 1b . * 3 421478
2371°52 1 237k ” ” ” | 491546
2371:07 In ” ’ 421626
2370°60 3 2370°56 + a te as 42170°9
2370-17 5n ” Pe || 42178°6
2369-33 1 2369°55 a ” a || 42193°5
2368°69 8 2368°66 “ uns 12°67 | 42206°4
2367-00 H 1 ” | ” | 42235°0
2366-69 3 2366°66 ” ‘ ” ” | 42244°]
2365°92 2n 2365°61 3; Dame |lenecne 42954:2
(2364-90) (4 2364'88 ay) OO Uae a a gl 422725
2364-00 | 3n 2363°81 ” ” ” | 42288°6
2363°68 | In ” / ” | 422943
2362-23 4 236211 i, > has 42320°3
2361-83 3 ” ” 42327-4
2360-42 5 2360°37 ” ” ” 42352°8
2360:08 5 2360-06 ” 9h] 99 42358°8
2359-68 2 ” | ” / 42366:0
2359-23 7 2359°16 F iithss, Ls v5) Be 423751
2358-43 1 ay fh op fe 42388:5
2357°10 3 3. il. oar 424124
2356°55 1 ” / ” i 42422°3
2355°50 2b 2355°37 o “+ ey 42440°2
2355°29 2 ” ” 424450

EE EE

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 351

IRoN—continued.

= cat he to |

ayve- / F acuum c ;

length Intensity Previous Observations : eet ae
Spark pis 1 in Trae z

Spectrum Character mee = to)
235500 5 2354:93 K. & R. 0:80 | 12°6 42450:2
2354-59 5 » | 127 | 42460:7
2353°75 | 2b ” | » 42472°6

*2352°50 2n » | oo» 42495°3
2352712 | 1 ” | 42502°1
2351-84 il ” ” 42507°4
2351°31 } 6 2351-22 ” ” | ” 425168
2350°72 in 2350°50 ” ” ” 42526°5
2350°33 ln ” CE nl 42534°6
2349-45 In ” ” | 42550-4
234840 | 7 2348-28 ,, ‘385 R.] ,, ra 42569°5
2346-80 In ” ” | 42598°5
2346°37 In ” ” 42611°1
2346:0 in ” ” } 426130
2345743 6 2345°29 ” ” | ” | 42623°4
234440 5 2344:°37 a y ae 3) 42642]
2344-05 3 he ee si 42648°5
2343°58 9 2343'52 ” ‘57 R. ” 2 42657°'1
2342°36 1 ” ” 42679°3
2342-07 1 » ” 42684-6
2341-33 1 ” ” 42698:0
2341-04 il ” ” 42703°3
2340°55 Qn 234030 » | 128 42712°2
2339°50 3 ” ” 427313
2339°05 1 ” ” 42739°6
2338°09 8 233808 ” ” ” 42757°2
2337°65 1 9 ” 42765°0
2336°97 2n ” ” 42777°6
2335°55 2n ” ” 42802°9
2335°25 1 ” ” 42808°4
2334°5 lb 2334:83 ” ” ” 42822°9
2333°84 1 ” ” 42835°0
2332°88 8 2332°87 ” ” ” 42852°7
2332-62 i » ” 42857°5
2331°41 7 2331°38 ” ” ” 42879°7
2331°18 1 ” ” 42883°9
2330°60 in ” ” 42894°6
2330°17 ln ” ” 42902°5
2329°44 2 2329-67 ” ” ” 42916-0
232803 2 ” ” 42944-0
2327-49 6 2327-40 = an 12:9 42951°8
2326-95 In ef) 9 42961'8
2326-43 2 ” | ”» 42971°4
2325°80 1b owe Bea 42983-0
2325°65 2 ” ” 42985'8
2325-38 2 ee HE 42990°8
2324-60 In ” ” 43005°3
23232 1b A ” 430330
2322°43 1 3 43045-6
2321°76 2 ” ” 430582
2320°44 2 2320°42 49 fe nN 43082-4
2318-62 2 4 = 431181
2318-41 1 2318°23 9 _ 7s 431201 |
2317-40 2n 2317°32 a ie 43138°9 |

* Double.

2313-38
231317
2312'10
2311:33
231017
2309-04
2308-80
2307-75
2307°37
2306-45
2306'06
230478
2303'87
2303°63
2303°42
2301°74
2301°50
2301:20
2300°48
2300°19
2299:27
2298-68
(2298-25)

2297-76
2296:96
2296°87
2296-72
22.96'3

2295°8

2294-68
2294-48
2293-89
2293-20
2292-90
2292°57
2291-69
2991-21
2290-60
2288'8

2287-65
2287°31
228410
2283-74
2283'3T
2279:98
2276-07
2274-13
2272°13
2271°87
2270-40
2268-91
226858

Intensity
and
Character

Fee Yt te EC Pee Eg Pe eed CRS GS Pee
i=]

BO

et ee cell el eel el ed ed

REPORT—1898.

TRon—continued.

Reduction to |

Vacuum
Previous Observations a
A+ Rin
0-80 | 12:9
” ”
2314-10 K. & R. » | 130
931317, rae
231240 =, Ki “
” ”
2309-04, : “4
” ”
” ”
230635 ,, ¥ fe
” ”
230482, cA -
” ”
2303-52, oe
2301-:75 i, * %
aie
” 2”
230020 ~—,, = ‘
2299-30 7 ” ”
2298-24 fe ee
299785, “ i
2297-04 c ‘
” ” |
” ” |
2296-23, :. et
229445 a Bie
9293-90, % E:
” ”
229956, i _
229118 he lh ore
2290-61, ef .
” ’
228770, » | 1382
298737 ag a -
298412 <3 &
oF ”
228315 —,, re a
2980:05 sy, 2 a
227607 ~—iy, €
227409, » | 1R8
yt) ae ee |
227047 —,, al eee
226896, " > |

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

43 166°9
431845
432013
43213°8
432177
43237-7
4325271
43273'8
433950
43399°5
433192
43323°4
43343°7
43351:0
433751
433932
43396°7
43400°7
43432-4
43436°9
434425
43456°1
43461°6
43478°6
43590°1
43598°3
435075
43522°7
435244
435272
435352
43544-7
43559'9
43569°7
43581°0
435941
43599°8
43606°1
43622'8
43632°0
43643°6
43677°9
43699°8
437063
43767-7
437746
437817
43846:'8
43922°2
43959°6
43998-2
44003°3
44031'8
44056°7
440671

wo Pes

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

le dea

Wave-
3 length
. Spark
. Spectrum

Intensity

and

Character

Tron—continued.

309

Previous Observations

2268-20
2267°64
2267°14
2266°77
2266:32
2266-05
226465
2264-42
2263°30
2262°75
2262:36
2260-92
2260-20
2260:13
2259-62
2257:90
2257-00
2256'49
2955'82
2255:24
2254-42
2254-25
2254-14
2253°18
2251-97
2251-62
2251-03
2250°24
2249-20
2247-80
2247-00
2245-64
2244-38
2243-23
2242-68
2249-40
2241-90
2241-56
2240°63
‘| 2239-70
‘| 2239-18
2238-71
2238:33
2237-96
2237°66
2235 93
2235°58
2234-00
2239-19
2231-64
2228-88
2227-68
2227-55
2227-45
2997-93

1898.

=]

5

RB

Soros

eet anon ae emer ak ey re ey gee eg ge Re RFF OIRO SDS RIS et te pm mh Fre ed

Ree toh

2266°37
226451

2263°37

2260°83

22453

2249-9,

K.& kh.

”

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

44074-6
440854
44095°1
44102°4
44111-1
44116-4
44143°6
44148°1
44169-9
44180°6
44188-2
44216°4
44230°5
44230°8
44241°8
442754
44293:2
44303°2
443164
44327°8
44343°9
44347°3
44349-4
44368°3
44392-2
444187
44410°6
44426-2
44446:7
444744
41490°3
44517:2
44542°2
445651
44576°0
44581°6
44591°5
445983
44616°8
41635:3
44645°4
44655°0
44662°6
44670°0
446965
44710°5
44717°5
44749°2
447854
44896°5
44852°0
44876°2
44878°8
44880°8
44885-2
AoA

354

REPORT—1898.

®
Tron—continued.
Reduction to

Wane. Tasty | -"Vacnne Oscillation
aaa k and Previous Observations Frequency

s pee Character 1 in Vacuo

pectrum A fie

2224-55 1 0°80 | 13:7 44938°6
2293-56 2 " a 44980°1
229253 1 ie it 44959°3
2221-25 2 - ig 44996-0
2220-48 3 i 45021°6

| 2219-97 2 * * 45032-0
2218-90 2 45053°7
2217-15 1 rs - 45189°2
2215-88 In 2 fs 45115-0
2215°22 In a 13°83 45128°5

| 2214-20 In 9214-1 L. & D. ars 4. 45149°2
| 22913:74 3 hate e 45158°6
221119 1 4 ss 45210:7
2209'78 1 i i 45239°6
| 220918 2 icant 5, 45251-9
2208-54 2 * &: 45265°0

| 2206:68 1 . “3 45303°1
| 2206-30 2n az A 45310°9
1 9201-72 In » | 139 45486'1
2200°81 1 i me, - 45423°9
220044 1 22002 é - 45431°6
219886 In bs us 454642
2196-14 1 . » 45520°5
2192-30 1 | AAO 45600°2
2192-08 1 Nea 4 45604°8
2191-94 1 < af 45607°7
2189-12 1 3 ‘A 45666°5

| 2187-82 1 lame i 45793°7
2187-40 1 . ” 45702°4
2187-28 1 : 2 45704-9
2186792 i 2286'8 a ; - 45712°6
218656 1 if € 45719°9
2183°85 i 2283°7 35 os 45776°7
alaQep 1 Ps 55 a Lael 45845°8
2178-15 1 2278-0, Lae . 45996'4
2177-10 1 ONG GEO' = ss 45918°6
2176-68 1 ee ‘ 45927-4

| 217554 2 Wes a 459515
| 2174-95 1 Nes 4 as 45963°9
2174-77 1 hers S 45967'8

| 2173-07 1 x . 46003:8
2167-90 1 oH. tae 461134
2167-50 1 2167-4 4, i é 461219
216681 Z L i 46136'6
2164°40 1 1. es n 46188:0
2162-08 2 i is 46237°6
2161-18 i “ on 46256°8
2152-42 1 5 glee 46445-0
2151-9 In < a 46455°9
2151-15 1 “ : 46472'5
2150-67 1 “s 5 46482-9
2147-74 1 » | 144 46546:2
2146-06 1 Bs x 46531°6
2136°50 1 :; 14°5 46791°0
2136-00 1 = a 46812-0

9)

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 355

Tron—continued.

Reduction to |
pee: Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
ene ; and Previous Observations | Frequency
Spar Char: : 1 | in Vac
Spectrum aracter ie pe acuo
if
| i A
i=) oS ae
2097-60 1 | O80 | 14:8 | 47658°7
2097-48 1s is ge | 47661°4
2087:54 ii ois 14:9 | 478884 :
2079-00 1 Fe 15-0 | 48085:0
2068°25 In 5 15:1 | 483349

TunestEN (SPARK SPECTRUM).

‘Exner and Haschek : ‘ Sitzber. k, Akad. W. Wien,’ civ. (1895), cv. (1896), evi. (1897).

1 Wave-leneth | Reduction to | |
ae P Vacuum | Natt
Spark See Previous Measurements , ——____| Tasers
(lowland Character (Angstrém) | i D4 in Vacuo
| A
4844-7 1 1:33 3) -5°7 20635
4694-1 2n 1:29 | 59 21297
4692 0 2n 1:28 a U 21307
4687-9 1 a 9 21326
4683-7 2 5 et 21345
4682 § 1 i laienae | 21349
4681-4 1 Sols 21355
4680°8 6 4680°6 Thalén acy staan! 21358
4679°8 1 sy is 21362
4679°3 1 3 ea 21365
4678°8 1 ne Weer d | 21367
4677°9 1 “, 3 21371
46769 1 ar eer 21376
4675-4 In Oe Sr ore 21383
4675°2 In ah ee | 21383
4672-4 1 a . 21396
4671-9 1 x 21399
4671°6 1 - 21400
4668°7 1 4 | 214138
4666-0: 2 i. sie 21425
4665°0 In eet Dred 21430
4664-1 In poles ea 21434
46632 1n Mp) Fae | 21438
46621 1 epee A pau
4661-7 1 “ za 21445
4661-4 1 7. saa 21447
4660°0 6 46606 ,, StS eae 21453
4653°3 1 46596 ,, Ly See, age at 21461
4657-6 © 4 Ht aeeea iy 21464
46555 In ee Nis 21474
4654-4 In Nao 7 i See te 21479
4650°9 2n ee Me eye 21495
4646°3 1 ie 93 | 21517
4645°3 1 trae tas ol 21521
4645-1 1 HA een 21522
4642-7 2 Eee) al 2 | 21533
4640-4 1 eA are 21544

AAQ

356 REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

| | Reduction to

sheik | Intensity : a . is Vacuum Oscillation
(Rowland) | aracter gstro ae a in a0

| x

{i — fom
46380 In 1:27 | 5:9 21555
46374 in ” ” 21558

| 46362 1 * 21563
46348 2 5 6:0 21570
4633°3 In * 5 21577
4632°7 in ” »” 21580
4631°8 In + x 21584

| 4629:9 1 7 4 21593

| 4629°5 1 ; y ” 21595

i 4629-0 1 - + 21597

| 4628°6 1 7 3 21599

1 4627'8 In ” 7 21603

| 4627°4 In 9 5 21604

| 46271 In ” ” 21606

| 4626°3 In 4 a 21611

| 4625°4 In - S5 21614

| 4623°9 In ~ a 21621

| 46235 1 a 21623 |

| 4620°8 1 ss ‘ 21635 :
4616'6 In 1:26 x 21655

| 4615:0 1 3 5 21662

| 4613:50 4 ” ” 21669'5

| 4610-0 2 3 55 21686

/ 4609:0 In = + 21691

| 4606°6 il i - 21704

| 4604:8 2 ‘3 . 21710

| 4603°5 1b 1:26 | 6:0 21717
4601°6 1b ts x 21726

4601:0 1 ” ” 21728

| 4600°6 1 ms i 21730

- 4600°1 2 a * 21733

| 4598-4 1 F 4 21741
4592-60 4 wear es 217682
458892 4 S. 5 21785°6
4587°8 In x 7 - 91791
4586°9 2 - a 21795

| 4586°1 1 se Bs 21799

| 4585°5 In i Fe 21802

' 4584:8 In ess i 21805
4582'2 1 ieee a 21818
4579°8 In 1:25 ns 21829

| 45783 2 m = 21836

1 4575-2 In a os 21851

| 4572-8 1 a 21862

|. 4572°6 1 ~ A 21863

| 4571-9 1 e s 21871

| 4570°80 4 a a 21872°0

| 4569:3 in 3 3 21879

| 4567-6 - 4n ie 21887

| 4567-3 In 3 4 21889

| 4566°3 1 * i 21894

|. 4565-4 1 - i, 21898
45641 1 61 21904
4563°7 i ¥ 21906

45621, . x 21914

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

{ Reduction to
| Wave-length | Vacuum

Spark Intensity | previous somnentt Oscillation
geen | cattle | nesta) ae |
(Rowland) | Character a ee ies in Vacuo |

A
4561°6 1 1:25 61 21916 |
4560°4 1 a fe 21922
4559°0 1 ” ” 21929
4556°8 1 sf * 21939 |
45553 in a “ 21946 '
4554°22 8 ” ” 21951°6
4552°6 1 3 3 21959 |
4551°9 2 5 at 21963
4550°4 1 ” ” 21970
4549°8 In 9 ” 21973
4546°5 1 $3 ra 21989
4545°6 In 55 or 21293
45446 In 5 % 21998
4543°6 2 fy BS 22003
4542°9 1 1:24 aa 22006
4542°0 1 7 35 22011
4540°3 il ” ” 22019
4539°8 fe ’ ” 22021
4536°6 2 35 a 22037
4535'0 2 ” ” 22045
4534°6 2 ” ” 22047
4532°3 1 ” ” 22058
4530°5 1 ” ” 22067
4529'8 u e ie 22070
4528-6 In ” ” 22076
4527°3 i ” ” 22082
4522-9 In » ” 22104
4520°0 In 8 22118
4519°1 al ” ” 22122
4517°4 1 A * 22131
4516°5 in 5 a 22135
4515'8 Jn } 4 22138
— 4514-1 1n Fe 5 22147
45131 2 x ie 22152
4512°8 2 "i = 22155
4511°0 1 oe FF 22162
4509'6 1 re % 22169
4509°3 1 Ps . 22170
4508'9 1 5 a 22172
4508'4 1 7 +) 22175
— 4504°8 2 1:23 as 22193
4504:0 2 3 AS 22196
45031 1 5 - 22201
4502°3 1 os 22205
— 4500°3 1 = on 22215
| 4500-2 1 =p ee 22215
~A498-6 * 2 ” ” 22223
| 4497-8 1 - 3 22227
— 4497-0 1 aa 6:2 22231 |
4496°4 In a . 22234
4495-4 1 = ¥ 22239
4494-7 1 7 % 22242
4494-0 2 3 * 22246
44924 1 ms i 29954
1 ” » 22266

4 4490-0

308 REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

| Reduction to |
Wave-length | tntensity | ’ Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and Previous Measurements | Frequency
Spectrum Character | (Angstrém) | 1 in Vacuo
(Rowland) A+ a
Anta
{== = ——. 6 os ee oe | at i
4489°1 ove || 123 | 62 | 22970
4488°5 1 7 al 22273 |
4487°8 ] | he Ws 22277
4487°5 In a , 22278
4485°3 1 Sse eae 22289
4484°33 6 ” ” 22293°7
4482:0 1 = = 22305
4481°5 2 mee . 22308
4480°5 il : +4 % 22314
4479-0 1 | 3 - 22320
44786 1 | ~ =f 22321
44760 1 an 4 22335
4475°7 1 | a “ 22337
4475:0 In Mo 7 a 22340
4474-1 2 a a 22345 }
4473-0 1 a bs 22350
4472°6 1 . m 22352
44720 1 s 5s 22355
4471°6 1 | : Fw il 22357
44699 1 Bs » 22366
4468°8 2 1:22 a 22371
4466°9 2 RS a 22881
4466°5 2 = 5 22383
4465°8 1 7 pee 22386
4463-5 1 5 “5 22398 _
4463-1 1 é. se 22400
4462°6 il 3 7 22402
4460°6 2 a D 22413
4459-3 1b e c 22419
4.4584 1 is ‘ 22424
44582 1 3 + 22425
4456-2 i : - 22435
4454-9 il Pa ey 22441
4452°3 1 x . 22454
4450-4 1 a ;, 22464
4449-9 1 ~ :. 22466
4449-0 2 5 oc 22471
4445-2 2 $5 i 22490
4444-6 1 “ ss 22493
4444-2 1 5, + 22495
4443-1 il . as 22501
4442°8 1 is aS 22502
4442-5 1 5 -b 22504
4441:9 2 5 - 22507
4439°8 1 a eee 22518
4439°0 2 eas ita 22522
4438°5 1 ae Uacens 22524
4437°6 1 és + 22529
4437-0 2 Sab Maes 22532
4435°8 1 esse, 0 es 22538
4435-1 1 Mo Ke) | 22541
4433°7 In ea Ss ee 22549
4433-1 1 [Se tea 22552
4432-2 1 [7-915 aa 22556
44309 | In tag Gi 22563

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 359
TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM )—continued.
, }
Reduction to
_ Wave-length Intensity . | Vacuum Oscillation |
| Spark and Previous Measurements | Frequency
(Gowland) Character (Angstrém) gar | ie in Vacuo
| t Xx |
: | oa = ae A ee ae
4429-0 1 | 121 | 63 22572
4428-6 1 | nl Last 22574
4427-6 1n ee eae 22580 :
4425-6 1 eat || Bo 22590
4425-1 1 * | ‘5 22592
4423-8 3 coal. Sosy 22599 t
4429-8 In ee ee 22604
4422-5 1 a Weal Pay 22605
4421°9 2 ies Rall ie 22609
4421-1 1 Hundt 22613
4420°6 2 re See 22615
4419-4 1 De ae 22622
4418-9 1 mig ry ae 22624
4418-6 1 a 7 22626
4415°8 1 ay ee 22640
4413-4 1 eee ee 22652
4413-2 1 i i 22653
4412-4 1 Mo ef x 22657
4411-5 it } ” ” 22662
4411-1 1 iets o 22664.
4410-0 1 x ct 22670
4409-6 In ae tc 3 22672|
4408-8 1 = a 22676 t
4408 42 4 sala ty 22677°6
4406-1 2 rm ae 22690 i
4404-8 1 ow ee 22697 t
4403°5 1 - 22703 |
4402-8 1 | in Fos = 22707 |
44003 in: | bas % 22720
4396-9 1 | x im 22737
4395-1 1 Cobia Ge 22747
4394-5 1 j 2 22750
4393°8 2 120} Gis 22753
4390-9 | < ie 22768
4389-9 2 S me 22774
4387-9 In eae a are 22784
4387°5 1 Re vine: 22786
4386-7 1 ss 4 22790
4385-01 4 Bs fe 22798:7 |
4383-6 4 is - 22806
4381-8 In , f 22816
4380-1 1 Fa ;, 22825
4379°3 1 s > 22829
— 4878-72 4 = “ 22831-4
— -ABIT-5 In ual a, 22838
(4373°8 In et 22857
4373-0 In ie 2 22862
4372°5 2 4 is 22864
_ 4371°8 1 :§ , 22868
4370-8 1 A 2 22873
4368-7 1 BPE 22884
4366-20 4 ome 64: 22886°3
‘4364-90 4 As ee 22903°6
43616 2 ML, cass 22921
4361-1 1 : ae 22924

350

Wave-length |
Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

4360-0
4359°3
43586
43580
43565
4355°2
43542
4348-23
4347-0
43463
4345-9
4345-1
4343-2
4342-4
4341-3
4339-5
4339-1
4338-6
4338-2
4335:70
4332-0
4330°7
4326-9
43251
| 4324-6
| 4329-9
| 4321-5
| 4320-4
| 43186
| 43168
43163

4315°3
4313-1
4312°3
!
|
}

43123
4311-0
43102
43100
4309-3
4309-0
4308°0
4307:00

4306°3
4305'S
43056
| 4305:1
| 4303-4
4302-6
4302-27
4301-1
4299-0
4297-6
4297-2
4295°7
4294-77

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continucd.

REPORT—1898.

Intensity
and
Character

Previous Measurements
(Angstrém)

Reduction to
Vacuum

a+ |

1
—

t=]

i=]

Ll ce ee ce SI ol ol cre cl el cel el I ol cl
BB

4302-0 Thalén

4295-0 =

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

22930
22933
22937
22940
22948
22955
22960
22991-5
22998
23002
23004
23008
23018
23023
23029
23038
23040
23043
23045
23057°9
23078
23085
23105
23115
23118
23127
23134
23140
23150
23159
23162
23167
23179
23181
23183
23190
23195
23196
23200
23203
23207
23211°5
23216
23218
23220
23222
23231
23236
23237-0
23244
23255
23263
23265
23273
232776

_ ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 361

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length F Reduction to |
i Spark ee Previous Measurements Vacuum ees ome |
ectrum Aicntavs eae “requenc
(Rowland) oe iscsi) ee 1 in Naa |
A
4294-1 2 ae = |
4293-0 i 118 | 65 23282
4292°8 in ” 2 23288 )
4292-0 er » 2 23289 /
4291-5 In ” ” 23293 |
4290'1 1 ” ” 23296 ;
4289°3 1 ” ” 23303
4288-4 A ” %” 23308
42870 m one ee 23313
4286:0 vA ” ” 23320
4285-0 2 ” ” 23326
42838 ] ” oe) 23331
4283:0 ln ” ” | 23338
4282-0 al ” ” } 23342
4281-4 : In ” ” | 23348
4280°5 In ” ” 23351
4279-0 1 17} 4 { 23356
4278°5 il ” une 23364
42778 1 Meal Meee ets
4277-4 1 117} 65 | 23371
4276-92 4 Mo ” , 23373
4276-0 1 ” . 233748
4275-65 4 » s 23380
42750 i ” ” 23381°8
4274-70 4 ” e 23386
4273-7 2 - » | 28387-0
4272-3 1 » » | 23893
4271-8 1 ” 2 23401
42709 il ” 9 23403
4270-8 1 > 23408
4269-9 2 » oe ie
4269-52 ; oH ae = & 93414
4268°8 . 4269°0 Thalén . - 23415-3
42681 1 ” ” 23420
4267-9 1 ”» i 23424
‘ 4266-6 2 ” ory 23425
4265-0 1 » 5 23432
4263°50 4 ” ” 23441
4262-4 1 » . 23448-4
4260-42 4 ee ae 23455
4259-9 1 is : 23465°4
4259°52 4 3s = 23469
42585 1 » ” 234703
4257:3 1 ” ” 23476
4257°0 1 ” ” 23483
4255°6 1 ” : 23485
4254-3 3 . ‘. 23492
4254-1 al 2 ” 23500
4252°6 In ” ” 23501
42518 iin See 66 23508
4250°8 1 ” oa 23512
4250-1 In ” ” 23518
4249°5 1 ” ” 23522
4248°8 1] ” ” 23525
4248-2 1 ” ” 23529
be) ” 23532

362 REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

| Reduction to |

. length . Beli
[Wan an Intensity | Preyi ious Measurements | 2 Ee Oscillation
P d oe
| Spectrum Ch ae (Angstriim) fe [4 Frequency
(Rowland) aracter Bases bo in Vacuo |
| |
| |] | |} —
| 4247-6 1 117) 66 23536
4247°3 1 : ss 23537
4246-0 1 ‘i | 23545
4245-6 1 ol ae 23547 )
4244-45 4 bap Ree 23553°6
4243°8 1 ret ame 23557 :
4243°4 1 ee, lee 23549 |
4241-50 4 on es 23570:0
4241-0 1 dl tis 23572 1
4240°8 1 nol wh. Pegeye
4240-4 1 a: 2 23576
4240-1 il e x 23577 |
4238-6 1 * is 23586 |
4236°6 1 ed awk eee
4235°5 il 5 is 23603
4234-4 2 oy me 23609
4233-0 1 oe 23617
4232°6 1 Rote hae 23619 |
4231-9 1 Be a 23623 |
4231°8 1 lees fs 23624
4231-4 1 = ‘ 23626
42313 1 | s i, 23626 ,
4230°0 In | _ = 23634 |
4229'1 1 | = A 23639
ae 5 1 | ., es 23642
227-6 1 % ts 23647
120. 8 6Ca x ie 23652 |
1296-4 “| < s 23654
42257 1 3 % 23658
4225-0 2 [ey : 23662
4224-9 2 * a 23662
4224-1 da. 4 - 23667
4222-2 2 7 * 23677
4222-0 1 ¥) “ 23678
4221°5 1 ao at 23681
4220-7 it i. 5 23686 |
4220°5 1 Key 23687 .
4219-50 4 Hi i tie: 236929
4219-2 1 ee L's 23694 |
4218-7 1 is =] 23697
4216-0 1 a 7 23712
4215-60 6 5 e 237148 |
4215-1 1 i z 23717
4214'5 1 ., % 23721
4214-0 1 - i 23723
42135 1 ie e 23726
42129 1 . . 23730
| 42115 1 Pann o 23738
| 4210-4 1 : | x 23744
/ 4210°3 ] ” ” 23744 H
| 4209°7 In | ot eka’ op 23748
420712 4 ee 23762°6
4206°3 2 ia ee 23767
4205°6 Ins 3 ts oe 23771
| 4204-52 4 | game eae 237773 {

NN
| Reduction to |
| Wave-length

|
|
;
|

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

4203°8
4202-0
4201°3
42009
4200°5
4200°1
4199°7
4198-9
41987
41983
4197°9
4197-4
4197°3
4193-9
4193-0
4189°3
4187-0
41860
4185°5
4183°7
4183°6
4183-0
4182°6
41815
4180-4
4178-7
4178-0
4177-0
41769
4176-0
4175-70
4175-2
4174-6
4172-9
4172'1
4171-9
4171-23
4170:60
4168-80
4168-3
4166-9
4166-2
4165-7
4164-9
4164-0
4163-0
41616
4161-0
4160-4
4160-0
4159-0
41571
41548
4153-2
4152°6

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

- Vacuum
Intensity | Pyevyious Measurements | cad

and 9 ng |
= . (Angstrém) |
Character ie Dy

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

D
6°6

: 115
|

Peal amlan a Varese ea a

ee
=]

=]

clara ll hag ~ pa aaa

DeRReRee
=)

ee
=)

i=}

fe ee cel cell cell eel 9 ol: oll sl oe
x

6B

BRED ee eee

23781
23791
23795
23797
23800
23802
23804
23809
23810
23812
23814
23817
23818
23837
23842
23863
23876
23882
23885
23895
23896
23899
23902
23908
23914
23924
23928
23934
23934
23939
239414
23944
23947
23957
23962
23963
23967°0
239707
23981°0
23984
23992
23996
23999
24003
24008
24014
24022
24026
24029
24031
24037
24048
24062
24071
24074

363

REPORT—1898.

ois)
i=)
=

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

W. casae ‘ Reduction to

ave-leng 5

Spark Intensity Previous Measurements Mecuhes Oscillation
Spectrum eae (Angstrém) | 5 Frequency
(Rowland) Character Nee as in Vacuo
4151°8 1 TAs) 1G 24079
41511 1 8, ay 24083
4150°6 1 3s < 24087
41500 1 be wo 24089
4149°8 1 is “3 24091
4149°5 1 # ee 24092
4149°3 In is ie 24093
4148°3 1 > 8 24099
4146°8 2 :, - 24108
4145°3 2 ; és 24117
4144°6 1 rf a 24121
4143-1 1 “ » 24130
4142°3 2 * oe 24134
4141°6 1 in “3 24138
4140°9 1 = 3 24142
4140-4 1 is 3 24145
41401 i E. af 24147
4139°3 1 rs 24152
4138°5 1 Xs s 24156
4138°3 1 - e 24158
4138-1 1 2: 2 24159
4137-63 4 ve 241616 ,
41375 4 cs - 24162
4136°5 1 a a 24168
4134-7 In a % 24179
4133°6 2 ‘ € 24185
4132°3 © 1 55 of 24193
41380°9 1 PIS 5, 24201
4130°6 1 me Yi 24203
4130°2 1 ii 24905
4127-0 1 a 24994
4126°9 2 fa : 24224
41252 1 sf Ae 24934
4123-0 1 ; ‘ 24247
4122-7 1 -. 5 24249
4122:0 1 A a 24253
4120°8 1 . be 24260
41190 1 s 3 24971
4118-22 4 es 24975-5
41148 1 # < 24296
4114-2 2 is < 24299
4113-9 1 a ., 24301
41124 a i = 24310
41118 2 s x 24313
4110°6 2 ze f. 24320
4109-90 4 3 5 24324-7
4108°5 1 f - 24333
4107°9 1 es 3 24336
4106°8 a S 3 24343
4104:0 1 - 5 24359
4102°90 6 - #3 243662
4101'8 1 3 24373
4101-0 1 3 ie 24377
4099-2 2 _ 69 24388
4097-2 1

7 * 24400

ON WAVE-LENGTH TA =
BLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 365

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

ifave-Tength ; Reduction to
Spark Intensity | Previous Measurements Vacuum illati
eran na (Angstrim) Lan a Oscillation
(Rowland) Character 7 1 Hrequaney
Ree ane in Vacuo
A
4096-6 69 |
eg bs 1.13 6:9 24403
4094:3 In ET cos ae
4093'3 1 Heit eres
rete ; 112 - 24423
2091-3 1 ” ” 24428
4091-2 1 Nag) ots iE
4090°8 1 ” ” 24436
4090°3 1 is is ine
4089°6 i ” » 24441
40889 5 ” hod 24445
40885 = ” ” 24449
4087°6 i ” ” 24452
40871 1 “ mr
te ~ ” 3 24460
4083'9 tna ” ” 24476
40831 5 ” ” 24479
4081-45 4 » ” 24484
4081°3 1 ” ” 24494:°2
Peas : : - 24495
40791 ‘i » ” 24506
4078°3 1 ” ” 24508
4077-9 > » ” 24513
4075°7 i ” ” 24515
ye ” » (| 24589
othe : " : 24544
4070'7 2 ” ” 24544
4070-03 6 apn aris
one : ¢ 7 245629
4065°5 ; ” ” 24581
Gene : > = 24590
4063'8 1 ” ” 24593
4060-9 7 ” ” 24601
ae ; r f 24618
4059-2 In 4 ‘ Fieae
4058-0 1 ” ” 24628
4087°5 i ” ” 24636
fora ; Hota 24639)
fore i a) te 24643
40552 1 ” ” 24649
4033° 1 ” ” 24653
lances i EEL | oy 24663
ale ; * - 24669
4050'1 te ” ” 24675
ie : etl at 24684
as : “: 24694
ate : ‘A ~ 24696
ecb 7 ‘2 : 24704
4044-1 1 ” ” 24710 0
4042.5 1 ” ” 24720
4041°7 1 ” ” 24730
4041-2 1 fi ip See
40407 ; 9» i" 21738
| 4040-0 1 » ” 24741
” ” 24745

366 REPORT—1898. .
TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued. f
3 Reduction to |
| ve- . m x 5 i
bier st inieuete Previous Measurements ee Cuelistion ’
Spectrum itenoter (Angstrém) 1 nace!
(Rowland) A+ ar
“te EN. = | ee
| 4039: 1 111 | 7-0 24749 :
4037°8 1 5 hf 24759 |
4037:0 1 :. * 24764
40353 1 nd . 24774 :
4033°9 A = . 24783 |
4032'5 In a ‘ 24792 :
4031-6 1 4 * 24797 !
4031-4 1 3 » | 24798
4030-0 1 3 S 24807
4029:7 1 | a / 24809
4029-0 1 . d 24813
4028-9 1 i; i 24814
4028-4 In a a 24817
4025-6 1 1 ee 24834
402571 1 iy 24837 ;
4024-9 1 | 24838
4022-8 1 ‘3 . 24851
4022-1 1 a 2 24856
4020-8 1 Sa 24864
4019-7 In s “a 24870
4019-3 2 , : 24873
4017-0 1 a < 2488744 > |
4016-2 1 3 i 24892
4015-32 4 1:10 - 24897°6 |
4013-9 1 " fe 24906
4013°8 i : . 24907 |
4013-2 1 Ea 4 24911
4012-2 1 > i" 24917
4012-0 1 s x 24918 |
4011:8 i fe Fs 24919
4011-1 1 > 35 24924 |
4011-0 1 x . 24924
4010:3 1 if is 24929
4009-7 1 z 24933
4008-90 8 > » 24937-5
4007-0 1 i, id 24949
4005-7 1 a ss 24957
4005-3 1 if . 24960
4004-1 1 iY . 24967
4003-8 1 : 71 24969 |
4002-8 1 5 3 24976
4001°5 1 a o 24984
4000°7 1 a 24989
3998-7 1 ees 25001
3998-2 1 | - is 25004 )
3997-8 1 :. . 25007 |
39973 1 A i 25010
3997-1 1 af . 25011
3995-0 A = + 25024
3993-8 1 if ‘ 25032
3992°5 1 4 _ 25040
3991°3 1 rene” (eA 25047
3990°5 1 a Vow 25053
3988'8 af 3 :. 25063 |
3988°5 1 ” } ” 25065

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 367

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

a acth, | Baction to
ave-len. : j a F }
Spark Tyensity Previous Measurements i Quel tation \
Spectrum = (Angstriim) Re eM
(Rowland) Character | ao At ses in Vacuo
es
39880 i Pte1O) ti Tek 25068 |
3987°5 1 a re 25071 |
3987-1 1 nee 5 25074
ae Hi eae s 25079
: me Mm 25088
3984-2 1 eae FS 25092
3983'40 4 ie x 25097'1
Sale 2 Vos _ 25114
980-0 1 ba a 25119
3979°3 4 eee 2 25123
3977-8 1 if is 25133
39765 In i ey rs 25141
3975°9 1 | 1:09 a 25145
39755 1 ee 3 25147
3972°5 1 - 53 25166
39107 ‘ no Pa hgenge
i } “ 99 177 |
3969°3 1 a * 25186
39651 6 Ue 4 25213
3964-2 1 ia 25219 )
soe1-7 ; an eels ee
3961- x i 25235
3960°8 1 3 7 25240
3960°1 In a * 25245
3959°5 In es “; 25249 |
3958-9 1 ve a 25253
3957-6 1 3 x 25261
3957-2 1 = is 25263
39557 2 i 72 25273
3953'8 1 al ec 25285 |
3953'5 1 = FS 25287
3953-2 2 i a 25289
3953'0 1 ” ” 25290 |
3952'3 1 ee ee 25295
3051-1 ; sa Pg as es
. 2 |
3950°3 2 ‘pee ae 35308 .
3948'8 1 leer 25317
3948°3 1 a a 25320
3046-5 i os lacey | arse
; e 5332
3945-0 2 Ks * 25342 |
3944:3 2 x “ 25346 |
3942-5 1 ey es 25358
3941-7 i eur fe eeane ie
. = nA 25363
394171 1 We * 25367
3940°6 1 - * 25370
rs io) ies
3937-2 2 . i 95392
3935°5 2 1:08 a 25403
3935:2 1 7m i 25405
3931-7 ° 1 A es 25427
393171 il =. is 25431

REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

| |
Wave-length | nase Reduction to
Bececite | and y Previous Measurements i ccaicses Oscillation
(Rowland) | Character (Angstrém) 1 Hneanency
Nee LA in Vacuo
; | rN
3930°7 1 me, “ie
» 3930°5 i aie she Bere
39280 1 ” W 25435
3996-2 1 ” ” 25451
3995'3 1 ” Fema 25463
39249 | 1 ” ” 25469
3994-6 1 ” ” 25471
| 2993-1 1 ” ” 25473
| 3922°9 1 ” ” 25483
ceieeine | 21 i 4s 25494
3918-5 1 » ” 25511
29178 1 » ” 25513
3917-6 1 ” ” 25518
29155 on ” ” 25519
39143 In » ” 25533
3913-8 1 ” ” 25540
| 3913-5 1 at Cai 25544
| 3913-0 1 ” ” 25546
3911°5 1 ” ” 25549
3909-4 1 ” ” 25559
3907°5 1 ” ” 25572
39061 1 , ” 25586
3906-0 1 ” ” 2559¥
39058 1 ” “fi 25595
3904-2 1 ” ” 25596
39035 1 oe ” 25606
39031 1 ” ” 25611
| 3902-0 1 ” ” | 25614
3901°5 1 ” | 25621
3901:0 1 ” ” 25624
3900-0 1 a a ere
3899-0 1 ” | 25634
3898-2 9 ” 3 | 25641
3897-07 A ” ” 25646
3895'8 In oe 4ds. sae
Re 1:07 |) 5 25662
3893-7 1 ” ” 25672
3893-0 2 3 ¥ ae
| 3899-4 1 ” ” 25680
3891-0 1 ” » 25686
3889-5 os ” ” 25693
2888-7 iy ” A 25703
3888-2 1 ” ” 25709
3886-9 1 ‘s 4 rt
| 3886-5 i . i 25720
| 8884:2 1 t i ee
| 3884:0 1 th] ” 25738
| 38835 in x F pale
38827 In se ae pp
3881'50 4 ee oe
Beans i * ‘3 25755°9
3879'7 1 4 4 aul
Bera 3 < 25768
| 38792 ‘i 4 Fs 25770
rr 25772

“

,

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 9369

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.,

} Bel ; ie he to
ave-length . acuum ee
Shark” py Previous Measurements |. Oscillation
Soe Chaater (Angstrim) 1 one
(Rowland) } A+ re Be Chie
3873°7 1 1:07 | 7:3 25775
88783 1 7 : PAY Ait |
38779 i i “A 25780
38775 2 2 ” 25783
3876°2 In i ; 25791
38760 2 Ff =“ 25793
38747 2 Fe he et) 25801
3872.8 2 al en ee
a n ” ” 25
88718 In ” ” 25821
3870°8 in Fi We ag 25827
3869°6 In ce ae 25835
3868°7 1 el asta 25841
8868-05 4 Bee ears 25845°5
3867°5 1 awl es 25849
3866:°2 al sh or 25858
3865°5 1 al eee 25863
3864-6 2 Waa fips 25869
3863'8 1 Acer or aed 25874
3863-0 1 en eae 25880
3862°7 1 Shee tse 25882
3861°3 1 eel es 25891
3861°2 1 ie 4 een 25893
3860°1 2 Py ae 25899
3859°5 2 5 * 25903
8859-0 1 - % 25906
3857°6 1 Rita RE 25916
3857°5 ~ 1 a py 25917
3857-0 2 ” » | 25920
3856°6 2, TOG sii yy 25923
3830°7 i he ar. aes
O° ” | ” ae
3895'5 1 x is 25930
3850 i sal tee ee
3854" uf 7 1 2594
3853°0 i zs f on 25947
385L-70 4 Fi % 25955'3
38513 1 5 Fe 25958
a 1 oF 0 ae
. 2 PF 50 2598:
3846°32 4 eee i Wes 25991°6
3846°0 1 Sy rates 25994
3844-5 i ia. PAW Los 26004
3843'S 1 sem We bdes 26009
3843'5 1 a eer 26011
3842-6 2 a eet 26017
3841-2 | In je Meas Wael Ohss 26027
3840-5 1 a ah 26031
3839-4 | 1 al, Nr dl 26039
8838-6 2 Saal Gas 26044
3838-1 1 ‘ ae | 26048
3837-9 1 al ary 26049
ee 2 Poet cerns ft 26052
cf 1 Pe J anne 26057
33800 | In 5a lit ene 4 26062

1898. BB

370 REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SpECTRUM)—continucd.

Wave tenet Tuten oe to |
Suecneie and Previous Measurements hvathes wegen Sheers eee 7
(Rowland) | Character (Angstxiim) x, | |) Veco | 1
a ig nN | |
383513 £ ee =
3834-4 1 1-06 | 73 26067-4
38343 1 | ” | ” 26073
8833°1 it ” | ” 26073
3832°8 | 1 | ” ” 26082
38325 | 1 | eae 26084
3830°9 In | ” | ” 26086
3830°7 1 } ” | ” 26097
3830°4 l | | ” | ” 26098

| 3830°0 1 Naeem th 26100

| 3829°3 1 ‘ EO AP oes 26103

| 38281 ee aes | fata cl 26107

| 3827°4 | lb | 1 193 26116 |

38263 | ee aie 26120 .

8825-6 1 Et | eeeeD 26128 | a
3824°6 2 | op) MN SSaetesl 26134 tg
3823°2 2 | » | oo” 26140 i
3823:'0 1 | ” ” | 26149
3822°3 | 1 en | 26150
3821°8 | In ” | ” i 26155
38206 | 2 at he 26159
38192 1 ” ” 26167
381971 1 ” | ” 26176

| 38180000 | Ine” | «| <a eee

| 381760 | 4 |atSaret gira ane 26185

8816-5 (Be thoy ated 2618771

(x SStGOnes | ° 2.2 1:05 [35 | 26195
3815°3 In Wei ay | 26198
38146 l Eye ieauriie =| 262038
38132 In 33) Sets 26208
3812°8 In ” | ” 26218
3810°9 9 ” ' ” | 26220
3810-5 2 eae | 5 26234
3810:0 1 ae ee 26236
3809°3 0) an day 26240
3807'8 1 S ” | ” | 26245
3807°5 ik irae ieee | 26255
38068 In a aay 26257
3805°8 1 iyi Pose 26262
3805°5 1 | j ” | ” | 26269
3804°6 1 ” ” 26271
38042 1 ik REDS, 26277
3803-4 il ; eee BARS 26280
2803°1 if ” ” 26285
3802'1 2 ” ” 26287
3801°6 ap | ” ” 26294
3800°2 1 as ” 26298
3799°7 il » | oo” 26307
3799°2 il ” ” 26311
3796°4 2n peta | chet 26314
3795-0 1 | fost: eas 26334
37944 9 | » | oo» 263438
37935 1 otha 26349
3792°8 9 | ” 5 26354

26359

TUNGSYEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.~

“ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 371

Reduction to

|
‘ peeve length Intensity | Pyevious Measurements Veegure Oscillation
ran aaa . (Angstriim) tr, ne 1 ac
(Rowland) a pate = in Vacuo |
\ j— = - — —|] sat 4
3792°3 1 | | 105 | 74 26362 |
3791°6 1 | Hoes 2 26367
3791°5 1 | ” ” 26368
3791:0 In | ” ” 26371
379071 2 H ” ” 26378
3788:0 i! { ” ” 26392
3786°5 i | ” ” 26403
3786'2 1 | xs ” 26405
3783°9 1 ees ” 26421
3783°6 1 | ” ” 26423
3782°9 1 | 25 » 26428
3782:0 1 / , ” 264354
37815 1 | > » 26438
3780°91 4 4 oR ” 26441°3
37783 J. | ” » 26460
3777-5 2 | ” ” 26466
B7T4:3 2 ” ” 26488
3772°6 1 | 9 75 26500
3772°2 i ” ” 26502
37700 1 ” ” 26518
3769°4 1 ” ” 26521
3768-62 4 ‘a » 26527°4
3768-0 1 ” ” 26531
3767°5 1 ” ” 26535
37673 1 ” ” 26536
3767-0 1 boy ” 26538
3765°5 1b | ” ” 26549
3764-6 af | ” ” 26555
3764-0 1 | Pas * 26559
3763°2 1 ” ” 26565
37617 1 or ” 26576
37615 1 oy ” 26577 }
37605 Diet) ene 26584 )
3760°3 2 . . * 26586 |
3759°3 1 ” ” 26593
3758-4 1 ” ne 26599
3757-0 on | re ae 26609
37550 1 | oo» ” 26623
37549 i i ” ” 26624
3753°T 2 3 ” 26632
37533 1 i ” ” 26635
3751°5 1 ” ” 26648
3750°8 1 " ” 26653
3748°4 it } a 5 26670
8747-9 1 Ko 26674
=«~BT47-6 1 / Ls, ) 26676
3747-0 1 | oo” 4 26680
3745:70 4 Ve es a 26689'8
7 ST44-4 a | ” ” 26699
x 3744-2 1 ” ” 26700
_ -BT43°5 1 | . 3 26705
87427 1 i ” ” 26711
3741°9 4 | ” ” 26716 |
BB?

oe REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM) —continucd.

| | | Reduction to
fps Intensity ne Pn SS Tae _ | Vacuum Oscillation |
Spaatens and | rev it fa aan a Frequency | )
‘ 5 = Anestrin i /
| (Rowland) Paarere | 8 ie oveet eae in Vacuo )
| ae
| 3739°7 Tee | | 1-04 | 75 26732
3739°3 1 |» ks 26735
3738 9 rc} a - 26738
3737°1 Bo | ee et ae 26751
3735:38 6 foros 9» 26756°4
37355 1 . a 26762
3733-7 1 |" tatters 26775
| 37335 1 cae + 26777
| 3732-7 In * 3 26782
| B7B2-1 1 ime: - 26787 |
3731-9 1 oo ss 26788
37306 1 thw ee = 26797
3729-9 1 ih his 3 26802 | ¥
3729-4 ] im 3 26806 \ a
3728-5 In aes “. 26812 | a
3726-2 il 3 ff 26829 | a
3725:3 1 “s 26835 | @
| 3724-6 1 Tope i 26841 )
| 3729-7 il era B 26854
| 3721-3 2 | ae x 26864
3720°7 1 is 5 26869
| 3720-0 2 (ae x: 26874
| 8719°6 2 <i t: 26877
| 8718-7 1 [a3 2 26883
) B71 1 = : 26885
| 3718-0 1 Pees 4 26888
| 87173 1 fi She Gi rs 26893
| 3716-20 4 if ~ 269016
| BTID 1 1 at is 26909
| BT150 1 Les ze 26910
| 37148 1 aie a 26911
i 87143 1 ee ee 26915
| 37138 1 | hens & 26919
| 37132 1 Hs 24 x 26923
| 8719°3 2 eee | 26929
| 37116 1 Peer Sil date 26935
tee | | p> |) die
ol : | ” | ” 2 %
3708°68 4 Whee i teter 26956°2
3708-09 4 ee el dae 26960°5
3706-2 Ib Pree! | at 26974
3705°5 1 Pe a pe 26979
3703°4 1 Nee oe 26980
37048 il ae a a 26984
3704-4 1 Pe ee ae 26987
3703-4 1 MDC ee 26994
ves) ln | aie
od ; | ” ’
3702°4 1 | ” | ” 27002
| 3701:9 1 a es 27005
| 3700‘Taond ip | af hd ae 27014
| 8699-5 1 | = 4 27023
3698-7 1 Pa Rae 27029
3698-6 a] | Bey a0) mee 27029
ee RON7 ss, cond) cL ) M022, ts, 27037

| Wave-length
Spark

Spectrum

(Rowland)

3696-9
36965
36962
3694-70
3693°8
3693-6
3692-8
3692-00
3690°3
3689-9
3689-7
3689-2
3688-6
36884
36881
3687-4
3686-7
3686-4
3685°6
3685-5
3685:2
36847
3683-9
3683-3
3682-22
3680°8
3679°9
3679-3
3677°6
3676°3
3675°5
36749
36729
3671°9
36715
3670-6
3670-2
3669°3
36687
3667°6
3667°5
36671
| 3665-7
| 3664-7
| 3662-7
3663°3
36616
3661°2
3660-1
3659-2
365805
3GA7-75
8657-5
3656-7
36566

|
{

Intensity
and
Character

Previous Measurements
a
(Angstriém)

n Mo

=
°

a a eg a PIN ae athe! Fete RS) Pe Rn a ea
wn

BPH ADR RRR Ree

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPuCTRUM)—continued.

(ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

37

”

od

Reduction to

Vacuum

A.
~

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

27042
27045
27047
270582
27064
27066
27072
27079-0
27090
27093
27094
27098
27103
27104
27106
27111
27117
27119
27125
27125
27128
27131
27137
27142
27149°8
27165
27167
QTLTL
27184
27193
27199
27294
27218
27226
27229
27235
27238
27245
27250
27258
27259
27262
27272
27279
27287
27290
27302
27305
27314
27320
27329°3
273315
27333
27339
27340

BYE REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN EG i anil hci

! na Reduction to |
| Vacuum |

ea Intensity | Previous Measurements | | Oscillation
; Spectrum | Gy ne P| (Angstriim) le | Frequency
(Rowland) haracter ) En cn | in Vacuo
} .|
cs ee 101 | 77 | 97348.
3654-7 1 | & + 27354
| 3654-2 2 | ap alieaas 27358
3653°3 2 ” | ” 27365
36515 1 s ~ 27378
3650-0 1 ts ae 27389
3649-0 1 | 1, » 27397
3647°9 1 | nae . 27405
3646-72 Bid: | I debe taae 274142
| 8645-78 6 | cass ” 27421°3
| 36443 1 | + She Pd aa 27432
3644-0 1 ee Le oe 27434
| 3643-6 1 fae Nan 27437
es on a | 1S ae . 27438
36431 | 1 i. 4 » 27441
iiss | on, Hig
‘DD ee eer | 27453-1
3640-1 1 | ei nee 27464
3640-0 1 | Su tle os: 27465
| 3639-2 1 Pe Lu heii) 27471
| 3638-0 1 erie s. 27480
| 3637-4 1 ET tee 27484
3636 8 1 | Pan ee = 27489 |
3635-4 In aR ae a 27499 .
3635-2 1n Mo are + 27501 ,
oan ! Pevssis tft ihe 27511 bo
9b50' ” | ” 27514
3632°7 1 | ane ee cs 27520 |
| 3631-5 1 | mand ie 27529 |
| 36310 i ule 27533 .
| 36309 1 | is | > 27533 ,
| 3630°4 1 Tees ey, 27537 a
| 3630-2 1 | aca | “4 539
i 3629-1 2 27547
” ”
i 36265 1 D stas-tenltaee 27567 |
| 3625° 8 1 | bye del aha 27572 .
3625°5 1 ke Sisal sass 27574
36251 | 1 | le lags 27577
| 3624:3 1 eee, alee 27584
| 2623-6 1 ares i Pa 27589
| 3623-1 1 rey UA 27598
3622°9 1 eee a 27594.
| 3621-4 1 | eae 5 27606 |
| 3620 7 1 tal ee 27611 a
| 3620-0 1 ia Ree 27616 (7
| 36196 inet Tan ee 27619 |
| 3619-3 1 | See at ee 27622 i*
| 36185 1 hare 27628 \-
3617-72 6 1:00 | ,, 27633-9
36169 1 A 27640
3616°5 1 a) ey 27643
3616 2 1 aes ¥2 27645
3615-6. 1 ” ” 27650
| 36150 1 hens i 27655
3614-6 1 et Ee a 27658

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 3575

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

SR tenctt | Reduction
ave-length : |
Spark Tene Previous Measurements | ue pombe Oscillation
Spectrum Geeta: (Angstrém) 1 Frequency
(Rowland) | xe <~ in Vacuo
3613-97 8 1:00 78 27662°6
3612-00 4 Wha: es 276777
3611:0 In eg en “5 27685 |
3608-9 iT ee seen Wane ess:
3607°6 In statin Was 27711
3607°3 2 eee ap 27714
3606°7 1 ¥ At 27718
3606°4 1 » eM 27720
3605 6 1 oe Herds 27727 |
3605°2 1 * 4 27730
3604 iti 1 ” | ” 27738 |
3603°9 1 ” ” 27740
3603-0 ibe, ” ” 27747
3601-7 1 hs fc 27757 |
3601-2 i! | ab Ses Ae 27761
3600:6 In sp ap 27765
3599-0 ] + ch 27777
8597'8 1 | a 4 27787 |
35963 1 Seen dj 27798
35956 1 | ae 7 27804
3595-2 1 Piles 79 27807
3595-0 1 Maen ay 27808
35946 1 We ess FP 27812
35941 1 eae omer, 27815
3593°6 1 alee Pr 27819
3592°55 3 op ' 27827°5
3590'9 1 on 5 27840
35905 In cf - 27843 |
3589°9 1 a 3 27845 |
3589°7 In oF + 27849
3588°7 In or . 27851
35871 1 iy asa ” 27870
3586 3 in ; lates % 27876
3585'8 In ; x an 27880
3585°3 In 1) Wis oa 27884
3585°0 1 heehee oe 27886
3584'8 1 6 4G 27888
3583'5 2 “- ' 27898
3582°8 1 An a 27903
3582-7 1 55 i. 27904
3582:0 2 + tS 27909
3581-2 2 3 aS 27916
35798 in dite, 27927
3578°6 in ” | 27936
3577°6 1 0:99 a 27944
3576°0 1 op “f 27956
3575'S 2 a3 a 27962
3574-0 1 Hs a 27972
3573°5 1 a5 > 27976
3572°6 8 3 “ 279824
3572°2 1 a “i 27986
3571:0 UI rf Ar 27995
3570°3 2 5 ae 28001
3569°8 1 Ls Mie 28005

co
~I
ior)

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Previous Measurements
(Angstr6ém)

3569°7
3569°3
3569°1
3568°2
3567°6
3565'8
3565°7
3565°5
35645
35642
3563°6
3562°6
3561°5
3559°8
3559'0
3558°5
35584
3557°3
3557-2
3556-1
3555°35
35546
35541
3554-0
3553:0
35523
3551°6
3551:0
3550°8
3550°2
3549°23
3548°3
3546°5
3545-40
3544-6
3544-3
3543°3
3542°3
3541-7
3541°3
3540°8
3540°4
3540°0
3539°5
3538°6
3538-2
3537°5
3536-47
3536°6
3535-4
3534-5
3532°8
3532°7
35314
3531-1

MRR RDF DR DHE RRR HR RP RP RP ENDER RE NOR RRR RP RP RB RP RP RE RP RP RRR RP NNR RRR RR Rr NP Pe

Reduction to

Vacuum
A+ —
0:99 9
” ”
” ”
” } 9
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
3? ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” | ”
o ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
7 ”
” ”
“1 8-0
” ”
bb) ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
Or98" sh 33

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

28007
28009
28010
28017
28022
28036
28037
28039
28046
28049
28054
28061
28070
28083
28090
28094
28095
28103
28104
28113
28118°7
28195
28129
28129
28137
28143
28148
28153
28155
28159
28167°1
28175
28189
281976
28204
28206
28214
28222
28227
28230
28234
28237
28241
28245
28252
28255
28261
28268°8
28276
28277
28285
28298
28299
28309
28312

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 377

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Previous Measurements

(Angstrim)

3530°9
3530-7
3529-72
3528-9
3528°8
3528'1
3527°8
3526-9
3525-7
3524-6
3524-3
3523-6
3523-2
3522-2
3522-1
3521-0
3520-2
3518-9
3518-6
3517-5
3517'1
3516-3
35161
3515-1
3514-3
3513-0
3512-2
35118
35113
3510-6
3510-1
3509-4
3509:1
3508-89
3508-0
3507 3
3506-6
3506-3
3504-9
3504-8
3503-88
3503-1

3502-2
3501-4
3500°3
3499-7
3498-9
3498-2
3498-0
3496-9
3496-0
3495-40
3493-2
3492-1
3491-2

eee ee Rear tee ee aie sae

pB

5

Oe TL ae el eae ~ al al pla

Reduction to

Vacuum
ae
A+ =
vr
— a
0-98 3:0
” ”
” ”
3 ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
bh) ”
’ ”
” ”
” ”
0” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” | ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
» ”
* $1
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
»” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
hs ”
0:97 oA

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

28313
28315
28322°9
28329
28330
28336
28338
28346
28355
28364
28366
28372
28375
28383
28384
28393
28399
28410
28412
28421
28425
28431
28433
28441
28447
28458
28464
28467
28471
28477
28481
28487
28489
28490°9
28498
28504
28510
28512
28523
28524
28531°7
28538
28545
28552
98561
28566
28572
28578
28580
28589
28595°9
28601
28619
28628
28635

BY] REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

lw Tenet Reduction to “aes
1 ave-length illati
Spark ino? | Previous Measurements bier? 4 Wee |
| Chowiond) Character (Angstrom) es | a in Vacuo
| |
| |
| 34903 aie tl | 097 | 81 28643
3489-9 1 ime ae | tk: 28646 |
3489 5 in? al Ron baa 28650 |
3488-7 1 eat |e 28656
3488-6 1 | Ra itraty 8 28657 .
3487-1 1 er = 28669 |
3486°32 4 | 1) Sia oe 28675°4
3485°5 1 | a & 28682
3485°3 1 / od tine] 28684 |
3483°5 1 ath ane 28699 |
3482°8 1 arce ie ae 28705 |
3481°5 1 / Pi sdaM |S ce Pant 28715
3480°6 1 | ages ante 28723
3480°3 1 | ie Weare 28725
3479-0 inh ie oe S: 28736
3478-0 2 ad | eae 28744
BATT -2 2. | ge: a 28751
3476°6 2 | gee) Setbpte. 28756
347555 4 ineethe deere 2 28764:3
3475°45 4 a 28765°2
3474-2 In lat es a 28776
3473-0 1 | be eee |) Epos
3472-4 1 ee thee a, 28791"
3471°9 1 | [ie 4 28795
3470°5 ‘tnt tA ae 8-2 28806
34702 Int moi | lee i 28809
3469°3 lit) 21] eis a 28816
3468°3 2 x 3 28825 :
3468-0 1 fs a 28827
3467-6 1 | | Reps 28830
3467-0 1 | f et 28835 ;
34665 1 | we deer te 28840 =
3466-0 1 = at 28844
3465-2 1 Peeing Hairy 28850
3464-6 2 Let -s. a 28855
3463-70 6 ‘ fe | 28862°7
3462:7 In Pitino) 28871 -
3462-2 In ete Shee 28875 | #
3461-7 1 He teas | 28880 |
3460°3 1 ee) ete 28891
3459°8 1 ” | ” 28895 :
3459°6 1 leas Daal tg 28897
3458°8 1 WO:S6E4\ 0s, 28904
3458-4 1 me, Se 28907 |
3457°8 a | ya 3 28912 |
34565 1 ross 0 28923
34551 2 | ie Fla 28935
3454-0 1 | AD Hilt aoe 28944
3452-9 In FS Sia FIL es 28953 |
3452°6 2 eh sen 28956
| 3452-0 1 a ital 28961
| 8451-9 1 nf bi 28962 ,
| 3451:3 1 el 28967 ;
| 3450°8 1 f Fs 28971
| 3450°3 1 labs 63 28975 j

i“

’
Dad

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 957 9

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—eontinued.

Wawve-leneth Reduction to
ave-ien . I ‘ A
Spark : Bey Previous Measurements aE oe
Spectrum Glare tad (Angstriim) | ¥ in Vacuo ,
(Rowland) racer | 2S: a
| A
3450-00 4 | 096 | 82 | 28977°3
3449-5 1 . ee >; 28982 |
3449-0 1 3 se 28986
3448-4 2 | . ae | 28991 |
3448-2 1 i iy 28993 |
a | ae
; ” | ” é
34466 1 wat ‘cpah 94720006 /
3445°8 1 my Ree 29013
sus | Peon eae
3444-7 1 e 29022 |
3444-2 ey | aaa i 29026
3443-2 2 Nas iy 29035
3442-1 1 are “ 29044
3440-80 6 Fe ee, ch en 29054-8
3438-8 1 ae is 29072
3438-2 1 7 lana 29077
3435-7 2 . cs 29098
3434-8 ik s z 29106
3433-9 1 es a: 29113
31323 in ease
hi n | ” ” ~” ”
3431-7 In oe 2 29132
3430°8 2n bees a 29140
3430-4 1 29143
, { ” ” 1
3407 8 : . + pale .
: ‘ i ” | ” 2
34263 1 en 29178
3426-0 1 yes: 29181
3425-6 1 a a 29184
31246 2 ely coat
3423-3 1 Cael aca 29204 |
3422'8 1 ii - 29208 |
3421-4 1 > 29220 |
34193 1 Peete mbe et cea
3418-6 rf bred 29244
3418-4 1 be ¢ 29245
3417-7 1 095 |, 29251 .
as 1 * f 29252 |
3416-78 4 : si 29259°0
3415-4 2n . nt 29271
ss | 3 | aaa
: a 4 ; 29287 :
3412°8 2 ‘ - 29293
ee In # i 29300
3409-3 i is ates
oo In Ss $3 29324
: 6 2 a9 ~ 29338
a | 1 ale
eae 7 2 e A 29346
3406-2 1 . 3 29350

380 REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length ahs Reduction to |

Rent and Pie revious Measurements skeet Oscillation

+ (Rowland) Character | (Angstréim) | 1 | Frequency

At ,T | in Vacuo

| 34062 | 1 Peete eae

| Saegee oy 095 | 83 29351

| 3404-3 1 ” ” 29362
34042 1 ” ” 29367

| 3408°8 1 ” ” 29367

3402°8 1 ” ” 29371
3402:2 if ” ” 29380

3402:03 | 6 ” » 29385

| 3401-5 | iL ” ” 29385°9
3401-0 it ” ” 29391

| 3400-7 1 ” ” 29395

| 3400°2 | 1 ” | ” 29398

H 3399:07 6 | ” ” 29402
33983 9 jo» ” 29411°5
cy ia ” ” 29418
3397°4 | ¥ ” ” 29424
3396°5 : 1 ” ” 29426
3396-0 | 1 » wrt 29434
3395-0 1 ” ” 29438
3394-6 | 9 2. Se) 29447
3393°7 In ” ” 29451
3393°1 if ’ ” 29458
3392°5 1 ” + 29464
3391°7 1 H ” ” 29469
3390°5 on {fa age | eens 29479
3389°7 1 | ” ” 29486
3389°0 7 ” ” 29493
3387°8 | 2 ” aay, 29499
3387:0 if | ” ” 29510
3386-7 ] | oa : 29517
3386°2 | Ll ” ” 29519

| 8386°0 | 1 8 As 29524
3385'1 1 ” ” 29525
33845 1 roe a | atx 29534
3384°4 1 ” ” 29538
3384-0 l ” ” 29539

| 3383°3 2 ” ” 29543

| 3382-4 1 ” ” 29549
3382-0 1 ” ” 29557
3381°2 2 ” ” 29560
3379°'8 uf ” ” 29567
3379°3 2 Hiss ” 29580
3378:7 1 ies ” 29584
3378-4 1 ene : 29589
3378°3 | 1 ” i 29592
33775 1 ” ” 29593
3377-0 i Of | ,, 29600
3376°25 8 ” ” 29604
3375 3 1 ” ” 29610-4

| 33743 1 ” ” | 29619

| 3373-4 if ” ” 29628

|. 3373°0 1 33h syle 29636

{| 3d72'4 2 ” ” 29639

” ” 23644

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 381

TUNGSTEN Sa Sr me,

i — | co to i
Ve-len 1 - acuum * °
ry Intensity | preyjous Measurements eer | Oscillation
Spectrum and (Angstrém) a 1 | gig et |
(Rowland) Character 5 =~ | in Vacuo
iwaat i pi. Rae F :
3371-7 | 1 0-94 | 8-4 | 29651
3371°3 1 in a0 29654
3370°7 1 - er 29659 |
3370-4 il ” ” 29662
3370:0 1 aes ine 29666
3369°9 1 oc WN 29666
3369-2 1 TI apd 29673
3368-3 In etal a | 29681
3367°8 1 Sa Ba 29685
3367°5 1 cit Peo al 29688
3366-8 2 s as | 29694
3366°5 1 saree “ 29696
3366-0 i :. ¥ 29701
33653 1 5 a 29707
3364:9 1 % & 29711
33640 2 ” ” | 29719
3363'5 2 f med 29723
3362°5 1 Aneas » | 29732
336271 i ” ” j 29735
3361-20 4 pee » | 29742:9
3360°5 2 ae 85 29748
3359°3 1 ie i 29759
3358-72 6 Wa Sees t pial aa | 29764°8
3357°8 1 Bes oe 29772
3357-2 1 eA 5 29778
3356°5 1b f a 29784
3355-9 1 < 2 29789
3355°5 1 \aeedoa Nees 29793
335571 1 LAS ow etc 29796
33547 2 chat hh & 29800
3354-2 1 ad aes 29804
83540 | 1 i. z 29806
3353°8 ] Be at 29808
3353/1 2 teas her || pu 29814
3352°5 2 pee Ae 29819
3352:0 1 BE ae: 29824
3351°6 jn 6 « 29828 |
3350-2 ib is ms 29840
3349-6 1 aid de 29845
3349-4 2 eee Rec 29847 !
3349-0 2 Coens mye 29851 |
. 8348-4 2 he ee 29856 .
3347°8 1 . s 29861 |
3347-2 1 - a 29867
3346-2 it Ks = 29876
- 3345-8 2 eee ae? 29879
3345-6 1 real pee 29881
3344-5 1 Auta ee 29891
3343-60 4 nse ; 29899°4
3343-28 4 Bee, Sirti 29902:2
3342-63 6 A - 29908'1
3341:3 | 1 a ee 29919
3340°3 1 se EES 29928
3339°7 1 Soni 29934 |
3339-1 2 Ante at aaee 29939 |

382 REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SpECTRUM)— continued.

| Reduction to

. bibs te epg | Previous Measurements | “ua Wea Tin
Spectrum (Angstrém | in Vacuo H
| (Rowland) Character | ) | a) Nias |
) bo ct ala | | a
{ ' = | t
3338-7 2 1093 | 85 29943 |
| 33383 1 ees ae 29946 i
| 3338°0 In / re lame rt) 29949 ‘
| 3836-7 oy ean ae 29961 .
| 3836-1 1 | (Secs 1| ey 29966
| 38335°6 1 : # 29971
| 33348 1 : : 29978
| 3384-0 1 1 es 29985
3331-7 2 aoe eo 30006
| 33308 In cee | ae 30014
| 3328 1 Oe we 30037
| 8327°8 1 eee | ae 30041
| 3327-2 1 3 a 30046
3326°3 2 : 3 30054
| 3326-2 1 eal ee 30055
| 3325°7 i 2 ” H ” 30060 |
| 3325°0 1 # 8:6 30066
| 3324-2 1 ” ” 30073 |
| 33235 1 3 3 30080
| 3322:6 1 . me 30088 )
3321°7 1 ” ” 30096
| 8321:2 1 ” ” 30101
| 3321-1 1 = 3 30102 *
| 8320°5 1 a a 30107
| 3320-4 1 ini RS 30108
3318-7 1 : " s 30123
33185 1 “f a 30125
S30S-Omeon| a Joker ome 30130
| 3317-0 1 seat (ee 30139
| 33161 1 | _ -s 30147
3315-2 1 | ¥ 5 30155
3314-4 1 he Mess 5 30162
3313°6 1 ) | ” ” 30170
3312-4 1 ss ” 30181
3311°6 2 | Ee ob 30188
33103 2 sd es 30200
3309°6 1 leon as 30206
3309-2 1 eran! tas 30210 |
| 33083 2 eee Poe: 30218
| 8306-2 4n Fe Peetare| BES 30237
$305°5 1 ee y 30244
| 83046 2 ers | bee 30252
| 88045 1 [Seem eee 30253
| 3303-8 1 aan he 30259
|. 3303°3 1 ae (I Mate 30264
' 3303-0 1 Saedp has 30267
3302-0 1 a \PeP 30276
3301:3 1 *, . 30282
3301:0 2 . ff 30285 |
3299°7 1 ov2 | ,, 30297
32988 1 eae Pa 30305
32983 | 2 ew Ors 30310
S20 ro Wire 2 Se ss 30317

]

. Wave-length

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

3296°3
32952
32943
3293°8
3293°0
32917
3291°5
3291-1
3291-0
3290°6
3290°3
329071
3288°8
3288-0
3286-70
3285°8
32837
3282°7
3282-0
5280°2
3279°5
3277°8
3277-6
3277-0
3276°5
3275:7
32749
32732
32720
32717
3270°3
32702
3269 7
3269-0
3268°6
3268°3
3267°6
3266°7
3266:0
3265°2
3264:2
3263°2
3262°37
3261-2
3260°8
3260°3
3259-4
3257°8
325671
3255-7
3255°0
32543
3252°5
3261°2

3250-2

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

| Reduction to
Vacuum

Previous Measurements |
°
(Angstrém)

A+

i.

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

5

a a

bet Rt Rb SD OO DD OO ee et

Sea ia ae

30328
30338
30346
30351
30358
30370
30372
30376
30377
30381
30383
30385
30397
30405
30417:0
30425
30444
30454
30460
30477
30483
30499
30501
30507
30511
30519
30526
30542
30553
30555
30569
30570
30575
30581
30585
30588
30595
30603
30609
30617
30626
30636
30643°9
30655
30658
30663
30671
30687
30703
30706
30713
30720
30737
30749
30758

385

384 REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM) —continued.

| | Reduction to
Wave-length . Vacuum eee
"Spade Intensity / Pravious Measurements Oscillation
Spect and ° fs Frequency
(Rowland) Character | (Angstrom) ane ie in Vacuo
. rN
asa dee | a a
3248°7 i 0-91 88 30775
3247°9 1 ” 5) 30780
3247°6 if ” 3 30783
32464 1 ” ory BOT9L
B245°4 1 ” : 30804
3243°50 4 Tee | 30822°1
3243-2 2 pera ts 30825
324271 2 ae) 3 30835
341-2 1 Peete
3240-0 In ; 30855
3238°9 1 ” ” 30866
3238°5 1 Ae | 30869
32383 v1 Bd) hale a 30871
3237-2 1 ¥ | 30882
32360 1 » - 30893
3235°9 1 » 5 30894
Beas b 1 ar 30902
32346 at : ” 30907
32338 ol oe aa 30914
2233°3 2 all rag 30919
3232°2 1 ” ) 30930
3231°6 1 39 oo 30935
3230°9 1 a 3 30942
3229°7 1 Soee Mae waa 30954
| 3229°5 dj Tova tannins 20956
| ~~ 3229'0 af % 3 30960
| 3297-9 1 is - 30971
1 3227-4. 1 os Pe 30973
| 32267 2 8 oS 30982
3224-9 1 ” ” 31000
3224-0 1 . ” 31008
3223°3 In . 55 31015
3222°7 i ” ” 31021
3222-1 1 ” ” 31027
3221°3 2 7 ss 31034
3221-1 in ” : 31036
3220°2 1 OOO ie 31045
3220°0 1 is Be 31047
3218°9 1 3 * 31058
3218°7 1 ” oe 31059
3217°6 1 “5 a 31070
321673 2 “o 8-9 31083
3215°68 4 ” ” 310887
shee ao
3213-4 1 Keo ah 31111
3213°2 1 % BS 31113
321271 1 ore Tees 31123
32112 1 >| 2 hee
3210°9 1 oo
3210-7 1 ho eee | 31137

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 385

. TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

i am Reduction to
ave-length . re
4 Seng eer Previous Measurements |_ Me soain Pane
ocinea Character (Angstrém) rr + in Vacuo
3210°0 2 0-90 | 89 31144
3208°6 1 ” ” 31157
3208°3 1 » ” 31160
3208 :2 1 » ” 31161
3207°8 1 ” ” 31165
3207°6 i ” ” 31167
3207°3 2 ” ” 31170
; 3206°7 1 5 os 31176
3206-4 2 ” ” 31179
3205°7 1 of 2 31185
3205°6 1 ” ” 31186
3205°3 1 ” ” 31189
3204°5 1 cn » 31197
3203°7 1 a3 ” 31205
3203°43 4 ” 2 31207°6
3202°2 1 “e 4 31220
3202-0 1 ” ” 31221
3201:7 2 ae “: 31224
3200°5 In ” ” 31236
3200°1 1 9 + 31240
3199-4 1 ” ” 31247
3199-0 2 oS “7 31251
3198-4 2 ” ” 31257
3197°5 2 ” ” 31265
31965 1 = “5 31275
31960 1 ” » 31280
3195°8 if “6 5 31282
3194-7 2b “e ‘ 31293
3193°8 2 9 » 31302
3193:2 1 ee = 31308
3193°0 il is a 31310
| 3192°3 1 * ” 31316
| 3192°2 1 Pr Fe 31317
3191°6 2 ” ” 31323
3191-0 2 #9 a 31329
‘| 31893 2 a |- 81346
3188°5 1 PS 3 31354
" 31880 1 “- Ns 31359
: 3187°8 i | * Ps 31361
3187:1 | 2 ” ” 31367
3186°4 1 i a 31374
3185-0 1 % - 31388
; 3184°4 } 1 ” » 31394
3184-0 1 3 “ 31398
3183°5 1 } 4 3 31403
3182°8 al 5 aly | 31410
3182°2 1 4 31416
31818 1 0°89 a 31420
3180°8 i +s 9-0 31430
3180°2 1 = 3 31436
3179°60 4n ” ” 31441'5
3178°7 In ce a 31450
31781 2 A As 31456
3177°2 2 - - 31465
3176-7 | 1 31470

1898, a * cc

386 REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

| Reduction to

Weredengib Intensity | Previous Measurements Vacuum Oscillation }
Ss ms 22 (Angstrém) } Frequency
pecirunt Character 8 VataG
(Rowland) Ne x
317610 4 089 | 9:0 31476-2
31751 1 : ; 31486
3174-7 1 2 a6
3173°6 1 ”» ” 31501
31728 1 4 és 31509
SLTL6 1 ” ” 31521
31714 ] ” ” 31523
31702 1 “ : 31535
3170-0 1 3 5 31537
31685 In st ‘ 31552
3167-9 1 * 3 31558
3167-7 1 if A 31560
3167-0 1 é és 31567
3166'S In 5 af 31572
ae 1 f 31580
el6b4 1 is ‘ 31583
31648 i a1 home 31589
a 1 s is 31592
3164-4 1 . Ki 31593
3163°6 2 - 3 31602
3162°2 1 4 ee
3162-0 1 2 : oleae
3161°3 1 a i eet
31607 1 ae i 31630
3160°20 4 ib eee 316346
3159-0 4b is 7 31647
31570 In Ss .. 31667
Blob 1 5 9 eS 31680
3165°5 1 e eee
alba 1 pales 31685
3154-2 1 ‘ é oe
_s 1 iz 31709
31524 9 2 : te
31516 1 ‘i mie
3151°3 2 i orene
a de 2 is a 31738
ape 1 oe We 31739 |
eager 1 3 ie 31756 .
| 31470 1 re ee 31758
iano 1 ih oe 31769 .
| 31463 9 z athe
| 3145-7 2 c. i 31780
| 31455 1 : : 31789
Fane 2 Stel 31793
(ores oe 2 aie ae 31805
3143-0 1 : : Bat:
B1esS 1 ee oa 31809
3142-0 4 ; : ane
3140°3 1 ” ” 31835
3140-2 1 Ye hee
31394 1 Bi Gia 31844
ep 1 ot | oe eee
31379. 1 % f 31859
Viger 1 ote 31862 (

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 9337

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM) —continued.

\f Reduction to
| ae eit Previous Measurements Veta eee
an my requene
Goclaea) Character = ree - in vaste
|
3137-2 1 | O88 | M1 31867
3135°9 1 ? 2 31880
31358 1 _ 9% 31881
3133'8 2 < é 31901
3132-6 1 - # 31913
3131-2 1 = a 31928
3130-4 1 re - 31936
3129-7 2 . s 31943
31290 2 ps i 31950
3127:7 2 7 - 31963
3127°3 1 cs _ 31967
3126°3 2 ee es 31978
3125-7 i i x 31984
3125°3 1 i a 31988
3124-5 In ss A: 31996
3123°5 2 PA 4 32006
3121°9 In Mo re ee 3) 32023
3121-0 1 a : 32032
3120-7 1 - s 32035
3120°1 2 & 5 82041
3119°6 1 a ie 32046
3119-4 1 =" i 32048
31183. 1 2 - 32060
3117-5 2 “7 be 32068
3116-0 In e a 32083
3115-4 1 Pe *: 32090
3115°3 1 s if 32091
3113-6 ] s is 32108
3113°3 1 ta 92 |- 32111
3112°7 2 > ae 32117
31124 1 . 32121
3112-3 1 ae ES 32122
3111°8 1 x a 32127
31111 2 , 32134
3110°6 2 - om _ 82139
3108-6 b, - b 32160
31083 1 eZ. 4 32163
| =3107°9 2 i ‘e B2167
31075 1 i x 32171
3107°2 2 i: 5 32174
3106°5 2} ma 2 32185
3106-1 1 i e 32186
3105-9 1 ie i. 32188
3104-9 1 = 24 32198
3104:3 1 ¥ < 32204
8103-7 1 he md 32211
3103-4 1 ie ¥ 32214
3103-0 In i . 32218
3102-2 | 2 a 55 32226
3101-2 1 1 O87 5, 32237
3100°7 2 Rs = 32242
3100°2 In A a 32247
— 3099°0 1 leas o 32259
3098-7 1 iy, ae fe 32263
. 3098-4 1 Ke ‘. 32266

eae

388 REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wavelet Tatonsiby Reduction to
spate and Previous Measurements Se a ee
(Rowland) Character (Angstrém) j "requency
A+ a in Vacuo
ES A
3096°5 1 rege.
3096:0 2 0.87 9:2 32286
3095°3 i ” ” 32291
3095:0 1 » ” 32298
30947 1 ” ” 32301
3094°0 1 ” ” 32304
3093°6 2 ” ” 32312
3093°3 1 ” = 32316
3092°3 1 ” ” 32319
3091-9 1 ” - 32329
3091:7 1 ” - 32334
3091-2 1 ” ” 32336
3090°7 1 ” ” 32341
3090°5 1 ” ” 32346
3089-2 1 » : 32348
3089-1 1 ” sa 32362
3088°3 1 ” ” 32363
30881 1 ” ” 32371
3087°5 2 ” ” 32373
3086-4 2 ” 7 32380
3085°4 1 ” : 32391
3085°0 2 ” ” 32402
3084'4 il ” 32406
3083-6 2 » iF 37412
3083-2 1 ” 9°3 32421
3082-2 2 ” ” 32425
3081°9 2 ” ” 32435
3081°1 2 ” ” 32439
3080-7 1 ” ” 32447
3080°0 1 ” ” 32451
3079°3 i ” ” 32459
3079-0 if ” ” 32466
30783 ] ” ” 32469
3077°63 6 ” ” 32476
3076°9 1 ” ” 32483°2
3076-0 2 » ‘s 32491
30753 In ” ” 32501
30740 g ” ” 32508
30733 2 : = 32522
30727 2 a ss 32529
307 1 8 24 ” ” 32536
3071-3 2 : 5 32545
3069°3 2 » : 32551
3068°6 1 ” ” 32572
3068-2 1 ” ” 32579
3067°9 2 ” ” 32583
3067°6 2 ” ” ; 32587
3067-0 24 ” ” 32590
3065°1 1 ” 4 32596
3065°0 1 ” ” 52616
306471 2 ” ” 32617
3063°3 1 ” ” 32627
3063-0 1 * 4 32636
3062'8 1 » és 32639
3061-7 2 086] ., 32641
” » 32653

wer

“ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 389

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

| Wave-length
3 Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

3061-0
3059°8
3059°7
3059°1
30585
3057°5

3056-2

3055-7

3055°5

3055 1

3055-0

3054-1

3053-5

3051:8

3051-42
30506

30500
3049-8
3049-0
3048.6
3047-6
3047-1
3046-5
3045-6
3045-2
3044-4
3043-7
3042-2
3041-8
3041-0
3040-3
3039-6
3039-3
3038-7
3038-0
3037-7
3037-4
3036-7
3035-4
3035-2
3034-2
3033°9
3033-7
3032-5
3032-0
3031-0
3030-3
3029-9
3029'5
3028 9
3028-7
3027°8
3027°3
3026-7

|

Intensity | Previous Measurements |
and (Angstrém)

| Character

COI SI 0 OS a OS Ol al OS a ll el el cel oe

5

i=]

i=}

3025-9

Dt ol ol cel cell ool el ool SO SO oe ol oe oe on

Reduction to

Vacuum

A+

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

32660
32673
32674
32680
32687
32697
32711
32717
32719
32723
32724
32734
32740
32759
32762°2
32771
32778
32780
32789
32793
32804
32809
32816
32825
32830
32838
32846
32862
32866
32875
32882
32890
32893
32900
32907
32911
32914
32921)
32936
32938
32949
32952
32954
32967
32973
32983
32991
32995
33000
33006
33008
33018
33024
33030
33039

390

REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

3024-9
3024-58
3023 6
3022-9
3022:7
3022°6
3021-7
3021-0
3020-7
3020°3
3019-6
3019-4
3018-6
3017-9
3017-4
3017-1
3015'6
3014-9
3014-6
3013-7
3013-2
3012-1
3011-7
3011-2
3011-0
3010-7
3009°6
3008°8
3008-0
3006'5
3006-3
3005°3
3004-8
3004-2
3004-0
30037
3003-0
3002'8
3002-2
3001:9
3000°9
3000°6
3000-3
2999°6
2998-7
2998-0
2997-7
2997-6
2996-9
2996-5
2996-0
2995°7
2995-4
2995°3

3025°2

Intensity
and
Character

Previous Measurements
(Angstrém)

6B

l=]

La cl lc el el Sl ld Sc cl le ce ce Se ee

Reduction to
Vacuum

At+

in Vacuo

Oscillation
Frequency

33251
33253
33265

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 391

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)— continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Lnitendit V.
ens. .
on ea y Previous Measurements . oe Oscillation
(Rowland) Character (Angstrom) 1 Hrequency
A+ neh in Vacuo
a le A
29948
we : 0:85 | 9-6 33381
2993°6 2 f? ‘i aoa
2992°9 1 pas ouae
2992-0 2 2 s ae
2991°5 1 e 2 catia
2990-7 1 % ‘: an
2989-5 1 f é: pare
2988°8 1 s - eae
2988-6 1 E. bers,
2987°3 2 i es 6
2986-4 1 v4 pe sade
2986-1 1 fe i pet:
2985°9 1 $ is
2984-9 1 & t py
2984:5 1 i E ade
98a 1 * x 33496
2983-6 1 @ a oaeye
ae 1 i f 33507 _
2982°6 1 § 4 ee
mips ; 0-34 |, 33518
2981-6 1 é is et
2980°7 In Pe * cata
2979-9 2 ” ” 33539
2979-2 1 E ‘ oocee
2978°3 1 ? Sate
Apts i is Es 33566
905.0 1 a ss 33570
2007-6 2 fs . 33574
2976-9 1 - ve 33579
ae? d S B 33582
2975°7 In 3 is ae
2975'1 1 i % pet
ane 4 ‘ 33602
“ 3 m8 i 33610
ams A *: fe 33623
ae) : s 3 _ 33625
ts - % E 33627
ae : ks ¢ 33632
2971-4 1 ig %s aoa
2971-0 1 x x aaa
He : sit 9% 33649
2970-0 1 x : bey
as : x 33660
ee : 4 . 33662
4 2969-0 1 # ¥ pee
=a : F ¥ 33671
BS) 2967-1 1 x 33698
2967-0 1 if E ee
{ ae : i 33694
| 2966-2 1 aimee 33703
| 2965:6 1 é is 53710
mes i & i 33710
| 2964-5 2 Pe % mee
| 2962-6 1 4s orede
| 33744

92 REPORT—1898,

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Vacuum

Spark Intensity | Previous Measurements Oscillation
Spectrum and (Angstrim) 1 Frequency
(Rowland) Character Nee -- in Vacuo
2961°8 1 0°84 | 97 383753
2961:0 2 Ws ra 33762
2960°3 1 a: = 33770
2960°1 1 ” " 33773
2960-0 1 ” ” 33774
2959:0 In AS a 33785
2958°0 1 Ss + 33797
2967°4 1 A ” 33803
29573 L - * 83805
2956°8 1 +3 ‘ 33810
2956°5 1 ” ” 33814
2955°3 1 A = 33828
2955'0 2 a 3 33831
2954-0 1 5 ty 33842
2953°9 1 - = 33844
2953°0 1 * A 33854
2952°3 4 Fn 33862
2951-0 1 . a 33877
2950°5 2 z ss 33883
2949°2 1 m1 4 33898
2948°5 1 :: . 33906
29483 1 - _ 33908
2947:8 In 9 as 33914
2947°5 1 as : 33917
2947-0 2 en 5 33923
2946-0 In A es 33934
2945:3 1 “ 9°8 33942
2944:6 2 a 7 33950
2943°5 1 a3 33963
2943-2 1 - Fé 33967
2942-7 1 0°83 D 33972
2942°3 ] si N 33977
2941-6 1 a 83985
2941°4 1 ” ” 33987
2941°1 1 a - 33991
2940°8 1 ” » 33994
2940°3 2 a 34060
2939°0 2n ” ” ; 34015
2937-7 1 ” ” 34030
2937-2 1 >: ‘ 34036
2936°7 2 ef sa 34042
2935°7 1 " i 34053
2935°3 1 s 3 34058
2935-0 2 i : 34062
2933-0 1 5 j 34085
2932-7 1 ; 3 34088
2932°0 1 ‘ . 34096
2931°6 1 " é 34101
2931-0 1 . hs 34108
2930-0 2 is i; 34120
2929-1 1 a 34130
2928-7 1 a * 34135
2928°2 1 “ 5 34141
2928-0 A sy _ 34143
2927°9 1

” ” 34144

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 393

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—-continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length I : Vacuum here
Spark ntensity Previous Measurements Oscillation
Spectrum | (4 and (Angstrém) 5 a nei
(Rowland) haracter nee to in Vacuo
2927-1 1 083 | 9:8 34154
eer 1 a Aen 34155
2025°9 2 i 34168
2925°1 2 Se ., 34177
east 1 Ab hecs? 34189
2923°6 2 34194
2923°2 1 is 53 34199
2922/0 1 it hoes 34213
oh 1 we 1 Od 34293
es 1 i G 34224
zoty'G 1 ath 34241
2919-1 1 y, a 24247
cae 2 og eee 34252
av18'3 1 i ‘ 34257
2917-7 In 5 i ae 34264
B10 In a lt at 34272
“canal 1 wh es 34275
2915°6 1 ne ee 34288
2915°2 1 a 34293
2914-7 1 pa ee 34299
es 1 at ee 34302
eet 1 rb ae 34311
ee 2 thos 34324
ae 1 a 34327
he 2 FOB ost 34333
eee 2 sella 34358
se 1 er RES 34363
ool 2 eb hss 34371
alee I yh Where 34374
eo 1 tie 34383
aos l eles 34385
2906-5 2 Ae 34396
ea 1 ee 34405
pee 1 wa 34410
a ae oat eee
oad 1 meh ae 34417
2904-3 2 ca As 34422
ee 2 082) |» 34429
ea. 1 me i ee 34441
“ho I as 34445
fae 1 er ee 34451
a 2 a ee 34457
“UN 1 wy 34461
coh l oto sy 34470
2899-0 1 MB get 34485
eT 1 See 34488
2898-4 1 a he 34492
oackygl 1 pen a 34500
= bid He Wy Regs 34505
2396°5 2 » | 100 34514
Ne 2 Ayal 34519
2895:0 y | A o 34532
2394-3 1 Web d 34541
2893°8 1 ¥ 3 34547
a u ffeil Sad 34549

394 REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

aa aes Reduction to
pores Intensity | Previous Measurements | Yaga Oscillation
Spectrum and (Angstrém) i Frequency
(Rowland) | Character A+ <~ in Vacuo
28930 1 ” ” 34556
2892°6 1 ” ” 34561
2892°2 1 ” ” 34566
2891°6 1 ” ” 34573
2891°1 1 ” a3 34579
2890°7 1 ” ” 34584
2889°9 2 ” ” 34593
2889°5 1 ” ” 34598
2888'8 i ” ” 34606
2888°4 1 ” ” 34611
2887-7 1 ” ” 34620
2887°0 2 A + 34628
2886°5 1 7 on 34634
2885°'8 1 5 a 34642
2885'6 1 ” ” 34645
2885:0 1 i 3 34652
2884:°3 2 a5 or 34660
2883°3 if of 3 34672
2882°5 2 7 3 35 34682
2881°7 2 + 5 34692
2880°8 1 A m0 34703
2880°3 1 = A 34709
2879°6 1 “a 3 34717
2879°3 1 Mo A 35 34721
2878°4 1 4 oy 34732
28783 it Es “3 34733
2877-1 1 7A Pa 34747
2875°3 1 5 5 34757
2876'1 1 - Pa 34759
2875°6 1 5 oF 34765
2875°3 1 ~ - 34769
2874:7 1 a 5 34776
28740 1 ee = 34785
2873°5 al As « 84791
2872°8 1 a 10°1 34799
2872:0 1 Fs 5 34809
2871°5 1 3 = 34815
2871:0 1 5 = 34821
2870°8 1 A 5 34823
2869°7 1 . 9 34837
2868°7 2 _ Fe 34849
28680 1 - a 34857
2867°8 1 A 6 34860
2867'5 1 aS 34864
2866'8 1 55 34872
2866°7 1 > 4 34873
2866°5 1 ns brelese 34876
2866°2 1 © Lahey 34879
2865°9 1 a A 34883
2865°5 1 ‘ <a 34888
2865:0 1 re 4 34894
28647 1 0°81 0 34898
2864:2 1 Pa ; 34904
2863°7 1 34910

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

2863°3
2862°6
2862°3
2861°6
2861°3
2861-1
2860°3
2859°6
2858°7
2858°5
2858-2
2857°8
2857'7
2857°3
28562
2855°6
2854°9
2854°6
2853°6
28523
2851-1
2850-9
2849-7
2848°3
2848-2
2848-0
2847-4
28473
2846°3
2845'8
2845-1
2844-7
2843-9
2842°8
2842-7
2841-7
2841-2
2840°8
2840-0
2839-0
2838-6
2837-9
2837-5
2837-0
2836°3
2835°8
2835:3
2834°3
2833-7
2833:°3
2833-2
2832-6
2832-0
2831-4
2830-2

dletlatadiet ake ea ed Cn ee ee ee eee

i=} i=}

Hee eee Reet

i=}

LN 2 ll cell sell el SS)

Previous Measurements

(Angstrém)

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequeucy
in Vacuo

34915
34923
34927
34935
34939
34942
34951
34960
34971
34973
34977
34982
34983
34988
35002
35009
35017
35021
35033
35049
36064
35067
35081
35099
35100
35102
35110
35111
35123
35130
35138
35143
35153
35167

~ 35168

35180
35186
35191
35201
35214
35219
35227
35232
35238
35247
35253
35260
35272
35280
35285
35286
35293
35301
35308
35323

395

396 REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to
Waye-length eduction

Spark Intensity | Previous Measurements Yaeuem Oscillation
Spectrum and (Angstrém) Frequency
(Rowland) Character At <- in Vacuo
28300 | 1 ) 0°81 | 102 35326
2828:7 ae | “ 99 35342
2827°5 2 - . 35357
28266 | 2 - "5 35368
2825°3 1 : as ‘ 35384
2825-0 ae [A ag $9 35388
2824-3 In | 080:] — 55 35397
2823-9 in, «| | 2 lee 35402
2822-6 2 | ty ade » 35418
2821°7 1 s fe 35430
2820°7 2 i f 35442
2820-0 2 \ os : 35451
23192) | 2 | si 5 35464
2818 2 2 + 9 35474
2817°5 In s 35482
28163 2 os 3 35498
2815-5 1 7 ” 35508
2814-9 2 - 33 35515
2814°3 In is is 35523
2313-3 2 : rt 35535
2812°3 2 a 35 35548
2810-0 2 F m 35577,
2809-0 2 1h age ‘ 35590
2808-0 1 Le = 35603
2807°9 1 Mo = % 35604
2806°7 i s * 35619
2806-1 2 ¥ < 35627
2805-7 1 <e # 35632
2805:2 1 ., 4 35638
2804-9 1 > ¥ 35642
2804-7 1 ‘ 4 35644
2804:3 1 x ae 35650
2804-0 1 ft 35653
2803-7 2 vt Z 35657
28033 1 . : 35662
2803°1 1 a i 35665
28027 1 " 35670
2802°5 1 bs re 35672
2802-2 1 j 4. 35676
2801-6 1 “ sf 35684
2801°3 2 -. q 35688
2800-2 1 z ; 35702
2799-22 4 C 10-4 35713°8
2798°5 In , 35723
2797°6 In ‘ sah i] 35735
2797°1 In a : 35741
2796°3 1 * i 35752
2795:7 2 a a 35759
27938 1 “f 3 35784
2793-2 1 ¥ f 35791
2792'8 a x .. 35796
2792-0 if a3 s 35807
2791-9 1 _ z 35808
2790°6 2 ” ” 35825
27903 1 = Hl 33828

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 397

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

Intensity
and
Character

Previous Measurements
(Angstrém)

2789°3
2788°7
2788'2
2786°5
2785'8
2785°3
2784°4
2784-2
2783°9
2783°3
27827
2782°3
2780°5
27795
2778'8
27781
2717-7
2776-7
27752
27747
27742
2772°8
2771-2
2770°7
2770-2
27700
27692
2768°5
2768°2
2767°7
2767-2
2766°5
2765:5
2765.0
2764°40
2762-7
2761-6
2760°8
2760°6
2759°6
2759°5
2757°9
2757:3
2756°8
2755°1
2753°3
2753-2
2751°6
2750°8
2750-4
2750°2
2749°4*
2749-0

2

*

1
il
2
1

5

2
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2

1
2
4
In
2

2
1
a
J
1

1
1
1
1
2
il
1
in
1
1
2
1

* Double.

Reduction to
Vacuum

At

i
x

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

0°80

10-4

35841
35849
35855
35877
35886
35893
35904
35907
35911
35919
35926
35931
35955
35968
35977
35986
35991
36004
36022
36029
36035
36054
36074
36081
36087
36090

* 36101

36110
36114
36120
36127
36136
36149
36155
361637
36185
36200
36210
36213
36226
36227
36248
36256
36263
36285
36309
36310
36331
36342
36347
26350
36361
36366

398° REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length ee
g one ae Previous Measurements ty i Sis: eer ti
ectrum an Ae erates requenc
(Rowland) Character (Angetrém) A+ Boy in Facts
A
2748-4 2 079 | 106 36374
2747:°0 1 39 ‘a 36392
2746°9 1 ” ” 36394
2746°5 2 ey, 3 36399
27451 1 ” ” 36418
2743°3 a 99 a 36441
2743°2 1 5 ” 36443
2743°0 2 ” ” 36445
2742°6 2 + e 36451
2742°1 1 ” PA 36457
2741°3 1 0:78 ” 36468
2741:0 2 ” ” 36472
2740°3 1 ” 9 36481
2739°7 2n on » i 36489
27386 ln “ ” 36504
2737-9 In 9 ” 36513
2737°0 © i! Pn ” 36525
2736°7 1 ” ” 36529
2735°9 In a ” 36540
2734:8 2 ” ” 36555
27334 1 ” ” 36573
2732-0 1 “7 ” 36592 2
| 9731-2 In S 9» 36603
2730-9 In os % 36607
2730-0 1 ” ” 36619
2729°3 a ee ”” 36628
2729-0 1 “ 9 36632
2728°5 i ” ” 36639
2728-1 In ” ” 36645
2727-7 1 ” ” 36650
2726:7 2 s 10:7 36663
2725:6 1 Sr ay 36680
2725-2 1 *p ” 36684
2724-5 1 ys a 36693
| 2722-8 D ” ” 36716

2721-7 1 or A 36731
2720°6 2n “e P 36746
2719-9 1 a5 ” 36755
2719-0 1 op ” 36767 }
2718-1 2 °F at 36779
2717-2 1 rm ap 36792 /
2716-9 1 ‘a ” 36796 |
2716:4 2 “5 or 36802
2715-4 2 a ” 36816
2714:5° In 1 Posy ” 36828 |
2714:0 1 yy 53 36835
27135 In Je aig * 36842
2712-7 2n 99 a 36853
2711°8° 1 » ” 36865
2710°9 2 F. + 36877
2710-4 1 ” ” 36884
2709-7 - 1 | a9 ” 36893
2708°9' 1 ae ” 36904
2708°7 2 7 a 36907
2707'8 1 Ih ears - 36919

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
| Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

2707-1
2706°8
2706-0
2705°8
2703-6
2703-2
2702°22
27016
2700°6
2700°3
2699°4
2698°6
2698°1
2697-80
2696-0
2695°1
2694-7
2694°6
2694-2
2692-7
2692-0
2691:2
2689°2
2688°4
2687-7
2687-2
2686-6
2685°5
2685°3
2684°6
2683°8
2683-4
2681°7
2680°8
2679-78
2679-2
2678-1
2676°5
2676-1
2675-4
26749
26743
2673°2
2672:9
2671-7
2670°6
2669-5
2668°2
2667:9
2666°7
2666-2
26659
26652
2664-41
26641

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

pi
6B

bot tat FRO) RO Fat Bot HRD Ft BD HRD BO BD BD Et BD

BB

PRE ED DEPEND NDP PREP EP EDEN EP REE DDE eee be deb

Previous Measurements
°
(Angstrém)

Reduction to

Vacuum
A+ oe
A
0-78 | 10:7
” »”
” ”
” ”
” ”
Be 10°8
” ”
” »”
” ”
” ”
” ”
O77 +
»” ”
” ”
” »”
» ”
” ”
»” »”
» ”
” ”
” ”)
” ”
» ”»
” »”
” ”
” ”
” ”
» ”
” ”
” ”
”» ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
- 10°9

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

36929
36933
36944
36947
36977
36982
369958
37004
37018
37022
37034
37045
37052
37056°4
37081
37093
37099
37100
37106
37126
37136
37147
37175
37186
37196
37202
37211
37226
37229
37238
37250
37255
37279
37291
37305°7
37314
37329
37351
37357
37367
37374
37382
37397
37402
37418
37434
37449
37467
37472
37489
37496
37500
37510
37520°9
37525

tal

3)

99

400

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

2663°7
2663°0
2662°4
2661°8
2660°8
2659°9
2659°4
2658°10
26580
2657°5
2656°7
26562
2655°7
2654°7
26545
2653°7
2652°1
26515
2651°1
2650°4
2650°0
2649°8
264781
2646°9
2646°2
2645°7
2644°7
26441
2643°3
26431
2641:1
2639 6
2639'2
2638-7
2638'3
2637°2
2636°7
2635°4
2634'9
2634°0
2633°2
26329
26314
2630°4
2629°6
2629'1
26283
2628 1
26278
2626°9
2626°5
26263
2625°7
2625°2
2624°0

REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

i=]

ee ee eee

5

te ee ae er he ee ee ee ae

Previous Measurements
(Angstrém)

Reduction to

Vacuum
1
At xX
077 | 109
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 2
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
0-76 | 11-0
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 2”
” ”
’ ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
? ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
? ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
a 111
” ”
’ ”
” ”
” ”
’ ”
’ ”
” i ”
’ { 29
” ”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

37531
37541
37549
37558
37572
37584
37591
37609°0
37611
37618
37630
37637
37644
37658
37661
37672
37695
37703
37709
37719
37725
37728
377501
37769
37779
37786
37800
37809
37820
37823
37852
37874
37879
37886
37892
37908
37915
37934
37941
37954
37966
37970
37992
38006
38018
38025
38036
38039
38044
38057
38062
38065
38074
38081
38099

I

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 401

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

-Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

2622°9
2622-3
2621°7
2620°8
2620:25
2619-2
2618-0
2617°2
2616-7
2615°48
26144
2613'8
2613-1
2612°8
2611:9
2611-4
2610-7
26103
2609-2
2608-4
2607°1
2606°5
2606°4
2605:9
2605°5
2604:5
2604-2
2603-6
2603-07
2602°58
2602-1
2601°5
2601-2
2600°9
2599-7
2598-9
2598-5
2597-9
2596-9
2596-2
2595°6
2594-9
2593:8
2593-4
2592°9
2592-6
2591°5
2589-7
2589-20
2588°5
2587°9
2587°5
2587-2
2586°6
2586°3
1898.

Intensity
and

Character

bee Tee rea RO EB BD at

—
B

ee oe a ell So el ll ell ol ll ol el ed ee Oe em
ry
o

i=)

Cell ell eel ell sel ec ee ee

Previous Measurements
Q
(Angstrom)

Reduction to

Vacuum
1
A+ —=—
O76 | 111
» ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”» ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
75 | 11:
0° 11:2
32 ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
bh) ”
” ”
” ”
” bh)
” ”
” ”
4 ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” th
i ee

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

38115
38123
38132
38145
38153-2
38169
38186
38198
38205
38222°8
38239
38247
38258
38262
38275
38283
382933
38211)
38315
38327
38346
38355
38356
38363
38369
38384
38389
38397
38405-0
38412-2
38420
38428
38433
38437
38455
38467
38473
28482
38496
38507
38516
38526
38542
38548
38556
38560
38577
38604
38510°8
38621
38630
38636
38641
38650
38654
DD

402 REPORT—1L898,

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to

Wage Intensity | Pyevious’ Measurements yponum Oscillation
speeerani pa (Angstrém) : ~ Frequency
(Rowland) Character Pe a savers

25857.° | 1 0-75 | 11:3 38663
26851 / 1 5; c 38672
2584-2 2 je i 38686
2583.3 1 * i 38699
2582'5 1 is 3 38711
BbeRiS 1 i : 38714
2681:22 4 is Z 38730°1
258015 1 53 38744
2579°8 1 i ite
2579°60 4 Z i‘ 28754-4
2579°32 4 ” ” 38758°6
2578-7 1 ‘ f atte
2578-2 1 ; = 38776
2577°8 1 : s Hil
2577°5 1 i é 38786
2577-2 1 3 fi 38791
2576°7 1 , i 38798
2576-2 9 ? : mth
2576-0 2 é 38809
2574-9 = : : mec
2574-1 in = 3 38838
2573-8 1 : : 38342
ies 1 ee 8s. 38848
2573-2 1 is . 38851
es 1 - : 38859
9572-4 1 ‘ : 38863
2572-30 4 é e 38864-4
257145 4 cs ees 38877-3
aos 1 , hee 38903
2568°7 2 . Re 38919
she 1 < a 38933
ala 1 oe © 38934
2567-4 2 3 - 38939
2566°8 1 a is 38948
25666 1 Ee « 38951
2566-2 1 x = 38957
2565°7 1 a! 38965
fatite In O74} 38984
20637 2 aay eS 38995
2563-4 - 1 : = eae
2563-22 4 : ae
2562°5 2 3 39013
25622 | 1 3 : ate
aoe eee nae | 39023
2561°5 1 a # 39029
25607 | 1 3 f 39041
25599 | 1 < 39053
25594 | 3 cee ties 39061
25579 | 2 af - 39084
ple Ra at ee 39091
2557-1 1 . i 39096
2556°9 1 x _ 39099
2656'6 1 39103

* Double.

3 a“
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 4.95

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

_ Reduction to
aa Intensity Previous Measurements | Veruc Oscillation
(Angstrém) . gays

AF ie
A Irs

O74 | 11-4 39114
3 4 391255
5 39131
* re 39134
99 Ph 39148
: 39157
: a 39171
= 39174
= s 39185
- ‘ 39189
= ‘ 39203
A a 39206
ae init 39222
39224 l
39228
- 39238
‘ 39250
39262
39276
39285
ss = 39298
39307
¥ 39333
" 95 39336
39344
39361
39370
= 4s 39375
” ” 39377
39386
e 39397
39411 |

DRED ee he bo bo bo bo ee

=]

6b

39414
39428

39440

39451
39459
39465

39470

39472

39479

39484

39500

39504

39518

39520

39526

39529

39536

39542
39550
39573 |
39581

39584

Bs 39592

DD2

Dt ee eee ene en CnC Ce ee Clee Oren

w
2
se + ve SSS Ss 8

404 REPORT—1898,

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Ww sae Reduction to

eo Intensity Previous Measurements Yacuns Oscillation
Spectrum eae (Angstrém) r Frequency

(Rowland) Character res —- in Vacuo
25248 1 0-74 | 11°6 39595
252471 2 ” is 39606
2523°5 1 = ce 39615
252-4 1 a 7 39617
2522°9 1 2 ; 39625
2522'8 1 i; if 39626
2522°08 4 A > 39637°2
25211 1 : 3 39653
2520'4 l _ : 39664
25200 1 B i 39671
2519°0 1 re . 39686
2518'6 1 rs . 39693
251871 2 i _ 39700
2517°3 2 C13 = 39713
aby 1 » | on 39718
2516'1 2 oS ae 39732
201577 1 i z 39738
2515°3 2 4 39745
25144 2 . : 39759
2514°3 2 : Z 39761
25139 2 “ ns 39767
2513-2 2 * ei 39798
2512-7 2 . 7" 39786
9512" 1 ‘ 39795
2511°7 if ae 11:7 39802
2511°3 1 4 if 39808
2510°9 1 nS * 39814
2510°52 4 es 39820'7
2505°9 1 . ¥ 39830
2509'6 1 J 39835
2508°6 1 re is 39851
2507°9 102 = mt 39862
25071 1 ‘ - 39875
2506'S 1 i AF 39879
2506-0 2 a 2 39892
2505°5 In = 2 39900
2504-7 In i A 39913
2503°6 In 7 . 39930
2502-0 1 - ie 39956
2501°8 ] J “4 39959
2501-0 1 . i 39972
2500-4 “aL vital See 39975
2500°1 2 ‘ ie 39986
2499-7 1 cf a 39993
2499-2 2 s Lt 40001
24989 1 ine ; 40006
2498-2 In [a # 40017
2497-75 2 i 2 40028
2496-6 2 is a 40042
2495°5 1 | Fe a 40060
2495°3 1 . * 40063
2494-9 1 a 3 40070
2494-1 In [ee aha 40083
2492-9 2 y y 40102
24922 2 late Ana 40112

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

| Wave-length

Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Intensity
and

| Previous Measurements

Character (Angstriiin)

2491°7
2490°6
2490-2
2489°9
2489°35
2488-92
2488°2
2487°5
2487°3
2486°3
2485°6
2484-7
24843
2484-0
2483°6
2482°1
2481°6
2480°9
2480°2
2479-1
2478°9
2478°7
24783
2477°93
2477°2
2476°6
24757
2475°6
2474-3
24742
2473°9
2473°2
2472°4
2471°7
2470 9
2469'9
2469°2
24684
2467°4
2466°5
24659
24656
2465°2
2464°6
2464-2
2464:0
2463°2 ©
2462°8
2462°3
2461-9
2461-4
24612
2460°4
2459°8
2459°6

Re D RH RR eb bb be Dee Eee be Ree be
i=] °O [=a Sf=|

Hee be

B

Baa ak ae re Bt Fk A RO

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

405

40121
40139
40145
40150
40159-
40166
40178
40189
40192
40208
40220
40234
40241
40246
40252
40276
40285
40296
40307
40325
40328
40332
40338
403445
40356
40366
40381
40382
40403
40405
40410
40421
40435
40446
40459
40475
40487
40500
40516
40531
40541
40546
40553
40563
40569
40572
40586
40592
40600
40607
40615
40619
40632
40642
40645

ee Oo

4.06 REPORT—1898. +g

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)— continued.
——— : oe oe

| Wave-length 5 ) ae e a4: |
Spark Thtensity Previous Measurements | Oscillation — |
geen | chhed| | nun 1] Breaueney
(Rowland) pee tere ere
| 2459: 1 0-72 120 40652
2458-7 2 of y 40660
aon | (s || eee
24565 1 4 s i888
2456°1 1 is & 40703
2455-9 2 és % 40706
2454-9 i _ = 40723
2154-8 1 vi A 40725
2453 1 fi Ks 40741
2452-9 1 . 3 40756
| 2452-0 1 ‘ 40771
2450-3 1 e ia 40799
| |) =|] gt] | ae
2148-2 2 i Ls 40834
re) 4 é 51
| 2446°50 4 ” ” 40862°7
| 2445-5 1 if b 40879
| 2444-9 if ” ” 40889
| Sass 1 oly et | eae
2441-6 1 Mel hig? 40945
2441-4 1 ig S 40948
2439-9 1 . A 40973
pres i mide i.
<T05" ” ”
ee: i m1) tf dt ae
He | a S] Bet
| bee ” ’ i
| 2435-0 2 - s 41056
94344 1 i -f 41066
2434-2 1 ee 41069
fee | |} | |e
2432-2 1 fe y 41103
Lee | 3 | ae
| 9499-8 ii eh ee 41144 |
2498-7 1 if 41162 {
| 2498-3 1 3 is 41169 |
94976 1 || 12 41178
2427°5 2 Me 54 41183 j
2426-6 1 te i 41198 |
2495-9 In a “ 41210 |
| 2494-9 1 Ki Hl 41297
aoe | | | ale
24239 1 x bs 41244
2493-3 1 i x 41254 |
24935) | | 1 i. r 41268 ia
2499-3 1 i hs 41271 >
| 2491-1 2 o71/ . 41292 Bp
| 24206 2 Oe 8 ee. 41300 te

> :
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 407

‘o

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

2420-0
2419-4
2418-2
2417-9
2417°6
2416-0
2415°7
2414'8
2414-2
24133
2412°8
2411°9
2411-6
2411-4
2411-2
2410°5
2409°5
2409°3
2408°3
2407°8
2407-2
2406 6
2406°3
2406 0
2405°6
2405°3
2404:9
2404°3
24034
2402-4
2399°9
2399°2
2398°1
2397-12
2396'2
2395-6
2395-4
2395:1
2394-4
2393°2
2393:0
2391°8
9391-2
2390°9
2390°4
2389-8
2389°3
2388°8
2388-6
2387°7
2386-5
2386-2
2385°5
2385°3
2383'5

Intensity
and
Character

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Previous Measurements
(Angstrém)

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

Fe

ene ee een BSL et bet att Std OR as to eSNG rt RD et Pt th et tt 0 fet tt

41310
41321
41341
41346
41351
41379
41384
41399
41410
41425
41454
41449
41454
41458
41460
41473
41490
41494
41511
41520
41530
41540
41546
41551
41558
41563
41570
41580
41596
41614
41656
41669
41688
417043
41721
41731
41735
41740
41752
41773
41777
41798
41808
41813
41822
41833
41841
41850
41854
41869
41890
41896
41908
41911
41943

408 REPORT—1898.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
a eee

Reduction to

Wave-length 2 wach eet
Spake Tnjensty Previous Measurements Cooter
Spectrum | (yp, en t (Angstrém) : iregateiicy
(Rowland) pracker A+ | >= cuo
2382°7 1 O71 | 12:5 41956
2382-4 1 f r 41961
2382-0 1 0 | hoe 41969
2381°8 1 Ona 41972
2381-4 1 4 ‘ 41979
238 1°2 1 x Af 41983
2380°9 1 bs = 41988
2380°4 i! , 41997
2380°3 1 e A 41999
2379°7 1 2 ie 42009
23782 il ee fe, 42036
2377-1 1 i ts 42055
2375:9 1 = ns 42076
23745 2 ie ‘: 42101
2373 7 1 0:70 * 42115
2373°4 1 33 i 42121
2372-7 2 mi i 42133
2371:9 1 a if 42147
2371°1 1 as a 42162
2370°1 2 eo 42179
2369:0 . = oa 42199
23684 2 » | 126 42210
2367°8 al a 4. 42990
2367°2 1 a a 42221
2366:7 1 a - 42240
- 2365°9 1 ee s 49254.
2365°5 1 v4 42261
2364-4 2 é me 49981
2364-1 1 os ~ 42286
2363°5 1 = bs 42297
2362°2 2 ss ns 42320
2361-7 1 “ :, 42329
23613 1 at eas 49337
2359-4 1 ee: 49371
2358-9 2 ei Boe 42380
2358-1 1 pens ae 42394
2357-4 1 lee 42407
2356-9 1 a ee 42416
2353-7 1 ” | 437 42473
2353°5 if a E 42477
2351°6 1 fi ee 42511
2008 1 ph 49517
2350°4 1 . si 42533
2349:9 T G a 42542
2349°4 2 . d 42551
2a882 2b # ; 42573
2346:5 1 A 5 42604
2345-0 1 a 49631
2344°5 1 4 ‘ 42640
2343°7 2 vi 4 42655
2341°4 1 x if 42696
2389'7 1 » | 128 42728
2339°1 1 id 42738
2337°7 1 z. a 42764
tii 1 Ag (a 42781

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum
(Rowland)

Intensity
and
Character

Previous Measurements
“4
(Angstrém)

2336°0
2335-2
2334-7
2333°9
2333:2
2332-2
2331°6
2330°6
2329°5
2328°4
2327 6
2326°7
23260
2324-7
23240
2323°1
2321:0
2319-0
2318-0
23147
23142
2313-0
2310°7
23099
2307°1
2305°8
2302°7
2301°9
2300°5
2299-4
2298-9
2298°5
2297°2
2295°7
2294°3
2293°2
2291°6
2290°8
2288°8
2284°8
2284-1
2283:4
2282'1
2281-4
2281°1
2280°7
2278°3
22779
2275°3
2272°7
2270°5
2266-5
2264°6
2263'3
2262°6

wee ee

BSB

Ll cell cel ell oe el ee SO Od

5

B
Q
~—

a aa a eral a

ae

Bee ee Pe

Reduction to

Vacuum
1 _—
A+ x
0-70 | 12°8
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 12°9
” ”
” ”
0°69 =
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 13:0
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
" 13-1
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” bh)
Aa 13:2
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”
0°68 i
+ 13°3
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
- 13°4

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

42795
42810
42819
42834
42847
42865
42876
42894
42915
42935
42950
42966
42979
43003
43016
43053
43072
43109
43128
43189
43198
43221
43264
43279
43331
43356
43414
43429
43456
43477
43486
43494
43518
43547
43573
43594
43625
43640
43678
43755
43768
43781
43806
43820
43825
438338
43879
43887
43937
43988
44030
44108
44145
44170
44184

409

410 REPORT—1898., -

TUNGSTEN (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length : Vacuum ison ta
ee coed Previous Measurements vee

Gneaenteios .

Sa aay Clincaster , (Angstrém) A+ i- in Vacuo
22603 1 0-68 | 134 44299
2259-4 1 t a 44247
2258-4 im cs a 44266
2257-4 1 : i 41286
2256-7 1 . 44299
22552 1 i, ‘ 44329
2251°6 1 e 2 44400
2250-9 1 | 185 44413
2950°2 1 . ¥ 44426
2249°5 1 F 4 44440
2248-7 1 < if 44456
22459 1 « if 44512
22453 1 ‘ 44523
2243-8 1 A s 44553
2243-0 In x e 44569
2241-4 1 Z S 44601
2240-2 In ms : 44625
2937-1 1 ~ | 186 44687
2935-6 1b A . 44717
9931-4 1 = 44801
2999-6 1 oe7 | | 44837
2227-0 In id 44889
2226-1 In | 13-7 44908"
2222-3 1 44984
2221-7 1 a es 44997
2219-4 1 “4 ‘ 45043
2218-0 1 a : 45072
9216-2 1 ss 45108
22155 1 ¥ i: 45123
9215-1 1 "| 13:8 45131
2208°7 1 ? 45262
2206°7 1 : Es 45303
2204-4 1 ft 45350
2201-1 1 "| 1359 45418
2198-9 1 i é 45463
2198-2 1 2 : 45478
2197-7 1 ty i 45488
2196-0 1 e ‘ 45523
2194-9 1 Hs i 45546
21952 1 ; 4 45581
2189-7 1 ” | 140 45654
2186°7 1 ‘ 4 45717
2186-0 In . ‘ 45732
2182-2 1 a a 45811
2166-2 1 066 | 14:2 46150
2163°7 1 is cs 46203
2161-2 In i : 46257
2153-7 1 | des 46418

21525 1 = ; 46444
2146-2 1 | | 144 46580
|

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 411

Pratinum (SparRK AND Arc SpEctTRA).
Kayser: ‘ Abhandl, kéngl. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin,’ 1897.
Exner and Haschek: ‘ Sitz. kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ civ. (1895), cv.
1896, cvi. (1897).

‘
| Wave-length Intensity Reduction to
__._ ee and Previous Vacuum Oscillation
| Bienes and. Character Observations | |—_______| Frequency
| Haschek oho _ (Angstrém) eset ee Vacuo
| Spark Spark | Are A
5861-074 2 1:60 | 46 17057'1
5845:050 | 4 5845°1 Thalén | 1°59 ” 17103°9
5840-354 | 5 iy 9 LTT
5763'778 3 1°57 4:7 17345:0
5762877 3 :, ” 17347°7
5728°369 | 0 1:56 ” 17452°3
5700°672 | 0 155 | 48 17537-0
} 5699°190 | 1 A ” 17541°6
5684-908 | 2 55 FA 17585°6
5660°245 2 1:54 » 17662°3
5626:077 4 1:53 ” 17769°6
5514°324 4 1:50 | 4:9 18129°7
| 5478°722 6 54781, = 5:0 18247°4
5475:996 | 6 54756, 1-49 ” 18256°5
5469°714 | 2 - - 18277°5
5452984 0 fA “ 18333°6
5391-010 | 4 1:47 51 18544:°3
| 5388-105 2 5389°6 ” ” ” 185543
| 5869°188 4 53676 a, op ” 18619-7
| 5324:799 0 1:45 ” 187749
| 5819:540 0 » ” 18793°5
| | 5306:493 0 _ » 18839°8
5301-182 6 53016 ,, 52 18858°5
| 52957918 | 0 ‘ + 18877°3
| | 5286°289 On 1:44 » 18911:7
| 5275-008 On ™ 45 189521
5265°290 0 ” ” 18987°1
| 5260°982 3 ” ” 19002°7
| 5257-609 On ” ” 190149
5227°782 | 6 52262 ~=«a 1:43 5 19123°4
5208°775 | 0 142 | 33 19200°4
5194:050 1 ” ” 19247°5
P 5118-583 | 1 1:40° Ly 19531°4
5095:950 On 1:39 | 5-4 19618-0
5059°658 5 50596 ,, 1:38 + 19758°8
5050-006 1 ” ” 19796°5
5044°645 6 5 bs 19817°6
5044194 4 ” » 19819°4
5038°681 “0 ” ” 198411
5037°859 On _ by 19844:3
5033°686 4 es - 19860°7
5002°762 2 1:37 5°56 19983°5
4998123 2 43 be 200020
4980°532 1 1:36 bs 20072°7
4879-700 4 48791 ,, 1:34 5:6 20487 5
4862°577 0 1:33 § 20559°6
4854-067 4 5 5-7 20595°6
i | 4831°371 0 1:32 ¥ 20692°4
4772°467 1 1:31 5°8 20947:7
4746°046 1 1:30 FP 210644
4739°924 1 5 i 21091°6

Nors.—In the arc spectrum the intensities are estimated on a scale from 0 to

| 10 : 0 denoting a very weak line.

412

REPORT—1898,

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Wave-length

Exner and
Haschek
Spark

4640°8
4640°5

4577:0
4560°2
4558°9
45548
45543
4552°62

45480
4546:3
4523°2
45212
4514°3
4511°3
4510°9
4505'0
4498-93
4495-0
4493-4
4492-7
4484:8
4482°2
4481-9
4473°7
4471°8
4458-9
4457:2
4453-3
4448°8
4445°7
4442-73
44375

4411°5
4410°9
4409°0
4392-0
4372:0
43645
4358°5
4351°3
4347-0
4341°9

4334:8
43272

Kayser
Are

4737-722

4684:255
4658-105
4650°192

4639:984

4580°828
4580-685
4577:584
4560°209
*4554-759
*4552°586
4552°116
4548-056

4523-192
4521-099

4511-417

*4498-926
4493-350
4484882

4481°808
4473-633

*4445-710
*4442-730
4437-470
4414-420
4411°580

*4391-999
4364°624
4358°522

4343°852

4334-827
*4327°243

Intensity
and
Character
Spark} Arc

2
4
5
1
u 4
2
2
In 4
1 4
1
1 4
2
+ 5n
2
1 3n
i
1 5n
1 5n
1
1 5n
1
1
4 6
a
1 3
1
1 5n
1
1 3
1 3n
1
iL
1
In
1
1 4
4 6
1 4n
2
In 3
1
In
2 4
1
1 4
In 2n
2n
1
0
1
In 2
4 4

Reduction to

Previous Vacuum
Observations a

(Angstrém) ve I

A

1:30 | 58

1:28 59

1:27 BN

” ”

1°25 6:0

” ”

Hi 61

” ”

” ”

” ”

4551'9 Thalén 55 i
” ”

” ”

” ”

1:24 ‘,

4521 Huggins As oe
” ”

” ”

” ”

1:23 as

4498°3 Thalén os iS
2 62

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

” »

” ”

1:22 u

” ”

” ”

” ”

” ”

4442-1] ” ” »”
” ”

1:21 6°3

” ”

” ”

4389°5 ,, 1:20 a
a 6:4

” ”

119 Ne

” ”»

” ”

” ”

” ”

43270 ,, 53 5.

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

21101°4

21342°2
214620
21498°6
215459
2182471
21824°8
21839°6
21922:7
21929

21949-0,

21951
21959°4
21961°7
21981°3
21990
22102°2
22112°4
22146
22159°9
22162
22191
22221°4
22241
22249-0
22252
222909
22304
223062
223470
22356
22421
22429
22449
22472
22487°4
22502°5
225292
22646°7
22661°3
22665
22675

22762°4

22866
229051
22937°2
22944
22998
23014:7
23025
23062°6.
23103-0

* Rowland 4554-828, 4562594, 4498930, 4445°713, 4442-723, 4891-996, 4327320.

a

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 413

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Wavye-length Intensity Reduction to
a and Previous Vacuum Oscillation
| Exner and Character Observations |———~—_—_| Frequency
Haschek oa ers lose | C(Angstrém) i 1__ | in Vacuo
Spark = Spark} Arc x
4309°3 In 118 | 64 23199
4291-2 4291:070 | 1 2 (Rowland) be 6:5 23298°5
4288°6 4288215 | 1 4 4288217 BR. 9 ” 23313°2
4281-905 1 of ee 23347°6
4275-2 1 117 » 23384
4274-2 4274:042 | 1 2 % < 23390°6
4271°2 In a re 23406
4269°7 4269411 | In 2 in “ 234159
4263°8 4263°664 | In 2 oh + 23447°5
426071 1 a ” 23467
4251:277 1 2 6°6 23515°7
4247-8 4247°838 | In 1 ” ” 23534°8
4226°85 Ca 4 116 3 23661-7
4223°8 1 > ve 23669
4222°7 1 ” ” 23675
4221-2 1 _ 9 23683
4214-2 1 ip of 23723
4213°3 1 + rf 23728
4211°5 i 3 23738
4205'8 2n 115 iy 23770
4202°2 1 * cp 23790
4201°5 4201:374 2 ” ” 237952
41945 1 %5 67 23834
4192°55 4192-577 | 4 4 ‘589, . 55 23846°0
4185°7 2n ns 5 23884
4170'S 1 * 3 23971
41675 1 1:14 +p 23988
41665 1 5 5 23994
4164:72 4164709 | 4 4 SCP. ep if a 24004:6
4163°5 2n ” ” 24012
4159-0 1 FS ic 24037
4148°5 1 a" 6'8 24098
41343 1 +t H 24181
4133°7 -2n ” ” 24185
4132°5 1 is © 24192
4129°7 1 1:13 A 24208
4118°86 4118°854 | 6 5 828 =, > Os 24271°8
4092°5 4092°426 | 1 3 421 ,, 1:12 | 69 24428°5
4090'5 1 ” ” 24440
4087'7 1 ” ” 24457 {
4081°631 Ii 627, " a 24493'1 |
4078°1 1 3 A 24514
4072°2 2 5 -F 24550
4066°5 4066 087 | 1 2 S098 ys; 5 7 24586'8
4063'0 1 ” ” 24605
4061-9 1 3 . 24612
40607 : In Fi = 24619
4055-0 4054928 | 1 2 SPAT ey Le . 24654-4
4051-2 1 % 7:0 24677
4050°2 1 Pe = 24683
4046°55 4 ” ” 24705°4
40343 1 ” ” 24780
4024-0 1 ” ” 24844
4021 “4 1 | ” ” 24860
4014°3 Ty 1:10 5 24904

414 REPORT—1898.

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)— continued.

Wave-length Intensity Reduction to
an Previous Vacuum Oscillation
Exner antl Character Observations © —_—____| Frequency
Haschek ‘ges mm = (Angstrom) re 1 in Vacuo
Spark aC Spark | Are : en
4007°5 1 1:10 | 7:0 24946
4002-7 4002°649 | 1 2 i 71 24576°3
3996°7 3996°720 | 1 3 ‘722 BR. 3 53 250134
3980°746 1 ” ” 25113°8
3979-0 herd: In - 5 25125
3976°5 3976°460 | 1 1 " ' 25140°9
3975°8 1 1:09 pe 25145
3972-0 1 » aA 25169
39713 1 4 " 25174
397071 2 a 3 25181
3969-3 1 r = 25186
3968°5 Ca 6 ‘3 3 25191
3966748 3966507 | 6 3 504, 5 7 25204:0
3961-7 1 “4 43 25235
3458-0 1 5 a 25258
3953:1 3953°780 | In 1 a5 7:2 25285:0 |
3950°6 In *) ‘ 25305
3948-4 3948550 | 1 4 539, “ a3 25318 6
39310 1 1:08 5 25432
3930°5 1 2 et | Bpase. |
3927:1 1 5 $i 25457 |
3926°6 1 . Ke 25460
3925°50 3925°483 | 4 4 486, D ; 25467°4
3923712 3923:105 | 8 =) 106, + .) 25482°8
3911-1 3911045 | 1 3 050 _,, ” Pe 25561°4
3910°6 1 ki * 25564
3908°5 1 i 73 25578
3906°433 2 s 3 25591°5 |
3904-4 3904°534 3 93 25604-0
3903°864 2 oh + 256084
3902°3 1 _ Ae 25619 |
3900-90 3900°873 | 4 4 874 59 a 25628°0
3898-92 3898°880 | 4 4 886 4 a 25641°1
3895°5 1 1:07 25663
3894-9 1 i As 25667
3892-0 In 3 #5 25688
3890°5 In ¥ 5 25696
3889'2 In wi a 25705 |
3887°5 1 = “ 25716
3885°3 In - er 25731
3884'3 In 3 * 25737
3883°3 in A m0 25744
3881°1 In Aa - 25759
3875-83 4 Pp = 25793°6
3873-7 In 7 - 25808
3868-60 4 “3 5 25842
3863'3 1 a 4 25877
3856°5 1 1:06 + 25923
38548 In b _ 25934
3852°7 il fe ss 25948
3847°6 in - 5 25983
38453 i 3 #5 25998
3843-8 1 3 » . | 26009
3838'3 2 7 i 26046

3837°8 In id , | 26049

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 415

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Wave-length Intensity Reduction to
and Previous Vacuum Oscillation
Exner and K Character Observations = |——________ Frequency
Haschek suey = SS (Angstrém) a 1_ | in Vacuo
ne Spark | Are + >

in | 1:06 | 7-3 | 26067
1 26081
i 26106
1 ” ” 26121
6 * 26178°7
2 1:05 74 26203
26250
| 26259
| 1 é | 26270
1n ” ” 26286
1 is », | 26290
26299
i - , | 26821
In ” ” 26365
1 A "| 26379
1 ot , | 26386
In 2 «| 26411
In 104, ,, | 26471
In . | 26483
In , rs 75 | 26509
In 1. ears
; 26527
2 si | | 26585
26541
2 ” ” 26559
n be ns 26578
26625
26659
4 | 26666
|

3818°827

26678
26686
26703
S ky 26726
+ 5 26735
103 | ” | 9676c
i cp 26786
+ 3 26791
7 3 26810
” 76 26814
26819
3 26834
1” o6g53
i ” | 96856
26897

" ” | 96932
667, 5 " 26970°6

3 - 26981
27016
4 059, an ST hee

: ” | 97095

102 | ” | 97056

*) i 27088
‘BBA, s , | 271105
123 =O, cy 77 27142°8

* Pe Pears

a he a |

[=]
.
<
-

i=}

3706°685

3700-070

3687-582
3683169

>

BH Oe eee ee be ee be Dee ee
w

416 REPORT—18Y8.

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Wave-length Intensity Reduction to
j ee Previous Vacuum Oscillation
ae pi | Kayser Observations Serr rae Frequency
asche I = iyi | Anosten in V:
Spark | . Are Spark | Are (Ang yeromy) sie Le ta es
a | ,
3681°3 3681:227 | 1 0 209 R, 1:02 | 77 | 271571
3680°8 1 mt ‘i 27160
an eae = | aa
j a | ” ” 27196
36752 | 3676107 | 2 1 . - 27202-4
36743. | 3674207] 6 4 ‘191, § hs 272090
3672°2 3672165 | 6 4 142 ,, fe ie 272942
36686 | 3668564] 1 1 - x 27251-0
sts ee > |e | Sas
7) j F ” b] 27
3663°5 3663-239 | 1 beat 249, 2 ” | 97290-5
3662-0 1 ; 27300
3659°6 3659°571 | 1 re | 564 ,, ie ” | 97317-9
654 . ; 735
3654-2 3654-132 | 1 11/4] i ” | 97358-6
3653°5 1 | Ri is 27363
3652°5 3652-411 | 1 arth = $s 27371°5
3651'S 1 | . ” 27376
3643°3 3643331 | 6n | 6 313, is | 297439°7
3639-0 3638-956 | 6 6 944, a 78 | 27472-6
3687°3 2 - s 27485
36367 1 - é 27490
3636°5 1 mn 2 27491
3629 0 3629-025 | 6 3 ‘017 _,, ‘. a 27547°8
3628°3 3628-275 | 8 5 272, Ss i 27553°5
3627°8 4 i 2 27557
3625-4 : ii 27575
36227 In % e 27596
3621°8 3621°839 | 1 2 TA ee a » | 276025
3617°3 1 1:00 | ,, | 27637
3615-4 3615°443 1 0 ” ” 276514
3611-0 3611-057 | 2 2 | 060 ,, : i: 27684-9
stb | 2 | dias
| 3605-4 In | ol ow pare
| 3602-9 1 ss F 27748
| 36024 | In ae hee 27751 |
| 3594-4 | in » | .79 [37613
| 3589-2 1 Pere Fe E 27853
1) Seeger} | 1 / he « 27865
1 35871 | 1 / fh ees d 27870
| 35858 | 1 OT ae 27880 |
3585-4 1 ce: a ieese 27883 |
3583-2 1 1 | 9» pete 27900
| 3578-8 1 V1 = 27934
| 35780 1 | O99} 27941 |
35776 1 _ 4 27944. |
) 3574-2 4 a HOE 27970
| 3573°5 ‘ r 27976
| 3572'3 1 ia ” | 97985
| 3571-4 ; i 2” ” 27992
3568-5 ¥ t 28015
3565-4 In | “ss 3 28039
3559°9 ln i 7 . 28083

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 417

———

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Exner and
Haschek

3523°7
3522°6
3519°7
35186
35149
3513°7
3505°9
3503°6
35026
3498-3
3498-0
3492-0
3491-1
3490-2

3487°8
3485°3
3483°5
3482-4
3480°6
3476°9
3474°9

8471-4
3464-1
3460-9

8459-7
3455-9

3454-2

3453-9

8449-0

8448-5
3447-9
84415
3434-9
3431-9
1898,

Wave-length

Kayser
Arc

3528°700

3514869
3505°848

3498°321

3491155
3488°877

3485°430
3483-588

3472-080
3464-097

3454'290

3448-523

3452-000

Intensity

ne rs ee Gh ee to eon ae

eee
m=)

ict PND ROK

—
Bp

DREN RP RYH

and
Character

Spark} Arc

In

to

Previous

Observations

(Angstrém)

°691

‘887
835

308

141

411

‘561

080

285

”

»”

A+

Reduction to
Vacuum

a _
r

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

79 |

28089
28002
28103
28122 |
28136
28148
28159
28170
28171
28173
28201
28212
28234
28272
28286
28306
28331:0
28346
28350
28371
28380
28404
28412
28442°6
28452
28515°7
28534
28542
28577°0
28580
28629
28635°7
28644
286544
286463
28682:'8
28697°9
28707
28723
28753
28770
28793°1
28799
28859°3
28886
28896 |
28928
28941°3
28945
28986
28989°7 |
28995
29049
29105
29129°3
EE

418 REPORT—1898.
PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.
Wave-length Intensity | Reduction to
zi and | Previous | Vacuum
iecoriend Character | Observations -
Haschek ei teat hs. | (Angstrém) 1 A+ a
Spark gt Spark) Are | a
3431-495 oy | 0:96 | 83
3428-0 3428079 | 4 | 4 | 110 R. ~ ¥
3426-9 8496887 | 2 | 2 880 ,, 5 7
34257 ” ”
3424'8 4 +
3422-1 | . ”
3421-2 3420°493 | 1 O74 a +
3418°311 0 | of +
| 3417-1 3417-227 | 1 Dee | 0°95 3
| 3414-4 3414610 | 1 2 5 ¥
§409°3 if ” ”
3408°6 3408-286 6 } 7 j 277 ” ” ”
3407°7 if: | ” ”
3406-7 3406:733 | 1 el "0 >
3405°9 il | | ” ”
3404-°7 2 | | ” 23
3385-0 1 ey ! 3 8-4
3384:0 2 | ” ”
3374-2 In 0°94 a
3373°2 3372960 | 1 0 r 6
3368°7 3368626 | 1 a. | ¥ Rep :
| 3367-2 3367°139 | In 4 | “135, S45 Plies *
3357°2 ° a | 4, | 85
3344-1 3344-031 | 2 Be -037—5, Seay 5
3343°7 1 | | ” ory
3343°2 al: | ” ’
3342°1 3342-429 | 1 1 | ;
§341°3 if | | ” 9
3340°4 In ory ”
3339'8 it or ”
| 3338°4 In | 0°93 :
3338'1 3338-214 | 1 cana q, -
3336°3 In \-) 5,
3334-1 In | \iay t
| 3883°3 Tre | * :
3327-4 3327:234 | 1 | °°0 ey
3326°1 1 } ” 2
3325-9 3325°861 | 1 2 | 5 Ks
3324-2 ite “f 86
3323-9 3323914 | 2 6 921 | |) “ae
3323-2 ee | ¥ ©
3322°8 1 } } | ” ”
3321-6 ier | a >
3319°8 1 \3 Gaps
| 3318-6 fet / | a
| “Ris In | DEB
53315°6 1 | ” | ”
3315°2 3315:186 | 4 4 182 ,, Ree |g
3313:186 | ‘ee ¥ ‘4
3312-6 3312614 | 2 Ba 7 ;
| 33121 3311-959 | 1 2 at 5; “s
| 3811-5 311504 | 1 | at a hn
| '3310°2 - 1 ee ! pete. 5:
| 3308-0 Lee] 2
1 H

3307°8

29133°5

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

29162°5
29172°7
29183
29191
29214
29227°3
292459
292552
292776
29323
293319
29337
293454

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 419

PLATINUM (SPARK AND Arc SpecTRA)—continued.

Wave-length | Intensity Reduction to

and Previous Vacuum Oscillation
Exner and ¢ . Character Observations —| Frequency
Haschek Ais (Angstrém) 1 in Vacuo
Spark Are Spark] Arc Me) ab
3305°9 tH 0-93-| 86 | 30240
3304°3 1 4 30255
3303-0 1 is , 30267
33019 3302015 | 8 8n ‘996 R. web Le
3300-070 | in re 3°
ee, | 3298-688 | On 092 | 4 ie
. ; 1 ” ” tt
32933 | 3293-820 o | a if 30351°3
3293-615 | 0 ss » | 308531
3292-6 | 1 a i} 30363
3291°5 L | f ; 30378
3290-4 | 3290:363| 4 az. 370 “4, “ 4 30383°2
3288-6 2n is 87 | 30399
3287-8 In “mel dw! 30407
3286'8 3287:245 | 1 a eh ase 30411-9
3285°6 3285°367 | 2 0 3 , 30429°3
3284-9 1 5 i 30434
3284-6 ft | iF é 30436
3283-4 3283-443 | 2 2 436 ,, \ - 30447°2
3283°336 2 “332, , 5 30448-1
3282-6 1 2 ; 30455
3282-0 3282104 | 2 5 “097 5, 5 3 a
$279°9 1 o ; :
3278°6 ty 4 ie 4 30492
3277°5 7 is 4 30502
32740 6 “ 4 30535
3273'1 1 | COORe 30543
3272:1 1 ® ; 30553
3270°8 1 is ; 30565
» 8269-3 sl K + | 80579
3268-5 8268557 | 2 | 4 | 570, 2 A 30585°8
3267-1 1 aia, 39600
3266°5 a a 30605
3266-2 1 é ». 30608
3265°5 1 ‘5 i. 30615
3264-2 1 U é 30627
32639 3263'737 | 1 1 is x mies 0
1 ” 79 6
3261818 | 2 4 a ie AS J 30649 0
3261-202 | 1 2 is : 30654:9
3259°866 | 2 4 $59 ,, 0-91 » | 30667-4
3259-282 | 1 1 3 » | 30672:9
3258-551 | 1 0 2 7 30679°8
3256°634 | 1 1 3 > 30697°9
3256048 | 4 6 038, 2 ys | 807034
3255°356 | 1 0 i ia apie?
1 ” 7 ¢
1 < | i 30718
3253°319 0 eee 2 30729°1
3252785 | » | 88 | 307340
3252117 | 2 5} 103 » ma ue 30740-4
| 3250-481 | 2 Ae || ‘475 yy “ | . 30755-9
| 3248843 | 1 0 | ta |e 30771°4
| 3248-623 2 (ey ie 30773°5
| 3247-388! 6 Bie Jo) eS aera 2

420 REPORT—1898.

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Wave-length Intensity Reduction to
and Previous Vacuum Oscillation
Exner and Character Observations |———7~——— | Frequency
Haschek deg —S— (Angstrém) a+ | 1_ | im Vacuo
Spark Spark | Are | a
3246:0 1 0:91 88 30798
3243°8 3243-533 | 2 2 si » | 30821:8
3242°9 3243-224 | 1 0) - af 30824°8
3241-6 3241°652 | 1 1 ‘ 2 20839°7
3240°9 1 * é 30847
3240°3 3240°324 | 2 5 325) ite = - 30852°4
3239°4 2 i ” | 30861
32368 1 ss ” | 30886
3235°8 In ” | 30896
323358 | 3233-550] 4 5 ‘B41, e ” | 30917-0
3230-42 | 3230-401 | 4 5 ‘406 ,, Z "| 30947-1
3229-4 1 4 ” | 30957
3227°3 3227°305 | 1 2 290 5 * o 309768
3225-5 1 ss ” | 30994
3224-1 1 i | 31008
3223-7 3223928 | 1 0 rd _ 31009°2'
3222-930 0) - = 31018-9'
3222-6 3222°680 | 1 0 4 ” | 31021-3
3221-416 0 is » | 31033-4
3220°9 3220-904 DS Wet 0:90 m5 31038-4
32197 1 = - 31050
3218-9 3218:972 | In 9 - Bi 31057:0
3218-603 1 é ” | 31060-6
3216°5 In é a 31081
3213°5 In 35 8:9 31110
8212-4 3212°502 | 1 2 AnD ey ef Es 311195
3208-968 0 fe , | (B1N53:8
3207-247 0 i », | 81169°
3204-27 3204165 | 6 6 AGL os Es 3 31200°4
3203-1 1 é , aie
3202°6 1 és ” | 31216
3201-9 1 uf ” | 31993
3201-0 4 . » | amie
320079 | 3200848 | 4 4 ‘830 4, : ” | 319328
3199-1 3199°215 1n 0 x A 312487
3199-076 0 2% » | 312501
3198-0 | 2 “4 | eee
3196-5 acs : | ere
3194-4 1 ¥ ” | 31296
3194-2 1 . ” | 31298
3192°6 3192-635 | 1 3 ok, | ee
31913 3291-604 | 2 | 0 ” | 313933
3189-2 Pe "ok. Ta
3188-3 | 2 ; ” | 31356
3185-7 aes yi "| telat
3184-7 a es, (eee
3183-6 | In : ” | 31409
31815 | In oso | 2 | 314938
317971 3179-650 | 2 1 $ 9-0 31441:0
3177-8 SSCL NE i a ie Bi 31460°2
31763 3176081 | 1b | in | 2 ” | 314764
3175-0 3174-959 1 2 ; "| 314875
31747 es ) ¥ ” | 31490
3173°5 1 eee 31502
31703 | I

Com

31534

” ‘

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

421

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Wave-length

Exner and
Haschek ee
Spark
3169°L 3169-006
3168°4
3167°5
3164°6
8160°1 3160°314
3159°26 3159 841
3156°70 3156°686
3155'8
3154°858
3149°5
3148°6
3146°3
3146°2
31443
31420 3141:767
3139-51 3139-503
31378
31373
3136381
3135°1
3134-413
3133°785
3133°5 3133°443
3132°187
3127-1
3126°3
BL24:1
2122°8 3123-065
3122-1 3122°192
3121°3
3121:0
3119°9 3119-911
3119:0
3118547
3118°1
3117-4
3117-0
31156
31145
31130 3112°718
3111:8
3109°5
3108 7
3108°2
3104:8 3104:170
3104:0 3103:°704
3103°231
8102-4 3102-710
3101-1 3101-077
31001 3100-146
30980 3098°887
3097°1
3089°3 3089-780
3088'1 3088 677

Intensity and
Character
Spark] Arc
1 1
1
in
ln
1b 1
4 0
4 5
1
1
1
1
in
2
2.
2 4
4 7
1
1
0
1
1
1
2 4
0
2
In
In
In 0
In 0
1
1
2 4
1
0
In
ln
2
1b
1b
1b 0
1b
1
1
1
1 0
2 2
1
1 0
2 4
4 4
1 On
1
1 0
1 0

Previous
Observations
Ss
(Angstrém)

“683 OR.

ct

=)

or
S

Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
1 in Vacuo

31546-6
31553
31562
31591
31633'5
31638-2
31669:8
31679
31688'1
31742
31751
31774
if ¥i 31785
31795
¥ 31820'1
31843°1
31860
31865
31874°8
31888
31894:8
31901-1
319047
31917°4
fb a 31969
31978
32000
32010:7
32019°7
32029
32032
32043-1
32053
32057°1
32062
32069
32073
32088
32099
321171
32127
32150
of Sd 32159
32164
32205°5
32210°4
32215°3
a 32220-7
32237°6
32247°3
322604
32279
32355'6
323671

22 REPORT—1898.

0]
PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Wave-length Tnbensity and bee Beane to
revious
mae and K Character Observations saan Oscillation
aschek AUP BOT sl ipa a eae ne ° ee Fre
Are (Angstrém) 1 Hrequency
Spark a Snark | Are = A+ = in Vacuo
3087°31 ) a
3084 9 te to 1 u 0°87 92 | 32381°4
3084-1 3084-217 | 2 3 ” 9 32405°9
3082°5 3082:779 1 0 ” ” 32413°9
3076°8 2 ” ” 32469°3
3076°1 1 ; ” ” 32492
3075'122 0 ” ” 32499
3074°3 3074°938 1 1 ” ” 32509'8
3072°1 3072:042 2 5 042 B ” ” 32511°7
3070°3 3070°369 | 1 9 ae ee ” » 32542°3
3069°8 3069207 | 1 2 ” » | 325601
3067°9 1 = ”? ” SopLEs
3064-6 3064°825 ” ” 586
3063°6 neers 2 ‘824, ” . seu5?
3062-845 ” » 2632
oe a O86 | ,, 32640-0
stk 3061-905 1 ” ” alent
k 3059° = ” ” b
3059°2 ae a ss “749, ” » | 32678-1
3058-5 In ” ” 32679
3057°5 in ” ” 32687
3056°1 3056°719 2 (0) ” ” 32697
3055°5 3055-402 3 4 ” ” 32705'5
30549 3054°8 if Dyn ” ” 32719°6
3054-4 on ” re 327261
3049°6 1 ” ” 32730°4
3049-2 1 ” 94 | 32782
304871 3048-6 1 on ” ” 32786
3047'3 2 |» ” 32792°5
3045'8 il ” ” 32807
3044°9 1 ” ” 32823
3012°8 3042°7 a ” ” 32832
3041:3 na nee a 745, ” ” 32855°6
3040°8 1 =. ” ” 32871:1
crete 3039-612 0 > ” odds “
Bien . ” ” 2 is
303455 3036'554 : 6 563 ” ” ” 32922°7
3033°6 1 ” ” 32945
3031-20 4 ” »” 32955
3029°6 1 Lr) ” 32980°8
30282 1 ” » Boer
3026°5 3026744 ” ” 14
3025°3 soa ine ; 4 » ” 33032°6
3025-179 9 ” v_ | 33041°1
3022°9 3022-957 1 3 2, ” 33054°8
~3021+1 1 085 | 4, | 330707
3020°7 1 ” ” Sate
3 . ” ” 5
3019-0 "Peas » |» | 331085
3017°95 3018: 5 ” ” 114
3017°35 3017-460 ri : 983», » » | 33125:0
7 ” ” 33131:1

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA) —continued.

Wave-length

Kayser
Are

|
|

“ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 423

30157510

3015013
3014°636

3012°498

3010051

3005°911
3004269
3003°400
3002°585
3001°504
2998-087
2994°916
2989°915

2988913
2988177

2984 565
2983°882

2982-414

2978:179

2974:252

2969-965
2967:596

2960°864
2959°825
2959-219
2958°650

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

So

bo bo bo

PRN HORHEH

oor

a

a

bo

Pepe HDD
BB 6B

Bee ee ee

f=]

Rrk tt

i=)

331524
33157°9 |
331620 |
33185°5
33195 |
33203
33212°5
33234
33239
33258'3
332765
332861
33287
33297°3
$3309-4
33322
33333
33345°1
33368
33380°3
33398
33415
3343671
334474 |
33455°6
33468
33485
33490
334961
33503°8
33513
33520°3
33546
33554
33568°0
33594
33603
33612'3
33622
33640
33660°7
33673
33687°6
33719
33722
33741
33748
33759
33764:3
33776-0
33783°0
33789°5
33802
33821
33831

4.24 REPORT—1898.

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Wavye-length Intensity Reduction to
‘ and Previous Vacuum Oscillation
Exner and K Character Observations ~, _ | Brequency
Haschek pope ' (Angstrém) ane 1_ | in Vacuo
Spark Are Spark | Are A
2954°6 In 084 |} 97 33836
2954:1 In + * 33842
29513 2951°341 1 2 ” ” 33873°2
2950°3 2950°929 1 0 fe 55 33877°9
2949°3 2949900 | 1 2 * cf 33889°8
2948-844 0 “r Py 33901°9
2947°6 In iW Fy 33916
2947°0 In i =F 33923
2946°3 1 “ ss 33931
2944-8 2944879 | 2 3 of 9°8 33947°4
2943°2 1 a5 ” 33967
2942'8 2942-880 4 0°83 ” 33970°5
2941°908 0 ” ” 33981°7
2941:219 2 ” ” 33989°7
2939°4 1 " 5 34011
2938°9 2938°935 | 2 4 3 ¥ 34016°1
29382 In ¥ mA 34025
2937°3 1 7 a 34035
2936°7 1 i os 34042
2934-7 1 as A 34065
2933°3 2933°S37 | 1 0 ” ” 34075°2
2931-7 2 53 5) 34100
2930°9 2930:904 | 2 4 B a 34109°4
2929°89 2929:903 | 6 8r 4 34121°1
2928-7 i Bs i 34135
2928°3 2928°226 | 1 4 As 3 34140°5
2927-040 i ” ” 341544
2925°2 1 B a 34176
2924 9 2 a 1 34179
2922°381 0 $ : 34208°9
2921°5 2921-498 3 ‘ BS 34219°2
2921-336 1 95 9:9 34221-0
2919-43 2919°451 4 A 3 34243°1
2918°2 1 “ . 34258
2917-7 1 5 ay 34264
29167505 2 = 5 342777
2915-278 0 4 > 34292°1
2914-2 2914-443 | 2 0 a A 34302°0
2913-65 2913655 | 4 4 49 3 34311-2
2913361 2 ie 3 34314:7
2912°35 2912884 | 4 0 9 ” 34320°4
2911888 0 ‘ is 34332°1
2910°6 2910°569 | 4 3 s, A 34347°6
29102 1 . és 34352
2908928 0 3 * 34367°0
2908'1 2908008 | 1 4 99 + 34377°9
2905°9 2906001 | 2 4 Bs 3 34401°7
2904258 0) As 3 34422°3
2903-129 0 0°82 ” 34435°7
2901-798 0 : of 34451°5
2901°282 2 FA 99 34457°6
2900-903 0 % = 34462°2
2899-80 2899764 | 4 ] sj ye 34475°7
2898:03 2897-988 | 4 5 ‘3 i 34496°8
2897:2 1 * “5 34506

ao

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 425

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Wave-length

Exner and

Haschek ioe
Spark re
2896:245
2895°7
2894:02 2893°984
2893°4 2893°335
2891:873
2891°170
2891-030
2890°54 2890-495
2889°8
2888:2 2888-307
2885°5 2885°447
2884-583
2883-0
2882°7
28809
2878'823
2877-61
2875°9
2875°22
2871'8
2870-4 2870°572
2870:2
2868-783
2867:°06
2866°1
2865°22
2863-0
286271
2860-80
2859°5
*2858'5
2855-866
2854-7 2854781
2853-484
2853-1 2853°207
2852°3
2851-0
2849°8 2849:241
2848-0 2848°406
2845°5
2844-4
2842-1
2840-0
2839°1 2839°345
2838-5
2838°1 2837-643
2837:3 2837°338
2836°5
28348 2834°815
2831°6 2831:981
2830°43 2830402
2828°9
2827'8
2826°5
28246 2825192

Intensity and
Character

nore

lll ae tl ad NNR

=)

bt et Rt ee OD
BB

NH Pee PDP
=] B 6B

me bo
BB

a eo a to ee

Spark} Are

L

For NNOOPD

oOo

ft Re)

om

noo NO WW

Previous
Observations

(Angstrém)

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

* Double,

345174
34524
345445
34552°1
34569°7
345781
34579°8
34586'1
34595
34612°3
34646°6
346571
34676
34680
34701
34726°5
3474171
34762
34769°9
34811
34826°2
34831
34848:0
34868°8
34881
34891-2
34918
34929
34945°2
34961
34973
35005°5
350189
35034'8
35038°1
35049
35065
35087:0
350971
35133
35147
35175
35201
35209'1
35220
35230°4
352341
35245
35265°4
35300'8
35320°5
35339
35353
35369
35385°6

426 REPORT—1898.,

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Wave-length Intensity Reduction to
and Previous Vacuum Oscillation
Exner and Kayser Character Observations: © |}———___—— Frequency
Haschek ie oS eS (Angstrém) ee 1 in Vacuo
Spark Spark} Arc A
2823°3 2822°602 | 2 2 0:80 | 10:3 35409
2822°5 In a A 35418:0
2822-273 0 ” ” 354221
2821-179 0 ” ” 354359
2819-0 1 4 Fy 35463
2818°6 2818-741 1 2 ” ” 35466°5
2818°4 2818354 | 1 4 2 ” 354715
2817°3 2n Be 3 35485
2816°1 1 2? ” 35500
2815°5 1 33 5 35507
2814-1 2814121 | 2 0 A, 3 35524°8
2813°5 2813:080 | 1 2 2 » 35537°9
2810°921 0 yy 5 35565°2
2809-7 2 F 55 35581
2808-9 2 5 os 35591
2808-7 2808:603 | 1 4 5 3 355946
280771 2807-396 | 1 0) * ” 35609°8
28067151 0 “5 5 35625°7
2805°3 in 5 = 35637
2803°5 2803°338 | 1 6 a = 35661°4
2802°8 1 a 3 35668
2801°8 1 ja * > 35681
2800°1 2800-560 | In 0 iy 3 35696°3
2799°7 1 35 se 35708
279871 in ; 10-4 35728
2797°8 2 - 9 35732
2795°5 2796165 | 2 ik 3 a 35752'8
279432 2794304 | 6 5r - is 357767
27937 2793736 | 2 2 es ee 35783°9
2793°3 2793°372 | 2 4 2 ” 35788°7
2791°8 in a s 35809
2790°987 0 a 3 358192
2790°593 0 ” 2” 358243
2789°8 1 5 = 35835
2789°5 1 ; > 35838
2788-6 2788728 | 2 0 # x 35848°2
2784:7 ib 2 oY 35900
2783°6 1 0-79 r 35914
2782°7 i! A % 35926
2779°2 1 <4 ds 35971
2777-558 0 93 = 35992°4
2777°0 2776°859 | 1 0 53 3 36001°5
27767111 uf ss » | 986011°2
277488 2774:880 | 6 2 “4 10°5 360271
2774°306 3 as - 360345
2774:0 2774095 | 1 4 B rs 360372
2773°6 2773°696 | 2 2 » ” 36042-4
2772°925 4 af a 36052-4
2771-78 ‘2771750 | 4 4r ” ” 86067°8
2769°8 2769°940 | 1 4 ” ” 36091-4
2769°0 i +3 35 36101
2767°4 1 4 %§ 36125
2766°6 2766'764 | 1 5 » » 361329
2764-2 In ” 2 36166
2763°30 2763°299 | 4 0 rf > 361781

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 427

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity
—---__-- -—____— and Previous Vacuum Oscillation
meer nnd Character Observations Frequency
Haschek | S*Y8e* |__|} (Angstriim) nea 2 in Vacuo
Spark Spark | Arc 5 es
27615 1 0-79 | 105 | 36202
2759°8 2759°424 | 1 0 ¥ » | 36229-0
27587 2758'333 | 1 2 i "| 362433
2758164 0 i ” | 362456
271875 2757:799 | 2n | 2 4 ” | 36250:
Q755°7 1 =) ” | 36278
275503 | 2755003 | 4 4 ‘ "| 36987-1
2754-327 0 ‘ ” | 36296-0
2753957 3 fe ¥ 36300°8
2753°8 2753°850 | 2 2 if ” | 363023
2753°3 1 < ” | 36310
= : | ee
on be] ”
2752-0 1 $i ” | 36887
2751-4 1 ‘ | | 85888
27500 1 ; 1106 | 36353
2749°3 2 fj , | 36862
2747-7 747-701 | 2 | 4 fy | 363835
2747-0 1 “ ’ | 36393
2746°6 1 i ” | 36398
2745-4 $2. # " 1 36414
2745-0 2744-928 | 1 2 ¢ ” | 36420-2
2743°5 1b sf 1. |) 36aa8
2742-4 1 . ” | 36454
2741-5 In 073 | ° | 36466
31396 t Beopre || gem
2738-5 2738-569 | 2 4 a ” | 365058
2737-6 2737-656 | 1 2 O ” | 365169
2736'886 0 ” | 36527°2
2735'8 2 ” | 36542
27345 2734-584 | 1 2 ¥ ” | 365581
2734-08 | 2734:057| 4n | 8r it ” | ©36565-0
2733°725 br 4 ” | 365695
2732-1 In ; |) | Saeon
2729-9 2730-002 | 1. | 5 bata | Semis
2727-5 1 : "| | 36658
2726-55 4 » | 107 | 36666
2725-433 2 z: » | 36680°8
2721-8 1 4 » | 36730
a nibs [ee
2719-20 | 2719195} 4 6r 6 ” | 36765-8
2717-75 | 2717-709 | 4 0 i ” | 36785-0
27158 2715'866 | 1 2 . ” | 36809-9
2714-613 0 ” | 36827-0
2713-1 2713-215 | 2 4 a ” | 36845:9
2711-0 2 z » | 86876
us 2 | Be
2706-05 | 2705-985 | 4 br x ” | 369444
ee 3 ee
y ’ ” 6
270250 | 2702-484] 6 6r ” | 108 | 369922
27012 2701-208 | 1 0 37009°6

428 REPORT—1898,

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

ee

Wave-length Intensity Reduction to
and Previous Vacuum | Oscillation
Exner and Character Observations |_|——______ Frequency
Haschek ced Sacer, ome (Angstrém) A+ it in Vacuo
Spark 4 Spark | Arc x
2699°5 1 0-78 | 10:8 37033
“ 2698°55 2698498 | 4 6 0-77 ” 37046°8
2697°3 in + “ 37063
2696-069 0 > rp 37080°2
26943 2694:314 | 1 4 ” ” 371045
2694°1 1 on = 37107
2692°3 2 ds + 37132
2689°5 2 ” ” 37171
2688°352 2 ; ” = 371867
2681:9 a 55 oo 37276
2680:2 1 =: A 37300 :
2679°3 2 “4 =F 37312
26773 2677':232 | 2 5r a 10°9 37341-1
2677:0 1 5 rp 37344
26762 1 iy 3 37356
2674:'8 2674649 | 2 4 ” ” 373772
2673°707 0 nv ”» 37390°3
2672°8 1 ” > 37403
2668°8 2668°748 | In 0 % “ 37459°8
2666°8 1 4 AS 37487
2664:8 2664-723 | 1 2 “ 37516°5
2662°0 1 F Fe 37555
2661-6 1 a ch 37561
2659-60 2659:535 | 6 10r + > 37589°6
2658°8 2658°790 | 1 2 5 3 37600°2
2657'8 1 ms 55 37614
2656°907 0 F 2 ” 37626°8
2653°867 0 @76 | 11:0 37669°8
2651°5 1 4 + 37704
2651-00 2650°938 | 4 4r Ba a 377115
* 2647:00 2646-969 | 4 6r ‘ * a3 37768°0
2645-4 2645°453 | 1 4 = = 37789'7
2639°8 2639°434 | 1 5 a + 37876-0
2639°3 2 es +, 37878
2635°7 2635°372 | 1 0 ” ” 37934°3
26349 2 Ry “5 37941
2631-2 1 =e 111 37994
262813 2628122 | 6 ir ” ” 38038°9
2627°5 2627-484 | 1 4 *9 Ff 38048°2
2625-41 2625°419 | 6 2 Bs 5 38078:0
2623-1 In a " 38112
2621°5 1 a * 38135
2620°9 1 + a 38144
2619°6 2619977 | 2n 0 ” ” 38157°1
2619°668 4 E3 fe 38161°6
261675 2616°839 | 4 0 ” ” 38202°5
2614°701 2 ” ” 882342
2613°8 2613°337 | In 0 a a 38254'1
2613:204 0 ” ” 38256'2
2612°7 1 7 ss 38264
2611°8 1 0, re Wes 38277
2611:2 1 0°75 +9 38286
2608°8 1 * 11:2 38321

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 429

Wave-length
Exner and
Haschek ba bee
Spark
2608:0 2608:333
2607:0
2606°126
2603°5
2603°2 2603:223
26027182
2600-2 2599°986
2599°4 2599°148
2598'2
2595'8 2596081
2595°3
2590°8
2587°890
2585'8
2582°9 2582°415
26794
2578°9
25781
2577:0
2574:7 2574580
2574°2
2572°70 2572°723
2568°4
25661
2564-0 2564-263
2562°5
2560-4 2560°438
2556°9
2555°6
25548
2552°6
2552:2 2552326
2549°4 2549°552
2548:194
2546°986
2546°562
2544-807
2544:0 2544-042
2542°8
2541°3 2541°433
2539°1 2539°285
2538°361
2536-4 2536°581
2536:063
2534-5
2533-0
2531°9
2529°499
2526°0
25244
2523'6
2522°616
2520°6 2520°356
2519-0
2517:273

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Intensity
and
Character
Spark | Arc
In 0
In
0
a
1 +
0
In 2
1 0
1
2 4
1
1
2
1
1 2
1
1
2
In
1 2
1
4 0
2
1
1 0
1
1 0
1
1
1
1
1 3
In 3
0
0
0
2
1 4
1
il 2
ln 3
0
In 4
2
1
1
1
2
1
In
1
0
1 0
1
1

Previous
Observations

(Angstrém)

Reduction to

Vacuum

A+

A

Oscillation:
Frequency
in Vacuo

0°75

11:2

38327°5
38347
383599
38399
384028
38418°1
38450°5
384629
38477
38508°4
38520
38587
38630°2
38662
38712°1
38757
38765
38777
38794
38829°8
38836
38858'1
38923
38958
38986:2
39013
390444
39099
39118
39131
39164
39168°5
392112
39232°0
39250°5
39257-2
39284-2
39296°1
39315
39336'4
39369°6
39384-0
39411:7
39419°6
39444
39467
39485
39521°9
39577
39602
39614
396313
39665°3
39687
397140

/ Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

39739°2
39747-9
39763-0
39765°7
39788
39797
39819°4
39851°3
39892-4
39922°3
39939°1
39973'9
40010°9
40020
400332
40053°8
40099
40107
40125
40145°3
40154
40167°9
40193°7
40254:8
40256'9
40290'1
40301
40308
40325
40353'6
40376
40387
40420°7
40441
40456°1
40481°5
405149
40597
40614-2
40635°9
40657
40718
40786°8
40795°5
40879
40896
40918
40925°4
40968°8
40979°4
41025'8
41063°3
41079

43 0 REPORT—1898.
PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.
Wave-length Intensity Reduction to |
and | Previous Vacuum
hietand Character Observations
Haschek | aS a (Angstrém) AE 1
Spark = Spark} Arc | ate
2515°6 2515666 | 2 3 073 | 116
2515°1 2515119 | 1 3 ” ”
2514°165 | 2 ” ”
2513°98 2513°999 6 0 ” ”
2512°6 1 ” ”
2512:0 1 ” ‘
2510°604 0 ” 117
2508°5 2508°589 1 3 ” »
2505°9 2506014 | In 4 ” ”
2504128 2 ” ”
2503:°075 2 ” ”
2500°895 0 ” ”
24986 2498°592 2 4 ” *
2498:0 1 ” ?
2497°3 2497-197 In 1 ” ”
2495°95 2495:910 4 4 ” ”
2493-1 1 3) ES
2492-6 1 ” ”
2491°5 il ” ”
2489-7 1 ” ”
2489-00 2488-819 4 4 ” ”
2487:15 2487-216 6 4r ” ”
2483°4 2483°452 1 2 ” | ”
2482-10 2483-312 | 4 2 toe -£
24813 2481-270 | In | 2 ee be
2480°6 1 sO0G0S
2480°2 oS yo dha te
2479°1 ee uaa a 5:
2477°365 0 53, dee
2476-0 a | wae
2475°3 i | ”» ”
2473°247 0 ” ”
2472:0 In ” ] ”
2470'9 2471092 | In | 83 Pte J
2469°4 2469°537 In 0 0-72 Bi
2467°70 2467504 | 6 | Gr | a 4
2462°5 In | 4 ”
2461'1 2461:474 | 1 / O *5 3
2460°160 1 3 ”
2458:9 In | » | 120
2455°2 | 1 ” ”
2451°0 2451-046 1 | (ated a9 5a
2450°58 2450°527| 4 | 2 4) 5]
2445°5 1 ” ”
24445 In a 4
2443-2 ae et eal
2449-75 4-4] A CHS
244071 2440°158 2) ar ss Netines:
2439-53: ee) | * i.
2436-7 2436-771 | 1 | 4r ys x
2434-62 2434-551 | 4 | O Pome:
2433°6 A . boats Faen
2432-9 | [alt |

41091

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 401

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Wave-length Intensity
-| and
Bee and eae | . Character
aschek en
Spark Spark | Are
2432-0 1
2429-4 2429186 |; In 2
2428°2 2428-206 | In 8r
2426-7 2426:523 | 1 2
2425-05 2424964 | 6 2
2423°3 rad
2422°6 }+ In
2421-00 2420912 | 4 0
2418°1 2418-151 | 2 | 3
2417-9 aa |
2415-0 thet
2413°3 2413°138 ; In 1
2412-1 In
2410-4 In
2406°7 1
2405°7 In
2405°0 1
2403°180 4r
2403'1 In
2401°959 a
2491°1 2401-089 | 1 1
2400°4 ae
2396°72 2396'762 | 4 0
2396°2 2396:243 | 1 2
2395°6 1
2391°856 | O
2390°8 ag
2389.7 2389°615 ; 1 | 3
2387°4 2387-448 | 1 | O
2386°6 2386886 | In 0
2384-4 In
2383°7 2383'732 | 1 4
2382 0 1
2381-4 1
2380-035 0
2379-0 et
2377°28 (i
2375-7 iim}
2375'1 ee
23748 ta
2373-4 |
2373°0 ie
23717 1
2369°9 1
2368°4 2368°357 il tr
2368°1 1
2366°6 1
2365°5 1
23648 1
2364-0 net
2357-7 | 2357°656 } 1 | O
23572 2357181 | In | 4r
2356-4 2356415 0 1 )
2353°123 | 0

Previous
Observations

(Angstriim)

Reduction to

Vacuum
REA) Fo
A
O72 | 1271
” ”
3 12°2
” bb)
” ,
”° ”
bh) ”
071 a
” ”
thd ”
” ”
” ”
” 12:3
” ”
oh ”
” ”
” ”
” »
” ”
” ”
” ”
bh) ”
a 12°4
” ”
” ”
” ”
3” ”
” ”
” ”
’ ”
3” bh)
” ”
fo 12°5
” ”
»” ”
? ”
* ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
Lar
07 a
” ”
th) »
th] ”
a 12°6
”
’ a9.
” ”
b>) ?
” 39
29 ”
’ ”
” ”
Pe 127

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

41106
411539
41170°4
41199°1
41225°6
41254
41266
41294°6
41341°7
41346
41396
41427°6
41445
41475
41538
41556
41568
41599-2
41601
41620°4
41635-4
41647
41710°6
41719°7
41731
4179671
41815
41835°3
41873'3
41883°1
41927
419387
41969
41980
42003°6
42022
42052°4
42080
42091
42096
42121
42128
42151
42183
42210°7
42215
42242
42262
42274
42289
42402°3
42411-0
42424-7
42484°1

432 REPORT—1898.

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARc SPECTRA)—continued.

Wave-length Intensity Reduction to
oa Previous Veodaay oipceiliation
Exner and hae Character Observations Frequency
Haschek me is a (aa (Angstrém) “Le in Vacuo
Spark Spark | Are

2351°5 1 19°F 42513
2348°6 1 : 42566

2347°239 0 = 42590°5

2346°822 0 42598°2
2343-4 2343°468 1 0 . 42659'1
2342°8 1 5: 42671
2340°2 2340°255 1 2 12°8 427175
2339°5 1 53 42731
2339°1 1 - 42739
2335°2 i a 42810
232674 23267185 In 2 12:9 42975°9
2323°2 1 ‘ 43031
2320°1 In 2 43089
2318'3. 2318°371 1 2 a 43020°9
23154 2315°58 In 2 e 430728
2314'2 1 13:0 43199
2313°7 1 * 43208
2312°9 Jn 55 , 43223
2310°9 2 oh 43260
23081 2308:12 In 3 = 43312°3:
2307'8 1 a 43318
23063 1 e 43347
2305'8 2305°72 1 2 - 433574
2304°6 1 43379
23043 1 > 43384
2302°5. 1 = 43418
22975 1 13:1 43513
22961 2 ss 43539
22937 if * 43585
2292°8 1 Re 43602
2292:0 1 ES 43617
2291:7 1 e 43623
2289°6 1 an 43663
2288-4 4n 13-2 43686
2287°7 2 * 43699
2286'8 1 ne 43716
22859 i a 43733
2285:'3 1 a 43745
2281°6 1 s 43816
2280°9 1 m 43829
2276°4 i He 43917
22746 In | 13:3 43951
2271:9 ipee, - 44003
2270°1 In | 44 44038
2269°1 eer i 44057
22685 1 a 44069
2267°5 1 5, 44088
2266°T In x a 44104
2264:3 In _ 44151
2263°6 1 ” 44164
2263-0 i 13:4 44176
2259°8 1 5 44238
2259:0 1 is 44254
2256°4 In a3 44305

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 433

PLATINUM (SPARK AND ARC SPECTRA)—continued.

Wave-length Intensity | Reduction to
a and Previous Vacuum Oscillation
Baneriand Character Observations : Frequency
Haschek Keer) | (Angstrém) A+ i in Vacuo
Spark Are Spark | Arc Na
| :
2254°8 1 O68 | 13:4 44336
2253'3 1 ” ” 44366
2251°6 2 a ” 44400
2250'7 1 6 13:5 44417
2247-4 In = “ 44482
2245°6 In Re on 44518
2242°7 in 0°67 5 44576
2235°4 In 3 13:6 44721
2229°1 1 ” ” 44848
2218°4 In “5 13-7 45064
2210-4 ln ~ 13°8 45227
2210°0 1 op a 45235
2205°1 1 ” ” 45336
1 2204-0 1 is 4) 45358
: 2202°0 1 ” 13:9 45399
2192 4 In 066 | 14:0 45598
2190°4 in 3 as 45640
2177-0 1 < c 14:1 45921
2150°4 1 p 14:3 46489
2149°8 1 7 A 46502
2148:9 1 A “4 46521
2144°4 In 065 | 14-4 46619
2130°7 i ” 14°5 46918

Phe Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE (Chairman), Professor
H. E. Armstrone@ (Secretary), Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr.
GEORGE GLADSTONE, Sir Joun Lussock, Sir Paitie Maanus, Sir
H. E. Roscog, and Professor 8. P. THompPson.

:
|
|

PAGS
' APPENDIX.—Schedule IT.—Elementary Science and Geography 5 : . 438
} Schedule IV.—Elementary Physics and Chemistry : : . 438

Your Committee are able to report that the quantity, if not the quality,
_ of the teaching of Science subjects in Elementary Schools has made
_ progress during the past year. The following table, made up from the
_ return issued by the Education Department, gives the figures for the
. scientific class subjects as compared with English. In the report for last
_ year it was mentioned that the number of school departments taking
_ object lessons would greatly increase, as the Government code of regu-
_ lations announced that they would become obligatory in the three lower

standards on and after September 1, 1896. We now see the result, so far
_ as the schools are concerned whose school year ended between August 31,

1898. FF

A34 REPORT—1898.

1896, and August 31, 1897, but the full effect cannot appear until the
next year’s return, the whole of which will be within the obligatory period.

Class pep este eran 1890-91 | 1891-92 | 1892-93 | 1893-94 | 1894-95 | 1895-96 | 1896-97

English 19,825 | 18,175 | 17,394 | 17,032 6-380 15,327 | 14,286
| Geography . ; . | 12,806 | 13,485 | 14,256 | 15,250 | 15,702 | 16,171 | 16,646
| Elementary Science . 173 788 | 1,073 | 1,215 | 1,712 | 2,237 | 2.617
| Object Lessons . 4 — = = = | — 1,079 | 8,321

The number of departments in ‘schools for older scholars’ for the year
1896-97 was 23,080, all but 10 of which took one or more class subjects.
But History was taken in 5,133 departments, and needlework (as a class
subject for girls) in 7,397 departments, and sundry minor subjects in
1,056, making, with the other four subjects of the table, a total of 55,456.
This shows an average of more than 23 class subjects to each depart-
ment; but it must be borne in mind that the same subject is not always
taken in all the standards, in which case three class subjects will appear
in the return.

Tt was remarked in the, last report that ‘the increased teaching of
scientific specific subjects in the higher standards is the natural con-
sequence of the greater attention paid to natural science in the lower part
of the schools.’ The following table shows the correctness of this

inference :— 2

| Specitiz Subjects.—Children | 1891-92| 1892-93 | 1893-94 | 1894-95 | 1895-96 | 1896-97 |

: Algebra . : : . | 28,542 | 31,487 | 33,612 | 38,237 | 41,846 | 47,225 |

| Euclid . ; : : 927 1,279 1,399 1,468 1,584 | 2,059 |

| Mensuration . : . | 2,802 3,762 4,018 5,614 6,859 | 8,619 |

| Mechanics 4 2 . | 18,000 | 20,023 | 21,532 | 23,806 | 24,956 | 26,110

| Animal Physiology . . | 13,622 | 14,060 | 15,271 | 17,003 | 18,284 | 19,989

| Botany . : : . | 1,845 1,968 2,052 2,483 29968 eis. oi

| Principles of Agriculture. | 1,085 909 | 1,231} 1,196] 1,059[ 9825

| Chemistry ; ; - | °1,985 | 2,387 3,043 3,850 4,822 5,545
Sound, Light, and Heat . | 1,163 1,168 1,175 914 937 1.040
Magnetismand Electricity | 2,338 2,181 3,040 3,198 3,168 | 3,431

| Domestic Economy . . | 26,447 | 29,210 | 32,922 | 36,239 | 39,794 | 45,869 |

Total - - . | 98,706 | 108,434 | 119,295 | 134,008 | 146,305 | 164,089 |

It appears that the mathematical subjects still command the most
favour on the part of the teachers, Algebra having taken a very remark-
able lead. All the physical sciences have increased even more than might
have been expected from the increase of scholars. The Principles” of
Agriculture is the only subject that shows an actual decrease.

Estimating the number of scholars in Standards V., VI., and VII. at
615,000, the percentage of the number examined in these specific subjects
as compared with the number of children qualified to take them, is 266 :
but it should be remembered that many of the children take more than
one subject for examination. The following table gives the percentage for

wy -<

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 4135

_ each year since 1882, and shows that Science is gradually recovering from

, the great depression of about eight years ago :—

1882-83 . ~—.-—«:29°0 percent. | 1890-91 . 20:2 per cent.
% Mega-84.. 2605 » 5, 1891-02 pi. 197
measee-85 . . 226), DE Ons cae MD us
me 1885-86 .. .-199 ,, eee 209
fear. Segts 2:5 Ce ao) aa ote» deameaae
1887-88 . . 169 - ,, 189596 49497 >
eeeebG. te LTO) PEIG Og 26S 5

‘ i

.
1889-90

The Returns of the Education Department here given refer to the

_ whole of England and Wales, and are for the school years ending with
_ August 31. The statistics of the London School Board are brought up to
the year ending with Lady Day, 1898. They also illustrate the great
advance that has been made in the teaching of Elementary Science as a
class subject, and they give the number of children as well as the number
_ of departments.

Years Departments Children
7
| 1890-91 pia 2,293
4 1891-92 113 26,674
: 1892-93 156 40,208
1893-94 183 49,367
1894-95 208 52,982
1895-96 246 62,494
1896-97 364 86,638
1897-98 322 70,626

The last year shows an apparent falling-off in the teaching of this
subject, but, as has been mentioned above, the Government having made
_ the giving of object lessons obligatory in the lower standards, 442 Depart-
ments, with 75,993 children, have already adopted them. This has

caused a reduction in the teaching of ‘Elementary Science’ under that
_ name ; but, taking the two subjects together, this must be regarded as a
_ very considerable gain.
___ The Education Department continues to meet the objection against the
_ limitation under the Code by which only two class subjects are allowed to
_ be taught, by adding combined courses of study. This year a new course
of this character has been introduced into Schedule II., described as
‘Elementary Science and Geography Combined.’ And as, under the
present regulations, one of the class subjects must be such as can be taught
by means of object lessons in the lower standards, some such subject as the
combined one above mentioned must be taken. A copy of the scheme is
_ given in the Appendix, by whichit will be seen that in the lower standards
_ the phenomena of the land and water are to be illustrated experimentally
_ as an introduction to Geographical Science.
: A similar principle has been adopted in respect of the specific subjects.
Hitherto Chemistry has formed a course of itself, and Physics has been
: divided into two separate courses, the one dealing with Sound, Light, and
Heat, and the other with Magnetism and Electricity ;- but they formed
only three out of the nineteen subjects from which choice could be made.
FF2-

436 REPORT—1898.

A separate course of Elementary Physics and Chemistry combined has
now been introduced, which is set out in the Appendix, and which is
admirably adapted for experimental investigation at the hands of the
students themselves.

The work under the Evening Continuation Schools Code continues to
progress, as will be seen from the following table :—

Units for Payment

Science Subjects England and Wales London School Board

1893-4 | 1894-5 | 1895-6 | 1896-7 | 1893-4 1894-5| 1895-6 396 -7

Euclid. ; . 595 | 1,086 1,648] 2,270 10 29 7 —

Algebra . ; -| 3,940 | 6,657 | 10,374) 14,260} 316 | 302 | 535 | 714
Mensuration . . | 14,521 | 32,931 | 41,772] 50,748] 279 374 452 369
Elementary Physio-| 2,554 | 4,045 6,590) 6,325 37 9 5 —
graphy

Elementary Physics | 6,500 | 7,850 6,749} 5,183 T9200") Ts24129
and Chemistry
Science of Common] 6,223 | 10,350 | 12,906) 18,293} 231 262 | 468 | 556
Things

Chemistry ; .| 3,484 | 7,814 8,222} 9,641} 212 | 455 | 404] 488
Mechanics ; j 841 | 1,148 1,458} 2,196) 230] 197 | 209] 127
Sound, Light, and 500 | 1,046 861} 1,156 — 15 11 7
Heat
Magnetism and Elec-} 2,359 | 4,451 5,073} 6,990} 662] 776 | 783 | «939
tricity
Human Physiology .| 5,695 | 8,395 7,825, 10,047 91 68 56 49
Botany . . : 336 547 905} 1,080 5 91 97 32
Agriculture. .| 8,579 | 4,991 4,694) 4,061 _— = = =
Horticulture . ; 458 | 1,140 1,812} 1,911 _— == = a=
Navigation : : 42 69 142 99 = = == =
Totals ; - | 51,607 | 92,520 | 111,031)134,260 | 2,152 | 2,778 | 3,179 | 3,410

It is again evident that the mathematical subjects are rapidly increas-
ing in favour, and that Agriculture is decreasing. It will be noticed with
satisfaction that the Science of Common Things is receiving greatly in-
creased attention, but it is a matter of regret that there is a decrease in
the time given to Elementary Physiography, and still more so in the case
of Elementary Physics and Chemistry. Agriculture would become a more
valuable and probably a more popular subject of study if a really good
practical course were devised.

An important change has been taking place in Scotland. The code of
the Scotch Education Department now admits of the possibility of gain-
ing the full class grant although only two subjects are taken. As one of
these must be English, and in the higher standards provision must be
made for history or geography, or both, the teaching of science as a class
subject has been greatly reduced during the last two years. Buta new
article in the Code for 1895 offers a special grant of a shilling on the
average attendance of boys who are satisfactorily taught ‘elementary
science’ ; and this hasfar more than made up the deficiency. In fact the
aggregate total of children learning elementary science in the Scotch
schools has risen from 34,151 in 1894-95 to 85,671 and 133,855 respec-
tively in the two succeeding years.

Your Committee have frequently referred to the anomaly that pupil

ee

“7

Ee OO Ee ea chi ae -

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 457

teachers are not obliged to receive any instruction in Natural Science,
although they may have to give instruction in such subjects, either
specifically or in the form of object lessons ; indeed, if they should be in
charge of a class of the three lower standards it would be obligatory upon
them to give such object lessons. A Departmental Committee, consisting
of the Rev. T. W. Sharpe, Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Schools, as
Chairman, and several Inspectors and Principals of Training Colleges and
Pupil-teacher Centres, have reported upon the pupil-teacher system. They
recommend that the age for entering as pupil teachers should be raised,
and that the interval between the elementary school and their apprentice-
ship should be passed at a secondary school. This would by no means
ensure that the young people would receive any instruction in Science
during that period of their career. No alteration is proposed in the
optional Science Course prescribed by the Code of the Education Depart-
ment, except that the Queen’s Scholarship examination is to be limited to
the elementary stage of Physiography prescribed in the syilabus of the
Science and Art Department. With regard to the College Course the recom-
mendation is singularly weak, Science being placed as an optional subject,
without any definite course of study prescribed. For the first two years
it is laid down that of the optional subjects not more than two must be
taken out of a list of four or six respectively, some of which from their
very nature are almost sure to be taken in preference.

An important letter has been addressed to the Right Hon. Sir John
Gorst by Sir Philip Magnus, the Chairman of the Joint Scholarship Board,
in conjunction with the Chairmen of its four educational committees.
They point out the necessity of securing the proper training of those who
will be teachers of scientific subjects, and that the instruction of pupil-
teachers in science is now often carried on, under great pressure, by a
system of cram, and even by persons who have not themselves any satis-
factory knowledge of medern scientific methods. They suggest as a
remedy that the first part only of the elementary stage, Physiography, be
compulsory ; that the teaching of this subject be recognized only where
it is given with proper accessories, all pupils performing the experiments
in a series of at least twenty-four lessons of two hours’ duration; and that
inspectors should be required particularly to report whether proper
apparatus and accessories are provided.

In last year’s report your Committee referred to what Mr. Heller was
doing in respect of the teaching of Science in the schools of the London
School Board. He has since obtained a better appointment at Birming-
ham, but the syllabus of lessons which he prepared is still employed in the
schools. This of course requires that the masters and mistresses should
be qualified for carrying it out, and for this purpose classes of twenty-four
hours are conducted for their benefit by the Science Demonstrators.
These gentlemen have lately agreed upon two separate syllabuses for
masters and mistresses, which follow in general the scheme they are
expected to teach to their scholars. The classes of a similar kind that
have been carried on hitherto have been appreciated by the teachers, and
the Board are increasing their laboratory and other accommodation for
the purpose. It is recognised that it will be necessary to continue these
teachers’ courses for some years, in order to overcome the difficulty which
now exists in consequence of the general want of practical experiment in

such instruction in Science as has been given in the course of training of
most class teachers,

438 REPORT—1898.

APPENDIX.

Schedule 1I1.—Course D. ‘ Elementary Science and Geography combined.’

Standards I., II., and I1I.—Annual courses of about thirty object
lessons, of which elementary geography should form a part, beginning with
the simplest phenomena which the children can observe :—land, water, the
form of the earth, the sea, hills, valleys, rivers, proceeding to notions of
locality and distance, and the means of representing all of these by
modelling in sand or other material, and by a map, with special reference
to the map of England.

The other object lessons should include some of the various subjects
suggested in this Schedule under the head of Elementary Science.

” Standard IV. —Geography of England, physical and political.

Lessons on animals and on materials used in agriculture, or in some
simple manufactures.

Standard V.—Geography of the British Isles, with some knowledge of
India, and one or more of the Colonies.

Lessons on means of locomotion, and on processes used in agriculture
or manufacture.

Standard V1i.—Geography of Europe, physical, political, and com-
mercial.

Lessons on the physical laws that determine climate, animal] life,
locality of certain industries, &c.

Standard VII.—The work of the preceding years, with special know-
ledge of the British Empire, and of those portions of the world with which
we are engaged in commerce.

Distribution of the races of mankind.

Schedule 1V.—Specific Subjects. (13.) ‘ Liementary Physics and
Chemistry.’

1st Stage.—Properties of common stuffs ; relative density of solids and
liquids ; flotation of solids. The barometer and thermometer ; their use ;
graphic representation of daily readings. Solution: water as a solvent ;
solubility of metals, &c. in acids ; crystallisation of salt, soda, alum.

2nd Stage.—Evaporation and distillation ; heat absorbed in fusion of
ice and in conversion of water into steam ; density of ice ; change in den-
sity of water on heating ; moisture in air ; wet and dry bulb thermometer.
Study of iron rusting, and of combustion of candle, gas, oil, phosphorus ;
effect on metals of heating in air ; discovery of active constituent of air.

3rd Stage.—Chalk and lime ; the burning of chalk or limestone ; action
of muriatic acid on chalk or limestone ; carbonic acid ; reformation of
chalk. Discovery of carbonic acid in air ; its formation by combustion of
carbonaceous materials and in respiration. Study of action of muriatic
and vitriolic acids on zinc ; combustion of the gas obtained, and discovery
of the composition of water. Presence of air and solids dissolved in water ;
sea water ; hardness of water.

ee ee

ee Sa ee Toe a

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. ‘439

Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—eport of the Committee, consisting of
Professor H. McLeop, Professor W. C. Roserts-AusTEN, Mr.
H. G. Manan, and Mr. D. H. NaGEt.

Tue collection and verification of titles of papers on spectroscopy is being
continued, and a list is appended which brings the catalogue of spectro-
scopic literature up to the end of 1897.

It is proposed to continue the work of the Committee up to the end
of the year 1899, after which date the commencement of the International
Catalogue of Scientific Papers will render further procedure on the part
of the British Association unnecessary.

The Committee are strongly of opinion that it is most desirable that
the separate instalments of the catalogue published at’various dates in
the Reports of the Association should be (at the conclusion of the work)
collected, arranged as one continuous list of papers, and reprinted as a
whole.

This would appear to be the only way of obtaining the full value of
the catalogue as a work of reference for those engaged on the subject of
spectroscopy. One of the members of the Committee is quite willing to

- undertake the whole work of rearrangement of the matter and passing it

through the press. The only question is the expense of printing, which
will be certainly not less than 1207. Some of this might be met by
grants from the Association and from other scientific societies which
possess libraries ; and, to avoid actual loss, a charge might be made for
each copy of the catalogue.

The matter need not be settled until next year, but in the meantime
the Committee hope that it will have the earnest consideration of the
Association.

The Committee therefore ask to be reappointed.

PAPERS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH SPECTROSCOPY.
Continuation of the List published in the Report for 1894.

{Im cases where it has not been found possible to verify a reference, the latter is
placed in brackets, in the same column as the title of the paper. A list of the
chief abbreviations used will be found at the end of the catalogue. ]

us
INSTRUMENTAL.

1892.

J.S.Ames , . | The Modern Spectroscope. I. The | ‘ Astron. and Astrophys.’
Concave Grating in Theory and | xi. 28-42.
Practice. (Feb.)

J. EH. Keeler . . | The Modern Spectroscope. II. The | ‘ Astron. and Astrophys.’
Star Spectroscope of the Lick | xi. 140-144.
Observatory. (Keb.)

H.C. Pickering .| The Modern Spectroscope. III. | ‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
The Objective Prism. (March.) xi. 199-203.

440

C. A. Young .

H. Deslandres

W. Grosse .

J. E. Keeler ,

G.E.Hale , -

L. Becker .

W. Huggins .

H. F. Newall.

L. E. Jewell , '

M. T. Edelmann

A. E. Tutton .

N. von Konkoly

C. Féry . .

F. L. O. Wads-
worth.

REPORT—1898.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1892, 1893, 1894.

The Modern Spectroscope. IV.
The New Spectroscope of the
Halsted Observatory. (April.)

Spectrograph zur Messung von
Sternbewegungen. (Dec.)

Spectrophotograph der Pariser

Sternwarte. (Dec.)

1893.

The Modern Spectroscope. VI.
The Spectroscope of the Alle-
ghany Observatory. (Jan.)

The Spectroheliograph. (Feb.)

The Modern Spectroscope. VII.
The Spectroscope of the Royal
Observatory, Edinburgh. (June.)

The Modern Spectroscope. VIII.
The Tulse Hill Spectroscope.
(Sept.)

On a Combination of Prisms for a
Stellar Spectroscope. (Read Nov.
13.)

1894.
The Object-glass Grating. (Jan.) .

Hisendrahtbolometer zur Unter-
suchung vom Wiarmespectrum.
(Feb.)

An Instrument of Precision for
obtaining Monochromatic Light of
any desired Wave-length; and its
use in investigating the Optical
Characters of Crystals. (Read
Feb. 1.)

Ein solides lichtstarkes Sternspec-
troscop. (Mar.)

Réfractométre 4 cuve chauffable.
Application 4 la mesure des corps
gras. (Read July 30.)

A New Arrangement for Large Spec-
troscope Slits, (July.)

An Improved Form of Littrow Spec-
troscope. (July.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xi. 292-296.

*Naturwiss. Rundschau,”
vii. 676; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xvii, 448-449 (Abs.)

‘Naturwiss. Rundschau,”
vii. 676 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.”
xii, 40-50.

‘Astron. and Astrophys;’

xii. 241 — 257; ‘ Bei-
platter,’ xviii. 89 — 90.
(Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.”
xii. 542-545,

‘Astron. and Astrophys.”
xii. 615-619.

‘Proc. Phil. Soc. Gamb,’
viii. 138 — 141; ‘ Zeitschyr..
f. Instrumentenkunde,’
xiv. 369 -— 370; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xix. 323 (Abs.);
‘Nature,’ xlix. 379(Abs.),

‘Astron. and Astrophys.

xiii, 44-48; ‘Nature,”
xlix. 300-301 (Abs.)
‘Electrotech. Zeitschr.”

xv. 81-82; ‘ Beiblitter,
xviii. 749-750 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lv. 111-
113 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblat-
ter,’ xviii. 835 (Abs.)

‘Centralzeit. f. Opt. u-
Mech.’ xv. 61-64.

°C. R. cxix. 332-334:
‘ Beiblaitter, xix. 168
(Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xlviii.
19 — 20; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xviii. 996-997 (Abs.) ;
‘ Nature,’ 1. 326 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxviii.
137-142; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xix. 59 (Abs.)

oe ee

a

SSS eee

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

C. Féry..

M. Gliiser

L. Mach

E, L. Nichols .

J. Scheiner

H. Crewe and R.

Tatnall.

C, Pulfrich

A. Konig,

N. von Konkoly

F, Miiller

‘F. L. O. Wads-
worth.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1894,

Application de l’autocollimation a
la mesure des indices de réfrac-
tion. (Read Aug. 15.)

Die Umkehrung der Natriumlinie.

(Aug.)

Ueber
meter.

ein Interferenzrefracto-
(Aug.)

A New Form of
meter. (Sept.)

Spectrophoto-

Ueber
structionen,

neuere — Spectroscopcon-
(Sept.)

On a Method of Mapping the Spec-
tra of Metals. (Oct.)

Ueber eine neue Spectroscopcon-
struction. (Oct.)

Ein neuer Spectroscopspalt mit
Doppelbewegung. (Oct.)

A Spectroscope with Fixed Arms.
(Oct.)

Kin neues
(Nov.)

Spectrophotometer.

Ein neues photographisches Spec-
troscop. (Nov.)

Zur Absorption des Natriumlichts
durch Natriumdampf. (Dec.)

The Modern Spectroscope. IX.
Fixed-arm Spectroscopes. (Dec.)

AAY

°C. BR.’ cxix. 402 - 404;
‘ Beiblatter, xix. 168
(Abs. )

‘ Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem..
Unterr.’ vi. 303; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xviii. 561 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ xiv. 279-283;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 61
(Abs.)

‘Phys. Review,’ ii. 138-
14L; ‘Beiblitter, xix,
241-242 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ xiv. 316-324 ;
‘Beiblatter, xviii. 1045.
(Abs.) ; ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.”
xiii. 60 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxviii.
379-386; ‘ Beiblitter,”
xix. 783 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ xiv. 354-363 ;
‘Proc. Phys. Soe.’ xiii. 60
(Abs.); ‘Zeitsehr. f. anal.
Chem.’ xxxiv. 744 (Abs.) ;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xix. 328-329
(Abs.) ; ‘Astrophys. J."1..
335-349.

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ xiv. 364-366 ;
‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 6
(Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [51, xxxviii.
357-351 ; * Beiblitter,”
xix. 782-783 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem’
[N.F.], liii. 786-792;
‘Nature, li. 334 (Abs.) ;.
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 64
(Abs.)

‘Centralzeit. f. Opt. u..
Mech.’ xv. 73-74; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xviii. 997 (title).

‘ Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem.
Unterr.’ viii. 95-96 ; ‘ Bei--
blatter,’ xix. 625 (Abs.)

‘ Astron. and Astrophys.”
xiii. 835-819; ‘Nature,’
li. 325 (Abs.)

AA2

A. H. Borgesius

E. L. Nichols.

Fr. L. O. Wads-
worth,

J. EH. Keeler .

Be Ly. "0:
worth.

Wads-

De Thierry .

hal ° -
K, Angstrém .

W.Crockes . 4

A. Belopolsky .
W. Huggins .

W. Hallwachs

J. Young and G.

R. Darling,

C. V. Zenger .

REPORT—1898,

INSTRUMENTAL, 1895,

Beschreibung eines Interferenzre-
fractometers. Molecularrefraction
und Dispersion einiger Salze in
Lésungen. (Jan.)

A Method for the Study of Trans-
mission Spectra in the Ultra-
Violet. (Jan.)

The Modern Spectroscope. X.
General Considerations respecting
the Design of Astronomical Spec-
troscopes. (Jan.)

On a Lens for Adapting a Visually-
corrected Refracting Telescope to
Photographic Observations with
the Spectroscope. (Feb.)

The Modern Spectroscope. XI.
Some New Designs of Combined
Grating and Prismatic Spectro-
scopes of the Fixed-arm Type ; and
a New Form of Objective Prism.
(Mar.)

Sur un nouvel appareil dit ‘héma-
spectroscope-comparateur.’ (Read
April 8.)

Ueber eine einfache Methode zur
photographischen Darstellung des
infraroten Spectrums. (Read April
10.) (K. Gesellsch. Wiss. Upsala.)

The Slit of a Spectroscope. (April.)

On the Spectrographic Perform-
ance of the Thirty-inch Pulkowa
Refractor. (May.)

The Modern &pectroscope. XII.
"he Tulse Hill Ultra-Violet Spec-
troscope. (May.)

Bemerkungen zu einer Arbeit des
Hrn. Borgesius iiber ein Inter-
ferenzrefractometer. (June.)

A Method of Transferring Gases
to Vacuum Tubes for Spectroscopic
Examination. (July.)

L’éclipsoscope, appareil pour voir
la chromosphére et les protubé-
rances solaires. (Read Sept. 2.)

‘Verslagen en Mededer-
lingen d. K. Akad. Am-
sterdam,’ 1894, 1895, 99-
103; ‘ Ann.Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], liv.221-243 ; ©Bei-
blitter,’ xix. 168-169
(Abs.);— ‘Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiii. 217-218 (Abs.)

‘Phys. Review,’ ii. 302-
304; ‘ Beibliatter,’ xix.
426 (Abs.) ; ‘Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiii. 169 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ i. 52-79.

‘ Astrophys. J.’i. 101-111 ;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xx. 25 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ i. 232-260;

‘ Beibliitter,” xx. 196
(Abs.)
oC. Shc (CX mp Wie

‘Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’
xxxiv. 744 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ xxi. 209 (Abs.)

‘J. de Phys.’ (3], v. 32
(Abs.); ‘Phys. Rey.’ iii.
137-141; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xx. 196-197 (Abs.);
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiv.
125 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxi. 175;
‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ xv.302 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblitter,’ xix. 782
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys, J.’ i. 366-371 ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xx. 25 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ i. 359-365.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,
[N.F.], lv. 282-287.

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxii. 39;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. II.
3 (Abs.)

*C. R’ cxxi. 406-408;
‘ Nature,’ lili. 424 (Abs.)

ee

KH. Spée . .

R. Neumann.

C. Pulfrich ,

FF. L. O. Wads-
worth.

A. Belopolsky .

H, Deslandres

H. Haga ° :

B. Kolbe

F. L. O. Wads-
worth.

A. Belopolsky

A. H. Bruére

C, Pulfrich .

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1895, 1896.

Projet d’une spectroscope réali-
sant le phénoméne d'une éclipse
totale du soleil. (Read Oct. 12.)
(Oct.)

Schulapparat fiir Brechung und

Zuriickverfiigung des _ Lichtes.
(Oct.)
Hin neues Refractometer. Univer-

salapparat fiir refractometrische
und spectrometrische Untersnch-
ungen. (Nov.)

The Modern Spectroscope. XIII.
A New Multiple Transmission
Spectroscope of great Resolving
Power. (Noy.)

The Modern Spectroscope. XIV.
Fixed-arm Concave Grating Spec-
troscopes. (Dec.)

Expériment basé sur le principe
Doppler-Fizeau.

1896.

Méthode pour étudier les varia-
tions de vitesse radiale des astres
avec defaiblesinstruments. (Jan.)

Hine Aufstellungsweise des Row-
land’schen Concaygitters. (Jan.)

Ein handliches Lichtbrechungs-
apparat. (Jan.)

The Modern Spectroscope. XV.
On the Use and Mounting of the
Concave Grating as an Analysing
or Direct Comparison Spectroscope.
(Jan.)

On the Performance of an Auxi-
liary Lens for Spectrographic In-
vestigations with the 30-inch
Refractor of the Pulkowa Obser-
vatory. (Feb.)

A Comparison of Two Concave
Rowland Gratings. (Feb.)

Appareil universel pour les mesures

de réfraction et de dispersion

(Feb.)

AAS

‘Bull. Acad. Belg.’ xxx.
274-276; ‘Nature,’ liii.
309 (Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’
xxi. 513 (Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem.

Unterr.’ viii. 357-358;
‘Beiblatter, xx. 363
(Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ xv. 383-394;
‘Zeitschr. f, physikal.
Chem.’ xviii. 294-299;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. II.
161 (Abs.) ‘Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiv. 6-7 (Abs.);
‘Beiblitter, xx. 191-192
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ ii. 265-282.

‘Astrophys. J.’ il. 3570-
382.

‘Mem. spettr. ital’ xxiii.
123-124; ‘Nature,’ lii.
515 (Abs.)

* Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxix. 241-
244; ‘Beiblitter,’ xxi.
343-344 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lvii. 389-393;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiv.
123-124 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem.
Unterr.’ ix, 20-24.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ lil. 47-62 ;
‘Beiblitter, xxi. 334
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ iii. 147-

149; ‘Beibliatter,’ xxi.
334 (Abs.)
‘Phys. Review,’ iii. 301-—

305; ‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’
xiv. (Abs.), 123; ‘Bei-
blitter,’ xx. 653 (Abs.)

‘J. de Phys. [3], v. 73-79.

Add

F. L. O. Wads-
worth.

H. F. Newall :

C. Pulfrich . .

H. F. Newall.

” ®

FF. L. O. Wads-
worth.

ESO. “hord 4
G. E. Hale and

F. L. O. Wads-
worth.

F. L. O, Wads-
worth.

W. Huggins .

F. Walleraut .

M. Berthelot .

G.E.Hale . f

REPORT—1898.

INSTRUMENTAL, 1896, 1897.

The Modern Spectroscope. XVI.
A Simple Optical Device for com-
pletely Isolating or Cutting-out
any desired Portion of the Ditfrac-
tion Spectrum, and some further
Notes on Astronomical Spectro-
scopes. (March.)

The Modern Spectroscope. XVII.
Description of a Spectroscope (the
Bruce Spectroscope) recently con-
structed for use in connection with
the 25-inch Refractor of the Cam-
bridge Observatory. (April.)

A New Form of Refractometer.
(April.) ;

On the Spectroscope used in con-

nection with the 25-inch Refrac-
tor. (Read May 25.)

A Suggestion for a Form of Spectro-
heliograph. (Read May 25.)

The Modern Spectroscope. XVIII.
On the Conditions of Maximum
Efficiency in the Use of the Spec-
trograph. (May.)

The Spectroscope of the Emerson-
McMillin Observatory. (June.)

The Modern Spectroscope. XIX.
The Objective Spectroscope.
(June. )

The Modern Spectroscope. XX.

On a New Form of Fluid Prism
without Solid Walls, and its Use in
an Objective Spectroscope. (Noyv.)

1897.

On an Automatic Arrangement for |

giving Breadth to Stellar Spectra
on a Photographic Plate. (Jan.)

Sur un appareil permettant de

mesurer les indices de réfraction
des minéraux des roches. (Read
Feb. 8.)

Nouvel appareil pour l’application
de l’analyse spectrale a la recon-
naissance des gaz. (Read Mar. 15.)

Note on a Form of Spectrohelio-
graph suggested by Mr. H. F.
Newall. (March.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ iii.
192; ‘Beiblitter,’
334-335 (Abs.)

169-
Xxi.

‘Monthly Not. R. A. 8.’
lvi. 98-110; ‘Astrophys.
J.’ iii. 266-281.

‘Astrophys. J.’ iii, 259-
266.

‘Proc. Phil. Soc. Camb.’
ix. 179 (Abs.)

‘Proc, Phil.
ix. 179-183:

‘Astrophys. J.’ iii. 321-
347; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xxi,
335 (Abs.)

Soc. Camb.’

‘ Astrophys. J.’ iv. 50-53.

‘Astrophys. J.’ iv. 54-78;

‘Beiblatter,’ xxi. 335-—
336 (Abs.); ‘Nature,’
liv. 256 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ iv. 274-

277; ‘Nature,’ lv. 110-
111 (Abs.); ‘ Beibliatter,”
Xxi. 862 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ v. 8-10;

‘Beiblitter” xxi. 521
(Abs.)

'C., Ri ‘exxive polo-slie
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1879,

I. 663-664 (Abs.); ‘Bei-
bliitter, xxi. 509 (Abs.)

°C. R, ecxxiv. 525-5283
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1897, I.
940 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,”
ly. 503 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxv. 179 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxii.
298 (Abs.); ‘Ann. Chim.
et Phys.’ [7], xi. 43-473

© Beiblatter, xxi. 514
(Abs.)
‘Astrophys, J.’ v. 21h-
213.

NE

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 445

INSTRUMENTAL, 1897—EMISSION SPECTRA 1885, 1891.

M. Hamy

©. Leiss . e
S. F. Burford
F. Dupont .
C. Leiss . °
P. Fuchs '

W. Hallwachs

J. Nulander .

S. P. Langley

J. M. Eder

W. N. Hartley

0. Neovius

Nouvelle lampe 4 cadmium pour la
production des franges d’interfé-
rence, 4 grande différence de
marche. (Read April 5.)

Die neuerere Spectrometermodelle
der R. Fuess’schen Werkstitte in
Steglitz bei Berlin. (April.)

The Oleorefractometer. (May)

Lumiére jaune pour polarimétre.
(June.)

Ueber neuere spectrophotograph-
ische Apparate. (Nov.)

Ueber electrische Entladungsréh-
ren zur wissenschaftlichen Spec-
tralanalyse und deren Herstellung
(‘ Zeitschr. f, Glasinstr.-Industrie,’
vi. 174-177, vii. 4-6).
Differentialspectrometer _(‘ Verh.
Ges. Naturforsch. Frankfurt, 1897,
p. 54).

Sur un spectro-photométre construit
pour distinguer directement les
raies telluriques dans le spectre
solaire. (‘Ofvers. af Finska Vet.
Societat Férhandl.’ xxxix., 9 pp.)

ine
EMISSION SPECTRA.

1885.

Observations on Invisible Heat
Spectra, and on the Recognition of

hitherto unmeasured Waye-lengths.

(Aug.)

1891.

Neue Banden und Linien im Emis-
sionspectrum der Ammoniak-
oxygenflamme. (Read Mar. 5.)

On the Physical Characters of the
Lines in the Spark Spectra of the
Elements. (Read April 16.)

Om skiljandet af knivets och Syrets
linien i Luftens Emission-spek-
trum. (Read Oct. 14.)

‘C. BR.’ exxiv. 749-752:
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxy. 202
(Abs.)

‘Mechaniker,’ v. 113-115.

‘J. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ xvi.

411; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1897, II. 232 (Abs.)
‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3],

xvii. 584; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxi. 985 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenkunde,’ xvii. 321~—
334, 357-371; ‘ Beiblit-
ter,’ xxii. 221-222 (Abs.)

‘Beiblatter,’ xxii. 218
(titles).

*Beiblitter,’ xxi. 730-73]
(Abs.)

‘Beiblatter,’ xxii. [24]
(title).

‘Amer. Assoc. Rep.’ 1885,
55-75; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5],
xxl. 394-409.

‘Wien. Anz.’ xxviii. 44-47;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xvii. 204-206
(Abs.)

“Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xix.
448-451; ‘Astron. and
Astrophys.’ 1892, 223-
228.

‘Bihang. till. K. Svensk.
Vet. Akad. Handl.’ xvii.
Afd. I. No. 8, 69 pp.;
‘ Beibliitter,’ xvii. 563—
564 (Abs.) :

AAG

E. Pringsheim

W. L. Dudley

H. Kayser . .

B. W. Snow .

J.M. Eder .

V. Schumann ‘

W. N. Hartley :

J. M. Eder and E.
Valenta.

J.S. Ames

J. M. Eder and E.
Valenta.

|
|
|
|

. | Ueber das

REPORT—-1898.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1892, 1893.

Das Kirchhoff’sche Gesetz und die
Strahlung der Gase, I. Die Strah-
lung des Natriums, (Jan.)

The Colours and Absorption Spectra
of thin Metallic Films and of In-
candescent Vapours of the Metals,
with some Observations on Elec-
trical Volatility. (March.)

Ueber die Linienspectren Ger Ele-
menten der ersten und zweiten
Gruppe des Mendeléef’schen Sys-
tems. (April.) :

Ueber das ultrarothe Emission-
spectrum der Alkalien. (June.)

Beitrige zur Spectralanalyse. I.
Ueber das Emisgjgnspectrum der
Ammoniakoxygenflamme. II.
Ueber die Verwendbarkeit des
Funkenspectrums verschiedener
Metalle zur Bestimmung der Wel-
lenlange im Ultraviolette. (Read
Nov. 3.)

Ueber eine neue ultraviolett-emp-
findliche Platte, und die Photo-
graphie der Lichtstrahlen kleinster
Wellenlangen. (Read Nov. 10.)

Methods of observing the Spectra
of easily Volatile Metals and their
Salts, and of Separating their Spec-
tra from those of the Alkaline
Earths. (Read Dec. 1.)

Ueber einige neue Linien im brech-
barsten ultravioletten Emission-
spectrum des metailischen Cal-
ciums. (Read Dec. 1.)

1895.

- | On the Probable Spectrum of Sul-

phur. (Jan.)

' Ueber das Emissionspectrum der

elementaren Silicium, und den
spectrographischen Nachweis
dieses Elementes. (Read Jan.
19.)

Linienspectrum des
elementaren Kohlenstoffes in
Inductionsfunken, und iiber das
ultraviolette Funkenspectrum
nasser und trockener Holzkohle.
(Read Jan. 19.)

‘Ann. Phys. u.. Chem.’
[N.F.], xlv. 428-459.

‘Amer. Chem. J.’ xiv. 185—
190; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixii.
1037 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’ xxvi.
(Ref.), 387-38 (Abs.);
‘Zeitschr. anal. Chem.’
xxii. 573 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Zeitung.’ xvi. 533-
534, :

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], xlvii. 208-251;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxiv. II.
58 (Abs.)

‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
lx. 1-24; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xviii. 910-912 (Abs.)

‘Wien, Anz.’ xxix. 230_
231; ‘Naturw. Rund-
schau,’ ix. 16 (Abs.);
‘ Nature, xlix. 254 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxiii. 138-
141; ‘Chem. News,’ lxvi.
313 (Abs.)

‘Wien. Anz.’
DARBY

Xxix, @252-

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 50-51; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixvii. 40; ‘Ber.’ xxvi.
(Ref.) 366 (Abs.)

‘Wien. Anz.’ xxx. (1893),
19-217

‘Wien. Anz.’ xxx. (1893),
21-94,

-

so

= F.Paschen ,

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

J. M. Eder and E.
Valenta.

J. Parry. .

KE. C. C. Baly. .
VY. Schumann

J. M. Eder and E.
Valenta.

B. Hasselberg :
E. Pringsheim ss.
H. Wilde .

J. M. Eder and E.

Valenta,

B.M. Snow .

H. C. Vogel

H. Kayser and C.
Runge.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1893,

Ueber das Emissionspectrum des
Koblenstoffes und _ Silicium.
(Read Jan, 19.)

The Spectrum of Iron and the
Periodic Law. (Jan.)

Separationand Striation of Rarefied
Gases under the Influence of the
Electric Discharge. (Read Feb.
10.)

The Hydrogen Line, Hg, in the
Spectrum of Nova Aurigz and in
the Spectrum of Vacuum Tubes.
(Feb.)

Ueber das ultraviolette Linien-
spectrum des elementaren Bor.
(Read April 13.)

Note on the Spectroscopy of Sul-
phur. (April.),

Das Kirchhofi’sche Gesetz, und die
Strahlung der Gase. II. Die
Strahlung von Lithium, Thallium
und Kalium. (April.)

The Spectrum of Thallium, and its
Relation to the Homologous
Spectra of Indium and Gallium.
(Read April 20.)

Ueber den Verlauf der Bunsen’-

schen Flammenreactionen im
ultravioletten Spectrum. (Read
July 9.)

On the Continuous Spectrum of
Sodium. (Amer. Assoc. Report.)
(Aug.)

On the Continuous Spectrum of the
Alkalies [Sodium]. (Aug.)

The Infra-red Spectra of the Alkali
Metals. (Nov.)

Ueber die Bezeichnung der Linien
des I.
(Noy.)

Ueber die Spectren der Elemente.
VII.
Blei, Arsen, Antimon, Wismuth.
(Read Dec. 7.)

Ueber die Emission der
(Dec.)

Gase.

Wasserstoffspectrums. |

Die Spectren von Zinn, |

447

*Denkschr. Akad. Wien,
Ix. 241-268 ; ‘ Beibliitter,”
XVill. 753-756 (Abs.)

‘Nature, xlv. 253-255;
‘ Beiblatter, xvii. 748-749
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xii. 147—
153; ‘Chem. News,’ Ixvii.
95 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 159-166; ‘ Nature,’
xlvii, 425 (Abs.)

‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
lx. 307-311; ‘ Beibliitter,
Xvili, 752-753 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’

xii. 347-349; * Bei-
blatter,’ xviii. 86 (Abs.)
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’

[N.F.], xlix. 347-365.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lili. 369-
372; ‘ Ber. xxviii. (Ref.),
218 (Abs.)

‘Denkschr, Akad. Wien,’
(1893), lx. 467_476 ; « Bei-
blatter,’ xviii. 909-910
(Abs.)

‘Phys. Review, i. 296_298 :
‘ Beiblitter, xviii, 997
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Amer. Assoc.’ 1893,
79-80 (Abs.)

‘Phys. Review,’ i. 221-223.

‘Astr. Nachr?’ exxxiy. 95-
96; ‘Nature,’ xlix. 162:
‘ Beibliitter,’ xviii. 670
(Abs.)

‘Abhandl. Akad. Berlin,
1893, 21 pp.; ‘Ann. Phys.
u. Chem.’ [N.F.], lii. 93—
113; ‘Nature,’ xlix. 509
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.
[N.F.], li. 1-39; ‘Nature,’
xlix. 376 (Abs.); ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5], xzxvi. 551-552
(Abs.); ‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’
xiii. 13 (Abs.)

448

M.Eisig .

E. Pringsheim

W. N. Hartley

H. Kayser and C.
Runge.

H. Kayser and C,
Runge.

J. I. Rydberg

©, Kirn . .

TH. P. Lewis and

E. 5. Ferry.

©. A. Mebius .

#. Paschen

J. M. Eder and E.
Valenta.

W.N. Hartley

REPORT—1898.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1894.

Das Linienspectrum des Sauer-
stoffes. (March.)

Bemerkungen zu Hrn. Paschen’s
Abhandlung ‘ Ueber die Emission
erhitzten Gase.’ (March.)

On Variations observed in the
Spectrum of Carbon Electrodes,
and on the Influence of one Sub-
stance on the Spectrum’‘of another.
(Received Jan. 13. Read April
19.)

Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Linien-

spectra. (April.)

Ueber die Spectra von Zinn, Blei,
Arsen, Antimon, Wismuth.
(April.)

Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Linien-
spectren. (April.)

Ueber die Aehnlichkeit der Licht-
emission einer nachleuchtenden
Geissler’schen Réhre mit dem
Beginne des Gliihens fester
Korper. (May.)

The Infra-red Spectrum of the
Metals. (May.)

Ueber die Glimmentladung in der

Luft. (Read May 9.)
Ueber die Emission der Gase.
(May.)

Ueber das Spectrum des Kaliums,
Natriums und Cadmiums bei
verschiedenen Temperaturen.
(Read June 7.)

Flame Spectra at High Tempera-
tures. Part II. The Spectrum of
Metallic Manganese, of Alloys of
Manganese, and of Compounds
containing that Element. (Read
June 14.)

’

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.
(N.F.], li. | 747-760;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxvi. II.
265-266 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], li. 441-447;
‘Nature,’ xlix. 547 (Abs.);
‘Proc. Phys. Soe.’ xiii. 25
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lv. 344—
349; *Nature.’]. 141-142
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixvili. II. 432 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblatter,’ xviii. 1046 -
1047 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], li. 114-118.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lif, 93-118; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixvi. II. 303-
304 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ 1.
118 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lii. 119-131.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N:F.], ii. 381-384;
‘Proc. Phys. Soe.’ xiii.
17 (Abs.); ‘Nature,’ 1.
188 (Abs.)

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Cire.’ xiii. (No. 112), 74—
76; ‘Beiblatter,’ xix.
242 (Abs.)

‘Bihang till K. Svensk.
Akad. Handl.’ xx. Afd. I.
No. 1, 1-38; ‘Ann. Phys.
u. Chem.’ [N.F.], liv. 520-

543; ‘Nature, li. 620
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
(NEY), sautic209=23iee

© Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 13
(Abs.)

‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
Ixi. 347-364; ‘Ber’
Xxvili. (Ref.), 270 (Abs.)

‘Proc, Roy. Soc.’ lvi. 192-
193 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News,’ lxx. 2-4, 15-16;
‘Nature,’ 1. 238 (Abs.) :
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixviii. II.
432 (Abs.); ‘Beibliitter,’
xviii, 997-998 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

W. N. Hartley

B. Hasselberg

F. Aymonnet.

A. de Gramont

M. Glaser

W.N.Hartley .

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

F. Paschen

L. Thomas

E. Kottgen

F. Paschen .

B. Hasselberg

V. Schumann, :

1898,

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1894.

Flame Spectra at High Tempera-
tures.
scopic Phenomena and Thermo-
chemistry of the Bessemer Pro-

cess. (Read June 14.)

Ueber das Linienspectrum des
Sauerstotis, (June.)

Sur les radiations calorifiques

comprises dans la partie lumi-
neuse du spectre. (Read July 9.)

Sur le spectre de lignes du soufre,
et sur sa recherche dans les com-
posés métalliques. (Read July 2.)

Funkenspectra mittels der In-

fluenzmaschine. (Aug.)

New Methods of Spectrum Analy-
sis, and on Bessemer Flame
Spectra, (Aug.)

Preliminary Note on the Spectrum

of the Electric Discharge in
Liquid Oxygen, Air, and Nitro-
gen. (Aug.)

Die genauen Wellenlingen der
Banden des ultrarothen Kohlen-
siure- und Wasserspectrums.
(Aug.)

Sur la constitution de lare élec-
trique. (Read Oct. 29.)

Untersuchungen der spectralen
Zusammensetzung verschiedener
Lichtquellen. (Nov.)

Notiz iiber die Giiltigkeit des
Kirchhoff’schen Gesetzes von der
Emission. (Dec.)

Untersuchungen tiber die Spectra
der Metalle im_ electrischen
Flammenbogen. I. Spectrum des
Chroms.

Vom Wasserstoffspectrum

Part III. The Spectro- |

44.9

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvi. 193-
199 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ 1].
261-262 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixviii. II. 432-433
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’ xviii.
997-998 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lii. 758-761.

(Cap Rs (cxixey 151-154.
‘Beiblitter, xix. 64
(Abs.)

°C. R. cxix. 68-70; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xviii. 912 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem News,’ Ixx. 49
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixvi. II. 434-435 (Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem.
Unterr.’ vi. 303-304;
‘ Beibliitter,’ xviii. 559
(Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1894,
610-611; ‘ Beiblatter, xx.
26 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxviil.
235-240; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixvili. II. 33-34 (Abs.);
‘Ber.’ xxviii. (Ref.), 4-5
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xix.
60 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
(N.F.], liii, 334-336 ;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 15
(Abs.)

°C. RB’ cxix. 728-730;
‘Nature,’ li. 47 (Abs )

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], iii. 793-811;
‘ Nature,’ li. 334 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.
[N.F.], li. 40-46: ‘Proc.
Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 13 (Abs.)

‘Handl. K. Svens. Vet.
Akad.’ xxvi. 32 pp.; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xviii. 837 (Abs.)

‘Jahrb. f. Photogr.’ viii.
59_64; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xviii.
752 (Abs.)

GG

450

Lord Rayleigh and |
W. Ramsay.

W. Crookes

W. N. Hartley

H. A. Nowland and |
Rk. R. Tatnall.

B. Hasselberg

G. W. A. Kahlbaum

H. F. Newall.

H. A. Rowland and
tt ht. Tatnall.

E. C. C. Baly.

M. Lerthelot

REPORT—1898.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1895.

Argon, a New Constituent of the
Atmosphere. (Read Jan. 31.)

On the Spectra of Argon.
Jan. 31.)

(Read

On the Spark Spectrum of Argon
as it appears in the Spark Spec-
trum of Air. (Read Jan. 31.)

The Arc Spectra of the Elements.
I, Boron and Beryllium. (Jan.)

| Untersuchungen iiber die Spectra

der Metalle im electrischen Flam-
menbogen. II. Spectrum des
Titans. (Read Feb. 13.) (‘ Handl.
K. Svensk. Vet. Akad.’ xxviii. No.
1, pp. 32).

Ueber den neuentdeckten Be-
standtheil der Atmosphiire, das
Argon, (Feb.)

Note on the Spectrum of Argon.
(Read Feb. 21.)

The Arce Spectra of the Elements.
II. Germanium.

A Possible Explanation of the
Twofold Spectra of Oxygen and
Nitrogen. (Read March 21.)

Sur l’argon et sur l’hélium. (Read
March 25.)

‘Phil. Trans.’ elxxxvi. A,
187-141; ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.
lvii. 265-287; ‘Chem.
News, Ixxi. 651-59;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem. xvi. 344-369;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xix. 276-279
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxx. II. 99-106 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Trans.’ clxxxvi. A.
243-251; ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc. Ivii. 287-289;
‘Chem. News,’ lxxii. 66—
69; ‘Zeitschr. f. physi-
kal. Chem.’ xvi. 369-379 ;
‘Ber. xxviii. (Ref.), 176
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xix.
331-332 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ lvii. 293-

296; ‘Beiblatter,’ xix.
625 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ i. 14-17;
‘Beiblatter, xix. 424
(Abs.) r

‘ Beiblitter,’ xx. 304(Abs.)

‘Verh. naturf. Gesellsch.

d. Basel, xi. 151-173;
‘Beiblatter, xix. 461
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvii. 346—
350; ‘Nature, li. 454;
«Chem. News,’ lxxi. 115-
116; ‘Astrophys. J.’ i.
372-376; ‘Ber.’ xxviii.
(Ref.), 838 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’i. 149-153 ;
‘ Beibliitter,’ xx. 29 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvii. 468—
469; ‘Chem News,’ Ixxi.
169-170(Abs.) ; ‘Nature,’
li. 550 (Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixviii. 11. 469 (Abs.)

\G, R?. ‘exx, 1660-661;
‘Ber.’ xxviii. (Ref.), 318
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ li. 552
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxi. 176.

—_ - ==

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 45]

W. Crookes

W. Ramsay

H. W. Vogel . :

P. T. Cleve .

A. de Gramont

J. N. Lockyer 5

W. Ramsay

Lord Rayleigh

J. S. Ames

J. Evershed;.

W. R. E. Hodgkin-
son.

L. Palmieri .

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1895.

The Spectrum of the New Gas from
Cléveite. (Read March 27.)

Discovery of Helium in Cleveite.
(Read March 27.)

Terrestrial Helium. (Read March
27.)

Ueber das sogenannte kiinstliche
Spectrum von Charles E. Benham.
(Read March 8.)

Sur la présence de Vhélium dans
la clevéite. (Read April 16.)

Sur les spectres de sélénium et de
quelques séléniures naturels.
(Read April 8.)

On the New Gas obtained from
Uraninite. Notes I. IL, III.
(Read April 25, May 9.)

On a Gas showing the Spectrum of
Helium, the reputed cause of D,,
one of the Lines of the Coronal
Spectrum. Preliminary Note.
(Read April 25.)

On Argon. (Lecture at Royal
Institution, April 5.)

The Spectrum Researches of Pro-
fessor J. M. Eder and E. Valenta.

(May.)

| Experiments on the Radiation of

Heated Gases.

Argon in Minerals.

(May.)
(May) .

A proposito della riga dell’ Helium
apparsa nello spettro di una sub-
limazione vesuviana nel 1881, ed
ora riveduta da Ramsay e da
Cléve nella Clevite o Cléveite.
(Read May 4.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixvii.
1108-1109 ; ‘Chem.’
News,’ Ixxi. 151; ‘ Ber.
xxviii. (Ref.), 839 (Abs.) ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xix. 624
(Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ li. 543-
544; ‘Proc. Chem. Soc.’
xi. 60-61.

‘Proc. Chem. Soc.’ No.150,
59-60; ‘Chem. News,’
lxxi. 151.

‘Proc. Chem. Soc.’ No. 150,
59-60; ‘Nature,’ li. 512,
543.

‘Verhandl.phys. Gesellsch.
Berl.’ xiv. 45-47.

°C. RY exx. 834; ‘ Beibliit-
ter,’ xix. 568 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixviii. J1.347
(Abs.)

“Cx VR. Cxe 1778-780;
‘Ber.’ xxviii. (Ref.), 320
(Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’ xix.
566 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Lxviii. II. 338 (Abs.)

* Proc. Roy. Soe.’ lviii. 67—
70,113-119 ; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xix.729 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
li. §, 55-56; ‘Chem.
News, Ixxi. 295; ‘ Ber.’
xxix. (Ref.), 161 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lviii. 65—
67; ‘Chem.’ News,’ lxxi.
211; ‘ Ber.’ xxviii. (Ref.),
839 (Abs.); ‘Nature,’
its, 7.

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxi. 299-
302, 310-312; * Nature,’
lii. 159-164.

\ Astrophys. J.’ i. 445-446;

‘Nature,’ lii. 275-276.

‘Phil. Mag.’
460_476.

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxi. 248;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xix. 597-598
(Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. Napoli,’
[3], i. 121-122; ‘ Beibliit-
ter,’ xx. 531 (Abs.)

[5], are.

G G2

452

J. N. Lockyer

W. Ramsay

W. Ramsay and
J. N. Collie.

W. Ramsay, J. N.
Collie, and M.
Travers.

C. Runge . .

» « °

A. Schuster

B. Brauner .

H. Deslandres

” *

REPORT—1898.

EMIssIon SPECTRA, 1895.
Sur l'analyse spectrale des gaz
dégagés par divers minéraux.
(Read May 20.)

Sur l’argon et Vhélium. ‘(Read
May 13.)
Argon in Minerals. (May) . “

Helium, a Gaseous Constituent of

Certain Minerals. Part 1, (Read
May 2.)

The Short Wave-lengths of the
Spark Spectrum of Aluminium.

(May.)
On the Line Spectra of the Ele-
ments. (May.)

Sur les spectres cannelés.
May 6.)

(Read

Note on Gases of the Helium and
Argon Type. (June.)

Découverte Mune troisi¢me radia-
tion permanente de l’atmosphére
solaire dans le gaz de la clévéite.
(Read June 17.)

| Etude spectrale des charbons du
four électrique. (Read June 10.)

"Co R.”, exx. 1103-1104 s
‘Beiblitter, xix, 566-
567 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’ xxviii.
(Ref.), 592 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixviii. II.
430-431 (Abs.); ‘ Proc.
Phys. Soc.’ “xiii, -341
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
xxi. 281 (Abs.)

‘Cc. R. cxx. 1049-1050;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxi. 259
(Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ lii. 96
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ xix.
531 (Abs.) ; ‘ Ber.’ xxviii.
(Ref.), 448 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxi. 268 ;
‘Beiblaitter, xix. 597-
598 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy:= Soe._ lyin:
81-89; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixviii. 684-701; ‘ Bei-
blatter,” xix. 673-674
(Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ lii. 55
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ i. 433.

‘Nature,’ lii. 106-108 ;
‘ Beibliitter,’ xx. 530-531
(Abs.)

“Ca JR.) 1exx ee daieoaso
‘ Beiblatter,’ xix. 788-
789 (Abs.) ; ‘Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiii. 306 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxi. 271;

‘J. Chem. Soe.’ Ixviii.
II. 347 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’
xxviii. (Ref.), 904-905
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’ xix.
675 (Abs.)

°C. BR’ cxx. 1331-1333 ;
‘ Ber.’ xxviii. (Ref.), 1045
(Abs.); ‘ Beibliatter,’ xix.
693 (Abs.); ‘Chem.News,’
Ixxii. 12 (Abs.); ‘ Proc.
Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 340
(Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ lii. 216
(Abs.)

*C. R.’ \ cxx, 1259-21260;
‘Chem, News,’ Ixxii. 9;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii.
344 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
lii. 192 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 453

J. N. Lockyer

C. J. Lundstré6m

W. Ramsay, J. N.
and M.

Collie,
Travers.

C. Runge

C. Runge and F.

Paschen,

J. M. Eder and £.

Valenta.

F. Exner
Haschek.

W. Huggins .

F. Paschen

W. Ramsay

C. Runge and F.

Paschen.

H. Crew and O. H.

Rasquin,

and KE.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1895.

On the New Gas obtained from
Uraninite. Notes IV. V. (Read
June 13.)

Flame Spectra observed at Swedish
Bessemer Works. (Read June 20;
revised Oct. 18.)

Helium, a Constituent of Certain
Minerals. (Read June 20.)

Terrestrial Helium. (June) .

Ueber das Spectrum des Helium.
(Read June 20.)

Ueber die verschiedenen Spectren
des Quecksilbers. (Read July 5.)

Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-
spectren der Elemente. I. Mit-
theilung. (Read July 11.)

Helium. (July) . .

Ueber Gesetzmiissigkeiten in dem
Spectren fester K6rper und iiber
eine neue Bestimmung der Son-
nentemperatur. (Read July 6.)

Argon and Helium in Meteoric

Iron. (July.)
Ueber die Bestandtheile des
Cléveitgases. (Read July 11.)

Note on the Spectrum of Carbon.
(Aug.)

‘ Proc. Roy. Soe.’ lviii.191-
195; ‘Nature,’ lii. 214;
‘Chem. News,’ lxxii. 4-5,
271-272,283; ‘Beiblitter,’
xix. 825 (Abs.); ‘Ber.’
xxix. (Ref.), 161 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix. 76 -
98 ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xx. 367
(Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixvii. 684—
701; ‘Nature,’ lii. 306-
308, 331-334.

‘Nature,’ lii. 128; ‘ Chem.
News,’ lxxi. 283; ‘ Bei-
blitter,” xix. 624-625
(Abs.)

‘ Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
xxx. 639-643; ‘ Bei.
blatter,’ xix. 884-885
(Abs.); ‘Proc. Phys. Soe.’
xiii, 345-346 (Abs.)

‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
]xi, 401-430; ‘Ann. Phys.
u. Chem,’ [N.F.], lv. 479—
502; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixx.) I. 223) .\(Abs5));
‘ Ber.’ xxviii. (Ref.), 270
(Abs.); ‘ Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiv. 47 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
civ. Abth. Ila, 909-
962; ‘ Beiblitter, xx.
693 (Abs.); ‘ Proe. Phys.
Soc.’ xiv, 238 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxii. 27;
‘Beiblatter,’ xix. 730
(Abs.)

‘Gott. Nachr.’ i895, No. 3,
294-305.

‘Nature,’ lii. 224-225;
‘Beiblatter,” xix. 729
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,’
xxx. 759-763; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xix. 885-886

(Abs.) ; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5],
xxxix. 297-303; ‘ Chem.
News,’ Ixxii. 181-182
(Abs.); ‘Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiii. 393-394 (Abs.) ;
‘Nature,’ lii. 520-522
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ii.
105.

103-

H. Crew and O. H.

Rasquin.

W. Crookes .

W. N. Hartley

H. Kayser .

”

H,F.Reid .

W.Le Conte Stevens

E. Wiedemann and

G. C. Schmidt.

L. J. Troost and

V. R. Ouvrard.

J. M. Eder and E.

Valenta.

J. N. Lockyer
F.Paschen ,

REPORT—1898.

EMIssIon SPECTRA, 1895.

Note on the Magnesium Band at
=5007. (Aug.)

The Spectrum of Ramsay’s Com-
pound of Argon and Carbon.
(Aug. 11.)

The Spectrum of Helium. (Aug.)

On the Thermo-Chemistry of the
Bessemer Process. (Read Aug.7.)

The Blue Spectrum of Argon.
(Aug.)

Note on Helium and Argon. (Aug.)

Preliminary Note on the Radiation
of Incandescent Platinum. (Aug.)

Recent Progress in Optics. (Aug.)

Ueber Lichtemission organischer
Substanzen im _ gasfdrmigen,
fliissigen und festen Zustand.

(Aug.)

Sur la combinaison du magnésium
avec largon et avec lhélium.
(Read Sept. 2.)

Ueber das rothe Spectrum des
Argons. (Read Oct. 24.)

The New Mineral Gases. (Oct.) .

On the Existence of Law in the
Spectra of Solid Bodies and ona
New Determination of the Tempe-
rature of the Sun. (Oct.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ii. 100-
102; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xx.
30 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxii. 99;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxx. II.
2 (Abs.); ‘Ber.’ xxviii.
(Ref.), 840 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxii. 87-

89; ‘Nature,’ lili. 428-
430; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixx. | WTI Cabs);

‘Ber.’ xxviii. (Ref.), 840
(Abs.) ; ‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’
xiv. 161-162 (Abs.) ;
‘Zeitschr. anal. Chem.’
xi. 6-13.

‘Journ. Iron and Steel
Inst.’ xlviii. 95-121 ;
‘ Nature,’ lii. 426-427
(Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxii. 99-
100; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxx. II. 2 (Abs.); ‘Ber.’
xxviii. (Ref.), 840 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ lxxit. 89;
‘ Ber.’ xxviii. (Ref.), 840
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxx. II. 19-20 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ii. 160-
161; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xx.
27-28 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ 1. 277-
286, 377-386; ‘ Nature,’
liii. 233-238.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
[N.F.], lvi. 18-26; ‘ Na-
ture,’ lii. 611 (Abs.);
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii.
471-472 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. IT. 86-
87 (Abs.)

°C. R. cxxi. 394-395;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. II.
99 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
civ. 218-220; ‘ Monats.
f. Chem.’ xvi. 893-895 ;
‘Ber.’ xxix. (Ref.), 7-8
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xx.
126 (Abs.); ‘ Chem.
News,’ Ixxii. 289-290.

‘Nature,’ lit. 547-549.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ il. "202-
211; ‘Nature,’ lili. 38
(Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 45

H. A. Rowland and
R. R. Tatnall.

H. Wilde e .

C. Bohn. :

H. Crew .

J.M. Eder and E.
Valenta.

A. de Gramont

H.A. Hill.

A. Killas and W.
Ramsay.

J. N. Lockyer

” e .

G. J. Stoney . .

A, A. Michelson .

A. Schuster . 5

E. Wiedemann and
G. C. Schmidt.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1895.

The Arc Spectra of the Elements.
Ill. Platinum and Osmium.
(Oct.)

Helium and its Place in the
Natural Classification of Elemen-
tary Substances. (Read Oct. 1.)

Ueber Flammen und leuchtende
Gase. (Noyv.)

Photographic Maps of Metallic
Spectra. (Nov.)

Ueber die Spectren von Kupfer,
Silber und Gold. (Read Nov. 7)

Sur l’analyse spectrale directe des
composés solides, et plus spéciale-
ment des minéraux. (Noy.)

Additional Notes on Argon and
Helium. (Noyvy.)

Examination of Gases from Certain
Mineral Waters. (Read Noy. 28.)

On the Gases obtained from the
Mineral Eliasite. (Read Nov, 21.)

On the New Gas obtained from
Uraninite. Note VI. (Read Noy.
21.)

On Prof. Runge and Paschen’s
Photographs of the Spectrum of
the Gas from Cléveite. (Read
before Phys. Soc. Nov. 22.)

On the Broadening of Spectral
Lines. (Nov.)

On the Evidence to be gathered
as to the Simple or Compound
Character of a Gas from the Con-
stitution of its Spectrum. (Nov.)

Spectralbeobachtungen an ver-
diinnten Diimpfen von Metallen
und Verbindungen, (Read Nov.
12.)

Gr

‘Astrophys. J.’ ii, 184—
188; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xx.
365 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xl. 466-
471; ‘J.Chem. Soc.’ Ixx.
II. 165-166 (Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xviii. 219-239 ;
© Beiblitter,” xx. 276
(Abs.) ; ‘ Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiv. 2-3 (Abs.)
‘Astrophys. J. ii. 318-
320.

‘ Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
Txili, 189-235; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xx. 366 (Abs.)

§C) Rl” cxxi. . d21-123
‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3],
xili._xiv. 945-947 ; ‘ Ber.’
xxviii. (Ref.), 1048 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ 1. 359-376.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix., 68-
69; ‘Nature,’ liii. 191;
‘Chem. News,’ lxxii. 295.

©Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix. 1-3;
‘Nature,’ lili. 190-191;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxii. 283;
‘ Beiblitter,” xx. 314
(Abs.)

© Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix. 4-8;
‘Nature, lili. 163-164
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
lxxii. 271-272; ‘Bei-
blitter,’ xx. 314 (Abs.)

‘Nature, liii. 94-95 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxii. 266—
267 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ii. 251-
263; ‘Beiblitter,’ xx.
532-533 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ lxxii. 224.

‘Sitzungsb. phys. med.
Soc. Erlangen, xxvii.
127-144; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xx. 693-694 (Abs.);
‘Naturw. Rundschau,’ xi.
429-431 (Abs.)

J. M. Eder and E.
Valenta.

8. Friedlinder

Ch, Moureu

R. Nasini and F.
Anderlini.

E, Demarcay

J.M.Eder ,

O, Postma

W. Crookes

J.M. Eder . *

C. Runge and F.
Paschen.

W. A. Tilden

J. N. Collie and
W. Ramsay.

W. J. Humphreys
and J, F. Mohler.

REPORT—1898.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1895, 1896.

Ueber die verschiedene Spectren
des Argons. (Vorliufige Mittheil-
ung). (Read Dec. 19.)

Ueber Argon, (Dec.) . 6

Sur la présence de largon et de
Vhélium dans une source d’azote
naturelle. (Read Dec. 2.)

Sopra alcuni fatti relativi all
argon. (Read Dec. 1.)

Spectres électriques. (Texte 91 pp.,
Planches 20.)

Ueber ultravioletten Absorptions-
und Enmissionsspectren (‘ Verh.
Ges. Naturf. u. Aerzte,’ II. 1. Halfte
(1895), 78).

Hiniges tiber Ausstrahlung und
Absorption. (Inaug.-Diss. Am-
sterdam, 1895, 94 pp.)

1896.

Das Spectrum des Heliums . .

Bemerkung zu Herren C. Bohn’s
Abhandlung ‘ Ueber Flammen und
leuchtende Gase.’ (Jan.)

On Crookes’s Spectrum of Helium.
(Jan.)

An Attempt to Determine the Con-
dition in which Helium and the
Associated Gases exist in Mine-
rals. (Read Jan, 23.)

On the Behaviour of Argon and
Helium when submitted to the
Electric Discharge. (Read Feb.

13.) .

Effect of Pressure on the Wave-
lengths of Lines in the Arc Spec-
tra of Certain Elements. (Feb.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,”
civ. Abt. II.a, 1171-1177;
* Monatsh. f. Chem.’ xvii.
50-56 ; ‘ Ber.’ xxix.(Ref.),
341 (Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’
xx. 531-532 (Abs.) ; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. IL. 405
(Abs,) ; ‘Proc. Phys. Soc,
xiv. 236-27 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f.. physikal.
Chem.’ xix. 657-667 ;
‘Beiblitter,” xx. 775
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem: Soc.’
lxx. IL. 457 (Abs.); ‘Chem.

News,’ Ixxiv. 179-180
(Abs.)
SC. Ry cxxi, (S19=820i5

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxii. 310.

‘Rend. R. Accad. d.Lincei,’
[5], iv. II. Sem. 269-290;

* Beiblatter,” xx. 315
(Abs.)
‘ Beiblitter, xix. [58]

(title).

‘Beiblitter,’ xxii. 98 (Abs.)}

‘Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.”
xi. 6-13; ‘Beiblatter, xx.
275 -276 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikah
Chem.’ xix. 20-24; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xx. 276-277.
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ lili. 245; ‘ Bei.
blitter,’ xxi. 633 (Abs. )

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix. 218—
224.

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ lix, 257—
270.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ iii. 114—
118; ‘Beiblitter, xx.
533 (Abs.)

H. Kayser

J. Landauer .

C. W. Baldwin

F, Exner
Haschek.

and E.

A. Gamgee

E. Haschek

J. N. Lockyer

W. Ramsay

W. N. Hartley

H. A, Rowland and
R. R. Tatnall.

W. N. Hartley and
H. Ramage.

H. Kayser

J. F. Mohler and
L. E, Jewell.

J. M. Eder and E.
Valenta.

A. de Gramont

457

‘Chem. Zeitung,’ xx. 195—
196; ‘Chem. News, lyxiv.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.
EMISSION SPECTRA, 1896.
Die Fortschritte der Spectro-
scopie. (Feb.)
307-309.
Die Spectral-Analyse. (Braun-

schweig, 174 pp.) (Feb.)

A Photographic Study of Arc
Spectra. I. (March.)

Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-
spectra der Elemente, II. III. IV.
(Read March 19.)

On the Relations of Turacin and
Turacoporphyrin to the Colouring
Matter of the Blood. (Read
March 19.)

Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-
spectra der Elemente. (Read
March 19.)

On the New Gas obtained from
Uraninite. (Seventh Note.) Re-
marks on Messrs. Runge and
Paschen’s Diffusion Experiment.
(Read March 19.)

Helium, a Gaseous Constituent of
Certain Minerals. Part II. Den-
sity. (Read March 19.)

The Determination of the Compo-
sition of a ‘White Son’ by a
Method of Spectrographic Analy-
sis. (Read April 23.)

The Are Spectra of the Elements.
IV. Rhodium, Ruthenium, and
Palladium. (April.)

On the Occurrence of the Element |

Gallium in the Clay Ironstone of
the Cleveland District of York-
shire. (Preliminary Notice.) (Read
May 7.)

Ueber die Spectren des Argons.
(Read May 7.)

On the Wave-lengths of some of
the Helium Lines in the Vacuum
Tube, and of D, in the Sun.
(May.)

Spectralanalytische Untersuchun-
gendes Argons. (Read June 11.)
(‘ Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’ Ixiv.
39 pp.) (June.)

Spectres de dissociation des sels
fondus, métaux alkalins, sodium,
potassium, lithium. (Read June
15.)

‘Chem. News,’ xxiii. 70-
71 (Review).

‘Phys. Review,’ iii. 370-
380; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xx.
774 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
cv. Ila, 389-436, 503-
574, 707-740.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix. 339-
342.

‘Wien. Anz.’ xxxili. 75-76
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix, 342-
343; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xx.
775-776 (Abs. )

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix. 325—
330.

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxix. 842—
844; ‘Chem. News,”
Ixxiii, 229 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ iii. 286—

291.

‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lx. 35-37.

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.”
1896, 551-564; ‘ Astro—
phys. J.’ iv. 1-17; ‘Bei-
bliitter, xx. 976 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J. iii.

355.

351—

‘Wien. Anz.’ xxxiii. 161
(Abs.); ‘Beiblitter,’ xxi.
129 (Abs.)

‘C. RY exxii. 1411-1413 ;.
‘ Beiblitter, xx. 698
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,”
lxxiv. 12 (Abs.)

A. de Gramont

W. N. Hartley

H. Kayser .
H. Wilde :

M. Bamberger

G, Magnanini

W. Ramsay and J.

N. Collie.

J. R. Rydberg

W.Spring .

W. Wien F

H. Crew -

J. R. Rydberg

P, Barriére .

Birkeland .,

O. J. Lodge and

B. Davies.
W. N. Hartley

W. Crookes ..

REPORT—1898.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1896.

Sur le spectre du phosphore dans

les sels fondus et dans certains
produits métallurgiques. (Read
June 29.)

Sur les spectres des métalloides
dans les sels fondus. Soufre.
(Read June 8.)

Remarks on the Origin of some of
the Lines and Bands observed in
the Spectra from Swedish Besse-
mer Works. (Read June 20.)

The Spectra of Argon. (June)

On the Spectral and other Pro-
perties of Thallium in Relation to
the Genesis of the Elements.
(June.)

Ueber den Nachweis von Argon in

dem Gase einer Quelle in Perch-
toldsdorf bei Wien. (Read July 9.)

Intorno alla ipotesi della colora-
zione degli joni. (July.)

Sur Vhomogénéité de l’argon et de
Vhélium. (Read July 27.)

Die neue Grundstoffe des Cléveit-
gases. (July.)

Sur la couleur et le spectre lumineux
de quelques corps organiques.
(July.)

Ueber die Energievertheilung im
Emissionsspectrum eines schwart-
zen K6rpers. (July.)

Normal Spectrum of the Zinc Are.
(Aug.)

The New Elements of Cléveite Gas.
(Aug.)

Lucium, a New Element. (Sept.).

Sur un spectre des rayons catho-
diques. (Read Sept. 28).

Extension of the Visible Spectrum.
(Sept.)
Argon and Helium. (Oct.) .

The Alleged New Element, Lucium.
(Noyv.)

*C. R.’ exxii. 1534-1536 ;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxiv. 41
(Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ liv. 239
(Abs. )

*C. RY cxxii. 1326-1328 ;
‘ Beiblitter, xx. 693
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix. 98—
101; ‘ Beibliitter,” xx.
367 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J. iv. 1-17.

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxiii. 304-
305; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxi.
633 (Abs.)

‘Monatsh, f. Chem.’ xvii.
604-612.

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxvi.
II. 92-96; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxi. 30-31 (Abs.)

°C. R. cxxiii. 214,916;
‘Beiblitter, xx. 823
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lviii. 674-679 ;
‘Nature, liv. 455-456
(Abs.)

‘Bull. Acad. Belg. [3],
Xxxli. 43-51; ‘ Beiblat-
ter,’ xxi. 31 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.#.], lviii. 662-669 ;
‘Nature,’ liv. 455 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ iv.135-137.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ iv. 91-96;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxiv.
238-239.

‘Chem. News,’ lxxiv. 159;
‘Beiblitter, xx. 930
(Abs.)

°C. R? exxiii. 492-495.
‘Nature,’ liv. 622.

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxiv. 209;
‘ Beiblatter, xxi. 632-
633 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxiv. 259-
260; ‘ Beibliitter, xxi.
86 (Abs.)

OT ee ee ee a re

—-

,

4

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

F. Exner and E.
Haschek.

W. J. Humphreys.

0. J. Lodge and
B. Davies.

O. Schott 3

F. Schutzenberger
and Boudouard.

A. Swinton .

W.N. Hartley and
H. Ramage.

B. Hasselberg

A.Langlet <

J. R. Rydberg

V. Schumann F

M. Berthelot

FF. Exner and E.
Haschek.

A. de Gramont

W.N. Hartley and
H. Ramage.

H. Muraska and
M. Kasuya,

459

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1896, 1897.

Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-
spectra der Elemente. V. (Read
Nov. 19.)

A Further Study of the Effect of
Pressure on the Wave-lengths of
Lines in the Are Spectra of Cer-
tain Elements. (Nov.)

Extension of the Visible Spectrum.
(Nov.)

Ueber
(Nov.)

electrische Capillarlicht.

Sur les terres du groupe yttrique
contenues cans les sables mona-
zités. (Read Noy. 16.)

Extension of the Visible Spectrum.
(Nov.)

On the Occurrence of Gallium in the
Clay-iron-stone of the Cleveland
District of Yorkshire. Determina-
tion of Gallium in Blast-furnace
Iron from Middlesbrough. (Read
Dec. 17.)

Untersuchungen iiber die Spectra
der Metalle im electrischen Flam-
menbogen, III. Kobalt und
Nickel. (‘ Handl. K. Svensk. Vet.
Akad.’ xxviii. No. 6, 44 pp.)

Priifung von Kolm auf Helium
(Oefvers. K. Vet.Acad. Stockholm,’
liii. 663-664).

Studien iiber das System der Spec-
tren (‘Verhandl. Ges. Deutsch.
Naturf. u. Aerzte,’ ii. I. Hilfte, 53).

Von den brechbarsten Strahlen und
ihrer photographischen Aufnahme.
‘Vi

1897.

Recherches sur Vhélium. (Head
Jan. 18.)

Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-
spectra der Elemente. VI. VII.
VIII. IX. (Read Jan. 21, July 8.)

Spectres des métalloides dans les
sels fondus: silicium. (Read Jan.
25.)

On the Dissemination of some of
the Rarer Elements, and the Mode
of their Association in Common
Oresand Minerals. (Read Jan. 21.)

Das Johanniskiiferlicht und die
Wirkung der Diaimpfe von festen
und fliissigen K6rpern auf photo-
graphische Platten. (Jan.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
cv. II.a, 989-1013 ; ‘Wien.
Anzeiger,’ 1897, 7.

‘Astrophys. J.’ iv.
262; * Beibliitter,’
336-337 (Abs.)

249_
EX.

‘ Nature,’ lv. 33.
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

PNB) dix, (68=772;;
‘Nature,’ lv. 214 (Abs.)

‘C. R, exxiii. 782-788 ;
‘ Nature,’ lv. 95 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ lv, 32-33.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ix. 393-
407.

‘Beiblitter, xx. 692-693
(Abs.); ‘Astrophys. J.’

iv. 212-233, 288-304,
343-366, v. 38-49;
‘Nature,’ lv. 111 (Abs.)
‘Beiblitter, xxi. 674
(Abs.)
‘Beiblitter, xx. [81],
title.

¢ Jahrb. f. Photogr.’ x. 42—

45; * Beibliitter,’ xx.
975-976 (Abs.)
SO. Ry exsdv.4 lils—119

‘Nature,’ lv. 311 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
evi. ILa, 36-53, 54-68,
337-356, 494-520.

°© R. cxxiv. 192-194;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxii,
238 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxi. 533-

547; ‘Chem. News,’
lxxix. 129-130 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], Ixiv. 186-192;

“Chem. Centr.’ 1898. I.
697-698 (Abs.)

460

J. Trowbridge and
T. W. Richards,

J. 8S. Ames and
W. J. Humphreys.

A. de Gramont

W.N. Hartley and
H. Ramage.

O. Lohse fs

W. Ramsay and
M. W. Travers.

W. A. Tilden .

M. W. Travers

J. Trowbridge and
T. W. Richards.

W. N. Hartley

G. Urbain and E.
Budischovsky.

H, Kayser

H. Becquerel.

W. N: Hartley and
H. Ramage.

G. Le Bon

REPORT—1898.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1897.

The Spectra of Argon. (Jan.)

On the Spectra of Heavy and Light
Helium. (Feb.)

Spectres de dissociation des sels
fondus; miétalloides, chlore,
brome, iode. (Feb.)

On the Spectrographic. Analysis of
some Commercial Samples of
Metals, of Chemical Preparations,
and of Minerals from the Stassfurt
Potash Beds, (Read Feb. 18.)

Untersuchungen des _ violetten
Theiles einiger linienreichen
Metallspectra. (Read Feb. 18.)

The Gaseous Constituents of Cer-
tain Mineral Substances and Na-
tural Waters. (Read Feb. 4.)

On the Gases Enclosed in Crystal-
line Rocks and Minerals. (Read
Feb. 4.)

Some Experiments on Helium.

(Read Feb. 4.)

The Multiple Spectra of Gases.
(Feb.)

Experiments on the Flame Spec-
trum of Carbon Monoxide. (Read
March 18.)

Recherches sur les sables mona-
zités. (Read March 22.)

On the Spectrum of Hydrogen.
(April.)

Explication de quelques expéri-
ences de M. G. Le Bon. (Read
May 10.)

A Spectrographic Analysis of Tron
Meteorites, Siderolites, and Me-
teoric Stones. (Read May 19.)
(‘ Proc. Roy. Soc. Dublin’ [N.8.],
viii. Part 6.)

Sur les propriétés de certaines
radiations du spectre. (Read
May 24.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [4], iii. 15-
20; ‘Phil. Mag. [5],
xliii. 77-83; ‘Nature,’
lv. 305 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ v. 97-98 ;

‘Beiblitter,’ xxi. 514
(Abs.)
‘Ann, Chim. et Phys.’

[7], x. 214-234.

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxxi. 547—
550; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxy. 161 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1897, I.
665 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl’
1897, 179-197.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lx. 442—
448; ‘Beiblatter,” xxi.
300 (Abs.)

*Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ix. 453- .

457; ‘ Nature,’ lv. 381-
382 (Abs.) ; ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxv. 169-170.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ix.
449-453 ; ‘ Beibliitter,
xxi. 300 (Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [4], iii.
117-120; °‘ Nature, lv.
406 (Abs.) ; ‘Phil. Mag.’
[5], xliii. 135-139.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ 1xi. 217—

219; ‘Beiblatter, xxi.
735 (Abs.)
°C. RY cxxiv. 618-621;

‘Chem. News,’ lxxv. 181-
182.

‘Astrophys. J.’ v. 243;
‘Beiblatter,” xxi. 734
(Abs.)

‘C. RY cxxiv. 984-988 ;
‘Chem. News, xxv. 280-
281.

‘Nature,’ lvii, 546 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxvii.
121-122.

‘OC. R. cxxiv 1148-1151.

— ————

J. S. Ames and
_ W.J. Humphreys.

W.Arnold .

W. Huggins and
Mrs. Huggins.

_W. J. Humphreys .

P. E. Lecoq de
Boisbaudran.

” ”

J. N. Lockyer

” . .

C. E. Mendenhall
and F. A. Saun-
ders.

A. de Gramont

»

s

W. N. Hartley

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1897.

Note on the Effect of Pressure
upon the Series in the Spectrum
of an Element. (June.)

Ueber Luminescenz. (June)

On the Relative Behaviour of the
Hand K Lines of the Spectrum of
Calcium. (Read June 17).

Changes produced by Pressure in
the Wave Frequencies of the Lines
of Emission Spectra of Elements.
(June.)

Examen de quelques _ spectres.
(Read June 8.)
Examen de quelques spectres.

(Read June 21.)

On the Unknown Lines observed in
the Spectra of Certain Minerals.
(Read June 4.)

Further Observations of Enhanced
Lines. (Read June 17.)

Preliminary Note on the Energy
Spectrum of a Black Body.
(June.)

Observations sur les spectres des
composés. (Read July 23.)

Spectres de dissociation des sels
fondus. Métaux alcalins, sodium,
lithium, potassium. (Read July
23.)

Sur le spectre du carbone.
July 19.)

(Read

Sur le spectre des lignes du car-
bone dans les sels fondus. (Read
July 26.)

On the Spectrum of Cyanogen as
produced and modified by Spark
Discharges. (Recd. July 13.)

461

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Circ.’ xvi. 41-42; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5], xliv. 119-122 ;
‘ Chem. News,’ Ixxvi. 21~—
22; ‘Beiblatter,’ xxi.
974-975 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1897, II. 324
(Abs.)

‘Ann, Phys. u. Chem,’
[N.F.], lxi. 313-329.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxi. 433-

441; ‘Beiblitter, xxi.
735-736 (Abs.); ‘Na-
ture,’ lvi. 262 (Abs.)
‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Cire.’ xvi, 43-44; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxii. 219-221
(Abs.)

°C. RY exxiv. 1288-1290.

°C. R.’ exxiv. 1419-1421.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ix. 133-
140; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxii. II. 293 (Abs.);

‘Nature,’ liv. 261-263
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ xi. 441_—
444; Beibliatter, xxi.
975 (Abs.)

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.

Circ.” xvi. 47; ‘Phil.
Mag.’ [5], xliv. 136.

‘ Bull. Soc, Chim.’ [3], xvii.
774-778; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1897, II. 787-788 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3], xvii.
778-782; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1897, II. 785 (Abs.)

S@l Re (exxv, 1722176:
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Lxxii. II.
533-534 (Abs.)

°C. BR.’ cxxv. 238-240;
‘J. Chem. Soc. lxxii
II. 533-534 (Abs.);
‘Beiblitter, xxi. 973-—
974 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lx. 216-
221; ‘J. Chem. Soe.’

Ixxii. II. 293-299 (Abs.) ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xxi, 734-
735 (Abs.)

462

C. Runge and F.
Paschen.

P. Zeeman ,. °

W. J. Humphreys .

A.C. Jones .

C. Runge and F.
Paschen.

G. A. Hemsalech

W. J. Humphreys .

J. R. Rydberg =

H. Wilde 5

A. de Gramont

7

R. Nasini, F. Ander-

lini, and R. Sal-
vadori.

Spectres de dissociation des

REPORT—1898.

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1897.

Ueber die Serienspectra der Ele-
mente Sauerstoff, Schwefel und
Selen. (July.)

Doublets and Triplets in the Spec-
trum produced by External Mag-
netic Forces. (July.)

Changes in the Wave Frequencies
of the Lines of Emission Spectra
of Elements. (Aug.)

Ueber einige Emissionsspectra des
Cadmiums, Zinks und der Haloid-
verbindungen des Quecksilbers
und einiger anderen Metalle.
(Aug.)

On the Spectra of Oxygen, Sul-
phur, and Selenium. (Aug.)

On some New Lines in the Spark
Spectrum of Aluminium. (Sept.)

Changes in the Wave Frequencies
of the Lines of Emission Spectra
of Elements; their dependence
upon the elements themselves
and upon the physical conditions

under which they are produced.

(Oct.)

The New Series in the Spectrum
of Hydrogen. (Oct.)

On Triplets with Constant Differ-
ences in the Line Spectrum of
Copper. (Oct.)

Sur quelques nouvelles lignes spec-
trales de Yoxygeéne et du thallium.
(Read Nov. 8.)

sels
27.)

Spectres de dissociation des
fondus; soufre. (Read Dec.

sels
fondus ; phosphore. (Read Dec.

27.)

Spectres de dissociation des com-

posés phosphoreux solides. (Read
Dec. 27.)

Gas delle terme di Abano dei sof-

fioni boraciferi della Toscana, e
gas combustibili dell’ Apparino
Bolognese. (ead Dec 17.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,
[N.F.], Ilxi. 641-686;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, I.
298-299 (Abs.); ‘Na-
ture,’ lvi. 388 (Abs.);
‘Science Abstr.’ i. 10
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxii. IT, 533 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag,’ [5], xliv. 55-
60.

‘Brit. Assoc. Report,’
1897, 556-557.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], Ixii. 30-53; ‘J.
Chem. Soc. lxxii. II.
534 (Abs.); ‘Science
Abstr.’ i, 10 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Report,’

1897, 555 (Abs.)
‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5], xliv. 289-

291; ‘J. Chem. Soe.’
Ixxii. II. 534 (Abs.);
‘Beibliitter” xxi. 975
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ vi, 169-232.

‘ Astrophys J.’ vi. 233-238.

‘Astrophys. J.’ vi. 239-
243; ‘Beiblitter’ xxii.
153-154 (Abs.)

°C. RY” cexxy. 705-7095
‘Beibliitter, xxii. 219
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxix. IT. 105 (Abs.)

‘ Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3], xix.
54-57; ‘Chem.
1898, I. 550 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3], xix.
57-58; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1898, I. 549-550 (Abs.)

‘ Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3], xix.
58-59; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixvii. 88-90. f

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxviii.
I. 81-153; ‘Chem. Centr.”
1898, I. 917 (Abs.)

.

Centr.” —

Z. P. Bouman

: Haschek.
:
A. L. Foley ,

_ B. Hasselberg

H. Kayser

= H.Konen ,.
G. B. Rizzo ,

Widmark 4.

E. Wiedemann

v_

A. Maschek ,.

C. Wf. Wolff .

A. Hasterlik

F. Exner and EF.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

- | Emission und Absorption von Quarz
und Glas bei verschiedenen Tem-
peraturen. (Inaug. Dissert. Am-
sterdam, 1897, 91 pp.)

| Ueber die ultravioletten Funken-
spectra der Elemente. X. (‘ Wien.
Anz.’ 1897, 254.)

- | Arc Spectra (‘Phys. Review,’ v.
129-152).

Untersuchungen iiber die Spectra
der Metalle im electrischen Flam-
menbogen. IV. Das Spectrum
des Mangans. (‘ Handl. Svensk.
Vet. Akad.’ xxx. No. 8, 20 pp.)

c Ueber die Bogenspectra der Ele-
mente der Platingruppe (‘ Ab-
handl. Akad. Berlin,’ 1897).

. | Ueber dieSpectren des Iod. (Inaug.
Dissert. Bonn, 72 pp.)

Argon (‘ Atti Accad. Torino,’ xxxii.
50 pp.)

-» | Im griinzen for det synliga spek-

trum (‘Oefvers. K. Vet. Akad.
Stockholm,’ liv. 287-309).

- | Ueber Spectralerscheinungen
(‘ Verhandl. Ges. Deutsch. Naturf.
u. Aerzte,’ II. 1. Hiilfte, 66).

dh
ABSORPTION SPECTRA.

1886.

Ueber eine spectroscopische Me-
thode zum Nachweis des Blut-
farbenstoffes (‘Pharm. Central-
halle,” xxvii. 317-320, 326-330,
340-343).

1838,

- | Ueber den spectroscopischen Nach-
weis minimaler Blutmengen im
Harn, sowie in anderen Fliissig-
keiten (‘ Pharm, Centralhalle,’ viii.
637-639).

188).

« | Kritische Studien iiber die bisheri-
gen Methoden zum Nachweis
fremder Farbstoffe im Weine.
Cinaug. Dissert. Erlangen, 1889.)

EMISSION SPECTRA, 1897—-ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1886, 1888, 1889.

‘Zittingsverl. Akad. Am-
sterdam,’ 1896-7, 438_
442; ‘Beiblitter, xxi.
589 (Abs.)

‘ Beiblatter,’ xxii. [17]
(title).

‘Beibliitter,’ xxii. 152
(Abs. )

‘Beiblatter, xxii. [57]
(title).

‘Beiblatter,’ xxii. [44]
(title).

‘Beiblitter,’ xxii. [11]
(title).

‘Beiblatter, xxi. [115]
(title).

‘ Beiblitter, xxi. [111]
(title).

‘Beiblatter, xxi. [85]
(title).

‘Ber.’ xix. (Ref.), 584
(Abs.)

‘Ber’ xxi. (Ref.), 315
(Abs.)

| ¢ Beibliitter’ xiv. 281
(title),

AGA REPORT—1898.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893.

B. Hasselberg . | Untersuchungen tiber das Absorp- | ‘Handl. K. Svensk. Vet.
tionspectrum des Broms. (Read | Akad, xxiv. No. 3, 53 pp.
Oct. 8.)

N. A. Monteverde. | Sur la chlorophylle. ‘ : . | ‘Ann. Agronom.’ xviii.

| 268-270; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixii, 1155-1156 (Abs.)

1

1891.

P. Dittrich . . | Ueber methiimoglobinbildende | ‘ Arch. f. exper. Pathol. u.
| Gifte. (Oct.) Pharmakol.’ xxix. 247-
| 281; ‘Ber.’ xxv. (Ref.),
| 913 (Abs.)

i
1892.
H. Bertin-Sans and | Sur la formation de loxyhémoglo- | ‘C. R.’ cxiv. 923-926; ‘J.
J. Moitessier. bine au moyen de l’hématine et | Chem. Soc.’ Ilxii. 1017
d'une matiére albuminoide. (Read | (Abs.)
April 11.)
A. H. Church . . | Researches on Turacin, an animal | ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxiii. A.
pigment containing copper. (Read | 611-530.
April 28.)
K. Olszewski and | Propriétés optiques de l’oxygéne | ‘ Bull. intermat. de l’Acad.
A. Witkowski. liquide. (May.) Sci. de Cracovie, 1892,
340-3483 ; ‘ Naturw. Rund-
schau,’ vili. 75 (Abs.);
‘Chem. Centralbl.’ 1893,
I. 595 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.

Soc.’ Ixiv. II. 353 (Abs.)

A. Brun. e. «| Note sur le spectre d’absorption | ‘Arch. de Genéve’ [3],
des grenats almandines. (Read | xxviii. 410-412; ‘Zeit-
July 7.) schr. f. Kryst. u. Min.’
xxiv. 621 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xx. 31-32 (Abs.)

S. Forsling . . | Om Absorptionspectra hos Didym | ‘ Bihang till K. Svensk.
och Samarium i det ultravioletta | Vet. Akad. Handl.’ xviii.
spektret. (Read Nov. 9.) I. No. 10, 32 pp.; ‘ Bei-

blitter,’ xviii. 562 (Abs.)

A. Gortz . . | Ueber spectrometrische Affinitiits- | ‘Beiblitter, xvii. [16]
bestimmungen. (Diss. Tiibingcn, | (title).

1892, 574 pp.)

H.Graebe . . | Unterschungen des Blutfarbstoffes | ‘ Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’
auf sein Absorptionsvermogen fiir | xxxili. 771-772; ‘Chem.
violette und ultraviolette Strahlen. | News,’ lxxii. 9-11; ‘ Bei-
| (Inaug. Dissert. Dorpat, 1892.) blatter,’ xx. 127 (Abs.)

1895.

W. Ackroyd . . | On the Origin of Colour, Iodine | ‘Chem. News, Ixvii. 27,
and JIodine Solutions. (Read |, 64-65, 111-112.

Feb. 10.)
G. Magnanini . | Intornoallaipotesi dellacolorazione | ‘ Rend. It. Acad. d. Lincei’
degli joni. (Read April 9.) [5], ii, I. sem. 369-376 ;

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’xii.56-62; ‘J.Chem.
| | Soc,’ lxiv. If. 510 (Abs.)

Ae pe A heer es

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

G. Magnanini and
T. Bentivoglio.

VY. Schumann.

G. Kriiss and E.

Thiele.

G. B. Rizzo

G. Hiifnmer Fs

E. Schunck and L.

Marchlewski.

A. E. Garrod .

J. M. Eder and E.

Valenta.

J. Janssen

P, Sabatier .

1898.

465

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1893, 1894.

Intorno allo spettro di assorbi-
mento delle soluzioni di alcuni
cromo-ossalati della serie bleu.
(Read July 2.)

Das Absorptionsspectrum des
Bromsilbers bei steigender ‘Tem-
peratur.

Ueber die Lésungzustand des Iod,
und die wahrscheinliche Ursache

der Farbenunterschiede seiner
Lésungen. (Jan).
1894.

Sulle proprietaé delle linee e delle
bande negli spettrid’assorbimento.
(Jan.)

Neue Versuche zur Bestimmung
der Sauerstoffcapacitét Blutfarb-
stoffs. (Feb.)
Zur Chemie der
(March.)

Chlorophyll.

A Contribution to the Study of the
Yellow Colouring Matter of the
Urine. (Received Feb. 5. Read
April 26.)

Absorptionsspectren von farblosen

und gefirbten Glisern, mit be-
sonderen Beriicksichtigung des
Ultraviolett. (Read May 4.)

Sur les spectres de l’oxygéne aux
hautes températures. (Read
May 7.)

Spectres d’absorption du bromure
cuivrique. (Read May 7.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d.
Lincei’ [5], ii. II. sem.
17-23 ; ‘Gazz. chim. ital.’
xxili. II. 444-451; ‘ Ber.’
xxvi. (Ref.), 926-927
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xvii.
926 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixvi. IT. 129 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixix. 157
(Abs.)

‘Jahrb. f. Photogr.’ vii.
(1893), 160-165; ‘Bei-
blatter,” xvii. 1060-1061
(Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.’

vii. 52-81; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixvi. II. 445-446
(Abs.)

‘Il Nuovo Cimento,’ xxxv.
132-136; ‘Beiblitter,’
xviii. 836-837 (Abs.)

‘ Arch, f. Anat. u. Physiol.
1894, Physiol. Abth.
130-176.

‘Am. Chem. u. Pharm.’
celxxviii. 329-345; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Lsvi. I. 341-
342 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ lv. 394—
407,

‘Denkschr. Akad. Wien,’
1894, 285-295; ‘ Bei-
platter, xix. 61-64 (Abs.)

‘OC. R, exviii. 1007-1009 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixvi. II.
337 (Abs.) ; ‘ Ber.’ xxvii-
(Ref.), 278-279 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblitter, xviii. 837—
838 (Abs.)

*C. RY exviii. 1042-1045 ;
‘Ber.’ xxvii. (Ref.), 489-
490 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xvili. 838 (Abs.); ‘J-
Chem. Soc.’ lxvi. IT. 504
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
lxix.. 257-258 (Abs.) ;
‘Nature,’ 1. 72 (Abs.)

Hi

466

P. Sabatier ,

H. Becquereland C.

Brongniart.
T. Ewan ® .
Meckeand Wimmer

A. E. Garrod . Fi

C, Haacke , ‘

N. A. Monteverde .

E. Schone

E. Thiele

A. Btaré

tS

.Schunck . M

>

. Etard . °

REPORT—1898.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1894, 1895.

Spectres d’absorption des solutions
bromhydriques de bromure cuiy-
rique. (Read May 21.)

La matié¢re verte chez les Phyllies,
orthoptéres de la famille des
Phasmides. (Read June 11.)

On the Absorption Spectra of Dilute
Solutions. (Read June 21.)

Nachweise von Blutflecken. (Nov.)
Heematoporphyrin in Normal Urine.

Spectrophotometrische Untersuch-
ungen iiber die Hinwirkung von
Salzsiure auf einige Substitutions-
producte des Fuchsins. (Diss.
Tiibingen, 1894, 49 pp.)

De la _ protochlorophylle (‘ Bot.
Centralblatt,’ lix. 284).

Absorption Spectrum of Ozone
(Russ. Nat. and Phys. Congress,
Moscow, 1894, No. 10.)

1895.

Spectrophotometrische Untersuch-
ungen der verschiedenfarbigen
Iodlésungen, (Jan.)

Pluralité des chlorophylles. Deux-
iéme chlorophylle isolée dans la
luzerne. (Read Feb. 11.)

Contributions to the Chemistry of
Chlorophyll. (Read Feb. 14.)

Sur lorigine moléculaire des bandes
absorption des sels de cobalt et
de chreme. (Read May 13.)

“CO. RY exviii. 1144-1146;
‘Chem. News,’ lxix. 275
(Abs.); ‘Ber.’ xxvii. (Ref.),
490 (Abs.); ‘Beibliitter,’
xviii. 1048 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixvi. IL. 373
(Abs.)

‘C. RY exvili. 1299-1308;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixix. 312
(Abs.); ‘Ber.’ xxvii. (Ref.),
517 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ li. 117-
161.

‘Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’
xxxlv. 129-131; ‘Chem.
News,’ lxxi. 238.

‘J. Physiol.’ xvii. 349-352;

‘J. Chem! Soe.’ Ixviii. II. °

55 (Abs.)
‘ Beiblatter,’ xx. 64 (title).

‘Ann. Agronom.’ xxi. 90
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixvili. I. 429-430 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ lxix. 289
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem. xvi. 147-155;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xix. 426-427
(Abs.) ; ‘Proc. Phys. Soe.’
xiii. 113-114 (Abs.);
‘ Ber. xxviii. (Ref.), 720
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixviii. II. 193-194 (Abs.)

°C. R. cxxe 328-331 oo,
Chem. Soe.’ Ixviii. I. 389
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvii. 314—
322.

*C. RY cxx. 1057-1060;
‘Ber.’ xxviii. (Ref.), 592
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xix.
568 (Abs.); ‘ Proc. Phys.
Soc,’ xiii. 310-311 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxi. 269
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ lii. 96
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixx, IT. 133 (Abs.)

v

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

E. Merritt. . °

T, Ewan .

J. Janssen , F

BE. Aschkinass ;

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

J. Pauer - .

F. Hamburger 2

G. Magnanini :

G. H. Bailey . -

G. Kriiss and H,
Kriiss.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1895.

On the Absorption of Certain
Crystals in the Infra-red, as de-
pendent onthe Plane of Polarisa-
tion: (May.)

On the Absorption Spectra of Di-
lute Solutions. (Read June 21.)

Note sur la loi d’absorption des
bandes du spectre de l’oxygeéne.
(Read June 17.)

Ueber das Absorptionspectrum
des fliissigen Wassers und tiber
die Durchlissigkeit des Augen-
medium fiir rothe und ultrarothe
Strahlen. (July.)

Sur le spectre d’absorption de lair
liquide. (Read July 15.)

Ueber die Absorptionsspectra
einiger Verbindungen im damp-

formigen und fliissigen Zustand. |

(Read July 7.)

Ueber Farbenwechsel verdiinnter
Lésungen von chromoxalsaurem
Kali. (Aug.)

Intornoallo spettro di absorbimento
dialcuni cromosolfocianati. (Read
Aug. 11.)

The Spectrum of the Haloid £alts
of Didymium. (Sept.)

Hine neue Methode der quantita-
tiven Spectralanalyse. (Sept.)

1

467

‘Phys. Review, 1i.424—441 ;
‘ Beiblitter, xix. 694-695
(Abs.); ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.’
xiii. 310 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvi. 286-
287, lvii. 117-161; ‘ Ber.’
Xxvill. (Ref.), 411 (Abs.) ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xviii. 998-
999, xix. 888 (Ahs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixviii. II.
433-434 (Abs.) ; ‘Nature,’
1, 491 (Abs.)

*C. R.’ cxx. 1306-1310;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 341-
342 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ lii.
303-304 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
bliitter,’ xx. 534 (Abs.)

‘Ann.Phys.u.Chem.’[N.F.],
ly. 401-422 ; ‘ Nature,’ lii.
382 (Abs.); ‘ Froc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiii, 436 (Abs.)

°C.RY cxxi. 161-164; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xx. 31 (Abs.);
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 403
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxii. 65 (Abs.) ; ‘Nature,’
lii. 312 (Abs.); * Ber.’ xxix.
(Ref.), 63 (Abs.)

| ‘Sitzungsb. phys. med. Soc.

Erlangen, xxvii. 120-126;
‘Beiblitter, xx.696(Abs.);
‘Chem.Centr. 1896,’ 1.1122
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc’
xxii. II. 395 (Abs.)

‘Ann.Phys.u.Chem.’[N.F.],
lvi. 173-174; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ xx. II. 86 (Abs.)

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxv. IT.
373-379 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xx. 695-696 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’
xxix. (Ref.), 269 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. II.
345 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1895,
773; ‘ Beibliitter, xx. 31
(Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f, anorg. Chem.’
x. 31-43; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xe. 26) (CADS isle Brac:
Phys. Soc.’ xiv. 14 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. lI.
215 (Abs.); ‘Ber.’ xxix.
(Ref.), 147-148 (Abs )

HH 2

468

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

R. Mohlau and K.
Uhlmann.

B. Paulowski. .

E. Schunck and L.
Marchlewski.

Lecoq de Eoisbau-
dran.

G. Kriiss =

A. E. Garrod ,

J. Georgenburger .

H, C. Poinsen =

O. Postma .

P. H. Bayrac and
C. Camichel.

L. Marchlewski

BE. Schunck and L.
Marchlewski.

|

REPORT—1898.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1895, 1896.

On the Refraction and Dispersion
of Liquid Oxygen, and the Absorp-
tion Spectrum of Liguid Air. (Sept.)

Zur Kenntniss der Chinazin- und
Oxazinfarbstoffe. (Oct.)

Ueber Allofluorescein.
14.)

(Read Oct.

Zur Chemie des

(Oct.)

Chlorophylls.

Sur un élément, probablement nou-
veau, existant dans les terbines.
(Read Nov. 18.)

Beziehungen zwischen Zusammen-
setzung und Absorptionsspectrum
organischen Verbindungen. Nach-
trag. (Dec.)

A Contribution to the Study of
Uroerythrin.

Hemoglobin and its Derivatives
(‘Pharm. Zeitschr. Russ.’ xxxiv.
102-104).

Ang-Khak,Chines Pilzfarbstoff zum
Farben der Esswaaren.

Einiges iiber Ausstrahlung und
Absorption. (Inaug.-Diss. Am-
sterdam, 1895, 94 pp.)

1896.

Sur l’absorption de la lumiére par
des dissolutions d’indophénole.
(Read Jan. 27.)

Die Chemie des Chloropbylls.
(Hamburg, 82 pp.) (Jan.)

Contributions to the Chemistry of
Chlorophyll; Phylloporphyrin and

Hematoporphyrin : a comparison.

(Read Jan. 30.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xl. 268-

272; ‘J. Chem. Soc’
Ixvili. II. 471 (Abs.);
‘ Chem. News,’ lxxii. 154;
‘Ber.’ xxix. (Ref.), 110
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
cclxxxix. 128-130; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. I. 166-
169 (Abs.)

‘ Bex. xxviil. 2360-2362.

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
celxxxix. 81-107; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixviii. I. 296—
297 (Abs.)

‘C. RY cxxi. 709; ‘ Bei-
blatter, xx. 276 (Abs.) ;
‘ Nature,’ liii, 96 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.” xviii. 559-562 ;
‘Beiblitter,” xx., 197

(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
xx. II. 285 (Abs.)

‘J. Physiol.’ xvii. 439-
450; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixviii. I. 315-316 (Abs.)

‘Chem. GOentr.’? 1895, I.
701-702 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixx. II. 485 (Abs.)

‘Chemiker Zeitung, xix.
II. 1311; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxil. 105.

‘Beibliitter, xxii. 98 (Abs.)

“C, R.. Cxyxigeig3—lone
‘Ber.’ xxix. (Ref.), 166
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soe.’
Ixx. IL. 345-346 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ lxxili. 95
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ _liii.
335 (Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,
xxi. 740 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ ]xxil'. 23
(Review).

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix. 233-
239.

oe

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

A.Gamgee .

A. Tschirch . ‘

A.Gamgee

W. Spring.

B, Tollens . .

EK. Schunck and L.
Marchlewski.

A.Tschirch ,

B. Donath ,

WV. Agafonoff .

A. &tard

G. Eberhard .

J.M.Eder ,
A. won Hiibl .

A. Lumiére and L.
Lumiére.

E. Schunck and L.
Marchlewski

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1896.

On the Absorption of the Extreme
Violet and Ultra-violet Rays of
the Solar Spectrum by Hemo-
globin, its Compounds, and Certain
of its Derivatives. (Read Feb. 13.)

Der Quarzspectrograph und einige
damit vorgenommene Untersuch-
ungen von Pflanzenfarbstoife.
(Read Feb. 28.)

On the Relation of Turacin and
Turacoporphyrin to the Colouring
Matter of the Blood. (Read
Mar. 19.)

Sur la couleur des alcoéls com-
parée 4 la couleur de eau. (Read
March 7.)

Ueber den Nachweis der Pentosen
mittels der Phloroglucinsalzsiure-.

absatzmethode. (Read April 18:)
Zar Chemie des Chlorophylls.
(Read May 11.)
Zur Chemie des _ Chlorophylls.
(Read Jane 22.)
Bolometrische Untersuchungen

liber Absorptionsspectra tiuores-
cirender Substanzen und iitheris-
cher Oele. (July.)

Sur l’absorption du spectre ultra-
violet par les corps cristallisés.
(Read Sept. 28.)

Les spectres des chlorophylles.
(Read Nov. 16.)

Die Schirmwirkung der Farben-
sensibilisatoren, (‘ Photograph-
ische Rundschau,’ x. 42-46, 76-
80).

Die Wirkung von Farbensensibili-
satoren bei orthochromatischen
Platten.

Die Schirmwirkung der Farben-
sensibilisatoren.

Ueber der Orthochromatismus

Zur Chemie des

Chlorophylls.
(IV. Abhandlung.)

469

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix. 276—
279; ‘Arch. de Genéve’
[3], xxxiv. 585-588; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ xx. 650, 696-697
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ liii.
478-479 (Abs.)

‘Ber. deutsch. bot. Ge-
sellsch.’ xiv. 76-94 ; ‘Na-
turw. Rundschau,’ xi.
240-241 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blatter” xx. 535-536
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix. 339-
342; ‘ Nature,’ liii. 574—
575.

‘Bull. Acad. Belg.’ [3],
Xxxi. 246-256; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xx. 535 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxix. 1202-1209.

‘Ber.’ xxix. 1347-1352.
‘ Ber” xxix. 1766-1770.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lviii. 609-661;
‘Nature,’ liv. 455 (Abs.)

°C. RY exxiii. 490-492 ;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxiv.
204-205; ‘Arch. de Ge-
néve [4], ii. 249-264;
‘ Beiblatter, xxi. 227-
228 (Abs.)

*C. R.’ cxxiii, 824-828;

‘Beiblitter, xxi. 32
(Abs.)
‘Beiblatter, xx, 982
(Abs. )

‘ Jahrb. f. Photog.’ x. 166—
167; ‘Beiblatter,’ xx.
981-982 (Abs.)

‘Jahrb. f. Photog.’ x. 289-

293; ‘Beiblatter, xx.
982 (Abs.)

‘ Jahrb. f. Photog.’ x. 146—
151; ‘Beiblitter, xx.
983 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
eexe. 306-313; ‘Ber,’

xxix. (Ref.), 415 (Abs.)

REPORT—1898.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1896, 1897.

M. Ransohoff . . | Ueber die Verteilung des Absorp-

| tionsvermégens einiger einfach-

erer Kohlenstoffverbindungen

im ultraroten Gebiete des Spek-

trums. (Inaug. Dissert. Berlin,

1896, 32 pp.)

A. Tschirch Untersuchungen reiner Blattfarb-
stoffe mit dem Quartzspectro-
graphen : Beziehungen des
Chlorophylls zum Blut.

O. Wallach . Ueber das Absorptionsvermégen
gewisser ungesiittiger Ketone fiir

die violetten Lichtstrahlen.
(‘Géttingen. Nachr.’ 1896,
Heft 4, 1-5).

E. Wiedemann and | Fluorescenz und Verbindungs-

G.C. Schmidt. | spectra organischer Dimpfe.

A. Wroblewsky ., AnwendungdesGlan’schen Spectro-

| photometers auf die Tierchemie.
I. Quantitative Bestimmung des
Hamoglobins im Blute. II. Quan-
titative Bestimmung der Rhodan-
salze im Speichel (‘ Anz. Akad.
Krakau,’ 1896, pp. 306-309, 386—

390).
1897.
O. Lohse . Untersuchung des violetten Theils
einiger linienreicher Metall-

spectra. (Read Feb. 18.)

Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Disper-
sion und Absorption der ultra-
rothen Strahlen in Steinsalz und
Sylvin. (March.)

The Additional Colouring Matters
of Fucus vesiculosus. (March.)

Dédoublement de la bande fonda-
mentale des chlorophylles. (Read
June 14.)

H. Rubens and A.
Trowbridge.

C. Watson .

A. Etard

Die spectroscopische Blutunter-
suchung. (June.)

L. Lewin a B.

J. Pauer. Absorption uJtravioletter Strahlen
durch Dimpfe und Fliissigkeiten.

(June.)

Ueber die Absorption von ultra-
rothen Strahlen in doppelbrech-
enden Krystallen. (July.

J. Konigsberger

‘ Beibliitter” xxi. 737-740
(Abs.)

‘Phot. Mittheil’ xxxii.
397-399.
‘Chem. Centr. 1897, i.

372-374; ‘ Beiblitter,’xxi.
633-634 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lxxiv. I. 194 (Abs.)

‘Jahrb. f. Photog.’ x. 14-

15.

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1897, ii.
532 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxi. 573 (Abs.)

| *Sitzungsb. Berl. Akad!

1897, 179-197 ; ‘ Nature,’
lvi. 62-63 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lx. 724-739.

‘Nature,’ lv. 508.

°C. R’ cexxiv. 1351-1354;
‘ Nature,’ lvi. 191 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblitter,’ xxi. 740-741
(Abs.); ‘Chem. Centr’
1897, II. 207 (Abs.) ; ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ Ixxii. I. 575-—
579 (Abs.)

‘Arch. der Pharm.’ cexxxv.
245-255; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1887, II. 381 (Abs.);
¢* J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxii. II.
534 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N-F-.], Ixi. 363-379.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], Lxi. 687-704.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

471

ABSORPTION SPECTRA, 1897—-PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1884, 1887, 1888, 1889.

G. Dimmer ,

Z. Donoginy .

H. Haertes .

J. Konigsberger

J. Stscheglajew

W. Spring

H. Mercezyng.

H, F. Weber .

W. C. Rontgen

G. Mengarini.

Ueber die Absorptionsspectren von
Didymsulphat und Neodidymam-
monnitrat (‘Wien. Anz.’ 1879,
254).

Die Darstellung des Hiimochromo-
gens als Blutreaction, mit beson-
derer Beriicksichtigung des Nach-
weises von Blut im Harn.

Differentialdiagnose zwischen
Kohlendunst- und Leuchtgasver-
giftung. (Inaug. Dissert. Berlin.)

Ueber die Absorption von ultra-
roten und ultravioletten Strahlen
in doppelbrechenden Krystallen.
(Inaug. Dissert. Berlin, 1897,
33 pp-)

Dispersion anomale dans les solu-
tions de fuchsine.

Sur les spectres d’absorption de
quelques corps organiques inco-
lorés, et ses relations avec la
structure moléculaire. (‘Arch. de
Genéve’ [4], iii. 437-463.)

TV,
PHYSICAL RELATIONS.
1884.

Sur les propriétés focales des ré-
seaux. (In Russian.)

1887.

Die Entwickelung der Lichtemis-
sion gliihender fester Korper.
(Read June 9.)

1888.
Ueber den Hinfluss des Druckes
auf die Brechungsexponenten von
Schwefelkohlenstoff und Wasser
(‘ Ber. oberh. Ges. f. Natur- und
Heilkunde, Giessen, 1888, xxvi.
58-60).

1889.

Ueber das Maximum der Licht-
stiirke im Sonnenspectrum. (June.)

‘ Beiblatter,’
(title.)

xxii. [17]

‘Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol.’
exlvilil. 234-243; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixxii. II. 468
(Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1897, II.
529 (Abs.)

‘Beiblatter,’ xxi. 414-416
(Abs.)

‘J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc.’
xxviii. II. 41-55; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xxi. 409 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belg.’
[3], xxxili. 165-195; ‘Ree.
des Trav. Chim. des Pays-
Bas’ [2], xvi. 1-25;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1897, I.
1114-1115, IT. 8-9 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxiv. IT.
201 (Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxi, 975-976 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. d. Krakauer
Akad.’ ix. 257-279; ‘J.
Soc. Phys.-Chim. Russe,’
xv. 92-102; ‘ Beibliitter,’
viii. 121-122 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl,
1887, 491-504; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ xvii. 1052-1054
(Abs.)

‘Untersuchungen zur Na-
turlehre der Menschen
und der Thiere,’ xiv. 119-
137; ‘Nature,’ xli, 374
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ xiv.
376-377 (Abs.)

472

J. Trowbridge ‘

L. H. Siertsema

R. Nasini and T.
Costa.

B. T. Geronyi .

W. de W. Abney
and E.R. Festing.

F. Dussaud

J.S. Ames ,

F. Maclean

F. Zecchini

V. Schumann.

J M. Eder .

REPORT—1898.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1890, 1891, 1892.

On Electrical Oscillations in Air,
together with the Spectroscopic
Study of the Motions of Molecules
in Electrical Discharges. (May.)

Der Jamin’sche Interferentialrefrac-
tometer und einige mit ihm ausge-
fiihrten Brechungsindicesbestim-
mungen. (Inaug. Dissert. Gron-
ingen, 1890.)

1891,

Ueber die Veriinderungen des Re-
fractions- und Dispersionsverm6-
gens des Schwefels in seinen
Verbindungen. (Regia Universita
degli Studi d. Roma. Instituto
Chimico. Roma, Tipografia della
R. Accad. d. Lincei, 1891, 147 pp.)

Misura dell’ indice di rifrazione d’

un prisma. (Oct.)
1892.
Colour Photometry. Part III.

(Read Jan, 28.)

Sur la réfraction et la dispersion du
chlorate de soude cristallisé. (Read
Feb. 4.)

The Modern Spectroscope. I. The
Concave Grating in Theory and
Practice. (Feb.)

Photographies spectrales obtenues
avec un réseau de Rowland. (Read
April 1.)

Rifrazioni atomiche degli elementi
rispetto alla luce gialla del sodio.
(Read Sept. 4.)

Ueber eine neue ultraviolettemp-
findliche Platte, und die Photo-
graphie der Lichtstrahlen klein-
ster ‘Wellenliingen. (Read Noy.
10.)

Ueber die Verwendbarkeit der
Funkenspectrum verschiedener
Metalle zur Bestimmung der Wel-
lenlinge im Ultravioletten, mit
Bezug auf das Spectrum des Son-
nenlichtes, Drummond ’schen, Mag-
nesium- und electrischen Bogen-
lichtes. (Read Dec. 9.)

‘Proc. Amer. Acad.’ xxvi.
325 (title).

‘ Beibliitter,’ xiv, 801-803
(Abs.)

‘Beiblatter, xvii. 111-115
(Abs.)

‘ Riv. scient. industr.’ xxiii.
221-226.

‘Phil. Trans.’ clxxxili. A.
531-565.

‘Arch. de Genéve’ [3],
xxvii. 380-405, 521-535;
‘Zeitschr. f. Kryst.u.Min.’
xxiv. 619-621; ‘Bei-
blitter, xx. 23-24 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xi, 28-42.

‘Séances de la Soc. franc.
de phys.’ 1892, 165-166 ;
‘Beiblatter,’ xviii. 568
(Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad.d. Lincei’

(5), i. II. sem. 180-187 ;
‘Beiblitter,’ xvii. 115-
116 (Abs.); ‘Ber,’ xxv.
(Ref.), 936 (Abs.)

‘Wien. Anz.’ xxix. Jahrg.
(1892), 230-231 ; ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixvi. 306 (Abs.)

‘Wien. Anz.’ xxix. Jahrg.
(1892), 264-265.

H. 0. G. Ellingen .

W J. Macé de Lé-
pinay.

F. Paschen

¥. Zecchini

J. H. Gladstone

H. A. Rowland

H. Ruoss ‘

J. W. Briihl .
H. Kayser and C.

Runge.

G. Carrara «

A. Ghira °

Th. Liebisch .

H. A. Rowland

8. P. Langley

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

473

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1892, 1893.

Der Brechungsindex electrischer
Strahlung in Alcohol. (Dec.)

Sur la double réfraction du quartz
(‘ Ann. Fac. des Sci. de Marseille,’
No. 1).

1893.

Bolometrische Untersuchungen im
Gitterspectrum. (Jan.)

Sul potere rifrangente del fosforo.
II. Potere rifrangente degli acidi
del fosforo e dei loro sali sodici.
(Read Jan 8.)

Some Recent Determinations of Mo-
lecular Refraction and Dispersion.
(Read Feb. 10.)

Gratings in Theory and Practice.
Part I. (¥eb.)

Bestimmung des Brechungsexpon-
enten fiir Fliissigkeiten durch
Spiegelablesung mit Fernrohr und
Scala. (Feb.)

Die Spectrochemie des Stickstoffs.
(Vorlaufige Mittheilung.) (Read
Mar. 25.)

Die Dispersion der Luft.
March 23.)

(Read

Influenza degli alogeni sul valore
ottico dei doppi legami. (Read
April 30.)

Sulla refrazione atomica del boro.
(Read April 9.)

Ueber die Spectralanalyse der In-
terferenzfarben optischzweiaxiger
Krystalle. I. (April.)

A New Table of Standard Wave-
lengths. (April.)

Latest Investigations with the Bo-
lometer at the Astrophysical Ob-
servatory of the Smithsonian
Institution, (Read May 27.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,
[N.F-.], xlviii. 108; ‘ Riv.
scient. industr.’ xxv. 71
(Abs.)

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], i. 23-31 ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xvi. 288-289
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,
[N.F.], xlviii. 273-306.

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei ’
[5], ii. I. sem. 31-38;
‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiii.
I. 109-120; ‘Ber.’ xxvi.
(Ref.), 187-188 (Abs.)

‘ Proc. Phys. Soe.’ xii, 153-
160 ; ‘Chem. News, Ixvii.
94-95 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
xlvii. 429 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 129-149 ; ‘ Phil. Mag.’
[5], xxxv. 397-419.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem’
[N.F.], xlvili. 531-535;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.,
Chem.’ xi. 697 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxvi. 806-809 ; ‘ Bei-
bliatter, xvii. 740 (Abs.)

‘Abhandl. Akad. Berlin,’
1893, 82 pp.; ‘ Nature,’
xlviii. 60 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad.d. Lincei ’
[5], ii. I. sem. 353-358 ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xvii. 742-744
(Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad.d. Lincei’
(5], ii. I. sem. 312-319 ;
‘Gazz. chim. .ital.’ xxiii.
I. 452-462; ‘Ber. xxvi.
(Ref.), 573 (Abs.) ; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xvii. 1047-1048
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxiv. II. 517-518 (Abs.)

‘Gott. Nachr.’ 1893, 265-
266; ‘Beiblatter, xviii.
575-576 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.
xii. 321-347.

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xiii. 41-44; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xviii. 709 (Abs.)

,

A74.

F. Zecchini .

C. Trapesonzjanz .

K. Zimanyi .

J. F. Eijkman

L. E. Jewell .

H, Krone .

W. M. Watts .

E. Lommel ,

R. Nasini .

F. Zecchini ,

H. Dufet a

G. Lippmann.

A. A. Michelson

REPORT—1898.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1893.

Sopra un notevole caso di accresci-

mento anomalo nel potere ri-
frangente delle base feniliche.
(Read May 21.)

Ueber die Molecularrefraction
stickstoffenthaltender Substanzen
(Aldoxime und Ketoxime). (Read
June 8.)

Die Hauptbrechungsexponenten
der wichtigeren gesteinbilden-

den Mineralien bei Na-Licht.
(July.)
Recherches réfractométriques.
(Aug.)

An Absolute Scale of Intensity for
the Lines of the Solar Spectrum
and for Quantitative Analysis.
(Aug.)

Weiteres tiber Farbenphotogramme
von Spectren. (Aug.)

Wave-length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements and Compounds.
(Report of the Committee.) (Aug.)

Objective Darstellung von Inter-
ferenzerscheinungen in Spectral-
farben. (Sept.)

Coefficiente critico in relazione colla
formula (z—1)/d. (Read Sept. 3.)

Sul potere rifrangente del fosforo.
III. Potere rifrangente di alcune
combinazioni organiche del fos-
foro. (Read Oct. 1.)

Sur les indices de réfraction du
spath @’Islande. (Read Noy. 9.)

Photographie des couleurs. (Read

Nov. 3.)

Light Waves and their Application
to Metrology. (Nov.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei’
(5], ii. I. sem. 491-494;
‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiii.
II. 42-46; ‘Ber.’ xxvi.
(Ref.), 863-864 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblitter,’ xvii. 1048
(Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxvi. 1428-1433;

‘ Beiblatter,’ xviii. 335-
336 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u. Min.’

xxii. 321-358; ‘Bei-
blatter, xviii. 577-578
(Abs.)

‘Rec. des. trav. chim. des
Pays-Bas, xiii. 13-33;
157-197 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxvil. IT. 33, 65 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 815-821; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xviii. 670 (Abs.)

‘ Phot. Mittheil’ xxx. 133
135, 148-150; ‘Bei-
blatter,’ xviii. 192 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1893,
387-437,

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], 1. . 325-328 ;
‘ Nature,’ xlix. 46 (Abs.)

*Rend.| B. Accadi> a:
Lincei’ [5], ii. II. sem.
127-136; ‘Gazz. chim.
ital” xxiii. \576—587%
‘Ber.’ xxvi. (Ref.), 928
(Abs.)

‘Rend. R.Accad. d. Lincei’
[5], ii. II. sem. 193-199 ;
‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiv.
I. 34-42; ‘Ber. xxvi.
(Ref.), 929-930 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblatter, xviii, 454—
455 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soe.’ lxvi. IT. 221 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Soc. frang. de Min’
xvi. 149-178; ‘Séances
de la Soc. frang. de phys.’
1894, 95-96; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xix. 638 (Abs.)

* Séances de la Soc. fran¢.
de phys.’ 1893, 248.

‘Nature,’ xlix. 56-60.

a

J. Joly »

V. Berghoft

J. F, Eijkman

W. Zenker

G. Lippmann

R. Nasini

J. Verschaffelt

P. Bary .

H. Dufet

G. Gennari

J. H. Littlewood

G. Moreau

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

.

R, Nasini and G.

Carrara.

475

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1893, 1894.

On the Influence of Temperature
upon the Sensitiveness of the

Photographic Dry Plate. (Read
Dec. 20.)
Bestimmung der Brechungsex-

ponenten von Schwefel und Phos-
phorlésungen im _ Schwefel-
kohlenstoff nach der Prismen-
methode mit Fernrohr und Scala.
(Dissert Marburg. 1893.)

Recherches réfractométriques

Ueber die Entstehung der Farben
im Lippman’schen Spectrum.

1894.

Sur la théorie de la photographie
des couleurs simples et composées
par la méthode interférentielle.
(Read Jan. 15.)

Sul potere rifrangente dei composti

contenenti il carbonile. (Read
Jan. 13.)
Application du réfractométre 4

Yétude des réactions chimiques.
(Read Jan. 6.)

Sur les indices de réfraction des
dissolutions salines. (Read Feb. 2.)

Indices du spath d’Islande. Dis-
cussion des résultats. (Read Feb.
16.)

Sul potere rifrangente dell’ alcool
furanico, dell’ acido piromucico
e dei suoi eteri. (Read Feb. 4.)

Method for Determining the Refrac-
tive Index of a Solution which is
available when the Solution is not
Homogeneous. (Read Feb. 23.)

Dispersion rotatoire magnétique
infra-rouge du sulfure de car-
bone. (Feb.)

Sul potere rifrangente dell’ ossigeno,
dello zolfo, e dell’ azoto nei nuclei
heterociclici. (Read Feb. 22.)

,

‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Dubl.’
viii. (N.S.), 222; ‘Nature,’
xlix. 379 (Abs.)

‘Beiblatter, xviii.

(title).

[5]

‘Rec. trav. chim. des Pays-
Bas,’ xii. 157-197, 268-
285; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Lxvi. II. 173 (Abs.)

‘Jahrb. f. Photogr.’ vii.
(1893), 114-121; ‘ Beibliit-
ter,’ xviii. 568 (Abs,)

«OC, RY exviii. 92-102; «J.
de Phys. [3], iii. 97-107.

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiv. I.
157-169; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixyi. II. 301-304 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belge,’
[3], xxvii. 49-84; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xviii. 746-747,
833-834 (Abs.)

‘Séances de la Soc. frang¢.
de phys.’ 1894, 78.

‘ Séances de lat Soc. franc.
de phys.’ 1894, 95-96,

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei ’
[5], ili. I. sem. 123-129 ;
‘Gazz chim. ital.’ xxiv. I.
246-255; ‘J. Chem. Soc.
Ixvi. II. 302 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’
Xxvil. (Ref.), 426 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblatter, xviii. 666
(Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag’ -[5], xxxvii.
467-470; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xviii. 905-906 (Abs.) ;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii.
74-76.

‘Ann. chim. et phys.’ [7],
i. 227-258 5- “Natures
xlix. 370 (Abs.)

© Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiy. I.
256-290; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixvi. II. 302-303
(Abs.); ‘ Ber.’ xxvii. (Ref.),
375-376 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xviii. 834 (Abs.)

476

€. Runge

A. Ghira = q

G. B, Rizzo , ‘

A. Ghira % :

H. Jahn and G.
Moller.

G. Gennari .

A. Konig ,

W. de W. Abney

K, Angstrém .

A. Schuster ,
A. E. Tutton .

L. Arons ;

BF. Aymonnet.

REPORT—1898.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1894.

On a Certain Law in the Spectra of
some of the Elements. (Feb.)

Rifrazione atomica di alcuni ele-

menti. Potere rifrangenti delle
combinazioni organo-metalliche.
(Read March 18.)

Sull’ estensione della legge di
Kirchhoff intorno alla relazione
fra | assorbimento e l’emissione
della luce. (Read March 11.)

Potere rifrangente delle combina-
zioni organo-metalliche. (Read
April 15.)

Ueber die dispersionsfreie Mole-
cularrefraction einiger organ-
ischer Verbindungen. (April.)

Spettrochimica del cumarone e
dell’ indene. (Read May 20.)

Ueber die Anzahl der unterscheid-
baren Helligkeitstufen und Spec-
tralfarbentone. (May.)

Measures of the Wave-lengths of
Contrast Colours. (Read June 21.)

Einige Bemerkungen anlisslich des
bolometrischen Arbeiten von Fr.
Paschen. (June.)

On Interference Phenomena.

(June.)

Refractive Indices of the Sulphates
of Potassium, Rubidium, and
Cxsium. (Read June 7.)

Ueber _ Dielectricititsconstanten
fester und Brechungsexponenten
geschmolzener Salze. (July.)

Sur les radiations calorifiques com-
prises dans la partie lumineuse
du spectre. (Read July 2.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xiii. 128-130.

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lin-
cei’ [5], ili. I. sem. 297-.
300, 332-3388; ‘ Gazz.
chim, ital.” xxiv. I. 309-
327; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xviii.
906-907 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ Ixvi. I. 415-~
416 (Abs.) : ‘ Ber.’ xxvii.
(Ref.), 377-378 (Abs.)

‘ Atti R. Accad. d. Torino,’
xxix. 424-433 ; ‘ Beiblat-
ter, xviii. 835-836 (Abs.) ;
‘Nature,’ xlix. 606 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lin-
cei’ [5], iii. I, sem. 391-
393; ‘Gazz. chim. ital.’
xxiv. 324-327,

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem, xiii. 385-397;
‘ Ber.’ xxvii. (Ref.), 547
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
Xvili. 831-833 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxii. IT.
265 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
xlix. 582 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lin-
cei’ [5], iii. I. sem. 499-
503; ‘Gazz. chim, ital.’
xxiv. I. 468-474; ‘Bei-
blatter,” xviii. 907 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ 1. 192 (Abs.);
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem’
[N.F.], liii. (Abhandl.
phys. Ges.), 55 (Notice).

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvi, 221-
229; ‘Beiblitter, xix.
179-180 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], li. 6509-514;
‘Proc. Phys. Soe.’ xiii.
13 (Abs.) :

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxvii.
509-545.

‘J. Chem. Soe.’ Ixy. 666-
(ire

‘Ann.Phys.u.Chem.’[N.F.],
lili. 95-108 ; * Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiii. 16 (Abs.)

°C. R.’ cxix. 50-52; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xviii. 908 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ lxx. 62
(Abs.) ; ‘Nature,’ 1, 287
(Abs.)

le be

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

H. Hallwachs ‘

C. Féry. .

J. E. Keeler .

S. P. Langley

ta

G. Moreau , °

F. Paschen . .

” . -

G. J. Stoney .

W. M. Watts .

R. de Muynck

H. Crew and R.

Tatnall.
I. Zoppellari .

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1894,

Ueber Lichtbrechung und Dichte
verdiinnter Losungen. (July.)

Application de l’autocollimation a4
la mesure des indices de réfrac-
tion. (Read Aug. 13.)

The Magnesium Spectrum as an
Index to the Temperature of the
Stars. (Aug.)

On Recent Researches in the Ultra-
red Spectrum. (Read Aug. 11.)

Nouvelles recherches sur la région
infra-rouge du spectre solaire.
(Read Aug. 13.)

De la périodicité des raies d’ab-
sorption des corps _ isotropes.
(Read Aug. 20.)

Ueber die Dispersion des Fluorits
im Ultraroth. (Aug.)

Ueber die Dispersion des Stein-
salzes im Ultraroth. (Aug.)

Bolometrische Arbeiten. (Aug.) .

On the Cause of the Spurious
Double Lines sometimes seen with
Spectroscopes, and the Slender
Appendages which accompany
them. (Aug.)

Wave-length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements and Compounds.
(Report of Committee.) (Aug.)

Ueber die Brechungsexponenten
von wasserigen Cadmiumsalzlé-
sungen. (Sept.)

On a New Method of Mapping the
Spectra of Metals. (Oct.)

Sulla rifrazione atomica del selenio.
(Read Oct. 2.)

A77

‘Ann.Phys.u.Chem.’[N.F.],
li. 1-133 ‘Nature,’ 1.
515 (Abs.)

°C. RY cxix. 402-404.

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxvi. 77—
80; ‘ Nature,’ 1. 364-365
(Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1894,
465-474; ‘Nature, li.
12-16 (Abs.)

‘C. R. cxix 388-392;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xviii. 1045—
1046 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
News, Ixx. 114-115
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ 1. 420
(Abs.)

°C. RY cxix. 422-425.

‘Ann.Phys.u.Chem.’[N.F.],
lili. 301-333; ‘Nature,’
1. 635 (Abs.); ‘Proc.
Phys, Soc.’ xiii. 14 (Abs.)

‘Ann.Phys.u.Chem.’[N.F.],
lili. 337-342; ‘ Proc.
Phys. Soc.’ xiii, 15 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys.u.Chem.’[N.F.],
lili. 287-800; ‘Proc.
Phys. Soe.’ xiii. 14 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1894,
583-585; ‘ Beibliatter,”
xix. 423 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1894,
248-267,

‘Ann.Phys.u.Chem.’[N.F.],
liii, 559-563; ‘ Ber.
xxviii. (Ref.), 7 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soe.’ Ixviii. IT.
33 (Abs.); ‘Proc. Phys.
Soc,’ xiii. 12 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxviii.
379-386.

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiv. IT.
396-407; ‘Rend.R.Accad.
d. Lincei’ [5], iii, IT.
sem. 330-338; ‘ Ber,’
xxviii. (Ref.), 54 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblatter,” xix. 487~—
488 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixviii. II, 249-250
(Abs.)

F. Paschen .

V. Berghoft

J. Violle 4

A. Belopolsky

P. Bary . .

B. Brunlhés ,

A. Hupe =

A. A. Michelson

E. Carvallo .

E. L. Nichols.

H. A. Rowland

M. Camiche!

REPORT—1898.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1894, 1895.

Die Dispersion des Fluorits und
der Ketteler’sche Theorie der Dis-
persion. (Nov.)

Bestimmung der Brechungsexpo-
nenten von Schwefel- und Phos-
phorlésungen nach der Prismen-
methode mit Fernrohr und Scala.
(Nov.)

Sur la température de l'are élec-
trique, (Read Dec. 3.)

Ein Project zur Reproduction der
Verschiebung von Spectrallinien
bewegter Lichtquellen. (Dec.)

Variation de V'indice de réfraction
avec le degré de concentration
des solutions aqueuses des sels.

Sur la vérification des quartz
paralléles.

Bolometrische Arbeiten. Die
Rotationsdispersion ultrarother

Strahlen im Quartz. (Progr. Real-
schule Charlottenberg, 1894, 48
pp-)

Les méthodes interférentielles en
métrologie, et 1 établissement
dune longueur d’onde comme
unité absolue de longueur.

1895.

Spectres calorifiques. (Jan.) :

The Distribution of Energy in the
Spectrum of the Glow-Lamp.
(Jan.)

Preliminary Table of Solar Spec-
trum Waye-lengths. I-X. (Jan.)

Absorpticn de la lumieére dans les
cristaux. (Read Feb. 15.)

‘Ann.Phys.u.Chem.’[N.F.],
liii. 812-822. ‘Proc.
Phys. Soe.’ xiii. 65 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xv. 422-436; ‘ Ber.
xxviii. (Ref.), 101-102
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’ xix.
327 (Abs.) ; ‘ Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiii. 106 (Abs.) ; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixviii. II. 97
(Abs.)

*C. RY’ exix. 949-950;
‘Chem. News,’ lxx. 306
(Abs.) 2

* Astr. Nachr.’ exxxvii. 34—
36; ‘Nature,’ li. 233-234
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xix.
418-419 (Abs.)

‘J. Soc. fran¢. de phys.’
1894, 78.

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], iii, 22-
28; ‘Proc. Phys. Sos.’
xiii. 62-63 (Abs.)

‘Beiblitter? xix. 501-502
(Abs.)

is

‘J. de Phys,’ [3], iii. 5-22;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 62
(Abs.)

‘Ann. de Chim. et Phys.’
[7], iv. 1-79; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xix. 566 (Abs.); ‘ Proc.
Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 223-224
(Abs.)

‘Phys. Review,’ ii. 260-
276; ‘ Beiblatter, xix.
783-784 (Abs.); ‘Proc.
Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 169 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ i. 29-46,
130-145, 222-231, 295-
304, 360-369, 377-392;
ii. 45-54, 109-118, 188-
197, 306-315, 377-392;
‘Beiblatter, xix. 422
(Abs.)

‘ Bull. Soc. frang. de phys.’

1895, 50-56; ‘ Proc.
Phys. (Soc! xl. sl6%
(Abs.)

ae

aes

_ A. Konig

R. Neuhaus

E. P. Lewis

V. Schumann

A. Konig
Rubens.

E. Merritt

C. Runge

A. Schuster

_ F. Anderlini

G. A. Borel

P. T. Cléve

Sir J. Conroy

HH. Ebert

.

.

and H.

J. H. Gladstone and
W. Hibbert.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1895.

Ueber die Anzahl der unterscheid-
baren Spectralfarben und Hellig-
keitstreifen. (Feb.)

Ueber die Photographie in natiir-
lichen Farben. (Read Feb. 8.)

The Infra-Red Spectra of the
Elements. (Read Apiil 25.)

Zur Photographie der Lichtstrahlen
kleinster Wellenliingen vom Luft-
spectrum jenseits 185°2 uu. (Read
April 25.)

Ueber die Energievertheilung im
Spectrum des ‘Triplex-Gasbren-
ners und der Amylacetatlampe.
(Read May 10.)

Ueber den Dichroismus von Kalk-
spath, Quarz und Turmalin fiir
ultrarothe Strahlen. (May.)

Die Wellenliingen der ultraviolet-
ten Aluminiumlinien. (May.)

Sur les spectres cannelés.
May 6.)

Sopra alcuni questioni relative alla

rifrazione atomica dell’ ossigeno.
(Read June 17.)

Recherches sur la réfraction et la
dispersion des radiations ultra-
violettes dans quelques substances
cristallisées. (Read June 24.)

Sur la densité de lhélium.
June 4.)

On the Refractive Index of Water
at Temperatures between 0° and
10°. (Read June 20.)

On the Electromagnetic Nature of |
the Solar Radiation, and on a |

New Determination of the Tem-
perature of the Sun. (June.)

The Molecular Refraction of Dis-
solved Salts and Acids. (Read
June 6.)

(Read |

(Read |

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

479

‘Zeitschr. f. Psychol. u.
Physiol. d. Sinnesorg.’
viii. 375-380; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xix. 642 (Abs.)

‘Verhandl. Phys. Ges.
Berl.’ xiv. 17-24; ‘Na-
ture,’ li. 503-504 (Abs.)

‘Johns Hopkins Univ.
Cire.’ xiv. 70 (Abs.);
‘Beiblitter, xix. 784
(Abs.)
‘Wien. Anz.’ 1895, xi.
121-122.

‘Verhandl. phys. Ges
Berl.’ xiv. 51 (Notice)
‘ Nature,’ lil. 167 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys.u.Chem.’[N.F.],
lv. 49-64; ‘Nature,’ lii.
189 (Abs:)

‘Ann. Phys.u.Chem.’[N.F.],
ly. 44-48; ‘Nature,’ lii.
189 (Abs.)

*C. RR’ exx. 987-989;
‘Nature, lii. 71 (Abs.)

* Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxv. II.
127-162; ‘Ber. xxviii.
(Ref.), 973-974 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxx. II.
229-230 (Abs.)

‘Arch. de Genéve’ [3],
xxxiv. 134-137, 230-249;
*C. R. exx. 1404-1406 ;
‘ Beibliitter,’ xx. 42(Abs.);
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii.
54 (Abs.)

Ci Re (exx, 1212/5) “Na-
ture,’ li. 586; ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixxi. 201-202.

Proc. Roy. Soe.’ Ilviii.
228-234; ‘ Nature,’ Iii.
455-456 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
bliitter,’ xix. 881 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ii. 55-57;
‘Nature,’ lii. 232 (Abs.)

J. Chem. Soe.’ Ixvii. 831_-
868; ‘Proc. Chem. Soc.’
xi. 120-121 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxi. 313
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblitter,’ xx.
195 (Abs.); ‘Ber, xxix.
(Ref.), 265 (Abs.)

480

E. P. Lewis

O. Wiener

W. F. Edwards

J. ¥. Eijkman

F, Paschen

H. Rigollot .

J. Bernstein .

J. H. Pillsbury
W. le C. Stevens

A. Witz. a

Lord Rayleigh

J. H. Gladstone

G. D. Liveing and
J. Dewar.

W. M. Watts.

REPORT—1898.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1895.

The Measurement of some Standard

Wave-lengths in the Infra-Red
Spectra of the Elements, I. II.
(June.)

Farbenphotographie durch K6rper-
farben und mechanische Farbenan-
passung in der Natur. (June.)

Some Notes on Molecular and Ato-

mic Refraction. (July.)
Recherches réfractométriques,
(July.)

Ueber Gesetzmiissigkeiten in den
Spectren fester Korper, und tiber
eineneue Bestimmung der Sonnen-
temperatur. (Read July 6.).

Action des rayons infra-rouges sur
lesulfure d’argent. (Read July 15.)

Das Beugungspectrum des querge-
streiften Muskels bei der Contrac-
tion. (Aug.)

A Scheme of Colour Standards.
(Aug.)

Recent Progress in Optics (‘ Rep.
Amer. Assoc.’) (Aug.)

Kclairage par luminescence. (Read
Aug. 5.)

The Refraction and Viscosity of
Argon and Helium. (Sept.)

On Specific Refraction and the
Periodic Law, with reference to
Argonandother Elements. (Sept.)

On the Refraction and Dispersion
of Liquid Oxygen. (Sept.)

Wave-length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements and Compounds
(Report of Committee.) (Sept.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ii. “1-25,
106-108; ‘ Beiblitter,
xx. 28-29 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
[N.F.], lv. 225-281;
‘Nature,’ lii. 279 (Abs.)

‘Amer. Chem. J.’ xvii.
473-506: ‘J.Chem. Soc.,’
Ixviil. II. 429-430 (Abs.)

‘Rec. Tray. Chim. des
Pays-Bas,’ xiv. 185-202 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. II.
133 (Abs.) ; ‘ Ber.’ xxix.
(Ref.), 73 (Abs.)

‘Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Gdét-
tingen’ (1895), 294-304 ;
‘Proc. Phys. Soe.’ xiv. 44
(Abs.)

*C. RY ecxxi. 164-166;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xix. 891-
892 (Abs.); ‘ Chem.

News,’ lxxii. 80 ¢Abs.) ;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii.
397 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ lxx. II. 3 (Abs:) ;
‘Nature,’ lii. 312 (Abs.)

‘Arch. f. d. gesammte
Physiol. 1xi. 285-290;
‘Naturw. Rundschau, x.
540-541.

‘Nature,’ lii. 390-392.
‘Nature,’ liii. 233-238.

Si@) ee
* Chem.
104-105.

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1895,
609 (Abs.); ‘ Chem.
News,’ Ixxii. 224; ‘Chem.
Centralbl.’ 1895, ii. 1112 ;
‘Beiblitter, xx. 192
(Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1895,
609-610; ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxli, 223-224.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xl. 268-
272; ‘Chem. News, Ixxii.
154; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xx. 193
(Abs.); ‘Ber.’ xxix.(Ref.),
110 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1895,
273-340.

exxi. 306-308 ;
News,’ I xxii.

Settee yeah ey

ON

A. Pfliiger .

J. W. Bruhl

A. A. Michelson

A. de F. Palmer,
jun.

¥. Paschen ,

W. H. Perkin

F. Aymonnet :

W. Hibbert

H. A. Rowland

KR. W. Wood . .

KE. von Aubel.

A. A. Michelson

1898,

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1895.

Anomale Dispersionscurven einiger
fester Farbstoffe. (Oct.)

Ueber das .Wasserstoffhyperoxyd.
Spectrometrische Bestimmungen,
(Read Nov. 11.)

The Broadening of Spectral Lines.
(Nov.)

On the Wave-length of the D,
Helium Line. (Nov.)

Ueber die Wellentliingenscala des
ultrarothen Fliissspathspectrums.
(Nov.)

Influence of Temperature on the
Refractive Power, and on the Re-
fraction Equivalents of Acetyl-
acetone and of Ortho- and Para-
Toluidine. (Read Nov. 21.)

Sur le déplacement spectrale du
maximum calorifique __ solaire.
(Read Dec. 30.)

The Gladstone ‘ Law’ in Physical

Optics, and the True Volume of |

Liquid Matter. (Dec.)

Preliminary Table of Solar Wave-
lengths. XI-XV. (Dec.)

Ueber die Absorptionsspectrum der
Lésungen von Iod und Brom iiber
der kritischen Temperatur.

Sur les densités et les indices de
réfraction des mélanges de l’alde-
hyde ou de l’acétone avec l’eau,

The Metre in Terms of Wave-length
of Light. (Bureau Internat. des
Poids et Mesures, xi. 1-237.)

481

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.
[N.F.], lvi. 412-432;
‘Nature,’ liii. 94 (Abs.) ;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii.
469 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxviii. 2858-2860 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. II.
162-163 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ ii. 251-263.

‘ Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], 1. 357—
358 ; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ [5], xl.
547-548 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxx. II. 405 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blatter, xx. 197 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxiii. 14
(Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ liii.
190 (Abs.); ‘Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiv. 159 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.
[N.F.], lvi. 762-767.

‘J. Chem. Soe.’ Ixix. 1-6;
‘Chem. News,’ lxxii. 288
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xx.
529-530 (Abs.)

‘C. R. exxi. 1139-1141;
‘Nature, liii. 239 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ lxxiii. 47
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xx.
537 (Abs.); ‘ Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiv. 44 (Abs.)

©Phil. Mag.” [5], xl. 321—
345; ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.’

xiii. 670-697 ; ‘ Bei-
blatter, xx. 193-195
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ iii, 141-

146, 291-296, 356-373 ;
iv. 106-115, 278-287.

‘ Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xix. 689-695 ;
‘ Phil. Mag,’ [5], xli. 423..
431; ‘ Beiblatter, xx.
776 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixx. II. 458 (Abs.) ;
‘ Ber.’ xxix. (Ref.), 765
(Abs. )

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], iv. 478_
482; ‘ Beiblatter” xx.
195-196 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’
xxix. (Ref.), 72 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiv.
(Abs.), 102.

It

A82

TV. Perreau ,

J. Stscheglajew

P. Zeeman ,

J. HE. Keeler . 5

Lord Rayleigh

B. Walter

W. J. Humphreys
and J. F. Mohler.

M. Le Blane and
P. Rohland.

A. J. Moses and
E. Weinschenk,

J. N. Lockyer

¥. Perreau » -

REPORT—1898.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1895, 1896.

Etude expérimentale de la disper-
sion et de la réfraction des gaz.

Sur la dispersion anomale de la
lumiére dans les solutions de
fuchsine.

Messung des Brechungsindex des
gliihenden Platins (‘ Zittingsversl.
Akad. Amsterdam,’ 1895, 116-119).

1896.

Recent Researches bearing on the

Determination of Wave-lengths
in the Ultra-Red Spectrum.
(Jan.)

On some Physical Properties of
Argonand Helium. (Read Jan. 16)

Ueber
des festen Fuchsins.

die Brechungsexponenten
(Jan.)

Effect of Pressure on the Wave-
lengths of Lines in the Are
Spectra of Certain Elements.
(Feb.)

Ueber den Einfluss welchen die
electrolytische Dissociation, der
Wechsel des Aggregatzustandes
und des Loésungsmittels auf das
Lichtbrechungsvermégen einiger
Stoffe austiben. (Feb.)

Ueber eine einfache Vorrichtung zur
Messung der Brechungsexponenten
kleiner Krystalle mittelst Total-
reflexion. (Feb.)

The Shifting of Spectral Lines. I.
(March.)

Etude expérimentale de la dis-
persion et de la réfraction des
gaz. (March.)

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], iv. 411-
416; ‘Beiblitter, xx.
192-193 (Abs.); ‘ Proc.
Phys. Soc.’ xiv. 160-
161 (Abs.)

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], iv. 546—

551; ‘ Beiblatter, xx.
272-273 (Abs.); ‘ Proc.
Phys. Soc.’ xiv. 125-126
(Abs.)

‘ Beiblitter,’ xx.548 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ ili. 638- 7,

‘Proc. Roy. Soc,’ lix. 198—
208; ‘Zeitschr. f. physi-
kal. Chem.’ xix. 364-372 ;
‘ Beibliitter, xx. 312-313
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], vii. 394-396 ;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiv.
124-125 (Abs.)

‘ Johns HopkinsUniv.Cire.
xv. 35-37; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xx. 533 (Abs.) ; * Proc.
Phys. Soc.’ xiv. 282-283
(Abs.) ;_ ‘ Astrophys. J.’
iii. 114-137.

>

‘Zeitschr. f. phggeen’
Chem.’ xix. 261-286 ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xx. 364-365
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxx. II.345 (Abs.) ; ‘Ber.’
xxix. (Ref.), 759-760
(Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u. Min.’
xxvi. 150-155; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xx. 872 (Abs.)

© Nature,’ liii. 415-417.

‘Ann, Chim. et Phys.’ [7],

vii. 289-348; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xx. 643-645
(Abs.)

nS a

ON

A. E. Tutton . :

C. Viola i

W.de W. Abney .

W.N. Hartley

G. Lippmann.

bh .

G. D. Liveing

J. F. Mohler and
L. E. Jewell.

A, Schuster .

W. H. Perkin

J. H. Gladstone

F.Paschen ,

A. E, Tutton.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1896,

Connection between the Atomic
Weight of Contained Metals and
the Crystallographical Characters
of Isomorphous Salts. The Volume
and Optical Relationships of the
Potassium, Rubidium, and Cesium
Salts of the Monoclinic Series of
Double Sulphates, R,M(SO,).,
6H,O. (Read March 19.)

Metodo per determinare I’ indice di
rifrazione della luce di un mine-
rale nelle lamine sottili. (Read
March 15.)

Note on Photographing Sources of
Light with Monochromatic Rays.
(Read April 30.)

On the Temperature of Certain
Flames. (Read April 23.)

On Colour Photography by the
Interferential Method. (Read
April 23.)

Colour Photography. (Lecture at
Roy. Inst., April 17.)

On Photographing the whole
Length of a Spectrum at once.
(Read April 27.)

On the Wave-length of some of the
Helium Lines in the Vacuum
Tube, and of D, in the Sun.
(April.)

Note on the Results of Messrs.
Jewell, Humphreys, and Mohler.
(April.)

On Magnetic Rotatory Power, es-

pecially of Aromatic Compounds.
(Read May 18.)

The Relation between the Re-
fraction of the Elements and
their Chemical Equivalents. (Read
June 4.)

Ueber Gesetzmiissigkeiten in den
Spectren fester Kérper. (June.)

Vergleichung der Resultate der
Untersuchungen tiber die ein-
fachen und doppelten K, Rb und
Cs enthaltenenen Sulphate, und
daraus abgeleitete Schlussfolge-
rungen iiber den Ninfluss des
Atomgewichte auf die Krystallo-
graphische EHigenschaften. (June.)

A838

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixix, 344—
507.

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lineei’
[5], v. II. sem. 212-216 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u.
Min.’ xxvii. 430 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblatter,’ xx. 874-875
(Abs.) ; ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.’
xiv. 237-238 (Abs.)

“Proc. Roy. Soc.) ls; 13—
5:

‘J. Chem, Soc.’ Ixix. 844-
847.

‘ Proc. Roy.Soc.’ lx. 10-13 ;
‘Chem. News,’ lxxiii. 213-
214,

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxiv. 275-
276, 285-286.

‘Proc. Phil. Soc. Camb.’
ix. 141-142; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxi. 30 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
liv. 94 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ iii. 351-
355; ‘Beiblitter,’ xxi.
336 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ ili. 292;
‘Beiblitter, xxi. 706
(Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xix. 1025-
1257; ‘ Beiblatter, xxi.
254-256 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ix. 140-

146; ‘ Beibliitter, xxi.
26-27 (Abs.)

“Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lviii. 455-493.
‘Zeitschr. f. Kryst. uw.
Min’ xxvii. 252-265;
‘Beiblitter, xxi. 196
(Abs.)

184.

A. Hanke ;
A. PAliiger

C. Viola.

A. Cotton a

A. Konig

F. Aymonnet .

J. F. Mohler .

E. }*. Nichols.

W. J. Humphreys .

W.J.Pope .

H. Rubens .,

J, $V bruh

A. Hagenbach

REPORT—1898.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1896.

‘Ueber die Refractionsiiquivalente |

der Elemente. (Read July 2.)

Zur anomalen Dispersion absor-
birender Substanzen. (July.)

Ueber eine Methode zur Bestim-
mung des Brechungsvermogen
der Mineralien im Diinnschliff.

(July.)

Recherches sur l'absorption et la
dispersion de la lumiére par les
milieux doués du pouvoir rota-
toire. (Aug.)

Quantitative Bestimmungen an
complementiiren Spectralfarben.
(Read July 20.)

Sur les maxima périodiques des
spectres. (Read Sept. 28.)

The Effect of Pressure upon Wave-
length. (Oct.)

Das Verhalten des Quartzes gegen
langwellige Strahlen, untersucht
nach derradiometrischen Methode.
(Read Oct. 22.)

A further Study of the Effects of
Pressure on the Wave-lengths of
Lines in the Arc Spectrum of
Certain Elements. (Nov.)

The Refractive Constants of Crys-
talline Salts. (Read Nov. 5.)

Ueber das ultrarote Absorptions-
spectrum von Steinsalz und Sylvin.
(Read Nov. 6.)

Stereochemisch-spectrische
suche. I. (Dec.)

Ver-

Ein Versuch, die beiden Bestand-
theile des Cléveitgases durch
Diffusion zu trennen. (Dec.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,’
ev. Il.a, 749-777 ; ‘Wien.
Anz,’ xxxili. 176 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lviii. 670-673.

‘Min. petr.Mitth’” (Tscher-
mak), xvi. 150-154;
‘Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u.
Min,” xxvii. 430; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxi. 233 (Abs.)

Ann. Chim. et Phys.’ [7],
viii. 347-432; ‘J. de
Phys.’ [3], v. 237-244,
290-303; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xx. 882-883, xxi. 35-36
(Abs.)

Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1896, 945-949.

°C. BY exxiil. 645-647;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxiii.
246; ‘ Beiblatter,’ xxi. 31
(Abs.) 3

‘Astrophys. J. iv. 175-
181; ‘ Beiblitter, xxi.
737 (Abs.)

.

Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1896, 1183-1196 ; ‘ Phys.
Review, iv. 297-313;
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,
[N.F.], lx. 401-417.

Astrophys. J.’iv. 249-262.

J. Chem. Soc.’ lxix. 1530-
1546; ‘ Proc. Chem. Soc.’
xii. | (1896),- S777
(Abs.); ‘Zeitschr. f.
Kryst. u. Min’ xxviii.
113-134: ‘Chem. News,
lxxiv. 268-269 (Abs.);
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1897, I.
3-4 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xxi. 347-348 (Abs.)

‘Verhandl. Phys. Soc. Ber-
lin,’ xv. 108-110; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxi. 130 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem?” xxi> 385-413;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xxi. 224-226
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
(N.F.], lx. 124-133.

“Ne

H. Rubens and E.
F. Nichols.

J. F. Eijkman

Vy. A. Julius.

O. Wallach

P. Zeeman

J. W. Briihl .

G. C. Comstock

H. A. Rowland

G. Tammann .

J. Traube

2”

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. A8

Cx

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1896, 1897.

Ueber Wiirmestrahlen von grosser
Wellenliinge. (Read Dec. 17.)

Recherches réfractométriques

Sur le quartz fondu, et les bandes
dinterférence dans le spectre des
fils de quartz.

Ueber Refractions- und Disper-
sionsvermégen einer Reihe iso-
merer Kampfer (‘ Gdttingen.
Nachr.’ 1896-69-73).

Influence of Magnetism on the
Light emitted by a Substance
(‘Zittingsversl. Akad. Amsterdam,’
Oct. 31 and Noy. 21, 1896).

1897.

Spectrometrische Bestimmungen.

(Read Jan. 25.)

Hydrazin,

Wasserstofthyperoxyd,
WV asser.

(Read Jan. 25.)

On the Application of Interference
Methods to the Determination of
the Effective Wave-length of
Light. (Jan.)

Preliminary Table of Solar Spec-

- trum Waye-lengths. XVI. XVII.

XVIII. (Jan.)

Ueber die Aenderung der Brech-
ungscoefiicienten bei der Neu-
tralisation, der Bildung und
Verditinnung von Lésungen. (Jan.)

Ueber die Atomrefractionen von
Kohlenstoff, Wasserstoff, Sauer-
stoff und den Halogenen. (XVI.
Abhandlung.) (Read Jan. 11.)

Ueber die Atomrefractionen des
Stickstoffs. XVII. Mittheilung.
(Read Jan. 11.)

On the Mode of Printing Maps of
Spectra. (Discussion at the meet-
ing of the Roy. Astron. Soc. on
Jan &.)

Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1896, 1393-1400; ‘ Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ [N.F.],
lx. 418-462; ‘Phys. Re-
view,’ iv. 314-323; ‘ Na-
ture,’ lv. 329, 524 (Abs.)

‘Rec. trav. chim. des Pays-
Bas,’ xv. 52-60; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxi. 27-28 (Abs.)

‘Arch. néerland. xxix.
454-466; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xx. 539 (Abs.)

‘ Beiblitter,’ xxi. 732-733
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ lv. 192, 347, 370
(Abs.)

“Ber.” . Xxx: 158-162 ;

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1897, I.
534 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xxi. 511 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxx. 162-172; ‘ Bei-
blatter, xxi. 407-409
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ v. 26-35
‘Beiblitter, xxi. 52
(Abs.); ‘Science Abstr
i. 12 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J. v. 11-2F
109-118,181-193 ; ‘ Phys
Review,’ v. 11-25.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xxi. 537-544;
‘Beiblatter,’ xxi. 969-
970 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ xxx. 39-42 ; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1897, I. 403-404
(Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ xxx. 43-47; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1897, I. 404 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J. vy. 216-217
(Abs.)

486

F. Zecchini .

F.G. Kohl .

O. J. Lodge

J. B. Hayeraft

F.Paschen . ;

P. Zeeman . :

J. W. Briihl .

P.deHeen ,

N. Egoroff and N.
Géorgiewsky.

G.LeBon .

A, E. Tutton .

¥. L. O. Wadsworth |

W. H. Wright .

|

. | Spectrochemie des Stickstoffs.

REPORT—1898.

PuHysicA", RELATIONS, 1897.

Sul potere rifrangente delle mes-
colanze di due liquidi. (Read
Jan. 8.)

Die assimilatorische Energie der
blauen und violetten Strahlen des
Spectrums. (Read. Feb. 26.)

The Influence of a Magnetic Field
on Radiation Frequency. (Read
Feb. 11.)

Luminosity and Photometry. (Read
March 4.)

Ueber Gesetzmiissigkeiten in der
Spectren fester Kérper. (March.)

On the Influence of Magnetism on
the Nature of the Light emitted
by a Substance. (March.)

Vv.
(April.)

Détermination de la partie du
spectre qui développe la plus
grande proportion d’infra-électri-
cité. (Read April 5.)

Sur la polarisation partielle des
radiations émis par quelques
sources lumineuses sous l’influence
du champ magnétique. (Read
May 3.)

Sur les propriétés de certainesradia-
tions du spectre. (Read May 24.)

Connection between the Crystal-
lographical Characters of Isomor-
phous Salts and the Atomic Weight
of the Metals contained. A com-
parative crystallographic study of
the normal selenates of potassium,
rubidium, and cesium. (Read
May 20.)

On the Resolving Power of Tele-
scopes and Spectroscopes for Lines
of Finite Width. (May.)

A Method of correcting the Curva-
ture of Lines in the Spectrohelio-
graph. (May.)

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxvii.
358-383 ; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1897, I. 1193 (Abs.);
‘Beibliitter, xxi. 732
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxxii. II. 470 (Abs.)

‘Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges.’
xv. 111-124; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1897, I. 867 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ix. 513-
514.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxi. 49
50; * Beibliitter,’ xxi. 972
(Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ lv. 525
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], Ix. 662-723 ;
‘Nature,’ liv. 311 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xliii. 226-
239; ‘Astrophys. J’ v.
332-347.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xxii. 373-409 ;‘ J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixxii. II. 297
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xxi.
586-588 (Abs.); ‘ Chen.
Centr.’ 1897, II. 81-83
(Abs.)

‘Bull. Acad. Belg.’ [3],
Xxxlli. 321-323; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xxi. 651 (Abs.)

‘C. R. cxxiv. 949-951 ;
‘ Beibliitter, xxi. 645-
646 (Abs.)

°C. R, exxiv. 1148-1151.

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxxi. 846-—
920; ‘Proc. Chem. Soc,
xiii. 115-118 (Abs.);
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1897. II.
12, 562 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliit-
ter,’ xxii. 84-85 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xliii. 317-
343.

‘Astrophys. J.’ v. 325-
327; ‘Beibliitter,’ xxii.

98 (Abs.)

8S. Abati =

A. St. C. Dunstan,
M. E. Rice, and
C. A. Kraus.

J. H. Gladstone
and W. Hibbert.

W. Huggins and F.
W. Very.
0. J. Lodge

A. Lumiére and L.
Lumiére.

C. F. Mabery and
E. J. Hudson.

D. W. Murphy

J. S. Ames and
W.J. Humphreys

W. J. Humphreys .

F. L. O. Wadsworth

P. Zeeman. .

N. Egoroff and N.
Géorgiewsky.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1897.

Sul potere rifrangente e dispersivo
del silicio nei suoi composti. (Read
June 12.)

Preliminary Note on the Broaden-
ing of the Sodium Lines by Intense
Magnetic Fields. (June.)

The Molecular Refraction of Dis-
solved Salts and Acids. II. (Read
June 17.)

On the Mode of Printing Maps of
Spectra and Tables of Wayve-
length. (June.)

Further Note on the Influence of a
Magnetic Field on Radiation Fre-
quency. (Read June 3.)

Application de la photographie 4 la

mesure des indices de réfraction. |

(Read June 21.)

Refractive Power of Hydrocarbons
(from Petroleum) and their Chlo-
rine Derivatives. (June.)

Spectral Photometry. (June)

Note on the Effect of Pressure
upon the Series in the Spectrum
of an Element. (June.)

Changes produced by Pressure in
the Wave Frequencies of the Lines
of Emission Spectra of Elements.
(June.)

Tables of the Resolving Power of

Spectroscopes. (June.)

Lignes doubles et triples dans le
spectre, produites sous l’influence
dun champ magnétique extérieur.
(Read June 21.)

Ueber Doublets und Triplets im
Spectrum,verursacht durch iiussere
magnetische Kriifte. I. II. (‘Zit-
tingsversl. Akad. Amsterdam,’
1897, 13-18, 99-102.) (June.)

Sur la polarisation partielle des
radiations lumineuses sous l’influ-
ence du champ magnétique. (Read
July 5.)

487

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxvii.;
Il. 437-455; ‘Chem.
Centr. 1898, I. 437-455.

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [4], iii.
472-474; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xxi. 767 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxi. 822-

833; ‘ Beiblatter, xxi.
966 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
Centr. 1897. II. 459
(Abs.)

* Astrophys. J.’ vi. 55-57.

| «Proc. Roy. Soe.’ lxi. 415-

415; ‘Nature, lvi. 237-
238.

°C. RY” exxiv. 1438-1440:

‘Beiblitter, xxi. 965
(Abs.); ‘Nature, Ivi.

216 (Abs.)

‘Amer. Chem. J.’ xix. 482—
485; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixxii. I. 451-452 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. Centr.’ 1897, II.
259 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ vi. 1-21;

‘Science Abstr. i. 10
(Abs.)
‘Johns Hopkins Univ.

Cire.’ xvi. 41-42; ‘ Phil.
Mag.’ [5], xliv. 119-122 ;
‘Chem. News,’ lxxvi. 21—
22; ‘Beiblitter, xxi.
974-975 (Abs.); ‘Chem.

Centr.’ 1897, II. 524
(Abs.)
‘Johns Hopkins , Univ.

Circe.’ xvi. 43-44; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxii. 219-221
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ vi. 27-36.
°C. RY exxiv. 1444-1445.
‘Phil. Mag. [5], xliv. 55—

60; 255-259; iC. Re
exxiv. 1444-1445; ‘ Bei-

blitter,’ xxi. 765-767
(Abs.)

©C., Rep pexxva gkGeliy
‘Beiblitter, xxi. 899-
900 (Abs.)

488

J, Konigsberger

C.E.Mendenhalland |

F, A. Saunders.

J. H. Pillsbury

J. Larmor

W. Ramsay and M.
W. Travers.

A. Schuster .

W. M. Watts

W. Konig

P.Zeeman .,

A. Cornu ;

W. J. Humphreys .

A. A. Michelson

A, Cotton ,

H. A. Rowland

A. Cotton , 5

W. Ramsay and M.
W. Travers.

REPORT—1898.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1897.

Ueber die Absorption von ultra-
rothen Strahlen in doppelbrechen-
den Krystallen. (July.)

Preliminary Note on the Energy
Spectrum of a Black Body. (July.)

Spectrum Colour Standards. (July.)

The Influence of Pressure on Spec-
tral Lines. (Aug.)

On the Refractivity of Certain Mix-
tures of Gases. (Aug.)

Constitution of the Electric Spark.
(Aug.)

Wave-length Fables of the Spectra
ef the Elements and Compounds.
(Report of Committee.) (Aug.)

Beobachtung
Phinomers.

des

(Sept.)

Doublets and Triplets in the Spec-
trum, produced by External Mag-
netic Forces. (Sept.)

Sur l’observation et l’interprétation |

cinématique des phénoménes dé-
couverts par M. le Dr. Zeeman.
(Read Oct. 18.)

Changes in the Wave Frequencies
of the Lines of Emission Spectra
of Elements; their dependence
upon the elements themselves
and upon the physical conditions

under which they are produced. |

(Oct.)

Optical Radiation in a Maenetic
Field. (Oct.)

Procédé simple pour constater le
changement de période de la lumi-
ére du sodium dans un champ
magnétique. (Read Noy. 29.)

Corrections and Additions to Pro-
fessor H. A. Rowland’s Table of
Solar Spectrum Wave-lengths.
(Nov.)

Sur la polarisation de la lumiére
émise par une flamme de sodium
placée dans un champ magnétique.
(Read Dec. 17.)

On the Refractivities of Air,Oxygen,
Nitrogen, Argon, Hydrogen, and
Helium. (Read Dec. 9.)

Zeeman’schen

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
[N.F.], Ixi. 687-704;
‘Science Abstr.’i. 7(Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xliv. 136 ;
‘ Beiblatter, xxi. 733
(Abs.)

‘Science’ [2], vi. 89-91 ;
‘Beiblatter, xxi. 972
(Abs.)

‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1897,
555-556.

‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1897,
587-588 (Abs.)

‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1897-
550; ‘ Electrician,’ xxxix.
585 (Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’
xxi. 1011 (Abs.)

‘ Brit. Assoc, Report,’ 1897,
75-127.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem
[N.F.], Ixii. 240-248.

‘Phil. Mag. [5], xliv. 55-
60.

°C. RJ exxv. 555-561:
‘Science Abstr.’ 1. 8-9
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J. vi. 169-
232; ‘Science Abstr.’ i.
11-12 (Abs.)

| ‘Astrophys. J.’ vi. 48-54;

‘Science Abstr’ i. 9
(Abs.)

‘C. R.’ cxxv. 865-867.

‘Astrophys. J.’ vi. 324—

392.

°C. BR.’ exxy. 1169-1172.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxii. 225-
232; ‘Chem.Centr.’ 1898,
J. 429-430 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
bliitter,’ xxii. 217 (Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

A. Broca .

B. Dijken

J. Ehlers

O. Kamerlingh

K.R. Koch .

W. Konie .

M. Konowalow

W. A. Kowalewski .

E. Prior. 5

H. Rubens

V. Schumann

E.G. A. ten Siethoft

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1897.

Les variations de période des raies
spectrales (‘Rev. générale des
Sciences,’ viii. 955-939).

Die Molecularrefraction und Dis-

persion einiger wasserigen Salz-
lédsungen in Zusammenhang mit
der Dissociation. (Inaug. Dissert.
Groningen, 1897, 67 pp.)

Die Absorption des Lichtes in eini- |
gen pleochroitischen Krystallen. |

(Inaug. Diss. Géttingen.) (‘ Neues
Jahrb. f. Min. u. Geol.’ (Beilage),
xi. 259-317.

Een Brief van Prof. E, van Aubel
betrekking hebbende op de proeven
van den Heer Ch. Fiévez over de
werking van het magnetisme op
den aard der Spectra (‘Zittings-
versl, Akad. Amsterdam,’ v. 356-
359).

Ueber das Verhalten der Dielectri-
citiitsconstante und des Brech-
ungsexponenten im magneti-
schen Felde.

Einfache Demonstration des Zee-
man’schen Phiinomens.

Données concernant le pouvoir
réfringeant des combinaisons azo-
tées.

Sur le volume atomique et la ré-
fraction atomique des chlorures
des acides alkyle-phosphoreux.

Ueber H. Tornée’s spectrometrisch-
ariiometrischen Bieranalyse mit
Hilfe des Differentialprisms
von W. Hallwachs (‘ Forsch. Ber.
tiber Lebensm. u. ihre Bez. z. Hyg,’
iv. 304.)

Ueber Wirmestrahlen von grosser
Wellenliinge. (‘ Verhandl. Ges.
Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte,’ 1i. 54—
56).

Von den brechbarsten Strahlen und
ihrer Photographiren-Aufnahme.

Verklaring van het doer Dr. P. Zee-
man gevonden lichtverschijnsel in
het oog (*Zittingsversl. Akad.,
Amsterdam,’ v. 351-355),

|

489

‘Beiblitter, xxii. [29]
(title).

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.” xxiv. 81-113;

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1897, I.
383 — 384 (Abs.); ‘ Bei-
blitter,” xxi. 333, 970-
971 (Abs.)

‘ Beiblatter, xxii. 157-159
(Abs.)

‘Beiblitter,. xxi. [89]
(title).
‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

[N.F.], Ixiii, 132-136.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxiii. 268 — 272;
‘ Nature,’ lyii. 402 (Abs.)

‘J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc.’
xXXvii.412-421 ; ‘ Zeitschr.
f, physikal. Chem.’ xxiii.
553-554; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xxi. 966-968 (Abs.)

‘J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc.’
xxix. 217-222; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1897, IL. 3338-334 ;
‘ Beibliitter,’ xxi, 968-
969 (Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1898, I.
138.

‘ Beibliitter,’
(title).

xX.

[85}

‘Jahrbuch f. Photog.’ xi,
24-25.

‘Beibliitter,’
(title).

xe

[39]

490

REPORT—1898.

PHYSICAL RELATIONS, 1897—FLUORESCENCE, 1887, 1895.

J. Stscheglajew

H. T. Simon .

C. Soret, A. Borel,
and E. Dumont.

F. Swartz . c

H. Torné6e .

inh (ERM Oy
worth.

Wads-

G. Weiss » «

P. Zeeman . c

” ‘

Z. P. Bouman .

K. Noack : F

M. Berthelot .

Dispersion anomale dans les solu-
tions de fuchsine.

Ueber ein neues photographischen
Photometrirverfahren, und seine
Anwendung auf die Photometrie

des ultravioletten Spectralge-
bietes.
Ueber die Brechungsindices der

blauen und griinen Lésungen von
Chromalaunen (‘Arch. de Ge-
néve,’ 1897, iv. 376-381).

Ueber den Atomrefractionsindex
des Fluors’ (‘ Bull. Akad. Belg.’
[3], xxxiv. 293-307).

Spectrometrisch - ardometrische
Bieranalyse (‘ Pharm. Centr.-H.’
XXxvili. 871-873).

Sur le pouvoir séparateur des lu-
ettes et des spectroscopes pour les
raies de largeur finie.

Mesure des indices de réfraction

Ueber Doublets und Triplets im
Spectrum, verursacht durch dus-
sere magnetische Krifte. — III.
(‘ Zittingsversl. Vet. Akad. Amster-
dam,’ 1897, 260-262.)

Measurements concerning Radia-
tion Phenomena in the Magnetic
Field. . (‘ Zittingsversl. Vet.
Akad. Amsterdam, 1897, 408-411).

Emission und Absorption von Quarz
und Glas bei verschiedenen Tem-
peraturen. (Inaug. Dissert. Am-
sterdam, 1897, 91 pp.)

Vv.
FLUORESCENCE.
1887.
Verzeichniss fluorescirender Sub-
stanzen, nach der Farbe des Fluo-
rescenzlichtes mit Literatur-
nachweisen (‘Schriften d. Na-
turf.-Gesellsch. Marburg,’ xii. 155
Ppp.)

1895.
Observations sur Yargon; spectre
de fluorescence. (Read April 16.)

‘J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc.’
xxviii. II. 41-55; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xxi. 409 (Abs.)

‘ Jahrb. f. Photogy.’ xi. 38-
55.

‘ Beiblitter,’
(Abs.)

x1,” Saffoll

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1897, II.
1042-1044 (Abs.) ; ‘ Bei-

blatter,’ xxii. 150-151
(Abs.)

‘Chem. Centr. 1898, I.
270-271.

| «J. de Phys, [3], vi. 409-

425.

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], vi. 681 -
690.
167

‘Beiblitter’ xxii.

(Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag,’ [5], xlv. 197—
442; ‘Beibliatter, xxii.
167 (Abs.)

‘ Zittingsversl. Akad, Am-
sterdam,’ 1896-7, 438-
422; ‘Beibliitter,’ xxi.
589 (Abs.)

‘Beiblatter, xii. 86
(Notice).

“GR. oCxx, ae e00r
‘ Ber.’ xxviii. (Ref.), 409-
410 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xix. 567 (Abs.); £J.Chem.
Soc.’ Ixviii. II. 337-338
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxi. 212-213; ‘ Nature,’
li. 622 (Abs.)

a a
id

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

A91

FLUORESCENCE, 1895, 1897--ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1891, 1892.

_ MM. Berthelot .

E. Dorn and H.
Erdmann.

E. Wiedemann and
G. C. Schmidt.

» ” .

H. Krone -

C. Dunér .

A. M, Clerke. ~

Nouvelles études sur la fluores-
cence de l’argon, et sur sa combin-
aison avec les éléments de la
benzine. (Read June 24.)

Ueber das von Berthelot beschrie-
bene Fluorescenzspectrum des
Argons. (July.)

Ueber Luminescenz von festen
K6rpern und festen Lésungen.
(Oct.)

Fluorescenz des Natrium- und Ka-

lium - Dampfes, und Bedeutung
dieser Thatsache fiir die Astro-
physik. (Read Nov. 12.)

Fluorescenz und Verbindungs-
spectra organischer Dampfe.

1897.

Ueber das

des Natriums. (Read Feb. 5.)

Absorption des Lichtes, Fluor-

escenz, Phosphorescenz.

WD,

Fluorescenzspectrum |

| *C. RY? exx. 1386-7390 ;
| ‘Ber,’ xxviii. (Ref.), 1046
| (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xix.
| 826-827 (Abs.) ; ‘Chem.
News, Ixxii. 13-14; ‘J.
| Chem. Soc.’ lxviii. IT.
| 498-499 (Abs.); ‘Proc.
Phys. Soc’ xiii, 361
(Abs.); ‘ Nature, lii. 239
(Abs.), 255-256.

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
ceclxxxvii. 230 — 232;
‘Ber.’ xxviii. (Ref.), 725
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xix.
731 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixx. II. 2 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxii. 78
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
{N.F.], lvi. 201 — 254;
© Nature,’ lili. 94 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. phys. med.
Soc. Erlangen,’ xxvii.
164-109; ‘Nature,’ liii.
250-251 (Abs.); ‘Ann.
Phys. u. Chem.’ [N.F.]
lvii. 447-453 ; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixx. II. 346 (Abs.) ;
‘ Astrophys. J. ili. 207—
212.)

‘ Jahrb. f. Photogr.’ x. 14—

15.

‘Verhandl. phys. Gesellsch.
Berlin,’ xvi. 37-40; ‘ Bei-
blatter, xxi. 417 — 418
(Abs.)

‘ Jahrb, f. Photogr,’ xi, 81-
87.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS.

1891.

Untersuchungen tiber die Rotation
der Sonne. (Read Feb. 14.)

1892,

The New Starin Auriga. (April.)

‘Acta Soc. Sci. Upsala’

ls], xiv. “IE78; |° Ber
blatter, xvi. 430 — 431
(Abs.)

‘Contemporary Review,’

April 1892 ; ‘ Astron. and
Astrophys.’ xi. 503-513;
‘Beiblitter, xvii. 207-
208 (Abs.)

492

G.E. Hale .

M. von Konkoly

G. E. Hale

»”

E. von Gothard

E. C. Pickering

W. W. Campbell

G. E. Hale

W. W. Campbell

W. Sidgreaves

H.C. Vogel .

W. W. Campbell

J. E. Keeler .

H. C. Vogel .

REPORT—1898.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1892, 1893.

Solar Photography at the Ken-
wood Astrophysical Observatory.
(May.)

Spectroscopische Beobachtungen
an der Sternwarte von O’Gyalla in
Ungarn. (Read June 20.)

The Ultra-violet Spectrum of the
Solar Prominences. (Aug.)

A Remarkable Solar Disturbance.
(Aug.)

. | Photographs of Solar Phenomena

obtained with the Spectro-helio-
graph at the Kenwood Observa-
tory. (Aug.)

Das Spectrum des neuen Sternes in
Auriga in Vergieich mit demjeni-
gen einiger planetarischen Ne-
bel. (Read Oct. 17.)

Report of the Harvard College
Observatory. (Oct.)

The Spectrum of Nova Aurige
in February and March 1892.
(Noy.)

Some Results and Conclusions de-
rived from a Photographic Study
of the Sun. (Nov.)

The Motion of
(Noy.)

Nova Aurigze.

Note on the Revival of Nova Au-
rige. (Dec.)

Untersuchung iiber die LHigen-
bewegung der Sterne im Visions-
radius auf spectrographischen
Wege.

1893.

of Holmes’s and
(Jan.)

The Spectra
Brookes’s Comets.

Holmes’s Comet.

(March.)

Spectrum of
(1892, III.)

Ueber den neuen Stern im Fuhr-
mann. (Read March 16.)

| ‘ Astron. and Astrophys.’ xi.

407-417, 603-604; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xvii. 752 — 753
(Abs.)

‘Math. u. Naturwiss. Ber.
aus Ungarn,’ x. 240-245.

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xi. 602 ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xvii.
126 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys,’
xi. 611-613 ; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xvii. 126 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.
xi. 603-604 ; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xvii. 126 (Abs.)

‘Math. u. Naturwiss. Ber.
aus Ungarn,’ x. 246-249 ;
‘Beiblatter, xviii. 101-
102 (Abs.)

‘Nature, xlvii. 403-404
(Abs.) ‘

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xi. 799-811; ‘Nature,’
xlvii. 133 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xi. 811-815; ‘Chem.
News,’ Ixvii. 4-5 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblitter, xvil. 753

(Abs.)
‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xi. 881-882; ‘Nature,

xlvii. 256 (Abs.)

‘ Astron. and Astrophys.’
xi. 882-885; ‘Nature,
xlvii. 256 (Abs.)

‘Publ. d. Astrophys. Obs.
Potsdam, vii. I. Theil,

No. 23, 1-166;. ‘ Bei-
blatter, xvii. 128-129
(Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 57; ‘ Nature,’ xlvii.
235.

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 272-273; ‘Nature,’
xlvii. 578 (Abs.)

‘Abhandl. Akad. Berlin,’

1893, 60 pp.; ‘Bei-
blatter, xvii. 932-933
(Abs.)

OE a

de ak

Fes ee.

J. &. Keeler .

'

A. Belopolsky

H. Deslandres

M. Fleming .

O. Knopf

A. D. Risteen

G. Miller

W. W. Campbell

J. i. Keeler .

”

i. C. Pickering

W. 8.58. Monck

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

493

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1893.

Visual Observations of the Spec-
trum of 8 Lyre. (April.)

Le spectre de létoile variable B
Lyre. (Read May 12.)

Spectrum der ‘ Nova Aurigie,’ 1892,

beobachtet in Pulkowa. (May.)

Sur la recherche de la couronne
solaire en dehors des éclipses

totales. (Read May 23.)
Stars having Peculiar Spectra. |
(June.)

Die Schmidt’scheSonnentheorie und
ihre Anwendung auf die Methode
der spectroscopischen Bestim-
mung der Rotationsdauer der
Sonne. (Habilitationschrift, June
1893, 44 pp.)

The Sun’s Motion through Space.
(June.)

Photometrische und spectroscop-
ische Beobachtungen auf dem
Gipfel des Santis. (Publications
des Astrophys.Observ. zu Potsdam,
viii. I. 5.) (July.)

The Spectrum of the Rordame-
Quénisset Comet. (Aug.)

The Spectrum of Comet 2 1893. |

(Aug.)
The Nature of the Spectrum of
Nova Aurigeze. (Aug.)

Wave-lengths of the Two Brightest
Lines in the Spectrum of the
Nebule. (Aug.)

Observations of Comet & 1893.
(Aug.)

The Constitution of the Stars. (Oct.)

The Spectra and Proper Motion of
Stars. (Nov.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 350-361; ‘ Bei-
blitter, xviii. 100-101
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ xlvii.
616 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Acad. St. Peters-
burg’ [4], xxxvi. 163-195.

‘Bull. Acad. St. Peters-
burg’ [4], xxxv. 399-420 ;
‘Nature,’ xlix. 23 (Abs.)

‘C. RB. cxvi. 1184-1187;
‘Beiblitter, xviii. 672
(Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 170, 546-547, 810-811.

* Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxiv. 105—
120; ‘Beiblitter, xvii.
930-931 (Abs.)

|*Astron, J, xiii. 74-75;

‘Nature,’ xlviii. 208-209
(Abs.)_
‘Naturwiss. Rundschau,’
vili. 325-327.

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxiii. 150-
152; ‘Nature, xlviii.
379 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xviii. 766 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii, 652-653.

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 722-730; < Astr!
Nachr.’ cxxxiii. 337-343 ;

. ‘Nature,’ xlvili. 524(Abs.)

‘ Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 733-736 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xviii. 566 (Abs.) ; ‘Nature,’
xlix. 18 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 650-651; ‘ Nature,’
xlviii. 401 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 718-722; ‘Bei-
bliitter,’ xvili. 673 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 811-812.

494.

E. C. Pickering

EPs

J. Wilsing .

C. A. Young.

W. W. Campbell

H. Deslandres

T, E. Espin

A. Belopolsky

E. Gothara

¥F. Kriiger

T, E. Espin..
A. Belopolsky
W. W. Campbell

H, Deslandres

J. Fényi .

H. Kayser’ .

’

REPORT—1898.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1893, 1894.

A New Star in Norma. (Noyv.)

The Spectrum of
(Nov.)

Ueber die Bestimmung von Bahn-
elementen einiger Doppelsterne
aus spectroscopischen Messungen
der Geschwindigkeitscompon-
enten. (Nov.)

Note on the Chromosphere Spec-
trum. (Oct.)

Hydrogen Envelope of the Star D.M.
+30° 36’ 39”. (Dec.)

Sur Ja recherche de la partie de
Yatmosphére coronale du soleil
projetée sur la disque. (Read
Dec. 26.)

Stars with Remarkable Spectra.
(Dec.)

Les changements dans le spectre
du B Lyre.

Studien tiber das photographische
Spectrum der planetarischen
Nebel und des neuen Sterns.

Catalog der farbigen Sterne zwi-
schen dem Nordpol und 23 Grad
stidlicher Declination, mit beson-
derer Beriicksichtigung des Spec-
traltypens.

1894.

|
|

Nova Norme. |

Report of the Wolsingham Obser- |

vatory. (Jan.)

On the Motion of ¢ Herculis in the
Line of Sight. (Feb.)

Spectrum of Nova Norme. (Tele-
gram received at Kiel, Feb. 15.)

Recherches spectrales sur la rota-
tion et les mouvements des pla-
nétes. (Read Feb. 25.)

On Two Great Protuberances.

(Feb.)

Ueber den Einfluss der Spalten-
weite auf das Aussehen der
Kometenspectra, (March.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxiv. 101-
102; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xviii.
768 (Abs.); ‘ Astron. and
Astrophys.’ xiii. 40-41 ;
‘Nature,’ xlix. 300 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxiv. 101-
102; ‘Nature,’ xlix. 162-
163 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxiv. 89_-
92; ‘Beiblatter, xviii.
673 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xlv. 28; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xvii. 830 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xii. 913-914; ‘ Nature,’
xlix. 210 (Abs.)

°C. RY cxvii. 1053-1056 ;
‘Beiblatter, xviii. 563
(Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ exxxiv. 123-—
128; ‘ Nature,’ xlix, 183-
184 (Abs.)

‘Mem. spettr. ital.’ xxii.
101-111; ‘ Nature,’ xlviii.
301 (Abs.)

‘Mem. spettvr. ital.’ xxi.169-
173; ‘ Beiblatter, xvii.
754 (Abs.)

‘Publications d. Stern-
warte in Kiel,’ viii. 145
pp.; Beiblatter,’ xviii.
98 (Notice).

‘Nature,’ xlix. 300 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xiii. 130-136.

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxv. 311-
312; ‘Nature,’ xlix. 397.

°C. RR’ exx. 417-425;
‘ Beiblitter, xx. 35
(Abs.); ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.’
xiii. 165 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
li. 422 (Abs.)

‘ Astron. and Astrophys.’
xiii. 122-128; ‘ Beibliit-
ter,’ xix. 173 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxv.
1-10; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xviii.
766-767 (Abs.)

:

W. H. Pickering
W. W. Campbell

H, Deslandres

E. C. Pickering

H.C. Vogel .

M. Fleming .

A. Fowler .
E. H. Hills .

H. Kayser .

J. N. Lockyer

E. C. Pickering

W. W. Campbell

”

T. E. Espin .
M. Fleming .

J. E. Keeler ,

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 49:

we

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1894.

A Study of Nova Aurigz and Nova
Norme. (March.)

Observations of the New Star in
Norma. (April.)

Photographie de la chromosphere
solaire. (Read April 16.)

New Variable Stars in Sculptor,
Scorpio, Ophiuchus, and Aquila.
(April.)

Bemerkungen zu der Abhandlung
des Herrn Prof. H. Kayser
‘Ueber den Einfluss der Spalten-
weite auf das Aussehen der
Kometenspectra.’ (April.)
Stars having Peculiar Spectra.
(May.)

Gale’s Comet. (May) . .

The Total Solar Eclipse of April
16, 1893. Report on Results ob-
tained with the Slit Spectroscope.
(Received March 7. Read May 10.)

Ueber den Hinfluss der Spaltweite
auf das Aussehen der Kometen-
spectra. (May.)

Preliminary Report on the Results
obtained with the Prismatic
Camera during the Total Solar
Eclipse of April 16, 1893. (Read
May 10.)

The New Star in Norma. (May) .

The Wolf-Rayet Stars. (June)

Spectra of the Great Nebula of:

Orion and other well-known

Nebule. (June.)

Catalogue of Stars with Remark-
able Spectra. (June.)

Stars having Peculiar Spectra.
(June.)

The Spectra of the Orion Nebula
and of the Orion Stars. (June.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xiii. 201-204; ‘ Bei-
bliitter,’ xix. 175 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxy. 131—
132; ‘ Nature,’ xlix. 586
(Abs.)

°C. RY exviii. 842-844,

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxv. 161—
164; ‘Nature,’ xlix. 6(S
(Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxv. 105—
108; ‘ Beiblatter, xviii.
766-767 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxv.195
198; ‘Nature’ 1. 3
(Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ 1. 36-37,

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvi. 20-
26:5. ‘Nature? 7) 236
(Abs.)

fi

Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxv. 221—
224; ‘Nature,’ xlix. 489
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvi. 7-S
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ 914
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ 1. 118_
119 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xiii, 398; ‘ Beiblatter,
xix. 68 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xiii. 448-476; ‘Nature,’
1.181 (Abs.) ; ‘Beibliitter,’
xix. 67-68 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xiii, 384-398, 494-501 ;
‘Nature,’ 1. 254 (Abs.);
‘Beiblatter, xix. 68
(Abs.)

* Astr. Nachr,’ cxxxy. 265—
274.

‘Astron. and Astrophys.”
xiii. 501-503.

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xiii. 476-493; ‘Nature,’
1, 254 (Abs.); ‘Bei-
blatter,’ xix. 68 (Abs.)

LOG

J. N. Lockyer

” *,

I’, Renz .

EK. Demargay .

H. Deslandres

J. Evershed .

R. Lehman-Filhés .

H. Deslandres

W. Huggins . :

J.i. Keeler .

H. C. Vogel
A. Berberich .

J. &. Keeler and J.
Scheiner.

A. Belopolsky

A. Fowler .

REPORT—1598.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1894.

On the Photographic Spectrum of
the Great Nebula in Orion. (Read
June 21.)

Preliminary Note on the Spectrum
Changes in 8 Lyra. (Read June
21.)

Beobachtungen der Nova

Aurige. (June.)

(T)

Sur la simplicité du samarium.
(Read July 23.)

Images spéciales du soleil données
par les rayons simples, qui corre-
spondent aux raies noires du
spectre solaire. (Read July 9.)

The Corona Spectrum. (July)

Ueber die Bestimmung einer Dop-
pelsternbahn aus spectroscopischen
Messungen den im Visionsradius
liegenden Geschwindigkeitscom-
ponenten. (July.)

Recherches sur les mouvements
de latmosphére_ solaire. (Read
Aug. 27.)

Note on the Spectrum of the Great
Nebula in Orion. (Aug.)

The Magnesium Spectrum as an
Index to the Temperature of the
Stars. (Aug.)

On the Spectrum of 8 Lyre. (Aug.)

Neue Untersuchungen iiber Nebel-

spectra. (Sept.)
J.inien im unteren roth-gelb-griinen
Theile des Spectrums yon 8

Orionis (Rigel.) (Sept.)

Etude sur le spectre de létoile
variable 5 Cephei. (Read Oct. 12.)

Das Spectrum von 6 Cephei. (Oct.)

Mira Ceti. (Nov.) . 7 ;

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvi. 285—
286 (Abs.); ‘ Astron. and
Astrophys.’ xiii. 574-575
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvi. 278—
285; ‘Astron. and As-
trophys.’ xiii. 575-581.

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxyv. 389-

394; ‘Nature,’ 1. 254
(Abs.)
‘¢@. RR. cxix. “163-164:
‘ Beibliitter, xviii. 619
(Abs.)
“Co Re Cxises d4S=ible-

‘Chem. News,’ Ixx. 71-

(Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ 1. 307-
308 (Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’
xix. 67 (Abs.)

‘Nature, xlvili. 268;
‘Beiblitter, xviii. 563
(Abs.)

* Astr. Nachr.’ exxxvi. 17-
30. .

°C. BR.’ cxix. 457-460
‘ Beibliitter, xix. 333

(Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ 1. 468
(Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xiii. 568-569.

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxvi. 77—
80; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xix. 60
(Abs.). ‘* Nature,’ 1. 364—
365 (Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xiii. 561-568.

‘Naturw. Rundschav,’ ix.
477-479.

‘Naturw. Rundschau,’ ix.
476 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Acad. St. Peters-
burg’ [5], i. 267-306;
‘ Nature,’ li. 282 (Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ exxxvi. 281—
284; ‘Astrophys. J.’ i.
160-161; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xx. 40 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
li. 21 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ li. 40.

we ee ee ee

eit « Py

i etsde a).

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

J. N. Lockyer

A. Belopolsky

H, Deslandres

J. N. Lockyer

E. C. Pickering

A. Belopolsky

A. Cornu 2

A. A. Michelson

E. C. Pickering

W. W. Campbell

H, C. Vogel

H Poincaré .

J. Fényi F

The Sun’s Place in Nature. (A
course of lectures to working men,
delivered in the Museum of
Practical Geology, Nov.—Dec.)

Observations of Sun-spot Spectra,
1879-94. (Read Noy. 22.)

Hin Project zur Reproduction der
Verschiebung von Spectrallinien
bewegter Lichtquellen. (Dec.)

Sur la vitesse radiale de ¢ Her-
culis. (Read Dec. 31.)

On the Photographic Spectrum of
y Cassiopeiz. (Read Dec. 13.)

Stars having Peculiar
(Dec.)

Spectra.

Sur le renversement de la raie D,
du spectre solaire.

Spectroscopie solaire , :

On the Conditions which Affect
the Spectro-photography of the

Sun. (Jan.)

Discovery of Variable Stars by
their Photographic Spectra,
(Jan.)

1895.

Recent Changes in the Spectrum
of Nova Aurigs. (Jan.)

Neuere Untersuchungen tiber die
Spectra der Planeten. I. Il. (Read
Jan. 17.)

Observations au sujet de la com-
munication précédente de M.
Deslandres. (Read Feb. 25.)

A Very Large Solar Protuberance
Observed on Dec, 24, 1894.
(March.)

497

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1894, 1895.

‘Nature,’ li. 374-377, 396—
399, 565-569, 590-592;
lii. 12-14, 156-158, 204-—
207, 253-255, 327-329,
422-495, 446-450.

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ lvii. 199-
201; ‘Nature, li. 448-
449; ‘ Beiblitter, xx. 33
(Abs.)

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxvii. 34-
36; ‘ Nature,’ li. 233-234
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xix.
418-419 (Abs.)

"0. Re: exix:, 1252-1254;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xix. 431-432
(Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ li. 260
(Abs. )

‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvii. 173-

177; *Nature; It. 425
(Abs.)
‘Astr. Nachr. cxxxvii.

71-74; ‘Nature, li. 304
(Abs.)

‘Mem. spettr. ital” xxiii.
89-93; ‘Naturw. Rund-
schau,’ ix. 55 (Abs.);
‘Beiblatter,> xix. 422-

23 (Abs.)

‘Annuaire du Bureau des
Longitudes,’ 1894, 169-
172; ‘ Nature,’ xlix. 397
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J. i. 1-95.
‘ Beibliitter, xix. 428
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ i. 27-28;
‘Beiblatter, xix. 431
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ i. 49-51;
‘Beiblatter, xix. 432
(Abs.); ‘ Nature,’ li. 347
(Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1895, 5-25; ‘ Astrophys.
J. i. 196-209, 273-284 ;
‘ Beiblitter, xix. 429
(Abs.); ‘Proc. Phys. Soe.’
xiii. 261-262 (Abs.)

“C@)- R2 cxxa) 420242
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii.
166 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ i. 212-215;
‘ Beiblitter,’ xx. 33 (Abs.)

KK

498

W. Iluggins .

H. Deslandres

L. E. Jewell .

Hf. Deslandres

T. EK. Espin .

M. Fleming

J. E. Keeler .

A. Orbinsky .

W. W. Campbell

W. Huggins

J. E. Keeler .

J. N. Lockyer

Hi. Seeliger .

REPORT—1898.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1895.

Note on the Atmospheric Bands
in the Spectrum of Mars.
(March.)

Rayonnement ultraviolet de la
couronne solaire pendant l’éclipse

totale du 16 avril 1893. (Read
April 1.)
The Spectrum of Mars. (April)

Recherches spectrales sur les
anneaux de Saturne. (Read May
27.)

Comparaison entre les spectres du
gaz de la clévéite et de l’atmo-
sphere solaire. (Read May 20.)

Stars with
(May.)

Remarkable Spectra.

Stars having Peculiar Spectra.
Eleven New Variable Stars.
(May.)

A Spectroscopic Proof of the
Meteoric Constitution of Saturn’s
Rings. (May.)

Nouvelle méthode de détermina-

tion des vitesses radiales des
étoiles. (May.)

A Review of the Spectroscopic
Observations of Mars. (June.)

Solar and Terrestrial Helium.

(June.)

Conditions Affecting the Form of
Lines in the Spectrum of Saturn.
(June.)

Spectrum of the Orion Nebula.
(Read June 21.)

Bemerkung tiber die Rotation des
Saturnringes. (June.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ i. 193-
195; ‘ Beibliatter,’ xx. 36
(Abs.)

‘C. R, exx. 707-710; ‘ Bei-
blitter,” xx. 33 (Abs.) ;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii.
222 (Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ li.
576 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J. i. 311-
317; ‘Beiblatter, xx. 36
(Abs.); ‘Nature,’ lii. 37
(Abs.)

© OP RY *exx, lbb=10bs:
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii.
308-309 (Abs.) ; ‘Nature,’
lii. 144 (Abs.)

‘C. RR. cxx. 1112-1114;
‘Beiblitter, xix. 568
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxil. 14-15; ‘ Proc. Phys.
Soc. xiii. 3871 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xviii. II.
431 (Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ lii.

120 (Abs.) .
‘Astr. Nachr’ cxxxvii.
369-376; ‘Nature,’ lii.

86 (Abs.)
‘ Astrophys. J.’ i. 411-415.

‘ Astrophys. J. i. 416-427;
‘Beiblatter,” xx. 38

(Abs.); | ‘ Nature,’ lii.
164-165 (Abs.)
‘Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxvili.

9-12; ‘ Nature, lil. 155
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xx.
202 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ il. 28-44;
‘Beiblatter, xx. 37
(Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxi. 283 ;
‘ Beiblatter,’ xix. 634-
635 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ ii. 63-68 ;
‘Beiblitter, xx. 200
(Abs.)

* Phil. Trans.” clxxxvi. A,
73-91 ; ‘ Nature,’ li. 471—
472 (Abs.)

¢Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxviii.

99-102; Beibliitter, xx.
38 (Abs.)

ee

_-

els Hales j.i .

W. Huggins . 4

J.Janssen .

:
J

DW. W. Campbell

F. Kriiger
W.W. Campbell .

” a

|

C. Runge and F.
Paschen.

| A. Belopolsky 2

‘

W. W. Campbell

eblemine ., .

=
J.E. Keeler . ‘

€

J. N. Lockyer 5

H.C. Vogel .

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

499

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1895.

Preliminary Note on the D, Line
in the Spectrum of the Chromo-
sphere. (July.)

On the Duplicity of the Sclar Line
D,. (QJuly.)

Sur la présence de la vapeur d'eau
dans latmosphére de la planéte
Mars. (Read July 29.)

A Spectrographic Determination
of Velocities in the System of

Saturn. (Aug.)
The Spectrum of Mars. (Aug.) .
Spectroscopic Observations of

Coloured Stars. (Aug.)
Observations of the B Band in
Stellar Spectra. (Sept.)

The Visible Spectrum of the Trifid
Nebula. (Sept.)

Helium and the Spectrum of Nova
Aurigz. (Sept.)

Spectrographische Untersuchungen
des Saturnringes. (Oct.)

Stars whose Spectra contain
Bright and Dark Hydrogen Lines.
(Oct.)

Some New Variable Stars. (Oct.)

A New Star in the Constellation
Carina. (Oct.)

Note on the Rotation of Saturn’s
Rings. (Oct.)

Photographies des spectres des

étoiles. (Read Oct. 21.)

Ueber das Vorkommen der Linien
des Cléveitgas-Spectrums in den
Sternspectren, und iiber die Classi-
fication der Sterne vom ersten
Spectraltypus. (Read Oct. 24.)

‘Astr. Nachr,
227-230; ‘Nature,’ lii.
327 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xx. 198 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr. exxxviii.
229-230; ‘ Beibliitter,
xx, 198 (Abs.)

(CAGhS VOxxin 238=03/ne
‘Beiblitter” xx. 36
(Abs.) ; *Proé. Phys. Soc.’
xili, 376 (Abs.); ‘Na-
ture,’ lii. 514 (Abs.)

127—
EK

‘Astrophys. J.’ ii.
135; ‘ Beiblitter,’
201-202 (Abs.)

‘Publications of the As-
tronomical Society of the
Pacific, vi. No. 27, 228~
236; ‘Nature, li. 132
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ ii. 148-159.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ ii. 163.

‘ Astrophys. J,’ ii. 161-162.

‘Nature, lii. 544.

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxix. 1-4,
210-214.

‘ Astrophys.J.’ ii. 177-183;
‘Nature,’ liii. 15 (Abs.) ;
‘ Beiblitter, xx. 3872-
373 (Abs.)

olo

‘Astrophys. J.. ii. 198-201.

‘Harvard Coll. Observ.
Cire. No. 1 (Oct. 30);
‘ Nature,’ liii. 63 (Abs.)

| ‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxix. 5-6;

‘Nature,’ lii. 655 (Abs.) ;
‘Beiblitter, xx. 370 (Abs.)

°C. BR.’ cxxi. 546; ‘Na-
ture,’ lii. 660 (Abs.)

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
xl. 947-958 ; ‘ Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiv. 161-164 (Abs.);
‘ Beiblitter, xx. 372
(Abs.); ‘Astrophys. J.
ii. 333-346; ‘ Nature,’
liii. 448-449 (Abs.)

KK2

CXXXViii. ',

+

500

REPORT—1898.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1895, 1896.

A. Belopolsky

H. Deslandres

C.B. Frost .

J. N. Lockyer

A. W. Roberts

H. Deslandres

M. Fleming

G. E. Hale

E. C. Pickering

H. Deslandres

A. Brester .

A. Belopolsky

G.E. Hale .

L. E. Jewell, J. F.
Mohler, and W.
J. Humphreys.

J. Fényi F

‘

Recherches sur les déplacements
des raies dans le spectre de Saturn
et de son anneau. (In Russian.)
(Nov.)

Recherches spectrales sur l’étoile Al-
tair. Reconnaissance d’un mouve-
ment orbital et dune atmosphere.
(Read Noy. 4.)

Note on a Differential Method of
Determining the Velocity of
Stars in the Line of Sight. (Nov.)

On the Variable Stars of the 6
Cephei Class. (Read Nov. 21.)

Short Period Variability. (Noy.) .

A Method of Investigating the
Velocity of Stars in the Line of
Sight with Small Instruments.
(Read Dec. 13.)

Stars having Peculiar

(Dec.)
A New Star in Centaurus.

Spectra.

(Dec.)

On the Wave-length of the D,
Line in the Spectrum of the
Chromosphere. (Dec.)

A New Star in Carina. (Dec.)

Spectroscopie astronomique .

1896.

The Variability of Red Stars.
(Jan.)

Observations des raies renversées
dans le spectre des protubérances,
faites 4 Poulkova. (Feb.)

Notes on the Application of Messrs.
Jewell, Humphreys, and Mohleyr’s
Results to Certain Problems of
Astrophysics. (Feb.)

Note on the Presence of the ‘ Re-
versing Layer’ in the Solar At-
mosphere. (Feb.)

On Two Solar Protuberances, ob-
served July 15 and Sept. 30, 1895.
(March. )

‘Bull. Acad. St. Peters-
burg’ [5], iii. 379-408 ;

‘Beiblitter, xx. 370
(Abs.)
‘C. R? cxxi. 629-632;

‘Chem. News,’ lxxii. 269
(Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ liii. 38
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ xx.
372 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ li. 235-236;
‘ Beiblitter, xx. 371
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.” lix. 101-
106; ‘Nature,’ lili. 262-
263 ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xx. 700
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ ii. 283-292;

‘Nature,’ lili, 162-163
(Abs.)
‘The Observatory, xix.

49-52; ‘ Nature, liii. 255-
256 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J. ii. 354—
359. ;
‘Harvard Coll. Observ.

Cire.’ No. 4 (Dec. 20);
‘Nature,’ liii. 256.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ ii, 384-385.

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxix. 119_-
120; ‘Beiblatter,’ xxi.
345 (Abs.)

‘Report of the Paris Ob-
servatory,” 1895, 22-23;
‘Nature, liv. 162 (Abs.)

‘Knowledge,’ xviii. 251-
253; ‘Nature,’ lili. 248—
249.

‘Mem. spettr. ital.’ xxv.
23-26.

‘Astrophys. J. ii. 156—

161.

‘Astrophys. J. ii. 138=
140; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xx. 527
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ iii.
200.

192-

_-

———

a ee ee eee ee

z

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

E. C. Pickering

H.C. Vogel .

L. E. Jewell .

:
J. N. Lockyer

Th, Arendt .

F. Maclean .

J. Trowbridge

J. N. Lockyer
E. C. Pickering

W. W. Campbell

H. Deslandres

L. E: Jewell .

BE. C. Pickering

”

J. E. Keeler .

M. Fleming .

| The

501

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1896.

Algol Variable, B.D.+17°
4367. (March.)

Ueber das Spectrum von Mira Ceti.
(Read March 26.)

The Spectrum of Mars. (April)

The Total Eclipse of the Sun,
April 16, 1893. (Read April 30.)

Die Schwankungen im Wasser-

dampfgehalte der Atmosphire
auf Grund — spectroscopischer |
Untersuchungen. (May.)

Photographs of the Spectra of
Twenty-three Helium Stars; also
Photographs of the Spectra of Six
Stars of the 3rd Magnitude, show-
ing the Transition from Type to
Type. (Read May 8.)

Carbon and Oxygen in the Sun.
(May.)

On the Unknown Lines observed |

in the Spectra of many Minerals.
(Read June 4.)

Ten New Variable Stars.

Observations of

(July.)

Observations of the Total Solar
Kclipse of April 16, 1893. (Report.)
(July.)

On Mr. Jewell’s
the Spectrum of Mars.

Researches on the Solar Rotation. |

(Aug.)

Stars having
(Aug.)

A New Spectroscopic Binary, py,
Scorpii. (Aug.)

Peculiar Spectra.

The Detection of the Lines of
Water Vapour in the Spectrum
of a Planet. (Sept.)

Stars having Peculiar Spectra.
New Variable Stars in Crux and
Cygnus. (Nov.)

(June.) |

| ‘Astrophys. J.’ iii.

‘ Astrophys, J.’ iii. 200.

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.’
1896, 395-399; ‘Proc.
eae Soc.’ xiv. (Abs.)
233-234; ‘ Beibliitter,’
xxi, 345 (Abs.); ‘Na-
ture,’ liii. 612 (Abs.)

255—
258; ‘Beibliitter,’ xxi.

342 (Abs.)

‘Proe. Roy. Soc.’ lx. 17-
19 (Abs.) ; ‘ Nature,’ liv.
46 (Abs.)

‘Ann.Phys.u.Chem.’[N.F.],
lviii. 171-204.

‘Monthly Not. R. A. 8.’

lvi, 428-429;
liv. 158 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’

‘Amer. J. Sci’ [4], 1. 329-
333; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5],
xli. 450-454; ‘Nature,’
liv. 91-92 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ix. 133-

140; ‘ Beibliitter, xxi.
129-130 (Abs.)
‘Harvard Coll. Obs. Circ.’

No.7; ‘ Nature,’ liv. 206—
207 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ iv. 79-80.

‘Nature, liv. 3801-302

(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ iv. 138;
‘ Nature, liv. 526 (Abs.)

‘Astr. Nachr, cxli. 170;
‘Nature,’ liv. 404 (Abs.)

‘Harvard Coll. Observ.
Circe? No: Ll 725 pps
‘Nature,’ liv. 527 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ iv. 137-
138.

‘Harvard Coll. Observ.
Circe.” No. 12, 2 pp.;
‘Nature,’ lv, 8t (Abs.)

502

J, N. Lockyer “

E. C. Pickering

M. Fleming ,

C. Runge and F.
Paschen.

A, Cornu ;

A. Belopolsky

H. Deslandres

W. Huggins ,
Sir J. N. Lockyer .

”

E, C. Pickering

L. E. Jewell .

» >

H. Kayser.

REPORT—1898.

Preliminary Report on the Results

obtained with the Prismatic
Camera during the Eclipse of
1893. (Read Noy. 19.)

Relative Motion of the Starsin the
Line of Sight. (Nov.)

A New Spectroscopic Binary in
Puppis. (Noy.)

Stars having Peculiar Spectra.
Eight New Variable Stars, in
Cetus, Vela, Centaurus, Lupus,
Scorpio, Aquila, and Pegasus.
(Dec.)

Oxygen in the Sun. (Dec.) .
1897.
Spectres des Ctoiles, &c.. .

The Spectroscopic
Geminorum. (Jan.)

Photographie d’une protubérance
extraordinaire. (Read Jan. 25.)

Binary a,

Carbon in Bright-line Stars.
Celestial Eddies. (Jan.)

The Question of Carbon in Bright-
line Stars. (Jan.)

(Jan.)

The Approaching Total Eclipse of
the Sun. I-VI. (Jan.—Sept.)

The Spectrum of ¢ Puppis. (Jan.)

Oxygen in the Sun. (Feb.) .

The Coincidences of Solar and
Metallic Lines. (Feb.)

Spectrum of ¢ Puppis. (Feb.)

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1896, 1897.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lx. 271-
272.

‘Harvard Coll. Observ.
Cire” No. 13, 2) pp.;
‘Nature,’ lv. 137 (Abs.)

‘Harvard Coll. Observ.
Cire.’ No: 14, 1 p.3 ‘Na-
ture,’ lv. 137 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ iv. 354-359.

‘Astrophys. J.’ iv. 317-
319; ‘Nature,’ lv. 303
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xxi.
518 (Abs.)

| ‘Ann. Bureau des Longi-

tudes,’ 1896,, 359-368 ;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ “xiv.
74-75 (Abs.)
‘Astrophys. J. v. 1-7;
‘Nature,’ lv. 352 (Abs.)
171-173;
XXL. OLS

Ol Re exxiv.
‘ Beibliitter,’
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ lv. 316.
‘Nature,’ lv, 249-253.

‘Nature, lv. 304-305.
‘ Beiblitter,” xxii. 155
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ Ivi. 154-157,

175-178, 318-321, 365-
368, 392-395, 445-449.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ v. 92-94;
‘Harvard Coll. Observ.
Circ.’ Nov. 16, 2 pp.;
‘Nature,’ lv. 352 (Abs.);
‘Beiblitter,” xxi. 512
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ v. 99-100 ;
‘Bleiblitter,” xxi. 518
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J. iii. 89-113;
‘Beibliitter, xxi. 339
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J! v. 95-96 ;
‘ Beiblatter” xxi. 521
(Abs.)

eS a ee

J. N. Lockyer

A. Fowler .

P.deHeen ,

J. N. Lockyer

F. McClean

E. C. Pickering

A. Schuster

” O
W. W. Campbell
J. E. Keeler .

P.deHeen .

Sir J. N. Lockyer .

H. F. Newall.

C. A. Young .

J. Evershed .
J. E. Keeler .

Sir W. Huggins

ON

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY,

503

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1897.

On the Iron Lines Present in the
Hottest Stars. Preliminary Note.
(Read Feb. 18.)

The Chemistry of the Stars.

(March.)

Photographie de la chromosphére
du soleil, et constitution de cet
astre. (Read March 6.)

On the Chemistry of the Hottest
Stars. (Read March 25.)

Note on Comparative Photographic
Spectra of Stars to the 33 Magni-

tude. (Read March 25.)
Stars having Peculiar Spectra.
(March.)

Note on the Chemical Constitution
of the Stars. (Read March 25.)

Oxygen in the Sun, (March)
(April)

Spectroscopic Observations of Mars
in 1896-7. (May.)

Note relative 4 la photographie de
Yatmosphére solaire. (Read June

Spectroscopic Notes.

5.)
The Approaching Eclipse of the
Sun. (June.)

The Total Solar Eclipse of Aug. 9,
1896. Report on the Expedition
to Kid Island. (Read June 17.)

On the Classification of Stars of the
5 Cephei Class, (Read June 17.)

On the Appearance of the Cleéveite
and other New Gas Lines in the
Hottest Stars. (Read June 17.)

On some Spectroscopic Determina-
tions of Velocity in the Line of
Sight made at the Cambridge
Observatory. (Read June 11.)

On the Reversing Stratum and its
Spectrum, and on the Spectrum of
the Corona. (Aug.)

The Corona Spectrum. (Sept.)

Measurement by means of the
Spectroscope of the Velocity of
Rotation of the Planets. (Read
Sept. 23.)

Sur les spectres des composantes
colorées des étoiles doubles.
(Read Oct. 11.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ Ix. 475~
476; ‘Nature,’ lv. 452-
453; ‘ Beiblitter, xxi.
520 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixxii, II. 469 (Abs.)

‘Knowledge, xx. 77-78;
‘Nature,’ ly. 447 (Abs.)

‘Bull. Acad. Belg.’ [3],
xxxili. 205-210.

‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ Ixi. 148-
209.

* Proc. Roy. Soe.’ lxi. 213-
216

‘Harvard Coll. Observ.
Circ” No. 17, 2 pp.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxi. 209-
213.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ v. 162-163.
‘ Astrophys. J.’ v. 233-242.
‘ Astrophys. J.’ v. 328-3

‘Bull. Acad. Belg.’ [3],
Xxxili. 800-803.
154-157,

‘Nature, Ivi.

175-178.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixi, 444-
445 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ Ixi. 445-
455.

*Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lxii. 52—
GT.

‘Monthly Not. R. A. S$?
lvii. 567-577.

155-—

‘Astrophys. J.’ vi.
157.

‘Nature,’ lvi. 444.

‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1897,
729-731.

°C. RY cxxv. 512-514.

504

REPORT—1898.

ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS, 1897-METEOROLOGICAL APPLICATIONS, 1891,

Sir W. Huggins

R. J. Aitken .

A. Belopolsky

E. C. Pickering

J. NR. Rydberg

W. W. Campbell

J. M. Schaeberle

\

ad

7. H. Wright
A. Belopolsky

G. E. Hale

H. F. Russell

A. Crova

A. Fowler .

G. Miiller 0

G. Meyer .

1892, 18938, 1894.
Sur les spectres des étoiles princi-

pales du trapéze de la nébuleuse
dOrion. (Read Oct. 11.)

Variations in the Spectrum of the
Orion Nebula. (Nov.)

New Investigation of the Spectrum
of B Lyre. (Nov.)

Spectrum ofa Meteor. (Nov.)

On the Constitution of the Red
Spectrum of Argon. (Nov.)

On the Variations observed in the
Spectrum of the Orion Nebula.
(Nov.)

Observations of the Spectrum of
the Orion Nebula. (Nov.)

Variations in the Spectrum of the
Orion Nebula. (Nov.)

Researches on the Spectrum of the
Variable Star 7 Aquile. (Dec.)

On the Presence of Carbon in the
Chromosphere. (Dec.)

| Motion of some Stars in the Line of

Sight. (Report of the Cambridge
Observatory.)

yt.

°C, R.’ exxv. 514-51

‘ Astrophys. J.’ vi. 365.

‘Astrophys. J.’ vi.
337.

‘Harvard Coll. Obs. Cire.’
(Nov. 20); ‘Nature,’ lvii.
101; ‘Science Abstr.’ i.
4 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J. vi. 338-
348; * Beiblitter,’ xxii.
154 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ vi. 363-
864; ‘Science Abstr.’ i.
4 (Abs.)

328-

‘ Astrophys. J.’ vi. 364—
365.
‘Astrophys. J.’ vi. 365-
366.
‘Astrophys. J. vi. 393-
399.
‘Astrophys. J. vi. 412-

414; ‘Nature,’ lvii. 374
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ lvi. 270 (Abs.)

METEOROLOGICAL APPLICATIONS.

1891.

The Analysis of Diffused Light.
(‘ Amer. Meteorol. Journ.’ Nov.
1891.)

1892.

Spectrum of Lightning. (July)

1893.

| Photometrische und spectroscop-

ische Beobachtungen angestellt
auf dem Gipfel des Siintis.

1894.

Ein Versuch das Spectrum des
Blitzes zu photographiren (Feb.)

‘Nature, xiv. 189-190

(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xlvi. 268; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xvii. 125-126
(Abs.)

‘Publ. d. Astrophys. Obs.
Potsdam, viii. 1-101;
‘ Beiblitter, xvii. 1063-
1065 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,’
[N.F.], li. 415-416;
‘ Nature,’ xlix. 427 (Abs.);
‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xxxvil.
420-421 (Abs.)

x
»
%
4

_— =

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 505

METEOROLOGICAL APPLICATIONS, 1895, 1896, 1897 CHEMICAL RELATIONS,

M. Berthelot.

O. Simong

A. Ricco

L. E. Jewell .

T. G. Eakins .

G. Henslow .

J. W. Briihl .

1885, 1890, 1891, 1892.

Remarques sur les spectres de |‘C. RR. cxx.

Yargon et de Vaurore boréale.
(Read March 235.)

Ueber periodische Aufnahmen des
Sonnenspektrums vom Gipfel des
Piks von Teneriffa (3711 m.)
(‘Verhandl. Ges. Naturf. u.
Aerate,’ II. 1. Hiilfte (1895), 85.)

1896.

Righe spettrali atmospheriche os-
servate sull’ Etna, a Nicolosi in
Catania. (June.)

The Determination of the Relative
Quantities of Aqueous Vapour in
the Atmosphere by Means of the
Absorption Lines of the Spectrum.
(Dec.)

1897.

Dr. Arendt’s Spectroscopic Investi-
gation of the Variation of Aqueous
Vapour inthe Atmosphere. (April.)

‘VEEL,
CHEMICAL RELATIONS.

1885.

On Allanite and Gadolinite (‘ Proc.
Colorado Sci. Soc.’ li. 1885).

1890.

A Contribution to the Study of the
Relative Effects of Different Parts
of the Solar Spectrum on the
Assimilation of Plants (‘ Proc.
Linnean Soc.’ Noy. 6, 1890).

1891.

Untersuchungen tiber die Terpene
und deren Abkimmlinge (‘ Ab-
handl.’ III. 1V.) (Read Oct. 29,
Nov. 18.)

1892.

Untersuchungen iiber die Terpene
und deren Abkémmlinge (‘Ab-
handl.’ VIII. IX.) (Read May 23.)

662-663 ;
‘Ber, xxviii. (Ref.),
318 (Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xix. 567 (Abs.); ‘ Proc.
Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 289
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixvili. II. 337 (Abs.);
‘Nature,’ li. 552 (Abs.)

‘ Beibliitter, xix.[59](title)

‘Mem. spettr. ital.’ xxv.
127-134; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xx. 978 (Abs.); ‘ Nature,’
liv. 280-281 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ iv. 324-
342; ‘Nature,’ lv. 258
(Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ v. 279.
281.

‘Chem. News,’ lili. 282;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1. 779 -
780 (Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xliii. 72 (title).

‘Ber’ xxiv. 3373-3416,
3701-3737; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xvii. 30-32 (Abs.)

‘Ber’ xxv. 1788-1796,
1796-1813; ‘ Beibliatter,’
xvii. 30-32 (Abs.)

506 REPORT—1898.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1892, 1893.

J. W. Briihl . Ueber Dipropargyl und Benzol.

(Read July 20.)

Ueber Oxyaurine und Oxyaurincar-
bonsiuren. II. Mittheilung.
(Read Aug. 11.)

Zur Kenntniss der Oxazinfarbstoffe.
(Read Oct. 6.)

Methods of Observing the Spectra
of easily Volatile Metals and their
Salts, and of Separating their
Spectra from those of the Alkaline
Earths. (Read Dec. 1.)

N. Caro. - :

R. Nietski and A.
Bossi.

W. N. Hartley

1893.

. | A Revision of the Atomic Weight
of Barium. (Read Jan. 11.)

T. W. Richards

J. M. Eder and E. | Ueber das Emissionspectrum der
Valenta. elementaren Silicium, und den
spectrographischen Nachweis
dieses Elementes. (Read Jan.

19.)

Some Remarks on the Examination
of the Rare Gadolinite Earths, and
in particular on Determining the
Equivalents of these Earths by
converting the Oxide into the
Sulphate. (Jan.)

The Spectrum of Iron and the
Periodic Law. (Jan.)

G. Kriiss 5

J. Parry. .

“i Untersuchungen iiber asymme-
trische Bicarbonsiiuren. (Read
Feb. 6.)

Spectrochemie des Stickstoffs. I.
(Vorliufige Mittheilung.) (Read
Mar. 27.)

Sul tiophosgene polimero.
May 7.)

J. W. Briihl .

” e

G. Carrara. (Read

G. Gennari .

dell indene. (Read May 20.)

Ueber die Molecularrefraction
stickstoffenthaltender Substanzen
(Aldoxime und Ketoxime). Read

| June 8.)

C, Trapesonzjanz

C. Graebe and A. | Ueber Oxyderivate des Anthra-

Philips. chinolinchinon.

(Sept.)

- | Spettrochimica del cumarone e |

‘ Ber.’ xxv. 2638-2646

‘Ber’ xxv. 2671-2675.

‘ Ber.’ xxv. 2994-3005.

‘J. Chem. Soe.’ Ixiii. 138-
141; ‘Chem. News,’ Ixvi.
313 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Amer. Acad.’ xxviii.
1-30; ‘Chem. News,
Ixviii, 232-233, 269-271,
283-284.

‘Wien. Anz.’ xxx. (1893),
19-21.

‘Chem. News,’ Ixvii. 32-
33, 40-42. Y

‘Nature,’ xlv. 253-255;
‘Beiblatter,’ xvii. 748—
749 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxvi. 337-345.

‘Ber’ xxvi. 806-809.

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei’

[5], ii. I.sem. 421-425 ;
‘Beiblatter, xviii. 334—
335 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lin-
cei’ [5], iii. I. sem. 499-
503; ‘Gazz. chim. ital.’
xxiv. I. 468-474; ‘ Bei-
bliitter,’ xviii. 907 (Abs.)

*Ber” xxvi. 1428-1433;
‘ Beiblitter, xviii. 335-
336 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
eclxxvi. 21-35; ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixiv. I. 670-671
(Abs.)

J. W. Briihl .

V. Schumann :

F. Tiemann and P.
Kariiger.

F. Tiemann and Fr.
W. Semmler.

J. Verschaftelt

R. Nasini and F.,
Anderlini.

R. Nasini and G.

Carrara,

J. W. Briihl .

A. Ghira : ;

G. Gennari .

H. A. Rowland .

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

507

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1893, 1894.

Ueber einige EHigenschaften und
die Constitution des freien Hy-
droxylamins und seine Homologen.
Spectrochemie des Stickstoffs. II.
(Read Oct. 14.)

Ueber ein neues Verfahren zur
Herstellung ultraviolettempfind-
liche Platten. (Read Oct. 12.)

Ueber
Oct. 9.)

Veilchenaroma. (Read

Ueber Verbindungen der Citral-
(Geraniol-)Reihe. (Read Oct. 9.)

1894.

Application du réfractométre 4
Yétude des réactions chimiques.
(Read Jan. 6.)

Sul potere rifrangente dei com-
posti continenti il carbonile.
(Read Jan. 21.)

Sul potere rifrangente dell’ ossi-
geno, dello zolfo, e dell’ azoto nei
nuclei eterociclici. (Read Feb.
22.)

Neue Beitriige zur Frage nach der
Constitution des Benzols. (Read
Mar. 27.)

Potere rifrangente delle combina-
zioni organo-metalliche. (Read
April 15.)

Spettrochimica del camarone e dell’
indene. (Read May 10.)

The Separation of the Rare Earths.
(May.)

|
|
|

‘Ber,’ xxvi. 2508-2520.

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien,
cli. Il.a, 994-1024; ‘Bei-
blitter,’ xviii. 456-457
(Abs.)

‘ Ber,’ xxvi. 2675-2708.

‘Ber.’ xxvi. 2708-2729.

| ‘ Bull. Acad. Roy.de Belge,’

[3], xxvii. 49-84; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xviii. 746-747,
833-834 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei’
[5], iii. I. sem. 49-58;
‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiv.
I. 157-169 ; ‘Ber.’ xxvii.
(Ref.), 244 (Abs.) ; ‘ Bei-
blitter,’ xviii. 665 (Abs.)

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiv. I.

256-290; ‘Zeitschr. f.
physikal. Chem.’xvii. 539-
544; ‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’
xiii. 397 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixvi. II.
302-303 (Abs.); ‘ Ber.’
xxvii. (Ref.), 375-376
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xviii. 834 (Abs.)

‘J. prakt. Chem.’ [2], xlix.
201-294; ‘Ber? xxvil.
1065-1083 ; ‘ Nature,’
xlix. 614 (Abs.); ‘J.
Chem. Soe.’ Ixvi. I. 366-
367 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei’
[5], iii. I. sem. 391-393;
‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiv.
I. 324-327; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xviii. 906-907 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei’
[5], ili. I. sem. 499-503 ;
‘Gazz. chim, ital. xxiy.
I. 468-474.

‘ Johns Hopkins Univ. Cir-
cular, xiii. 73-74 ; ‘ Chem.
News, lxx. 68-69; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixvi. TI. 449-
550 (Ahs.)

508

A. de Gramont

W. Crookes . :

W. N. Hartley

Mecke and Wimmer

(. Haacke

A. Rtard

K. Schunck

W. Ramsay

P. F. Cléve

H. Moissan
A. de Gramont
G. Kriiss and H.

Kriiss.
A, de Gramont

M. Konowalow

H. Rigollot .

REPORT—1898.

CIEMICAL RELATIONS, 1894, 1895.

Sur le spectre de lignes du soufre,
et sur sa recherche dans les com-
posés métalliques. (Read July 2.)

The Separation of the Rare Earths.
(Aug.)

New Methods of Spectrum Analy-
sis, and on SBessemer Flame
Spectra. (Aug.)

Nachweise von Blutflecken. (Nov.)

Spectrophotometrische Untersuch- |

ungen tiber die Hinwirkung von
Salzsiiure auf einige Substitutions-
producte des Fuchsins. (Diss.
Ttibingen, 1894, 49 pp.)

1895.

Pluralité des chlorophylles. _Deux-
iéme chlorophylle isolée dans la
luzerne. (Read Feb. 11.)

Contributions to the Chemistry of
Chlorophyll. (Read Feb. 14.)

Discovery of Helium. (Read Mar.
27.)

Sur la présence de l’hélium dans la
clévéite. (Read April 16.)

Action du fluor surl’argon. (Read
May 9.)

Analyse spectrale directe de miné-
raux. (June.)

Eine neue Methode der quantita- |

tiven Spectralanalyse. (June.)

Sur l’analyse spectrale directe des
minéraux et de quelques sels
fondus. (Read July 8.)

Nitrirende Wirkung der Salpeter-
siiure auf den Character gesittigten
Verbindungen besitzende Kohlen-
wasserstoffe und deren Derivate.
(Read July 29.)

Action des rayons infra-rouges sur
le soufre d’argent. (Read July 15.)

‘C. R. cxix. 68-70; ‘ Bei-
blatter,’ xviii. 912 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ Ixx. 49
(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
Ixvi. II. 434-435 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ lxx. 81-82.

‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1894,
610-611 ; ‘ Beibliitter,’ xx.
26 (Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem,
xxxiv. 129-131; ‘Chem.
News,’ lxxi. 238.

‘ Beiblitter,’ xx. 64 (title).

°C. BR. exx, 328208)" oo.
Chem. Soc.’ lxviii. I. 389
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvii. 314-
322..

‘J. Chem. Soe.’ lxvii. 1207—
1108; ‘Chem. News,’ lxxi.
151; ‘ Ber.’ xxviii. (Ref.),
839 (Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’
xix. 624 (Abs.)

‘C. RY exx. 834; ‘ Ber.’
xxviii. (Ref.), 373 (Abs.) ;
‘Nature, li. 622-623
(Abs.); ‘Chem. News,’
Ixxi, 212.

‘ Proc. Roy. Soe.’ lviii. 120-
121.

‘Bull. Soc. frang. de Min,’
xviii. 171-374.

‘ Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.’
x. 31-43.

Cy BR.” sexxi, @ZIE123:
‘ Beiblatter, xx. 30-31
(Abs.) ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxviii. II. 470-471 (Abs.);
‘Chem. News,’ lxxii. 103
(Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxviii. 1852-1865.

‘C.°R’ exxi. 164-166 ;
‘ Ber.’ xxix. (Ref.), 63-64
(Abs.)

C. Runge and F.

Paschen.

W. Ramsay

C. Bouchard .

G. Kriiss and H.

Kriiss.

J. W. Briihl .

H. Wilde 2

R. Mohlau and K.

Uhlmann,

DB. Paulowski.

E, Schunck and L.

Marchlewski.

A. Killas and W.

Ramsay.
A, de Gramont

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 509

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1895.

Bestandtheile
(Read July 11.)

Ueber die
Cléveitgases.

A Possible Combination of Argon.
(Aug.)

. | Sur la présence de l’argon et de

Vhélium dans certaines
(Read Sept. 2.)

eaux
minérales.

Eine neue Methode der quantita-
tiven Spectralanalyse. (Sept.)

Spectrochemie des Stickstofts. II.
IV. (Read Oct. 1.)

Helium and its Place in the
Natural Classification of Klemen-
tary Substances. (Read Oct. 1.)

Zur Kenntniss der Chinazin- und |

Oxazinfarbstoffe. (Oct.)

Ueber Allofluorescein.
14.)

(Read Oct.

Zur Chemie des
(Oct.)

Chlorophylls.

Estimation of Gases from Certain
Mineral Waters. (Read Noy. 28.)

Sur l’analyse spectrale directe des
composés solides, et plus spéciale-
ment des minéraux. (Noy.)

des |

CK ORE mete

‘Sitzungsb. Akad. Berlin,
EXxIVe| (O9= (Oo od.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. II. 1-2
(Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxii. 51;
* Beiblatter,’ xix. 730
(Abs.) ; ° Ber.’ xxviii.
(Ref.), 839-840 (Abs.) ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. II.
20 (Abs.)

392-394 ;
‘ Beiblitter, xix. 827
(Abs.); ‘ Ber.’ xxviii.
(Ref.),836 (Abs.) ; ‘Chem.
News,’ - Ixxij. 152-153 ;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii.
456 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixx. II. 99 (Abs.)

CXxi.

‘ Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem.’
x. 31-43; ‘ Beiblatter,’
xx. 26), (Abs: SoRroe:
Phys. Soc.’ xiv. 14 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixx. II,
215 (Abs.); ‘Ber.’ xxix.
(Ref.), 147-148 (Abs.)

‘Ber.’ xxviii. 2388-2406 ;
‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xvi. 193-225, 226—
241, 497-611, 512-524;
‘ Beibliitter, xix. 564—
565 (Abs.) ; ‘ Proc. Phys.
Soc.’ xiii. 328-330 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixviii. IT.
194, 250-251 (Abs.)

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xl. 466—
471; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxx.
II. 165-166 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
e¢lzxxix,) 128130): «s,
Chem. Soc.’ xx. I. 166—
169 (Abs.)

‘ Ber.’ xxviii. 2360-2362.

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
eclaxxix, Sl-—lO@sauah.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixvili, I. 896-
397 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix. 68—
69.

‘Os, Rep (Gree leei23
‘Bull. Soc. Chim.’ [3],
xlii._xiv. 945-947 ; ‘ Ber.’
xxviii. (Ref.), 1048 (Abs.)

510

Li ‘Troost’ and Lie}
Ouvrard.

G. Kriiss ° °

Rk. F. d’Arcy and
W. B. Hardy.

J. Stas. A :

L. Marchlewski .

E. Schunck and L.
Marchlewski

J. W. Briihl . =

J. Landauer . °

G. Kraemer and A.
Spilker.

E. Jiinger and A.
Klages.

J.W. Briihl . oa

REPORT—1898.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1895, 1896.

Sur Vorigine de JVargon et de
Vhélium dans les gaz dégagés par
certaines eaux minérales.
Dec. 2.)

Beziehungen zwischen Zusammen-
setzung und Absorptionsspectrum
organischen Verbindungen. Nach-
trag. (Dec.)

Note on the Oxidising Powers of
Different Regions of the Spectrum
in relation to the Bactericidal
Action of Light and Air.

Recherches chimiques et études
spectroscopiques sur différents
corps simples. (Complete works
of Stas, pub. at Brussels.)

1896.

Die Chemie des Chlorophylls.
(Hamburg, 82 pp.) (Jan.)

Contributions to the Chemistry of
Chlorophyll ; Phylloporphyrin and
Heematoporphyrin: a comparison.
(Read Jan. 30.)

Spectrochemische
des a-

Claisen.
(Feb.)

Die Spectral-Analyse.
schweig, 174 pp.) (Feb.)

(Braun-

Ueber das Cyclopentadien im Stein- |
kohlentheer, das Indin der Fett- |

reihe. (Read Feb. 24.)
Ueber Halogenderivate des Cam-
phens und Hydrocamphens. (Feb.)

Spectrochemische Untersuchung
des a- und 8-Formylphenylessig-
esters. (Vorliufiger Bericht.)
(March.)

(Read |

Untersuchung |
und £-mesityloxidoxal- |
siiuren Methyls und Aethyls von |
(Vorlaufiger Bericht.) |

‘6. RB. Sexxing TOB=800 |:
‘Chem. News,’ lxxii. 309—

310.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal,
Chem.’ xviii. 559-563 ;
‘ Beiblatter” xx. 197

(Abs.); ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxx. II. 285 (Abs.)

| ‘J. Physiol.’ xvii. 390-393 ;
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixviii. II.
57 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxii. 177—
179, 188-190, 203-205,
215-216, 226-227, 239-
241, 248-251, 259-261,
274-276, 301-304, 311-
BZy Ixxiil bat ees,
29-31, 39-40, 51-52, 66—
68, 80-81, 88-90, 113-

114, 124-126, 135-137,
147-149, 159-161, 171-
173, 183-184, 192-193,
204-206, 216-218, 224-
225, 241-242, 249-250,
262-264.

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxiii. 23
(Review).

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lix. 233-
239,

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
cexci. 137-146 ; ‘ Bei-
bliitter, xx. 871 (Abs.)

‘Chem. News,’ Ixxiii, 70-
71 (Review).

‘ Ber.’ xxix. 552-561.

| ‘ Ber.’ xxix. 544-547.

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
ccxe. 217-225; * Ber.’
| xxix. (Ref.), 484 (Abs.);
* Beiblatter, xx. 871
(Abs.)

¥. Tiemann and R. | Ueber

Schmidt.

” ”

KH. Demarcay.

ee

H. Ritthausen

B.Tollens , :

W. N. Hartley .

E. Schunck and L.
Marchlewski
A. Tschirch ,

H. Wilde .

W.N. Hartley and
H. Ramage.

O. Buss . ‘ F)

H. Kriiss A <

E. Wiedemann and

E. Riegler . :
>

;

G. C, Schmidt.

: E. Schunck and L.
Marchlewski.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

oll
CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1896.
die Verbindungen der | ‘ Ber.’ xxix. 903-926.
Citronellalreihe. (Read March9.) |
Ueber Homolinalool, (Read | ‘ Ber.’ xxix. 691-695.
March 9.)
Sur un nouvel élément contenu dans | ‘C. R.’ cxxii. 728-730;

les terres rares voisines du sama-
rium. (Read Mar. 23.)

Ueber Galactit aus den Samen der
gelben Lupine. (Read March 23.)

Ueber den Nachweis der Pentosen
mittels der Phloroglucinsalzsiiure-
absatzmethode. (Read April 18.)

The Determination of the Compo-
sition of a ‘White Sou’ by a
Method of Spectrographic Analy-

sis, (Read April 23.)

Zur Chemie des Chlorophylls.
(Read May 11.)

Zur Chemie des _ Chlorophylls.

(Read June 22.

On the Spectral and other Pro-
perties of Thallium in Relation to
the Genesis of the Elements.
(June. )

On the Occurrence of Gallium in the
Clay-iron-stone of the Cleveland
District of Yorkshire. Determina-
tion of Gallium in Blast-furnace
Iron from Middlesbrough. (Read
Dec. 17.)

Beitriige zur Spectralanalyse eini-
ger toxicologisch und pharma-
kognostisch wichtiger Farbstoffe,

mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung’

des Ultraviolett.

Ueber ein neues Verfahren in der
quantitativen Spectralanalyse
(‘ Verhandl. Ges. Deutsch. Naturf.
u. Aerzte, II. 1. Hiilfte, 76-77.)

Die Bestimmung des Alkokols und
Extractes im Wein auf optischem
Wege.

Cnaug. Diss.)

Photochemische Zersetzung von
NaCl, KCl, NaBr und KBr unter
dem Einfluss von starkbrechbaren
ultrayvioletten Lichte.

Zur Chemie des Chloropbylls.

(IV. Abhandlung.)

‘Ber. xxix. ((Ref.);e00=
380 (Abs.); ‘J. Chem.
Soc.’ Ixx. II. 475 (Abs.);
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ (Abs.)
xiv. 226.

‘ Ber.’ xxix. 896-899.

‘ Ber.’ xxix. 1202-1209.

‘J. Chem. Scc.’ Ixix. 842-
844: ‘Chem. News,
lxxili, 229 (Abs.)

° Ber.’ xxix. 1347-1352.
‘Ber.’ xxix. 1766-1770.

‘Chem. News,’ xxiii. 304—

305; ‘Beiblatter, xxi.
633 (Abs.)
‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lx. 393—

407.

‘ Beiblatter, xxi. 130-131
(Notice).

‘ Beiblitter,’ xx.
(title).

[31]

‘ Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.’
RkKVee iol; © ber xx
(Ref.), 599 (Abs.)

‘Jahrb, f. Photogr.’ x, 15.

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.
cecxc. 306-313; ‘ Ber.’
xxix. (Ref.), 415 (Abs.)

A. Wroblewsky

W. N. Hartley and
H. Ramage.

K.D.Chruschtschoft

G. Urbain and E.
Budischovsky

J. W. Brihl

W.N. Hartley and
H. Ramage.

—

4, Lewin

—
i=

B. Hasselberg

I. Knoevenagel

REPORT—1898.

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1896, 1897.

Anwendung des Glan’schen Spectro-
photometers auf die Tierchemie.
I. Quantitative Bestimmung des
Hamoglobinsim Blute. II. Quan-
titative Bestimmung der Rhodan-
salze im Speichel (‘Anz. Akad.
Krakau,’ 1896, pp. 306-309, 386-
390).

1897.

On the Dissemination of some of
the Rarer Elements, and the Mode
of their Association in Common
Oresand Minerals. (Read Jan. 21.)

On the Spectrographic Analysis of
some Commercial Samples of
Metals, of Chemical Preparations,
and of Minerals from the Stass-
furt Potash Beds. (Read Feb. 18.)

Sur les terres de monazite. (Read

March 18.)

Recherches sur les sables mona-
zités. (Read March 22.)

Spectrochemie des Stickstoffs. V.
(April.)

A Spectrographic Analysis of Iron
Meteorites, Siderolites, and Me- |
teoric Stones. (Read May 19.)
(‘ Proc. Roy. Soc. Dublin’ [N.S.],
viii. Part 6.)

Die spectroscopische Blutunter- |
suchung. (June.)

|

|

|

Note on the Chemical Composition |
of the Mineral Rutile. (June.)

in der hydro-

Untersuchungen |
(June.)

aromatischen Reihe.

‘Chem. Cenir.’ 1897, ii.
532 (Abs.); ‘ Beibliitter,’
xxi. 573 (Abs.)

| ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ xxi. 533-—

547; ‘Chem. News,’
lxxix, 129-130 (Abs.)

‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxxi, 547-
550; ‘Chem. News,’ Ixxv.
151(Abs.); ‘ Chem.Centr,’
1897, I. 665 (Abs.)

‘J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc.’
xxix. 206-208; ‘ Chem.
Centr.’ .1897, II. 329
(Abs.) ;_ ‘ Nature,’ lvi.
276; ‘ Beiblitter, xxi,
920 (Abs.)

“C. R., cxxiv. 618-621);
‘Chem, News,’ Ixxv’181-
182.

‘Zeitschr. f. physikal.
Chem.’ xxii. 373-409 ; «J.
Chem. Soc.’ lxxii, II. 297
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter,’ xxi.
586-588 (Abs.); ‘Chem.
Centr. 1897, II. 81-83
(Abs.)

‘ Nature,’ lvii, 546 (Abs.) ;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxvii.
121-122.

* Arch. der Pharm.’ cexxxv.
245-255 ; ‘Chem. Centr.’
1887, II. 381 (Abs.);
‘J. Chem. Soc.’ Ixxii. II.
534 (Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ vi. 23-26;
‘Chem. News,’ Ixxvi.102—
104; ‘ Chem. Centr.’ 1897,
Il. 712 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Chem. u. Pharm.’
cexcvii. 113-203 ; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1897, II. 696-702
(Abs.)

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 513

CHEMICAL RELATIONS, 1897—THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1890, 1891, 1892.

R. Lespieu Recherches sur les épidibrom-
hydrines et les composés propar-
gyliques. (June.)

J. R. Rydberg The New Series in the Spectrum of

Hydrogen. (Oct.)

H. Wilde . Sur les poids atomiques de l’argon

et de Vhélium. (Nov.)

B. Hasselberg Ueber das Vorkommen des Vanads
| in den Scandinavischen Rutilarten
(‘ Bihang till Handl. Svensk. Vet.

Akad.’ xxii. I. No. 7, 7 pp.)

Sur la nature des gaz obtenus des
deux minéraux ceritiques du
Caucase.

G. P. Tschernik

Z. Donoginy . . Die Darstellung des Hiimochromo-
| gens als Blutreaction, mit beson-
derer Beriicksichtigung des Nach-

weises von Blut im Harn.

H. Tornée

Spectrometrisch - ariometrische
Bieranalyse. (‘ Pharm. Centr.-H.’
XXXViii. 871-873.)

TX.
THEORETICAL PAPERS.

1890.

Ueber die specifische Brechung-,
Volumen- und Refractionsaquiva-
lente von sieben aus C, H und
O bestehenden Fliissigkeiten, nach
den Formeln von Beer (Landolt),
Lorenz, und Ketteler. (Inaug.
Dissert. Bonn, 1890, 53 pp.)

M. Korten

1891.

On the Determination of the Orbit
of a Double Star from Spectro-
scopic Observation of the Velocity
of the Components in the Line of
Sight. (March.)

A. A, Rambaut

1892.

C. Runge and G. J. | The Line Spectra of the Elements.

Stoney. (Letters.) (May.)
|
G. J. Stoney . | On the Line Spectra of the Ele-
ments. (July.)
1898.

‘Ann, Chim. et Phys.’ [7],
xi. 232-288; ‘ Chem.
Centr.’ (1897), II. 180-
183 (Abs.)

‘Astrophys. J.’ vi.
238; ‘ Beiblatter,’
153 (Abs. ).

°C, RY exxv. 649-651 ; ‘J.

Chem. Soc.’ Ixxiv. II, 115
(Abs.)

‘ Astrophys. J.’ v. 194-198.

233—
XXii.

‘J. Russ, Phys. Chem. Soc.’
xxix. 291-302; ‘Chem.
Centr.’ 1897, II. 674-675
(Abs.)

‘Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol.’
exlviii. 234-243; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ Ixxii. II. 468
(Abs. )

‘Chem. Centr.’ 1897, I.
270-271.

‘ Beiblatter,’ xiv. 769-772
(Abs.)

‘Monthly Not. Roy. Astr.
Soc.’ li, 316-330,

‘Nature,’ xlvi. 29, 100,
126, 200, 247, 268; ‘ Bei-
blatter, xviii. 559-560
(Abs.)

‘Nature,’ xlvi. 268-269.

LL

514

R. R. Tatnall.

W.J.Sollas .
R. Nasini -

&G, W. Colles .

M. Aymonnet

M. Kuhfahl
8. Pagliani .

H.C. Vogel .

A. Cornu e

C. Runge . °

R. Lehmann-Filhés

G. Moreau ,

H. Rubens ,

R. Nasini i

Ph. A. Guye .

a

REPORT—1898.

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1892, 1893, 1894.

A New Proof of a Fundamental
Equation of the Spectrometer,
(Dec.)

1893.

The Law of Gladstone and Dale as
an Optical Probe. (Read Jan. 18.)

Sul potere rifrangente per un raggio
di lunghezza d’ onda infinita,
(Read Feb. 19.)

Distances of the Stars by Doppler’s
Principle. (April.)

Sur les mawima périodiques des
spectres. (Read Aug. 7.)

Die Ablenkung des Strahles beim
Prisma. (Aug.)

Sulle equazioni della refrazione
della luce. (Read Aug. 20.)

Ueber die Bezeichnung der Linien
des I. Wasserstoffsspectrums.
(Nov.)

Vérifications numériques relatives
aux propriétés focales des réseaux
diffringents plans. (Read Dec. 26.)

1894.

On a Certain Law in the Spectra
of some of the Elements. (Feb.)

Ueber die Bestimmung einer Dop-

pelsternbahn aus _ spectroscopi-
schen Messungen der im Visions-
radius liegendenGeschwindigkeits-
componenten. (July.)

De la périodicité des raies d’absorp-
tion des corps isotropes. (Read
Aug. 20.)

Priifung der Ketteler-Helmholtz’-
schen Dispersionsformel. (Aug.)

Coefficiente critico in relazione
n—1
(Read

formula
Sept. 14.)

Détermination du poids moléculaire
des liquides. (Read Nov. 12.)

colla

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xi. 932-933; ‘ Beiblitter,’
xvii. 824-825 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Dubl.’
EN.S.], __vili. = 4572166
(Abs.); ‘ Beiblatter,’ xviii.
995-996 (Abs.)

‘Rend. R. Accad.d. Lincei’
[5], ii. I. sem. 161-166 ;
‘Beiblitter, xvil. 739
(Abs.)

‘Amer. J. Sci.’ [3], xlv.
259-267.

‘C. R.’ exvii. 304-306, 402-
405; ‘ Nature,’ xlviii. 536
(Abs.)

‘ Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem.
Unterr.’ vi. 301.

‘Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei’”
[5], ii. II. sem. 107-112.

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxiv. 95-
96; ‘Nature,’ xlix. 162
(Abs.)

*‘C. R. cxvii. 1032-1039 ;
‘Nature, xlix. 239-240
(Abs.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’
xiii. 128-130.

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxvi. 17-
30.

‘OC, R. exix, 422-425;
‘Beiblitter, xix. 494
(Abs.) ; ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.’
xiii. 108-110 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], iii. 266-286 ;
‘Nature,’ 1. 635 (Abs.) ;
‘Naturwiss. Rundschau,’
ix, 389-391.

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxiii.

II. 576-587; ‘J. Chem.
Soc” Ixvi. II, 173-174
(Abs.)

‘C, RY cxix. 852-854; ‘J.
Chem. Soc.’ lviii. II. 99
(Abs.)

ee

W. F. Edwards

G. Lippmann .

G. F. Fitzgerald

A. Konig

H. Rubens

F. Paschen

H. Poincaré

R. Reiff .

F. Zecchini

B. Galitzin

G. J. Stoney

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. ol

cr

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1894, 1895.

A New Formula for Specific and
Molecular Refraction. (Dec.)

Sur la théorie de la photographie
des couleurs simples et composées
par la méthode interférentielle.

1895.

On some Considerations showing
that Maxwell’s Theorem of Equal
Partition of Energy among the
Degrees of Freedom of Atoms is
not inconsistent with the various
Internal Movements exhibited by
the Spectra of Gases. (Read
Feb. 14.)

Ueber die Anzahl der unterschied-
baren Spectralfarben und Hellig-
keitsstufen. (Feb.)

Die Ketteler-Helmholtz’sche Dis-
persionsformel. (Feb.)

Dispersion und Dielectricititscon-
stante. (March.)

Sur le spectre cannelé. (Read
April 8.)
Zur Dispersionstheorie. (May)

Sopra una nuova formola per espri-
mere la rifrazione specifica dei
liquidi. (Read July 9.)

Zur Theorie der Verbreiterung der
Spectrallinien. (Aug.)

On Motions competent to produce
Groups of Lines which have been
observed in Actual Spectra.
(Read Sept. 13.)

‘ Amer. Chem. J.’ xvi. 625-
634; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ lxviii.
II. 193 (Abs.); ‘ Ber,
xxviii. (Ref.), 452 (Abs.);
‘Beiblatter,” xix. 420
(Abs.); ‘Chem. Centralb.’
1895, i. 313-314.

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], iii. 97-
107; ‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’
xiii. 63-64 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lvii. 312-
313; ‘Nature,’ li. 452-
453.

‘ Zeitschr. f. Psychol. u.
Physiol. d. Sinnesorgane,’
viii. 375-680.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], liv. 476-485;
‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii.
258 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], liv. 668-674;

‘Proc. Phys. Soc.’ xiii.
284 (Abs.)

SC? GRe i oxx: 7572762:
* Beiblatter, xix. 788~-
789 (Abs.) ; ‘Nature,’ li.
599 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

[N.F-], lv. 82-94,

‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxv. II.
269-284 ; ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
lxx. II. 285 (Abs.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lvi. 78-99; ‘Na-
ture,’ lii. 611 (Abs.)

‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1895,
610-612; ‘Chem. News,’
lxxii, 225-226; ‘Bei-
bliatter,’ xx. 531, 691-692
(Abs.)

LL2

T.F.F.See .

E. v. Lommel

A. Garbasso

H. Steigmiiller

Wilsing .

A. Belopolsky

J. Larmor

E. Carvalho

W. Wien

C. G. Abbott and

F. E. Fowle.

L. Rummel

J. Traube é *

H. Steigmiiller

REPORT—1898.

THEORETICAL PAPERS, 1895, 1896

Theory of the Determination by
means of a Single Spectroscopic
Observation of the Absolute Di-
mensions, Masses, and Parallaxes
of the Stellar Systems whose
Orbits are known from Micro-
metrical Measurements; with a
Rigorous Method for Testing the
Universality of the Law of Gravi-
tation. (Oct.)

Verbreiterung der Spectrallinien.
Continuirliches Spectrum. Damp-
fungsconstante. (Nov.)

| Sulla luce bianca.

Beziehung der Brechungsexponen-
ten isotroper Substanzen aus
Molecularformel und specifischem
Gewicht derselben. (Vorliufige
Mittheilung.) (Stuttgart, 1895.)

Zur homocentrischen Brechung

des Lichtes im Prisma.

1896.

Spectrographische Untersuchungen
liber Jupiter. (Jan.)

On the Absolute Minimum of
Optical Deviation by a Prism.
(Read Feb. 24.)

Sur l’absorption de la lumiére par
les milieux doués du pouvoir rota-
toire. (Read May 4.)

Ueber die Hnergievertheilung im
Emisslonsspectrum eines schwart-
zen Korpers. (July.)

The Longitudinal Aberration of a
Prism. (Oct.)

Spectra of the Alkalies. (Read
Nov. 12.) (‘ Roy. Soc. Victoria,’
1896, 260-263.)

Lichtbrechung und Dichte. XV.
(Read Nov. 23.)

Beziehung der Brechungsexpon-
enten organischer Fliissigkeiten
aus Molecularformel und speci-
fischem Gewicht derselben. (Stutt-
gart, 1896, 24 pp.)

‘Astron. and Astrophys.’

xii, 812-815; ‘Astr.
Nachr.’ cxxxix. 18-26;
‘Nature,’ iii, 15-16
(Abs.) ; ‘ Beiblitter, xx.
370 (Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem,
[N.F.], lvi. 741-745.

‘Atti d. R. Accad. d.
Torino, xxx. 186-192;
‘Il Nuovo Cimento’ [4], i.
305, 307 (Abs.); ‘Proc.
Phys. Soc.’ xiii. 312
(Abs.) :

‘Beiblatter,’ xx. 528-529
(Abs.)

‘Zeitschr. f. Math. u. Phys.’
xl. 353-362.

‘ Astr. Nachr.’ cxxxix. 209-

214; ‘Beiblatter, xxi.
342 (Abs.)

‘Proc. Phil. Soc. Camb.’
iv. 108-110.

‘C. R. cxxil. 985-988;
‘ Beiblatter, xxi. 35-36
(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’

[N.F.], lviii. 662-669.

«Amer. J. Sci.’ [4], ii. 255-

257; ‘Beiblatter, xxi.
407 (Abs.)

‘Beiblitter, xxi, 937
(Abs.)

‘ Ber. “xxix: 2732-2742;
‘Beiblatter, xxi. 509-
510 (Abs.)

‘ Beibliitter,’ xxi. 28 (Abs.)

A

P. Lugol
A. 8. Herschel
J. Traube

J. Larmor

G. F. Fitzgerald

A. Anderson .

H. Poincaré

J.J. Balmer .

L. Rummel

F. L. O. Wadsworth

A. Garbasso .

T. M. Thiele .

H. Becquerel .

J. Larmor

A. Garbasso and G.
Garbasso.

Minimum de

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 517

THEORETICAL PAPDRS, 1897.

déviation dans le
prisme.

The Rydberg-Schuster Law of Ele-
mentary Spectra. (Jan.)

Ueber die Atomrefractionen von
Kohlenstoff, Wasserstoff, Sauer-
stoff, Stickstoff und den Haloge-
nen. XVI, XVII. (Read Jan. 11.)

The Influence of a Magnetic Field
on Radiation Frequency. (Read
Feb. 11.)

| Note on a Cause for the Shift of

Spectral Lines. (March.)

On the Maximum Deviation of a

Ray of Light by a Prism.
May 25.)

(Read

| La théorie de Lorentz et les expé-

riences de Zeeman. (June.)

Eine neue Formel fiir Spectral-
wellen. (Read June 7.) (‘ Ver-
handl. Naturforsch.-Gesellsch.
Basel,’ 1897, Heft 3, 448-463.)

On the Spectra of the Alkalies and
their Atomic Weights. (Read June
10.) (‘Roy. Soc. Victoria,’ 1897,
75-78.)

Ueber das Auflésungsvermogen von

Fernréhren und Spectroscopen
fiir Linen von endlicher Breite.
(June.)

' Sul modo di interpretare certe es-

perienze del Signor P. Zeeman di
Leida. (July.)

On the Law of Spectral Series.
(Aug.)
Sur une interprétation applicable
au phénoméne de Faraday et au
phénoméne de Zeeman. (Read
Nov. 8.)

On the Theory of the Magnetic
Influence on Spectra, and on the
Radiation from Moving Ions.
(Dec.)

Sur la forme de la perturbation
dans un rayon de lumiére solaire
(‘Arch. de Genéve ’ (1897), iii. 105—
113),

‘J. de Phys.’ [3], vi. 21-23
‘Nature, lv. 271.

‘Ber.’ xxx. 38-47; ‘ Bei-
blaitter, xxi. 510-511
(Abs.)

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ lx. 514-
515.
J. V.

‘ Astrophys. 210—

211.

‘Proc. Phil. Soc. Camb.’
ix. 195-197 ; ‘ Beiblatter,
xxi. 406-407 (Abs.)

‘ Eclairage Electrique,’ xiii.
481-489.

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lx. 380-391 ; ‘ Na-
ture,’ lv. 137-188; ‘ As-
trophys. J.’ ¥. 199-209.

‘ Beiblitter,’ xxi. 973(Abs.)

‘Ann. Phys. u. Chem.’
[N.F.], lxi. 604-620.

‘Il Nuovo Cimento’ vi.
8-14; ‘Eclairage Elec-
trique,’ xiii. 276-277.

‘ Astrophys. J.’ vi. 65-76.

°C. RY’ cxxv. 679; ‘J. de
Phys.’ [3], vi. 681-688.

‘Phil. Mag.’ [5], xliv. 503-
513.

‘Beiblitter, xxi. 123

(title).

REPORT—1898.

List of the Chief Abbreviations used in the above Catalogue.

Abbreviated Title.
Amer. J. Sci.
Ann. Agron.
Ann, Chem. u. Pharm.
Ann. Chim et Phys.
Ann. de Chim. . 4
Ann. Obs. Bruxelles
Ann. Phys.u.Chem.[N. FJ

Arch. de Genéve
Arch. f. Anat. u. Phy siol.

Arch. f. d. gesammte
Physiol.

Arch. f. exper. Pathol. u.
Pharmakol.

Arch, néerland.

Astr. Nachr.

Astrophys. J. .

Attid. R. Accad. d. Lincei
Beiblatter : ;

Ber. .

Bied. Centr.

Bot. Zeitung

Bull. Astron.

Bull. Soc. Chim.

Bull. Soc. Min. de France
Bull. Acad. Belg.

Chem. Centr.
GC, Rz
Denkschr. "Akad. Wien.

Dingl. J. . A
Gazz. chim. ital.
Gottingen. Nachr.

Handl. Svensk. Vet. Akad.

Jahrb, f. Photogr.

. Chem. Soc. .

J. de Phys.

. Physiol.

. prakt. Chem. 3

. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soe.

Cy

C4 Cy cy

. Soc. Chem. Ind.
. Soc. frang. de Phys.
Math. u. naturwiss. Ber.
aus Ungarn.

Mem. spettr. ital.
Monatsb. Akad. Berl.

oy cy

Monatsh. f. Chem.
Month. Not. R.A.S. .

Oefvers. af K. Vet. Akad.
Forh.

Full Title.

American Journal of Science (Siiliman’s).

Annales Agronomiques.

Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie (Liebig).

Annales de Chimie et de Physique.

Annales de Chimie.

Annuaire de l’Observatoire de Bruxelles.

Annalen der Physik und Chemie [Neue Folge]
(Wiedemann).

Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles (Genéve).

Archiy fiir pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und
fiir klinische Medicin (Virchow).

Archiv fiir die gesammte Physiologie (Pfliiger).

Archiv fiir experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie.

Archives néerlandaises des Sciences exactes et natu-
relles (Haarlem).

Astronomische Nachrichten.

The Astrophysical Journal (Chicago).

Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei.

Beiblaitter zu der Annalen der Physik und Chemie
(Wiedemann).

Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft.

Biedermann’s Centralblatt fiir Agriculturchemie.

Botanische Zeitung.

Bulletin Astronomique (Observatoire de Paris).

Bulletin de la Société Chimique de Paris. :

Bulletin de la Société Minéralogique de France,

Bulletin de Académie royale des Sciences, des Lettres
et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique.

Chemisches Centralblatt.

Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris).

Denkschriften der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien
(Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Classe).

Dingler’s polytechnisches Journal.

Gazzetta chimica italiana.

Nachrichten von der Georg-August-Universitiit und der
k6nigl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (Gottingen).

Handlingar K. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens (Stock-
holm).

Jahrbuch fiir Photographie (Eder).

Journal of the Chemical Society of London.

Journal de Physique.

Journal of Physiology.

Journal fiir praktische Chemie.

Journal of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society (in
Russian).

Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry.

Journal de la Société frangaise de Physique.

Mathematische und naturwissenschaftliche Berichte aus
Ungarn.

Memorie della Societa degli spettroscopisti italiani.

Monatsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin.

Monatshefte fiir Chemie (Wien).

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society of

London.

Oefversigt af K. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Fér-

handlingar.

ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY.

519

List of the Chief Abbreviations—continued.

Abbreviated Title.
Phil. Mag. 5
Phil. Trans. .

Phot. Mittheil.

Phys. Review

Phys. Revue .

Proc. Phys. Soc.

Proc. Roy. Inst.

Proc. Roy. Soc. 5

Rec. des. trav. chim. des
Pays-Bas.

Rend. R. Accad. d. Lincei

Riv. sci. industr. .

Sitzungsb. Akad. Berl.

Sitzungsb. Akad. Miinchen
Sitzungsb. Akad. Wien

Sitzungsb. phys.-med. Soc.

‘Erlangen.
Skand, Arch. f, Physiol. .
Verh. phys. Gesellsch.
Berlin.
Wien. Anz. ' .

Zeitschr. f. anal. Chem.
Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem. .
Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u. Min.
Zeitschr, f. physikal.Chem.
Zeitschr. f. phys. u. chem.
Unterr.
Zeitschr. f. physiol. Chem.
Zeitschr. f. wiss. Micro-
scopie.

Full Title.

London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Mazazine.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of

London.
Photographische Mittheilungen (Vogel),
Physical Review.
Physikalische Revue.
Proceedings of the Physical Society of London.
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.
Recueil des travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas.

Rendiconti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei.

Rivista scientifico-industriale.

Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin.

Sitzungsberichte der kéniglich baierischen Akademie zu
Miinchen.

Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Wien.

Sitzungsberichte der phys.-medicinischen Societit zu
Erlangen.

Skandinavisches Archiv fiir Physiologie (Leipzig).

Verhandlungen der physikalischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin,

Anzeiger der k. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien.
Zeitschrift fiir analytische Chemie,

Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie.

Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie und Mineralogie.
Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie.

Zeitschrift fiir physikalischen und chemischen Unterricht.

Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie.
Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Microscopie.

Lhe Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.—Fourteenth Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor T. WILTSHIRE (Chawman),
Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Professor T. Rurert JONES (Secretary).
(Drawn up by Professor T. Rupert JONES.)

ConrTENTS.
SECTION PAGE
I. Dithyrocaris: species and distribution. . 519
II. Dipeltis, as defined by Schuchert, not a Phyilapod « 521
Il. A. Pritsch’s Bohemian Estheria : 521

$ I. In our First Report on the Paleozoic Aaa (presented to the
Association in 1883) the genus Dithyrocaris was included in the Tabular
List at page 216 of the Reports for 1883 (1884), as being ‘ ridged along the
back (like Apus),’ and as ‘being ridged and sometimes prickled.’ It was
referred to as occurring in Carboniferous and Devonian strata. _

In the Fifth Report (made in 1887), at page 63-66, we enumerated all
the known and reputed species of the genus. Thanks to the obliging
courtesy of friends and correspondents, we are now enabled to state that
we can distinguish the following species found in the British Islands and
elsewhere :—

520 REPORT—1898.

<j
oO
=) ce) b “ot
(esl B/e/ 3/8) eg) 4] é
S\/s| Pl el] El] a]
Sa re esi -< ) *
| 2 oO a
=)
Carboniferous.
1. Dithyrocaris glabra, H. Woodward
S RR. Etheridge, Jun. | *
2: 48 ovalis, Wig x... eal
a: -f granulata, W. 6° £. al ae
g 4, iy testudinea, Scouler * feo
= 5. “ Scouleri, Mf Coy x * 4
a 6. funiculata, sp. nov. died iss
a (€ Colei, Portlock sal pteaalaoee tl
o 8. tricornis, Scouler . AMP 3 pokey
9: = orbicularis, Portlock . | pea
10. 5 tenuistriata, M‘Coy . tage ath
Te an Youngii, sp. nov. . “S |
12. 43 striata, Woodward *
g (12 % lateralis, M‘Coy . ie ie
@ 14. a Neilsoni, sp. nov. . *
a ise :; Dunnii, sp. nov. is *
re 1G x carbonaria, Meek & |
3 Worthen . é a 25
= \17. Rhachura venosa, Scudder ; gil %*
|
Devonian. |
Cara- - ce ee ae | *
at 18. Dithyrocaris Belli, Woodward .
a 19. rh Kochi, Ludwig a] +
Q 20. PA breviaculeata, Ludwig . | } 4
BS) ZAG 99 (2) Jaschei, Romer | | *
me oDy ‘, Kayseri, Clarke . Be | ee
‘g |23. Mesothyra Oceani, Hall § Clarke . | *
BE \ 94, a Neptuni, Hall... 25] | | | | *
Carboniferous. [aba Polini
Mandibles or Gastric Teeth . : , palin st | ca ells

Dithyrocaris has a clypeiform test ; at all events most of the specimens
have a shield-like test, readily dividing into two moieties or valves ; but
some specimens seem to support the idea of having been able to fold the
two sides together. The moieties are often separate, and some are too
convex to have formed a quite flat shield ; some have the lateral edges
turned sharply downwards and inwards.

The valves, or two lateral moieties, were united along their dorsal
edges simply ; several specimens, however, had a dorsal rugose ridge-plate,
over-riding, narrow, and longitudinal (somewhat like that described as an
intervening plate in Mesothyra by Hall and Clarke in 1888), ending in a
posterior spine.

The valves are sub-oblong, straight along the middle two-thirds of the
dorsal border, and elliptically curved ventrally ; more or less rounded at
the ends, with a median hollow or notch at their junction on the front
and hind borders. The antero-dorsal region ends with a blunt angle or a

ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALAOZOIC ROCKS. o2l

short process; and the postero-ventral with a strong, sharp, trigonal
spine.

2 The straight hinge-line is defined by two small dorsal notches. The
ventral border has a striated, serrated, or fringed margin, either on its
posterior moiety or throughout its extent.

The surface of each valve bears one longitudinal (meso-lateral) ridge,
and sometimes others parallel ; also short ridges (cephalic) over the gastric
apparatus, and slighter ridges (7wchal) near the top of the dorsal ridge, all
more or less rugose.

Scattered granulations and tubercles are often present on some parts
of the valves, also lines and reticulations.

Granulation is feeble and sparse on D. glabra and JD. ovalis ; strong
and abundant on D. granulata. Small prickles, rising from the meshes of
a reticulation, are scattered over D. tricornis, D. Colei, and D. orbicu-
laris (?). A system of oblique transverse lines characterises D. testudinea.
A feeble reticulation is traceable on D. funiculata and D. Scouleri (1).
Longitudinal strie mark the surface in D. Belli and D. striata ; and D.
tenurstriata and D. Youngit have longitudinal costule.

In consideration of certain differences in the carapaces, we separate
Nos. 10 and 11 of the Table, at page 2, from Dithyrocaris, as Chenocaris
tenuistriata and Ch. Youngii, the carapace being bivalved and gaping.
There is also an obscure Devonian form, from Saalfeld, to which we refer
as Chenocaris Richteriana. Weregard No. 12 as having a closed bivalved
test, and therefore designate it as Calyptocaris striata.

We have had the opportunity of studying an old Apus-like fossil
labelled ‘ Burdiehouse.’ It shows a small circular carapace (measuring 15
by 13 mm.), with strong postero-ventral angles, and distinct meso-lateral
ridges leading to them ; also a slightly curved depression in the middle of
the front border, and a granulated margin throughout.

Mr. E. J. Garwood, F.G.S., who is a member of the British Association
Committee for defining the zones in the Carboniferous rocks, has just now
forwarded for our examination a very interesting collection of the remains
of Dithyrocaris from excavations in the shales of the Millstone-grit series
at Eccup, Yorkshire.

§ IT. In the‘ Proceed. United States National Museum,’ vol. xix. 1897,
Mr. C. Schuchert has a paper ‘On the Fossil Phyllopod Genera Dipeltis
[Packard emend.] and Protocaris.’ The latter was noticed in our Report
to the Association for 1889, p. 64, and in our Ninth Report (for 1891),
p- 300. The original genus Dipeltis was established by A. S. Packard, in
the ‘Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences,’ vol. iii. 1885, Mem.
xvi. p. 145, pl. v. figs. 2, 2a, as one of the Carboniferous Xiphosura of North
America. In the December number of ‘Natural Science,’ 1897 (vol. xi.
p- 401, figs. 2-5), in his paper on ‘ Fossil Apodide,’ Mr. H. M. Bernard
follows Mr. Schuchert in regarding the Dipeltis, as defined by the latter,
as a Phyllopodous Apus-larva. Mr.C. J. Gahan, however, in ‘ Natural
Science,’ January 1898, pp. 42-44, points out that itis really a larval form
of the Blattarian Insect Htoblattina, described and figured by H. Woodward
in the ‘Geological Magazine,’ 1887, p. 433, pl. xii.

§ III. Withreferenceto the Bohemian Zstheric mentioned at page 4 of
our Report for 1893 (Tenth, 1894), Dr. Anton Fritsch has informed us that
they were named by him in the ‘Sitzungsb. k, béhm. Gesellsch. Wissen.”
1894: No. 1 being Hstheria triangularis, Fr.; No. 2, E. cyenea, Fr. ;
No. 3 [and No. 4%], Z. palewoniscorum, Fr. ; and No. 5, #. calcarea.

522 REPORT—1898.

Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna: Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir J. W. Dawson (Chairman), Professor D. P.
PenHALLow, Dr. H. Ami, Mr. G. W. Lampiuca and Professor
A. P. CoLeman (Secretary), appointed to further investigate the
Flora and Fauna of the Pleistocene Beds in Canada.

APPENDIX: Pleistocene Flora of the Don Valley yh by y Professor D. P.
PENHALLOW . : - page 525

THE most extensive and ree series of se ah beds in Canada,
if not in America, occurs in and near Toronto, along the valley of the
Don and at Scarborough Heights. The beds at Scarborough were
admirably described by George Jennings Hinde in 1878,! but no further
attention was paid to the inter-glacial deposits of the region until 1894,
when a paper on fossils obtained from the Don Valley was published by
A. P. Coleman.? In the following year the same geologist made an
attempt to correlate the Don and Scarborough series of deposits, which,
though only a few miles apart, present very different features, the fossil
remains from Scarborough indicating a climate cooler than the present,
while the fossils from the Don suggest a decidedly warmer climate than
that now found at Toronto. At the Toronto meeting of this Association
a paper adding new points to those previously published was read before
the Geological Section by A. P. Coleman, and the two most important
localities were visited by members of the Section ; with the result that a
grant of 20/. was made, to be used in investigating the flora and fauna of
the Pleistocene of the region.

In expending the grant two points were kept specially in view—the
finding of new fossils, particularly wood and leaves, so as to determine as
certainly as possible the climatic conditions at the time when the beds
were deposited ; and the determination of the relations between the cold-
climate beds (peaty clays) of Scarborough and the warm-climate beds
(unio sands and clays) of the Don Valley.

Important results have been obtained in both directions.

Excavations made at Gaol Hill, in the Don Valley, have provided a
considerable amount of wood and a portion of the head of a large fish,
while collections made at the Don Valley brickworks have added
numerous leaves to the flora previously known.

Specimens of wood were obtained also from the Scarborough clays and
sands, as well as from similar beds at Price’s brickyard, half-way between
Scarborough and the Don. All the plant remains have been determined
by Professor Penhallow, and are described by him in an appendix to this
report.

The peaty clays (cold-climate beds) and the unio sands and clays
(warm-climate beds) had never been found with absolute certainty in the
same section, and in order to determine their relative position three wells
or shafts were sunk—two at the foot of Scarborough Heights, half a mile
east of Victoria Park, and one at Price’s brickyard.

1 ¢Glacial and Inter-glacial Strata of Scarborough Heights,’ Can. Jow., 1878,
p. 388, &c.

2 American Geologist, vol. xiii., Feb. 1894, pp. 85-95.

3 Journal of Geology, vol. ili., No. 6, 1895, pp. 622-645.

ON CANADIAN PLEISTOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA. 523

The Scarborough wells were dug on the shore of Lake Ontario, beneath
the cliff ; but on account of the delay of the well-diggers the first one was
not started till the middle of November, and, owing to stormy weather
during the latter part of November and the first week of December, it had
reached only 20 feet below the level of the lake when waves began to
break in and the well had to be abandoned. The section disclosed 3 feet
of bluish stratified clay with peaty layers and a thin sheet of clay iron-
stone, closely resembling the overlying peaty clay which rises about 90
feet above the lake. Below this, blue clay without peat, but having some
thin layers of coarse gray sand interbedded, extended about 18 feet below
the lake, when a foot or two of dark reddish clay with sandy layers
occurred. No fossils of any kind were obtained except a small amount
of peat near the surface.

The second well was sunk at Price’s brickyard, four or five miles north-
east of the first one, nearly a mile north of Lake Ontario, and about 30 feet
above the lake level. This well reached a depth of 21 feet 9 inches, when
a stratum of water-bearing sand was encountered and the well quickly
filled. With the powerful flow of water came quantities of combustible
gas. The section displayed practically the same features found in the
Scarborough well, but a little wood was found at a depth of 10 feet below
the surface, or 20 feet above Lake Ontario. Numerous rounded pebbles
were obtained in the clay, a point of difference from the overlying peaty
clay, which rarely contains pebbles.

The third well was sunk at the foot of the Scarborough cliff, not far
from the first, during the fine weather of the latter part of May of the
present year. This last attempt proved much the most successful of the
three, though not all that was hoped for was accomplished, since the
Hudson River strata underlying the whole region were not reached. At
the depth of 44 feet water-bearing sand was reached, and the well filled to
the level of the adjoining lake.

Fifteen feet below the lake level somewhat sandy layers of clay were
found to contain two species of Sphaerium, and in one case also a Unio
shell, unfortunately too badly preserved to be determined. From this to
the bottom, 41 feet below the lake, fragments of shells and pieces of wood
were sparingly obtained, The lower sandy layers of clay from this well
are reddish, and correspond closely in appearance to the beds disclosed in
the excavation of Gaol Hill, near the Don, where wood and leaves of warm-
climate trees had been obtained. From this fact, and the additional facts
that coarse sand and unios have never been found in the Scarborough
peaty clay beds, there seems no doubt that the third well passed out of the
peaty clay. into the unio sands and clays characteristic of the warm-climate
beds. It may be looked on as proved that the deposits containing fossils
indicative of a warm climate underlie conformably the peaty clays charged
with leaves, &c., proving a cold climate.

Another item of information obtained during the winter confirms the
conclusion reached above. Professor Goldwin Smith has been good enough
to give details of a well sunk some years ago at The Grange, in the
southern part of Toronto, where, after passing through 30 feet of tough
clay, a bed of sand was reached furnishing a great flow of water. The
well-diggers found a small log of wood in this sand.

A similar find is reported by an old well-digger from a well on Wilton
Avenue, between The Grange and the river Don.

We may conclude that sands containing wood and unios like those

524. REPORT—1898.

found along the Don Valley extend widely beneath the clays of the
region, and that the warm-climate beds underlie the cold-climate beds
conformably. As the Don beds rest upon a layer of boulder clay, and the
cold-climate beds are covered by another layer of boulder clay, both are
clearly inter-glacial.

Professor Chamberlin, of Chicago University, has suggested the name
‘Toronto formation’ for these fossiliferous deposits, and thinks that they
probably occupy the interval between the Iowan and Wisconsin till sheets,
and are a possible equivalent of Dr. James Geikie’s Neudeckian, in the
Old World.'

Starting from a level more than 40 feet below the surface of Lake
Ontario, the following section is found at Scarborough :—

Feet

6. Complex till with inter-bedded stratified sand and clay . . 200
Great interval of erosion.

5. Stratified sand with shells and trees of acold climate. +) 5S
4, Peaty clays with plants and beetles of acold climate . ty al
3. Clays and sands with unios and trees of a warm climate . 2 BS
2. A lowest till of variable thickness. - - 4 ; _
1. Eroded surface of Hudson River (Cambro-silurian) shales _ =

During the past year the area known to be covered by the unio beds
and the peaty clays has been greatly extended. The former have been
shown to stretch seven miles from east to west and a mile and a half from
north to south, indicating an area of ten square miles and possibly very
much more. The peaty clay has been followed seventeen miles from east
to west and six miles to the north of Lake Ontario. It probably covers
at least 100 square miles of territory. The two series, together with the
overlying inter-glacial fossiliferous sands, are more than 185 feet in thick-
ness at Scarborough.

We may look on the Toronto formation as representing a great delta
deposit in a lake extending some miles farther north than Lake Ontario
does at Toronto at present. At first this great inter-glacial lake stood
about 80 feet higher than the present water-level, and the climate was
like that of Ohio or Pennsylvania. The lake then deepened till its
surface stood at least 150 feet above the present Lake Ontario, and the
climate altered to one like that of Southern Labrador.

We must suppose that these immense beds of clay and sand were not
deposited by feeble streams like the present Don and Humber, but
probably by an inter-glacial successor of Dr. Spencer’s pre-glacial ‘ Lauren-
tian river,’ draining the upper Great Lakes directly from the Georgian
Bay, instead of through the present circuitous route by Lake Erie and
Niagara. Even with so powerful a river the formation of these massive
inter-glacial beds must have required a great length of time.

After they were laid down the inter-glacial predecessor of Lake
Ontario was drained below its present level long enough to allow various
small streams to erode wide valleys through the strata just referred to,
since the second till sheet fills in two or three such valleys, as shown at
the Scarborough escarpment. The time required for these erosive opera-
tions must have been long, perhaps as long as the time since the final
retreat of the ice from the region of Toronto ; and the whole length of
time demanded for this inter-glacial period cannot be less than five or ten
thousand years.

1 Journal of Geology, vol. iii., No. 3, pp. 273-275.

a

ON CANADIAN PLEISTOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA. 525

Lists of the fossils found at Scarborough and in the Don Valley up to
the past year have been published in the papers previously referred to in
this report, while additional species of plants found during the year are
detailed in the appendix, so that it will be unnecessary to give lists in
full of the fossils of the Toronto formation. The following summary will
serve to give a general idea of the fauna and flora of the two divisions of
the formation :—

Fossils of the Don Valley Beds.

Fauna.—Unios, 10 species and a variety ; three not now found in
Canada. Other lamellibranchs, 5 species. Gasteropods, 20 species ; making
35 molluscs, Cyprids (undetermined), at least one species. Fish (un-
_ determined), one species. Beetles (undetermined), a few species.

Flora.—Trees, 35 species ; several not now found as far north as
Toronto, one extinct. Grasses, only one determined. Mosses (undeter-
mined), several species. Chara, one species ; making in all more than 70
species of plants and animals.

Fossils of the Cold-climate Beds.

Fauna.—Lamellibranchs, 2 species. Gasteropods, 3 species. Beetles,
56 species determined by Dr. Scudder, with others not yet worked out.!
Horn of Rangifer caribou.

Flora.—Trees, 6 species. Shrubs, 2 species. Mosses, probably 10
species. Chara, 1 species. Diatoms, 3 species; in all 22 species of
plants, making a total of 84 species of plants and animals. Omitting
species common to both sets of deposits, the whole number of plants and
animals found in the Toronto formation exceeds 140.

Careful search has been made for remains of Apus glacialis in material
from the peaty clays, Mr. Bennie having been good enough to send
excellent slides of mounted specimens for comparison, but hitherto none
has been found. It is probable that the climate during the formation of
the Scarborough beds, though decidedly cooler than that of Toronto at
present, was not Arctic in character, so that Apus glacialis could hardly be
expected to occur. It is intended to search some of the stratified cla
and sand interbedded with boulder clay in the complex of the middle till
of the region, which must have been laid down under Arctic conditions.

APPENDIX.
Pleistocene Flora of the Don Valley.—By D. P. Pennatuow.

Investigations of the Pleistocene flora for the past year, conducted
under the patronage of the British Association, have been confined almost
exclusively to the deposits in the vicinity of Toronto, where special
explorations have been made under the immediate supervision of Prof.
A. P. Coleman. The material obtained has been of two kinds: (a) frag-
ments of wood in various stages of preservation, and (b) leaves and fruits.
Jt has served not only to contirm ‘previous conclusions as to the character

‘Contributions to Can. Pal., vol. ii., part 1, Insects. Twenty-five species, all
extinct, found by Dr. Hinde at Scarborouzh, are here described and figured. The
others have not yet been published.

526 REPORT—1898.

of the vegetation and climate of the Don period, but it has extended our
knowledge of the flora in important directions.

(a) Fragments of Wood.—With few exceptions the wood occurs in
fragments—either mere splinters or pieces of branches—and they show
not only more or less extended decay, but the external appearance indi-
cates the rather prolonged action of water. This appears in the rounded
and worn surfaces and angles, and suggests that the material may have
been transported for some distance by river, or that it was thrown upon
a beach and then subjected to the prolonged action of waves. In no case
has the silicification of the structure been carried very far. All the woods
so far studied cut readily with a saw, they soften with ease in boiling
water—in a few cases only requiring the addition of sodium carbonate—
and the sections are subsequently cut on anordinary microtome. Altera-
tions due to the extreme effect of decay and subsequent pressure are
common, but in most cases have been of such a nature as to permit a
recognition of the genus.

While in many cases decay has progressed so far as to make the genus
or species recognisable with difficulty—sometimes not at all—in other
cases the same species may be preserved with remarkable perfection, so
that all the features of the internal structure may be distinguished as in
a piece of wood freshly cut from a living tree. In one case (Juniperus
virginiana) the preservation was so perfect that the original colour of the
wood was suggested by the external appearance ; a radial fracture showed
the characteristic aspect of the medullary rays ; the shredded bark was
recognisable, and, when cut with a saw, a perceptible odour of cedar was
noticed. External characters are rarely preserved to such an extent.; but
one other case (Maclura awrantiaca) merits notice, in that the presence of
perfectly preserved spines—in some cases half-buried in an overgrowth of
wood—served abundantly to confirm previous conclusions drawn from the
internal structure alone. In nearly all the Pleistocene woods thus far
brought under observation it has been found that in those cases in which
decay has not been carried to an extreme the various species acquire
certain well-defined external characters whereby it is possible to distin-
guish them without microscopic examination. The species studied during
the year are as follows, and from the localities indicated : !—

Taylor's Brickyard, Don Valley.
Platanus occidentalis, Zinn.
Maclura aurantiaca, Vutt.
Larix americana, Micha.
*Juniperus virginiana, Linn.

Price’s Brickyard, Don Valley.
Larix americana, Micha.
*Pinus strobus (1), Linn.

Gaol Hill, Don Valley.

*Juniperus virginiana, Linn.
Maclura aurantiaca, Nutt.

*Quercus rubra (?), Linn.
*Quercus alba (1), Linn.

1 The * denotes, in this and the succeeding pages, species additional to those
of the previous list, the ¢ that they are new to the locality.

———

_—- =

or
mS)
“I

ON CANADIAN PLEISTOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA.

Scarborough Heights.
tLarix americana.

Of these, five are additional to the species previously reported, while
one is new (Larix americana) to the deposits of the Don Valley.

(6) Leaves and Fruits—In 1894-5 Mr. Townsend collected a large
amount of material from Taylor’s brickyard, which was subsequently
deposited in the Museum of the Geological Survey at Ottawa, and during
the past winter was placed in my hands for study. All of this material
was extremely friable, as the matrix consisted of clay. It was, therefore,
necessary to carefully size it before detailed study could be made. For
the benefit of future collectors it may be pointed out that where leaves
are found in soft clay, and are therefore represented almost entirely by
mere impressions, the finer details of the venation—an essential element in
the determinations—do not appear until after the material has been sized,
This should be done by immersion of the specimen in fish glue or alcoholic
shellac, sufficiently thin to permit of thorough penetration. The shellac is
to be preferred, not only because of the greater ease with which it pene-
trates the matrix, but because of the fact that no damage will result if the
specimen accidentally comes in contact with water.

The greater part of this material proved to be new, and it thus gave a
direct and important addition to previous lists. Very rarely, however,
were the leaves at all perfectly preserved. The specimens were fragments
only, and but few cases exhibited even the margin. Determinations,
therefore, had to be based chiefly upon the character of the venation. It
will thus be seen that such determinations must of necessity be subject
to a certain element of error, particularly in cases like Ulmus, Fagus,
Carpinus, Ostrya, &c., where the venation is closely similar ; but by very
careful comparison with leaves recently collected, and a critical study of
the direction, average interval and branching of the veins, it is believed
the error from this source has been reduced toa minimum. However, in
all cases where there seems to be reason to believe a doubt exists the
name is followed by a query—a rule which applies to all species throughout
the list.

More recently Professor Coleman has placed in my hands a smaller
collection of leaves from the same locality. While many are specifically
identical with those of the Townsend collection, others are new, and thus
still further extend the list. The following are the species found, with
their localities :—

Taylor's Brickyard.

Acer pleistocenicum, Penh.

* Acer spicatum, Lam.

*Crategus tomentosa, Linn. Var. punctata, Gray.
*Carya alba, Nutt.

*Eriocaulon’ septangulare (1), With.

*Festuca ovina (?), Zinn. Spike.

*Fraxinus americana (1), Linn.

*Fraxinus sambucifolia, Lam.

TPopulus balsamifera (?), Lin.

TPopulus grandidentata, Mich.

528 REPORT—1898.

*Prunus sp. Stone of fruit.

*Potamogeton natans, Linn.

*Quercus acuminata, Roxb.

*Quercus discolor, Azt.

*Quercus macrocarpa (?), Micha.

Salix sp.

Sedge and grass leaves.

*Tilea americana, Lin.

Ulmus americana, Zinn. Fruit and leaves.
*Robinia pseudacacia, Linn.

Gaol Hill.

*Carya alba, Vutt.

*Festuca ovina (?), Linn. Spike.
tHypnum sp.

Grasses and mosses in fragments.

*Tilea americana, Linn. Leaves and fruit.
*Robinia pseudacacia, Linn

Ulmus americana, Linn.

A feature of special interest in the leaf specimens is to be found in
the recurrence of very good specimens of Acer pleistocenicum. When
this leaf was obtained from the Don some years since, the one imperfect
specimen led to the belief that a new species had been found. Other and
somewhat more perfect specimens from these later collections prove the
correctness of the original diagnosis, and show that the species as a new
one must stand.

From these general results it appears that our previous list has been
extended by a total of eighteen new species, giving a total of eighty-one
species now known, while three species occur in new localities.

Of the species the identity of which is to some extent in doubt, and
which require more ample material for final conclusions, it may be observed
that Fraxinus quadrangulata of an earlier list, represented by wood only,
may be J’. sambucifolia. Similarly, Quercus rubra and Q. alba, repre-
sented by wood only, may be Q. discolor and (). macrocarpa respectively,
these last being represented by leaves. So long, however, as there is a
reasonable probability that these various species occur, so far as may be
gathered from the characteristic features of the specimens, they must
stand in the list provisionally, their validity being determined by future
examinations of additional material.

Turning to the extent of the flora represented by the material studied
up to the present time, I find the whole number of species for the various
deposits examined to be as follows :—

Compared with
on,
Identical species.
Don Valley . : : : : ; : ; : 35 0
Green’s Creek and Lesserer’s : : , : , 21 2
Scarborough Heights . ji : A ts j . 14 2
Montreal : : ‘ : ; : ; . ‘ 6 3
Moose River . 3 “ ‘ : ; ; : : 5 2

ON CANADIAN PLEISTOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA. 529

The Don deposits contain four species which also occur in one or more
of the other localities.

Considering the evidence of climatic conditions afforded by these
plants, I find in the first place that the evidence which indicated that
during the Don period a much warmer climate prevailed than in any of
the other localities is greatly strengthened. If, then, we consider the
Pleistocene flora as evidence of climate in comparison with the climate of
the present day, the following results appear :—

Per cent. of species compatible with as warm or a warmer

climate ; : 3 6 ‘ 5 z ‘ : % 44-44
Per cent. of species indicative of a warmer climate. i : iis
Per cent. of species compatible with as cool or a cooler

climate 3 é 3 F F : : a Fs 4 24:07
Per cent. of species indicative of a colder climate . 3 ; 37+

It would thus appear that while a very few northern types found their
southern limit of distribution at this point, the great majority of the
plants—72 per cent.—were such as belong essentially to warmer regions,
28 per cent. being particularly indicative of a greater degree of warmth
than now prevails in the same region.

Infe-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. J. EH. Marr (Chairman), Mr. E. J.
GaRwoop (Secretary), and Mr. F. A. Batuer, Mr. G. C. Crick,
Mr. A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox, Dr. WHEELToN Hinp, Dr. G. J.
Hinpg, Mr. P. F. Kenpauu, Mr. J. W. Kirkiry, Mr. R. Kinston,
Mr. G. W. LamptucH, Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr. G. H.
Morton, Professor H. A. Nicnotson, Mr. B. N. PrEacu, Mr.
A. Srrawan, and Dr. H. Woopwarp, appointed for the pur-
pose of studying the Life-zones in the Carboniferous Rocks. (Drawn
up by the Secretary.)

Since the last meeting of the Association the collection authorised by the
Committee to be made from the deposit of the Millstone Grit Age at
Ececup has reached the Secretary, and has been distributed among the
paleontologists specially appointed by the Committee. Full reports from
these have not yet come to hand ; but the collection is rich both in species
and individuals, and is probably one of the most valuable that has been
made from the Millstone Grit.

Considerable difficulty has been met with in the housing and treatment
of the large collection already received ; and this has materially hindered
the progress of the work for which the Committee were appointed. But
they are now glad to announce that the Director-General of the Geological
Survey, hearing of this difficulty and appreciating the great value of the
collection, very kindly, not only offered accommodation for the collections
of the Committee in the Museum of the Geological Survey in Jermyn
Street, but promised every facility for the study of the specimens by the
specialists appointed by the Committee.

In consequence of the difficulties mentioned above the Committee felt
it impossible to encourage individual workers to make collections from the
other beds of the series until some definite resolution should be come to
with regard to the housing of the specimens. They are, however, glad to

pais Cant since attention has been drawn to the importance of zoning
8. MM

530 REPORT—1898.

the Carboniferous rocks in Britain several papers have appeared which
they hope are only the forerunners of numerous interesting communica-
tions on the same subject.

The Committee beg to renew their application for a small grant for
working expenses, which have already exceeded the amount originally
voted to them, the expenses, entailed by carriage of specimens, being a
constantly recurring charge on the Secretary of the Committee.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES GEIKIE
(Chairman), Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. Tempest ANDERSON,
Mr. J. E. Beprorp, Mr. H. Coates, Mr. C. V. Crook, Mr. E. J.
Garwoop, Mr. J. G. Goopcnitp, Mr. Witiiam Gray, Mr.
Rosert Kipston, Mr. A. S. Rem, Mr. J. J. H. Trann, Mr.
R. H. Tippemay, Mr. H. B. Woopwarp, Mr. F. Wootnouen,
and Professor W. W. Watts (Secretary). (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

THE Committee have the honour to report that during the year 250 new
photographs have been received, bringing the total number in the collec-
tion up to 2,001. No circulars have been sent out this year, but, in spite
of this, the number is above the average.

In addition to this 44 prints and 14 slides have been given to the
duplicate collection, which now contains many representative photographs,
so that future additions are likely not to be so numerous, and to consist
only of exceptionally good examples of geological phenomena. Fi

The usual detailed list is appended in a shortened form, and a glance
at it will show that Northampton is now represented for the first time in
the collection, and that the following counties and districts are more
richly represented than hitherto :—Gloucester, Norfolk, Warwick, West-
moreland, Worcester, the Isle of Man, Aberdeen, Ayr, Bute, Banff, Fife,
Inverness, and Sutherland.

Amongst the more noteworthy donations may be mentioned an
interesting set from Arran, Cumbrae, Ailsa Craig, and the Fifeshire
voleanic necks by Mr. A. S. Reid, together with some from Westmore-
land and Banffshire by the same donor; a set from Glenroy and the
Scottish Highlands by Mr. W. Lamond Howie; large series from West-
moreland and Yorkshire, many of them representing glacial phenomena,
unconformities, and faults, by Mr. Godfrey Bingley ; pleistocene deposits by
Mr. G. Nichols ; dykes in the new red sandstone by the North Staffordshire
Naturalists’ Field Club; silurian, cambrian, and igneous rocks of the
Midlands by Mr. K. F. Bishop ; raised beaches in Devon by Miss Part-
ridge ; oolites by Mr. Coomara-Swamy ; a set from the Rochdale district
by the Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society ; a set from the Isle of
Man ; and one of typical specimens of rocks and microscopic slides. To
the donors mentioned and to the following your Committee are especially
indebted :—Mr. H. Preston, Mr. H. A. Allen, Mr. 8S. 8S. Platt, Mr. A.
Strahan, Mr. Lowe, Mr. Stebbing, Mr. Hingley, Miss Andrews, Mr.
Meigh, Mr. Turner, Mr. H. C. McNeill, Mr. C. E. Salmon, Miss M. C.
Crostield, and to Herr Bjérlykke.

The Committee would call attention to the smal] amount of work yet
done in such districts as N. and 8. Wales, the Yorkshire Dales and Moors,

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 531

the Malverns, the districts round Oxford and Cambridge, Cornwall, the
Southern Uplands, the Central Valley of Scotland, and Central and

Southern Ireland.

4
: | Duplicates
Pre- New
: 3 PSE a | Total |Previous| Additions (1898)
| toi (1s9s) collec- pemhuail arian Total
: tion | Prints | Slides |
ENGLAND— | | |
Cheshire . hy eae — wet tie. ahh =e 1 12
Cumberland .| 6 2 et came — — —
Devon . .| 89 Grey 95 || 6 2 — 8
Dorset 24] RBI Bava 12 ol 6 _ das 6
Gloucester. | 6 Cee 12 ee 1 = = 1
Kent ‘ 2 58 Z 60 | 9 4 — 13
Lancashire. 41 8 49 | 10 — ae, AR AIC)
Leicester g 91 = oF) latins | Ni — 1 20% hi
Monmouth . 4 1a Fn 1 1 are = 2
Norfolk . 10 6 Ip 4 6 el Tou
Northampton . = Gree) (Ws oo — | — | -— |}
Shropshire. 26 PS | Teer 43; 8 -- — | Sy if
Somerset. . 39 — SCS ke als a perce
Stafford. .| 26 Pega” hy. | ual an ae ns 6
Suffolk .. 2 2 ee | Or cee | alc —- | — |
Surrey . 4 17 4 ye) ae io =e ry 5
Warwick. . 11 7 Sy a epee ttl ane eee |
Westmoreland. 10 46 56 Tp) |) 6
Worcester é 2 on) 5 if a ae |
Yorkshire by 321 42 363 58 | ye 60
Others . ae es) = 169. , | 7 — — i
\— em tS i | —
Total . . | 1027 152 | 1179 160 | 18 2 180
WALES— | |
Carnarvon é 62 SA iee ee Oe ehh? FILLE 1 4
Denbigh . 13 == to Sygit | 1 4 — 5
Glamorgan . 12 = |e tee. ah eee 1 | ec San |
Merioneth 19 Jen Rieger. Ua 2 1 Zz 5
Others . : 16 _— 16 / 6 — — 6
Motal ss. |r 128 Hee ieee VL Se a gti ten; ap Tee
IsLE OF MAN . 30 22 Sonn ie Sus | bes US) eoGgrts |
ScoTLAND— | | | |
Aberdeen 2 6 eee ss 2 ee
Argyll. 26 2 Ce PR a pe! 1
Ayr. : ‘ 1 5 OW I $ — 5
Banff ; 1 3 4 — — ais Bed
Bute 1 5 6 — = . ire
Fife. 7 i eae au pe 7
Inverness 14 88 4a j= 1 = 1
Lanark . 4 Lit 5 .'] 5 - — 5
Perth . lade oes cto] afeaea is Visa as — = 3
, Sutherland & SIE, Go 2 — — 2
\ Others . 82 — 82 240; — pets. es
i sec | |
Total. .| 166 50 | 216 4p hun 6), Ji Taille
MM 2

Etc ar.

532 REPORT—1898.

Duplicates
Pre- New
x vious addi- te +4
aliens Rane Total | Previous| Additions (1898) ;
acct (1898) collee- || Total
tion Prints Slides

IRELAND—
Antrim . A 164 1 |) 16Gb 4) 25 1 = 26
Galway . - 23 1 24 3} — — 3

Others . 5 165 — 155 | 23 — — 23

Total . -| 342 2 344 51 i _— 52
Rock StTRuc-

TURES. : 50 23 73 8 14 6 28
ENGLAND O27, 152 1179 | 160 18 2 180
WALES . a 122 1 123 34 6 3 43
CHANNEL Is- :

LANDS : 14 — 14 = — —_— ==
IsLE OF MAN . 30 22 52 3 — 1 4
SCOTLAND A 166 50 216 43 5 — 48
IRELAND . : 342 2 344 51 1 — 52
Rock STRUC- r

TURES. . 50 23 73 8 14 6 28
Others d — = = 1 = 2 3

Motal so eal kped 250 | 2001 300 44 14h 358

The Committee note with pleasure that one of their most valued con-
tributors has placed many of his negatives in the hands of a dealer, fro
whom lantern-slides may be obtained. If this example were often followed
it would be an easier matter for those who wish to obtain copies of
photographs to do so without taxing the good nature of contributors. The
Secretary often has to deal with requests from British and foreign geolo-
gists who want prints or slides from the photographs placed on these
lists.

Notices of the work of the Committee have appeared in many peri-
odicals and journals, including ‘Science Gossip,’ ‘The Practical Photo-
grapher,’ and ‘The Standard,’ while ‘Nature’ published an account of
last year’s collection, accompanied by processed reproductions of photo-
graphs kindly lent for the purpose by Mr. R. McF. Mure, Mr. Godfrey
Bingley, and Mr. R. Welch.

Series of photographs contributed by the North Staffordshire Natu-
ralists’ Field Club, the Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society, and the
Hull Geological Society, indicate that local societies continue to take a
friendly interest in the work, and that in addition to collecting photo-
graphs for themselves in their own district, they are willing to help forward
the national collection.

The most important event of the year, from a photographic point of
view, is the inauguration of the National Photographic Record Association,
under the presidency of Sir J. B. Stone, M.P. The work of this Associa-
tion is distinct from that of this Committee, as it is mainly limited to
records, while the Committee aim at securing typical phenomena as well
as records. The Committee will furnish to the Association each year a
list of the photographs of which the Association ought, where possible, to’

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 533

secure duplicates. The Secretary has been elected a member of Council of
the Association.

The photographs received during the year are now being mounted,
and, after exhibition at Bristol, will be bound up with the rest of the
collection at the Museum of Practical Geology, 28 Jermyn Street, where
they may always be referred to on application to the Librarian. The
entire collection is arranged topographically under counties and their
natural divisions, so that reference is as easy as circumstances will permit.
A catalogue arranged under counties is kept at Jermyn Street, and a card
catalogue is maintained up to date as new photographs are received.

Mention was made in the Report for 1897 of the formation of a dupli-
cate loan collection of prints and slides. This has now been arranged
geologically and made available for circulation. The additions made
during the year—forty-four prints and fourteen slides—are acknowledged
in List II. A descriptive account of the slides has been printed by the
Secretary, and sent to those societies which have borrowed them for
exhibition. This description has also proved useful as labels for such
prints as deal with subjects similar to the slides.

The duplicate collection has been lent to the Dublin Field Club, the
Belfast Field Club, the Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical
Society, and to the Photographic Exhibition at the Crystal Palace.
Applications for the loan of this collection for the forthcoming winter
should be made to the Secretary as soon as possible. The only expense
to the borrowing Societies is the carriage (one way only when that can be
arranged) and the making good of any damage to prints or slides.

A list of donors to this collection is appended to List IT., and to them
the Committee express their thanks.

The photographs in this selected series are naturally of the kind which
would be most useful to those who wish to obtain typical examples for
teaching purposes or for exhibition in illustration of papers ; and there-
fore, whenever it has been possible to arrange it, an address is given
whence prints or slides may be purchased. But it must be distinctly
understood that the Committee can undertake no responsibility or corre-
spondence in this matter. All information possible will be circulated
with the collection, and there the Committee’s work must end ; would-be
_ purchasers must make their own arrangements with photographers, in
whom exclusively the copyright remains vested.

Tt has been decided to discontinue issuing the list of published photo-
graphs, as no important service appears to be rendered by it, but a careful
record will be kept of all photographs which have been used to illustrate
papers or books. The Committee are indebted to the editors of the
‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society’ and of the ‘ Proceedings of
the Geologists Association’ for help rendered in connexion with this
branch of the work.

The Secretary will be grateful if the donors of photographs will
kindly look through the parts of the lists in which they are interested
and will notify to him any slips in the spelling of proper names, in the
geographical or geological descriptions, or mistakes of any other kind
which occur in the Report.

The Committee ask for their reappointment with a small grant to
defray some of the expenses connected with the mounting, storing, and
collection of the photographs, and for printing such circulars and forms as
are necessary for carrying on the work.

5384 REPORT—1898.

NINTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS
(ro June 30, 1898).

Nore.—This list contains the subjects of geological photographs
copies of which have been received by the Secretary of the Committee
since the publication of the last Report. Photographers are asked to
aflix the registered numbers, as given below, to their negatives for con-
venience of future reference. Their own numbers, where given, are
added, in the same order, to enable them to do so.

Copies of photographs desired can, in most instances, be obtained
from the photographer direct, or from the officers of the Local Society
under whose auspices the views were taken.

The price at which copies may be obtained depends on the size of the
print and on local circumstances, over which the Committee have no
control.

The Committee find it necessary to reiterate the fact that they do not
assume the copyright of any photographs included in this list. Inquiries
respecting photographs, and applications for permission to reproduce
them, should mot be addressed to the Committee, but to the photographers
direct.

The very best photographs lose half their utility, and all their value
as documentary evidence, unless accurately described ; and the Secretary
would be grateful if, wherever possible, such explanatory details ag can
be given were written on the forms supplied for the purpose, and not on
the back of the photograph or elsewhere. Much labour and error of tran-
scription would thereby be saved. A local number by which the print
can be recognised should be written on the back of the photograph and on
the top right-hand corner of the form.

Copies of photographs should be sent wnmounted to W. W. Watts,
Mason University College, Birmingham, and forms may be obtained from
him.

The size of photographs is indicated as follows :—

L= Lantern size. 1/1 = Whole plate.
1/4 = Quarter-plate. 10/8 =10 inches by 8.
1/2 = Half-plate. 12/10 =12 inches by 10, &ce.

E signifies Enlargements. :
* indicates that photographs and slides may be purchased from the donors, or the
address given with the series.

Rist i:
ENGLAND.

CuMBERLAND.—Photographed by A. 8. Reip, Trinity College, Glenalmond,
MB lyk
ig /

4NO.
1792 (M78) Watendlath Tarn from Moraine-dammed tarn. 1895.

North.
4793 (M81) Watendlath Tarn from a . i ‘
North.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 539

DEvoNsHIRE.—Photographed by Miss E. M. Partriner, 75 High Street,
Barnstaple. 1/2.

ar

oO.

4884 (1) Saunton Down End, Barn- Crumpled Pilton Beds. 1897.
staple Bay.

4885 (2) Saunton Down End, Barn- Raised Beach on Pilton Beds. 1897.
staple Bay.

1886 (3) Saunton Down End, Barn- 5 = -
staple Bay.

4887 (4) Saunton Down End, Barn- ‘ “ 2 3
staple Bay.

4943 (5) Saunton Down End, Barn- Pseudo-ripple marking in Pilton Beds.
staple Bay. 1898.

1942 (6) Saunton é - . Contorted Pilton Beds. 1898.

Dorset.—Photographed by H. Preston, Grantham. 1/4.

2007 ( ) Eypemouth, near Bridport . Bathonian faulted against Middle Lias.
1898.

GLoucrster.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara-Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4 and (E.).
1959 (¢ 4) Quarry ontopof Cleeve Hill ‘Harford Sands,’ covered by a little
‘Snowshill Clay,’ Inferior Oolite. 1897.

1960 (¢g 5) Cleeve Hill : : . Escarpment of Pisolite. 1897.
1961 (g 6) ”? ” bs! - = ” ” ”
1962 (g 7) ” ” . . . ” ” ”
4963 (¢9) Leckhampton Hill (E.) . Succession of Inferior Oolite. 1897.
4964 (g13) Minchinhampton, large False Bedding in Great Oolite. 1897.

quarry (E.).
Kernt.—Photographed by H. A. Auten, 28 Jermyn Street, London, S.W.
1/4.
1888 ( ) Crayford, Brick Pit . . Thanet Sand on Chalk. 1897.
1889 () Camden Park Pit, Chisle- Thanet Sand resting on Chalk. 1897.

hurst.

LaNcASHIRE.—Photographed by F. Greenwoop, 5 St. Mary’s Gate,
Rochdale.* Presented by the Rocupate Liv. anv Sc. Sociery. 1/2.

2009 (167) Littleborough, Rochdale . Slickensided Millstone Grit. 1897.

2010 (168) Leach Hill, Blackstone Jointed Millstone Grit and talus of frag-
Edge, near Rochdale. ments broken along joints. 1897. :

2011 (169) Tom Stones, Blackstone Weathering of Millstone Grit. 1897.
Edge Moor, near Rochdale.

2012 (170) Nicholas Pike, B. by N. of Glacial Boulderof Buttermere Granophyre,
Rochdale. ’ 1,050 feet above O. D. 1897.

Photographed by A. S. Rut, Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B. 1/4.
4869 (G16) Hampsfell, near Grange. ‘Grikes’ in Carboniferous Limestone. 1893.

4870 (G17) B i : # A 7
1871 (G 20) » ” . ” th ”
1872 (G 21) ” ” . ” ” 2?

Monmoutusuire.—Photographed by H. L. P. Lown, Shirenewton Hall,
Chepstow. 1/2.
1804 ( ) Severn Tunnel Cutting. . Water-bearing stratum with frozen
springs.

536 | REPORT—1898.

NorroLk.—Photographed by A. SrraHAn, 28 Jermyn Street, London, S.W.
1/4.
Regd. /
No.
1786 (68) Half-a-mile west of Cromer Contorted Drift. 1893.
1787 (41) West of Cromer . 2 . Boulder 40 feet long in Contorted Drift.
1893.

1788 (382) Near Trimingham . . Leda myalis Bed, Forest Bed and Con-
torted Drift. 1893.

Photographed by Goprrry Binciny, Thorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds.

1/2.
1893 (4218) Mundesley . : . Cliffs of Sand. 1897.
1894 (4219) ” : ; . Sands with Clay at base, 1897.
1895 (4220) ” : ; . Sands onChalk. 1897.

Norruampron.—Photographed by G. Nicuots, The Drapery, Northampton.
1/2

ae

1874 (3) Mr. Martin’s Brickyard, Section of Clay. 1897.

Northampton.

1875 (4) Mr. Martin’s Brickyard, Treesin Clay. 1897.
Northampton.

1876 (5) Mr. Martin’s Brickyard, 3 x 5
Northampton.

1877 (2) Mr. Martin’s Brickyard, Skulls of Bos taurus. 1897.

Northampton.

1878 (1) Mr. Martin’s Brickyard, + a 9
Northampton.

1890 (6) Mr. Martin’s Brickyard, Trunk of oak, 32 feet, by 4 feet 6 inches.
Northampton. 1898. x

SHRopPSHIRE.—Photographed by K. F. Bisnop, 18 New Street, West
Bromwich. 1/4.
1944 ( ) The Longmynd, near Plow- Llandovery Rocks resting unconformably
den. on Longmyndian Rocks. 1898.
1945 () The Longmynd, near Plow- Bedding and Cleavage in Longmyndian
den. Rocks. 1898.

STAFFORDSHIRE.—Photographed by A. Mutcu, Ash Hall, Stoke-on-Trent.
Contributed by the Nortu StarrorpsuirE Frevp Crus. 1/2.

1879 (1) Quarry near Butterton Basalt Dyke in Permian Rocks. 1892.
: Church, Trentham.

1880 (2) Hanchurch Hills . : . Basalt Dyke, piercing Bunter Pebble
Beds. 1892.

1881 (3) Gravel Pit, Trentham Park . Bunter Pebble Beds and Sandstone. 1892.

1882 (4) os ”» » «+ Current bedding in Sands and Pebble

Beds of the Bunter. 1892.

Photographed by H. M. 8. Turner, Hanley. Contributed by the
Norru Starrorpsuire Fietp Cus. 1/2.

1883 (5) Coombes Valley, Cheddleton, Contorted Yoredale Shales. 1893.
near Leek.

Photographed by K. F. Bisuor, 18 New Street, West Bromwich. 1 /4.

1946 ( ) Rowley Regis : : . Starch-like columns in Dolerite. 1898.
1947 ( ) Quarry j-mile N.E. of Old- Columnar Dolerite. 1898.
ham House, Rowley.
1948 ( ) Quarry at Turner’s Hill, near Relation of jointing to Spheroidal Struc-
Rowley. ture. 1898.

a

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 537

SurrotK.—Photographed by W. D. Harmer, St. Bartholomew's Hospital,
London. 1/2.

Regd.

NO.

2005 (1) Iken, near Aldeburgh . . Coralline Crag.
2006 (2 » ” . . ” ”

Surrey.—Photographed by W. P. D. Stesrine, 169 Gloucester Terrace,
Hyde Park, London, W. 1/4.

1831 (A) Betchworth . ; F . Granite boulder in ‘Chalk, 7 lbs. 7 ozs.
1896.

1832 (B) = ; : f . Granite boulder in Chalk, 3 lbs. 12 ozs.
1896.

Photographed by C. E. Saumon, Clevelands, Reigate. 1/2.
1891 (1) Colley Hill Quarry, Reigate . Chloritic Marl and Upper Greensand.
1897.

1892 (2) Frenches Pit, Red Hill. . Folkestone Sand covered by Drift. 1897.

WarwicksuirE.—Photographed by W. W. Watts, Mason University
College, Birmingham. 1/4.
1949 (372) Quarry near Midland Sta- Cambrian Quartzite, overlain by Trias.

tion, Nuneaton. 1898.

4950 (365) Mr. Tryes Quarry, N. of Diorite Dyke intrusive in Cambrian
Nuneaton. Quartzite. 1898.

1954 (364) Mr. Trye’s Quarry, N. of Diorite Dyke intrusive in Cambrian
Nuneaton. Quartzite. 1898.

4952 (370) Camp Hill Grange Quarry, Hyolithus Beds of the Cambrian. 1898.
near Nuneaton.

1953 (369) Camp Hill Grange Quarry, “A mn - 3
near Nuneaton.

1954 (366) Old Quarry, near Chapel Dyke of Diorite repeated three times by

End, Nuneaton. faults. 1898.
1955 (367) Mr. Trye’s Railway Cut- Stockingford Shales overlain unconform-
ting, Chapel End. ably by Carboniferous Beds. 1898.

WesTMORELAND.—Photographed by A. S. Reip, Trinity College,
Glenalmond, N.B. 1/4.
1789 (58) Murton Pike . A . Fault separating Carboniferous Limestone

from Skiddaw Slate. 1895.
1790 (M a) Mell Fell and Roman Skiddaw Slate and Carboniferous Lime-

stone. 1895.
1791 (M Es "Head of Scordale . . Great Whin Sill and Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1895.

Photographed by Goprrey Binary, Thorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds.
1/2.
Lantern slides from those marked thus (*) may be obtained from Messrs. Rey-
nolds & Branson, Commercial Street, Leeds.

1896* (4452) Augill Beck, lBrough- Lower Carboniferous Sandstone. 1898.
under-Stainmoor.

1897 (4453) re a % “ a3 ” »

1898 (4455) ” ” ” ” » ” ”»

1899 (4457) ” ” ” ” ” ” ”

1900* (4458) ” a . Vertical Lower Carboniferous Sandstone.
1898.

1901* (4459) at ” ”

” ” ” ’
4902* (4428) Shap Quarries, Wasdale Granite. 1898.
Crag.

538

Reet.

1903 (4431) Shap Quarries, Wasdale
Crag.

1904* (4432)

1905* (4433)

” ” ”

1906* (4426) Wasdale Crag, side of
Railway.

1907* (4434) Wasdale Beck, near Shap
Wells.

1908* (4420) High Cup Nick, near Ap-
pleby.

41909* (4415)
1910* (4418)
41911* (4416)
1912* (4417)

” ” ”
cr) ”? ”

” ” ”

1913* (4360) Hoft Beck, near Appleby.
1914* (4361) ” ”
1915 (43862) ” ”
1916* (4363) = -
1917* (4364) is ”

1918* (4366)
1919 (43870) Hunrige’s Quarry, near
ppleby.

1920* (4371) Hilton Beck, Appleby.

1921* (4374)

1922* (4375) Hilton’ Quarry, near Ap-
pleby.

1923 (4378) Hilton Beck, near Hilton.

1924* (4395) Dufton Pike and Brown-
ber.

1925 (4444) x ‘ Fe

1926* (4411) Murton Pike .

1927* (4421) Middle Tongue, High Cup

Gill.

1928 (4396) Brownber from near
Knock Pike.

1929* (4410) From near Harbour Flat,
Appleby.

1930* (4408) Inner Tongue from Har-
bour Flat, Appleby.

1931 (4409) Near Harbour Flat, Ap-
pleby.

1932* (4419) Murton Pike

1933 (4391) Dufton Pike and Cosca
Moraines.

1934 (4881) Looking up Hilton Beck
from Roman Fell.

1935 (4379) Hilton Beck, near Hilton.

1936 (4407) From _ Brackenthwaite,
near Appleby.

1937 (4399) Knock Pike .

1938 (4393) Dufton Pikeand Swindale

Beck.

REPORT—1898.

Granite. 1898.

1898.
1898.

Segregation patches in Granite.
Roches moutonnées of Granite.
Glacial striz on Granite. 1898.

Basement Carboniferous Conglomerate
with pebbles of Shap Granite. 1898.
Whin Sill in Carboniferous Limestone

1898.

” ” ” ”

33 99 ” ”
” 9°

Carboniferous
1898.

Lower Brockram Escarpment. 1898.

” ” ch) ”
+ », joints passing through peb-
bles.

1898.

Lower Brockram. 1898 4
Penrith Sandstone (Permian). 1898.
Upper Brockram Escarpment. 1898.
St. Bee’s Sandstone. 1898.
View across the Pennine Fault. 1898.
Middle Pennine Fault. 1898.
Inner and Middle Pennine Faults. i898.
Inner Pennine Fault. 1898.

oy is ms Moraines. 1898.

-} ) ” 9 1898.

5 < - Moraines. 1898.
Terminal Moraines. 1898.
Moraine Mounds. 1898.

Moraines. 1898.

Position of Dufton Shales. 1898,

Cross Fell Inlier. 1898.

‘WORCESTERSHIRE.—Photographed by K. F. Bisnop, 18 New Street, West

Bromwich.

1956 ( ) Wren’s Nest, Dudley
1957 ¢ ) ” ”
1958 ¢ ) ,, ” ”

1/4,

Jointing and Cavern in Wenlock Lime-
stone. L898.

Curve in strike of Wenlock Limestone.
1898.

Overfoid in Wenlock Limestone. 1898.

$9 ’
Limestone Escarpment.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

539

YorksuHirE.—Photographed by G. Hrnetry, The School House,

Cullercoats.

Regd.
No. :
1833 ( ) The Buttertubs Pass be-
tween Wensleydale and Swale-
dale.

) ”» ” ”

1834 (

1/2.

Swallow-hole in Carboniferous Limestone.
1897.

” ” ” ”

Photographed by Goprrey BInGLEy, Thorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds.

1965
1966
1967
1968

(4517) Crummack Dale,
Clapham.
(4515) ” ” ”

near

(4519) Crummack Beck Head .
(4520) ” SB) ”

1969

1970
1971

(4514) Crummack Daie , .

(4516) a
(4509) Norber
ham.

” . .
Brow, near Clap-

1972
1973
1974
1975

1976
1977

1978
1979
1980

1981
1982 °

1983
1984

(40S me)

(4503) ” ” ” ”

(4506) ” ” ”” ”

(4493) Gaping Gilland Fell Beck,
Ingleborough.

(4425) os, Pr ¥

(4496) i, x rs

(4498) Below Gaping Gill, Fell
Beck, Ingleborough.

(4484) Skirwirth Quarries, In-
gleton.

(4487) ‘ Granite’ Quarries, Ingle-
ton.

(4488) ” % ”

(4492) Ingleborough, from top of
Raven Scar.

(4490) Raven Scar, Ingleton

(4485) Under Raven Scar, In-
gleton.

1985 (4486) ” ”? ” ”

Photographed by J. T. Dyson, Hopwood Street, Hull.
Hutt Georocicat Soctery.

(1) Kettleness, South of Runs-
wick Bay.

(2) Blea Wyke Nab . . -

1988 (3) ,, & We ete e .

1989 (4) , . aR. =" é :

(8) North Ferriby Cliff, River
Humber.

ey

ale

Glaciated Silurian Rocks. 1898.

Basement of Carboniferous Limestone.
1898.

Junction of Carboniferous Limestone and
Silurian Rocks. 1898.

Basement Beds of Silurian resting on Or-
dovician, and both covered unconform-
ably by Carboniferous Limestone. 1898.

Face of Silurian Rocks from which the
Norber Boulders were carried. 1898.

Line of Norber Boulders. 1898.

Erratic Boulders of Silurian Rocks perched
on pedestals of Carboniferous Limestone.
1898.

Pedestal striated. 1898.

Terminal Moraine of Norber Glacier. 1898.

Swallow-hole in Carboniferous Limestone,
1898.

Stream Course in Carboniferous Limestone.
1898.

Old Swallow-hole in Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1898.

Carboniferous Limestone. 1898.

Ancient (pre-Silurian) Grit. 1898.

” ” ” ”
Carboniferous Limestone capped by Mill-
stone Grit. 1898.
Terrace of Carboniferous Limestone. 1898.
Unconformable Junction of Carboniferous
Limestone on Ancient (pre-Silurian)
Rocks. 1898.
Carboniferous Limestone resting uncon-
formably on upturned Ancient (pre-
Silurian) Rocks. 1898.

Contributed by the
1/2.
Junction of Middle and Upper Lias. 1894,

Junction of Lias and Oolite. 1894.

Nerinea band in Dogger. 1994.

Boulder Clay overlain by Clay of Hessle
type. 1896.

540 REPORT—1898.

Regd.

No.

1994 (9) North Ferriby Cliff, River Lower Boulder Clay overlain by warps.
Humber. 1896.

1995 (10) ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ”

1996 (11) ,, + Pe ss ‘ Intermediate Bed.’

Photographed by E. H. Howiertr, Wright Street, Hull. Contributed by
the Hut Guotocican Socrery. 1 /2.

1990 (5) Southfield, Hessle ‘ . Hessle Gravel, under Boulder Clay. 1895.

1991 (6) Chalk Lane, Hull : . ‘¥orest Bed.’ 1894.

1992 (7) ” ” ” ~ » ” ” ”

Photographed by H. Percy, High Street, Doncaster. 1/2.

1997 (12) Bempton, Flamborough . Chalk Cliff. 1895.

1998 (15) Thornwick Bay, Flambo- Bedded Chalk. 1895.
rough.

4999 (17) North Landing, Flambo- Cave in bedded Chalk. 1895.
rough.

2000 (18) King and Queen Rocks, Stacks of Chalk. 1895.
Flamborough.

2001 (23) Flamborough Head . . Dennudation of Chalk. 1895.

2002 (26) Warmsworth, nr. Doncaster. Magnesian Limestone. 1898. 1/1.
2003 (27) Wadworth, near Doncaster. Anticline in Magnesian Limestone. 1898.
2004 (28) Balby, near Doncaster . Sand-pit. 1898.

WALES.

Menrionetu.—Photographed by W. W. Warts, Mason University College,
Birmingham. 1/4.
4856 (336) Harlech, railway cutting. Boulder Clay. 1895.

ISLE OF MAN.
Photographed by W. W. Warts, Mason University College, Birmingham.

1/4.

1764 (M1) Langness,nearCastletown. Broken dyke in Manx Slates. 1897.

1765 (M2) 5 3 Tertiary dyke in Carboniferous Con-
glomerate. 1897.

1767 (M5) __,, x i ‘ : ’

1766 (M3) " F Basement Carboniferous Conglomerate.
1897.

1768 (M6) # ™ Unconformity of Carboniferous on Manx
Slates. 1897.

1769 (M 7) ” ” ” ”

1770 (M 8) ” ” ” ”

1771 (M12) * ; = 55

(The Arches)
1772 (M16) Langness,nearCastletown. Dyke in Carboniferous Conglomerate.

1897.
14773 (M18) Glen Wyllin . River Terraces. 1897.
1774 (M20) Ballaheigh Dry Valley. 1897.
1775 (M21) a Fe » continuation of.
1776 (M22) Bishop’s Glen . » looking up.
14777 (M37) Lamb Hill, Bride Hills : * ~ » down.
4778 (M38) 5) : - 3 ayn SED:
14779 (M39) Ballavarkish, Pa . a PY » down.
1780 (M40) - x : 5 7 3 ap:

ee

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 541

Regd.

No.
1781 (M43) Shore at E. end of Bride Sand cemented into dyke-like masses, and
Hills, near Ramsey. ‘scrablag.’ 1897.
1782 to 1785 (M 31 toM 34) Panorama Drift, Boulder Loam, and Gravel with dry
of the Bride Hills from the valleys. 1897.
South.

Photographed by E. Newauu. 1/1.
Transferred to new number on account of duplication.

887 ( ) Shore near Stack of Scar- Carboniferous Limestone.
lett, Castletown.

SCOTLAND.
ABERDEEN.—Photographed by W. Lamonp Howls, Monton Lodge,
Eccles. 1/4.
1806 ( ) Lochnagar from Cioch Panorama.
Mhor.
1807 ( ) From the Great Corrie, £
Lochnagar.
1808 ( ) Ben Muich Dhui from be 1892.
Loch Etchachan.
1809 ( ) Cairn Toul and Loch an 5 -
Uaine.
1810 ( ) View from Ben Muich xe
Dhui.
1826 ( ) Ben Muich Dhui.. . Summer snow. 1893.

ArGyLi.—Photographed by W. Lamonp Howe, Monton Lodge,
Eccles. 1/4.

1811 ( ) East ridge of Ben Crua- Panorama.
chan from Glen Strae.
1827 ( ) Ben Cruachan . f . Disintegration of Granite. 1893.

AyrsHiRE.—Photographed by A. 8. Rei, Trinity College, Glenalmond.
1/4.

1799 (M138) Ailsa Craig, from N.W. . General character of Island. 1895.

1800 (M20) AA om Columnar Microgranite. 1895.

1801 (M21) = s Columnar structure and dykes. 1895.

1802 (M30) Biglees Burn . : . Undercut Waterfall in Old Red Sandstone
Conglomerate. 1895. (E.) -

1803 (M32) Glen Biglees . , : 43 Fe sha? » (E.)

BANFFSHIRE.— Photographed by A. S. Rip, Trinity College, Glenalmond.
1/2.

1828 (HP115) Troup, W. of Cullycan. Blow-hole fallen in. 1897.
1829 (HP116) ,, A + re aa
1830 (HP113) ,, ce ” ” ”

Bure.—Photographed by A. S. Retp, Trinity College, Glenalmond. 1/4.
1794 (M4) Arran, Corriegills Shore . Basicdyke. 1895.

1795 (M3) ,, e = Pitchstone dyke. 1895.
1796 (M5) ,, n 5 Boulder of Granite(?) 1895.
14797 (M7) Great Cumbrae . . Lion dyke from South. 1895.

1798 (M 12) ” ” ° ° ” ” ” ” ”

54.2 REPORT—1898.

FirEsHiRE.—Photographed by A. 8. Rep, Trinity College,
Glenalmond. 6/4.

1858 (HP164) Hast of Newark Castle. White trap dyke in black Shales. 1897.
1859 (HP161) West of Ardross Castle, Agglomerate of ‘neck.’ 1897.
near Elie.
1860 (HP 189) Beneath Ardross Castle. Bedding and jointing of Calciferous Sand-
stone. 1897.
1861 (HP 163) e < 5 Faulted ripple-marks in Sandstone. 1897.
1862 (HP175) Between Pittenweems Dip and strike in Calciferous Sandstones,

and St. Monans. Shales, &e. 1897.
1863 (HP181) Kincraig Point, W. of Remains of volcanic ‘neck.’ 1897.
Elie.
1864 (HP 172 “3 a “al Dyke of curvi-cglumnar Basalt in ‘ neck.’
1897.

INVERNESS-SHIRE.—Photographed by W. Lamonp Howrn, Monton Lodge,
Eccles. 1/4 and 5/4.

gorms.
) Loch Eunach and Sgurr Moraine mounds. 1894.
an Dhu, Cairngorms.

1812 ( ) Glenroy, looking N.. . ‘Parallel Roads.’ 1895.
1813 ( » %» 3 ” ”
1814 ( ) Glenroy . 7 : 4 " " Ai
1815 ( ) 5 A : : mA a »
1816 ( Ss East Leana Mhor x 2 5

from West Leana Mhor.
1817 ( ) ” ” ” ” ” ” ” two.
1818 ( ) Glenroy . , é , e A, », hear view of one
1819 ( ) Glen adjacent to Glenroy, Two ‘parallel roads.’ 1895.

down Glen Collary.
1820 ( ) Loch Coire an Lochan, Panorama. 1896.

Braeriach. '
1821 ( ” LE ” ” ” ;
1822 ( ) Braeriach, 3,250 5 . Snowin summer. 1896.
1823 ( ” ” + Saaheats » crevassed.
1824 ( ) Below Loch Eunach,Cairn- River terraces. 1894.

(

1825

Lanarx.—* Photographed by R. McF. Mure, 35 Underwood, Paisley. 1/2.

2013* ( ) Partick, near Glasgow . Fossil Coal-measure Forest.

PERTHSHIRE.—Photographed by A. 8. Retry, Trinity College,
Glenalmond. 6/4.

1865 (HP75) The‘Deil’sputtin’stane,’ Perched Block. 1897
Callander.

41866 (HP77) ,, ” ” % ” ” ”

1867 (HP80) Loch Lubnaig, from Delta of Balvag River. 1897.
above Strathyre.

1868 (HP81) ,, ” 3 ” ” ” ”

SUTHERLANDSHIRE.—Photographed by K. O. BsériyKKn, Norges
Geologiske wndersogelse, Kristiania. 1/2.

1939 ( ) Near Inchnadamff . . Thrust-plane by roadside. 1897.
1940 ( ) North side Glencoul. . Glencoul thrust-plane. 1897.
1941 ( ) South side Glencoul. . . Hi Ee

Le

oe

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 543

IRELAND.
Antrim.—Photographed by Miss M. K. Anprews, College Gardens,
Belfast. 10/8. (E.)
poet

41873 (2) Quarry near Templepatrick . Chalk, Rhyolite, and Basalt. 1895.

Replaced by Dr. TempEsT ANDERSON, Stonegate, York. 1/1.
568 () Portmoon . : : - Marine denudation.

Criare.—Photographed by W. H. F. AtexanpEr. 1/4.
Transferred to new number on account of duplication.

547 Kilkee. ; ; : : . Marine denudation; caves and headlands.
548 x ” . . . iy e ” ” ” ”
549 : r § ” ”

Gatway.—Photographed by H. L. P. Lows, Shirenewton Hall,
Chepstow. 1/2.

1805 ( ) Between Lough Fin and Glaciation.
Lough Muck.
ROCK-STRUCTURES, ke.

Photographed by W. W. Warts, Mason University College,
Birmingham. 1/4. 1897.

4835 (309) Boulder, Hordwell Cliff, Conglomerate.

Hants.
4836 (251) Selsea, Sussex . : . Flint Breccia.
1837 (310) Flintshire . ‘ : . Crinoidal Carboniferous Limestone.
4838 (281) Dudley, Staffs . - . Wenlock Limestone.
1839 (290) Nailsworth, Glos. . . Oolitic Limestone. Inferior Oolite. (M.)
1840 (299) Moira, Leicester : . Spore Coal (M.) Transverse section.
1841 (300) ,, - : » Longitudinal.
14842 (264) Doncaster, York A . Glaciated Boulder.
1843 (268) Banffshire. : . Contorted Mica-schist.
41844 (284) Scotland . - . Contorted Slate. (M.)
1845 (307) Little Caradoc, Salop - Quartzite. (M.)
4846 (313) Rhiconich, Aberdeenshire. Hornblendic Gneiss.
1847 (272) Antrim . . Amygdaloidal Basalt.
1848 (282) Tardree, Antrim 5 . Rhyolite, with flow-structure.
1849 (314) Northumberland , . Spheroidal Basalt.
1850 (298) Oatlands, Isleof Man . Granite. (M.)
1851 (294) Phillipstown, ancens. sC ay Tuff. (M.)
1852 (291) Skye. : Spheroidal Felsite. (M.)
4853 (822) Londonderry . 5 . Ophitic Dolerite. (M.)
1854 (16: 3) Arran ; : 0 . Pitchstone. (M.)
1855 (835) Atlantic . ; . Globigerine Ooze. (M.)
4857 (3825) Fanad, Donegal ; . _Contorted Limestone.

Photographed by A. 8. Rup, Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B. 1/2.
2008 (HP 100) Perthshire . : . Fold and fault in rock-specimen. 1898.7

544 REPORT—1898.

LIST II.
THE DUPLICATE (LOAN) COLLECTION.

The numbers placed after the description of the photograph refer to
the list of names and addresses given at the end. The first refers to the
photographer, who is also the donor in most cases. Wher he is not, the
donor is indicated by a second number.

Full localities and descriptions are given in present and previous lists
under the numbers.

This collection is arranged geologically, and from time to time the less
perfect and less typical photographs will be removed and better ones sub-
stituted as they are given. Those laid aside can always be seen, sent, or
returned by request.

* indicates that prints and slides may be bought from the photographer or
from the address given at the end. P. indicates prints. 8. indicates slides. _

Examples of Different Rocks.

Regd.
No.
1763 Conglomerate (Carboniferous) . Langness, Isle of Man. 1S.
1885 5 Specimen of . _ Hordwell. 1P.5.
1836 Breccia . Selsea. 1P.S.

4887 Crinoidal Limestone(Carboniferous)Flintshire. 1 P. §.
4839 Oolitic Limestone (Inferior Oolite) Nailsworth, Glos. 1 P.
1840 Spore Coal. Z = . Moira, Leicester. 1 P. S.

Rock-Structures.

Bedding.
4998 Bedded Chalk . : : . Thornwick Bay, Flamborough. 48 P.

Fossils in Rocks.
1838 Limestone . - : : . Dudley (Wenlock) Limestone. 1 S.

Evidences of Earth-movement.
Elevation and Submergence.

1885 Raised Beach . 3 : . Saunton, Devon. 49 P.
1887 : ; : 3 : + =! 49 P.
Folding and Faulting.
41887 Contorted Limestone. . Fanad, Donegal. 1 P.
2008 Fold and fault in rock specimen. Perthshire. 15 P.
1927 Inner Pennine Fault . 3 . Middle Tongue, High Cup Gill, York. 3 P.*
Unconformity.

1696 Lias on Carboniferous Limestone. Southerndown, Glamorgan. 43 P.

Surface Agencies ; Denudation and Deposit.
Running Water; Streams.

4802 Undercut waterfall . : . Biglees Burn, Ayrshire. 15 P.
1803 4 : = RG aes a 5 15 PB.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST 5A5

Caverns and Springs.

Regd
No.
1804 Icicles showing line of springs . Entrance to Severn Tunnel, Monmouth,
41 P.
Wind Action.
460 Blown Sand, stratified : . Leasowe, Cheshire. 10 8.
Action of Rain.
2 LEarth Pillars 5 : - Botzen, Tyrol. 345.
3 es 6 ~ 4 : : op + 34 S.
Glaciation ; Glaciated Surfaces.
1906 Striz on Granite : ; . Wasdale Crag, Westmoreland. 3 P.*

Glaciation ; Erratic and Perched Blocks,
1842 Glaciated Boulder (Limestone). Doncaster. 1 P.S.

Glaciation ; Boulder Clays.
1856 BoulderClay . ; a . Railway, 8. of Harlech. 1 P.S.

Volcanic and Plutonic Rocks.

Rock-masses and their Relations.

1286 Agelomerate (Precambrian) : Hanging Stone, Charnwood, Leicester.
603 Granitite intrusive in Tremadoc Foel Tan-y-Grisian, Carnarvon. 3185.
827 Peet masses in Ordovician Yr Wifl, Nevin, Carnarvon. 25 S.

1909 Whin it in Carboniferous Lime- High Cup Nick, near Appleby. 3 P.*

stone.

Rocks and their Structures.

1800 Columnar Microgranite . . Ailsa Craig. 15 P.

1801 3 a é - = Tbe:

1849 Spheroidal Basalt : : . Northumberland. 1 P.

1847 Amygdaloidal Basalt . z . Squire’s Hill, Antrim. 1 P.
1848 Flow-structure in Rhyolite. . Tardree, Antrim. 1 P.

1859 Porphyritic Pitchstone : 7 Arrans LP:

1853 Ophitic Olivine-dolerite . . Gortacloghan, Londonderry, 1 P.

1851 Tuff (Carboniferous) . J . Phillipstown, Queen’s County. 1 P..

Characteristic Rocks and Landscapes.

Paleozoic.
857 Carboniferous Limestone . . Burrington Combe, Mendip Hills. 2 P.
550 a % . . Eglwyseg Rocks, near Llangollen, Den-
bigh. 51 P. :
551 ss 5 bs . Tynant Ravine, near Llangollen. 51 P.
552 ” ” ° . ” ” 51 P.
551a Fs Bron-heulog Quarry ,, 51 P.

163 Maegnesian Limestone é ; . Garforth, Yorkshire. 5 P.
1916 Lower Brockram Escarpment of Near Hoff, Appleby. 3 P.*
Permian.

Mesozoic.

1922 St. Bee’s Sandstone (Trias) . Hilton Quarry, Appleby. 3 P.*
1595 A pe is of Chalk on Trias Murlough Bay, Antrim. 50, 9 P.*
1898. NN

546 REPORT—1898.
Cainozoic.
Regd
No.
224 Junction of Thanet Sand and Elham Valley Railway. 52 P.
Chalk.
226 Junction of Thanet Sand and Pe a 52 P.
Chalk.
228 Jenction of Thanet Sand and A 3 Soe
Chalk.
231 Junction of Thanet Sand and s Ay 52 P.
Chalk.
1758 Forest Bed Series : ; . E. of Cromer and near Trimingham,
Norfolk. - 8 P.
4787 Boulder of Chalk in Drift . . W. of Cromer, Norfolk. 8 P.
41932 Moraines. ; 5 . Murton Pike, Westmoreland. 3 P.*
4825 Moraine,takeninsnow . . Loch Eunach, Cairngorm, Inverness. 46 P.

Names and Addresses of Donors and Photographers.

1. Professor W. W. Watts, Mason University College, Birmingham.

2. Professor F. J. Allen, Mason University College, Birmingham.

8. Godfrey Bingley, Thorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds.

Transparencies of many of Mr. Bingley’s photographs may be obtained from
Messrs. Reynolds & Branson, Commercial Street, Leeds.

5, A. E. Nichols, 49 Reginald Terrace, Leeds.

8. A. Strahan, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W.

9. R. Welch, Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
10. C. A. Defieux, 50 Windsor Road, Tue Brook, Liverpool.
15. A. S. Reid, Trinity College, Glenalmond, Perth, N.B.
25. G.'T. Atchison, Corndon, Sutton, Surrey.
31. G. J. Williams, Bangor, N. Wales. .
34. R. Kidston, 24 Victoria Place, Stirling.
41. H. L. P. Lowe, Shirenewton Hall, Chepstow.

43. R. H. Tiddeman, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W.

46. W. Lamond Howie, Monton Lodge, Eccles.

48. H. Percy, High Street, Doncaster.

49. Miss EH. M. Partridge, 75 High Street, Barnstaple.

50. Dr. W. F. Hume, Geological Survey Office, Cairo, Egypt. Donor.
51. G. H. Morton, 209 Edge Lane, Liverpool.

52. The late C. W. Allen.

Photographs of Geological Interest in Canada.—First Report of Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor A. P. CoLEmMan (Chatman),
Professor A. B. Witumorr, Professor F. O. Apams, Professor W.
W. Warts, Mr. J. B. TyRRELL, and Mr. W. A. Parks (Secretary).
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

APPENDIX.— Circular Letter issued by the Committee.

We have the honour to report that. a meeting of this Committee was
held as early as possible, at which it was decided to petition the Govern-
ment for prints from negatives in its possession, and to issue a circular
setting forth the purpose of the Association in forming this Committee.
A small pamphlet was prepared and sent to the various camera clubs
throughout the country, and to the science masters of high schools and
other educational institutions.

As yet these efforts have borne no fruit, but we have formed a nucleus
of forty negatives with prints, illustrating glacial phenomena in the
vicinity of Toronto.

ii

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. D4A7

APPENDIX.

Circular Letter issued by the Committee.
TORONTO: March 15, 1898.

Dear Sir,—At the meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, held in Toronto in 1897, the following Com-
mittee was appointed for ‘The collection, preservation, and systematic
registration of Canadian photographs of geological interest.’ Chairman,
Professor A. P. Coleman ; Secretary, Mr. Wm. A. Parks ; Professor A.
B. Willmott, Professor F. O. Adams, Professor W. W. Watts, and Mr. J.
B. Tyrrell. This Committee has decided to appeal to those interested in
geology and photography for assistance in preparing and improving the
collection, which will be kept in Toronto, and will be at all times open
to the public. The services of a competent photographer have been
procured, and it is proposed to furnish lantern slides or prints to any
desiring them at the cost of production.

The value of such a collection cannot be over-estimated, as it will
furnish valuable material for the investigator or lecturer, it will preserve
and place on record geological scenery of an evanescent nature, and will
tend to stimulate geological investigation throughout the country.

We shall be glad to receive and place to the credit of the donor either
negatives or prints of such subjects as are indicated in the following list,
or others in any way related to geological science :—

Rocks and Rock Structwre.—Cliffs and rock-surfaces showing stratifi-
cation, false-bedding, character of weathering, foliation, jointage, cleavage,
folding, faulting, veins, dikes, unconformities, contact zones of different
kinds of rocks, minerals and mineral aggregates, fossils, dc.

Glacial Phenomena.—Moraines (stony hills), eskers, kames, perched
boulders, glacial grooves and strie, &c.

Shores——Sand dunes, sand spits, lines of boulders, cliffs of sand and
clay, ripple marks, &c.

ftivers.—Valleys, channels and gorges, banks in different conditions,
terraces, bottom lands, &c.

Phenomena caused by Atmospheric Agencies.—Rain-marks, rill-channels,
washouts, sun-cracks, dc.

New Railway Cuttings, Sand and Gravel Pits, &c.—It is of great
importance that the exact locality and date accompany the photograph,
and if possible the compass bearing of the centre of the picture from the
camera.

Relying upon your co-operation, we request that you bring this com-
munication to the notice of those interested in this work in your locality.

Very sincerely yours,
Wm. A. Parks, Secretary.
Address: Wm. A. Parks, B.A.
Geological Department, University of Toronto.

548 REPORT—-1898.

Trish Elk Remains—Report of the Convnittee, consisting of Professor
W. Boyp Dawkins (Chairman), His Honour Deemster GILL,
Rev. E. B. Savace, Mr. G. W. Lamptueu, and Mr. P. M. C.
KERMOoDE (Secretary), appointed to eaanvine the Conditions wander
which Remains of the Irish Elk wre found in the Isle of Man.

We were able to add a foot-note to our report of last year to the effect
that a fairly perfect skeleton had been discovered, of which we hoped to
hand in details with this year’s report. :

These remains were found in a marl pit at Close-y-Garey, on the east
side of the railway line, half a mile N. from St. John’s, and the same
distance 8. from Poortown Station.

The bones were nearly all in juxtaposition and, excepting the ribs and
pelvic bones and one shoulder-blade, in a very fair state of preservation.
The antlers were nearly complete ; the beams, however, are represented by
fragments ; the skull also is fragmentary.

The left antler is the larger : it measures across the palm 15 inches,
allowing for a piece of the front edge which has decayed away ; the right
measures 13 inches. With the tines, most of which dropped off on lifting
from the marl, they are respectively 56} inches and_ 53 inches long, and
the beam would have been about 10 inches more. They show six points,
besides the brow-tines, which had fallen off, the portion of the beam to
which they were attached having decayed away.

The palm of the left antler lay over the lumbar vertebra, and the
right over the fore-quarters. The upper jaw teeth were preserved on
both sides, and those of the left lower jaw were embedded in the ramus.
A fragment of the right symphysis was also present, and there were
various fragments of a skull which had been broken up before the dis-
covery.

Death had occurred in its full prime, as shown by the perfection of
the teeth and the dimensions of the antlers.

Among the bones, but not of this individual, was one which had been
perforated, probably by the point of an antler of another elk in one of
their usual fights. It was fractured as well as perforated, and had been
healed.

Professor Dawkins examined the bones in December and made the
following measurements in millimetres :—

Skeleton found at Close-y-Garey. Index to Measwremenis.

Teeth.
1. Length, antero-posterior, basal. 3. Postero-transverse, basal.
2. Antero-transverse, basal.
Bones.
1, Maximum length. 5. Transverse measurement of distal
2. Minimum circumference. articulation.
3, Transverse measurement of proximal | 6. Vertical (tape) measurement of distal
articulation. articulation,
4. Vertical (tape) measurement of proxi-

mal articulation.

ON THE IRISH ELK REMAINS. 549

-- ard I a 4 5 6
mea A GS 182 72 70 = —
Humerus - ‘ . | 395 173 93 111 90 124
Ulna : é Z 490 90 30 59 20 20
Radius . - : 2 390 145 89 45 80 44
Metacarpal . . . | 338 132 68 39 73 76
Femur . ; - .| 470 169 121 118 50 120

| (patella) |

| Tibia = : F .| 470 149 120 175 72 31
Metatarsal . s .| 373 132 65 35 72 83
Astragalus. : : 86 86 53 42 58 39
Calcaneum : .| 183 129 45 35 150 43
Scaphocuboid . C -| (50 223 75 40 69 55
Fore limb, ph.l . -. 7s alee 35 35 32 38
or ph.2 . - 58 100 55 22 29 65

7 ph.3 . : 85 —_ 30 30 — _

Hind limb, ph.1 . : Ts. 95 35 35 34 38

/ = ph.2 . z 60 102 34 22 30 62
“ pes. . | 82 = 28 33 = —

eH 1 2 3 2 1 2 3
U. M. Series. 1607 [a= | __ || L. M. Series 1700 i A
M. 3 é 30 | 80 | 29 || M.3 : 42 | 20 19
M. 2 28 31 | 31 || M.2 21 201 | 20
M.1 25 | 28 23 || M1. 18 20 | 20
Pr, 4 19 | 96 | = |) Pm. 4. 23 15 17
Pr. 3 18 23 | A! ipnS, 22 13 14
Pr.2 . 29° | 92 | — ||, Pm.2. 16 8 11
Excavation No.1 (disturbed soit).
Fragments of Upper Jaw (teeth worn).
1 2 3
aE Sa eee ee a 30 28
MEE GIMG) A Mirrmods 4. Ata pe by) BS 30 30

The skeleton lay in white marl at a depth of about 9 feet from. the
present surface, on its right side, the legs drawn up to the body, the head
towards the margin of the ancient pool, now a morass, which lies in a
hollow in the glacial drifts.

From the position of the bones the animal appeared to have died
where it was found, not to have been washed down by floods. About
sixty years ago the bog had been worked for mar], and the present well-
defined banks mark out a rectangular hollow some 50 yards square and
about 3 feet below the surrounding surface.

Across one corner of this a trench was dug to carry off the water, and
the operations of the Committee were confined to a triangular area on the
west side of the trench, measuring about 15 yards east and west by about
30 yards north and south. They excavated all over this space to a depth

550 REPORT—1898.

of over 9 feet. The first four excavations, being through ground which
had previously been disturbed, yielded no definite results, but at one point
a few bones were met with, among which were fragments of maxilla, the
sixth cervical vertebra, the second lumbar vertebra, and a fragment of a
rib. In association with these were remains of horse represented by a
radius and lower jaws of two individuals. Though the ground had been
disturbed the horse bones probably belonged to the same age as the elk.
A fragment of a metatarsal, met with in digging the trench, had an arti-
ficial perforation.

The result of all the excavations, allowing for the disturbed state of
the ground, showed the following beds :—

Ft. In.
A. Disturbed soil and peat, an average cf about . ; 3 0
B. In one place a blue clay or silt was observed resting on
the white marl
C. White marl containing the Elk remains
*D. Blue marl : ‘ : : ; -
EH. Red sand with gravel : ‘ ; 2 : “ 0

F. Brown clay d 5 - ‘
G. Sand ana gravel | ? c £ f
H. Clay f Glacial drift 1

BmOoOCOOrRSD
CWwWKNWOR

As stated above, the whole surface had been lowered about 3 feet in
digging for marl ; the peat had for the,most part been removed, and a
great deal of the marl also ; indeed, we were fortunate in finding this one
spot in which the marl itself had not been disturbed.

The finding of detached bones shows that other individuals had perished
here, and is consistent with what we were told, that a specimen had been
seen when digging for marl, and that the antlers of another had been
taken out. We were told also that two skulls without antlers had been
seen on the other side of our trench.

Samples of the marl and other beds were forwarded to Mr. James
Bennie, of Edinburgh, who again most kindly undertook the laborious task
of washing and sifting the material. The organic remains thus obtained
were examined by Mr. Clement Reid, who has determined the following
plants :—

Irom Peat B.

Ranunculus flammula, Z. Carduus crispus, ZL.
Vio!a palustris, Z. Menyanthes trifoliata, Z.
Rubus fruticosus, Z. (very small). Empetrum nigrum, Z.

Potentilla tormentilla, Meck. Potamogeton, sp.
= comarum, Nestl. | Carex, 4 sp.

Also beetles, 3 sp., and caddis cases.

Irom Marl C.

Ranunculus repens, Z. | Empetrum nigrum, Z.

Viola palustris, Z. Potamogeton.

Potentilla comarum, Wes?/. Carex, 4 sp.

Myriophyllum spicatum, Z. Chara.

Rumex obtusifolius, Z. Umbelliferous plant (unripe),

* This was noticed below the skeleton, and may have been discoloured 7" die
decay of the body.

‘

|

.
Z

_—_

—

ON THE IRISH ELK REMAINS. 551
From Red Sand LE.
Plant remains, not determined.
From Bed F.
Betula alba. Bracts of sedge.
Potamogeton. Leaves (?).

Carex.

Mr. R. Okell examined the White Marl for Diatoms, but found no
trace. There are no fresh-water shells in it.

In our last report we were able to announce the discovery in a previous
excavation near Ballaugh of the Arctic crustacean Lepidurus glacialis,
accompanied by the Arctic willow Salix herbacea in a bed of silt
occurring above Chara-marl, like that of the present section. In that
locality, however, we did not succeed in finding elk remains in the marl,
probably on account of the limited character of our excavation, as we
have every reason to believe that the skeleton now in Edinburgh Museum !
was obtained from that bed. In the present instance, though we have
found the elk, it will be noticed that the section contains no trace of the
Arctic fauna, This is greatly to be regretted, since—as was pointed
out by Mr. C. Reid in our last report—the relation of this fauna to the
bed containing the elk is a point of great theoretical importance. It is
also important that the presence of the horse in the wild fauna of the
Isle of Man should be placed beyond doubt by-working in undisturbed
ground. The same group of animals may be expected as that which
occurs in the prehistoric strata of Ireland and England. Under these
circumstances we propose to apply for a further grant to carry on explora-
tions which will probably definitely settle these interesting questions.

The balance of the grant, renewed last year, was expended in the pre-
liminary work of draining ; further funds, which enabled the Committee
to continue the work and to discover the specimen, were provided by
the local Society, which also provided the amount required for having the
skeleton mounted.’

The best thanks of the Committee are due to the proprietor, Mrs.
Morrison, for kind permission to make the excavations, and Messrs. C.
Reid, J. Bennie, and R. Okell for the valuable assistance they have
rendered in the investigation.

' This is interesting as being the first perfect skeleton of this species to have
been mounted. Dr. Traquair writes concerning it that when he took office he found
that the pelvis in the skeleton was that of a common horse, which he had replaced
by that of a real elk from Ireland. He gives the following measurements (in
inches): Humerus 15, radius 143, metacarpal 13, femur 18, tibia 193, metatarsal or
cannon 147; distance from tip to tip of the antlers, 8 feet 1} inches. He also
points out that the figure in Cuvier’s Ossemens Fossiles (and in Owen’s Fossil
Mammals) represents this skeleton exactly as it was before he had it altered by
replacing the horse pelvis with that of the Irish elk, and giving a proper curve to the
vertebral column, which formerly was absolutely straight, in the dorsal and lumbar
regions.

* It has now been set up in Castle Rushen, Isle of Man.

552 REPORT—1898.

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor E. Hutu (Chairman), Professor T. G. Bonney,
Professor W.J.Soutuas, Mr. C. EK. De Rance, Mr. R. H. Trppeman,
Rev. S. N. Harrison, Mr. J. Horne, the late Mr. DuGatp BELL,
Mr. F. M. Burton, Mr. J. Lomas, and Mr. P. F. Kenpatu
(Secretary), appointed to investigate the Erratic Blocks of the British
Isles, and to take measures for their preservation. (Drawn up by
the Secretary.)

THE Committee has to deplore the loss of a valued colleague, Mr. Dugald
Bell, whose death has deprived British geology of a most careful, conscien-
tious, and industrious worker.

The records obtained by the Committee during the past year have
been drawn from a smaller area than usual, and the number of individual
boulders specifically reported is not large.

The Sub-Committee, working at the instance of the Belfast Natural-
ists’ Field Club, has deferred its report pending the completion of certain
definite pieces of investigation. The Committee organised in County
Durham has not yet presented a report, though observations of considerable
interest have been made during the preliminary examination of portions
of the district covered by it, notably the discovery of several fine striated
rock-surfaces.

The Lincolnshire Boulder Committee has presented reports for the
years 1896-7 and 1897-8, and the Yorkshire Boulder Committee has, as
usual, furnished a valuable and significant set of records.

Some facts of great importance have been brought to light, which are
particularised in the sequel. The discovery of two large glaciated boulders
of chalk near Scarborough is of interest, as that point is fully 20 miles to
the northward of the chalk cliffs of the Yorkshire coast.

Attention was directed last year to the remarkable fact that the
Belemnitelle collected from the drift of Holderness belonged without
exception to the species B. lanceolata, which is unknown as a constituent
of the fauna of the Yorkshire chalk, which contains instead B. quadrata.
This conclusion is fully sustained by the work of the past year, and
emphasises the well-known fact that black flints, which are unknown in
the local chalk, are found plentifully in the glacial deposits of the
Yorkshire coast. One such flint, containing a cast of Hchinocorys, is
reported from an inland station, Market Weighton.

Further valuable work has been done upon the distribution of boulders
of Shap granite, and their sporadic grouping receives a fresh illustration
from the Scarborough coast.

Further light is thrown upon the source of the in many ways anoma-
lous patch of boulder-clay at Balby by the discovery in it of three
specimens of Eskdale granite.

Our knowledge of the distribution of erratics of Scandinavian origin
receives a welcome addition by the observation of a second example of
the granite from either Angermanland or Aland (Sweden) at Easington,
and by the recognition of a pebble of rhomb-porphyry at Brough. The
latter is the first undoubted occurrence of a Scandinavian boulder within
the line of the Chalk Wolds.

-,,.*., ee

ee

m4

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 553

The Committee is also enabled to announce the recognition amongst
the far-carried erratics of the East Coast of England of a considerable
number of Norwegian rocks from localities which were not previously
known to have yielded boulders to the English drift.

The Secretary spent a month during the summer of 1897 in Norway,
between Christiania and Christiansand, collecting rocks for comparison with
the erratics of the East Coast of England. He brought away a large quantity
of material illustrating important petrological types, and has now dis-
tributed about 300 specimens amongst English workers in glacial geology,
to whom they may be useful. Other sets will be lodged in public museums.
A series of East Coast erratics, collected by Mr. J. W. Stather, F.GS.,
and Mr. Thomas Sheppard, was taken to Christiania and submitted to
Professor Brégger, who had kindly consented to examine them. Professor
Brégger’s examination was not carried to completion, as the thin sections
which should have accompanied the specimens had gone astray in the
post, but some rocks were nevertheless singled out by him which possessed
such marked characteristics as to permit of positive identification. These ©
determinations are of so much interest and importance that it has been
thought desirable to publish them in this report rather than to wait for a
more complete statement.

The well-known Rhomb Porphyries yielded examples from the Ringe-
rike, Tonsberg, and Tuft (in the Langendal districts).

Laurvikite (Augite-Syenite) of the type which prevails over such large
areas southward of the latitude of Christiania was recognised. These are
rocks with which English geologists have for some time been familiar ;
but, besides these, Professor Brégger found the Pyroxenite of Fettnedt,
Christianiafjord ; a basic rock from Hitterdal (this is a very pronounced
type, regarding which Professor Brégger spoke with great confidence) ;
the Labradorite-porphyrite of Mos (on the east side of the Skager Rock
south of Drébak) ; and rocks from the neighbourhood of Drammen. In
addition to these, there are examples of a Labradorite porphyrite with
porphyritic conspicuously zoned felspars, which is known as an erratic in
Norway, but has not been traced in sitw.

Finally, Professor Brégger recognised three examples of sandstone or
grit representing the curious Sparagmit conglomerat, which covers a vast
area in the high mountainous interior of Scandinavia northward of Christi-
ania. The specimens in question may have come from Gudbrandsdal, about
the northern part of Lake Mjesen.

A coarse granite collected by Mr. Sheppard, Professor Brégger con-
sidered to resemble the rocks of Ragunda in Angermanland, a conclusion
confirmatory of Dr. Munthe’s recognition of a boulder composed of a
similar rock (see 1897 Report, p. 351), and which occurs also, according to
Mr, Crofts, at Easington (see p. 554).

YORKSHIRE. !

Communicated by the Yorkshire Boulder Committee.
Secretary, Mr. J. H. Howarrn, F£.G.S.

Reported by Mr. W. Greason, F.G.S.

Mount Grace Priory, 7 miles E. of Northallerton—
1 Shap granite.

' This report will be published in extenso in the Naturalist.

554 REPORT—1898.

Reported by Mr. J. Burton.

Balby, near Doncaster—
3 Pebbles of Eskdale granite.

Reported by Mr. P. F. Kenpatt.
Market Weighton.—Gravel pit one mile from town on the road to
Holme.
Nodule of black flint with Zchinocorys vulgaris.

Reported by Mr. W. H. Crorts.

Easington—
1 Specimen of ‘ Post Archean Granite’ of Angermanland or Aland, Sweden.

Reported by Mr. J. F. Ropiyson.

Wassand, near Hornsea—
1 Coarse basalt,

Reported by Mr. Haroup SAEs.
Willerby, near Hull.—38 Boulders, comprised of—

6 Carboniferous limestones; 15 basalts; 6 sandstones (probably Car-
boniferous); 3 Jurassic rocks; 8 granites, gneisses, &c.

One pebble of rhomb porphyry. Many black flints and seyeral
examples of Belemnitella lanceolata, which are not known to occur in the
Yorkshire Chalk. Lower Lias fossils.

Reported by Mr. J. W. SraTuHEr.

Scalby Mills, Scarborough.—From a section of Boulder-clay many
hundreds of boulders had been extracted. Between 50 and 75 per cent.
were of Estuarine sandstone from the subjacent beds. The remainder
consisted of Carboniferous rocks, basalt, other igneous rocks, and some
Secondary rocks, including two planed and striated blocks of chalk, each
about 8 feet in diameter.

Burmiston, north of Scarborough.—In the bay one mile long between
Cromer Point and Long Nab.

11 Shap granites.

Cloughton.—In quarry W. of the village.
1 pebble of hard chalk.

Easington—
3 Shap granite (in addition to those recorded in earlier reports)

Several examples of Belemnitella lanceolata.

Reported by Mr. Tuomas SHEPPARD.

Atwick—
1 Red gneiss; 1 hornblendic gneiss; 1 Shap granite.

Brough.—Mill Hill Gravel pit 100 feet above O.D.
1 Rhomb porphyry.

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 555
Dimlington—
1 Augite-syenite (Laurvikite) embedded in the ‘Basement’ Boulder-clay ;
1 rhomb porphyry.
Easington. On the Beach—

1 Shap granite, 1 rhomb porphyry, besides granite, gneiss, basalt, augite-
syenite, Carboniferous Limestone, gannister, carboniferous basement-
conglomerate, brockram, Magnesian Limestone, Lias, secondary nodule
with Crioceras (probably from the Speeton clay), black and pink flints.

Garton. In farmyard near Grimston Hall.
The following stones were obtained from the Beach :—

Carboniferous basement-conglomerate; 1 lias (with fossils); 1 gneiss;
1 Millstone Grit ; 1 Carboniferous Limestone ; 1 gannister ; 1 grey granite.

Besides these were the following picked off the fields :—
1 Lias (striated); 1 basalt; 2 basalt (striated) ; 1 rhomb porphyry; 1 gan-
nister; 1 quartzite ; 1 porphyrite.
Hornsea—
1 Shap granite pebble found iz sitw in ‘ Purple’ Boulder-clay.
Patrington, Skeffling, Weeton and Weluick.—In all these villages great
numbers of boulders occur, amongst which the following were noted :—

Basalt, gneiss, porphyrite, rhomb porphyry, Carboniferous Limestone, and
Sandstone, Lias, flint, &c.

Withernsea—
2 Shap granite; 1 compact blue gneiss.

About 3 dozen specimens of Belemmitella, all of the species B. lanceolata.
In the large collection of Mr. G. Miles at Withernsea the Belemnitellas are
also exclusively of this species.

About 20 Chalk echinoderms, mostly in black flint such as is not
known in situ in Yorkshire.

LINCOLNSHIRE.

Reported by Mr. J. W. Sravuer.

Louth—
1 Basic rock from Hitterdal, Norway.

Communicated by the Lincolnshire Boulder Commvittee.
Secretary, Rev. W. TUCKWELL.

Brigsley—

1 Sandstone ; 2 grey sandstone; 1 whin sill; 1 basalt (not whin sill).
East Ravendale—

5 Sandstone; 2 whin sill.
Beechby—

1 Quartzite.
Barnoldsby—

1 Whin sill.

556 REPORT—1898.

Great Coates.—Heap of pebbles near the Station included :—

1 Basalt (like loadstone) ; 1 rhomb porphyry; 1 red granite; 1 grey granite;
1 Oolitic limestone.

Near Mr. Cordeaux’s house—

1 Limestone much weathered; 1 crystalline limestone; 1 micaceous lime-
stone; 2 schists; 1 rolled porphyritic granite trawled from the Dogger
Bank,

In Pit by Railway Station.—Smaller rolled pebbles including :—
1 Schist ; 2 micaceous sandstones; 1 crystalline limestone.
Humberstone—
5 Whin sill; 1 basalt; 4 grey sandstone; 1 quartzite.
Bradley Wood—
3 Whin sill.
Bradley—

2 Quartzites ; 2 white sandstones; 1 granite; 3 yellow sandstones ; 1 basalt ;
1 ‘ Blue stone.’

Aylerby—

5 Whin sill; 1 pale sandstone; grey granite; red granite.

Structure of a Coral Reef.—LReport of the Committee, consisting of
Professor T. G. Bonney (Chairman), Professor W. J. SoLLas
(Secretary), Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, Professors J. W. Jupp,
C. Lapwortu, A. C. Happon, Boyp Dawkins, G. H. Darwin,
S. J. Hickson, and ANDERSON Stuart, Admiral Sir W. J. L.
Waarron, Dr. H. Hicks, Sir J. Murray, Drs. W. T. BLANForD, C.
Le NEvE Foster, and H. B. Gupry, Messrs. F. Darwin, H. O.
Forses, G. C. Bourne, and J. W. Gregory, Sir A. R. Binnie,
and Mr. J. C. Hawksnaw, appointed to consider a project for
investigating a Coral Reef by Boring and Sounding.

Tue boring into the coral reef at Funa Futi, under the superintendence
of Professor Edgeworth David, was carried down to a depth of 643 feet.
After he had quitted the island to return to Sydney the work was
continued until, owing to a breakdown of the apparatus, it finally ceased
at a depth just short of 700 feet. The cores obtained during the work
have been forwarded to England, and are now being worked out under
the supervision of Professor Judd in the laboratory of the Royal College
of Science at South Kensington. A brief summary of the results down
to 643 feet was presented to the Royal Society on November 25, 1897,
and will be found in their ‘Proceedings.’ According to the survey of
Funa Futi and the neighbouring seas made by Captain Field, of H.M.S.
“ Penguin,’ it appears that tlre shape of the former is that of a cone with a
rudely elliptical base rising with a gradual slope from the ocean floor at
‘a depth of about 2,000 fathoms, and forming a kind of mural escarpment
for the last 750 feet (approximate). When the whole party had returned
to Sydney, Professors David and Stuart, after discussing the question of
renewing the attempt to pierce the reef, the bottom of which, from the
‘change of slope mentioned above, they thought must lie within 800 feet of

~J

ON THE STRUCTURE OF A CORAL REEF. 557

the surface, prevailed on the authorities of the Department of Mines,
Sydney, to lend plant and workmen in order to continue the old bore-hole
and, if possible, to put down another one in a shallow part of the lagoon.
Application was made to the Admiralty by the Royal Society, and
permission was given for the members of the expedition and the plant to
be conveyed from Suva to Funa Futi and back by H.M.S. ‘ Porpoise.’ The
expedition has been at work during the summer, and intelligence of the
result will doubtless reach England during the present autumn. Until
this arrives, and the study of the materials already in this country has
been completed, it would be premature to express any opinion of the
theoretical bearing of the results obtained by the very successful operation
undertaken in 1897.

The sum of 407. granted at Toronto by the General Committee at
Toronto has been drawn by the Chairman and remitted to Professor
Edgeworth David in aid of the expenses of the expedition of 1897 (which
have been heavier than was anticipated).

The Eurypterid-bearing Rocks of the Pentland Hills—Final Report of
the Commuttee, consisting of Dr. R. H. TRAQuair (Chairman), Mr.
M. Laurie (Secretary), and Professor ‘I. RuPERT JONES.

Tue work of your Committee on this fossiliferous bed is now completed.
As mentioned in a former report the method adopted was to remove a
considerable section of the bed which is comparatively thin, and trans-
port it to a more accessible place where the rock was carefully split. This
mode of procedure had the advantage of enabling us to deal with a much
greater amount of material than could have been gone over at the locality
itself. On the other hand, the highly jointed nature of the rock rendered
it difficult to transport it in large pieces, and many of the specimens are
consequently fragmentary. Nevertheless, a few very fine specimens have
been procured, notably an almost complete Drepanopterus pentlandicus,
and a large amount of fresh information has been gained as to the struc-
ture of other forms. The presence and structure of the preoral cheliuree
in Stylonurus have been ascertained, as well as nearly all the details of the
other appendages of this form. Some hitherto undescribed forms, includ-
ing a new genus, Bemlycosoma, of somewhat doubtful position among the
Eurypteride, have also come to light. The type specimens of these new
forms are, however, not in this collection, as they were all represented by
better specimens in a private collection which recently became available
for examination, having been acquired by the Edinburgh Museum of
Science and Art. These, as well as the more instructive specimens from
the collection formed by your Committee, have been described and figured
this year in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.’

One of the points which your Committee had to decide was the strati-
graphical position of the bed. They came to the conclusion, from the
fossils present in it and the neighbouring beds that it must be considered
as being on the Wenlock horizon. It is unnecessary to deal with the
evidence which led to this conclusion, as the Scottish Geological Survey
have this year been revising the district, and in their new monograph on
it come to the same conclusion. This bed is, therefore, at a distinctly
lower horizon than most of the other deposits which have yielded Euryp-
terids. This agrees with the fact that some of the forms, such as the

558 REPORT—1898.

three species of Drepanopterus, are not highly specialised types. The
representatives of the genera Slimonia and Stylonwrus have also certain
of the generic characters less markedly developed than the forms from
higher horizons. On the other hand, the presence of such a large number
of genera point to the origin of this group being in much lower deposits
than have yet yielded their remains.

Your Committee are well satistied with the results of the investiga-
tion, which has yielded much new and interesting information, though it
is to be regretted that they were unable to procure specimens of some of
the forms, such as Palwophonus, which have been found by other col-
lectors. The chief species represented in the collection are: Stylonwrus
ornatus, S. macrophthalmus, Drepanopterus pentlundicus, D. bemlycoides,
Bemlycosoma.

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.——KHighth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor A. Newton (Chairman),
Dr. W. T. BuanrorD, Professor §. J. Hickson, [the late] Mr.
O. Satvin, Dr. P. L. ScuatTer, Mr. E. A. Smita, and Mr.
D. Suarp (Secretary).

Tur Committee was appointed in 1890, and has been annually re-
appointed. Since the last report (at Toronto) work on the collections of
insects, &c., has been continued by Mr. R. C. L. Perkins, Mr, E. Meyrick, .
and others, and the Committee hopes to be able soon, with the aid of the
Royal Society and the B. P. Bishop Museum, to publish a volume. A
large number of specimens have been sent to the British Museum (Natural
History) and to the B, P. Bishop Museum in Honolulu.

The Committee has suffered a serious loss by the decease of Mr.
O. Salvin, who was a most useful member from the time of its first
appointment.

The Committee requests its reappointment, with Mr. F. Du Cane
Godman, F.R.S., in the place of the late Mr. Salvin.

Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Interim Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. FLower (Chairman), Professor
W. A. Herpman, Mr. W. HE. Hoye, Dr. P. L. Scuater, Mr.
Apam Sepewick, Dr. D. SHarp, Mr. C. D. SHERBoRN, Rey.
T. R. R. Stressine, Professor W. F. R. WELDoN, and Mr. F. A.
BATHER (Secretary).

Tn its last report the Committee recommended its reappointment, mainly
for the purpose of distributing copies of that report to the editors of all
publications connected with zoology, and for that purpose it further
asked for a grant of 6/. 1s. for expenses of printing and postage. The
Committee was reappointed, but without a grant ; an omission which has
considerably restricted its action and caused it to postpone the preparation
of any further report. There are signs that the previous recommenda-
tions of the Committee are being put into practice in various quarters, and
it seems probable that a renewal of its exertions would lead to still further
satisfactory results. The Committee therefore begs to renew its applica-
tion for the above grant in order that it may carry out the work already

sanctioned.

ON THE LIFE CONDITIONS OF THE OYSTER.

Or
Oo
Lie)

Life Conditions of the Oyster: Normal and Abnormal.—Third and
Final Report of the Commnuttee, consisting of Professor W. A.
HERDMAN (Chairman), Professor R. Boyce (Secretary), Mr. G. C.
Bourne, Dr. C. A. Kony, and Professor C. 8. SHERRINGTON,
appointed to Report on the Elucidation of the Infe Conditions of the
Oyster under Normal and Abnormal Environment, including the
Effect of Sewage Matters and Pathogenic Organisms. (Drawn up
by Professor HERDMAN, Professor Boyce, and Dr. Kony.)

Tue Committee are bringing their investigations to an end for the present,
and they now state in this final report a series of the conclusions at
which they have arrived. The details of the evidence upon which these
conclusions are based will appear in a fully illustrated memoir by Pro-
fessor Boyce and Professor Herdman, which is nearly ready for publica-
tion. A good deal of that evidence has, however, been outlined in our
former reports (at Ipswich, Liverpool, and Toronto), and need not be now
repeated.

Since last year’s report, however, we have gone further into the ques-
tion of the amount of copper and iron present in different parts of various
kinds of oysters, with results which sustain the conclusions we had
* already arrived at.

We have also gone more minutely into the question of typhoid-like
organisms, their occurrence in shellfish, and the differentiation of these
from the &. coli communis on the one hand, and from the true B. typhosus
on the other, with the following results :—

Bacteriology of Shellfish.

In one of our previous reports (B.A., Liverpool, 1896) we drew
attention to the comparatively frequent occurrence of a group of organisms
giving the reactions of the Bacillus coli, and also of a motile bacillus, which,
owing to the fact that it did not behave like the Colon bacillus in all its
reactions—7.e., formation of indol and gas bubbles, approached somewhat
the B. typhosus type. Shortly after the publication of that paper, Dr.
Klein drew attention, in the very comprehensive Local Government
Board. Report, upon ‘Oyster Culture in Relation to Disease,’ to the fre-
quency of the presence of the Colon bacillus in oysters, and in one instance
to the presence of a bacillus, which, after most careful investigation, could
not be distinguished from the bacillus of Eberth. Since that date we
have continued our investigations upon the bacteria present in oysters,
and have further extended them to other shellfish. We have examined,
during the last year, 19 batches of oysters, 17 batches of mussels,
18 batches of cockles, 5 batches of periwinkles, and 1 batch of whelks ;
these were obtained from shops in various parts of Liverpool.

' Methods.—The methods employed were similar to those detailed in our
report previously referred to, except that we availed ourselves of the
serum reaction ; and we desire to express our thanks to Dr. Christophers,
who especially undertook the investigation of the serum reaction in con-

nection with all the ‘coli’ and typhoid-like organisms which were isolated
in the laboratory.

560 REPORT—1898.

Results.— Oysters.—In nine out of the nineteen batches a colon-like
organism was isolated from the interior of the oysters. In some instances
there was almost a pure culture of the Colon bacillus, the Petri dishes
giving a very characteristic odour. The reaction in the nine cases differed ;
there was the typical colon group, coagulating milk, forming indol and
gas, and giving a decided acid reaction, as well as an abundant growth
upon potato. There was also a group consisting of very active bacilli, not
coagulating milk, not forming indol, occasionally forming gas, and in two
cases giving rise to a slightly acid reaction in neutral litmus whey, and in
three cases to an alkaline reaction. In each suspicious case the serum
reaction was carefully tried, but always with negative results. We con-
clude that this latter group, although giving some of the reactions of the
typhoid bacillus, cannot be regarded as identical with the true bacillus of
berth.

Mussels.—The colon group is less frequent ; some of the bacilli isolated
coagulated milk, formed gas and indol, whilst others gave negative
reactions, as in the case of the oysters.

Cockles.—A colon bacillus was not isolated. A coccus not liquefying
gelatine, growing at a temperature of 37° C., and sometimes forming gas,
was frequently met with.

Periwinkles.—As in the case of the previous group, a coccus was
isolated.

Whelks.—From these a bacillus was obtained, which formed gas at
37° C., did not coagulate milk nor produce indol, and only after four days
produced a slight acid reaction in neutral litmus whey ; it therefore
resembled the second group found in the oyster.

These observations show the frequent occurrence of the Colon group of
bacilli in such shellfish as we have investigated. Moreover, they clearly
indicate that some of the organisms composing this group are more closely
related in their reactions to the Bacillus typhosus than others are, although
none corresponded to that bacillus in all respects. It will be remembered
that in our Liverpool Report (1896) we described the occurrence of the
typhoid organism after various intervals of time in oysters which we had
experimentally infected with typhoid material. To that report’ we may
refer also for a discussion of the results of washing infected oysters in a
running stream of sea-water, and for a statement of the diminution of the
number of typhoid organisms as the time of inoculation recedes. In our
Ipswich paper ? we had shown that oysters were able to live, and did live,
under very impure conditions, and were able to make use of sewage
matter as food. We also demonstrated (in 1895) by experiments that
those laid down in the proximity of drains contained far more micro-
organisms than such as were some distance off in purer water. Finally,
in last year’s report at Toronto, we gave an account of the unhealthy
condition of certain green oysters, of the association of the colour with a
leucocytosis, and of the presence of copper in the leucocytes.*

As the result of these various lines of investigation, and of the exami-
nation of oysters alive under both natural and artificial conditions on

1 Brit. Assoc. Rep., Liverpool Meeting, 1896, p. 663.
2 Thid., Ipswich Meeting, 1895, p. 723.

3 Tbid., Toronto Meeting, 1897, p. 363.

4 See also Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 1xii. p. 30.

74.

ON THE LIFE CONDITIONS OF THE OYSTER. 561

various parts of the British, French, Dutch, and Italian coasts, we have
arrived at the definite conclusions as to their natural history, chemistry,
and bacteriology, which are detailed below; and to which we have
ventured to add some recommendations as to administrative and public
health questions. We are convinced that all that is necessary in order
that the oyster may be restored to its proper position in public estimation
as a most useful, delicate, and nutritious food-matter is that shellfish
importing, growing, and laying shall be conducted under proper super-
vision, and that the grounds and waters chosen for the purpose should be
inspected and licensed by duly qualified scientific authorities

Conclusions.

1. There are several distinct kinds of greenness in oysters. Some of
these, such as the green Marennes oysters and those of some rivers on the
Essex coast, are healthy ; while others, such as some Falmouth oysters,
containing copper, and some American oysters re-bedded on our coast, and
which have the pale green leucocytosis ' we described in the last report, are
not in a healthy state.

2. Some forms of greenness (¢.y., the leucocytosis) are certainly asso-
ciated with the presence of a greatly increased amount of copper in the
oyster, while other forms of greenness (e.g., the Marennes) have no
connection with copper, but depend upon the presence of a special pigment
marennin, which may be associated with a certain amount of iron.

3. Wesee no reason to think that the iron in the latter case is taken in
through the surface epithelium of the gills and palps, but regard it, like
the rest of the iron in the body, as a product of ordinary digestion and
absorption in the alimentary cana] and liver.

4. We do not find that there is any excessive amount of iron in the
green Marennes oyster compared with the colourless oyster, nor do the
green parts (gills, palps, &c.) of the Marennes oyster contain either abso-
lutely or relatively to the colourless parts (mantle, &c.) more iron than
colourless oysters. We therefore conclude that there is no connection
between the green colour of the ‘ Huitres de Marennes’ and the iron they
may contain.

5. On the other hand, we do find by quantitative analysis that there
is more copper in the green American oyster than in the colourless one ;
and more proportionately in the greener parts than in those that are less
green. We therefore conclude that their green colour is due to copper.
We also find a greater quantity of iron in these green American oysters
than in the colourless; but this excess is, proportionately, considerably
less than that of the copper.

6. In the Falmouth oysters, containing an excessive amount of copper,
we find that much of the copper is certainly mechanically attached to the
surface of the body, and is in a form insoluble in water, probably asa basic
carbonate. In addition to this, however, the Falmouth oyster may con-
tain a much larger amount of copper in its tissues than does the normal
colourless oyster. In these Falmouth oysters the cause of the green colour
may be the same as in the green American oysters.

7. The Colon group of bacilli is frequently found in shellfish, as sold
in towns, and especially in the oyster ; but we have no evidence that it

' Mr. G. C. Bourne informs us that in 1890 he examined some green oysters from

Falmouth which showed this leucocytosis. (See Note by Mr. Bourne at conclusion
of this report, p. 569.)
1898.

00

562 REPORT—1898.

occurs in Mollusca living in pure sea-water. The natural inference that
the presence of the Colon bacillus invariably indicates sewage contamina-
tion must, however, not be considered established without further
investigation.

8. The Colon group may be separated into two divisions—(1) those
giving the typical reactions of the Colon bacillus, and (2) those giving
corresponding negative reactions, and so approaching the typhoid type ;
but in no case was an organism giving all the reactions of the B. typhosus
isolated. It ought to be remembered, however, that our samples of
oysters, although of various kinds and from different sources, were in no
case, so far as we are aware, derived from a bed known to be contaminated
or suspected of typhoid.

9. Consequently, as the result of our investigations, and the considera-
tion of much evidence, both from the oyster-growers’ and the public health
officers’ point of view, we beg to recommend—

(a) That the necessary steps should be taken to induce the oyster
trade to remove any possible suspicion of sewage contamination from
the beds and layings from which oysters are supplied to the market.
This could obviously be effected in one of two ways, either (1) by
restrictive legislation and the licensing of beds only after due inspec-
tion by the officials of a Government Department, or (2) by the
formation of an association amongst the oyster-growers and dealers
themselves, which should provide for the due periodic examination of
the grounds, stores, and stock by independent properly qualified
inspectors. Scientific assistance and advice given by such inde-
pendent inspectors would go far to improve the condition of the
oyster beds and layings, to re-assure the public, and to elevate the
oyster industry to the important position which it should occupy.

(6) Oysters imported from abroad (Holland, France, or America)
should be consigned to a member of the ‘Oyster Association,’ who
should be compelled by the regulations to have his foreign oysters
as carefully inspected and certificated as those from his home layings.
A large proportion of the imported oysters are, however, deposited
in our waters for such a period before going to market that the
fact of their having originally come from abroad may be ignored. If
this period of quarantine were imposed upon all foreign oysters a
great part of the difficulty as to inspection and certification would be
removed.

(c) The grounds from which mussels, cockles, and periwinkles are
gathered should be periodically examined by scientific inspectors in
the same manner as the oyster beds. The duty of providing for this
inspection might well, we should suggest, be assumed by the various
Sea Fisheries Committees around the coast.

APPENDIX.

Notes on the Occurrence of Iron and of Copper in certain Oysters.
By Cuarues A. Koun, B.Sc., Ph.D.

The investigations of Professors Herdman and Boyce on the life con-
ditions of oysters, which have been in progress since 1895, have pointed to
the desirability of ascertaining the quantities of iron and of copper they
may contain under either normal or abnormal conditions.

ON THE LIFE CONDITIONS OF THE OYSTER. 563

Two points of interest have arisen in this connection. In the first

place the relation of iron to the greenness of the healthy French oyster

(‘Huitre de Marennes’); and secondly, the extent to which copper is
responsible for the pale green colour of American and other oysters, a
diseased condition accompanied by a leucocytosis discovered and especially
studied by Herdman and Boyce. The presence of minute quantities of
copper and of iron as normal constituents of all oysters has also been
shown by the analytical data obtained.

The results recorded have been made at Professor Herdman’s request,
and have proceeded side by side with his investigations. Now that

‘these are completed, a summary of the work from a more purely chemical

standpoint may be of interest, especially since the occurrence of these
metals—copper and iron—either from the point of view of the origin of
colouration or of the cause of poisoning has from time to time been the
subject of discussion.

The Analytical Method employed.—Electrolytic methods of analysis
were adopted both for the determination of iron and copper: these
methods, I have already shown,! possess marked advantages for the esti-
mation of minute quantities of metal, especially if derived from organic
matter, for they are quite free from any prejudicial influences traces of
organic matter may exert, such as arise when volumetric or colorimetric
methods are employed. In each determination the bodies or gills only of
six or more oysters were carefully washed, dried between filter paper to
remove as much adherent moisture as possible, and then carefully dried
in porcelain dishes in the air bath at 100°C. When this drying was as
complete as possible, the oysters were heated in the air bath until
thoroughly carbonised, the carbon carefully burnt off over the free flame,
and the residue finally ignited in a porcelain crucible. Special care was
taken to exclude dust during both the drying and the ignition. The ash
was then thoroughly extracted with a mixture of 25 c.c. hydrochloric acid
and 25 ¢.c. sulphuric acid (1:2) on the water bath, and the resulting
solution filtered and concentrated. The residue was free from both
copper andiron. The acid solution obtained was electrolysed for copper
with the usual precautions, a spiral of fine platinum wire weighing about
5 grme. being employed as the cathode. The iron was determined in the
residual solution, after neutralisation with ammonium hydrate, &c., acidi-
fying with a few drops of oxalic acid solution, and boiling with ammonium
oxalate: 4 grme. of the oxalate were added in each case, the precipi-
tated calcium oxalate (which is quite free from iron) filtered off and
thoroughly washed and the resulting solution electrolysed, the metallic
iron being also deposited on a spiral of platinum wire. <A blank experi-
ment with all the reagents employed was made, and the amount of metal
found (0:0002 grme. iron) deducted in each case. Also the deposited
metal, both iron and copper, was dissolved off the electrode by acid, the
solution obtained tested by the ordinary reagents and the spiral re-
weighed, as a check upon the determinations, since the quantities found
were extremely small.

The Green Colour of French Oysters, ‘ Huttres de Marennes,’ and the
Presence of Iron in Oysters.—The early observations of Dumas (1841) and
of Berthelot (1855) showed that the green colour of ‘Huitres de
Marennes’ is not due to chlorophyll, and that although every oyster con-

1 Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1893, p. 726.

564 REPORT—1898.

tains a certain very small amount of copper in its blood in the form of
‘hemocyanin,’ as determined by Fredericq, the green colour of the French
cultivated oyster is not due to this metal. Ray Lankester! in 1886 con-
firmed the latter statement, and states in his investigation on the histo-
logical condition of the colour that there is neither copper nor iron in the
refractory blue pigment ‘marennin’ of the coloured portions of the
oyster. Berthelot, however, suggested that the green colour was probably
due to iron, and more recently Chatin and Muntz? have extended and
corroborated this statement.

From their analytical results these observers conclude that both the
green and brown colourations of various types of French oysters are due
to the presence of iron, and that the depth of colour bears a close pro-
portion to the quantity of iron contained. The colourations are chiefly
apparent in the gills, but extend also to the labial palps and parts of the
alimentary canal. Chatin and Muntz base their conclusions in the first
place upon the fact that they find considerably more iron in the gills than
the rest of the body of green oysters ; and secondly, upon the occurrence
of a larger quantity of iron in the gills of green than of white oysters.

Appended are some of their results, to which I have added a column
showing the ratio of the iron in the body, minus gills, to that contained in
the gills.

Iron per 100 parts of dried ,
Oyster Gdists organic matter Baloo:
I. Gills II. Rest of body
Cancale . = = | SWihtite cae ‘ ; 0:0379 0:0241 1:57
Arcachon - . | Pale green : : 0:0605 0:0357 1°69
Marennes . . || Veryiereen— .. . 0:0702 0:0318 1:21
Cancale . : . | Brown green . ; 0:0804 0:0476 1:69
Sables d’Olonne .| Very dark brown 0:0833 0:0436 1-91
green

The relative proportion of iron in the gills hardly bears out the con-
clusions arrived at ; it is the same in pale-green and brown-green oysters,
and in both, but little greater than in the white. On the other hand, the
total iron, both in the gills and in the rest of the body, shows a marked
increase, apparently corresponding to the depth of the colouration. The
iron was determined in these experiments by potassium permanganate,
but the absolute quantities of metal found are not stated. The calcu-
lation of the results per 100 parts of dried organic matter is apt to be
misleading. In my own experiments it was not found possible to get
anything approaching constant weights in this way, and the results are
entirely out of accord with those of Chatin and Muntz.

The following table gives the quantities of iron found in French as
compared with white American oysters, three pairs of gills being analysed
in each case.

These figures show conclusively that there is more and not less iron in
the gills of the white American oysters than in the French, and this
irrespective of the basis on which the result is calculated. The ash is
undoubtedly the most reliable factor to calculate on, provided the oysters

1 Quart. Journ. Micros, Sci., 188€, 26, 71.
2 Compt. Rend., 1892, 118, 17, and 56.

“—s 7

:

ON THE LIFE CONDITIONS OF THE OYSTER. 565

are carefully washed before drying, which was always done: the result per
pair of gills (or oyster) is most in accord with this, and has the advantage
of being an easy and in many respects useful basis.

— Huitres de Marennes | American
|
Gross body weight, after drying between
filter paper . : : : . : 3°8 grme. 65 grme.

Weight dried at 100° C. for 6 hours F 0-52 A 1:02 x
Weight of ash. ‘. F ; % 0:0940 _,, 0:1140 _,,
Weight of Zvon found . . P C 00003 __s=e~" 00008 _ ,,
Ratio of Iron found :—
(1) Calculated per pair of gills. 1 to 27
(2) . on gross body weight 1 to 1:56
(3) 33 on weight at 100° C. 1 to 1-36
(4) 73 onash . : : 1 to 2°2

The relative quantities of iron present in the gills as compared with
the rest of the body were next determined in French, Dutch, and American
oysters. Six oysters, or the gills of six oysters, were analysed in each
case with the following results :—

Weight of Iron found in mgrme.
Six Oysters = ae
French Dutch American
Gills. A cS : : : 0°6 O-4 23
Bodies minus gills 2 : ; : 1:2 | 15 17
Weight of Ash of Gills : : A 01880 0:0217 0:0294
a » Of bodies minus gills . 0:5980 071125 0:1240
%Irononash. Gills. . . . O32 | = 1-86 732 |
* % Bodies minus gills. 0:20 1°33 1:37
Ratio of Iron in gills to Iron in rest of
body.
Calculated per oyster . 5 : : Desy2 1: 375 Ley O74
a on ash F ; 3 ‘ BG sel L 24:1 erga es |

From these figures it is evident that the gills of the green French oysters
do not contain an excessive quantity of iron such as might account for their
colour. Calculated per oyster the gills contain less iron than the rest of
the body, except in the American oyster ; calculated as a percentage on
the ash the reverse is the case. The proportionate quantity of iron in the
gills as compared with the rest of the body is somewhat greater
in the French oysters than in the Dutch, but much less than in the
American.

Clearly, therefore, there is no connection between the green colour
and the quantity of iron present. This result is quite in accord with
Ray Lankester’s observation that his ‘marennin’ is free from iron as well
as from copper.

Both the gills and bodies of oysters contain a small quantity of iron,
which is evidently normally present, the gills containing a somewhat
larger amount in proportion to the total quantity of mineral matter
present.

566 REPORT—1898.

Finally, the total iron in a variety of oysters was determined in order
to ascertain the normal quantity present. These data, which are tabulated
below, show a fairly constant proportion of iron per oyster, from 0:15 to
0-36 mgrme., or from 0°18 to 0°65 per cent. on the ash.

Total Iron present in Oysters.

: Number Total Iron Weight of |Mgrme.Iron) Percentage
Variety of Oyster Analysed grme. Ash ee Oyster | Iron on Ash
Huitres de Ma-

rennes . * 6 0:0018 07860 . 0°30 0°23
Dutch . : ‘ 6 0:0009 071393 015 0°65
American . : 5 0:0018 02791 0°36 0-64
Colne . . : 10 0:0020 1:0938 0°20 0718
Deep Sea. : 2 0:0064 15017 0°32 0°43
Falmouth . : 6 00016 0°4534 0:27 035

In considering the variations in quantity, the very small amounts of
metal present must be borne in mind.

It may be added that although Carazzi has attributed the green colour
of French oysters to iron taken up from the mud of the oyster-park or
‘ claire,’ experiments on feeding oysters with very dilute solutions of iron
salts (0°02 to 0-01 per cent.) carried on in conjunction with Professor
Herdman produced no green colouration whatever. The only result was
a certain amount of ‘ browning’ throughout the oyster, the gills being no
more affected than the rest of the body. More recently Carazzi has shown
that oysters fed with similar dilute iron solutions acquire a pale yellowish
colour in certain parts (branchial epithelium and the esophageal mucous
membrane), and that in these parts microscopic tests show the presence of
granules of iron. The actual meaning of these results can hardly be recog-
nised without quantitative data.

The Presence'of Copper in Oysters.—F redericq has shown that a certain
small amount of copper is present normally in the hemocyanin of the
blood of crustaceans and molluscs. The quantity thus present in oysters
of different origin is fairly constant as shown in the following table: it
varies from 0:25 to 0°66 mgrme. per oyster, or from 0°30 to 1:18 per cent.
on the ash.

. Mgrme. | Percentage
: yy <28 Number | Total Copper} Weight of gr 8
Variety of Oyster Analysed nae Ash pase per eae on
‘Huitres de Ma-

rennes’ . 6 0:0924 0-7860 0:40 0:30
Dutch . F 6 0:0015 0:1393 0°25 1:08
American . : 5 0:0033 0:2791 0°66 1:18
Colne . : : 10 0:0036 1:0938 0°36 0°33
Deep Sea 2 0-0069 15017 034 0-46

0-4 mgrme. per oyster may be taken as an average, a quantity slightly
greater than the average iron (0°26 mgrme.). The calculated percentages
on the ash show greater variations, due to the very considerable differences
in the total quantities of mineral salts present, and it is probably to this
last factor that the popularly recorded differences in taste of the various
kinds of oysters is really due. Certainly the minute quantities of copper
and iron present cannot account for them.

ON THE LIFE CONDITIONS OF THE OYSTER. 567

The copper was also determined in the gills and in the bodies minu
gills of French, Dutch, and American oysters with the following results :—

Determination of Copper.

Six Oysters | ¢ ARE Een avnen? Dutch American
Gills only . . . Trace 0-8 17
1-4 mgrme. 1°4. 33

Bodies minus gill

These data show conclusively that the green colour of the gills of
French oysters is also in no way connected with the copper present.

Quantities of copper greater than those recorded point to abnormal
conditions. Such have been found to occur with certain Falmouth oysters
and in an especially interesting manner with the green leucocytosis of
American and Fleetwood oysters—the diseased condition referred to
above.

Falmouth Oysters.—The presence of relatively large quantities of copper
in Falmouth and other Cornish oysters has been repeatedly associated with
their bluish-green colour. Dr. T. KE. Thorpe! states that these oysters,
the colour of which, both in character and distribution, is quite different from
that of the Marennes oysters, contain on the average about 1:3 mgrme. of
copper per oyster. This large proportion is, Dr. Thorpe says, ‘ obviously
caused by the mechanical retention of cupriferous particles.’ On relaying
they lose their colour, and the quantity of copper present becomes normal,
0-4 mgrme. per oyster.

Six Falmouth oysters, the bodies of two of which were of a distinct
arsenic-green colour, were dried at 100° C., and then digested with water
and subsequently with dilute hydrochloric acid. The extract contained
about half the total copper present, showing that the metal is partially,
at any rate, mechanically retained on or in the body of the oyster, prob-
ably as a basic carbonate.

The analytical results were as follows :—

Megrme.
; = * | Mgrme. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Six Oysters Copper Tron Weight Copper Tron per | Copper | Iron on
of Ash per Orsi TART Mt
Oyster yster | on As sh
Extract with
diute acid .| 00097 | 0:0024 | 0:2272 162 0°40 4:22 1:06
Oysters . - | 00114 | 0-0016 | 0°4534 1:90 0:27 2°51 0°35
Total o . | 0°0211 | 0°0040 | 0°6806 3°52 0-67 3:10 0°59

The total copper present is almost nine times the normal quantity, and
about half of this is easily removed by dilute acid. It is quite likely that
the remainder is partially or wholly simply entangled in the food passages
of the oyster, and that the green colour may be due to some other cause
than this mechanically retained copper, as suggested by Herdman.” Mr.
G. C. Bourne, indeed, regards it as due, in some Falmouth oysters, to a
green desmid upon which the oysters feed in quantity.*

1 Nature, 1896, p. 107. 2 Thid., 1897, p. 366.
® See Note by Mr. Bourne below, p. 569.

568 REPORT—1898.

The occurrence of copper under such conditions is due to the locality,
and may quite possibly attain injurious proportions, for the oysters were
obtained from a creek which is locally supposed to bring down copper, and
the mud of which was found by Thorpe to contain 07148 per cent. of
copper. Normal sea-water contains such an excessively small quantity of
copper that it was not found possible to detect its presence, even electro-
lytically, in a litre of sea-water, after concentration.

The green leucocytosis already referred to was first noticed by Herd-
man and Boyce in American oysters which had been relaid near Fleet-
wood. The colour manifests itself in patches and streaks of pale green on
the mantle, in engorgements of the blood vessels and in masses of green
coloured leucocytes in the heart. The leucocytes are apparently all
amceboid wandering cells, comparable to the colourless corpuscles of the
blood of higher animals, and the colouration coincides with their distri-
bution.

The six greenest and six whitest of 120 of these oysters were chosen
for analysis ; also a quantity of the greenest portions of the greenest
oysters was selected from another batch, and compared with the corre-
sponding portions of the whitest oysters. The iron was not determined in
the latter comparison, owing to contamination of metal in the cutting.

The following were the results obtained :—

Mgrme. Mgrme. Percent. | Per cent.

Oysters Copper} Iron | Ash |Copper per| Iron per Copper Iron on
Oyster Oyster on Ash Ash
Green . - |0:0158 |0-U091 |1°1450 2°63 1:52 1:38 0-79
White . . (00042 '0:0036 |1:0948 0:70 0:60 0°38 0°33
Greenest parts |0:0033| — _ |0:0780 — 4:23 —
Whitest parts |0:0009| — |0:0452 —— 1:99 =

The excessive quantity of copper in the selected green oysters is 3°75
times that in the white calculated per oyster, and 3°63 times calculated
on the ash. In the selected parts the total copper present calculated on
the ash is high in both cases, and the green parts again show a marked
excess in the proportion of 2:1 to 1. The copper and iron in the white
specimens are about normal, but the increased quantity of iron in the
green is marked, being 2:5 times that of the former. Still there is rela-
tively a large excess of copper as compared with iron in the green oysters,
as is evident from the analyses, the ratio being 1:1 : 1 for the white and
1'8 : 1 for the green.

It is to be concluded, therefore, that the green colour of these oysters
is coincident with the distribution of the excessive quantity of copper
present, and that the copper is in consequence to be regarded as the cause
of the colour. ‘The histo-chemical investigations of Boyce and Herdman
have amply confirmed this conclusion.

Further, this leucocytosis is not accompanied by a mere redistribution
of copper, but by an absolute increase of the amount present in the body.

The deposition of copper in this manner is regarded by Boyce and
Herdman ‘as a degenerative reaction, due to a disturbed metabolism,
whereby the normal copper of the hemocyanin, which is probably passing
through the body in minute amounts, ceases to be removed, and so becomes
stored up in certain cells.’ The change is comparable in kind to the
accumulation of iron in pernicious anemia.

ON THE LIFE CONDITIONS OF THE OYSTER. 569

The increased quantity of iron present may also be due to abnormal
conditions of life, but a more accurate localisation of the normal iron
of the oyster is necessary before this can be decided.

This green leucocytosis has been observed by Herdman and Boyce in
other oysters, including those of Falmouth, and it is likely to be the real
cause of their colour ; a colour therefore due to copper as previously sup-
posed, but accompanied by a diseased condition. Whether the presence of
copper in the water facilitates in any way the development of the disease
has not been determined ; experiments made on keeping oysters in very
dilute saline copper solutions give no affirmative results beyond a certain
amount of post-mortem green staining.

Manganese was found to be present in several of the varieties of oysters
analysed. Its detection is readily effected in the electrolytic method of
analysis as it separates at the anode as peroxide. Colne oysters contained
0-14 mgrme. per oyster—a rather smaller quantity than the iron found.

Note added by Mr. G. C. Bourne in September 1898.

In 1890 I examined a large number of green Falmouth oysters, all of
which exhibited the green leucocytosis subsequently described by Professor
Herdman. I repeatedly tested the masses of pale-green amceboid cells
taken from the gills for copper, but I failed to convince myself of its pre-
sence, though I once or twice got indications of the characteristic reactions.

On the other hand, I found large numbers of desmids in the alimentary
tract, and was inclined to attribute the ‘greening’ to their presence.
Having left Plymouth whilst my investigations were in progress I was
unable to continue them, but I can confirm all that Professor Herdman
states on the subject of green leucocytosis.

Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Interim Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor NEWTON (Chairman), Mr. JoHN
CorDEAUX (Secretary), Mr. Joun A. Harvir-Brown, Mr. R. M.
Barrinaton, Rey. E. Ponsonsy Knusiey, and Dr. H. O. Fores,
appointed to work out the details of the Observations of the Migra-
tion of Birds at Lighthouses and Inghtships, 1880-87.

Your Committee have much pleasure in reporting that Mr. William Eagle
Clarke, since his recovery from his serious illness in 1897, has been able
to make very considerable progress in extension of his very admirable
report read at Liverpool in 1896.

His work in 1898 has consisted in collecting all the serial literature
and the Transactions of Societies in evidence since the commencement of
the inquiry in 1880, for the purpose of supplementing the data relating to
species, and he has succeeded in adding ten thousand records of great value
to the Lighthouse data.

It is further his intention this autumn to commence, from the collected
material in notes and the schedules, a history of each species in connec-
tion with its migration, and to give statistics concerning the dates of
arrival and departure, and the routes followed.

To work out these details in a satisfactory manner will occupy two or

570 REPORT—1898.

three years. Your Committee are therefore of opinion that no good results
would follow in presenting an incomplete report of the work done up to
this time, and they respectfully request reappointment.

Index Animalium.—Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir W. H.
FLowER (Chairman), Mr. P. L. Sctater, Dr. H. Woopwarp, Rev.
T. R. R. Srepsine, Mr. R. MacLacauan, Mr. W. E. Hoy.e, and
Mr. F. A. BatHer (Secretary), appointed to superintend the Com-
pilation of an Index Animalium.

By ‘Index Animalium’ is meant an index to the original place of publi-
cation of every name, whether valid or invalid, that has ever been applied
as the generic or specific denomination of an animal, recent or fossil. It
may be repeated that the Committee has decided to deal first with the
names occurring in literature published from 1758 to 1800 inclusive.
The examination of this literature has been carried on as before by Mr.
C. Davies Sherborn at the Natural History Museum. He reports as
follows :—

‘Considerable and satisfactory progress has been made during the year
ending June 1898. No less than 2,434 volumes and tracts have been
examined and indexed, and from these about 5,000 entries have been
obtained. This, no doubt, seems a small proportion, but it must be
remembered that all the more important works have already been dealt
with. There now remain about 3,500 volumes and tracts dealing with
zoology, and published before 1800, to be seen : 1,300 of these are not to
be found in this country, and have therefore been ordered and are slowly
coming in. As most of these 3,500 publications are unimportant it is
hoped that in another two years the literature of 1758-1800 will have
been so far sifted as to allow the discussion of the question of printing.

‘The final alphabetical sorting of slips for 1758-1800 has been begun,
but this in no way interferes with the reference series under genera, as it
will be remembered that these slips are all in duplicate.’

The following reports on dates of publication of books have been ~
published by Mr. Sherborn during the year :— 3

Note on the dates of the Zoology of the ‘ Beagle.’ ‘Annals and Mag. ~
Nat. Hist.’ [6], xx., November 1897.

Lacépéde’s Tableaux... des Mammiftres et des Oiseaux, 1799.
‘ Natural Science,’ December 1897.

Note on Martyn’s ‘Psyche,’ 1797. ‘Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.
[7], i, January 1898,

The Committee gratefully acknowledges expressions of sympathy from

the Linnean, Geological, and Entomological Societies of London. Its —
more hearty thanks are due to the Royal Society and the Zoological —
Society, whose pecuniary aid has enabled many rare books to be purchased,
and will make the task of hunting for the remainder comparatively —
easy.
The help obtained from the sources just mentioned is not enough to —
secure the services of the compiler, and the Committee therefore asks for —
a renewal of the grant of 100/., and recommends its own reappointment, —
with Dr. H. Woodward as Chairman in place of Sir William Flower, who
retires from the Committee.

=

ON THE CAVES IN THE MALAY PENINSULA. 571

Caves in the Malay Peninsula.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir W. H. Firower (Chairman), Mr. H. N. Ripuey (Secretary),
Dr. R. Hanrrsca, Mr. CLEMENT REID, and Mr. A. RUSSEL
WALLACE, appointed to explore certain caves in the Malay Penin-
sula, and to collect their living and extinct Fauna.

APPENDIX.—Leport by Mr. H. N. RIDLEY . ; E ; c é - page 572

Tur Committee have received from Mr. Ridley the annexed report on his
exploration of the caves at Selangor. Several cases of specimens of recent
animals found in these caves, and of masses of stalagmite containing
bones, have been received from him; but the examination has been
somewhat disappointing.

Tt was thought that the living fauna of an extensive series of caves
within the tropics might be a highly specialised one, for near the equator,
in all probability, climatic changes have been slight, and abundance of
time has passed in which evolution could work. Caves in temperate
regions, on the other hand, have been subjected to the cold of the Glacial
Period, and since that period the lapse of time has been insufficient to
allow of the evolution of an extensive cave fauna. The hope of such
discoveries was, however, completely disappointed, for, with the doubtful
exception of the cave snake which lives on bats, there is an entire absence
of a true cave fauna in the caverns explored. Neither blind, large-eyed,
nor white animals, such as inhabit caves in temperate regions, were found.

_ It has been suggested that the absence of a special cave fauna may be due

ton yt 618 rr eae ee

to the small extent of the caves explored in comparison to the size of the
Adelberg and great mammoth caves of America, and the presence of the
open shafts from above, down which living insects and other creatures
would be continually falling, and thus prevent specialisations. But it
may possibly be thus explained.

_ Cave animals in temperate regions are forms which have become
adapted to a climate unvarying through night and day and through
winter and summer. They are no longer fitted, therefore, for the external
conditions, and will probably conform more and more to the conditions
under which they live. The same discordance between the internal and
external conditions will make any interchange of species a comparatively
rare thing. A tropical cave, on the other hand, in a moist unvarying
climate like that of Selangor, exhibits conditions only differing from those
outside in the absence of light. There must, therefore, be a constant
interchange between the internal and the external fauna. Most nocturnal
species could inhabit the caves, if food is there to be found, and the cave
animals might readily stray outside and again learn to hide during the
daytime. This free interchange has probably prevented the development
of any peculiar cave fauna at Selangor ; though in a less rainy part of the
tropics, where there is an alternation of seasons, or of day and night
temperature, such a fauna will probably be found. The exploration of
such a cave might lead to valuable results.

Climatic conditions may be responsible in great measure for the absence
also of traces of man in or beneath the stalagmitic floor of the caves at
Selangor. Man in such a climate would not require the shelter of a
cave : he would merely need a rock shelter projecting sufficiently to keep
off the rain. Such rock shelters are more likely to yield anthropological

results than is the exploration of the interior of any caves.

572 REPORT—1898.

The absence of bones in the cave earth beneath the stalagmite is
singular, for Mr. Ridley’s observations show that such bones were once
there, though they have almost entirely decayed. Whether this also is
due to the climatic conditions, the Committee cannot say ; but as: the
further examination of these caves, where the destruction has been so
complete, is not likely to lead to any discovery of great importance, the
Committee do not ask to be re-appointed : at all events, unless a favourable
opportunity occurs for the scientific exploration of the much larger caves
than those of Selangor which are known to exist in the interior of the
Malay Peninsula, farther to the north.

APPENDIX.
Report by Mr. H. N. Rriwiey.

The limestone rocks which contain the caves described in this report
form a roughly shaped mass of large size, situated at a distance of seven
miles to the north-west of Kwala Lumpur, the capital town of the native
State of Selangor, in the Malay Peninsula.

On both flanks of the great central granite backbone of the Malay
Peninsula occur, at irregular intervals, detached masses of similar lime-
stone of various sizes, of which this is, as far as I know, the most southern
portion. Most of these limestone hills occur at some little distance from
the granite hills, but it is, I think, pretty certain that they were formerly
in absolute contact with them, and that they originally formed a con-
tinuous chain running up to the Lankawi Islands, off the coast of Siam,
which consist almost entirely of exactly similar rocks, and into the main-
land of Siam itself. Furthermore, there is a very marked connection
between the flora of the top of the Selangor rocks and that of Lankawi.
It is entirely different from that of the granite hills of Selangor, and even
from that of the plain country at the foot of the limestone, but reappears
in the Kota Glanggi Hills in Pahang, on the east side of the main chain.
I believe that, when thoroughly examined, the whole of this group of
hills will be found to bear the same flora, and probably also the same
fauna, as that, not only of the limestones of Siam, but also of those of
Borneo, showing a former connection between these places in the form of
a continuous stratum, of which the greater part has been swept away by
denudation, at least in the south of the Malay Peninsula. It must be
remembered that at present practically no geological researches have
been made in the Malay Peninsula, or to any great extent even in
Borneo or Siam, and in the peninsula even much geographical explora-
tion needs to be made.

The rock itself is very similar throughout, a white, more rarely blue,
erystalline limestone, very hard in texture. The whole mass of hills con-
sists of vertical cliffs, except where denudation has thrown down piles of
talus, and these and the upper parts of the cliffs are covered with a dense
vegetation of shrubs and trees, often of considerable size. The top of the
mass is split up into ridges with broken cliffs, so that ascent to the upper part
is in most places quite impossible ; and the accessible spots on the top are
of very restricted area, so that exploration of the upper parts of the ridge
is very difficult. It is on these upper ridges that the wild goat (Wemorhedus)
is said to occur, but I could find no trace of its presence. It is well

ON THE CAVES IN THE MALAY PENINSULA. 573

known, however, in similar localities in Perak and Pahang, as well as
Tenasserim and Sumatra.

The whole of the block is perforated with caves of various sizes and
at various altitudes, as well as by vertical shafts leading to extensive
caverns deep in the rock. The greater number of those that are known
have never been thoroughly explored, owing to the difficulty of getting
about in them, and a large number must occur in the eastern and
northern sides, which have hardly, if ever, been visited.

The caves specially examined were those on the south-west side of the
rock. Of these one known commonly as the Dark Cave opens about seventy
feet above the base of the cliff, and is accessible by a track leading up a
large mass of talus, now thickly covered with dense forest. The others
opened at, or near, the base of the cliff, and were therefore considered
more likely to produce human and animal remains than the less accessible
upper ones. Many smaller caves at various points were more or less
cursorily examined ; but as they showed no signs of old cave floors, nor
any probability of their being productive in any way of anything of
interest, no extended researches were made in them.

Most of the caves contain stalactites, often of large size, but as it
was evident that the rate of deposit varied in different parts of the caves
it was quite impossible to conjecture the size of the floors in this way.!
It was noticed, however, that in one cave considerably higher than the Dark
Cave the deposit was much more rapid, the water passing through the
cave depositing its lime on the floor in various forms. In one spot, where
the water ran in a succession of wavelets over a sloping surface, the whole
of the floor was covered with lime deposit in the form of waves. Here,
therefore, the deposit was of rapid growth.

In most of the darker caves the floor was covered with a layer, six or
more feet deep, of bat-guano, mixed with a little soil, derived from
washings down from the open shafts, and more or less impregnated with
lime. In some cases crusts of calcareous mud were thus formed, which
broke through on being stepped on. Similar deposits, hardened into rock
of a tough nature, were found outside the mouth of the Dark Cave.

Here and there were found layers of stalagmite alternated with the
bat-dung, and forming an exceedingly hard, tough rock. The immense

_ accumulation of the bat-guano testified to the great age of some parts of

the caves at least. In one spot, beneath a bat’s roosting-place, was a cone

_of this deposit fully twelve feet in height. Beneath the shafts were large

accumulations of soil, fallen rocks and trees, and several times bones of
monkeys were found there, the animals having fallen from the top and
been killed.

The Dark Cave.

This cave opens towards the south, on the face of the cliff, and runs in
a N.N.E. direction. The mouth is twelve yards in width and of a con-
siderable height. About fifty yards from the mouth is a shaft communi-
cating with the top of the cliff, after which the passage runs in a more
easterly direction to a larger open shaft, 374 yards from the mouth,
whence a passage leads in a direction of E.N.E. for 484 yards, the
total length being thus 858 yards. The height of the cave varies from
twenty feet, or thereabouts, to about seventy feet, but it was impossible to
measure, as the sides are very steep. This cave contains a considerable

1 The Malays are well aware of the growth of stalagmites, but are under the im-
pression that if one is transferred to a garden it will grow equally well.

574 REPORT—1898.

variety of animal life, especially in the furthest portion. Bats, chiefly
fruit bats (Cynopterus), toads (Bufo asper), the cave snake, myriapods,
insects, arachnida, and mollusca are abundant. The floor is thickly
covered with bat-dung to a great depth, and, except in a few spots, but
little calcareous deposit is being formed.

At the mouth of the cave the stalagmite floor comes to the surface,
and drops abruptly for a height of four feet. It consists largely of fallen
blocks of stalactite cemented by stalagmite. In front of this is a small
plateau, about twenty-three feet long, sloping to the edge of the cliff.
This is covered with a layer of soil, three feet deep, containing a few scraps
of Chinese pottery and fragments of ox-bones, and below this is an older
cave floor, consisting of a hard, tough rock of soil and lime combined, full

Fig. 1.—Diagram of Section at Mouth of Dark Cave.

of bones of bats, and a few shells resembling those to be found in or
around the caves.

As bat-bones in such abundance are only to be found in the darkest
parts of the caves, and at some distance from its mouth, this shows that
the cave extended formerly to the edge of the cliff, and probably far —
beyond. ‘The original entrance has evidently been quite denuded away,
and had any human beings tenanted the cave at that period they would
probably have left their traces in the lighter cave mouth, which must have —
disappeared long ago. ;

On descending the cliff to a small ledge about twenty feet below the
stratum containing bat-bones, I found a very small cavern about six feet
high, the walls of which were formed of a fluviatile deposit of yellow
mud, with bits of carbonate of lime. This deposit was traced to the foot

OE — —

——————

ON THE CAVES IN THE MALAY PENINSULA. 575

of the cliff, filling up a V-shaped cleft. It was hard and tough, indeed,
nearly as hard as the surrounding limestone. Unfortunately, this rock,
the oldest deposit of all, contained no traces of any organic remains,
probably because the original mudwas not suitable as a preserving medium.

In the cavern were also the remains of cave floors of later date, con-
taining bones of bats and shells of terrestrial molluscs, such as commonly
occur round the caves, and loose on the floor was found the internal cast
of one of these shells in carbonate of lime.

The dark cave, then, appears to have originally had a large stream flow-
ing out of it at a time when the surrounding country was at a very much
higher level than it is at present, and this stream deposited a very large
mass.of mud, now converted into rock. Gradually it ceased to flow, and
more lime was deposited on the surface till the floor consisted almost
entirely of carbonate of lime, the cave being, as at present, tenanted by
myriads of bats. The final history has been one of steady denudation,
the front of the rock being worn away and the mouth of the cave
retreating. There is nothing to show what amount of denudation there
has been on this cliff face, but the height of the stream deposit shows that
it must have flowed out of the cave fully fifty feet above the level of the
surrounding country.

On about the same level, and close to the Dark Cave, is one known
as the Cathedral Cave: it consists of an immense arch leading to a
large shaft, perfectly open, and full of small trees and shrubs. Though
remarkable from its picturesque and striking beauty, it seemed unlikely
to produce any interesting results in the matter of geology ; so I examined
it but cursorily.

The Quarry Cave.

The next cave examined was a smaller cave known as the Quarry
Cave. It opens on the eastern side of the rocks, at the foot of the cliff,
about a quarter of a mile from the Dark Cave. It is a low cave of no
great size, traversed near the mouth by a stream, dry at the time of my
last visit, but which I have reason to believe is the outlet of a stream
which crosses the Dark Cave at one point at the foot of the first shaft,
and descends in a small steep passage.

The present mouth of the cave is a narrow opening about seven feet
high, but it is clear that at one time it was very much larger, the mouth
having been nearly closed by an immense mass of stalagmite, which will
probably in time close it altogether. The stream, which formerly ran out
through an opening, at present blocked by stalagmite, now finds its way
out beneath the main mass.

The floor up to the original cave-opening is a mass of stalagmite mixed
with mud containing a few remains of bats and shells. An excavation
was made in the stream-bed to some depth. The soil consisted of yellow
mud, rather stiff and clayey, with fallen fragments from the roof. No
trace of any animal or vegetable remains could be seen, not even bones of
bats or shells, which were excessively abundant on the present surface of
the stalagmite. The stream is probably too rapid to allow of any animal
remains to be preserved, nor does the cave appear to have been ever
occupied by man.

Bats in myriads tenant the cave, chiefly, if not exclusively, Cynopterus
Lucasi, and 1 took no less than five cave snakes here ; an unusual number
for so small a cave.

576 REPORT—1898.

The Sakai Cave.

A good way further to the east, along the same face, are several other
caves, one of which is known as the Sakai Cave, on account of there being
the remains of occupation by the wild tribes, in the form of palm-leaf
shelters and rough charcoal drawings on the walls.

It was especially investigated as being likely to contain traces of
occupation by earlier races. It is quite a small cavern with a rather wide
mouth. Remains of old cave floors are to be seen all round on both sides,
consisting of an exceedingly hard brown rock much impregnated with
lime, and full of angular pieces of limestone, and containing also bones of
bats and shells of mollusca.

The greater part of the floor has, however, been broken down by a
stream which ran across the cave and out of the mouth, filling up the
entrance with soil for a considerable depth. The stream has evidently
long been dry, and it is on the soil at the mouth that the Sakais have en-
camped. Two parallel trenches were dug across the cave to a depth of
over six feet. In the one nearest to the mouth the soil was found to
be a dark red earth containing much iron, and in the upper part a splinter
of bone and a rounded stone, evidently brought from the river, and
probably used to support a cooking-pot, were found. Below this no trace
of animal or vegetable remains could be seen. The inner trench showed
in section a layer, of about a foot in depth, of brown soil, containing a
small quantity of charcoal scattered about, below which was a white,
granular, calcareous sand, partly agglutinated into irregular lumps, but
quite barren of any organic remains. It contained much mica. Mica, indeed,
appears in a good many of these cave stream-beds, and also in the soil on
the upper part of the cliffs. It is evidentiy derived from the granite hills
(now denuded away) which were formerly in contact with the limestone
ridge, the present hills being separated from the limestone by a valley
drained by several streams.

It seems that the wild tribes seldom use any of these caves, and have
only done so comparatively lately. I did not see any trace of their having
been here since my last visit six months previously.

I attempted to examine the lower part of the cave floors above
alluded to, but they were so covered with fallen masses of limestone from
the cliff-face that I was unable to get at them.

The Fallen Cave.

Between the Quarry Cave and the Dark Cave, and only about fifty
yards from the former, was a very small cave, only sixty-six feet long, in
a vast mass of débris fallen from the cliff, which is here quite vertical.
The talus is covered with trees of fairly large size, but the face from
which the mass fell is clearly distinguishable even yet. The cave did not
appear likely to be one of any interest, but on inspecting it I found a cave
floor about six feet above the present floor. This floor sloped to the north,
and there was little space above it. An examination showed that it con-
tained charcoal, and further excavation produced several bones, chiefly
fragments of ribs, which had apparently been used as food by some race
of men. They were often much impregnated with iron, and the medullary
spaces lined with crystals of carbonate of lime. The vertebra of an ape (?)

ON THE CAVES IN THE MALAY PENINSULA. 577

and bats’ bones were also found. ‘The rock in which they were imbedded
was tough and hard, apparently amud mixed with bits of chalky limestone
and much oxide of iron in the form of veins and nodules. This portion of
the floor was entirely in contact with the cliff wall. The rest of the floor
was more muddy and softer. A very considerable portion of the original
floor had been denuded away by water. What appeared to have been
other bones lay scattered all through this muddy deposit, but they were so
much altered that they were quite indeterminable. Iron had been

Fia. 2.—Diagram of Section of Fallen Cave (overturned).

A small cavern

: Spot whercethe mass fel,

deposited on them, and the bones themselves eventually corroded away,
their casts filled with crystals of carbonate of lime, and that, again, some-
times apparently replaced by iron oxide.

It appears that this cavern had fallen from the cliff, and the rock
containing it was lying on its side. In one direction a portion of the
original cavern could be seen, but it was inaccessible, being partly filled
with a soft mud which it was impossible to walk on. The original form
and position of the cave were indeterminable, owing to the crushing in of
the sides and inversion of the whole mass. That it must have been of
sonsiderable antiquity there could be little doubt.

1898. PP

578 REPORT—1898.

Present Fauna of the Caves.

Mammalia.—The most abundant tenants of the caves are the bats.
In some caves, such as the Quarry Cave, these seemed to be exclusively
fruit-bats (Cynopterus) ; in another there were thousands of two small
insectivorous species (Lhinolophus affinis, and R. minor). The bats live
in the darkest parts of the caves, the ground beneath their roosting-
places being often covered with their bones, of which those of the wings
seemed to be the most durable.

The larger mammals can hardly be said to be denizens of the caves.
In the entrances of some of the smaller caverns fresh tracks of tigers,
very abundant in the surrounding woods, were to be seen; but they
do not, it seems, inhabit the caves regularly, or breed there. Tracks
of bears (Helarctos malayanus) were seen in one rather open cave, and
with them were those of deer.

Civet cats (Viverra, spp.) certainly use the caves a good deal, as not
only were their tracks seen, but in many parts of the darkest caves
germinated coffee beans were to be seen deposited here in the dung of
these animals, but neither the animals themselves nor their bones were
found. In one or two caves tracks and burrows of what was evidently
one of the porcupines were met with, probably the brush-tailed porcupine
(Atherura), which I have seen in the caves of Kota Glanggi, in Pahang.
No signs of any other rodents were seen in or near the caves, and though
I set traps for them I never caught any.

The surrounding forest contains a large assortment of the bigger wild
beasts, including tiger, bear, wild-ox, pig, muntjac, deer, and elephant,
and the absence of any bones of these animals in the caves is worth noting
by paleontologists as showing that a district may be rich in large animals,
although there may be no remains of them preserved in the caves.

In a tropical region primitive man seldom utilises caves except as a
temporary refuge from rain, or, at a later stage of civilisation, as a temple.
He prefers here to live either in tree houses or in buildings supported on
high poles, so as to avoid risk from the nocturnal attacks of tigers or the
incursions of snakes, scorpions, or other such vermin, and with the aid of
leaves of palms or screw-pines he can protect himself against rain, and has
no fear of cold or snow, which the early European races had to guard
against.

A large proportion of the bones of animals found in European caverns
were introduced by hyenas and other beasts of prey. The hyena is absent
from this region, and the large carnivores do not carry their prey to any
distance to devour it, so that there is little chance of the bones of their
victims being found in caves.

A certain number of the bones in European caverns again are
accounted for by the animals having fallen through openings at the top.
In these cases it is evident that the upper surface of the limestone
whence the animals fell must have been plain, open country, or, at all
events, well suited for the existence of large animals. This is not the
ease here. The larger animals could hardly ascend the cliffs at all, and
would have much difficulty in moving about when once there. Monkeys,
however, which do frequent the woods clothing the upper part of the hills,
not seldom fall into the shafts, and their bones may often be seen lying
at the foot.

ON THE CAVES IN THE MALAY PENINSULA. 579

The immense abundance of bat remains in the floors is very striking
in comparison with their rarity in the European and other caves. Fruit-bats
are very characteristic of high jungle, as they require so great an amount
of fruiting trees, and the discovery of their bones in any quantity in any
deposit would be primd facie evidence of the surrounding country having
been, at the time of their deposition, densely wooded.

Reptilia.

The cave-snake (Coluber teniwrus) is common in all the darker caves
where bats are abundant. I have to thank Mr. Boulenger for its identifi-
cation. According to the ‘Catalogue of Ophidia,’ it occurs also in Dariji-
ling, Sumatra, Borneo, and China. But in the description in the work
above referred to the colouring differs considerably from that of the cave
snake. Thus it is described as being ‘grey brown or olive above; head
and nape uniform; anterior part of the back with black transverse lines
or network; posterior part with a pale vertebral stripe between two broad
black ones ; belly yellowish anteriorly, greyish posteriorly ; a black stripe
along each side of the posterior part of the belly and along each side of
the tail, separated from the upper lateral stripe by a whitish stripe.’

Now of the cave-snake no part can be called even grey brown, still
less olive, the upper parts being of a pale, ochreous colour. The
head is light bluish grey, with a black line running through each eye.
There is no trace of any black transverse lines or network. The colouring
of all the snakes I have seen (eight in number) was exactly similar.

These differences in colouring may appear very trivial, but to the
animal itself they are of no small importance. The cave-snake never,
apparently, leaves the caves, and very rarely even comes into any part of
the mouth where there is much light. Indeed, it is usually to be found
in the darkest parts of the caverns, where it rests on ledges of rock
looking out for its prey, the bats.

Tts colouring is so exactly similar to that of the cave walls—a pale
yellowish ochre—that it is very difficult to see, and the largest I ever
found (six feet seven inches in length) I had passed by without noticing,
though I was Jooking for snakes. Not only is the general body colour
that of the cave walls, but the grey lines darkening into black towards the
tail add to the illusion, exactly resembling the shadow of a crack or ridge,
such as is commonly to be seen on the walls. Upon the black mud of the
floor the snake is tolerably conspicuous, but when lying on a ledge, or reared
erect along a wall, it is exceedingly easily overlooked. No colouring
could be more suited to its surroundings. Were it, however, to leave the
caves and live in the jungle like other snakes, it would be as conspicuous
as possible, as it then would appear by contrast almost pure white.

I can find no account of the habits of the species elsewhere, nor
whether this peculiarly coloured form has elsewhere been seen; but it
seems of the greatest interest to find a snake so peculiarly and beautifully
adapted to such strange surroundings.

It seems to feed exclusively on bats. Twice I have seen it just fallen
from a rock-ledge with a bat in its mouth, seized as the bats, disturbed
by our torches, flew wildly about the cavern. Cast skins and skeletons
were several times found in the caves. One of the latter was partly
cemented to a stalagmite by a deposit of lime, and was in process of being
- fossilised. ;

Pir

580 REPORT—1898.

The only other reptile seen in the caves was a ‘ white lizard,’ probably
one of the Geckonide, seen by one of a party with me in the darkest part
of the Dark Cave. It escaped, and no others were seen.

Batrachia.

Bufo asper.—This toad occurred in all the darker parts of all the
caves, and some of the specimens were of very large size. It was chiefly
met with in damp spots.

Insecta.

There are a considerable number of insects to be found in the caves
of which specimens were collected and forwarded to the British Museum
for examination. Unfortunately, one of the cases of spirit specimens sent
in February last was lost in transit to Europe, but later I re-collected
most of the animals then obtained. Hymenoptera were represented by
a species of black ant (family Poneride) found in the furthest part
of the Dark Cave. Coleoptera.—A few minute beetles were seen.
Diptera—A very small fly (fam. Chironomida, gen. et sp. nov., closely
allied to Ceratopogon) was exceedingly abundant in places where bats
were plentiful, so much so as to be quite a nuisance. It apparently bred
in the bat-guano. One or more species of bug (Hemiptera) occurred in
and about the dry guano. Wewroptera.—A single specimen of a very
transparent, fragile ant-lion (Myrmecelwrus sp.) was obtained in the Dark
Cave near the nest of ants, and the wing of another was seen in the
mouth of a centipede. Ovthoptera.—A curious brown species: (fam.
Stenopelmatide ; Diestrammena, sp. nov.) occurred in all the dark caves.
It had a remarkably hard, chitinous coat, and very long legs and
antenne. It is apparently always wingless, for I saw hundreds of all
ages and both sexes, but never saw any with even rudimentary wings.
It was very active when disturbed, and at times uttered a feeble chirp.
Cockroaches (fam. Panesthiide) were very common in the dry, powdery
guano, which heaved with them when light was thrown upon it.

Arachnida.

A fairly large blackish scorpion (Cherilus, sp. nov.) was caught in the
Dark Cave, the only one seen. Several kinds of spiders occurred : one
was an ordinary web-spinner; another formed round silken discs attached
to the stalactites and walls by the sides, and free at each end, so that the
spider could open or draw tight to the rock either end, after the manner
of a trap-door. The nest was coated with calcareous mud, so as to re-
semble a portion of the rock; from it ran strands of silk radiating in
every direction. A third spider made silken tunnels, about six inches or
more in depth, in the dry guano.

Myriapoda.

The most conspicuous and abundant was a large species of centipede
(Scutigera maculata) with a banded and spotted body and legs, brown and
white, the joints of the legs being sometimes of a violet colour. It lived

on the walls of the caves, running with great briskness, and seemed to

feed on the cockroaches, ant-lions and other insects. It appeared to be
quite harmless, and did not try to bite when caught.

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ON THE CAVES IN THE MALAY PENINSULA. 581

One or two other centipedes were also seen and caught, as well as a
small pinkish millipede and a white myriapod, somewhat resembling
Polydesmus, both of which occurred in damp spots on the ground.

Isopoda.

Woodlice (Armadillo intermixtus) were common on the walls,

Mollusca.

Stenogyra tchehelensis was very common, especially where water ran
over the rocks. The shells are whitish, the animal dull yellow. It
seemed to have a habit of rolling itself in the bat-dung, collecting a ball
of it on its shell.

I sought in vain for crustacea in the few pools which appeared to be
permanent in the caves. There seemed to be no trace of any animal life
in them.

I have excluded from the cave fauna such stray insects, &e., which
only occurred in the open shafts or in the mouths of the caves. All the
animals above mentioned were met with in perfect darkness, and the
greatest number occurred in the furthest part of the Dark Cave, nearly
half a mile from the mouth.

- Comparison with the Bornean Caves.

The Bornean limestone caves were investigated by Mr. A. H. Everett

-in 1878 and 1879, and some also by Beccari in 1865, and there are also a

few observations on the Limestone and its Caves, by Posewitz (‘ Borneo :
Its Geology and Mineral Resources ’).

I gather from these papers that the limestone in Borneo is quite
identical with that of Selangor. Mr. Everett, however, found encrinites
in some part of it, but no fossils have as yet been found in any of the
limestone of the Malay Peninsula. The fossils show that the formation is
Carboniferous Limestone. The Borneo rocks, again, show traces of sea
action at no great distance of time. I can see nothing of this in the
Selangor rocks, but, curiously, there is a tradition among the Malays that
the sea originally came as far as this, and that the rocks themselves are
a portion of a ship turned into stone.

Bones other than those of bats seem to be more abundant in the
Borneo caves, but, like those of Selangor, belong to animals still extant in
the neighbourhood. It appears, however, from Mr. Everett’s paper, that
the living cave fauna is a good deal more extensive than that of Selangor,
but I do not know of any detailed account of it.

Human remains are more plentiful, and show a rather high state of
civilisation. But it must be remembered that the earliest race in the
Malay Peninsula of whom we know anything are the Sakais, who are by
no means as highly civilised as Dyaks, making no works of art such as
pottery, beads or metal-work, and possessing no domestic animal except
the dog ; and it is highly improbable that the earlier race who used the
stone axes commonly found in the peninsula were more highly civilised.

It was to be hoped that remains throwing light on the Stone-age men
of the Malay Peninsula might have been found in the caves, but as yet
nothing has been found anywhere in the whole peninsula except the axes
themselves.

582 REPORT—1898.

Concluding Remarks.

I would point out, in conclusion, that the number of caves examined
by me is small in comparison with the large number scattered over the
peninsula. Probably the greater number have never been visited by any
‘European. Few persons here have the time and facilities for making
researches of this kind, and fewer still have the knowledge or inclination
which would enable them to make observations of value. However, as
the country gets more and more opened up and accessible, it may be hoped
that more extended researches into the geology may be made by persons
resident here.

Canadian Biological Station.—Iirst Report of the Committee consisting
of Professor E. K. Prince (Chairman), Dr. T. WESLEY MILLs, Dr.
A. B. Macatium, Professor JoHn Macoun, Professor HE. W.
MacBripE, Mr. W. T. TuiseLton-DyeEr, and Professor D. P.
PENHALLOW (Secretary), on the Hstablishment of a Biological
Station in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

At a meeting of the Committee held in March last, it was resolved
to approach the Dominion Government with a view to enlisting its co-
operation and financial aid in the establishment of a Biological Station in
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which should be devoted primarily to investiga-
tions on the nature and the sources of the food of fish, oysters, and lobsters,
while it was also hoped that facilities might be afforded whereby the
various universities where biological work is carried on could secure oppor-
tunities for specially qualified students to conduct scientific investigations.
In April a communication was addressed to the Minister of Marine and
Fisheries, Hon. Sir L. H. Davies, K.C.M.G., embodying the following
recommendations :—

1. That a floating station be established in the Gulf of St. Lawrence
for a period of five years.

2. That this station be established first on the southern coast of
Prince Edward Island, and that it be moved each year to a new location
according to requirements.

3. That the various universities and scientific bodies of Canada should
be granted certain privileges with respect to opportunities for qualified
investigators as may hereafter be determined.

4. That the scientific work of the station be executed, as far as possible,
by experienced investigators connected with our various universities.

5. That while the station remains a Government institution, the
administration be vested in a special Board consisting of one or more
representatives from the Department of Marine and Fisheries, and one
representative from each of the universities represented in support of this
petition.

6. That an appropriation of $15,000 be made for this purpose, of
which $5,000 shall be applied to construction and outfit, and $10,000 to
maintenance for a period of five years.

This communication was presented by the Committee, supported by an
important representation from the maritime provinces and from the
leading universities of the Dominion.

The request was granted, and an appropriation of $7,000 has been
made to meet the cost of construction and outfit and the running expenses

a
j

ON THE CANADIAN BIOLOGICAL STATION. 583

for one year. It is the present intention to have all preparations com-
pleted in time to commence active work early in the summer of 1899.

The Board of Management as now constituted consists of the following
members :—

Professor E. E. PRINCE, Director, Department of Marine and Fisheries.
Professor D. P. PENHALLOW, : eure

Professor H. W. MACBRIDE, } Mooi Huiversity.

Professor RAMSAY WRIGHT, Toronto University.

Professor L. W. BAILEY, University of New Brunswick.

Professor A. P. KNIGHT, Queen’s University.

Rev. V. A. Huart, Laval University.

—_______—., Dalhousie University.

Livestigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. C. Bourne (Chair-
man), Professor EK. Ray LANKESTER (Secretary), Professor SYDNEY
H. Vines, Mr. A. SEDGWICcK, and Professor W. F. R. WELpon.

PAGE

Report of Algological Work. By G. BREBNER . x ‘ : : é ap its

Report on Nerves of Arenicola, Nereis, §c. By F. W. GAMBLE, M.Sc. . . 584
Report on Mr. J. H. WADSWORTH’s collection of material for the Study of the

Embryology of Aleyonium. By Professor 8. J. Hickson, F.R.S.. : . 585

Report of Algological Work. Ly G, BREBNER.

’ Havine had the honour to be appointed to the British Association Table

for a month during the current year, I was glad to avail myself of the
opportunity to carry on my investigations into the life-history of the
Tilopteridacez during my Easter holidays.

Although my results were negative, I gained a certain amount of
knowledge and experience, which I hope will enable me to prosecute the
investigation with more success another year.

The vexed question of fertilisation in certain of the brown sea-weeds
is at present attracting a good deal of attention among others in the
Tilopteridacex, a group in which I am specially interested. In the two
best defined genera of that family there Seem to be well-differentiated
antheridia (male organs) and oogonia (female organs). At the same time
the plants bear what are generally considered to be non-sexual organs, or
sporangia.

In a paper recently published (see Bristol Naturalists’ Society’:
‘Proceedings,’ vol. viii. Pt. II. 1896-97) I suggest that the family
should be limited to the two monotypic genera Haplospora and Tilopteris.
In one of these, Haplospora globosa, the three kinds of reproductive organs
are much more clearly differentiated than in the other, Tilopteris Mer-
éensvi, in which, owing to their similar position in the frond, it is almost
impossible to distinguish the oogonia from the sporangia unless we may
assume that those specimens which bear antheridia likewise bear oogonia
only. We unfortunately cannot with safety assume this, as I have
shown that Haplospora globosa may be ‘ sporo-hermaphrodite.’

Haplospora globosa would be the best species on which to study this
question of fertilisation, but the antheridic specimens are so rare in this

_ alga that I had to fall back upon the much less suitable Z'ilopteris Mer-

éensit, which is much more abundant and widely distributed in this
country, arid also much more frequently antheridic. Z. Mertensii occurs

584. REPORT—1898.

abundantly at Cumbrae, N.B., but unfortunately antheridic specimens are
not common, so, having ascertained that it grows at Plymouth, I thought
it advisable to try that locality at Easter. At Plymouth I was not able
to secure it in quantity, but through the kindness of the Director of the
M.B.A. Laboratory I was able to secure a fair number of plants by
dredging at different times off Mount Edgecumbe. It is a distinctly
interesting fact that they were practically all antheridic. Mr. A. H.
Church, in his interesting paper on Cutleria (The Polymorphy of Cutleria
multyfida, Grev., ‘Annals of Botany,’ vol. vii. No. 45, March 1898),
points out that that plant seems to have what I think might be called
asotherms of fertilisation ; that is to say, the temperature of the sea seems
to largely determine the presence of sexual organs and also their power to
unite sexually. If he is right, there is an optimum below which fertilisa-
tion cannot take place, but undoubted parthenogenesis of the oospheres.

If Mr. Church’s views are correct—and they seem well supported by
the evidence—then the negative results with regard to Ti/opteris may be
accounted for.

My own results did not differ essentially from those of previous
observers. The plants were repeatedly under observation, especially early
in the morning, and were frequently seen to discharge both spermatozoids
and oospheres ; but there was no sign of the latter exercising an attractive
influence on the former, as is so easily seen to be the case with such
oogamous Phxophycee as /ucus. Further, the presumptive oospheres
were in certain cases extruded under conditions which rendered access of
spermatozoids impossible, and yet they germinated freely, giving rise to
characteristic young plants of 7’. Mertensi in the course of a month. , The
conditions of temperature were varied as much as possible, but no other
result was obtained, the oospheres under no conditions exercising an
attractive influence on the spermatozoids. It is very difficult to keep
these rather delicate sea-weeds under continuous microscopic observation
in anything like natural conditions ; but with improved methods of treat-
ment it is possible positive results may yet be obtained, and it is my
intention to renew my attempts at the proper season in the hope that a
definite positive result may be reached, for I am inclined to believe in the
sexuality of the organs under investigation.

In conclusion I have to tender my best thanks to the Appointing
Committee for the privilege of using the British Association Table during
the period named.

feport on Nerves of Arenicola, Nereis, dc. By F. W. GamBwz, 1.Sc.

While recently investigating the anatomy of several species of Arenicola:
I discovered in A. Grubii certain nerve-cells which, from their size
(averaging 65y in diameter) and their definitely segmental arrangement,
differed very markedly from other elements of the cord. Accordingly,
when nominated to occupy the Plymouth Table by the British Association:
Committee, I determined to apply some recent methods to fresh material,
and for this purpose selected the methylene-blue method.

In addition to species of Arenicola the following genera were tried >
Polynoe, Lepidonotus, Sigalion, Sthenelais, Aphrodite, Halosydna, Nereis,
Nephthys, Glycera, Capitella, Terebella, Cheetopterus, and one of two:
undetermined Sabellids. Ophryotrocha and larve of Terebella and of
Polyophthalmus were also experimented with.

The method was that of Ehrlich as modified by Allen (‘Q.J.MS.,’

ON THE MARINE BIQLOGICAL LABORATORY, PLYMOUTH. 585

1894), and the stain as fixed by the ammonium molybdate solution (after
Bethe’s recipe). The preparations were dehydrated and cleared by slow
diffusion into xylol or cedar-wood oil. At first I employed an injection
of a ‘1 per cent. solution of methylene-blue, but I soon found that better
results could be obtained by rapidly dissecting out the nervous system
and watching the progress of the stain under the microscope. The best
temperature for rapid staining of unaltered nerve-fibres is about 65° F.,
while in passing the preparations through alcohol a low temperature is
advisable, otherwise the stain is liable to be washed out.

Nereis, Polynoe, and Halosydna gave the best results. The elements
of the nerve-cord of Wereis diversicolor, though delicate, are rapidly
stained before the fibres have time to ‘bead.’ The number and arrange-
ment of the nerve-elements in this species are still occupying my attention.
Unfortunately only a couple of specimens of Halosydna gelatinosa were
obtained during my stay at Plymouth. The somewhat short nervous
system, the ease with which it can be exposed, and the stoutness of many
of the fibres, are great advantages in dealing with this species.

With regard to the tubicolous Polychets, my experience agrees with
that of other observers. The method that gives excellent results in
Nereis, at the same time and under the same conditions, fails to stain
differentially the elements of the cord in Arenicola or Chetopterus. Out
of a large number of preparations of Arenicola Grubii a few only show
the course of a small number of nerve-fibres. I hope, however, by
modifying the stain to obtain better results than heretofore.

In conclusion, I wish to tender my sincere thanks to Mr. E. J. Allen,
the Director of the Plymouth Laboratory, for placing the resources of the
laboratory at my disposal, and especially for his kind assistance and
advice.

Report on Mr. J. H. Wanvswortn’s collection of material for the Study
of the Embryology of Alcyonium. By Professor 8. J. Hickson, F.R.S.

On arriving at the laboratory on December 31, Mr. Wadsworth found in

one tank (which I will call Tank I. in this report) sixteen healthy colonies
of Alcyonium, which had been placed there twenty-four hours previously
by Mr. Allen. The water in this tank contained a number of embryos in
different stages of development up to the stage they reach in twenty-four
hours. These were all removed and preserved, some in corrosive subli-
mate and acetic acid, some in Hermann’s fluid, and some in Mix. No. 3
(chloroform, acetic acid, and absolute alcohol). In another tank (Tank
II.) there were about sixty colonies, many of which were not in a
healthy condition. In the water of this tank there were numerous
embryos, some of which were clearly abnormal and unhealthy. Thirty-
six of the colonies from this tank were removed to fresh sea-water in
Tank IIT.
. During his stay at Plymouth Mr. Wadsworth collected at different
times the embryos that were found free in the water of these three tanks,
and preserved them in various reagents, noting, in each case, carefully
the time that had elapsed since the water was free from embryos.

On January 3 a female colony was placed in a bell jar by itself, a
quantity of ripe sperm was added to the water, and Mr. Brown’s agitator
employed for keeping the water in the bell jar in motion. Some of the
embryos shot out by this specimen were preserved ten hours afterwards
in the corrosive-acetic mixture, the remainder were isolated and pre-

586 REPORT—1898.

served, some on January 5, at 10.30 a.m., in Hermann, others on J. anuary
5, at 8.10 p.m., in No. 3 mixture. The use of this method was not, on
the whole, satisfactory, as many of the embryos obtained in the last series
were clearly moribund ; but as some of the oldest embryos of the series
were perfectly healthy, and show beautiful karyokinetic figures in the
sections, it is probable that renewed experiments with it would be
successful.

Another female colony, together with a male colony, were isolated in
a bell jar which was allowed to float in one of the tanks. The embryos
collected from this were at first healthy, but after twenty hours the water
became foul and the embryos died.

These two experiments, to isolate individuals and to endeavour to
obtain the exact ages of the embryos and others that were tried, have
given me some data, but cannot be said to have been thoroughly satis-
factory. Mr. Wadsworth’s time during his stay at the laboratory was
very largely occupied in collecting and preserving the embryos that were
found free in the large tanks, and these have yielded some very fine series,
the most successful of which are those preserved in Rabl’s fluid and in
the No. 3 mixture. Before leaving the laboratory Mr. Wadsworth cut
open a number of female colonies and preserved the eggs from the
ecelentera.

Since Mr. Wadsworth’s return a very large number of complete series
of sections through the embryos have been cut, stained, and mounted, and
I have carefully examined them, making notes and drawings of interesting
points. As the work is not yet finished, and there are still many speci-
mens to examine, it would be premature to do more than to point out
some of the results of the investigation. These results are given only
provisionally, and will be subjected to confirmation or the reverse before
being finally published with the illustrations. 1. The ovum of Aleyonium
is never fertilised before it leaves the body of the parent. 2. Soon after
leaving the polyp the ovum enlarges, probably by the absorption of water,
and the membranes covering it are broken and lost. 3. The nucleus
which is at the edge of the ovum diminishes in bulk, and is then dissi-
pated and lost to view. No karyokinetic figures accompany these changes
in the nucleus. JI may add here that these observations confirm the
results I have obtained from material collected in the winters 1893-4,
1895-6, 1896-7.

4. Another nucleus, much smaller than the germinal vesicle, may be
found in the ovum in what appear to be later stages. This is accom-
panied by archoplasm (?), and travels towards the centre of the ovum and
then fragments.

5. Segmentation is very irregular in Alcyonium, as it is in Renilla,
according to Wilson. Sometimes embryos with four, eight, or an irregular
small number of well-defined blastomeres are to be found, but more fre-
quently—perhaps normally—no segmentation occurs for some time, and
then the embryo segments into twenty or more tightly-packed blastomeres,
the outlines of which cannot be seen from the outside at all.

6. In all the well-preserved embryos which are segmented the nuclear
structure is clear and definite, and in most of my series beautiful karyo-
kinetic figures may be seen in one or more of the segments.

7. A complete series of the later stages of development up to the time
of the formation of the mouth has been obtained. This series will be
studied when the earlier stages have been more satisfactorily worked out.

:
$
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4
i
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5

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 587

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of
the Comnuittee, consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN, Professor
EK. Ray Lanxester, Professor W. F. R. WeEtpon, Professor S. J.
Hickson, Mr. A. SEp@wick, Professor McInroso, Mr. W. E.
Hoy e, and Mr. Percy SLavEn (Secretary).

APPENDIX PAGE
I—The Pseudobranch and Intestinal Canal of Teleosteans. By JAMES
F.GEMMILL 3 - ; : é é : é : . 588
Il.—(1) The Relations between Marine Animal and Vegetable Life in

Aquaria. By H.M. VERNON . : : : : : ; . 589
(2) The Relations between the Hybrid and Parent Forms of Echinoid
Larve. By H.M. VERNON . A 589

IIl.— On the Variation of Cardium, Donax, and Tellina. By J. PARKINSON 593
IV.— List of Naturalists who have norked at the Zoological Station from

July 1, 1897, to June 30,1898 . i , 5 és 3 : . 594
V.—List of Papers which were published in 1897 by Naturalists who
have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station . c 3 : - 595

Tue table in the Naples Zoological Station hired by the British Associa-
tion has been occupied during the past year by Mr. James F. Gemmill,
Mr. H. M. Vernon, and Mr. J. Parkinson.

Mr. Gemmill, who occupied the table from August 20 to November 12,
was engaged in investigating certain points in the anatomy of the osseous
fishes.

Mr. Vernon held the table from October until the middle of January,
and continued his investigations on the conditions of animal life in marine
aquaria, with a view to determine the relations existing between marine
animal and vegetable life. Mr. Vernon also made careful experimental
researches on the relations between the hybrid and parent forms of
echinoid larve.

Mr. Parkinson occupied the table from October 25 to April 26, and
devoted himself to the investigation of the variation of certain lamelli-
branchs.

Each of these gentlemen has furnished a report upon the work done,
which will be found appended.

Your Committee has again to remark with gratitude on the kindness
of Professor Dohrn in allowing the terms of occupancy in these cases to
run concurrently, at least during part of each period. Without this
courteous treatment on the part of Professor Dohrn, the Committee would
have been unable to meet the wishes of the several workers.

An application for permission to use the table during the ensuing year
has been received from Mr. H. Lyster Jameson, for the purpose of
making investigations on the anatomy of the Gephyrea. He wishes to go
to Naples at the beginning of October and to remain six months. This
application is recommended by your Committee, and they trust that the
General Committee will sanction the payment of the grant of 100/., as in
previous years, for the hire of the table in the Zoological Station at
Naples.

The progress of the various publications undertaken by the station is
summarised as follows :—

1. Of the ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel’ no monograph

588 REPOoRT—1898.

has been published during the past year, but several are in course of
preparation.

2. Of the ‘Mittheilungen aus der zoologischen Station zu Neapel,’
vol. xli., part 4, with 12 plates; and vol. xiii., part 1, with 11 plates,
have been published.

3. Of the ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht,’ the Bericht for 1896 has been
published.

4, A new Italian edition of the ‘Guide to the Aquarium’ has been
published.

The details extracted from the general report of the Zoological Station,
which have been courteously furnished by the officers, will be found at the
end of this report. They embrace lists (1) of the naturalists who have
occupied tables since the last report, and (2) of the works published during
1897 by naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station.

I.—The Pseudobranch and Intestinal Canal of Teleosteans.
By James F, GEMMILL.

I occupied a table at the Naples Zoological Station between the end
of August and the beginning of November, 1897. My work there had to
do mainly with certain points in the anatomy of the osseous fishes ; in
particular, with the distribution, structure, and development of the pseudo-
branch, and with the intestinal canal. Over fifty species of teleosteans
were examined.

A. Pseudobranch. 4

As far as the general anatomy and relations of this organ are con-
cerned, I could only, in the case of the greater number of species examined,
go over ground which was worked out long ago by Joh. Miller. Records
were, however, made for a certain number of species not included in his
list. But in every case, which was carefully examined, the great fact
established by Joh. Miller that the pseudobranch is supplied by
oxygenated blood was found to hold good. Comparative details as to the
presence and degree of modification of the pseudobranch were specially
noted whenever possible in allied species and genera. In this connection
the flat fishes were found to form an interesting group. On the whole a
good series of stages was obtained, illustrating on the one hand the gradual
disappearance of the organ in question, and on the other its passage
from a free projecting condition to one in which it is encapsuled and
glandular.

The microscopical structure of the organ was investigated in a certain
number of species. The results obtained agree in the main with what
had been previously described, but there was also found in some cases
(e.g. Serranus gigas), external to the layer of large polygonal cells
which lies superficial to the capillaries in each lamella, another layer of
flattened scale-like cells. These persist even when the pseudobranch
becomes encapsuled and glandular, though in that case they do not form
a continuous stratum, but are represented by scattered squamous cells
lying between adjacent lamellz.

A study of the development of the gland in Hippocampus brevirostris
and Syngnathus acus by the method of serial sections of embryos was
begun. The lophobranch group was chosen for investigation, because in
the adults of this group the pseudobranch presents every appearance of

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 589

being in uninterrupted series with the ordinary gills ; that is to say, it
lies far back, being just in front of the first permanent gill cleft, and it
shows the characteristic tufted structure of the lophobranch gill. I was
unable at the time to complete my observations on its development, but
they were advanced enough to convince me that the conclusion arrived at
for other osseous fishes by Joh. Miller and Anton Dohrn held good also
for the lophobranchs—namely, that the pseudobranch originates in front
of the hyomandibular cleft and groove, and that therefore it is homo-
logous so far with the spiracular pseudobranch found in many of the
cartilaginous fishes.
B. Intestinal Canal.

The intestinal canal of osseous fishes is well known for its extreme
variability in regard to length windings and mesenteric relations. I hoped
by studying these points in the comparatively large number of species
placed at my disposal to be able to define the characteristic tendencies in
the way of morphology which might be expected to be shown by a series
of examples ranging from the simpler to the more complex forms of
intestinal tube.

As a result, I have come to these conclusions for all the fishes I
examined :

1. That in any given case the anatomy of the intestinal tube can be
regarded either as corresponding directly to, or as being easily derivable
from, some one out of a small number of typical forms.

2. That the typical forms themselves constitute a natural series, of
which the more complex members can readily be derived from the
simpler.

Not the least interesting part of my observations had to do with the
changes in the morphological scheme indicated above that are produced in
the case of certain groups which vary in general form more or less con-
siderably from the ordinary piscine type, e.g. in the pleuronectids, which
are flattened laterally, or in Lophius Piscatorius, where the flattening is
dorsoventral, kc. Here also must be included those fishes which have the
vent carried forward to the front of the abdomen. In all these cases the
modified course of the intestinal tube can still be referred to one or other
of the typical forms indicated above, by taking in each instance the
special factors at work into consideration.

In addition to investigation, one of the objects of my visit to Naples
was to get some knowledge@f the working of a marine zoological station.
For furthering this, as well as for every assistance in work, I have to
acknowledge the kindness and courtesy of the station staff. I consider it
a very great privilege to have occupied a table at the Naples Zoological
Station, and I hereby tender my sincere thanks to the Committee of the
British Association for having afforded me that privilege.

II.—(1) The Relations between Marine Animal and Vegetable Life in
Aquaria ; (2) The Relations between the Hybrid and Parent
Forms of Echinoid Larve. By H. M. Vernon.

In the report which I furnished last year, I described the work on
which I had been engaged during my occupancy of the British Association
table at Naples between the months of April and June. I continued to
work at the Zoological Station till the middle of the following January,
but I only held the British Association table from October onwards, I

590 REPORT—1898.

being transferred to the Oxford table during July, August, and September.
As it is scarcely possible to describe only those portions of the work I
was engaged upon when occupying the British Association table, I will
now furnish a brief report of the whole of the work I undertook during
my stay at Naples.

In my last year’s report I stated that I was investigating the condi-
tions of animal life in marine aquaria. I continued to work on this
subject for several months, and have embodied my results in a paper
which will shortly be published in the ‘ Mittheilungen aus der zoologischen
Station zu Neapel,’ and which is entitled ‘The Relations between Marine
Animal and Vegetable Life.’ An abstract of the paper has already been
published.! It is on this account unnecessary to describe the research in
any detail ; but I should like to take this opportunity of drawing attention
to thescope and practical bearing of the work, as it might thereby be brought
to the notice of some persons who are interested in the subject, but who,
judging from the title of the paper, might imagine it did not concern them.
Thus the original object of the work was to determine how the nitrogenous
matter excreted by marine animals into the water is removed, and what
parts the various forms of vegetable life and other agencies play in the
process. This subject is of interest from its practical bearing on questions
relating to the efficient maintenance of marine aquaria, whilst from the
theoretical standpoint it is of importance to our comprehension of the
changes taking place under natural conditions in the open sea. The
method of investigation was a triple one—viz., chemical, physiological, and
bacteriological. The chemical procedure consisted in determining the free
and ‘albuminoid’ or organic ammonia present in the water by the well-
known method of Wanklyn, Chapman, and Smith. The physiological
procedure consisted in allowing the fertilised ova of the sea-urchin
(Strongylocentrotus lividus) to develop in the various specimens of water,
and then, after eight days’ growth, killing and measuring the larve in
groups of fifty, in order to determine the changes produced in their size.
The bacterial quality of the water was tested by counting the number of
colonies obtained on gelatin plate culture.

The three chief vegetable agencies concerned in the purification of the
water are—(1l) the macroscopic alge ; (2) the diatoms and microscopic
alge ; (3) the bacteria. It was concluded that under natural conditions
in the open sea the bacteria form the most important of these purifying
agencies. Thus, as considerably the larger portion of the water of the
ocean extends to depths such that no trace of light can penetrate, it follows
that no chlorophyll containing organism can exert an influence on it. As
B. Fischer? has shown, however, bacteria are everywhere present. Now it
was found that if the impure aquarium water was kept in darkness for
about three weeks, it might become as pure, in respect of the ammonia it
contained, as open sea water collected 10 kilométres from the shore.
Judged by the physiological standard, however, it was not nearly so pure.
Thus larve grown in it were on an average only 7°5 per cent. larger than
those grown in the impurified aquarium water, whilst those grown in the
open sea-water were 16°0 per cent. larger. In marine aquaria it seems
probable that bacteria play a considerable part in maintaining the purity of
the water, even though the water may be stored for but very short periods

! Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. \xiii. p. 155.
2 « Ergebnisse der Plankton Expedition der Humboldt-Stiftung,’ Die Bakterien des
Meeres (Ed. iv. M.g.)

“refpied

~ diag

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 591

in dark reservoirs, where the bacteria can most efficiently exert their in-
fluence. Thus, at Naples, it was found that the pipes conducting the water
from the reservoirs to the rooms were coated internally with a layer of
bacterial slime, and that in its passage along these pipes the water under-
went considerable purification. For instance, water drawn off from one
of the taps was found to contain from 26 to 82 per cent. less free ammonia
and from 16 to 25 per cent. less organic ammonia than the water in the
supplying reservoir. Also, larvae grown in such water were increased about
7°8 per cent, in size.

Probably, in marine aquaria, a more powerful purifying influence than
the bacterial is exerted by the diatoms and minute alge. Thus sand
collected from the bottom of one of the tanks was found to be impregnated
with this vegetable growth, which clung to each grain and particle. On
filtration of aquarium water through this sand, no less than 94 per cent.
of the free ammonia, and 18 per cent. of the organic, were removed. Again,
on filtering water in a continuous stream through a layer of sand which
originally contained no vegetable matter, this matter was gradually
deposited from the water, and the sand gradually developed a capacity for
purification which became more and more marked with time. Such a
vegetable filter is very sensitive to any variation in the flow of water.
Thus, if the rate of flow were diminished from the maximum of one litre in
three minutes to one litre in fifty minutes or more, there was no longer any
purification, but the amount of freeammonia in the water was increased about
threefold. This result is of some practical importance. It teaches us that
the layer of slime which is deposited on the bottom and sides of the tanks of
marine aquaria, and which consists largely of diatoms and algx, is a most
valuable purifying agent, provided it be in layers thin enough for an
adequate amount of water to circulate to all parts cf it. Once, however,
the lower layers are insufficiently supplied, they begin to decompose, and
become a source of contamination.

It was found that a sand filter, even when kept for weeks in darkness,
continued to exert a purifying influence. In this case the influence must
have been due to bacteria, and not to chlorophyll containing organisms.
This bacterial filter acted most efficiently with a slower rate of filtration,
and was not nearly so sensitive to a diminution or cessation in the
flow of water. With regard to the purifying agency of the macroscopic
alge, experiments were made on the purifying effects of green weeds such
as Ulva, and of red weeds such as Gelidewm. Their action was not found
so favourable as that of diatoms and minute alge, and of bacteria, in con-
sequence of the difficulty experienced in getting them to live healthily in
the impure aquarium water.

To the other results obtained it is not possible to refer here at any
length. Thus the action of sunlight on the water was investigated, it
being found that though an immediate germicidal effect was brought
about, the ultimate effect, on withdrawal of the adverse influence, was
slight or absent. Again, the effects of increased aération were investi-
gated, but the influence exerted appeared to be but slight.

Numbers of experiments were made upon the fouling effects of various
animals on the water. As a rule, larve grown in water fouled by
most organisms were increased in size by, on an average, 4:1 per cent.,
whilst in water fouled by sea-urchins they were diminished in size by
6°9 per cent. Fish and crabs appeared to effect about ten times as much
contamination of the water as molluscs and holothurians, whilst dead and

592 REPORT—1898.

putrefying sea-urchins effected about ten times as much contamination as
did the various living animals examined.

In the full paper are given numerous determinations of the specific
gravity of the aquarium water, and of the amounts of ammonia and
nitrites present ; also experiments on the effects of introducing various
salts into the water. To these it is unnecessary to refer here.

During the last two or three months of my stay at Naples I was
working on another subject, ‘The Relations between the Hybrid and Parent
Forms of Echinoid Larve,’ but I had also been making occasional experi-
ments on this subject whilst engaged on the research just described. I
also worked out some of the material obtained on my return to England.
An account of this work is in course of publication in the ‘ Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc.’, an abstract having already appeared in the ‘ Proc. Roy. Soe.’
vol. 63, p. 228. The object of the research was to determine systematically,
during the nine months’ period I was working at Naples, the exact
relationship of structure and size existing between certain hybrid and
parent echinoid larval forms. Eight different species of echinoids were
worked with, but the large number of observations were confined to
three of them. Upon the cross Spherechinus 2 Strongylocentrotus ¢&
twenty-two experiments were made, The hybrids were most easily
obtained in the summer months, few or none of the ova being
cross-fertilised in the winter. It was found that the majority of the
hybrids obtained in May, June, and July were of an almost pure Sphere-
chinus type, only a third or less of them being of an intermediate or
Strongylocentrotus type. In November, on the other hand, only about a
sixth were of the maternal and five-sixths of the paternal type. Finally,
in December and January, all the hybrid larve were of the paternal type.
As regards the reciprocal cross of Strongylocentrotus 9 and Sphere-
chinus 6 a fair number of ova were cross-fertilised in April, May, and
June, but no plutei were obtained. In July and August, on the other
hand, 29 per cent. of the ova developed to eight days’ plutei. In November
and December, with one exception, not only were no plutei obtained, but,
as a rule, not a single ovum was cross-fertilised. These extraordinary
variations in the capacity for cross-fertilisation seem to be due to varia-
tions in maturity which the sexual products undergo with change of
season. Thus in the summer months most of the Strongylocentrotus
individuals contain but very small quantities of ripe sexual products or
none at all. Also it was found that the normal plutei obtained in July
and August were 20 to 30 per cent. smaller than those obtained in April
and May, and also in November and December. At intermediate
times the larve were of intermediate size. We see, therefore, that the
Strongylocentrotus ° Spherechinus § hybrid is only formed at the time
when the Strongylocentrotus ova have reached their minimum of maturity ;
whiist in the case of the reciprocal hybrid it follows that as the maturity
of the Strongylocentrotus sperm increases it is able to transform first a
portion and then the whole of the hybrid larvee from the Spherechinus to
its own type. In other words, the characteristics of the hybrid offspring
depend directly on the relative degrees of maturity of the sexual pro-
ducts.

On crossing Hchinus 2 with Strongylocentrotus g it was found that
even more of the cross-fertilised ova developed to plutei than of the
directly fertilised ones, and also that these plutei were, on an average,
8 per cent. /arger than the pure parental larval forms. In the reciprocal

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 595

eross, however, only about 1 per cent. of the ova reached the pluteus
stage, and these plutei were 13-2 per cent. smaller than the pure maternal
larve.

Crosses were also effected between the forms mentioned and Arbacia
pustulosa, Echinocardium cordatum, LEchinocardium mediterraneum,
Dorocidaris papillata, and Echinus acutus. Also the various colour
varieties of Sphwrechinus were crossed, a distinct diminution of fertility
being found to exist between dissimilar varieties. With the colour
varieties of Strongylocentrotus, however, this was not the case.

In conclusion, I wish to offer my thanks to the Committee of the
British Association for the privilege of being allowed to hold the table,
as well as to the authorities at the Zoological Station at Naples for their
invariable kindness and for the facilities they were able to afford me in
my work. How great these were may be gathered from the fact that I
was able to carry on the chemical, physiological, and bacteriological por-
tions of my work simultaneously. As regards echinoid material also I
was afforded an absolutely unlimited amount, and as regards the artificial
fertilisations I was enabled, when necessary, to keep fifty or more large
jars of plutei developing at one and the same time.

III.—On the Variation of Cardium, Donax, and Tellina.
By J. PARKINSON.

It was my intention in visiting the Zoological Station at Naples
during the winter of 1897-98—i.e. from November to April inclusive—
to attempt an investigation on the reproduction of certain Ascidians.
However, a short visit to Plymouth, with some subsequent study, early in
last year raised sundry objections, and on reaching Naples in the begin-
ning of November I gave up the subject which has just been mentioned,
taking in its place the one which appears at the head of this report. I
began upon the genus Arca, comparing the variation in certain propor-
tions exhibited by the commoner species of that genus one with another,
but found after several attempts that the confined space in which the
animals grew, due to the nature of’ their attachment, raised great diffi-
culties in the way of forming any true estimate of their natural variation.
I then proceeded to the genus Cardium, and subsequently to the genera
Donax and Tellina, comparing the variation in the chosen proportions of
the several species one with another, as in the case of Arca. Here I was
more successful ; but in finding a reasonably certain, and, at the same
time, fairly quick method of measuring, as well as in overcoming the
difficulty of obtaining definite points from which to measure, much time
was spent. The work is now undergoing entire revision in the laboratory
at University Ccllege, London. Material for subsequent investigation
was also obtained from such experiments as the resistance of Pecten to
diluted sea-water, but this has not yet been studied. Although a con-
siderable number of measurements have been made, I have not at
present reached that degree of certainty which makes it desirable that
results should be given in length. It gives me great pleasure to testify
to the extreme kindness shown by all the members of the station at
Naples, especially to Signor Lo Bianco for the efforts he made to satisfy
my rather large demands for material. To Professor Weldon my warmest
thanks are gratefully given for the very kind help-he has afforded me
not only by letter, but since I returned to England. In doing such work
as that indicated above this has been simply invaluable.

1898. QQ

594

IV.—A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from

REPORT— 1898.

the end of June 1897 to the end of June 1898.

Duration of Occupancy

Arrival

Departure

Num- State or Institution
ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table
List was made use of
970| Dr. D. Carazzi . Italy
971| Prof. F. 8. Monticelli *
972| Dr. F. Bottazzi. A
973| Dr. G. Mazzarelli ik
974| Dr. A. Romano . is
975| Dr. V. Diamare * S
976| Dr. A. Russo . -
977| Dr. F. Mazza 2 .
978} Dr. R. Hesse Wiirtemberg
979| Mr. J. F. Gemmill British Association
980} Prof. F. Ezokor Austria . :
981 | Prof. E. Drechsel Switzerland
982| Mr. K. R. Menon Cambridge
983| Dr. A.G. H. van Gen- | Holland . P
deren-Stort .
984| Prof. G. B. Grassi | Italy F .
985| Prof. W. Krause | Prussia .
986} Stud. O. Fragnito | Italy
987| Dr. F. Doflein. . Bavaria . -
988} Dr. H. Driesch . Prussia
989| Dr. C. Herbst . “ - : A °
990| Mr. K. A. Buddicom. | Oxford . ;
991} Dr. E. Albrecht . | Bavaria . 3
992) Mr. J. Parkinson British Association .
993] Dr. S. Metalnikoff Russia . 5
994| Dr. B. M. Davis . | Smithsonian Tnstit, aa
995| Dr. T. Beer . | Austria . ri
996| Dr. E. O. Hovey « | Columbia Table s
997| Dr. G. Duncker Hamburg : :
998| Baron J. Uexkiill Prussia . : :
999| Dr. T. Adensamer Austria . ‘
1,000} Dr. W. Stempell Prussia 5 3
1,001) Prof. J. Nusbaum Austria . :
1,002} Stud. W. Schreiber . e : A ‘
1,003 | Mr. E. Goodrich Oxford . 3 5
1,004} Mr. M. Hill = i 5 ; ,
1,005 | Dr. G. Tagliani. Italy
1,006} Dr. G. Jatta . ‘ a ¢
1,007 | Prof. A. Della Valle . i, . fi »
1,008 | Dr. Count C. Attems. | Austria . . §
1,009| Dr. F. Studnicka fs ; ‘ r
1,010} Prof. K. von Barde- | Saxony . . .
leben
1,011| Prof.R. Bergh. . | Zoolog. Station .
1,012} Dr. H. Zwiesele. Wiirtemberg , b
1,013| Dr. A. Fischel . Austria j
1,014| Prof. K. Mitsukuri Zoolog. Station 3
1,015 | Prof. R. Burckhardt. | Switzerland . ‘
1,016| Dr. E. Sauerbeck ay
1,017} Dr. G. Wetzel . Prussia
1,018 | Prof. L. Jost . | Strasburg .
1,019] Prof. F. Oltmanns . | Baden :
1,020] Dr. R. Hesse Wiirtemberg -
1,021} Stud. G. Bugge. Hesse :
1,022| Prof. F. Schiitt . . | Prussia . é q

July 1,1897| Aug. 1,1897

”

19,
20,

”

Dec. 31, ,,
Sept.29, ,,

” >

Octi:! 4)-45;
Sept.14, ,,
Oct. 13, ,,
Noy.12, ,,
Oct. 10, ,,
Sept.22,

May 14, 1898
Dec. 12, 1897

Nov. 20, _,,
Oct: 75 3
Nov. 7,

May 5, 1898

” > ”

Mar. 1, ,,

Apr. 26, ,,

June 1,1898
Dec. 3, 1897
Apr. 14, 1898
Dec. 4, 1897
Apr. 15, 1898

Feb. 22, ,,
Apr.16, ,,
A ea eine
” as ”
” 14, ”
” 14, ”

EE a

| Num-
ber on
List

1,023
1,024
1,025
1,026
1,027
1,028
1,029
1,030
1,031
1,032

-
;
r
1

1,033
1,034
1,035
1,036
1,037
1,038
1,039
1,040
1,041
1,042
1,043

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 59!

IV.—A LIsT OF NATURALISTS—continued.

Naturalist’s Name

State or Institution
whose Table
was made use of

Duration of Occupancy

Prof. H. Ludwig
Miss H. O’Neill

Prof. H. W. Conn
Prof. Dr. Mottier
Prof. H. Hoyer .

Dr. J. Sobotta .

Dr. H. Lebrun .

Mr. W. Swingle

Dr. A. Russo. p
Prof. Miss M. Willcox

Prof. K. Lampert
Mag. N. Koltzoff
Miss H. von Siemens.
Prof. A. Nicolas

Dr. C. Alessi

Mr. F. Schaible

Dr. D. Carazzi .

Dr. G. Mazzarelli
Cand. H. F. Nierstrase
Prof. J. Ogneff

Dr. M. Gardner

Prussia -
Zoolog. Station
Smithsonian Instit. .
Austria . ;
Prussia

Belgium . : :
Smithsonian Instit. .
Italy
American

Table

Wiirtemberg .
Russia. :
Zoolog. Station

Women

Italy.”
Wiirtemberg .
Italy

Holland .
Russia

”

Arrival Departure
Mar. 10,1898} Apr. 14, 1898
3° 11, ” ” 2, ”

” 11, ” ” 24, ”

» 12, ”» ” 18, ”

nm 1G; |; June 6, ,,

ai Ss ay) ||P Mauve Seats

” 18, ” ea

eer Aen Apr. 28, ,,
Apr: 6; 4; May 4, ,,

” 9, »” ” 20, ”

” 10, ” ” 7, ”

” ll, ” ae

” 12: ” ” 29; ”

” 13, ” ” 15, ”

sme Ae ee v5 June22, ,,

” 25, »” ” 15, ”

” 26, ” zat?

” Bile ” a
May 10, , —
June 25, ,, -=

” 25, ” ‘a

. V.—A List of Papers which were published in the Year 1897 by the
Naturalists who have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station.

H. Boruttau . °

ta

N.Iwanzoff . = “

EH. Goodrich . ‘ 5

P. Celesia

G. Brandes . : =

”

W. T. Swingle 5 °

G. Schneider . ° e
¥. M. MacFarland . .
A. Russo . : .
J.Sobotta . ° .

Methylenblau.

vol. 40, 1897.

Notes on the Anatomy of Sternaspis.
Sul differenziamento delle proprieta inibitorie e delle

[

Der Elektrotonus und die phasischen Aktionsstréme an
marklosen Cephalopodennerven.
Physiologie,’ 66 Bd., 1897.

Muskelelemente der Holothurien und ihr Verhalten zum

‘Arch. Mikr. Anat.,’ Bd. 49, 1897.

On the Nephridia of Polycheta.
Tyrrhena, and Nephthys.

‘Archiv. f. d. ges.

Part I., On Hesione,

‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Science,’

Tbid.

funzionicoordinatrici nella catena gangliare dei crostacei

decapodi.

1897.

Zur Begattung der Dekapoden.

Bd. 17, 1897.

5 5 . Die Spermatozoen der Dekapoden.

* Biol.

Akad. Wiss.,’ Bd. 16, 1897.

Sphacelariaceen.

1897.

angelus.

Abth, f. Anat. u. Ontog., Bd. 10, 1897.

Sul coridetto canale problematico delle Oloturie.

Soc. Nat. Napoli,’ vol. 11, 1897.

Amphioxus.

1897.

lanceolatus.

QQ2

‘ Atti Soc. Ligustica Sc. Nat. e Geogr.,’ vol. 8,
Centralblatt,’
‘Sitz. Ber. k, Preuss.

Zur Kenntniss der Kern- und Zellsheitung bei den
‘Jahrb. f. wiss. Botanik.,’ Bd. 30,

Ueber die Niere und die Abdominalporen von Squatina
‘ Anat. Anz.,’ Bd, 13, 1897.

Cellulére Studien an Mollusken-Hiern. ‘Zool. Jahrbiicher.’

‘ Boll.

Beobachtungen iiber den Gastrulationsvorgang beim
‘ Verh,-Phys.-Med. Ges. Wiirzburg,’ Bd. 31,

Die Reifung und Befruchtung des Eies von Amphioxus
‘Archiv f. micr. Anatomie,’ Bd. 50, 1897.

596

V. Diamare

G. v. Koch
Th. Beer

J. Ogneff
A. Romano
QO. Van der Stricht

H. Driesch

F. Noll

A. Borgert

F. K. Studnicka

K. Kostanecki
C. Herbst
G. Mazzarelli .

V. Faussek

”

J. H. Hyde

G. Tagliani

R. Krause
A. Fischel

W. Krause

J. v. Uexkiill .

A. Bethe.

REPORT —1898.

Anatomie der Genitalien des Genus Amabilia. ‘ Centralbl.
Bakteriologie,’ Bd. 21, 1897.

Die Genera Amabilia u. Diploposthe, Nachtrag. Ibid.
Bd. 22, 1897.

Das leitende Element des Nervensystems u. seine topo-
graphischen Beziehungen zu den Zellen. 1. Mitth.
‘Mitth. Zoolog. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 12, 1897.

Entwickelung von Caryophyllia cyathus. bid. ;

Accomodation des Cephalopodenauges. ‘ Archiv. f. d. ges.
Physiologie, Pfliiger,’ Bd. 67, 1897.

Ueber die Entwickelung des electrischen Organes, bei
Torpedo. ‘Arch. Anat. Phys.,’ Phys. Abth., 1897.

Sopra le fibre commessurali del Proencefalo dei Selacei-
‘Monitore Zoolog. Ital.,’ Anno 8, 1897.

Les ovocentres et le spermatocentre de Y’ovule de Thysa-
nozoon Brocchi. ‘ Verhandl. Anat. Ges.,’ 1897.

Ueber den Werth des biol. Experiments. ‘Arch. Entw.-
Mechan.,’ Bd. 5, 1897.

Von der regulaéren Wachsthums- u. Differenzirungs-
fahigkeit der Tubularia. JZbid.

Pfropf- u. Verwachsungsversuche mit Siphoneen. ‘Sita
Ber. Nat. Ver. Bonn.

Beitrage zur Kenntniss der in Stilolonche zanclea
und Acanthometridenarten vorkommenden Parasiten.
‘ Zeitschr. Wiss. Zoologic,’ Bd. 63, 1897.

Ueber das Gewebe der Chorda dorsalis und den sog,
Chordaknorpel. ‘Sitz. Ber. Bohm. Ges. Wiss.,’ 1897.
Ueber die Herknuft der Centrosomen der ersten Furchungs-
spindel bei Myzostoma glabrum. ‘ Anzeiger K. Akad.

Wiss. Krakau,’ 1897.

Ueber die zur Entwickelung von Seeigellarven nothwen-
digen anorganischen Stoffe, ihre Rolle und ihre Vertret-
barkeit. ‘ Arch. f. Entw. Mechanik,’ Bd. 5, 1897.

Contributo alla conoscenza delle ‘Tylodinide, nuova
famiglia del gruppo dei Molluschi tectibranchi. ‘ Zool.
Jahrbiicher,’ Abth. f. Systematik, Bd. 10, 1897.

Untersuchungen tiber die Entwickelungsgeschichte der
Cephalopoden. ‘Travaux Soc. Imp. des Naturalistes,
St. Petersbourg,’ vol. 28, 1897.

Biologische Beobachtungen iiber Lamellibranchiaten.
Ibid. .

Beobachtungen tiber die Secretion der sogenannten
Speicheldriisen von Octopus macropus. ‘ Zeitschr. f.
Biologie,’ Bd. 35, 1897.

Considerazioni morfologiche intorno alle cellule nervose
colossali e alle cellule nervose giganti del medolla
spinale di alcuni teleostei. ‘ Monitore Zool. Ital.,’ Anno 8,
1897.

Ueber Ban und Function der hinteren Speicheldriisen der
Octopoden. ‘ Sitz. Ber. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., Bd. 51,
1897.

Experimentelle Untersuchungen am Ctenophorenei. I,Von
der Entwickelung isolirter Theile. ‘ Archiv. Entw.-
Mechanik,’ Bd. 6, 1897. : F

Die Farbenempfindung des Amphioxus. ‘Zool. Anz./
Bd. 20, 1897.

Der Schatten als Reiz fiir Centrostephanus longispinus.
‘ Zeitschr. f. Biologie,’ Bd. 37, 1897.

Ueber Reflexe bei den Seeigeln. Zdid.

Das Nervensystem von Carcinus inends. Ein anatomisch-
physiologischer Versuch. I Theil, 1. Mitthlg. ‘ Archiy-
Micr. Anatomie,’ Bd. 50, 1897. °

Idem, 2 Mitthlg.

7 a

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 597

A, Bethe 3 , . Vergleichende Untersuchungen iiber die Function des
Centralnervensystems der Arthropoden. ‘ Archiy. f. d.
ges. Physiologie,’ Bd. 68, 1897.

F.S. Monticelli. . Dictiomyxa Trinchesii g. sp. n. di Rizopode marine.
* Boll. Soc. Nat., Napoli,’ vol. 11, 1897.
©. Child . 5 : . A Preliminary Account of the Cleavage of Arenicola cris-

tata, with Remarks on the Mosaic Theory. ‘Zool.
Bulletin Univ. Chicago,’ vol. 1, 1897.

Photographie Records of Pedigree Stock.
By Francis Gatton, D.C.L. (Oxf.), Hon. Sc.D.(Camb.), F.R.S.

[PLATE IV].

Tr is my purpose shortly to communicate with the Councils of some of the
Societies who publish stud or herd books, urging the systematic collection
of photographs of pedigree stock and of more information about them
than is now procurable. Believing that if my proposals were carried into
effect, they would greatly facilitate the study of heredity, I desire, before
approaching the Societies, to submit my intended proposals to the criticism
of a scientific body, and none seems more appropriate for the purpose
than the Zoological Section of the British Association.

The following remarks are based on the Ancestral Law, which will be
explained. Its purport is to measwre the importance to the breeder of
taking into account the various members of the ancestry of the animals
he proposes to mate together, so much of the heritage coming on the
average from each of them. Then the methods of utilising this bulky
knowledge will be discussed, that of composite portraiture being one
means of dealing with numerous photographs ; another way is by obtain-
‘ing measures, which can be arithmetically combined, from the photographs
themselves, provided they have been taken in accordance with certain
simple instructions. Next, the plan will be explained by which the
Societies referred to above might initiate and maintain a systematic col-
lection of photographs and other information useful to breeders, which
should become self-supporting. Lastly, an allusion will be made to the
huge waste of opportunities of advancing the art of breeding that goes on
unchecked.

The Ancestral Law.—I have lately shown how the general knowledge
that offspring can inherit peculiarities from the various members of their
ancestry as well as from their parents may be superseded by a definite law
whose nature was first suggested to me by theoretical considerations.
Being subsequently in a position to verify its accordance with a large
number of pertinent facts, I submitted the results to the Royal Society in
a communication entitled ‘On the Average Contribution of each Several
Ancestor to the Total Heritage of the Offspring.’! My theory was
thoroughly examined from fresh points of view by Professor Karl Pearson,
F.R.S., in one of his remarkable ‘Contributions to the Mathematical
Theory of Evolution,’? in which he showed that the theory accorded with
other observations, and accounted for other conclusions that had already
been reached. Assuming, then, that the Ancestral Law may be accepted

' Proc. Roy. Soc., 1897. * Ibid., 1898.

598 REPORT—1898.

as at least approximately true, it will be found most serviceable in show-
ing the relative importance and range of the data which breeders must
take into account, if they pursue their art with thoroughness. The law is
that, on the average, the two parents contribute between them one-half of
the total heritage of the offspring, that the four grandparents contribute
between them one-quarter, the eight great-grandparents one-eighth, and
soon. Consequently, since 5+4+¢+7's5+&c.=1, the whole of the heri-
tage is accounted for. The same law may be stated in another form,
namely, that each parent contributes on the average one-quarter, each
grandparent one-sixteenth, each great-grandparent one sixty-fourth, and
soon. It is a property of the first series of fractions that each term is
equal to the sum of all those that follow (4 being equal to }+4+),+&e. ;
} to $+ );+&c.), therefore it results that if genealogical knowledge should
cease with the grandparents, inasmuch as they contributed one-quarter,
another quarter of the heritage will remain indetermined ; if it ceases
with the great-grandparents one-eighth will remain indetermined ; if
with the next ascending grade, one-sixteenth, &c.

[It must be understood that the law is intended to apply only to what
may be called plain heredity, that is to cases where qualities are capable
of blending freely, or, if they refuse to blend, where they present them-
selves as alternative possibilities. The necessary modifications have yet
to be investigated when it has to be applied to hybrid heredity, and to
those partial forms of hybridism which occur in cross-breeding, especially
in plants, where two parental qualities seem to produce a third and dif-
ferent quality in the offspring. Again, it takes no notice of prepotency,
because it considers prepotency as likely to occur with equal frequency in
each and all of the ancestral places, but when the prepotencies of par-
ticular ancestors are known or suspected it is easy to take them into
account. Similarly the law takes no cognisance of the prepotency of one
sex over the other, which must be allowed for in those particular races and
qualities where it is known to exist. Lastly, as it relates to averages, its
predictions will be truer for the mean of many offspring than for any one
of them in particular. However, as we know that fraternal variation
admits of being defined with mathematical precision for any measurable
quality in any race, the diminution in trustworthiness when a predic-
tion relating to a fraternity is applied to a single member of it, is easily
calculated. |

The ancestral law specifies the number, the grades, and the relative
importance of the ancestors whom breeders must take into account, in
order to predict with any given degree of certainty the most probable
character of the future produce. It clearly shows the necessity of a much
more comprehensive system of records than now exists. A breeder ought
to be in a position to compare the records of at least the four parents of
the animals he proposes to mate together, in respect to the qualities in
which he is interested. More especially he ought to have access to photo-
graphs which indicate form and general attitude far more vividly than
verbal descriptions. But the information in stud and herd books is too
meagre for the requirements of the breeder, while the photographs pub-
lished in newspapers and elsewhere are inadequate for making complete
genealogical collections.

Utilisation of the Records.—My principal suggestion is that a system
of collecting photographs should be established, which would be serviceable

PORTRAITS of

RACE HORSES and COMPOSITES of them.

Total

of exposure

£
z
H

A.12—Sir Visto.

—Solare

5

A; 86

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ON PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORDS OF PEDIGREE STOCK. 599

to breeders. They should be serviceable to them not only as portraits, but
also as affording means of obtaining measurements of the animal. It will
be shown that the system might be easily initiated, and be afterwards
self-supporting, but for the moment it will be convenient to take these
important conditions on trust, and to begin by considering what could be
done if we had the photographs. I will suppose, then, that the system
has been in successful operation for many years and that it has become
possible to obtain photographs of the parents, grandparents, and other
ancestors of each of a large number of pure-bred horses and cattle taker
under specified conditions. We have to explain how such photographs
might be employed in improving the art of breeding.

An habitual study of the form of each pure-bred animal in connection
with the portraits of all its nearer ancestors would test current opinions
and decide between conflicting ones, and it could not fail to suggest new
ideas. Likenesses would be traced to prepotent ancestors and the amount
of their several prepotencies would be defined ; forms and features that
supplement one. another, or, as it is termed, ‘nick in,’ and others that
clash or combine awkwardly, would be observed and recorded: conclusions
which are based on incomplete and inaccurate memories of the appear-
ance of the several members of the ancestry would be superseded by others
derived from a study of their actual photographs. The value of the
ancestral law would be adequately tested, and it would be possible to
amend it where required. Thus the effects of organic stability, to which
I have often called attention, have yet to be dealt with if they are not in-
directly included in the law as it stands. Lastly, it is not unreasonable to
suppose that every important stallion or bull would have a pamphlet all
to himself, with photographs of his ancestors, and with appropriate par-
ticulars about each of them. Such pamphlets would become recognised
as a just form of advertisement.

Composite Photography.—It may be said that, even if all the ancestral
photographs were spread in full view on a table, no human brain could
combine into a single mental image the peculiarities in feature even of the
two parents, and of the four grandparents, in the proportion laid down by
the ancestral law. Thereis, however, a method by which a substitute for
a mental picture may be obtained, which may possibly prove serviceable
in practice. Jt is by making composites of the photographs, allotting to
each portrait its appropriate time of exposure.! I submit a few compo-
sites which I have made of the heads of racehorses : the component por-
traits are from the earlier numbers of the ‘ Racing Illustrated.’ I enlarged
them to an uniform scale, reckoning from the middle of the eyeball to the
fold within the nostril, cut them out to get rid of the confusion introduced
by a variety of background, and then combined them in various pro-
portions. Especially I took six, those of (A) Sir Visto, (B) Solaro, (C)
Raconteur, (D) St. Marnock, (E) Speedwell, and (F) Salebeia, which will
henceforth be distinguished by those letters. With the plate, stop, and the
two small electric lamps that I used for illumination, it required an expo-
sure of 240 seconds, say of 12 units of time, each consisting of 20 seconds,
to give a good copy of any one of the portraits, so I proceeded as follows :—
First, I made a composite of A and B, allowing 6 units of exposure to each

ae Composite Portraits, Watwre, 1878; Composite Portraiture, Jowrn. Phot. Soc.,

600 REPORT—1898

of them, or 12 units in all; then I made another composite of A, B, and
the four others, allowing 4 units to A, 4 units to B, and 1 unit to each of
the four others, forming a total as before of 12 units. So while the com-
posite which I will call A 6, B 6, illustrates the combined features of the
two parents, that of A 4, B 4,C 1, D1, E.1, F 1 illustrates those of two
parents and four grandparents in the proportions laid down by the ances-
tral law. I proceeded similarly with C, D and with C, D and the other
four, and again with HE, F and with E, F and the other four ; I submit
these six composites. Of course the process could be extended indefinitely,
working backwards to include as many previous generations of ancestors as
desired, and it might be equally well applied to portraits of other animals
than horses, including men and women, whose features combine unex-
pectedly well in composites, though one sex be bearded and the other not.
A composite may be made of any separate part of an animal, but hardly of
the whole animal at once, because each separate joint is liable to be flexed
differently in the different portraits. The ears of the horses in the illus-
tration indicate what would then occur. This is not the place to enter
further into the details of composite making, which I have now reduced
to a very simple process whose accuracy is evidenced by the identity of the
composites that have been re-made at different times from the same com-
ponents. The specimens I submit would have been better if they had
been made from the original photographs and not from photo-process
copies of them, still they will serve to gauge the amount of information
which composites are likely to give to the breeder. They should be care-
fully scrutinised and compared, when more differences and points of
interest will be found than are apparent at a first glance.

Measurement of Photographs.—A. photograph considered merely as a
portrait tells about as much of an animal as can be gathered from a
single view of it ; it defines the contour, the slope of the shoulders, the
set of the head, the forms and the positions of the limbs, but this is by no
means all that is obtainable from a photograph. It may be so taken that
measurements made upon the photograph, after certain corrections have
been applied to them, will be nearly as good as those made on the animal
itself. Now, measurements are of the highest importance to the theoretical
study of heredity, for science is based on numerical data, and the science
of heredity is no exception to the general rule. Its progress depends
primarily upon the power of procuring large collections of measurements of
the same parts, which admit of being combined in any proportions by simple
arithmetic. It matters little what limb, or bodily part, or faculty is
the subject of measurement, because laws which are true for one particular
quality, and for one particular race of animals or plants, will presumably
apply with small modifications to any other quality and race. Therefore
it would be no unworthy occupation for a scientific man to devote years
of labour to carefully measuring each of many parts in the photographs
of offspring and their ancestry, and to discuss the results by the elaborate
methods of the higher statistics.

The photographs of which I speak are assumed to have been taken
under the following conditions. They would represent side views of
the animals and therefore be comparable on equal terms so far as
position is concerned. The animals would have been photographed at a
distance of not less than thirty feet from the camera, in order to avoid
sensible distortion of the portrait. They should be taken while standing

ON PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORDS OF TEDIGREE STOCK. 601

on hard ground, that the feet may be clearly shown, and no mistake
arise about their heights. The height of the camera above the
ground and its distance from the animal should be roughly measured
and noted. Lastly, two direct measurements of the height of the animal
should be made, one at its withers, the other at its croup. The photo-
graph now becomes more than a mere picture, because the recorded data,
together with others afforded by the photograph itself, supply corrections
that will cause the measurements made upon it to correspond with more
or less accuracy to those made on the animal itself. Of course, their
correspondence would not be so exact as it would be in photographs
taken in a ‘hippometric’ laboratory provided with marked lines on the
ground and walls, but such a laboratory is impracticable on many grounds.
Thoroughbred horses are so easily frightened in unfamiliar places and
at unfamiliar objects that the best plan is to photograph them leisurely
among their accustomed surroundings. It is difficult and dangerous to
apply tapes and calipers, which tickle and irritate, for thoroughbred
horses are exceedingly sensitive, timid, fidgety, and often vicious, while
they are supple and sudden in their movements of offence. Measurements
of the two vertical heights, made in the usual way, are comparatively easy
to manage.

I find, moreover, that vertical measurements of all kinds may be made
quickly and accurately without touching the objects at all, by means of a
simple instrument which I roughly put together for trial. [I submit its
working part.| Its principle is that of a collimator, with additions and
modifications. It seems very suitable for use at agricultural and other
shows where many animals are collected.

Though many useful measurements can be made on a plain photo-
graph, it would be a decided gain to select two, three or more important
osseous protuberances, such as can be easily felt, and to mark their positions
by sticking on the animal small wafers of sufficiently adhesive paper—say,
one quarter of an inch in diameter. The corresponding marks on the
photographs will be too small to attract notice, but they are easily found
when looked for, and afford excellent points from which to measure. I
may add that measurements I have made, and had made, both on horses
and on their photographs, show that the relative dimensions of horses
differ considerably. If some five different measurements were made on an
adult racehorse, it would be as easy to identify him by a ‘ Bertillon
process ’ as it is to identify prisoners.

It will be observed that the measured height of the animals at the
wither and croup, supply a scale for vertical measures on the photograph
at those points. If the line to which vertical measures are drawn on the
photograph be the one that touches the edge of the feet nearest to the
camera, a slight and simple correction has to be made. There is difficulty
in respect to the relation between the vertical and the horizontal scales,
but less so than might be anticipated, for the tilt of the camera is found
closely enough by a rough knowledge of the height of the camera and its
distance from the animal, combined with data supplied by the photograph
itself. Again, the length between the rounded ends of the body, and the
diameters of the limbs, are not sensibly affected by the animal standing
very slightly askew. The necessary corrections admit of being easily
found from appropriate tables. It is curious in how many different ways
the required corrections may be determined when the range of available

602 REPORT—1898.

measures is slightly increased. J have already discussed the question fora
different and more complicated series of data in ‘ Photographic Measure-
ments of Horses and other Animals’ (Vature, Jan. 6, 1898), which will
show the general character of the problem, but I cannot enter into par-
ticulars now. The primary question is, will photographers and grooms
take the proposed measurements with sufficient correctness, and are any
additions to them feasible? To settle this question, many experiments
should be concentrated by more than one photographer upon the same
quiet and well-measured animals. These ought to determine the trust-
worthiness of the results according to the data in use, and would show
the minimum of effort that is necessary to afford the required degree of
accuracy. I should be content if the average error in the calculated height
and length of the horse did not exceed one inch, or say one-and-a-half
per cent.

Systematic Collection of Photographs.—It remains to consider what has
hitherto been taken for granted—the best method of starting a systematic
collection of photographs of pedigree stock. My proposal is to suggest to
the principal Societies which publish stud or herd books, that they should
proceed as follows :

(1) To arrange with a photographer to store such negatives as the
Society may hand over to his charge ; he undertaking to supply prints
from them to the public at a moderate cost and under reasonable
regulations.

(2) To invite owners of pure-bred stock to send to the Society with
which they are in connection, a negative photographic plate of each of the
animals which they use for breeding, and which are therefore adult, on
the understanding that if the negative be accepted by the Society it will
be handed over to the photographer.

(3) Only those negatives will be considered suitable for acceptance
(a) which are of good quality ; (b) which do not transgress specified limits
of size ; (c) which scrutiny shows to be strictly side views ; (¢) which have
been taken at a distance from the animal of not less than 30 feet ; and
(e) which show the animal standing on hard ground.

(4) The following information is to be stamped or written on the
negative in such a way as to be clearly legible in the prints : (1) the name
and sex of the animal, (2) year of its birth, (3) year and month of taking
the photograph, (4) heights at its withers and croup, (5) height of camera
and its distance from the animal.

(5) The Society shall order an asterisk to be affixed to the name of
each animal entered in its stud or herd book, when the photographic
negatives of its sire and dam have been accepted.

It seems to me that a system such as this would be efficient, self-support-
ing and acceptable to all parties. Breeders would be pleased that photo-
graphs of their animals should be publicly recognised as serviceable for the
advancement of their art. Owners of valuable animals are almost sure to
order photographs of them on their own account, so the gift of the negatives
to the Society would deprive them of nothing. The asterisks applied to
the names of the offspring would be a valued distinction, and would help

ON PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORDS OF PEDIGREE STOCK. 603

to introduce the system. Later on, when they had become common, the
absence of an asterisk would excite suspicion and require explanation.
Lastly, the printing of the photographs would be self-supporting. I have
already expressed a belief that the custom would arise of printing a
separate pamphlet for every important stallion or bull, containing its
photograph and those of its nearer ancestors, together with other appropriate
information. Larger publications of a more costly kind would doubtless
be issued under the auspices of each Society, to correspond with an awakened
demand for fuller information on the antecedents of pedigree stock.

- Printed Records.—As regards useful additions to the printed matter
in stud and herd books, I would now merely allude to the need for them,
and to the propriety of carefully reconsidering how much of real utility
could be asked for from breeders that they would supply willingly and
truthfully. The measurements of adult animals, of which I spoke, would
be appropriate entries. An accumulation even of these during two or
three generations would be exceedingly valuable, considering how many
coherent results in the science of heredity have been derived from obser-
vations of human stature, though limited to comparatively small numbers
of parents and their offspring.

Conclusion.—The amount of money annually spent in rearing pedigree
stock is enormous ; so is the care and thought bestowed upon it, and so
also is its national importance. The non-preservation of adequate records
of pedigree stock is a cruel waste of opportunity, and has been most preju-
dicial to the acquirement of a sound knowledge of the art of breeding.
If the scheme I have sketched be found feasible, it will cause much to
be noted that has hitherto been overlooked, and much that is commonly
observed to be placed permanently on record, instead of being ill remem-
bered and soon wholly forgotten.

The Climatology of Africa.—Seventh Report of a Committee consisting
of Mr. E. G. RAveNsTEIN (Chairman), Sir Jonn Kirk, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Dr. H. R. Miu, and Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary).
(Drawn up by the Chairman.)

MeEreoroLocicaL returns have reached your Committee, in the course of
last year, from twenty-six stations in Tropical Africa.

Niger Territories.—No returns have been received from Wari since the
hostile operations against Benin, and there is reason to believe that the
instruments at that station have been destroyed. Mr. E. G. Fenton has
forwarded three months’ observations from Old Calabar. These will be
published as soon as a full year’s record is to hand. The promised
abstracts of observations from several stations in the territories of the
Royal Niger Company have not hitherto been received.

Lambarene (Ogowai).—The set of instruments lent to the late M.
Bonzon of the ‘ Missions Evangéliques’ has been returned to Paris. The
Rev. M. Coillard, well known for his excellent work in the Barotse
country, and a trustworthy observer, having expressed a desire to purchase
these instruments for 6/., the Committee have gladly accepted this offer,
as a station in that part of Africa is much wanted. The set has been

604. REPORT— 1898.

repaired and completed, and the thermometers have been re-verified at
Kew.

British Central Africa.—The organisation of the Meteorological service
in British Central Africa has been intrusted to Mr. J. McClounie, the
head of the scientific department of that Protectorate. From the great
interest taken in the work by Mr. Alfred Sharpe, H.M.’s Commissioner,
and Captain W. H. Manning, his deputy, we may fairly expect that the
climatological conditions of this Protectorate will soon become thoroughly
well known. The grant made by the Foreign Office has enabled Mr.
McClounie to equip two Second Order stations (Zomba and Fort John-
ston) and ten climatological stations. Mr. Moir, meanwhile, has resumed
his work at Lauderdale, and Mr. McClounie is endeavouring to enlist the
co-operation of planters and other residents. Returns for from three to
four months have already been received from ten stations, including one
from Kambola, on the Tanganyika Plateau, from Dr. J. G. Mackay.
The instruments lent to the late Mr. Buchanan have been recovered, with
the exception of the mercurial barometer, but they were found by Mr.
McClounie to be in a sad state of disrepair.

british East Africa.—Returns from nine Government stations have
been received up to the end of 1897. These returns, owing to the occa-
sional illness of the officials charged with the observations, and temporary
absences, are not as complete as could be desired, but in default of some-
thing better they have added considerably to our knowledge of the
climatological conditions of this Protectorate, especially as regards the
rainfall. We have succeeded in obtaining a description of the instruments
in use at most of these stations, and copies of the Kew certificates having
been kindly furnished by Mr. R. H. Scott, secretary of the Meteorological
Council, we were able to correct the observations received for instrumental
errors. The exposure, in many instances, seems to be objectionable, and
the occasional visit of a Meteorological Inspector to all these stations
would prove of great value.

In addition to the above, we have received a full year’s return from the
Scottish Missionaries at Kibwelzi. These returns include hourly observa-
tions for thirteen international term-days, and are by far the most com-
plete received, up till now, from British East Africa.

Uganda.—Returns of the level of Victoria Nyanza, up to the end of
July, have been received. The mutiny of the Sudanese unfortunately
interrupted these valuable observations, but they have since been resumed.

Your Committee have decided to discontinue lending instruments,
although they will always be pleased to advise as to purchase and use of
them, and to prepare and publish results.

Having transferred the instruments in Nyasaland to H.M.’s Com-
missioner, and sold those formerly at Lambarene to M. Coillard, the
only instruments still the property of the Committee are a set at Bolobo,
on the Congo; a set at Kibwezi in East Africa ; a set (probably injured
beyond repair) at Wasi; an earth-thermometer in Uganda, and a rain-
gauge at Golbanti. . Lastly, a set of instruments, purchased to replace one
lost by Mr. Herdman, is about to be restored to the Committee.

The abstracts appended have been prepared by the chairman of the
Committee.

Your Committee propose that they be re-appointed. They do not ask
for a grant, merely requesting authority to expend the 6/. received from
the sale of instruments to M. Coillard.

o ~
ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 605
!
|
:
| Mombasa, 4° 4' S., 39° 42’ #., 60 feet.
‘ Observers: J.J. W. Pigott (to April 1896), and C. R. Craufurd.
.
eee ee] Mean Temperatures Humidity Rain
f Pressure) “Temes Te 7, ¥ :
f Atnio- | Daily | 55 = = eas
Month ° B | Range 52 | 25 EI an
pphere 8 é Dry | Wet | Mean| Mean 4,,./ “i Dew 83 a3 = g iga3
: "Sb © |9A.M.|9A.M.| Max.| Min. | Point] #8 |58| a | 8 g2-
| Pre aa 1 a aa
Se | rae lt — jo
| Ins WWPse..| In. In.
° :
| gonuary .| 29814 | 883 | 780 | e83 | 765 | a8 | tz ghz | Go| res | ear fa | | 2 | 736
February . 839 | 85°6 | 76-4 | 8271 | 76-2 | 848 | 781 | 81-4 | G7 | 740 | *837 17 00 6: =
March .| ‘821 | 87:3 | 784 | 842 | 782 | 86-4 | 796 | 83:0 | 68 | 76-0 | 897 | 77 | 2:80] 8] 1-10
April ‘ *811 | 89:0 | 785 | 83°5 | 77-7 | 87-0 | 802 | 886 | OS | 756 | “884 77 2°08 | 12 55
May “| .go4 | ges | 74:9 | 80-5 | 75°0 | 83:9 | 77-5 | 80:7 | 5:4 | 743 | 847 | 82 | 10-93} 11 | 4°31
June. : “951 | 84:8 | 72°4 | 783 | 744 | B31 | 75-0 | 790 | 81 | 729 | -806 83 437 | 9) 1:05
July . 80°017 | 83°3 | 71-9 | 76°7 | 72°3 | 828 | 73-1 | 78-0 | 9-7 | 7U°4 | °743 80 2°77 8! -64
‘August | | 30-002 | 863 | 70-9 | 77-0 | 728 | 93:3 | 72:8 | 780 | 105 | 711 | -759 | 82 | 491] 13 | 1-05
September | 29:962 | 838 | 724 | 78:8 | 75-2 | 82-8 | 739 | 783 | 89 | 73:8 | -832 | 85 | 2:05| 9 |. -48
October -955 | 843 | 71-9 | 79°0 | 75:2 | 81:8 | 744 | 781 | 7-4 | 73-7 | -830 | 83 | 2:39] 7 | 1-00
November | 933 | 833 | 70-0 | 79°6 | 74°9 | 75:7 | 734 | 746 | 2:3 | 73:0 | B11 | 81 | 27-67 | 12 | 4-28
December . 870 | 85:3 | 70°0 | 81-2 | 77°7 | 79:7 | 74:3 | 77-0 54 | 765 | -910 85 4°86 | 3 | 2:23
| Year. 29-906 | 89:0 | 70:0 | 80:3 | 756 | 82:9 | 75:8 | 79:3 | 7-1 | 73:8 | -832 | 1 | 65-24 | 94| 4:31
1897 / | :
‘| January . | 29°879 | 86°3 | 72°9 | 82°9 | 81:3 | 83:3 | 75-4 | 79°3 Tg | 80°9 1:053'| 94 100} 2 “50
February. | “871 | 883 | 74-9 | 811 | 765 | 85°3 | 79-4 | 823 | 5-9 | 74:8 | -B30] 81 00 | 0. fi
| March “:| -832 | 88:3 | 76-9 | 848 | 81-0 | 95:6 | 80-1 | 828 | 5:5 | 798 |1-014| 85 | 163) 2! 1-50
April || -898 | 883 | 749 | 81°83 | 784 | 845 | 784 | 815 | G1 | 77-2 | 933] 86 |15-42|10| 3-95
May. .| -893 | 86-3 | 71-0 | 786 | 769 | 83:3 | 749 | 791 | 84 | 76:3 | -904] 92 | 25:40 | 10| 5:50
June. .| -948 | 823 | 729 | 77-9 | 744 | S13 | 74:3 | 77:8 | 7-0 | 73:0 | -811| 85 | -38| 2] -34
July. . *949 | 81:3 | 72°9 | 781 | 74°9 | 80°3 | 73°9 | 77:1 64 | 73°6 828 | 86 278 | 1| 2:78
August || -987 | e083 | 731 | 77-6 | 741 | 801 | 749 | 775 | 52 | 727 | -803| 85 | 11] 2] 65
September | 968 | 823 | 720 | 79-2 | 74:7 | 80°9 | 74:6 | 77:8 | 63 | 73:0 | -809| 83 | 151| 8| -34
tober *929 | 83:3 | 72:0 | 80°6 | 76:2 | 81°8 | 72-7 | 77-2 91 | 74°6 *854 | 83 2°82 | 3 | 2:30
| November 870 | 86:3 | 72:0 | 83°8 | 781 | 85:5 | 73:4 | 794 | 121 | 76-0 897 | 78 bl | 2 26
December. *827 | 86°3 | 72:0 | 82°3 | 769 | 86°3 | 731 | 797 | 1dL | 749 | -864 | 78 00; Oo}; —
Year. . | 29904 | 883 | 71-0 | 80-7 | 77-0 | 832 | 75-4 | 793 | 78 | 756 | -ga6| 85 {5256 | 42) 5-50

known.

Month

Weaver,

Capt. £.

Takaungu. Lat. 3° 41’ S., Long., 39° 52' £.
Observers: Ja. uf
Taubman, J. W. P. McClellan, Ch. Wise,
D. Wilson, and A. Rustomji.

Goldie-

Rain, 1896 Rain, 1897
2 we iz
3 ae a = 3 2 = —
#/a|gei a] 4 | ge
< a a ss
In. In. In. | In.
- | 0:00 0 cs 3 15
5 00 0 _ —
a “47 4 7 33
- | 2°46 3 9 “00
- |10°20 | 14 21 513
| 421 9 8 “20
- | 400 9 9 2°05
-| £18 11 13 “61
. “90 3 13 “48
- | 152 3 7 1°80
. y 17 = =

instruments in use are by Negretti & Zambra. The corrections for the Barometer (No. 1,564) are not
ae The attached thermometer reads 0°40° higher than the dry bulb thermometer, A

Had we accepted
the readings of the latter in computing the pressure,
the difference would have amounted to only —-001
inches.

The thermometers were verified at Kew,in the
dates mentioned below, and the corrections which
had then to be applied to them were as follows :—

No. 4590 (dry bulb), September 1889: up to 72°,
00; at 82°,40'1; at 929,+0-1.

No. 4596 (wet bulb), September 1889 : at 32°,-0-1;
at 42°, 52°, 62° and 72°, 0:0; at 82° and 92°, + 0:1.

No. 1358 (max. therm.) June 1890: at 64°, —0°7°

No. 1458 (min. therm.), January 1891: up to 32°,
0:0 ; at 32°, 42°, 52°, 62° and 70°, —0'1.

The instruments are placed in the Hall, under the
Sub-Commissioner's office, 5 feet from the ground of
the floor. Therain-gauge stands in the open space on
the roof of the office.

No observations were recorded on Sundays (rainfall
excepted), and in 1897 the office was closed also |)
during Jubilee week (June 22-27) and Christmas week |
(December 25-31).

The barometrical observations have been reduced
to 32° F., and to Standard gravity in Lat. 45°, but not
to sea-level.

The mean t»mperature is assumed to be the mean
of all max. and min., and is therefore too high,

606 REPORT—1898.

Shimoni ( Wanga), 4° 38' S., 39° 21' #.
Observers: D. Wilson, J. W. Tritton, D. Macquarie, J. W. McClellan.

¢ 2 Mean Humidity Rain Prevailing Wind at 9 A.M.
a3] Temp. BS
Month £3 =| 9 aa. >2| 2 # es g Bae .
BES Ss| 22 lal 2 2 ES | N. NE! E. /S.E) S. |S.W.| W. |N.W.) Cal.
a ee le 5 |o 5 o
a Dry| Wet Fea |e | < a |
———— ee — = — —_|—_|—_|—_—|—_|——_ —|-—__}|—__}
1896 Ins leo ino iam aoe ec. in. In,
January . « |29°773 | 8574) 79°4| 77°3) *936) 77 22 | 2 18 | — | 11 4); 2)— 4}/—/; 10|— |
February (1-17). |29°774 | 85°5| 78°5| 76:0) +895) 73 00; O| — |—]| 2 2;/—}—} —|— 3] —
arches pet ie pee eee) a) | | Ee ee ee ee eee
April (10-29) =. |29°797 | 82°3/ 79°7/ 77-8; -950| 86 | 2-09 6 | 122|—)}—}— 1/10 3} 6) —|—
May . . « |29°797 | 79°6| 74°5| 72°6| *800| 79 | 12°64 | 23 | 2°43 | — | 1| — | —|{ 13 18);—| —|—
June . . ~ |29°S05 | 78°1| 75°0| 73°8} *832) 87 | 444] 10} 11l | —}|—j)|—]} 1}/—} 28/;—}] —}]—
July . . « |29°819 | 75°9| 73°4) 72-4) +794] 89 | 2°60 | 16 60; —|—}—]—|] 4) 26) 2) —j—
August . - |29°918 | 75°8) 73°5| 72°6| °799| 89 | 5:24 | 16 85 | —|—-|—] 3 8} 19 1; —|=
September . « |29°809 | 76°6| 73°8| 72°7| *801] 87 | 2°35 8 61}; —|}—}]—| 1 8 Prt 4; —|—
October : . |29°797 | 79°1| 76°0| 74°8) *862} 86 “56 3 28)— |) — 1 3 | 16 8{/ 3); —|—
November . « |29°791 | 79°1| 76°8| 760) °896) 91 | 23°04 | 20 | 525) 2/—|] 4) 4] 4 9| 4 3{—
December . . |29°778 | 83°8) 81°6| 81-0} 17054) 92 | 3°39 | 7 87 |} 3) 3/16) 2)— 3/— 4),—
Year . » |29°805 | 80°1 76°5| 75°2) *874) 85 | 56°57 |L11 | 4°25 5 | 17 | 27 | 17 | 63 | 1384 | 20] 20) —
1897 In| >|.1|.]| Im |Pec.| m. | In
January . « |29°774 | 84°5) 82°5) 81-0) 1087) 89 | 1:09 | 3 | 1:00] 1 3/24); 3);—); —|}—}] —|—
February . — . |29°773| 8571| 80°8) 794) 1:002| 85 “00 yp — fo | 7) = — | SS ] Se
March. . + |29°770 | 85°0) 82:4) 816} 1076} 89 | 2°37 | 7) 53 1 4/22) 3 1; —|}—] —/—
April . . » |29°784 | 81°3) 80°1| 79°7| 1°012] 95 | 17°42 8 | 460 | — |} — 7 6 8 8] 1 —/|—
May . . _ . |29:783|79:1|781|77-7| -949] 96 | 19:96 | 93 | 400} —|—|—]—]| 8| 19] 1] 3]—
June . ° » |29°802 | 77°7 75°9) 75°2| + °873| 92 | 1:25 i 38} —|—|—|—|]16; 14j/—] —]}] —
July . . - |29°808 | 76°9| 76°1| 75°8} *890] 97 | 493 | 12) 172|—}]—| 5|}—)} 6) 20);/—}] —|]—
August . « |29°810 | 76°8| 75°7| 75°3) *875| 95 | 3°45 | 17 89 |} —|—] 6 6 6; 13);—]; —|;—
September . . |29°804 | 77°8| 76°6) 76°2} *901] 95 | 1:29 | 7 67) —|—|—)| 2] 21 5|— 2);—
October . « |29°796 | 80°1| 78°2| 77:5} °942) 92 | 2:27] 8 "95 | —|—|—]19 7 5j--| —|—
November . » |29°781 | 83-1] 81:2) 80°6] 1:042| 92 | 272) 7) 100} 2)}—] 3)14] 7 1/1; —j]—
December. « |29°775 | 84-2/ 82-2/ 81-6} 1-076] 92 | 00) 0/ — | 7/—/11}—] 9} 4}/—] —]—
Year . . « |29°788 | 81°0| 79°1) 79°3) *977| 92 | 56°75 109 | 4°60 | 11 8 105 | 53} 89/ 89] 3 5|—

Norge.—The barometer is by Adie (M.O, 693). It was verified at Kew in December 1888, and the following
corrections have to be applied to the readings :—at 29°5 in., —-004; at 30 in., 30°5 in., and 31 in., —’005.

The correction for the attached thermometer is +0°1.

The wet bulb thermometer is by Negretti & Zambra (No. 4576). It was verified at Kew in September 1889,
when it was found that the correction for all readings over 52° F. was +0'1. 4

The rain-gauge, by Casella (No. 334), diam. 8 in., was found to be practically correct.

The recorded ‘ dry bulb ’ readings are from the thermometer attached to the barometer.

The instruments are exposed in a lime and stone room on the ground floor of the Government Office which
has three large windows, and a stone ceiling. The rooms above have a galvanised roof.

The barometer readings have been reduced to 32° F. and Lat, 45°, but not to sea-level.

Lamu, 2° 16' S., 40° 54’ F.
Observers: Capt. A. L. Rogers, K. Macdougali, W. B. Comyn, Chas. Faria (Postmaster).

Mean Humidity Rain Mean Humidity Rain 3
Temp. Temp.
Month 9 AM. ee lariat |e a 9am. | 2 | HE IES) B 37
Be | oe |sS| 58 12/25 Ba | 62 iss] 5 |B les
S65 | aa leg] o |s|es Q3ian laa| o @ |e Se
————|Ag | 2 jee) 8 |A| s* |——_|Ag | #8 joe] & | 4 lem
Dry | Wet Am) < || Dry| Wet A ia) < ss
1896 1897
5 5 o In. | P.c.! In. In pala q n., | P.c.)" In. In.
January . «| 848 | 782 | 75:7 “888 |) 74 00 | O} — _ |] 83:9 811] 80°2 | 1:028) 88 03 | 1 | 03
February . | 848 | 782 | 75:7 *888 | 74 15 1 ‘15 || 83°6| 81-4) 80°7 | 1°046| 91 00 | 0} —
March. ° - | 85°0 | 78°6 | 76:2 *903| 75 | 2°10 | 3 | 1°55 || 84:8) 82:0] 81-1 | 1:060| 89 00; 0} —
April . . . | 845 | 796 | 77°8 °951| 81 | 3°33 8 | 1:23 || 83°0) 82°4) 82:2 | 1:099| 97 | 14°73 | 13 |825
| May . » | 8L:7 | 774 | 757 *888/ 82 | 7°06 | 17 | 1:03 80°8) 80°1) 79°9 | 1:017| 97 | 4:97 8 |1°60
June . ° - | 799 | 752 | 73°7 *818| 83 | 8°63 | 17 | 3°57 || 79°2) 76°6| 75°6 *885 | 89} 2°14] 3 j1°3L] ~
July . . - | 791 | 763 | 75°6 *885 | 89 | 1°66 9 *55 || 78°1| 75°8| 75:0 “865 | 90 | 4°14 7 \217
August e - | 787 | 75°0 | 735 *825| 84 | 1°54 | 11 "46 || 78°7| 75°4] 74:1 *842| 86 | 139 | 4 | 69
September . 785 | 743 | 726 *800| 82 | 1:77 7 “44 || 79°2| 75°6| 74:2 *844| 85 | 4:78 | 4 [3°37
October . . | 82:3 | 76:0 | 73:7 *829| 75 73 3 +36 || 81°1] 75:8) 73:3 *832 | 77 00 | 0; —
November . | 8r6 | 79°0 | 781 *960| 89 | 12°96 | 14 | 3°57 || 83:2| 77-9) 76°0 *B886 | 79 10] 1) 10
December . - | 83" 80°5 | 79°5 | 1:002} 88 | 1:36 | 2} 1°16 || 83°7) 80°5) 79:4 | 1004) 86 00} O| —
Year . . - | 820 | 77-4 | 757 *886 | 81 | 41:29 | 92 | 3°57 || 81°6| 78°7| 77-6 “951 | 88 | 32°28 | 41 |825

The thermometers are exposed in the open Post Office. They were verified at Kew in September 1839, a
the following corrections are to be applied to the readings :—
Dry bulb : Negretti & Zambra, No. 4,572: at all temperatures above 62°, up to 92°, +0°1.
Wet balb: Negretti & Zambra, No. 4,573 : at 62°, 0°U ; at 72° and 829, +01; at 92°, +0°2. -

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They are 4 feet 6 inches from the ground.

at 52°, 62-, 82°, and 92° the instruments read

2

1898.
at 72°, —0-1

REPORT

at all other temperatures correct.

’

e, The instruments were verified at Kew in March 1890 with the following results

Fort Smith.—The instruments at present available include two thermometers by Negretti & Zambra and 2

Corrections to be applied to No. 4,634 (dry bulb)
The instruments are placed in an open verandah facing due west.
In computing the Dew Point, &c., a pressure of 23°6 inches has been assumed.

_ correct.
No. 4,635 (wet bulb) at 52? and 62°, +0°1

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609

ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA.

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610 REPORT— 1898,

Variations in the Level of Victoria Nyanza.

| Lake Level Rain
| i
Decades | - Port
Port Port Port Alice ; ;
we) Alice | gaubwa | Victoria || ieazis
noon ae | 9.30 A.M. || ——— =
| Amt. Days Days
Tn. In. | In. In.
January, I. —3:00 —351 —353 “08 2 1
Il. —2'70 —2'51 —211 “47 2 5
TT oie a A —1:90 —2°57 —1°'93 1:20 2 0
February, I. . 3 -| —8'00 —153 —1:58 121 7 6
TT: Scte ay p'|| | 2°00 — ‘83 20, |), 59 3 2
iG et : sf —1'70 —1:99 — ‘47 | 1:82 3 1
March, tate ; +} | =170 —113 — 23 \| 1:08 2 2
aT ake J 5 —1°30 —2:03 — 08 | 97 5 3
III. —1'55 —2'02 ‘79 | 1:92 9 3
April, ie 05 — ‘78 1:02 1°94 ti) 7
Th, 1°40 1:47 3°77 743 10 5
III. 3°10 2°87 5°00 4:37 9 4
| May, Tey } 4°65 417 4°57 1°67 7 5
ais 4:95 4°60 1:42 1°51 6 1
Iil. 6°85 3°75 1°42 7:37 9 6
June, IT. z 7°30 4:57 4:67 1°46 5 6
Il. 710 710 7:02 "26 1 5
III. 5°40 5°60 512 “45 2 3
July, 1. 4°85 5:09 4:67 1:05 3 1
II. 4°50 1-72 | 3°92 "62 3 2
III. ' 3°68 4:50 4:52 | 1:22 4. 3
We = as ee ‘sit pa ae at
i
Notes.

The observations at Port Alice were made by Mr. Fred Pordage, at Lubwa’s by Mr. W. H. Wilson, and,
at Port Victoria by Mr. C. W. Fowler. For the position of these stations see the Sixth Report, for
1897. ;

All observations are referred to the mean lake-level at each station for the year 1896.

On comparing’ the Results for 1897 with those for 1896 it will be found that during the last decade of
July the lake-level was 3°27 in. higher than during the corresponding decade of 1896, and this notwith-
standing that on January 1, 1897, the level of the lake stood 3°6 in. below the Datum level, whilst on
January 1, 1896, it stood 7°8 in. above it. This difference in level is due to the heavier rainfall of 1897.

The lake was lowest in the beginning of the year, highest in June. The extreme range during the
seven months for which records are available amounted to 8 in. at Port Alice, to 9°7 in. at Lubwa’s, and
to 7:5 in. at Port Victoria. j

For remarks on the conditions governing the rise and fall of lake, see last year’s Report. '

Correction: In column 5 of last year’s table, instead of 15-40 read 1°54.

| .

Mean Lake Level || Fluctuations’ | H |

Months inex | |e Rain Fall }

Port Port Port t Port =

Alice | E™>W4 | Victoria || Alice | YW" | Victoria || ForeAee jf
1896 fe) 1806 In. In. In. In. In. | In. days
January... —2:00 | —2°85 | —250 || 2:50 250 2°75 1:75 5
February —220} —1-45 | —-77 || 2-00 4:00 3:00. || 262 | | 13
March —116 |} —173 | — 18 || 150 | 4-75 150 =|, 3:97 16
April 1:52 119 | 3:26 |] 5-00 6:00 500 | 1374 | | 26
May 518 416 | 244 || 2-00 4:00 6°00 |; 1055 | | 29
June 6°60 5°76 5°60 3°50 5°75 450 || 238 | ;.8
July 432 | 3:94 437 | 1:50 | 5°75 2:00 289 | | 10

That is, difference between the lowest and highest level during each month.

ON MECHANICAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS OF THE COAL QUESTION. 61]

The Mechanical and Economie Problems of the Coal Question.
By T. Forster Brown, M.JInst.C.h.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

Wiruin the limits of a Paper it is practicable only to touch upon some of
the more important of these problems ; and the writer would refer those
who desire to investigate more fully the economic side of the question to
Prof. Jevons’ work, ‘The Coal Question,’ Prof. Hull’s ‘Coal Resources at
the Close of the Nineteenth Century,’ Mr. Leonard Courtney’s Address to
the Statistical Society in December, 1897, a Paper by the present writer
read before the Economic Section of the British Association in 1891, and
‘The Coal Supplies of the World,’ by Mr. Benjamin Taylor, a Paper pub-
lished in the July number of the ‘ Nineteenth Century.’

To discuss all the suggestions as to substitutes for coal which have
been made from time to time, up to and including the present meeting of
the British Association, would require an exhaustive paper on that
subject alone; but it is confidently submitted that so long as coal can be
produced at a moderately cheap cost, having regard to the carbon it con-
tains, it will always remain by far the most economical and convenient of
power producers.

Coal Resources.

It is general knowledge that our coal resources extend over wide
areas in several parts of this kingdom in beds or seams of varying thick-
ness and quality existing at various depths below the surface, and gene-
rally situate at no great distance from the seaboard; and it may be
assumed that the public are also aware that the most available and
valuable of these resources are the first to be attacked and exhausted.
The coal seams which are workable by free drainage levels, without
pumping or winding, are naturally the first to be worked in a virgin coal-
field ; and such resources as these were probably the main source of our
coal supply up to about the middle of the present century. Next follow
the best of the thick seams of coal accessible at a reasonable depth,
varying from a few yards to two thousand feet or thereabouts ; and these
resources, which were originally much larger than they are now, are, and
will be for a considerable time, the principal source of our coal supply ;
and, lastly, the thin and inferior seams existing at shallow depths, and
all the seams below two thousand feet or so down to the extreme limit of
workable depth, and these larger resources are still practically intact.

It is difficult to induce the public to realise the supreme importance
of the fact that it is only the best and cheapest of our coal resources
which supply our existing output. The writer has pointed out in a
previous paper that, without some great and radical change in our internal
policy, applied to counteracting an increasing cost, the amplitude of the
total estimated coal resources and their duration is not the probable true
limit, in time, of our commercial supremacy ; for, under ordinary circum-
stances, this will be measured by the duration of the best and cheapest
of our coal resources only, and from which we now derive probably 95 per
cent. of our annual coal outputs.

It is suggested that the position in figures, adopting Professor Hull’s

RR2

612 REPORT—1898.

estimate of the total coal resources of the kingdom in seams of two feet and
upwards in thickness, and existing at depths below the surface not exceed-
ing four thousand feet in the year 1900, would be . 81,683,000,000 tons
And deducting from this quantity the writer's esti-
mate in 1900 of the resources of best coal re-
maining within a depth below the surface of two
thousand feet, about the limit probably of

cheaply worked coal. . . . 15,000,000,000 _,,

Leaving approximately... . . . . =. 66,683,000,000 _,,
of best coal existing between a depth of two thousand and four thousand
feet below the surface, and of. thin and inferior seams at all depths to the
limit of four thousand feet.

Allowing for a small gradual increase of output from deep and inferior
seams during the next fifty to sixty years, and assuming an average out-
put for fifty years of best coals within a depth of two thousand feet at
220,000,000 tons per annum, exclusive of thin and inferior seams, we
shall have exhausted eleven-fifteenths of our best resources about the
year 1950, and have arrived at a stage when our whole annual output
will be composed of a rapidly-increasing proportion of deep, thin, or
inferior coals, and the proportion of our cheapest-worked coals will rapidly
decrease.

It will be apparent, however, that at the end of fifty years we shall
still have coal resources remaining, workable, it is true, at a gradually
increasing cost, but sufficient for the supply of the nation at an average
output of 250,000,000 tons a year for upwards of a period of 250 years.

But in working this very large residuum a greater cost in working,
due to natural causes, is inevitable ; and that this extra cost will gradu-
ally increase year by year after the best and cheapest coals are exhausted
is undoubted, however successfully the skill of the mining and mechanical
engineer may be brought to bear in mitigating this effect, and unless
additional measures can be adopted, outside the province of the engineer,
to counteract it by cheapening the carriage of the coal on the surface, and
reducing materially all other charges, such as labour rates and taxes, &c.,
the effect of this increasing cost will be of serious moment to the nation.

The fact of the coalfields of Great Britain being situate at no great
distance from convenient ports and home centres of consumption has had,
and will continue to have, an.important bearing upon the rapid develop-
ment of our coal resources, and adds immensely, of course, to the intrinsic
value of our coal resources as a whole.

‘The general cost of our coal will, of course, increase in proportion to
the percentage of thin and deep coal worked to the whole annual output,
until the increased cost of the whole of our coal production due to natural
causes, such as depth, thinness of seams, &c. (however much this may be
neutralised by improved mechanical and mining appliances), will be so
increased as to seriously and permanently hamper our progress commer-
cially by increasing the cost of our home manufactures and steam shipping,
increasing the cost of navigating our steamers, and lessening thereby the
amount of our coal exports, increasing also the cost of our imports of raw
material and food supplies, and generally gradually taking from us for
the benefit of other nations our home and foreign trade.

The progress of this item of increased cost of our coal may be gradual
and comparatively imperceptible for fifty years, or thereabouts, owing to

ON MECHANICAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS OF THE COAL QUESTION. 613

the continual development of the unopened portions of our coaltields and
the resources of good and thick seams still unworked in existing collieries,
but after fifty years or so this progress will be much more rapid.

It will now, therefore, be convenient to consider in what direction it
may be practicable to improve our existing appliances for working coal,
and otherwise reduce the cost of working deep and thin seams of coal in
the future.

This naturally divides itself into, first, the improvements which may
be achieved by the mechanical and mining engineer, and, secondly, what
changes in our charges for transit and other items of cost which come
more properly within the province of the Economist than the Engineer,
are possibly practicable.

Dealing first with the improvements which may be effected by the
mechanical and mining engineer, these may be divided into—(a) improve-
ments which may be effected equally applicable to existing collieries and
future coal mining ; (6) improvements which can be effected applicable
especially to the working of coal from great depths.

Under the head of (a) we have—

1. Mechanical application of machinery for cutting thin seams’ and
exceptionally hard thick seams.
2. Improvements which may be effected in underground haulage.

1. Coal-cutting Machinery.
Machines may be classed as below :—

(a) Heading machines.

(6) Machines adapted for working in headings or ‘ rooms.’

(c) Machines adapted for continuous ‘ longwall ’ faces.

(d) Percussive drills mounted on wheels for use in headings, rooms, or
‘longwall’ faces.

2. Improvements which may be effected in Underground Haulage.

This comprises primary and secondary haulage: primary comprising
the haulage between the bottom of the shaft and points upon the haulage
roads, within a varying but moderate distance from the working coal face,
and secondary haulage being the conveyance of the coal between these
points and the working face. The writer sets out the various systems of
haulage, and states the cost of primary haulage to be from 2d.-to 4d. per
ton perimile. Secondary haulage the writer suggests improvements in, and
states the present cost is from ls. 2d. to 1s. 8d. per ton per mile.

Improvements which may be effected, applicable especially to Working
Coal from Great Depths.
Namely :—(1) Winding and Pumping ; (2) Ventilation ; (3) Dealin
with high temperatures.

1. Winding and Pumping.

The mechanical difficulties arise chiefly in the design of winding
engines. Special winding plant and appliances associated therewith are
required for producing large outputs from an increased depth to com-
pensate for the heavy increase in capital outlay, and in loss of interest
due to the extra time required in establishing a deep winning.

614. " REPORT— 1898.

Of late years much progress has been made in new coal winnings, in
improvements in winding engines by compounding, balancing, and in some
cases condensing, and in the quality of the wire ropes ; and in the future
it is suggested that progress must be looked for in the application of
compound engines, working with a separate condenser, raising heavier
loads at a higher piston speed, but with somewhat smaller drums, with a
balance rope somewhat heavier than the winding rope, to assist in
starting the load from the bottom and arresting the load as it arrives
at the surface. The writer gives further details as to improvements
practicable.

Experience has shown that except under special circumstances, such
as the workings approaching the Millstone Grit or Mountain Limestone,
porous rocks underlying the Coal Measures, feeders of water in the Coal
Measures proper at great depths are rare, and pumping water, although
very expensive, will not materially operate in increasing the cost of deep
coal mining.

2. Ventilation.

So far as the obtaining of a sufficient quantity of air for ventilating
deep mines is concerned, no difficulty exists. The higher temperature,
provided the shafts and air roads in the mines are large enough, will rather
facilitate the supply of air. Improvement in useful effects in the exhaust
fans which are now nearly universally employed for ventilating deep
mines is practicable.

3. Increase of Temperature due to Depth.

This is a most serious obstacle to deep mining. It is well known that
the temperature of the stratification increases with depth at the rate of
about one degree Fahrenheit in every 60 feet, and adopting this ratio
we reach a temperature of 91° at 2,500 feet, 99° at 3,000 feet, and
according to Professor Hull the temperature at a depth of 4,000 feet
will be 116°. And manifestly, inasmuch as in deep mining it will be
necessary to take precautions against explosions by damping the dust and
otherwise creating a certain amount of moisture in the atmosphere, which
further increases the high temperature difficulties, it is difficult to see how
coal, even at from 3,000 to 4,000 feet, can be worked without great
increase in the cost due to the reduced amount of work which can, at a
high temperature, be performed by manual labour.

Tt has been suggested that the difficulty may be overcome by artificially
cooling the air admitted to the mine, but the immense volume of air »
necessary in a deep colliery, probably from 300,000 to 400,000 cubic feet
per minute, and the rapid rate at which after cooling, in passing along the
passages of the mine, the temperature increases, render any application
of the freezing process, as far as present appliances go, out of the question.

This process may, however, be practicable for cooling the smaller
currents of air required in very deep metalliferous mines.

It has, however, been observed that in longwall working, as compared
with pillar and stall working, the temperature of the air does not rise so
rapidly owing to the fact that the current in its progress through the mine
does not come into contact with so much of the strata, and in passing
through long passages in a mine, the air has a tendency to cool the exposed
surface of the passages, and so reduce the heating effect of the sides of the

ON MECHANICAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS OF THE COAL QUESTION. 615

passages, and the writer suggests that a very material and possibly suffi-
cient reduction of temperature may be looked for even to a depth of
4,000 feet, if the present practice in the best modern deep collieries is
adopted of not only working the coal ‘longwall’ and upon the Midland
system of few passages near the face of working, but systematically
packing the spaces from which the coal has been excavated, thus reducing
the parts of the mine exposed to the currents of air to the lowest practi-
cable limit, namely the air passage and simple working faces ; and by
carrying the intake airways as direct as possible to the point of working,
and making the working face in as straight a line as practicable, it may be
possible to reduce the natural temperature of the stratification alongside
the air passages at from 3,000 to 4,000 feet in depth in this way by from
15° to 25° Fahr.

Even at this reduced temperature, which would mean over 90° at
4,000 feet in depth, labour cannot be applied without considerable difficulty ;
but it would be apparently possible at all events to work the best of the
seams at this:depth at an increased cost.

Practically, in the absence of any mechanical process for artificially
cooling the air at the point where it is required to be used in the working
face, the alternative suggested may be effected if the air passages and
currents of air are made large enough, and the sides of the passages and
the gob or excavated spaces as far as practicable sealed up.

Before dealing with the second question, namely : What changes in
our charges for transit and other items of cost are possibly practicable ?
it may be of interest to review shortly the general progress of coal mining
in this and other countries at the present day.

Taking Great Britain to begin with, the cost of working coal has even
at the present time under existing conditions a tendency to increase.
This is chiefly due to the greater cost of labour and the extra charges for
rates and taxes. The first item is undoubtedly increasing, and this is not
altogether due to less work being performed by the workmen for a given
wage, but partly to the cost of larger staffs and improved appliances to
meet the requirements of the various Coal Mines Regulation Acts ; and
whilst the precautions required by these Acts undoubtedly have added to
the expense of working, they have also resulted in the saving of life, and,
therefore, so far as this charge adds to the cost, it is an addition which
cannot be a subject of regret to the community. There has also latterly
been a gradual tendency to an increase in rates and taxes, which are now
avery serious impost on coal mining, and, unfortunately, in the mining
districts where the coal-owners are the largest ratepayers, they have little
or no control over the expenditure of the proceeds of local rates.

This item of rates and taxes is, in fact, growing without check, and
unless something can be done to stop wastetul expenditure, it is likely to
be a most serious charge upon coal mining in this country.

Then again, a further addition to the cost is imminent by reason of the
Workmen’s Compensation Act. And some increase is also caused by thin
seams now being worked in some of the smaller districts where the thick
seams have been exhausted.

Then also. some deeper pits have been opened with perhaps a higher
average cost, due to depth ; in fact natural causes have begun to operate
to a small extent.

On the other hand, considerable economies have been achieved within
the last twenty-five years by using high pressure steam, a better class of

616 REPORT— 1898.

boiler, economisers for using highly-heated water for boilers, increased
outputs from existing mines, reducing the cost of the staff and appliances,
improved methods of underground working, better realisation of the by-
products from the coke, improved ventilation and precautions for dust
laying, reducing the number and risks of explosions ; and in some districts,
such as South Wales, material reductions in railway carriage have as the
result of competition been achieved within that period.

So that to summarise the position of the cost of working, whilst con-
siderable economy has been achieved in some directions, natural, physical
and other difficulties have increased the cost of working coal in Great
Britain.

So far, however, as the Western Hemisphere is concerned, similar
conditions will probably more or less apply to the German coalfield, and
elsewhere in Europe—z.e. the costs of production in these countries will
have a tendency also to increase slowly.

In the case of Germany, our main European competitor, the railway
and canal rates for minerals are, per ton per mile, the writer believes,
already much below the rates prevailing in this country, and therefore
there is not the margin for future reductions in these rates which ought to
exist in Great Britain, where the railways are not as yet the property of
the State. And in regard to our competition with European coalfields,
taking Germany as possessing probably the largest and most accessible
coalfield, the conditions of greater depths and higher costs will be likely to
either immediately follow or precede the operation of the same causes in
Great Britain ; but the competition we have to fear in the Western
Hemisphere is that of the United States of America.

There coalfields exist of enormous extent, twenty times the original
areas of our coalfields, and already the cost of producing coal in America
is below the cost of raising coal in Great Britain. The annual production
in the States is proceeding by leaps and bounds.

In 1883 it was 102,868,000 tons ; in 1890 it was 140,883,000 tons ;
and in 1896 it was 171,416,000 tons.

Mr. Courtney contends that lesser cost of production in America will
be permanently operative, and the difference in favour of that country is
likely to increase. Probably this is so, in some degree, but the immediate
cause of the difference in favour of the States as against Great Britain is
due chiefly, the writer suggests, to the enormous extent of the American
coalfields, making it practicable to work very large annual quantities from
those areas near the outcrop by free drainage levels, without pumping or
winding ; in fact the States as regards their facilities for raising coal
cheaply are much in the position Great Britain was fifty to sixty years
ago.

If the coal output of the United States continues to increase in the
present ratio, the time will arrive, no doubt, when shafts must be sunk to
considerable depths and pumping and winding resorted to, thereby
increasing the average cost, and bringing the natural conditions in that
country more in line with those which prevail in this country.

The enormous extent of outcrop coal in the American fields will,
however, enable that nation to maintain probably for many centuries a
comparatively Jow cost of working.

The States coalfields moreover, although generally distant from the
Atlantic seaboard, by reason of the cheaper capital cost of the American
railways and better application of the rolling stock for mineral traffic,

ON MECHANICAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS OF THE COAL QUESTION. 617

such as wagons carrying a very much larger proportion of profit load to
deadweight and long leads, are able to convey coal at about one-quarter
of the cost per ton per mile which the best and most economically worked
of our English railways now charge to convey minerals in this country.
Fortunately for us the American coalfields are situate some distance from
the Atiantic seaboard. It is true that in regard to the item of dead-
weight our railways could also in this country considerably reduce their
costs by increasing the size of their mineral wagons, but there exist again
other possibly more serious competitors even than America, which may
ultimately shut out the whole of the Eastern markets for manufactures
both from Europe and America—namely, China and Formosa. In China
enormous coalfields are believed to exist containing coals of the best
qualities, and only requiring capital development in railways and docks
and manufactures to enable it to become the greatest of our future com-
petitors, and to develop an extraordinary source of wealth. The extremely
low cost of labour alone will probably handicap the Western nations to an
extent which at present cannot be measured, and whether the period when
this competition will be seriously felt is distant, or imminent, the fact
itself of these coalfields existing in a country densely populated by a clever
and industrious race should enforce the lesson to Great Britain of setting
her house in order. The argument may be even stronger as regards the
coalfields of Formosa,! under Japanese rule, of which less is known, but
where probably coal will be found near the seaboards and in a parallel
position, as regards facilities for export, to our own coal deposits.

Summarising the position, some portion of the increased future cost of
working our coalfields can and will be met by improved mechanical
appliances in winding, hauling, pumping, and in cutting thin seams, and
by mining skill in improved ventilation, lighting, checking the increase of
temperature due to depth, raising larger quantities from each shaft, and a
partial readjustment of the cost of labour and royalties.

The last named are already in process of being dealt with when the
conditions require it (see the Mining Royalty Commission Report of a few
years ago) ; but there will still remain a growing margin of increased cost
which cannot be dealt with either by the mechanical or mining engineer.

There remains the question, therefore, What can be done in other
directions to counteract the inevitable increase of cost in working? The
writer suggested in 1891, and now repeats that proposal with even
greater force, the time available being lessened by seven years, that the
nation should take the necessary steps now when it is practicable to
acquire the reversion of railways and docks, to enable the cost of railway
carriage for minerals, goods, and passengers, and dock dues to be ultimately
reduced if required to the bare cost of working.

All capital invested in drainage, water, lighting, schools, parks, &c.,
ought to be also repaid within the next sixty or sixty-five years, to admit
of a permanent reduction in the incidence of rates and taxes.

Assume for the moment that this country were in the position of, say
the Continental States, in regard to the railways belonging to the State,
that all the capital expended upon railways, docks and harbours, water,
gas and electric lighting, and in all public improvements, &c., belonging

' Mr. Warington Smyth informs me that there are few, if any, convenient
harbours in Formosa, that on the eastern part of the island there exists a range of
high mountains, and on the western side the sea is very shallow for a great distance
from the coast.

618 REPORT—1898.

to public bodies had been repaid. If this were so the State could reduce
the cost of carrying minerals, goods, and passengers nearly 50 per cent.,
the rates and taxes would be lessened, and the cost of living greatly
reduced, lessening the cost of labour, and making this kingdom from its
temperate climate perhaps one of the pleasantest and most economical of
residential countries in the world.

The reductions in the rates of carriage of minerals and goods, and in
dock dues and terminal charges, and in rates and taxes, would with
mechanical and mining improvements probably so neutralise the gradual
increase of the cost of our coal as to enable our coalfields to maintain
their position as competitors with the Western Hemisphere for probably
another two and a half centuries. We should be able also to maintain
our Army and Navy, and the cheap living cost would facilitate the
gradual and successful introduction of industries requiring much labour,
and the nation would have that long period in which to complete the
repayment of the National Debt.

The paying off of the National Debt now in progress is undoubtedly
a commendable operation of itself, but if we are to suffer collapse com-
mercially in half a century, or thereabouts, if the whole debt were paid off
in the meantime the relief would only be temporary, but if on the other
hand a similar annual sum to that applied to the repayment of this debt,
or more, if required, were set apart for purchasing the reversion of the
railways, &c., and providing legislative means of checking and raising of
capital for public purposes, except with stringent provisions for repayment,
then the nation would have ample oppertunities left of paying off the
National Debt in the future, after these other and more imperative
economies have been provided for.

If we look for a moment at the reverse side of the picture, and assume
that the nation will do nothing to guard against the danger of commercial
collapse which will take place upon the exhaustion of our cheaply-worked
coal resources, we shall be in the position of being saddled with the large
amount of capital invested in railways, docks, and public works, amount-
ing, it is estimated at the present time, to approaching 1,500 millions of
money, with no opportunity of paying off this capital.

The cost of our manufactures will rise, our foreign markets will in
consequence be curtailed, resulting in a large proportion of our population
being thrown out of employment, our income and means of supporting our
Army and Navy will rapidly decrease, and Great Britain must gradually
sink to the position of a secondary power.

Existing and immediately succeeding generations, therefore, cannot be
justified, under the circumstances of the enormous advantages they are
receiving, and will for half a century yet receive, from the working of the
most valuable portion of our coal resources, in neglecting to adopt some
well-considered and comprehensive scheme for dealing successfully with
the inevitable future difficulties indicated with the great object of extend-
ing the duration of the prosperity of this nation far into futurity.

ON A NEW INSTRUMENT FOR DRAWING ENVELOPES. 619

A New Instrument for Drawing Envelopes, and its Application to the
Teeth of Wheels and for other Purposes. By Professor H. 8.
Heve-Suaw, DL.D., MInst.C.E.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

THE present paper is divided into two parts, the first dealing with a
description of the various forms of the new instrument, the second dealing
with the various examples of its use as a trammel for drawing curves, and
of its application for various purposes, such as the teeth of wheels, blowers,
and other revolving bodies where more or less accurate contact is required,
necessitating the formation of an envelope to a curved outline previously
described.

A communication which may be regarded as supplementing the present
paper has been read in the Mathematical Department of Section A (see
p. 136), dealing with the applications of the instrument for the con-
struction of cycloids and involutes, and for the drawing of ellipses and
other curves.

Some time ago the author devised an arrangement for exhibiting to
his students the envelope of any plane figure revolving about a fixed axis
upon another revolving surface, the two rolling together upon a pair of
imaginary pitch circles. This arrangement merely consisted of two sheets
of paper turning on drawing pins as centres, while a small wheel, with a
number of projecting needle points on its edge, simultaneously engaged
both sheets of paper, thereby compelling them to revolve together. This
wheel of course was really in contact with the two imaginary pitch circles.

It was then seen that it was not necessary to employ the actual pitch
circles, as auxiliary circles would serve the same purpose and would not
necessitate the paper or cardboard being actually punctured by the small
needle points. Moreover, the circles were formed separately on each sheet
so long as the respective wheels were connected by one axle, and narrow-
milled rollers could be used instead of the roller with needle points.
What was more important, the space left when parts of the surface cutting
the pitch circles, such, for instance, as the spaces in tooth gearing were
actually removed, did not prevent the continuous rotation of the two
sheets of paper. A pencil outline round the boundary thus left could be
drawn in a number of positions close to each other, thereby giving the
required envelope for the corresponding teeth required to gear with those
originally formed.

Fig. 1 shows the instrument, which had two pairs of roller or disc
wheels (connected by one axle), one above and one below the moving
surfaces of the cardboard.

With this instrument very little slip took place, and it was found that
students could easily use it without having had any previous experience.

There are three ways in which a given curved outline of any form
working about a fixed centre could be obtained.

7 (1) By stencilling in the outline of the revolving sheet beneath.
(2) By photographs, when the two surfaces moved over one another
with a fairly rapid movement. ma

620 REPORT—1898.

(3) By placing the original curve above the other in a series of con-
secutive positions, and in each position drawing round the outline with a
pencil or pen.

This latter method proved to be by far the most satisfactory, and
fig. 2 gives one or two examples of the mode in which the outline of the
required envelope is thus produced.

Fig. 3 is a more compact form of the instrument, in which, in order to
obtain circles of different diameters, a sliding centre was used.

In these cases there is a certain amount of inconvenience from the
axle of the upper pair of edge runners, and although the frame was
inclined, yet the axle itself prevented the curve being conveniently drawn,
and the arrangement, shown in figs. 4 and 5, indicate the method by
which the necessary driving shaft could be kept entirely beneath the sur-

ON A NEW INSTRUMENT FOR DRAWING ENVELOPES. 621

face of the paper, and by the use of an equal pair of spur wheels the upper
axle is done away with.

Fie. 3:

Fig. 4.

CCD DIY}

11)
\

CHL,

In many cases much larger circles were required than could be

622 REPORT—1898.

obtained on any ordinary board, and fig. 6 shows a side view of one of a
pair of ratchet wheels which could be employed so as to do away with
entirely the necessity for even one continuous axle. The ratchet wheels
on either side are successively moved an equal distance by adjusting the
position of two stops, one of which is shown in figs. 4 and 5. Hence for
each successive position, the two pitch circles on the respective sheets of
cardboard travel an equal distance, just as if they were really rolling
upon each other.

:

Fig. 6.

Still even with this appliance circles are often required of incon-
venient size, while for drawing hypocycloidal and other curves the fixed
centre of one moving surface has its position above the moving portion of
the other.

An arrangement, shown in fig. 1, of sliding bars, had been adopted to
overcome this difficulty, but it was obvious that the use of actual centres
of rotation were often very inconvenient, since it limited the size of the
rolling pitch circles, and what is believed to be an entirely new method of
obtaining circles of any size was devised, which does not involve the use
of an actual centre at all. This method may be briefly described as the
use of two pairs of edge runners, the intersection of the axis of each pair

ON A NEW INSTRUMENT FOR DRAWING ENVELOPES. 62%

giving the virtual centre for the rotation of the paper. It is obvious that
a circle with any radius can be at once obtained by turning the direction
of the axis of one pair of wheels relatively to the other, for example,
when the axes are placed parallel to each other, an infinite radius is
obtained, that is, the curves drawn upon the paper is a straight line.
From this it will be seen that the range of the instrument is largely
extended, and that instead of using an instrument of a very large size,
together with trammels for setting out large wheel teeth, such teeth,
even for wheels of thirty or forty feet in diameter or of a rack, can be
obtained by using a small and compact instrument.

The principle of the action is explained by the diagram (fig. 7), in
which is shown the upper rollers A and B of each pair of rollers through
which the sheet of cardboard passes. The position of the pair of
rollers A is fixed, while the frames carrying the pair represented by B can

Fa. 7.

turn about a vertical axis. In the position shown in full lines, the centre
of rotation is the intersection of the axis of A and B at O, and the fixed
point P would therefore draw the arc M P N if the sheet of paper was
moved by combination with the two pairs of wheels at A and B. If, how-
ever, the pair of rollers B are turned into the position a, 6,, the centre of
rotation becomes O,, and the pencil at P would describe the arc N, P M,.
If, on the other hand, it were turned in the position of a, b,, the centre of
rotation would be O,, and the arc would now be N, PM.,. It will be
noted that the points O,, O, are outside the turning paper, and that there
is nothing to prevent these centres moving away to an infinite distance in
either direction by changing the position of the pair of rollers at B until
their axis of rotation is parallel to that of the pair A.

The accuracy with which the circles are drawn having been thoroughly
tested by constructing a simple trammel on this principle, the complete
instrument shown in figs. 8 and 9 was constructed. From fig. 9 it

624 REPORT—1898.

will be seen that a graduated circle (the divisions on which were found by
calculation) is used in order to set the auxiliary pair of rollers so as to
give any required radius. The corresponding upper pair of rollers is
afterwards turned into the required position, so that the axes of the upper
und lower rollers are parallel. In the figure they are shown turned back
upon a hinge in order to insert the cardboard, after which they are
turned down, and a weight placed upon a projecting pin so as to insure
the requisite friction when in action.

Fic. 8.

An examination of fig. 8 will show that not only can the auxiliary
pair of rollers be lifted up, but that the frame carrying the main rollers
can also be turned back about pivots which are shown at the end of the
frame. It may also be noted that the plane surface upon which the
cardboard moves can now be made of glass, since actual pivots for the
centres are no longer required. This enables the two moving pieces of
cardboard to slide easily, and is very much cleaner to use than a wooden
or metal surface. The main spindle under the glass plate through which
motion can be transmitted to both sheets of cardboard by turning the
milled heads at either end has upon it a pair of bevel wheels which gear
with a third bevel wheel carried upon a vertical axis. This arrangement
is for the purpose of drawing various forms of cycloidal curves for setting
out the teeth of wheels for which the two sheets of paper are required to

ON A NEW INSTRUMENT FOR DRAWING ENVELOPES. 625

revolve in opposite directions. The bevel wheels can be thrown in or out
of gear, to either enable this to be done or the main spindle to be coupled
up in one piece, so as to revolve in the ordinary manner.

It may also be pointed out that not only cycloidal but involute
and other classes of rolling curves may be drawn by means of this
instrument.

Examples of the simplest forms of applying this instrument are
shown in figs. 10,11, and 12. The upper part of the figure shows an out-
line selected, and the lower part the result of tracing in a number of
consecutive positions the outline of the selected figure, the result being
an envelope representing the profile of the curve or ‘gear’ which would
engage with it.

Fig. 10.

In fig. 10, in which the selected form is a radial square tooth of rect-
angular section, it is clear that a portion of the envelope required for
contact as the tooth is coming into gear is swept away or removed as the
selected profile is coming out of gear ; hence it would be impossible to find
an envelope corresponding with the selected form which would work
smoothly in practice, or avoid considerable ‘ back- lash.’

The next case chosen for the profile is that of the standard American
screw thread. In this case the resulting envelope gives a tooth which
would work quite smoothly, but the normal of the surface in contact
nearly always is ina direction which would result in considerable pres-
sure upon the bearings of the two shafts.

Fig. 12, in which an ordinary cycloidal tooth has been taken for the
profile, gives, as a result, another tooth of cycloidal form, and shows that
the HN action would not only be perfectly smooth, and that there

. Ss

1898.

REPORT

626

Fig. 11.

Fie. 12.

od

ON A NEW INSTRUMENT FOR DRAWING ENVELOPES. 627

would be no ‘back-lash,’ but that the angle of contact is such as to
enable the requisite force to be transmitted from one tooth to another
under entirely satisfactory conditions.

In figs. 10, 11, and 12 there are certain clearly marked pairs of curves,
which might respectively be called the curves of ‘approach and recess’
contact, and < approach and recess clearance,’ and it will be seen that the
two halves of each curve forma cusp. If these curves afterwards cross,
as in fig. 10, it may be said that the envelope will not work satisfactorily
with the profile, whereas if they do not cross, as in figs. 11 and 12, the
two forms will work smoothly together in contact.

By means of this instrument a large number of profile forms and
envelopes have been drawn for wheel and rack teeth of various forms,
also outlines for revolving pairs required to work in contact, such as
Root’s blowers, rotary-engines, water-meters, &c.; but the foregoing
examples are sufficient to illustrate the method.

The author would conclude by acknowledging the kind assistance of
his former student, Mr. E. Brown, B.Sc., Victoria University Scholar,
in working out the necessary details and preparing the drawings.

Screw Gauge.—Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
W. H. Preece (Chairman), Lord KeEtvin, Sir F. T. BRaMweEL,
Sir H. Trueman Woop, Major-Gen. WEBBER, Col. WATKIN, Messrs.
ConraD W. Cooke, R. E. Crompton, A. Strou, A. Le NEvE
Foster, C. T. Hewirr, G. K. B. Exvpsinstone, T. Buckney,
E. Rigg, C. V. Boys, and W. A. PRICE (Secretary), appointed
to consider means by which Practical Effect can be given to the
Introduction of the Screw Gauge, proposed by the Association in
1884.

Durine the last year your Committee has been in continued communica-
tion with the Pratt and Whitney Company, Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
regarding the production of the gauges for the British Association screw
threads referred to in their last report. Several sets of gauges, of certain
numbers only, have been produced by the firm, who were not satisfied with
their exactness. They have recently informed your Committee that they
are taking up the matter again on new lines, and expect to produce the
gauges shortly of the required accuracy.

Your Committee have been in corr espondence with Professor M. Thury,
of Geneva, in order to ascertain with what degree of accuracy the thread
used by Swiss watch and clock makers, and systematised by him, has been
produced.

An examination of a considerable number of screws supplied to
the Committee by Professor Thury shows that the Swiss thread is not
produced with greater accuracy than the British Association thread.

Mr. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S., has been added te the Committee.

Your Committee asks to be reappointed, with a grant of 2/. 18s. 10d.,
in addition to the sum of 17/. 1s. 2d., the balance of the last grant drawn
but unexpended.

S$s2

628 REPORT—1898.

The North-Western Tribes of Canada.—Twelfth and Final Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor K. B. TyLor (Chairman), Sir
CuTHBERT HK. PEEK (Secretary), Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr. R. G.
Haureurton, Mr. Davip Boy.z, and Hon. G. W. Ross, appointed
to investigate the Physical Characters, Languages, and Industrial
and, Social Conditions of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada.

PAGE

I. Physical Characteristics of the Tribes of British eh by FRANZ Boas
and LIVINGSTON FARRAND . : . 628
Il. The Chileotin, by Livineston FARRAND g ¥ : : . 645
Ill. The Social Organisation of the Haida, he Franz Boas : é ; . 648
IV. Linguistics, by FRANZ BOAS . ; 654
V. Summary of the Work of the Committee i in British Columbia, by FRANZ ‘Boas 667
APPENDIX.—Index to Reports, 1V.-XII. : : : . 684

THE following Report contains the results of field-work undertaken under
the auspices of the Committee during the summer of 1897. The work was
carried out by Messrs. Franz Boas and Livingston Farrand. <A brief
summary of the results of the work of the Committee has been drawn up
by Dr. Boas, and forms part of this Report.

While the work of the Committee has materially advanced our know-
ledge of the tribes of British Columbia, the field of investigation is by no
means exhausted. The languages are known only in outline. More
detailed information on the “physical types may clear up several points
that have remained obscure, and a more detailed knowledge of the
ethnology of the northern tribes seems desirable. Ethnological evidence
has been collected bearing upon the history of development of the
culture-area under consideration ; but no archeological investigations
have been carried on which would help materially in solving these
problems.

For these reasons it is a matter of congratulation to know that the
ethnological investigation in British Columbia will not cease with the
operations inaugurated by the Committee. Ethnological and archzo-
logical work in the Province, in the adjoining States and Territories of the
United States, and on the coast of Siberia is being carried on by expedi-
tions the expense of which is borne by Mr. Morris K. Jesup, President
of the American Museum of Natural History. It is hoped that these
investigations may carry the work initiated by this Committee a step
farther.

I. Physical Characteristics of the Tribes of British Columbia.
By Franz Boas and Livincston Farranp.

The anthropometric measurements made during the season of 1897 were
carried out by both of us according to the system applied in the previous
Reports of the Committee. Before entering into a discussion of the results,
it is necessary to show that the measurements of the two observers are
comparable. We have carrjed out this comparison for the head measure-
ments in which the personal equation is liable to attain considerable value.

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 629

Wegive here the averages of the various measurements taken on I., Stlemqo’-
lequmg men ; II., Stlemqo’lequmg women ; IIT., Chilcotin men. When
we call A the averages and E the mean errors, we find :—

Length of Head Breadth of Head Height of Face

af Boas Farrand Boas Farrand Boas Farrand
os Ay. Bi, iA? Bi Jeg PAS AG Tone AD Ey
I. . | 186°040°9 | 187:°140°9 | 158-540°8 | 157-921-2 | 119-941:0] 1215 41°5
Il. . | 179°641°4 | 177-9414 | 149-8409 | 151-941-1 |114-541-4]114-541-4
Ill. . | 187°0+1:0 | 186:141°0 | 159-641-2 | 157-940°9 |124-341-4] 124-3413
Breadth of Face Height of Nose Breadth of Nose
je Boas Farrand Boas Farrand Boas Farrand |*
E. A. E. A. &E. JAS; eB AS A. E.
I. . | 149°0+0°8 | 148°8+0°9 | 525406 50°9+40°8 | 40°640°5 | 39-4405
II. . | 138:0+0-7 | 139-°9+1-2 491411 486409 | 355406 |} 35-2406

Wit. . | 149:140°7 | 147:241-0 53°4+0°6 | 52°940°6 | 39°940°5 | 38:7+0°5

The differences between these averages are throughout slight. In
order to show the comparability of the measurements still more clearly
we give here the values of the differences and their errors, and the average
difference and its error for each measurement which have been obtained by
weighting the individual differences.

| Differences between Measurements taken by Boas and Farrand and their Errors.

+2 Length of | Breadth of Height of | Breadth of Heigh® of | Breadth of
Head | Head Face Face Nose Nose
/ é se eS.
1 -| #11413 | —06414 | +1641°8| —0:2411| —1641:°0| —1:2407
II. -| —1:742°0 | +2:141°4 004+ 2:0} +1:941°4| —0541:4] —03208
Ii. -}| —0941°4 | —1:741°5 0041-9} —1:941:2| —0530°8] —1:2407

Average. | +0:140°8 | —0140°8 | +0641:1| —03407| —08205 —0'9 404 |

It appears from this table that the measurements are strictly compar-
able, and that the personal equation may be neglected.

The tribes which were principally studied are the Northern Shuswap,
the Lillooet, the Chilcotin, and the northern tribes of the coast. The
Shuswap are divided into divisions in a manner similar to the divisions of
the Ntlakya’pamug. We have collected measurements of the Stlemqo’-
lzquma, the division of the tribe living on Fraser River, north of the town
of Lillooet, of the Sti’ateme of North Thompson River, of the Shuswap’6’e
of Kamloops, and a few of the group inhabiting Buonaparte River. We
have treated the Lillooet of Fraser River, who are mixed with Shuswap,
and Ntlakya’pamug separately from the purer groups of Seton and Ander-
son Lakes. Following are the tables of measurements :—

REPORT—1898.

630

——

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ofr (O4BT Wostapuy) JO0O[[PT
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SUBIPUT WANT SSBN
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|

|

1898.

asBIVAV

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PAIS eT Sail ties
Pd ed Deets iis
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Plel Tsk elosiS tal ecalig
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ravi [| feo | dof bene
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[alana] | [mada
RH RAR ARH ADN
[| |aeeedan Jon
Jou rs fooes fons | |
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a |] | | anwaces | |

SPL | LPL | OFT | SFL | PPL] SFL |S

lat] lla ld]

fei We ee cate) | (|b

REPORT:

8-891

£891
9 LST
O-LST
G-F9T
8.-FS1
9-891
§-89T
8-6ST
0-6ST
0-881
G19T
$891

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1 asec ielist
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‘way fo song fo qyhrayy

1898.

REPORT:

634

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03 LOPE | a ed Ll 28 cla 2 eee 2 2 eee te el (ayv'T Uostapuy) Ja0orrT
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91 92st |—|—|/—|—|—-|—|-!—- —|—|—|—! t]—-} t]—-jJ—l el} ti) e{—) ele] ty tiJ—j—l|—j—-l—|—-] tt. Ons ropmeyNN
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06 LPL ere reir sre | ee ||] t —|—|—|- *(OYBT UOstepuy) 4200] TTT
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9% e971 |—|—|—|—|—|—|-—|—|—-|—|—J-|—-| tr] ¢}—-l—i—| eis} Fis)e]e)/tij-|-j-le|—-jt}° °° 8g onuededqern
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iS) oT 0-49 St ret ee SRS tac bea tay tarp a | ee
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jo raqumayy V | #9 | €9 | 29] I9 | 09 | 6g | 89 bg 99 | 99 | $$ | eg | 39 | TS | OG | GF | SF | LF | OF ony

ee ‘want fo s90x fo 1ybory

REPORT— 1898.

636

sasep
Jo Iaquinyy

sasep
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L-9€
¥-9E
6-7&
G-9E
8-5E
0-9§
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8-F&
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1-96

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9-07
8-8§
9-68
8-LE
€-68
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9-6F
8-8&
¥-6§
8-68
L-0F

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‘uayy fo asony fo yIpooug

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* UHOOTITD
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(19ATY JoseIq) ooo TTT
(exe wosrepuy) ye0o][vT
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9qU47,

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637

gL
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ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.

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SUBIPU] IOATY sseny

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quad ag

Ti) a a a a a RTE aes oT Te TESTS ET ES ae ai ee Se

*SaUAS 107 0.L,

‘wapuy Yppvaig-yzhuoT

REPORT—1898.

638

91 1-28 ease Bed bag ORG DEA Evlhica PN RUIEP Rae ae eee
8 9-28 Bhat ES) Te Blew bbe 8) Bok! Ba Vee We Dealers eed oh Seo Sales * + (umbgy
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|
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_ ‘wayy fo xapuy yorong

639

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.

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REPORT—1898.

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ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA,

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642 REPORT—1898.

A short analysis of the material contained in the preceding
tables and in previous Reports of the Committee allows us to dis-
tinguish with certainty three distinct types of man among the natives of
British Columbia. These are the northern type, embracing the Haida,
Nass River Indians, and Tsimshian ; the Kwakiutl type, embracing the
Bilqula, Hé‘iltsuk-, Awi’ky’énéq, and the tribes of the Kwakiutl ; and
the Thompson River type, embracing the Lillooet and Thompson River
Indians. These types may be characterised by the following measure-
ments :—

| Northern Type Kwakiutl Type Thompson. River

Type
Mea M M
Average Error Average | eae Average stor
I. Men.
mm, mm. mm.
Stature . F c 5 1675 + 7:40 1645 + 5°90 1634 + 7:90
Length of Head. ; 1946 | +0°80 188°7 | +1:19 1865 | +055
Breadth of Head . F 160°6 | +0°67 159:0 | +1:00 155°9 | +0°52
Breadth of Face . .| 1537 | 40°85 | 151-4 | +0°54 | 147-4 | 20-41
Height of Face ; .| 121°6 | +087 128:0 | +0°67 1203 | 4071
II. Women.
Stature . : F . | 1542 | +5:70 1537 +5°90 1540 +500
Length of Head. . | 1856 | +0°88 1869 | 41°64 179°5 | 40°53
Breadth of Head . : 153°2 | +0:90 154:3 | 41:44 150°0 | +0°41
Breadth of Face . 4 143°9 + 0°80 144°3 + 0°64 1388 + 0°40
Height of Face . .| 1143 | 40°93 1193 | 40°82 | 1125 | +054

There are good indications of the existence of other types, but they
cannot be distinguished with absolute certainty from the types enumerated
here. It seems very probable that an examination of the Lillooet of
Pemberton Meadows will establish beyond a doubt the existence of the
peculiar type which in the Seventh and Tenth Reports of the Committee
was named the Harrison Lake type, which is characterised by a very
broad and very short head, small stature, large nose, and small face. Our
measurements of the Lillooet were undertaken with a view of determining
the existence of this type, but they did not extend far enough south. The
characteristics of the Coast Salish of Washington and Southern British
Columbia are doubtful, because the prevalent practice of deforming the
head does not permit us to compare their head measurements with those
of other tribes. Their faces show the same breadth as those of the other
coast tribes, but their noses are much lower and flatter than those of the
Kwakiutl. The Kamloops and other Shuswap tribes are closely allied to
the Thompson River type, but it seems that the dimensions of their heads
are a Jittle larger, their statures a little higher. The Chilcotin resemble
the Shuswap much, but their faces are flatter, their noses not so highly
elevated over the face.

A study of the profiles of these types shows several important
phenomena that are not elucidated in the tables of measurements.
The northern type shows, on the whole, a rounded forehead ; a nose
which tends rather to be concave than convex, with the exception

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 645

of a few individuals; short point of the nose, slight elevation of
nose, long upper lip, and rather thick mouth. The Kwakiutl type
shows a flat forehead, which is largely due to artificial deformation ; a
decidedly convex nose with short point, highly elevated over the face, and a
less protruding mouth. It is very remarkable that the characteristic
features of this type are so strongly marked in the female that the
differences between the northern type and this type are more strongly
noticed in women than in men. The Thompson River type has a very
prominent, convex nose, with long point. The nose has a great elevation
over the face.

We give the cross-sections of the face, laid through the tragus and
lower rim of orbits for the various types. In order to make the
differences clearer we have drawn a middle or composite outline for each
type, which show clearly the considerable breadth of face prevailing on
the coast and the flatness of the nose of the northern type.

\
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1
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Cross-sections of Face laid through the Tragus and the Lower Rim of the Orbit.
—— Average cross-section of the Kwakiutl, Haida, and Tsimshian.
---- Average cross-section of the Ntlakyapamug and Kamloops.

The following table contains a number of repeated measurements, the

first measurement having been taken in September 1894, the second in
June 1897, the interval being two years and nine months. It will be
seen that on the whole the measurements show a close agreement ; but it
appears that the error of observation for the measurements of the body,
except for stature and finger-reach, is very considerable. The nasal index

is also very unsatisfactory on account of the smallness of the measure-
ments that are contained in it :—

1898.

REPORT

644

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ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 645

Il. The Chilcotin. By Livixeston Farranp.

The Chilcotin tribe occupies a territory lying chiefly in the valley of
the Chilcotin River. They are somewhat isolated in situation, though on
the east they are only separated from the Shuswap by the Fraser River.
Between these two tribes, however, there is little intercourse. Toward
the north their nearest neighbours are the related Tinneh tribe of Carriers
or Porteurs; and while distance prevents frequent communication,
they regard each other as more or less akin, and the relations are cordial.
On the west a pass leads over the coast range to Bella Coola; and, as
many Chilcotin make annual expeditions to the coast, they are fairly
familiar with the people of that region. Toward the south the only tribe
at present with whom they come in contact is the Lillooet, and with them
but seldom.

Intercourse with the coast Indians, and particularly with the Bella
Coola, was formerly much more frequent than now, for the reason that the
early seat of the Chilcotin was considerably farther west than at present,
while the Bella Coola extended higher up the river of that name into the
interior. The results of this early intercourse is seen very clearly in ~
certain of their customs, and particularly in details of their traditions. In
former times and down to within about thirty years the centre of territory
and population of the Chileotin was Anahem Lake, and from here they
covered a considerable extent of country, the principal points of gathering
beside the one mentioned being Tatlah, Puntze, and Chizaikut Lakes.
They extended as far south as Chilco Lake, and at the time of the salmon
fishing were accustomed to move in large numbers down to the Chilcotin
River to a point near the present Anahem Reservation, always returning
to their homes as soon as the fishing was over. More recently they have
been brought to the eastward, and to-day the chief centres of the tribe
are four reservations—Anahem, Stone, Risky Creek, and Alexandria—
the first three in the valley of the Chilcotin, and the last named, consisting
of but a few families, somewhat removed from the others, on the Fraser.
Besides these there are a considerable number of families leading a semi-
nomadic life on the old tribal territory in the woods and mountains to the
westward. These latter, considerably less influenced by civilisation than
their reservation relatives, are known by the whites as Stone Chilcotin or
Stonies.

Although subjected to more or Jess intimate intercourse with the
whites for a comparatively short period, the Chilcotin have assimilated
the customs and ideas of their civilised neighbours so completely that their
own have largely disappeared except possibly among the families still
living in the mountains, whom it was not practicable to reach.

The following notes were obtained with considerable difficulty, but the
information was for the most part confirmed by the independent testimony
of different individuals.

As regards the social organisation, persistent inquiry failed to disclose
any traces of a clan system. The family unit was the family in the con-
tracted sense, viz., the parents and unmarried children. Marriage was
ordinarily monogamous, but many men had two wives. Recognised blood
relationship was and is always an absolute bar to marriage, and at present
this recognition seems to extend no further than first cousins. There
seem to have been no local preferences in contracting marriages. Marriage

646 REPORT—1898.

with an individual of the same village was not regarded as more desirable
than one with a person from another locality, nor vice versd.

Of laws of inheritance information is rather doubtful. It was stated
that in former times upon the death of a man the widow received nothing,
while his relatives as far as cousins divided the estate equally. It did not
descend to the children alone, To-day if a man dies the widow inherits
all, apparently in trust for the children, the sons, if there be such,
managing the property. No information was obtained as to the pro-
cedure in case the widow remarries. The above change of custom, if
true, strongly suggests missionary influence. If an unmarried man dies
leaving property it is said that his relatives as far as cousins divide the
estate. A man never married his brother’s widow—she was still regarded
as his own sister.

Social ranks are not apparent at present, but there were formerly
nobility, common people, and slaves, corresponding to a great extent to
the system of the coast tribes. Wealth and the giving of feasts were the
means of obtaining higher rank, and this seems to have been open to the
lower class provided they had the means. Slaves were captives. From
time immemorial, before the splitting up and settling upon the reserva-
tions, there seems to have been a head chief known as A’nahem, whose
seat was at Anahem Lake, and whose influence extended over the whole
tribe. The last great chief of that name died a few years ago, and his
son is now the so-called chief of the Anahem Reservation,

Shamans, or medicine-men, are known by the term ‘di’yi’n,’ which
denotes any person of extraordinary powers who is supposed to have extra-
human aid, and he becomes such by reason of some remarkable dream or
experience. The deliberate candidate for such honours was accustomed
to go away alone to the top of some mountain or other desolate place and
there fast for several days, during which time the favourable dream might
or might not come to him. The favourable dream was usually a vivid one
of some animal or bird, and this became his protector and helper ever
afterward. The di’yi/n would then always wear some distinctive mark of
his protector, such as teeth, claws, wings, feathers, &c. Aside from success
in hunting and war, special powers were obtained in the cure of disease.
The method of treatment was first the singing of the particular song of
the di’yi’n, which was his own property and used by no one else. The
song was usually acccmpanied by dancing, but not always. Then followed
the application of the hands to the body of the patient, and usually suck-
ing through the hands placed over the diseased spot, thus drawing out the
sickness. The hands were then held up in front of and above the face,
and, being suddenly opened, the sickness would be sharply blown out into
the air, and so expelled. Occasionally, after sucking the di’yi’n would open
his hands and show a grasshopper or other object, which he exhibited as the
cause of the illness, and which had been thus removed. During such
treatment the di’yi’n usually carried a pouch containing certain charms,
and, while wearing certain insignia as above stated, he did not dress in
any particular robe as far as could be learned. Anyone might become
dryi/n, even young boys and girls.

In former times the winter houses of the Chilcotin were the ordinary
circular subterranean lodges, the excavation being about four feet in depth.
There are none of these in existence to-day. The summer lodges were
rectangular in shape, made of bark stretched over poles, and with only the
roof and back covered, the front and two sides being thus left open. They

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 64.7

were ordinarily built in pairs facing each other and with a common fire
between. At the present time the winter houses are of logs, often very
well built, and in summer tents are used, canvas for the purpose being
obtained from the whites.

It was said that formerly the canoes of this tribe were made of bark
stretched over wooden ribs. Both bow and stern were sharp, and were
not raised above the level of the rest of the canoe. The largest of these
canoes would carry about ten men. Later and at the present time the
canoes are dug-outs from single logs.

Cooking was done by roasting or boiling, the latter by means of hot
stones in water-tight baskets of bark or woven fibre. The hot stones
were manipulated by tongs of wood.

The weapons used in war were bows and arrows and war clubs, the
latter made of a stout stick about the length of the arm with a stone head
fastened by leather thongs. None of these weapons are now in existence
apparently. Spears with points made of the horn of the mountain sheep
were used in hunting, but not in war. The arrow points were of stone.
Fishing spears with detachable heads of bone were formerly very common,
but are now rarely seen, and a large bone hook fastened to a rod like a
gaff was also sometimes used.

In war a sort of woodén armour was worn over the chest and back as
far down as the waist. This protection, in shape like a sleeveless shirt,
was made of tough sticks about an inch in diameter, fastened together
with leather thongs, and was sufficient to turn arrows. The head was
also protected by a thick leather cap covering the entire head except the
face. According to the only obtainable account of war decorations, the
upper part of the face was painted black and the lower part red, Besides
the leather helmet, war head-dresses were worn of the skins of birds and
of the heads of animals, so arranged that the beak or mouth came forward
over the forehead. The most popular skin for such head-dresses was said
to have been that of the raven. Any man who was a diyi’n would wear
the skin of his own protecting bird or animal.

Ear ornaments were formerly quite universally worn by both sexes,
and usually in the form of small buttons of various materials attached to
short strings and suspended from the lobes of the ears, which were pierced
for the purpose. Older people are still found with pierced ears, but the
pendants are seldom seen. Rings were also worn in the ears, but the
Chilcotin say that this was a coast custom which they adopted, and was
not so common as the other. :

Nose.ornaments of rings and straight bars inserted through the septum
were also worn. One old man further described a lip ornament as a small
straight bar piercing the upper lip, but this was not confirmed, and no
description of labrets was obtained.

Tattooing appears to have been pretty universal, the face, chest, arms,
and legs being the parts most favoured. Little information as to designs
could be obtained, but it was asserted that there was no difference in the
designs used by the two sexes. This is of course doubtful. The materials
used in the tattooing process were bone needles and charcoal.

In general the decorative art of the Chilcotin was very slightly
developed. They did not carve their weapons or utensils, and the
basketry designs were and are of the simplest character.

It was said that in the old days cremation was used in the disposal of
the dead, the ashes being afterwards buried. Since the arrival of the

648 REPORT—1898.

missionaries ordinary burial has been practised, the graves being protected
by a low fence of logs.

The traditions of the Chilcotin are particularly interesting as showing
the influence of their coast and inland neighbours, details of foreign origin
being clearly traceable. Their chief tradition is of Léndix’tcux, a being
half man and half dog, who came to the Chilcotin country from the
north-west, and is their culture-hero. The story recites the adventures
of Léndix-teux and his three sons on their journey through the land.
These adventures are chiefly with animals who before that time had been
dangerous to man, but who were now overcome and made harmless.
Methods of hunting and various arts were then taught to the people who
previously had been wretched and ignorant. The widespread conception
of the culture-lero asa trickster is especially well exemplified in this tale.

In the other traditions obtained, none of which are as full nor as
important as the Léndix‘tcux myth, but which cover a wide range of
subjects, the raven is possibly the chief character, some of the stories in
which he figures being identical with the raven tales of the coast, while
others are apparently independent in origin. Few myths regarding
natural phenomena were heard, and those which were told are of doubtful
origin. The general impression was made of a not very rich independent
mythology, but of surprising receptivity to foreign influences.

III. The Social Organisation of the Haida. Dy Franz Boas.

In the Fifth Report of the Committee I briefly described the social
organisation of the Haida according to information obtained from a few
Indians from Skidegate. I pointed out (p. 823) that the tribe is divided
into two phratries, each of which consists of a number of clans the
members of which are connected by ties of consanguinity, not by an
imaginary relationship through the totem. I also pointed out that the
clans sometimes bear the names of the places at which their houses
stand. Since this statement was made I have had opportunity to in-
vestigate the social organisation of the Tsimshian and of the Kwakiutl
in greater detail. The result of these inquiries on the Tsimshians was
published in the Tenth Report of the Committee, and of those on the
Kwakiut! in the Report of the United States National Museum for 1895
(pp. 311-738). These investigations proved that among the southern —
tribes of the Pacific coast the village community was the primitive unit,
and that clans originated through the coalition of village communities.

During the past summer I had an opportunity of investigating the
social organisation of the Haida in somewhat greater detail, although not
as thoroughly as might be desired. The information thus obtained cor-
roborates the views expressed in the Fifth Report of the Committee, and
emphasises the fact that the village community is the constituent element
of the phratry.

In order to make this clear I will first of all give a list of the Haida
families. The two Haida phratries are called Gyit’ina’ and K’oa‘la, and
every family belongs either to the one or to the other group. Each
family has a number of emblems which are commemorative of certain
events in the earliest history of the family. The name of the chief of
each family is hereditary. For purposes of comparison I give the list of
villages recorded by Dr. G. M. Dawson in his Report on Queen Charlotte
Islands (Report of Progress, Geological Survey of Canada, 1878-79,
Montreal, 1880).

a

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 64.9

Kix-on (Dawson, /.c., p. 162 B).

Not in my list ; perhaps identical with Ia’k’o ? (see below).

Gyit'ina’ :

Koa'la :

Ky10'st’s (Dawson : Kioo-sta, p. 162 B).

Sta’stas ov Saiigatl la’‘nas. Chief: K’drnsi (=glacier).
Crests : Frog, beaver, raven, eagle. Chief's grave: Frag.
An ancestor of the Sta/stas family met a giant frog in
Tsiqoa'grts. Girls when reaching maturity wear a hat
that is painted green (tlt’z’ndadjang), the paint being
obtained in the river Naédze’n. Houses: 1, K’égengr
nas. 2, K-oé’kyitsgyit. 3, Kun nas. 4, Nakhoda‘das.
5, Skyil nas. Skyil is the mistress of copper who endows
with wealth those who meet her. 6, Sk olhaha’yut.
7, Naxa’was. _

K’a'was. Chief: Ktltené’. Crests: Beaver, sg'a’ngo, eagle.
The sg‘a’ngo is a man who was transformed into a monster
because he was living on raw fish and birds. He lives
inacave. He has long ears and wears a high hat. He
carves birds as though they were large game and carries
the parts home separately. When he throws them down
it gives a loud noise. House : G-otnas.

K-a/nguatl la’nai. Chief: Tagyia’. Crests: Frog, eagle,

beaver.
Togyit’inai’, Chief: Kuns. Crest: Eagle.
Tostlengilnagai’. Chief: Gwaisganrngk’aiwa's. Crests :

Tsilia‘las (killer whale with raven wings), killer whale,
bear, thunder-bird.

(The two last named belong to the village Too of Dawson, p. 170 B.)

Ti’8’6 and Di’pENs (Dawson: Tartance, p. 162 B).

Koala :

Gyit’ina’:

Koala:

Gyit’ina’ :
K’oa'la :

Yak‘ la’‘nas. Chief: Grsawa’k. Crests: Bear, moon, dog-
fish, killer whale, wolf, devilfish.

K-aoké/owai. Chief: G:atso’En. Crests: Killer whale, owl,
bear, woodpecker.

Koé'tas. Chief: Hotsrln’ng. Crests: Bear, killer whale,
moon.

Ts’atl la’nas. Chief: Gyit’ing‘oda’ and Kunkoya’n. Crests:
Halibut, eagle, beaver, land otter (the Jast said to have
been adopted recently).

S’ale‘ndas. Chief: Ildzaunak:a'tlé. Crests: Frog, beaver,
starfish, evening sky.

Near D4’prns.
Tas la’nas. Chief: Sk-ana’]. Crests: Land otter, killer
whale, woodpecker, cirrus.
K-anc (Dawson: Kung, p. 163 B).

Sak‘a’nas, Chief: Gula’c. Crests: Eagle, sculpin, beaver.
Kya‘nusla, Chief: Ha’nsgyinai. Crest: Killer whale.

650 REPORT—1898.

WI'Ts’A.
Gyit’ina’: Wi'ts’a gyit’inai’. Chief: Etlgyiga.) Crests: Eagle, hum-
Totlgya gyit’inai’. Chief: Steétlta. ming-bird, beaver,
Tséts gyit’inai’. Chief: Nasgi’tl. sculpin, skate
Dzos haedrai’. Chief: Guinia’. (ts’etg-a).

These families have the same crests. They live short distances apart.

Ta’An (near Wi'ts’a. Dawson: Ya4n, p. 163 B).
Koala: Stl’enge la’nas. Chief: Nena‘k’enas. Crests: Killer
whale, hawk, bear.
Gyit’ina’: (Tséts gyit’inai’, moved to Ia’an from Wi'ts’a a few years
ago).

G-at’aiwa’s (Dawson: Ut-te-was, p. 163 B).
Koala: Skyit’au’k6. Chief: Cigai’, Crests: Killer whale, grizzly
bear, black bear.
Gyit'ina’: Gyitins. Chief: Ska-ina’. Crests: Eagle, beaver,
seulpin.
Sg'adzé’guatl la’nas. Chief: Skyiltk’atso. Crests: Eagle,
beaver, sculpin.
Koala: Sg-aga’ngsilai. Crests: Killer whale, bear.

Har'ts’ av.
Koa'la: Ganyak oi nagai. Chief: Kyilstlak-. Crests: Killer whale,

bear.

K’aya'ne (Dawson: Ka-yung, p. 163 B).
Koa'la: Yagun kunilnagai’. Chief: Skyilkié’s. Crests: Bear,
ts ’pm’a’s, killer whale.
Gyit’ina’: Saqgui’ eyit’inai’. Chief: Naok‘adzo’t. ] Crests : Eagle,
Ky’ia'ltkoangas. Chief: Kodai’. beaver, sculpin.
These two groups are considered branches of one family.

Koala: T’és kunilnagai’. Chief: Yatl’ink‘. C a ae ean
DVia/lmn kunilnagai’. Chief : Sena’t. PA alee

The three groups Kunilnagai’ in K’aya’ng are branches of one family.

Ta’GEN (about three miles north-east of Masset).
Gyit’ina’: Dlia’len k-éowai’. Chief: Ha’yas. Crests : Eagle, raven,
sculpin, frog. Said to be related to the Sta/stas.
Koala: Kun la’nas. Chief : K-ogi’s, Crests: Bear, ts’zm’a’s, killer
whale.

Nasku’n (Dawson : Nai-koon, p. 165 B).
Gyit’ina’: Naéku’n stastaai’. Chief: Ts’on. Crests the same as
those of the Sta’stas, of whom they are the branch from
Naéku’n.
Tsiqua’gis stastaai’. . Chief : Skyila’d. Crests the same as
those of the Sta’stas, of whom they are the branch from
the river Tsiqua’gis.

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 651

K’oa'la : Qua/dds. Chief: tl’ea’ls. Crests : Bear, killer whale, hawk,
rainbow, stratus. The Stl’enge 1a’nas are considered a
branch of the Qua‘dos, who are at present in Asegoa’n,
Alaska. It is said that the qua’dds were in the habit of
catching eaglesin snares. One day a man caught a hawk
in his snare. Another one stole it, leaving, however,
one of the hawk’s talons. This led toa quarrel, and a
fight ensued, during which the family divided. Those who
emigrated became the Stl’Enge la/nas. For this reason
both use the hawk and also the same personal names.

(Dawson : A-se-guang, p. 165 B.)

Koa/la: I was told that there was a branch of the gua’dds at the
place who moved to Skidegate.

TiLK ‘Aicitr (Skidegate).
Gyit’ina’: Gyit’ins. Na yi’ans qa‘edra; Na s’a/gas qa’edra. Chief :
Sg'édxgi’ts. Crests : Raven, wasq, dogfish, eagle, sculpin.
Gyitingyits’ats. Chief: Sg-a’nigyik-é’do. Crests : Sculpin,
eagle, wa'ts’at (a fabulous personage.)
Tsaagwi’ gyit’inai’. Chief: Wina’ts. Crests: Sculpin,
eagle.
Koala: Tsaagwisguatl’adegai’, Chief: Logd’t. Crests: Killer
whale, gyitg-a/lya (a fabulous being), ts’Em’4’s.
T)gaio la’‘nas. Chief; Do’ana’. Crests the same as the
preceding family.
Tai‘otl lanas. Chief: K-aiiga’o. Crests: Black bear,
killer whale.
Koga/ngas. Chief: K-oé'sgutnung’n/ndals. Crests:
Killer whale, ts’zm’a’s.

Tie-A/1t (Gold Harbor ; Dawson : Skai-to, p. 168 B).

Koala: Tlga/itgu la’nas. Chief: Nenkyilstla’s. Crests: Moon,
killer whale.

Gyitina’: Tlg-a'it gyit’inai’. Chief: Gana'i. Crests: Raven, eagle,
sculpin.

Kvoa'la : Stasausk’é’owai: Chief: Sg:anayi’en. Crest: Ts’ilia’/las
(killer whale with raven wings).

Skoa’tl’adas. Chief: G-dlentkyinga’ns. Crests: Sea-lion,

killer whale, ts’rm’a’s, thunder.

K-ar's’un (Dawson : Kai-shun, p. 168 B).
Gyit‘ina’: Kvai/atlla‘nas. Chief : Nana’riskyilqo’es. Crests : Beaver,
frog, eagle.
(Dawson : ‘Cha-atl, p. 168 B.)
Kvoa'la : tlga/itgu la‘nas. (Same as above, under Tlg-a’it.)
K’v’NA (Skidans, Dawson : Koona, p. 169 B).

Koa'la : Tlk-inotl la/nas or K-agyalsk-é/owai. Chief : Gudék:a inga/o.
Crests: Bear, moon, mountain goat, killer whale, storm

652 REPORT—1898.

cloud, cirrus, rock slide. Part of this family is called Kyils
qa’edrai. (Dawson: Tlkinool, p. 168 B.)

Gyit’ina’ : K’unak‘é'owai. Chief: Gyitk’o’n. Crests : Dogfish, eagle,
frog, monster frog, beaver.

T’ano’ (Tl, Dawson : Tanoo, p. 169 B).

Gyit’ina’ : K’unak‘é’owai (same as in K’u’na).
Tségoatl la'nas or Laqski’yek.
Koala: Kv’adas k-é’owai. Chief: Gyaqkutsa’n. Crests: Killer

IAr

whale, wolf, ts’Em’A’s,

Sga’nguai (Nensti’ns, Dawson : Ninstance, p. 169 B).

Gyit’ina’ : Gyit’i’ns. Chief: Nensti’ns. Crests: Beaver, eagle.

Koala: Qalda’ngasal. Chief: Ts’ini’. Crests: Bear, killer whale,

ts’em’a’s.

The villages on Hippah Island are not contained in my list.

A comparison of the list of families given here with that of the
Skidegate families published in the Fifth Report of the Committee, p. 822,
shows that the lists are fairly reliable. I give here both lists for purposes
of comparison :—

Skidegate.
(Fifth Report. Informant Informant: E/densa of
Johnny Swan) Masset
Gyit’ina: Nayi’ans qa’etqa. Gvity’ Na yi’ans qa’‘edra
Na’sa’'yas qia’etqa. ee i Na s’a’gas qa’edra.
Djaaquigi't’enai’. Tsaéagwi’ gyit’inai’.
Gyitingits’ats. Gyit’ingyits’ats.

K’0’a'la: Naékun k-eraua’i. —
Djaaqui’sk-‘uatl’adaga'i. Tsaagwiscuatl’adegai’.
‘ 5 Sie
Tiqaiu 1a’nas. Tlg-aio ]a’nas.
K-astak-éraua‘i. —
— Taiodtl la’nas.
—- K-og‘a’ngas.

It will be noticed that the Gyit’ina’ families agree in both lists, while
the Koa’la show certain discrepancies. It may be that the Naékun-
k-erauai’ are the family from Asegua’n referred to above as removed to
Skidegate.

It will be noticed that a great many family names are town names.
Such names are Sangatl ]a’nas, K-a/nguatl la’nas, Yak‘ la/nas, Tlg:aio
la’‘nas, &c. Others signify ‘the gyit’ina’ of a certain place’ ; for instance :
To gyit’inai’, Wits’a gyit’inai’, Tsiagwi gyit’inai’. Still others seem to
signify ‘the k”oa/la of a certain place,’ for instance: To stlengilnagai’,
Ya/gun kunilnagai, D]’ia/lzn kunilnagai. Another series of names signify
‘the people of a certain place,’ or ‘those born at a certain place,’ such as
DV'ia‘len k-éowai’, K’una k‘eowai’, and Dzos haedrai’.

These facts indicate that each family formed originally a local unit, so
that each village would seem to have been inhabited by one family only.
The present more complex village communities originated through the

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 653

coalition of several families in one village, each retaining its own name
and organisation. On the other hand, families divided, and are for this
reason present in different villages. This is the case with the Sta’stas,
whom we find under the name of Sta’stas at Ky’ii’st’a, as Naékun stastaai’
in Naéku’n, and as Tsiquagis stastaai’ in the same village. The Yak‘ la/nas
are partly in their old village Da’drns, partly in Tlenk:oa’n (Klinquan,
Alaska); the Ts’atl la’nas are partly in Da’deEns, partly in Gaugya’n
(How-aguan, Alaska). Part of the Stastas have even drifted to the
Stikink‘oan of the Tlingit. The Yak‘ la’nas have a branch among the
same tribe, where they have amalgamated with the Nanaa’ri family
(Haida: Nan’a‘ngi). A number of families left Queen Charlotte Islands
in consequence of a quarrel, and form now the Kaigani. According to
Dr. Dawson the event took place about 170 years ago (about 1730). The
following families are said to have emigrated entirely : The S’alz’ndas to
Sakoa’n (Shakan); the Koé'tas to the same place; the K-aok:é’owai to
G-augya’n (How-aguan) ; and the Tas ]a’nas to Kasaa/n. .

It is clear, therefore, that the present arrangement of families is the
result of a long historical development, and that in the orginal organisation
of the tribe the village community was a much more important element
than it is at present.

It is also instructive to investigate the distribution of totems among
these families.

I. Gyit#ina! (18 distinct families).

Eagle, ‘ . 17 families Starfish : 1 family
Beaver . ; Ea 2s ee Humming-bird fatve
Sculpin De? ss Skate (?) . Rae
Frog : AP aah Monster-frog . aay | aes
Raven . : ae© «34 Wa'ts’at . ‘ send so ts
Dogfish . Die 33 Wasq UY Fi
Halibut . 1 family Sg‘a/ngo ada
Land-otter Le Evening sky Lint ine
II. K’oa'la (22 distinct families).
Killer whale . . 21 families Devilfish 1 family
Black bear. Be | ae Owl 1 Ese
Ts’Em’A’s . iat ade Land-otter Meets,
Moon . 4a ,, Grizzly bear Lee
Woodpecker ee Sea-lion . : Gh ee
Tsilia’las aor Mountain-goat Eh ieee
Thunder-bird igh ns Gyitg'a/lya Poh ts
Hawk . Ye eae Rainbow. ‘ a oN <ig3
Wolf 1 A has ee Stratus cloud . Dee?)
Cirrus cloud eet aes Storm cloud Lae:
Dogfish . : - 1 family Rock slide L yah

This table shows a strong prevalence of two crests in each group :
eagle and beaver among the Gyit’ina’, killer whale and black bear among
the Koala. The sculpin and ts’rm’4’s, which are next in importance,
are not found among the tribes of the extreme north-western part of the
islands. All the others occur only once or twice among the different
families, and for this reason resemble in character the totems of the

654 REPORT—1898.

Kwakiutl. Since the characteristic features of the traditions explaining
the acquisition of these crests are also the same among the Tlingit, Haida,
Tsimshian, and Kwakiutl, it is likely that they may have had the same
origin. I have tried to show at another place (‘Report United States
National Museum for 1895,’ p. 336) that among the Kwakiutl the crest is
the hereditary manitou, and I am inclined to consider the isolated totems
of the Haida and of the other northern tribes of similar origin. It is
very doubtful if this theory holds good for the more frequent totems
which evidently form the bond between the members of each group. It
seems more likely that they represent the oldest totemic organisation of
the tribe which may have antedated their settlement in their present
locations. It is, however, worth remarking that one of the totems of
secondary frequency, the ts’Em’4’s, is evidently of Tsimshian origin. The
name is'clearly a corrupted form of ts’Em’a/ks=in the water, a fabulous
monster, probably the personified snag. The four primary totems, eagle
and beaver, and killer whale and bear, certainly represent the two oldest
divisions of the tribe which split up in village communities that later on
combined again in more complex groups.

IV. Linguistics. By Franz Boas,
The Ntlakya’pamue.

The material for the following sketch was obtained in part directly from Mr,
James Teit, in part from Indians whose statements were interpreted by Mr. Teit.
The writer is, however, alone responsible for the systematic presentation of the

material.
GRAMMATICAL NOTES.
THE ARTICLE.

The Ntlakya’pamuq has an article which is similar in character to the one found
in the dialects of the Coast Salish. In the Sixth Report of the Committee I briefly
described the use of this article in the Bella Coola (p. 128). Its forms in other
coast dialects are given in the following list:

Bilqula. Masculine, ¢i Feminine, ts¢

Catlo'ltq. 5 ta + tla
Pentlatc. 3 ti “s tla
Nanaimo. 3 ts “5 se
Sk-qd’mic. 3 te * tle
Lku’iigEn. 5 ti 5) St
Tillamook. a ta as tla

The Calispelm has the article tlu, which is used in the same manner. It is
described by Mengarini in his ‘Grammatica Lingue Selicz,’ 1861, p. 80.

The Ntlakya’pamug has a number of articles.
ta is used for connecting adjectives and nouns :

str’ptEp (1) ta (2) spEzu’zo (3), a (2) black (1) bird (3).
aqa (1) kEs (2) ta (8) tlosk’a’yug (4) kag (5) pui’stEmos (6), [it is] that (1) bad
(2) Indian (4) who (5) killed him (6).

ja and a seem to precede nouns that are not accompanied by attributes :

ha (1) chai’tkenEmug (2) kaQ(3) tla’k-atem (4), the (1) Indians (2) who (3) have
hilled them (4).

ha (1) Nkamtci/nEmug (2) ta chai'tkEnEmuQ (3) kaQ (4) tla’k:atEm (5), the (1)
Nhamtci'‘nemue (2) Indians (3) [who (4)] killed them (5).

he nl pu pape

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 655

atla’kds (1) ha (2) ko'kpi (3) akswa’watcip (4), when (1) the (2) chief (3) comes (1),
call me (4).

a(1) Bea ca) pu'ists (3) ha (4) ntltcask:a’qa (5), the (1) wolf (2) hilled (3)
the (4) horse (5).

ha (1) ntltcask:a’qa (2) piists (3) a(4) sk‘a’um (5), the (1) horse (2) hilled (3)
the (4) wolf (5).

a John pists a Sam, John struck Sam.

tik seems to be more definite than ha, but the distinction between the two forms is
by no means quite clear:

pui’zEna (1) ha (2) ko’kpi (3), Z killed (1) the (2) chief (3).

pui’zEna (1) aqa’tik (2) ko’kpi (3), Z killed (1) this (2) chief (3).

wa'zQgEna (1) tik (2) stsuk: (3), I showed him (1) the (2) picture (3).

na/qEna (1) tik (2) stsuk-(3), Z gave him (1) the (2) letter (3).

ta’we (1) aqa’tik (2) ko’kpi (3) tik (4) tlo’sk-a’yuq (5)! what a (1, 2) chief (3)
this (4) man (5) [is]!

THE DISTRIBUTIVE.,

The distributive form of the noun is formed by amplification of the stem, most
frequently by reduplication. Irregular distributives of nouns are rare. Plurals of
verbs are formed in the same way, but the verbal plural is frequently derived from
a separate stem. The verbal plural seems to have had a distributive meaning
originally, but in the intransitive verb particularly the distinction between distribu-
tive and plural is easily lost.

1. Distributives and verbal plurals formed by reduplication :

house, tcitQ distributive, tcitci'ta.

tree, cira’p an cipcira’p
picture, stsuk: - stsutsu’k,
stone, cd'/ENQ + cEncé’EnQ,
mountain, sktam 33 sk‘umk‘u'm.
ground, tEmi'Q =f tEmtEmi’Q.
dog, ska/k-qa " sk-ak-a’k-qa.
cattle, stEmaé’lt % stEmtEm4'lt.
calf, steEmaltitéit oF stEmtEmAlti'téit.
camp fire, spam - spEmpa’m.
coyote, snikia’p sniknikia’p,
animal, spEz0' 35 SPEZPEzO’.
bird, spEzu'zo by SpEpEzu’zo.
Sriend, snu'koa 34 snukEnu’koa.
musk-rat, skikbla’Qoa es skikikEla’Qoa.
man, skai'yuq sy sk:ai’k-euq.
male of animal, sk-a'k'ayuq 5 sk-ak-a'k-ayuq.
sick, kEnu’Q plural kenkeEnu’Q.
crumpled, sko'um * skoumk6/um,
to walk, sQuasi't * sQusQuasi’t,

These examples show that the laws which reduplication follows are very irregular.
On the whole we may say that the prefixed s which is found in a very large number
of Salish words is not affected by reduplication. Very often the first syllable,
including the first consonant following the first vowel, is repeated with shortened
vowel. But there are many exceptions to thisrule. Reduplicated words may be
reduplicated a second time (see musk-rat, male of an animal, in the preceding list).

2. Many nouns have the same form for the absolute and the distributive. It
seems that many names of animals belong to this class:

beaver, tik’o’pa (Uta'mk:t dialect).
beaver, sni'ya (Nkamtci'nemue dialect).
nolf, sk’a/om F 7
fox, EcQua'yuq a ce
black bear, spéé'te re 3

656 REPORT—1898.
deer, cme’ its (Nhamtci'nemue dialect).
elk, stqats _ -
caribou, slequii'qan _,, -
grizzly bear, cugeu'Q,, -
panther, smo'a ss Pe
buffalo, koisp ” ”
antelope, stataa'luk ,, i
porcupine, cuti'a 5 a
porcupine, skwi a
rvabbit, sk-okii'ts 59 3
river, kowé' A a
fire, tukti'k: =
nater, kou 4 3
star, nkoku’cEn ey 4

3. Different stems are used for forming distributive, viz. plural and absolute
forms:

Distributive
horse, ntltcask-a'qa sk‘aqk:a’qa.
Indian, tlosk-ai'yuq s‘ai’tkénEmuq.

Plura
to weep, Wawi'iQ k-0é'k t.
to stand, sté'dlig tse/iQ.
to die, z0k* QO'it.
to hill, pui'stEm tln’k’EtEm. >
to lie down, pa'it nmé’gia.

DIMINUTIVES.

Diminutives are also formed by means of reduplication. It seems that the
prevailing form of reduplication consists in a repetition of the first syllable as far ws
the first vowel, with a tendency of throwing back the accent of the word to tlic
reduplicated syllable.

Diminutive
deer, emé' its cmeE’méits.
black bear, speé'te spa’ paats.

Friend, snu'koa
bad, kES

large, qzu'm
bird, spEzu'zu

NUMERALS.

nu/nkoa.
kukbEEst.
qbzu'zum.
spEyu’zu.

There are three sets of numerals: simple cardinals used for counting inanimate
objects ; and two reduplicated sev-es, one used for counting animals, the other fur
counting human beings.

Inanimate Animate Personal

1, pai’a, pé’ia piii’a pa pea.

2, sé@ia sé'sla sisai’a.

s P vy kéak'tla’s | 2

* ala. Ie-Aale-blal pain +4]4!%e

3, k-aatla’s, k-éak:tla’s | et-nattia’s kak-aak tla's.

4, mis mo’ms mii’smust.

5, tei/ikst tei’tciEkst tci’tcizkst.

Megha ! ( t]a’k-amakst Nakane: | Ms

6, tla’k‘:amakst { tlatla'k-amakst f tlatla’k-‘amakst.

tet’tctk2 hin: 2

7, tew'tka alate } tei'tcutk-a,

Me air pid’ps(t) hieels eel ©

8, pid’ps(t) 1 Fioio' eect) ; Pipio ps(t).

9, tE/meEt pai’a tE'mEt piii’a th’meEt pa’pea.

ae ah { o’pEnakst \e ee at
10, O pEnaks | op’o’pEnakst ; OPO pEnakst.
11, o’pEnakst Et pé'ia o’pEnakst Et pii’a op’>’pEnakst Et pa'pea

—— se

“a

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 657

20, sil o’pEnakst

30, k-at o’pEnakst

40, mit o’pEnakst

50, tci’éks 0’pEnakst

60, tla’k‘umakst 0’pEnakst

_ 70, tet'tk:at o’pEnakst

80, pidpst o’pEnakst
90, temEt péto’pEnakst
tEmet pi 0’pEnakst
100, qatst pé’k-Enakst
qatst pé’k-Enakst
200, sii’as qatst pé’k-Enakst
300, k-i/ak ta’s qatst pé’k-Enakst
400, mis qatst pé’k-Enakst

The numerals five, six, ten, one hundred, are clearly compounds of -afst, hand.
I presume five is a compound of the stem ¢ca, which is found in the numeral one in
Siciatl nzteia'l@, Snanaimuq nze'ts'a, Sk-qd'mic xtc’d'i, Lku'figen ne'tsa; so that
tev't-kst would mean one hand. Nine may be translated literally ‘less one.’

The same classification that is used in the cardinal numbers is used in indefinite
numerals; for instance—

Same as inanimate.

Inanimate Animate Personal
Sew kwé’niq kwi'kwinEQ kwé'nkwinq.

DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS.

Distributive numerals are formed from the cardinals by means of reduplication.
They have the same three classes that were found in the cardinal series.

TInanimate Animate Personal
1 to each paapai’a péapai'a papii/pia.
es séasai’a asiasé’sea siasai'a.
“ { k-aak-aatla’s Ea py eet Pa cantata
See Re eatlas ; k-aak-aatla’s k aak-aatla’s.
Ae 8 musEmi's moamod’ms musmi‘smust.
ae teiatci’Ekst
eae tlaatla’k-amakst
ee ee tetiatci’tlk'a ; ea News
apes pepio'pst Same as inanimate.
omer tE/mEt péapai’a
LO 25 OpEd’ pEnakst
THE PRONOUN.
PERSONAL PRONOUN.
Independent Dependent.

I ntca’wa --(k)En.

thou awe! —-(k)", Q.

he teini’tl a

we EnEmé'mutl —-kt.

ye pia’pst —p or —mp;

they teinku’st —

POSSESSIVE PRONOUN.

_ The possessive pronoun has a number of forms analogous to those of the Shuswap.
Their use has not beceme clear to me. I give here the various forms and a few’
examples of their use.

my — tlen— len— QEn—
thy a— tla— la— Qa—
his —8s Q—s
our —kt,—ut

your —p,—m

their — os F

1898 tg

658 REPORT—1898.

Feamples: neu'tEm, my object.
nski'Qaza, my mother.
ntcitg, my house.
aga’a tla kamu’t, this is thy hat.
to’a la kamu't, that is thy hat.
kEnu’Q tlEn ska’qa, my horse is sich.
kEnu’Q nska’qa, my horse is sich.

The two plural forms in -A¢ and in -ut are not exclusive and inclusive.

ska/tsont, our father.
ska’tsakt, our father.
tci’tqut aqa’, that is our house.

I am inclined to consider the prefixes ¢1-, /-, and Q- which appear combined
with the possessive pronoun as verbal particles. ‘The close relation between pos-
sessive pronoun and intransitive verb becomes clear in the imperfect sense, in which
the object possessed is incorporated between the verb and the pronominal suffix :

kmnugska’qakEn, my horse nas sick = sick horse I.

but kEnu’Q tlEn ska’qa, my horse is sick.
kEnuQska’qak*, thy horse was sick=sick horse thou.

but keEnu’Q tla ska’qa.

or kEnu’Q a ska’qa, thy horse is sick.

These constructions may be compared with the inflexion of the adverb that
accompanies the verb (see below).
The prefix Q- seems to indicate the relation to the indirect object of the sentence:

pipHi’tsEn Qa kamu’t, Z lost it for thee thy hat.
pipsta’na nkamu’t, Z lost my hat.

But I found also:
tla ska’ga pii/istgtcEms tlEn katsk, thy horse killed for me my elder brother.

INTRANSITIVE VERB.

The intransitive verb may be inflected by means of suffixes or by means of
auxiliary verbs, which latter form various tenses.

Aorist Present
kgnu’QkeEn, J am sick. (o)aqkEn kEnu’Q, Z am sick.
kEnu’Qk*, thou art sick. (o)aqk" kEnu’Q, thou art sick.
kEnu’Q, he is sick. (o)aq kEnu’q, he is sick.
kenv‘kt : : (o)aqkt (kEn)kEnu’q, we are sick.
kEnkEnu’Qkt \ me are sich. (o)aqp (kEn)kEnu’q, ye are sick.

kEnu’Qp, ye are sich. (o)ax kEnkEnu’q, they are sick.
krnkeEnu’Q (tcinku’st)

kenv’Q teinku’st } BEA

Future I. Future II.
hwi'kEn(tea)riit, Z shall sleep. rvitkEn hwi, Z shall sleep’
hwik*(tca)ra‘it, thow wilt sleep. raitk" hwi, thou wilt sleep.

&e. &e.
Imperfect

oa/qkEn tlem tlaha‘ns, J was eating. &c.

When the intransitive verb is accompanied by an adverb the latter takes the
pronominal ending, being treated like an auxiliary verb.

tlakamé’Q(k)En skEnu’Q, I am always sich.
tlakamé’Q(k)a skEnu’Q, thou art always sick.
tlakameé’Q(k) skEnu'Qs, he is always sich.
tlakame’Qekt skEnu’Q, we are always sick.
tlakamé’Q(k)ap skEnu’Q, ye are always sich.
tlakamé’Q(k) skEnkEnu’Qs, they are alvays sick.

2

gate etre,

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 659

The verb with negative is treated in the same manner:

tala’kmn skEnu’Q, J am not sick. &e.

The conditional mode is characterised by the prefix a- and the suffix -w.

teu’ktcen, to finish eating (=to finish with mouth).

atcu’ktcEnuEn, if I finish eating.
ateu’ktcEnug, if thow finishest eating.
atcu’ktcEnus, if he finishes cating.
atcu’ktcEnut, 2f we finish eating.
atcu'ktEnup, if ye finish eating.
atcuktceu'ktchnus, if they finish eating.

The negative conditional present is formed in the following way :

atE’mos(ta)kEn skEnu’Q, if I am not sick.
atE’mos(ta)ka skEnu’Q, if thou art not sick,
atE/mos(ta)k skEnu’Qs, if he is not sick.
atE/moskakt skEnu’Q, if we are not sick.
ath/moskap skEnu'Q, if ye are not sick.
atE'mos(ta)ks kEnkEnu’Qs, if they are not sick.

The negative conditional past :

taskEta/kEn skEnu’Q, if Z had not been sich.

The interrogative is formed by the suffix -En:

kgenu’QkEnkn, am J sick ? kEnu/QktEn, are we sich ?
kEnu’Qkoan, art thou sick? kEnu’/Qp’En, are ye sick ?
kEnu’QEn, is he sick ? kEnkenu’QEn, ave they sick ?

A periphrastic interrogative is formed by the dubitative particle ska :
skaka skEnu'Q, perhaps thou art sick. skagap skEnu/Q, perhaps ye are sick.
skaak skEnu’Qs, perhaps he is sich.

It will be noticed that wherever the verb appears with an adverb or a particle it
has the prefix s-, which makes verbal nouns, and that the third person has the
suffix -s, which corresponds to the possessive pronoun. These forms are therefore
identical with possessive nominal forms.

TRANSITIVE VERB.

The transitive verb incorporates the pronominal object as follows :

to see.
| Subject
Object =
I | thou he we | ye they
i x
, me —_ wi/ktcrmuQ wi/ktcrms — wi/ktcrp wikté/QsEtcina [
| thee wi/ktcrn — wiktst wiktst _ wikté/QsEtst
» him wi kEnr wiktqQ wikts wiktrm wiktp wikté/QsEtEm
| us 7 ? wi'ktis — wi'ktip (?) | wikté/QsEtéis
| ye wi'ktimen — wi'ktimrs wi'ktimrt — wikté’ QsEtEmis
| them wikt@/QsEnE | wikt@/QszmuQ tee thomten } wité/QsEt—Em]| wiktp wikté/QsEtEm
t

uv2

660 REPORT—1898.

Verbs which have the accent on the last syllable form the following series :

k-diEntci’t, to talk to someone.

Subject
Object = a he Bebe Ss bel ee : a!
I “thou he we | ye }
me _— kdienter’mug k*diEntcE’ms _ | k-Gienteéi’p
thee kdiEntci/n — k‘diEntci’s kdiEntc?'t _
him k*diEnta’na k*diEnta/uQ k-diEntE’s kdiEntr’m | k-diEnta’p
ee tantoalt kdirnté'is eRe ag
us — k*Oikntee!'ip { eoimntelit } _ kdiEnte’ip
ye k-diEntd/imEn _— kéirnti/imas | k‘dirntd/imet =e
them k-Oienté’QsEna | kdiEntée’QsEmuQ| k‘diENtE’s k‘dinnté/gsEtEm | kdiknta’p

An analysis of these forms shows that most of them originate by composition,
the pronominal object following the verb, the pronominal subject following the
pronominal object. The pronominal object suffixes seem to have the following
forms :

me, —tcEM us, —ti
thee, —tc ye, —tim (for —tip)
him, — them, —téQs

The pronominal subject suffixes have the following forms:

I, —En we, —t
thou, —Q ye, —p
he, —s they, —s

But they are much more irregular than the objective suffixes.
The conditional is formed in the same manner as that of the intransitive verb by
means of the prefix a- and the suffix -us:

awi/ktcEnus, if I see thee. awikté’QsBnous, 7f J see them.
awiktipus, ¢f thow seest us.
PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.
tou’m, to stab. tot, stabbed.
ni’/kEn, to cut. nikt, cut.
From this participle the passive is formed:
oaq tot, he has been stabbed.

IMPERATIVE.

The imperative of the transitive and intransitive verbs are formed in the same
manner, second person singular by -a, second person plural by -dsa:

tlaha’nza, eat / d'pita, eat it!
tlaha’nzosa, eat ye / o'pitoza, eat ye it !
The future serves as an exhortative:
Qwikt tlaha’ns, let us eat! or, me shall eat.
The Ntlakya’pamug distinguishes between the transitive verb with determined

object and without object. The latter is derived from the stem of the transitive
verb by the ending -EM:

aqkEn tct/um, I am working. aq tcuta’na, ZT work at it.

aqkEn pé’gqEm, Z am hunting aq pé/qEna ksmé'its, J am hunting deer.
Qwé'im, he is looking. Qwe’és, he is looking for it.

tl’Em6’pEn, to chop. aq tl’Em6’pEna, I chop it.

mé’Qima, hick! mé’Qita, hick it!

é'tlem, to sing. é'tlEna, I sing it. ;
pu’istEm, to hill (one). pu'istEna, TZ hill it.

qostE’m, to love. aqostE‘na, Z love it.

aes frien tele

-_——_

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.

661

The relation to the indirect object is expressed by the suffix -Q, which precedes
the pronominal ending :

na’qtEm, /o0 give.
k-dientci't, to talk.

na’qEna, Z give it.
k'é6iEnteu’tEmst, he talks
about thee.

na‘qtgEna, I give it to him.
k dikntcu'tEmast, he talks in
thy behalf.

é'tlem, fo sing. aq é'tlina, T sing it. aq @/tleqna, T sing aq é’tlemgna, J sing

pwistem, to kill.

pu’istina, Z ill it.

it for him. Sor him.
piisgena, I hill it for some-

body.

Qui tsukhé'tcemua, write me a letter. Qui tsuk-Qé’tcEmug, write a letter for me.

puists sk-a'k-qas, he hills his own dog.

piistgts sk-a/k-qas, he hills his (another
man’s) dog (=he hills his dog for him).

DERIVATIVES.

I rezorded the following derivatives :

Quotative
Putative
Dubitative
Affirmative

Exhortative
Causative

Inchoative

Durative

Frequentative :

Potential

' Facultative

Desiderative
Intensive

Copulative

Reciprocal

Reflexive

—oko

—nka
—-nuk
—n

—matl
25)

—W1iQ

—miQ
Reduplication

’,

—2’a
—EnwatlEn
—mamEn
—ap

—a-us

—tuaQ

—teut

kEnu’Q’oko, it is said he is sich.

kEnu’Qnka, he may be sick.

kEnu’qQnuk, he is sick, I think.

kEnw’QEn, indeed, he is sick.

pia’ pstEn, indeed, it is ye!

fuitamatl, do lie down !

pwit, to lie down. pwitsrna, I lay it down.

nk’ iQ, to swim. nka'igsena, Tsvim a horse.

snuyawi'iQ, to become possessed of money.

kistEwi'iQ j + Pirated

kEstuwé’EQ } o turn bad.

iawi'iQ, to turn good.

Qinuwi'iQ, it begins to be a long time.

kEnugEemi’QkeEn, J am always sich.

skEnkEnu’Q, one who is repeatedly sick.

k-éak-ea’ap, one who is repeatedly indisposed.

oaq nikEni’kEna, J cut it repeatedly.

totoata’na, I stabbed him repeatedly.

qaquatsta’na, I tie it repeatedly.

hai'mz'akEn, Z might do the same.

teu'umz’akEn, I might work, I ought to work.

tlahansEnwatlkrn, to le able to eat.

réitEnwa’tlgn, to be able to sleep.

tlahansma’/mEnkmn, JZ desire to eat.

ro‘itma’mEnkeEn, J desire to sleep.

stlahans’a'p, to eat much.

nmanqEma’p, to smoke much.

stlk-a’us, together.

cinzia’us, brothers.

snukua/us, friends.

qamana’us, enemies.

ktqua’usks, he breaks it in tro (=he halves it).

qatstua’Q, tied to vach other.

puistua’Q, to kill one another.

tla‘k‘tuag, to hill each other.

iamintua’Q, to have friendly feelings towards one
another.

stlk‘auzEmtua’Q, to put together.

MEQEtci't, to hick oneself (also to hick without
hitting anything).

wikeEntcu'tkrEn, J see myself.

nikEntcu’tken, ZT cut myself.

The reflexive is sometimes used as a simulative:

nikiapEntci't, to make oneself like a coyote=to act
Foolishly. ;

kEnugstci’'t, to make oneself sick, or to act like a
sich person,

662

u, ut, towards, to.
tu, tut, from.

REPORT—1898.

PREPOSITIONS.

Examples: uii’a, towards here, this way.

ulgkeEn ut teitg, J go into the house.

ut stkamlo’ps ané/soan, (when) I went to Kamloops.

tii’a kaka’/o awi'kEna-us, (when) J saw it from far away.
tugai’a, tukai’a, from here.

tutci’a, tuktci’/a, from there.

tuto’a, tukto’a, /7om there.

tla/kmn tut Nkamtci'n, Z came from Spences Bridge.
ktci/QkEn tut Nkamtci’n, J departed from Spences Bridge.
tlak tut estcite, Z came from the house.

tlak tua tcite, Z came from a house.

CONJUNCTIONS.

pEt, and, connecting words designating persons :

snukua’us (1) aé’t(2) a (3) SEQua’pamug (4) pEt (5) ha (6) Psqié/qunEm (7),
Friends together (1) now (2) the(3) Shuswap (4) and (5) the(6) Chileotin (7).

Et, and, connecting all words not designating persons:

sqi/its Et camnq, wood and stone.

SUBSTANTIVALS.

I designate by the term substantivals nominal suffixes, which are used for
specifying adjectives, substantives, and verbs :

—k-én, head.
—us, face.
—ane, ear.

—aks, nose.
—tcin, mouth, language.

—anz, tooth.
—iapsam, neck.

—aqeEn, upper part of arm.

—iiqkmn, body.
—ikmn, bach.

-——akst, hand.

—ist, stone.
—uciap, fire.
—ko, —atko, water.

—iimua, land.

qazumk'é'n, big-headed.

ihus, pretty.

qazuma’ne, big ear.

koa/néthm, he has piercing pains in his ear.

tciawa’ks, nose bleeds.

ntlakyapamuatci’n, Wtlakyapamue language.

teuktcin, to finish with mouth, i.e., to finish
eating.

péatci’n, one word.

kliqutltci’n, another language.

zaqiapsa'm, long neck.
nzaqiapsa'm, long-necked.
kaupa’qrn, broken arm.
tska’qin, wing, armpit.
zaqa’qrEn, long-armed.
qzumii’qkEn, big body.
pii’qkEn, one body.
mitcaki’kEn, to sit on back.
pauta’kst, swollen hand.
teumEna’kstEn, to point with hand.
kaupa’‘kstkEn, I have broken my hand.
pic’ist, one stone.

piu'ciap, one fire.

nkui’sko, to fall into water.
qazuma’tko, great lake.
nza'qko, long lake.
ntlk‘a’tko, wide lake.
ksii'imuaq, bad land.
ihi’/imuag, nice land.
kagu'imua, dry land.
pit'‘imuag, one country.

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 663

—atle, house. qazuma’'tlq, large house.
6épa'tla, house burns down.
—aus, trail. Eniamina/us, trail for hauling = waggon-road.
teutlqua‘usEnuq, thow pointest out the way
to him.
—iiuk-, tree. iha’ink’, a nice tree.

kunkQi/iuk-, how many trees?
mitcak'a’iuk-, sitting on a tree.
ok-ona'yuk-, rotten tree, wood.
kaya'yuk’, green wood.
k’é’qiuk’, hard wood tree.
za'qiak:, long tree.

—tlp, species of trees and bushes. s’'atk'tlp, yellow pine.
sk’atlp, fir.
—atldzig, bush. pea'tldzig, one bush.

kunkga'tldzig, how many bushes?
—zanz, driftwood.

—aqans, board, plank. kunkgqa’ns, how many planks ?
—alks, clothing for upper part

of body. smutlatsa’lks, woman’s gown.
—itsa, covering for body. spEk‘1'tsa, white blanket.

ntltsask-aqai'tsa, horse skin.
pak-ui’tsa, to shiver with fear.

—autl, canoe. qzuma’utl, big canoe.
pia’utl, one canoe.
—als, knife. spéia'ls, one knife.
qzuma'ls, large knife.
—lrmuq, sack, bottle, box. tlina’tlemugq, bireh bark vessel.
—ka, spoon, cup, bucket, pail. pia’ka, one spoon.
—akmn, bag, bundle. pia’ken, one bag.
—iiqmn, rope. pia/iqEn, one rope.
—tim, hollow thing. ntsikti’m, empty vessel.
—uza, round thing. piu’za, one round thing.
spek-o'za, white round thing.
—uzEM, group of. piu’zEm, one group of things.
—aski, song. stliea’ski, dancing song.
—men, instrument. tsuk'me’n, pencil.

niamé’n, tool for hauling.

Substantivals sometimes appear in combination :

—icinatlq door = mouth of house.
vkamtcina'tla, entrance of house.
mitcaktcina’tla, to sit in the doorway.

Some of the substantivals are developing into classificatory terms, such as are
found in the Tsimshian :—

—aks nose ; point of a horizontal pole.
mitcak‘a’ks, to sit on a@ point.
—kén head ; top of a long, upright object.
mitcak’k-é’n, to sit on top of.
—ikEn back ; middle of long thing.
mitcak‘i’kEn, to sit in middle of a long thing
—aiuk: tree, long thing.

piai'uk: tik sqéts, one (long thing) salmon.

piai’uk: tik ting, one (long thing) vein.
—a-itQ flat thing.

pia’itQ stsuk:, one sheet of paper.

pia‘itQ ma’nta, one piece of canvas (manta, Spanish).
—kén head, round thing.

piak-é'in tkan’za, one (round thing) egg.

664 REPORT—1898.

Vocabulary of the Chilcotin Language.

The Chilcotin form a branch of the Tinneh stock. The following vocabulary is
designed on the lines of the vocabularies given in the Sixth and Tenth Reports of the

Committee. Since I am not familiar with the grammatical structure of the language.
the vocabulary must be held subject to revision :

English Chilcotin English Chileotin
man tinné, ta’yan. all houses kaunétlan k*ho.
woman tsé’ké. hettle nosai’.
boy kyénl. bow atlthé’n, datsa/nk’a
my girl ésk‘é tsé’/k'é (=fe- arrow k’a.

male child). axe tshéntl.

Sather apa knife pala’.

thy mother inku’l. jack-hnife gyi/nalki’k.
my husband sak‘a’n. canoc ts’é.

my wife saa't. MOCCASINS ke.

my child sEsk @'i, pipe k’a’tsai,

my elder brother so’nar. mooden pipe titcEn k’a’tsai.
my younger brother sik-i’l. tobacco tsrilyo’.

my elder sister sii'té. glove bat.

my younger sister —_sit@'z. shy yé't’a.
Indian téntlxoté’n. sun sha.

my people sétlté’s. moon, a/ldzi.

my head sErtsE’. star SEn.

my hair sErtsa'ra. cloud k’és

my face sEné’m. smoke tlit.

my forehead sEtséeku’tl. day k’antsi’n.
my ear hétsa’ra (?). night etl’.

my eye sEna’ra. morning k’apEna’q.
my Nose sétsi/nix:. evening ngaratlra’t].
my mouth SEO’. noon satsana’s.
my tongue sErtsdll. midnight sotézni’.

my tooth SErO’. spring Erotlts’E’n,
my beard sEta’ra. summer dan.

my neck sEk’6's. autumn q@’Enk‘i’z,!
my arm sEka'n. ninter qa’i.

my hand stla’. wind né’nts’E.

my fingers sulats’é’i. thunder @/ndi.

thy fingers nélats’é’i. lightning tou'e. _

my thumb sElaitch6r. rain nagutlti’x’.
my first finger sElaskE’t. snow nadjé's.

my second finger sElané’. jive kon.

my third finger sElara’. mater tho.

my fourth finger sElastE’t. ice ku‘dlu.
jinger nail lak’n’n. earth nEn.

my body sEnée’s, sea ya tho.

my chest sédzi'y. river tsiré’nli, yik-o’.
my belly SEbE't. lake péi.

my breasts sEts’0’r. snom mountain tsatl.

my leg sEts’E/n. hill tétlku'tl.
my foot srk'é’. island nnu.

big toe k @laitchd’r. salt JEsa'l (Chinook jar-
toe nail k-élak’n’n. gon).

my bone suku't. stone tshé.

my heart sEtsi'y (? see chest) tree titci/n.

my blood sEti'l. black pine tcinti’ (?).
chief néte'il’i’n. all trees titcinga’ts’éi.
4 ouse kho. Fuel tséz.

' This ‘z’ is exceedingly weak, so much so that part of the breath escapes
laterally, giving it a decided ‘1’ tinge.

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF

English
tail
dog
black bear
deer, buck
=e
mosquito
snake
bird
feather
ming
tail of bird
foot of bird.
Foolhen
goose
duck
loon
teal duck
bald-headed eagle
young eagle
Jish
salmon
trout
Jish tail
white
black
red
blue
yellon, green
large
large river
small
small lake
small creck
strong
old man
young
good
bad
a bad man
dead
sich

Chilcotin
kye.
tlén.
SEs, tayé’s.
nési' ily.
asts’B’z.
ts’iH.
tlarash’n,
pE (?).
tcus.
pEt’a’, pEt’sE’n.

dandzp’n.
nad’atsw’l.
da’kin.
shaiky.

tla'i.

kyérs.

dEk’a’i.
pEkyilarai’t.
tléyé’l.
tlet’é’s.

dildi'l.
détltsa’.
dzlts6’r.
intea’.
kuntcak’6.
ntsdédl.

péngo ntsodl.
tcarénligo ntodl.
nadént’i’.
dagolduin.
k’a’néralitl (?).
tlaago’su.
péKunidyi't.
dené’tla atltsE’n.
daltsha’n,
dEnéita’.

* CANADA. 665
English Chilcotin
cold gEzk’a’z.
warm g0zé'lgun,
Ds siit.
thou né’in.
he a/yin.
we two nantini']té (7).
me kaqonétla/‘n.
all kats’é'i.
Many tlaa'tla.
jar tlaagosh’t.
near intltidyil.
below kigyaq.
to-day k’andzi'n.
to-morron k’apE’n.
yesterday atlqatlda’.
he speaks the truth atVa’risEn.
yes ha’‘a.
no qa'tada’.
nothing daq.
one éntli’y.
two na’ké.
three tha’.
four de’i.
Jive askonla’,
sia tlgyanthai’.
Seven gyétlgatlgyaneé'lt’é.
eight k’aHiné'lt’é.
nine tigyalagontané'lt.
ten tlt’a’una.
twenty natl’a’una.
thirty thatlya’una.
forty détlyauna.
one hundred nélagau'néldétl’auna.
to eat ats'iyé’.
to drink thatsété.
I walk sétrasts’a’tl.
to dance tsEnadai’H.
to sing tsigdyé’n.
I want to sleep ntastHé’tl.
I sleep satlagaitlqé’n (?).
to speak iazétld’i‘ky.

In the Tenth Report of the Committee (p. 33) I have compiled the known words

of the Tinneh dialect that in former times was spoken in the Nicola Valley.

I have

compared these words with Chilcotin and Nétca'ut’in words, first by asking for the
equivalents of the English words, then by pronouncing the Nicola Valley words.
In a number of cases I obtained equivalents which showed close correspondence.

English
woman
black bear

ram of mountain sheep
ene of mountain sheep

mountain sheep
lake trout
snake

bear berry
horn

arron:

child

tahe it!

Nicola Valley
tsik’hi, tsé-akai’

sass, sus, sas
sisia’ni

tpai

ti-pi

sipai'i
tlosHo’
ti/nEH

(até)

ke

(qe)

étltcot (I may give you)

Chilcotin
tsé’ké
SEs
cicia’n
cépai’
te'pi
sa/pai
tlarash’nh
ti’niH
até’
ka
kéi
éntltci’t

Nétca’ut’in
ts’e’/ku
sas
sriya’n
spai’a

sapai’
tlagk’s
tEniTlt
ate

k’a

yige’itltcut

666 REPORT—1898.

These words agree very closely on the Nicola Valley dialect and in Chilcotin.
Only three among these twelve words differ in a manner which cannot well be
explained by difference of perception and transcription. They are the following:

ene of mountain sheep Nicola: tpai Chileotin: gdpai’ — Néted'ut’in: spai'a.
snake tlosHo’ tlarasE’i tlagE’s.
lake trout sipai’i sa’pai sapai’.

Since three words were collected from more than one individual, and by three
different collectors, it seems likely that there existed an actual difference between
these dialects in regard to these words.

The following words of the Nicola Valley dialect was not understood by either
Chilcotin or Nétca’ut’in when read by me. In a number of cases I obtained the
equivalents of the English words in the two last-named dialects.

Nicola Valley English Chilcotin Nétca'ut’in
t-haeh Man tinné, ta’yan _— tine’
tet’-hutz man — =
thate man — _
nootl man — =
hdalhiltu’ tai a fish — —
taki'nktcin a sish — -
zalke’ke ground-hog téti/ihy tétni’
tsho buck of deer nési’ny yésts’étine’
tEqo’ztz soap-berry no’/ruc nawa’c
notl-ta-ha’t-se }
notlqa’tzi ie currant tqaltsE’l (?) =
qtlona’zi
ta-ta-ney,’ | 5
tét-ta-a-ne’ knife pala’ ali’s
ta-a’-ni J
tsaé spoon k-a’nin sE/nts’atl
ska-kil-ih-kane rush mat gultli’s hutlz’s
naltsi’tse arron-head duntai’ nwntai
tlutl packing line qetla’ntiy qétla’t iy
ti-li-tsa-in give me the spoon ! nnan té k'a’nint —
n-shote give it to me! nna te
pin-a-lé-él-i-itz take care! sotséIné’tlé wo’nli
a’we ge come here, child -—

I have omitted the numerals in the comparison, because I suspect that those
recorded by Mr. Mackay (Z.c., p. 33) are not numerals, but various words which the
informant enumerated as known to him. I think that this is the case, because
many of them agree nearly or quite accurately with other words of our list. Mr.
James Teit, who collected a number of words from the Indians, first called my atten-
tion to this fact. The following list shows these agreements:

.

Numerals Other words
one, Sa-pe sa-pie, trout.
two, tun-ih tin-ih, bear-berry.
three, tlohl tlotl, packing line (Teit).
fowr, na-hla-li-a —
Jive, e-na-hle —
siz, hite-na-ke —
seven, ne-shote n-shote, give it to me!
eight, k-pae t-pae, ewe of mountain sheep.
Nine, Sas sass, bear.

These agreements and the fundamental differences between these numerals
and those of all other Tinneh dialects make the series more than doubtful.

Although the apparent differences of a small vocabulary like the present have no
great weight, I am inclined to think that there wasa difference between the Chilcotin
and the Nicola Valley dialect. The language was, however, evidently very closely
related to the Chilcotin, while it differed considerably from the Carrier dialects.

om

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 667

V. Summary of the Work of the Committee in British Columbia,
By FRanz Boas.

At the time when the Committee instituted their investigations, the
inhabitants of the Pacific coast of Canada were less known than those of
any other part of the North American Continent, with the exception,
perhaps, of the tribes of California. What little we knew was based on
the brief descriptions of early travellers, or on indirect information obtained
from investigators who had been working in the regions to the north and
to the south. The only noteworthy work done in recent times was that
by Dr. G. M. Dawson during his frequent geological expeditions to British
Columbia. But three important problems remained to be solved ; the
numerous languages of the coast were still unclassified, and the number
of their dialects was not definitely known ; the physical characteristics of
the tribes had never been investigated ; it was not known if they repre-
sented one homogeneous type, or if several types were found in the
Province. Finally, the study of the customs of the various tribes offered
a number of difficult problems in regard to the origin and significance
of several phenomena.

Material advance has been made by the efforts of the Committee in
all these directions. The number of languages and dialects is now known,
and it does not seem likely that additional ones will be discovered. The
following languages are spoken in British Columbia :—Athapaskan or
Tinneh in eight dialects; Tsimshian in three dialects ; Haida in two
dialects ; Wakashan in two divisions, the Kwakiutl with three dialects,
and the Nootka with two dialects ; the Salish in four main divisions with
eleven dialects, and the Kootenay. In this enumeration, dialects which
may be classed as well developed and pronounced provincialisms have not
been counted, but only such dialects as show distinct differences in voca-
bulary and grammar, so that intercommunication between the tribes
speaking them is, even in the case of the most closely affiliated dialects,
not easy. We count, therefore, in all, thirty dialects, which have
been here classed, according to their affinities, under six linguistic stocks.
Grammatical sketches of all these dialects have been obtained ; but a few
only are known tolerably well. These are the Kwakiutl and the Tsimshian.
All the others require much fuller investigation than they have heretofore
received. .

While the present state of our knowledge of these languages does not
permit us to assume that the number of stocks to which they belong is
smaller than the number given above, we may call attention at this place
to the morphological relations of some of these languages, which suggest
the desirability of further inquiries into their early history.

Haida and Tlingit—which latter is spoken in southern Alaska—have
a number of morphological traits in common. While all the other
languages of the North Pacific coast use reduplication for grammatical
purposes, no trace of reduplication is found in these two languages. There
is no gender, and no well-defined form for a plural or distributive. Com-

_ pound nouns are very numerous, the composition being effected by juxta-

position. Words of two, three, and more components, which do not
modify each other, occur. Local adverbs, which always retain their
independent forms, frequently enter into compound words of this kind.
In both languages there are four forms of the personal pronoun. In the

668 REPORT—1898.

independent pronoun, the selective and the ordinary forms may be dis-
tinguished. The pronoun of the transitive verb differs from that cf
intransitive verbs, the latter being identical with the objective form of
the former. In this respect there is a close analogy between the Haida
and Tlingit, and the Siouan languages.

The Tsimshian presents an entirely different type of language. We
find a plural based largely on reduplication. The pronouns are suffixed
to the verb. Words are formed almost exclusively by means of prefixes.
The system of numerals is very complex, as there are different sets of
numerals for various classes of objects.

The southern group of languages—the Kwakiutl, Salish, and Chemakum
(which last is spoken in the northern part of the State of Washington)—
have a series of very peculiar traits in common. Most prominent among
these is the occurrence of what Trumbull has called ‘ substantivals,’ which
play so important a part in the Algonkin languages. Such are, primarily,
parts of the body ; furthermore, designations of localities, of fire, water,
road, blanket, domesticated animals (7.¢., in olden times, the dog), and
many others. These substantivals do not occur in any other northern
language, and must be considered one of the most important character-
istics of the languages in question. All these languages use reduplication
and diresis for forming collective forms and plurals of verbs. The
demonstrative pronoun is used very extensively, and serves for distin-
guishing locations of object or action according to the three forms of the
personal pronoun ; namely, such as are located near the first, second, or
third person. Besides these, a great many locative suffixes are used.
Whenever an adverb accompanies the verb, the former is inflected, while
the verb remains unchanged. When a transitive verb is accompanied by
an adverb, the latter always takes the suffix of the pronominal subject,
while the verb takes that of the pronominal object.

The Kootenay presents still another type of language. It incorporates
the object in the same way as the Mexican does, the noun itself being
embodied in the verb. It has very few substantivals, if any, but forms
compounds by verbal composition, like the Tinneh (Athapascan) and
Siouan. While in the preceding class we find, for instance, compounds
expressing states of the hand, of water, fire, &c., we find here compounds
expressing actions done with the hand, the foot, or other instrument-
alities ; and in the water, the fire, or in other localities. It seems that
there is no reduplication.

It is worth remarking that these types of language are characterised
by a few very general features that they have in common, and that dis-
tinguish them from the other groups that are found in contiguous areas.
The Haida and Tsimshian are spoken in the extreme north ; the Kwakiutl,
Salish, Chemakum, in the whole southern portion of the Province, and
they adjoin the Algonkin, with whom they have a few peculiarities in
common. The Kootenay is not far separated from the Shoshonean
languages, which resemble it in several particulars. We may therefore
well say that the languages of the North Pacific coast belong to several
morphological groups, each of which occupies a continuous area.

The investigation of the physical characteristics of the Indians of
British Columbia has resulted in establishing the fact that the people are
by no means homogeneous. As compared to the Indians east of the
Rocky Mountains and farther south, they have in common a lighter com-
plexion and lighter hair ; but the shapes of their heads and faces differ

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 669

considerably. Three types may easily be distinguished—the northern
type, represented by the Haida, the Indians of Nass River, and the
Tsimshian ; the Kwakiutl type ; and the Thompson River type.

These types may be characterised by the following measurements :—

|: a
| Northern Type | Kwakiutl Type ! Laie Sar & eal
——__---— ~ | )
Avennge| [een | Avenge| eer || Averese| Stor
I. Men.
mim. mm. mm.

Stature. : : a fe 1675. jl) 4°7°40 1645 +590 || 1634 +790 |
| Length of head . . | 1946 | +080 || 1887 | 42:19 | 1865 | 40°55 |
Breadth of head . .| 1606 | +067 || 159°0 | +100 | 1559 | 40°52 |
| Breadth of face . .| 153-7 | +£0°85 151-4) \),3:0°54),)) 1474, 20-41
| Height of face . ‘ 121°6 +0°87 || 128-0 +067 | 1203 +072 |
Il. Women.
| Stature. . . .| 1542 | 25-70 | 1587 | 4590 || 1540 | 45:00 |
Length ofhead . .| 1856 | +0-88 1869 | 41-64 } 1795 | +0°53
Breadth ofhead . . | 1532 | 40:90 | 1543 | 2144 | 1500 | 20-41
Breadth of face | .| 1439 | 4080 || 1443 | 20-64 || 1888 | 20-40 |
Height of face. | 1143 | + 0:93 119-3 |. +0°82 | 112°5 | 4054

| i

They may be described as follows: All these types are of medium
stature, and their arms are relatively long, their bodies short. Among
the northern type we find a very large head. The transversal diameter
is very great. The same may be said of the face, which has an enormous
breadth. The height of the face is moderate, and therefore its form
appears decidedly low. The nose is often concave or straight, seldom
convex. The noses of the women are decidedly concave. Its elevation
over the face is slight. The point of the nose is short.

The dimensions of the head of the Kwakiutl are similar to those of
the northern types, but the head seems to be slightly smaller. The face
shows a remarkably different type, which distinguishes it fundamentally
from the faces of all the other groups. The breadth of face is nearly the
same as that of the northern type, but its height is enormous. The same
may be said of the nose, which is very high and comparatively narrow.
The point of the nose is short: its elevation is also very great. The nasal
bones are strongly developed, and form a steep arch, their lower ends
rising high above the face. For this reason convex noses are found very
frequently among this type. Convex noses also prevail among the women,
and for this reason the difference between the female form of the
Kwakiutl and the female form of the northern type is very great.

_ The Thompson River type is characterised by a very small head, both
diameters being much shorter than those found on the coast, while the
proportions are nearly the same. The transversal diameter of the face is
much shorter than that of the coast Indians, being nearly the same as
that found among the Indians on the plains. The face is much lower
than that of the Kwakiutl type, and also slightly lower than that of the
northern type. The nose is convex and heavy. Its point is much longer
and heavier than the point of the noses of the coast types.

There are good indications of the existence of a few other types, but
they cannot be distinguished with certainty from the types enumerated

670 REPORT—1898.

here. It is probable that further measurements will show that the tribes
of Harrison Lake and the Gulf of Georgia represent a fourth type.

The distribution of the types of man in British Columbia has an
important bearing upon the much discussed question of the classification
of mankind ; while some anthropologists have maintained that all classi-
fication must be based upon considerations of language, others maintain
as rigorously that the main consideration must be that of physical type.
The data collected by the Committee show clearly that neither of these
contentions is entirely correct. We have seen that certain tribes—such as
the Bilqula, who linguistically belong to the Salish group—physically
belong to another group. This shows that the two phenomena do not go
hand in hand, but that they constantly overlap. The classification of
mankind according to physical characteristics takes into consideration
only the effects of heredity and environment upon the physical type of
man. Race mixture, isolation, and effect of environment will be reflected
in the results of these classifications. But there are evidently cases in
which a slow infiltration of foreign blood takes place, while language and
customs remain unaltered or changed to but a slight extent. The Bilqula
branched off from the Coast Salish at an early time, and retain the Salish
language ; but there has been an infiltration of Kwakiutl blood and of
Athapaskan blood, which has entirely changed the physical features of the
tribe. With this infiltration of foreign blood came foreign words and
foreign cultural elements, but they were not sufficiently powerful to change
the original speech of the people.

It is clear, from these considerations, that the three methods of classi-
fying mankind—that according to physical characters, according to lan-
guage, and according toculture—all reflect the historical development of races
from different standpoints ; and that the results of the three classifica-
tions are not comparable, because the historical facts do not affect the
three classes of phenomena equally. A consideration of all these classes
of facts is needed when we endeavour to reconstruct the early history of
the races of mankind.

Tt will be sufficient to point out in this place a few of the more general
results of the studies conducted by the Committee on the cultures of the
primitive people of British Columbia. In the Reports of the Committee
only brief abstracts were given of the mythologies and traditions of the
tribes, but full collections were made ; and a comparison of these has led
to the following results :—The culture of the coast tribes of the Province
is quite uniform. It has reached its highest development in the district
extending from Queen Charlotte Islands to northern Vancouver Island.
As we depart from this region, a gradual change in arts and customs
takes place, and together with it we find a gradual diminution in the
number of myths which the distant tribes have in common with the
people of British Columbia. At the same time a gradual change in the
incidents and general character of the legends takes place.

We can in this manner trace what we might call a dwindling-down
of an elaborate cyclus of myths to mere adventures, or even to incidents
of adventures, and we can follow the process step by step. Wherever
this distribution can be traced, we have a clear and undoubted example
of the gradual dissemination of a myth over neighbouring tribes. The
phenomena of distribution can be explained only by the theory that the
tales have been carried from one tribe to its neighbours, and by the tribe
which has newly acquired them in turn to its own neighbours. It is not

ee

a

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 671

necessary that this dissemination should always follow one direction ; it
may have proceeded either way. In this manner a complex tale may
dwindle down by gradual dissemination, but new elements may also be
embodied in it.

It may be well to give an example of this phenomenon. The most
popular tradition of the North Pacific coast is that of the raven. Its
most characteristic form is found among the Tlingit, Tsimshian, and
Haida. As we go southward, the connection between the adventures
becomes looser, and their number less. It appears that the traditions
are preserved quite fully as far south as the north end of Vancouver
Island. Farther south the number of raven-tales which are known to the
Indians diminishes very much. At Nahwitti, near the north point of
Vancouver Island, thirteen tales out of a whole of eighteen exist. The
Comox have only eight, the Nootka six, and the Coast Salish only three.
Furthermore, the traditions are found at Nahwitti in the same connection
as farther north, while farther south they are very much modified. The
tale of the origin of daylight, which was liberated by the raven, may
serve as an instance. He had taken the shape of the leaf of a cedar,
was swallowed by the daughter of the owner of the daylight, and then
born again ; afterwards he broke the box in which the daylight was kept.
Among the Nootka, only the transformation into the leaf ef a cedar,
which is swallowed by a girl and then born again, remains. Among the
Coast Salish the more important passages survive, telling how the raven
by a ruse compelled the owner of the daylight to let it out of the box in
which he kept it. Thesame story is found as far south as Grey’s Harbour
in Washington. The adventure of the pitch, which the raven kills by
exposing it to the sunshine, intending to use it for calking his canoe, is
found far south, but in an entirely new connection, embodied in the
tradition of the origin of sun and moon.

But there are also certain adventures embodied in the raven myths of
the north, which probably had their origin in other parts of America.
Among these may be mentioned the tale of how the raven was invited
and reciprocated. The seal puts his hands near the fire, and grease drips
out of them into a dish, which he gives to the raven. Then the latter
tries to imitate him, but burns his hands, &c. This tale is found, in one
or the other form, all over North America, and there is no proof that it
originally belonged to the raven myth of Alaska, Other examples may
be found in the collection of traditions published by F. Boas.!

The proposition that dissemination has taken place among neighbour-
ing tribes will probably not encounter any opposition. Starting from
this point of view, we may advance the following considerations :—

If we have a full collection of the tales and myths of all the tribes of
a certain region, and then tabulate the number of incidents which all
the collections from each tribe have in common with any selected tribe,
the number of common incidents will be the larger the more intimate the
relation of the two tribes, and the nearer they live together. This is
what we observe in a tabulation of the material collected on the North
Pacific coast. On the whole, the nearer the people, the greater the

number of common elements of traditions ; the farther apart, the less their
number.

‘ Indianische Sagen von der Nord-Pacifischen Kiiste Amerikas, pp. vi-363.
Berlin, 1895,

672 REPORT—1898.

But it is not the geographical location alone which influences the dis-
tribution of tales. In some cases, numerous tales which are common to
a certain territory stop short at a certain point, and are found beyond it
in slight fragments only. These limits do not by any means coincide
with the linguistic divisions. An example of this kind is the raven
legend, to which reference has been made. It is found in substantially
the same form from Alaska to northern Vancouver Island ; then it sud-
denly disappears almost entirely, and is not found among the southern
tribes of Kwakiutl lineage, nor on the west coast of Vancouver Island,
although the northern tribes, who speak the Kwakiutl language, have it.
Only fragments of these legends have strayed farther south, and their
number diminishes with increasing distance. There must be a cause for
such a remarkable break. A statistical inquiry shows that the northern
traditions are in close accord with the tales of the tribes as far south as
the central part of Vancouver Island, where a tribe of Salish lineage is
found ; but farther they do not go. The closely allied tribes immediately
south do not possess them. Only one explanation of this fact is possible,
viz., lack of assimilation, which may be due to a difference of character,
to continued hostilities, or to recent changes in the location of the tribes,
which has not allowed the slow process of assimilation to exert its deep-
acting influence. The last may be considered the most probable cause.
The reason for this opinion is, that the Bilqula, another Salish tribe, who
have become separated from the people speaking related languages, and
who live in the far north, still show in their mythologies close relations
to the southern Salish tribes, with whom they have many more traits in
common than their neighbours to the north and to the south. If their
removal had taken place very long ago, this similarity in mythologies would
probably not have persisted, but they would have been quite amalgamated
with their new neighbours.

We may also extend our comparisons beyond the immediate neighbours
of the tribes under consideration by comparing the mythologies of the
tribes of the plateaus in the interior, and even of those farther to the
east, with those of the coast. Unfortunately, the available material from
these regions is very scanty. Fairly good collections exist from the
Athapaskan tribes, from the tribes of Columbia River, and—east of the
mountains—from the Omaha, and from some Algonkin tribes. When
comparing the mythologies and traditions which belong to far-distant
regions, we find that the number of incidents which they have in common
is greater than might have been expected ; but some of those incidents
are so general that we may assume that they have no connection, and
may have arisen independently. There is, however, one very character-
istic feature which proves beyond cavil that this is not the sole cause of
the similarity of tales and incidents. We know that in the region under
discussion two important trade routes reached the Pacific coast—one
along the Columbia River, which connected the region inhabited by
Shoshonean tribes with the coast, and indirectly led to territories occupied
by Siouan and Algonkin tribes ; another one which led from Athapaskan
territory to the country of the Bilqula. A route of minor importance led
down Fraser River. A study of the traditions shows that along these
routes the points of contact of mythologies are strongest, and rapidly
diminish with increasing distances from these routes. On Columbia
River the points of contact are with the Algonkin and Sioux ; among
the Bilqula they are with the Athapaskan. This phenomenon can hardly

a

4
i tales all over the continent. The tabulations which have been made

7
‘

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA, 673

be explained in any other way than by assuming that the myths followed
the line of travel of the tribes, and that there has been dissemination of

include the Micmac of Nova Scotia, the Eskimo of Greenland, the Ponca
of the Mississippi Basin, and the Athapaskan of Mackenzie River ; and
the results give the clearest evidence of extensive borrowing.

The identity of a great many tales in geographically contiguous areas
has led to the assumption that, wherever a great similarity between two
tales is found in North America, itis more likely that it is due to dissemina-
tion than to independent origin.

But without extending these theories beyond the clearly demonstrated
truths of transmission of tales between neighbouring tribes, we may
reach some further conclusions. When we compare, for instance, the
legend of the culture hero of the Chinook, and that of the origin of the
whole religious ceremonial of the Kwakiutl Indians, we find a very far-
reaching resemblance in certain parts of the legends, which makes it
certain that these parts are derived from the same source. The grand-
mother of the divinity of the Chinook, when a child, was carried away b
a monster. Their child became the mother of the culture-hero, and by
her help the monster was slain. In a legend from Vancouver Island a
monster, the cannibal spirit, carries away a girl, and is finally slain by her
help. Their child becomes later on the new cannibal spirit. There are
certain intermediate stages of these stories which prove their identity

_ beyond doubt. The important point in this case is that the myths in

-

question are perhaps the most fundamental ones in the mythologies of
these two tribes. Nevertheless, they are not of native growth, but
—partly at least—borrowed. A great many other important legends

_ prove to be of foreign origin, being grafted upon mythologies of various
tribes. This being the case, it follows that the mythologies of the various

‘

_ tribes as we find them now are not organic growths, but have gradually

developed and obtained their present form by accretion of foreign material.

_ Much of this material must have been adopted ready made, and has been

adapted and changed in form according to the genius of the people who
borrowed it. The proofs of this process are so ample that there is no
reason to doubt the fact. Weare therefore led to the opinion that,

from mythologies in their present form, it is impossible to derive the con-

clusion that they are mythological explanations of phenomena of nature
observed by the people to whom the myths belong, but that many of
them, at the places where we find them now, never had such a meaning.
If we acknowledge this conclusion as correct, we must give up the attempts
at offhand explanation of myths as fanciful, and we must admit that
also explanations given by the Indians themselves are often secondary,
and do not reflect the true origin of the myths.

It may be well to explain this point of view a little more fully.
Certainly the phenomena of nature are the foundation of numerous myths,
else we should not find that the sun, moon, clouds, thunderstorm, the sea,
and the land play so important a part in all mythologies. But it seems
that the specific myth cannot be simply interpreted as the result of
observation of natural phenomena. Its growth is much too complex. In
most cases the present form has undergone material change by disintegra-
tion and by accretion of foreign material, so that the original idea is at
best much obscured.

ao the objection might be raised to this argument that the

; xx

674 REPORT—1898.

similarities of mythologies are due, not only to borrowing, but also to the
fact that, under similar conditions which prevail in a limited area, the
human mind creates similar products. While there is a certain truth in this
argument, so far as elementary forms of human thought are concerned, it
seems quite incredible that the same complex product should originate
twice in a limited territory. The very complexity of the tales and their
gradual dwindling down, to which reference has already been made, can-
not possibly be explained by any other theory than by that of dissemination.
Wherever geographical continuity of the area of distribution of a complex
ethnographical phenomenon is found, the laws of probability exclude the
theory that in this continuous area the complex phenomenon kas arisen
independently in various places ; but they compel us to assume that the
distribution of this phenomenon in its present complex form is due to
dissemination, while its composing elements may have originated here and
there.

In the Old World, wherever investigations on mythologies of neigh-
bouring tribes have been made, the philological proof has been considered
the weightiest ; that is to say, the proof of borrowing has been considered
the most satisfactory whenever, together with the stories, the names of the
actors have also been borrowed. We cannot expect to find such borrow:
ing of names to prevail to a great extent in America. Even in Asia the
borrowed names are often translated from one language into the other, so
that their phonetic resemblance is entirely destroyed. The same pheno-
menon is observed in America. In many cases the heroes of myths are
animals, whose names are introduced in the myths. In other cases, names
are translated, or so much changed, according to the phonetic laws of
various languages, that they can hardly be recognised. Cases of trans-
mission of names are, however, by no means rare. We will give only a
few examples from the North Pacific coast.

Almost all the names of the Bilqula mythology are borrowed from the
Kwakiutl language. A portion of the great religious ceremony of the
Kwakiutl has the name ‘tlokoa’la.’- This name, which is also closely con-
nected with a certain series of myths, has spread northward and southward
over a considerable distance. Southward we find it as far as the Columbia
River, while to the north it ceases with the Tsimshian ; but still farther
north another name of a part of the ceremonial of the Kwakiutl is substi-
tuted, viz., ‘nd/ntlem.’ This name, as designating the ceremonial, is
found far into Alaska. But these are exceptions ; on the whole, the
custom of translating names and of introducing names of animals excludes
the application of the linguistic method of investigating the borrowing of
myths and customs.

We will next consider the social organisations of the coast tribes in
connection with certain peculiar customs which have been described in
the Reports of the Committee, viz., the secret societies.

The northern tribes have materna] institutions, and are divided into a
number of clans, which have animal totems. The clans are not con-
sidered descendants of the totem animal, but claim that the ancestor of
each clan had a meeting with the totem animal, in which the latter became
his friend and helper. The Kwakiutl are divided into a number of clans,
most of which have animals for their totems. Most of these totems are
explained in the same manner as those of the northern tribes, while others
are considered direct descendants of the totem animal. Among the

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 675

Kwakiutl we find a mixture of paternal and maternal institutions, but
the son is not allowed to use his father’s totem ; he acquires the right
to his totem by marriage, receiving at that time the totem of his wife’s
father. When, later on, his daughter marries, the right to the totem
descends upon her husband. In this manner the totem descends in the
maternal line, although indirectly. Each clan has a certain limited
number of names. Each individual has only one name ata time. The
bearers of these names form the nobility of the tribe. When a man re-
ceives the totem of his father-in-law, he at the same time receives his
name, while the father-in-law gives up the name, and takes what is called
‘an old man’s name,’ which does not belong to the names constituting the
nobility of the tribe.

Among the Kwakiutl and Bilqula this social organisation holds good
during the summer, while during the winter ceremonials it is suspended.
During this time the secret societies take the place of the clans. Accord-
ing to tradition, these societies have originated in the same manner as the
clan originated. One of the ancestors of the clan met the presiding spirit
of one of the societies, and was initiated by him. This seems to be the
general form of tradition explaining the origin of ‘secret societies among
all North American tribes. All those who have been initiated by the
same spirit, and who have received from him the name, privileges, and secrets
of the ceremonial, form a secret society. The most important among the
societies on the North Pacific coast are those of the cannibals, the bears, the
fools, and the warriors. The number of names composing a secret society
is limited in the same manner as the number of names composing the
clan. Membership in a secret society may be obtained in two ways : by
marriage, in the same way as the acquisition of the totem ; and by killing
the owner of a certain name. Totem and secret society are not connected
inseparably ; but the one may be transferred to one person, the other to
another.

In order to understand this curious system clearly we must remember
that the Salish tribes which are found south of the Kwakiutl are divided
into village communities ; while their northern neighbours—the Tsimshian,
the Haida, and the Tlingit—are divided into maternal clans. The
Kwakiutl have been strongly influenced from both sides.

The traditions explaining the totems and the secret societies refer, as
stated before, to the initiation of the ancestor of the clan. They are
analogous to the traditions of the acquisition of the Manitou. All the
tales referring to this subject have approximately the following incident :

_ A youth undergoes a ceremonial fasting and purification, and thus acquires
the faculty of seeing a spirit, who becomes his protector. The traditions of
the coast tribes explaining the origin of clans have the same contents. There
is only one difference : the protecting spirit has appeared to the ancestor of
the clan, and is now inherited by their descendants without personal initia-
tion. In this respect the similarity between the traditions of the secret socie-
ties and those referring to the Manitous is much closer, since it is necessary
that each new member be initiated by the presiding spirit of the society.

Therefore every new member has to undergo the same ceremonies which

other Indians undergo at the time of reaching puberty. The beliefs of

: the Chinooks of Columbia River are similar to those of the northern tribes,

although among them the idea of the acquisition of the totem has been
more clearly preserved. They believe that a man can acquire only that
spirit who belonged to his ancestors in the paternal line, but the relation

xx 2

676 REPORT—1898.

of this spirit to the individual is identical with that of the Manitou to the
eastern Indian.

It can be clearly shown that the development of the family Manitou
into the family totem has taken place owing to the influence of the
northern tribes. In order to make this clear, it is necessary to consider
for a moment the clans of the Kwakiutl somewhat closely. In examining
the names of the tribes, it will be seen that very often the name of the
tribe is the collective form of the name of its ancestor. At the same
time a subdivision of the tribe, one of its clans, may have the name ‘ The
Family of the Ancestor,’ while the other clans have different names. It
seems that this proves that the first clan formed the original stock of the
tribe, and that the other clans joined it lateron. This theory is strength-
ened by two considerations : first, it is stated that each clan originally
had its village at a certain place, which it left later on in order to join
others. Almost all these places can be proved to be ancient village sites.
Secondly, many clans have names which may be translated, as ‘ Inhabit-
ants of such and such a place,’ while nowadays they live with the rest
of the tribe in the same village, and have no distinct claims to the
territory the name of which they bear. This seems to prove that the
present social organisation of the tribe is a late development, and that
originally the Kwakiutl were in the same stage of development as their
southern neighbours, among whom the social unit is the village commu-
nity, and who have no crests.

The northern tribes have clearly defined totems, which are inherited
in the maternal line, and which have animal names and animal crests.
While among these tribes the totem of the whole clan is founded on the
tradition belonging to the whole clan, the subdivisions of the latter are
explained in exactly the same manner as those of the Kwakiutl clans.
The artistic bent of these people has taken hold of these traditions, and
has thus formed the crest for the clan and for its subdivisions. There is
little doubt that the plastic art of the northern tribes was a most import-
ant factor in developing their social system. In the south, where this art
begins to disappear, the village community takes the place of the clan
with animal totem, while among the tribes located between these two
groups, among whom the plastic art is well developed, although not as
highly as in the north, there is an intermediate form of social system. It
is therefore likely that the development of the social system discussed
here has taken place in the northern part of British Columbia.

The northern tribes of _Kwakiutl lineage show clearly that their ideas
have been influenced by the animal totem of the northern tribes. They
have adopted toa great extent the maternal descent and the division into
animal totems of the northern tribes. The social organisation of the
Hé@iiltsuk-, one of the most northern tribes of Kwakiutl lineage, is similar
to that of the Tsimshian, while their southern neighbours, the inha-
bitants of Rivers Inlet, who speak the same dialect, retain the more
complex organisation of the Kwakiutl ; but they have mainly maternal
descent.

It is an interesting fact that a great many of the clan legends of the
Kwakiutl are very insignificant, while others have important mythical
bearings by which they are closely connected with the mythological
concepts of the people. It seems probable that clan legends first found
their way to the Kwakiutl by marriages with women of northern tribes,
whose traditions, according to the customs of the northern region, were

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 677

inherited by the woman’s children. This must have given an important
impulse to acquiring or inventing similar traditions on the part of other
clans, since their possession was undoubtedly considered a prestige.
Probably the fastings of young men and the subsequent hallucinations
have furnished the greater part of the material for these legends.

It is necessary to consider at this place a few characteristic traditions
which belong to the cannibal society of the tribes of the northern and
central parts of the coast. The most widely diffused tradition on this
subject seems to have originated among the Hé'iltsuk:, but it has spread
southward tothe Kwakiutl. It is told that a young girl was carried away
by the cannibal spirit. Her four brothers searched for her, and with
<lifficulty escaped the pursuing cannibal spirit. Finally, they succeeded in
killing him, and his ashes were transformed into mosquitoes. In the
course of their visit to their sister the brothers learned the songs and
secrets of the cannibal society. This tradition is given in most cases
as the origin of the secret society. A number of other members were
initiated in other ways, one by stealing the cedar-bark ornaments of the
bathing cannibal spirit, another one by ascending the sky and obtaining
the secrets of the society.

These customs have also spread to the northern neighbours of the
He'iltsnk:, the Tsimshian. They have the following tradition in regard to
the origin of the society :—A hunter pursued a bear, which finally led
him into the interior of a rock. Inside he saw people performing the
ceremonies of the society, and he was instructed by their chief to repeat
the same ceremonies at home. In all the traditions of the Kwakiutl the
cannibal spirit presides over the society, while he does not appear in the
Tsimshian tradition. This shows that different traditions are used for
explaining the same ceremonial.

In connection with these facts we will consider the conclusions which
were drawn from a consideration of the mythologies of the tribes of
British Columbia. We saw that none of these could be considered as the
product of a single tribe. All the traditions were full of foreign elements,
which it was possible to trace over wide areas. If, therefore, the same
ritual is explained by different traditions, we may conclude that the
ritus! preceded the tradition ; that the former is the primary phenomenon,
the latter the secondary.

It seems that the development of the ritual, as well as of the traditions
connected with it, is founded in the prestige given by membership in a
secret society. There must have developed a desire to become a member
of a society, which led, wherever the number of societies was insufficient
for the tribe, to the establishment of new ones. It is not meant, of
course, that the Indians intentionally invented new traditions, but that
the desire stimulated their fancy and excited their mind, and that in this
manner, after proper fastings, occasion was given for hallucinations, the
material of which was naturally taken from the ideas found among the
tribe and its neighbours. Similar phenomena have been treated, from a
systematic point of view, by Stoll in his book on Suggestion, and by Tarde
in his book on the Laws of Imitation.

It is easily understood how the exciting ceremonial of the cannibal
society may have given rise to hallucinations in which a young man
thought to see the same spirit under new conditions, and that after
his return from the solitude he told his visions. Since the opinion
prevailed that the spirit which appeared in this manner had a tendency

678 REPORT—1898.

to reappear to the descendants of the person to whom it once appeared,
opportunity was given for the formation of a new place in the secret
societies. We may assume, therefore, that, psychologically, the develop-
ment of the complex system of membership in the secret societies must be
explained as due to the combined action of the social system and the
method of acquiring guardian spirits,

While these considerations may explain the variety of form of the
secret societies, and show that the myths on which a ritual is founded are
probably secondary, they do not explain the origin of the societies
themselves and of the peculiar customs connected with them. There are,
however, indications which lead to the opinion that these societies
developed from methods of warfare. First of all, it is important to note
that the deity Wina’lagyilis of the Kwakiutl presides over the whole
ceremonial. This name means ‘the one who makes war upon the whole
world,’ and his spirit controls the mind of the Indians also during the
time of war. For this reason the secret societies are in action also on
war expeditions, no matter at what season of the year they may occur.
All the oldest songs of the secret societies refer to war. The cannibal, as
well as the bear dancers and the fool dancers of the Kwakiutl, are con-
sidered warriors, and go into ecstasies as soon as an enemy has been
killed. All this indicates that originally the secret societies were closely
connected with war expeditions.

One thing more must be considered. The customs which we observe
to-day are evidently the modern development of ancient forms. It is
known that the ceremonial cannibalism, which nowadays is the principal
part of the whole ceremonial, has been introduced very recently among
all the tribes. The Kwakiutl state that this custom was introduced
among them not longer than sixty years ago, and that it originated among
the Hé‘iltsuk. We also know that the custom spread from the H@‘iltsuk:
to the Tsimshian not longer than a hundred and fifty years ago. There-
fore there is no doubt that the custom was originally confined to the small
territory of the Hé'iltsuk:. Among the southern tribes the cannibals
originally confined themselves to holding with their teeth the heads of
enemies which had been cut off.

The form in which the cannibalism spread from the Hé'‘iltsuk* is
mainly the following :—A slave was killed by his owner, then he was
torn to pieces and eaten by the cannibals ; or pieces of flesh were bitten
out of the arms and the chest of people ; or, finally, corpses which had
been prepared in a particular way were devoured by the cannibals. The
first of these customs clearly bears some relation to war. A slave was
obtained in war by the relative of a cannibal, and by killing him the
owner celebrated the victory before the assembled tribe. It is not possible
to prove definitely that the secret societies developed in this manner from
customs related to war expeditions, but the close relationship of the two
cannot be doubted.

We may say, therefore, that the investigations of the Committee have
proved that dissemination of cultural elements has taken place all along
the North Pacific coast, and also that the most distant parts of the
American continent, and probably even parts of the Old World, have
contributed to the growth of the culture of the Indians of British
Columbia. This fact shows that we cannot accept the sweeping assertion
that sameness of ethnical phenomena is always due to the sameness of the
working of the human mind, but that it is necessary to consider in all

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 679

anthropological investigations the important element of dissemination of
ultural elements.

The decorative art of the Indians of the North Pacific coast differs
om the arts of other primitive people in that the process of conven-
onalisation has not led to the development of geometric designs, but
that the ornaments mostly represent animals. It is generally assumed
that all the animal representations found on totem poles or on decorations
of household utensils and of wearing apparel represent the totems of the
various clans. While it is certainly true that in most cases the artists
decorate the objects with the totem of the owner, there are a number
of casesin which the reason for applying certain animal] designs is founded
on other considerations. This is very evident in the case of the fish-club,

ich is used in despatching halibut and other fish before they are
hauled into the canoe. Almost all the clubs that I have seen represent
the sea-lion or the killer-whale—the two sea animals which are most
feared by the Indians, and which kill those animals that are to be killed
by means of the club. The idea of giving the club the design of the

-lion or killer-whale is therefore rather to give it a form appropriate to
its function, and perhaps, secondarily, to give it by means of its form

eat efficiency.

Another instance in which a close relation exists between the function
of the object and its design is that of the grease dish. Small grease
dishes have almost invariably the shape of the seal, or sometimes that of
the sea-lion ; that is, of those animals which furnish a vast amount of
blubber. Grease of sea animals is considered a sign of wealth. In many
cases abundance of food is described by saying that the sea near the
houses was covered with the grease of the seal, the sea-lion, and whales.
Thus the form of the seal seems to symbolise affluence,

Other grease dishes and food dishes have the form of canoes, and here,
I believe, a similar idea has given rise to the form. The canoe symbolises
that a canoe load of food is presented to the guests, and that this view
is probably correct is indicated by the fact that in his speeches the host
often refers to the canoe filled with food which he gives to his guests.
The canoe form is often modified, and a whole series of types can be
established forming the transition between canoe dishes and ordinary
trays. Dishes of this sort always bear a conventionalised face at each
short end, while the middle part is not decorated. This is analogous to

the style of the decoration of the canoe. The design represents almost

always the hawk. I aim not certain what has given origin to the
prevalence of this design. On the whole, the decoration of the canoe is
totemistic. It may be that it is only the peculiar manner in which the
beak of the hawk is represented which has given rise to the prevalence of
this decoration. The upper jaw of the hawk is always shown so that its
point reaches the lower jaw and turns back into the mouth. When
painted or carved in front view, the beak is indicated by a narrow wedge-
shaped strip in the middle of the face, the point of which touches the
lower margin of the chin. The sharp bow and stern of a canoe with

a profile of a face on each side, when represented on a level or slightly

rounded surface, would assume the same shape. Therefore it may be

that originally the middle line was not the beak of the hawk, but the
foreshortened bow or stern of the canoe. This decoration is so uniform
that the explanation given here seems to be very probable.

680 RETORT—1898.

On halibut hooks we find very often decorations representing the
squid. The reason for selecting this motive must be looked for in the
fact that the squid is used for baiting the hooks.

I am not quite certain if the decoration of armour and weapons is
totemistic or symbolic. Remarkably many helmets represent the sea-
lion, many daggers the bear, eagle, wolf, and raven, while I have not seen
one that represents the killer-whale, although it is one of the ornaments
that are most frequently shown on totemistic designs.

I presume this phenomenon may be accounted for by a consideration
of the ease with which the conventionalised forms lend themselves to
decorating certain parts of implements. It is difficult to imagine how
the kiJler-whale could be represented on the handle of a dagger without
impairing its usefulness. On the other hand, the long thin handles
of ladles made of the horn of the big horn sheep generally terminate with
the head of a rayen or of a crane, the beak being the end of the handle.
This form was evidently suggested by the slender tip of the horn, which
is easily carved in this shape. The same seems to be true in the cases of
lances or knives, the blades of which are represented as the long, pro-
truding tongues of animals ; but it may be that in this case there is a
complex action of a belief in the supernatural power of the tongue, and in
the suggestions which the decorator received from the shape of the object
he desired to decorate.

To sum up, it seems that there are a great number of cases of decoration
which cannot be considered totemistic, but which are either symbolic or
suggested by the shape of the object to be decorated. It seems likely
that totemism was the most powerful incentive in developing the art of
the natives of the North Pacific coast; but the desire to decorate in
certain conventional forms once established, these forms were applied in
cases in which there was no reason and no intention of using the
totemistic mark. The thoughts of the artists were influenced by
considerations foreign to the idea of totemism. This is one of the
numerous ethnological phenomena which, although apparently simple,
cannot be explained psychologically from a single cause, but are due to
several factors.

The treatment of the animal design is very peculiar. We may
distinguish two principles which govern the form of representation :
First, the animal is characterised by a number of symbols ; secondly,
the artist does not endeavour to render a perspective view of the animal,
but rather to show the whole animal.

The first of these principles is probably founded largely on the difficulty
encountered in designing realistic representations of various animals which
would be clearly recognised as specific animals. For this reason the most
characteristic peculiarities of each species become the symbols by which it
isrecognised. Thus the beaver is always symbolised by two large incisors
and a scaly tail ; the dog-fish, by an elongated forehead, a mouth with
depressed corners, and five curved lines (the gills) on each cheek ; the
killer-whale, by its tail, flippers, and its large dorsal fin ; the sculpin, by
two spines which rise over the forehead; the hawk, by a large beak,
which is turned backward so that it touches the chin. Probably all
these symbols were originally applied to characterise a portion of a
quadruped, bird, or fish ; but in course of time they came to be considered
as sufficient to call to mind the form of the whole animal. We find,
therefore, that gradually the symbols were to a great extent substituted

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 681

for representations of the whole animal. A dorsal fin worn on the
blanket of a dancer, or painted on his face, indicates that the person so
decorated personates the killer-whale. A strongly curved beak painted
on a gambling-stick symbolises that the stick is meant to represent the
thunder-bird. A protruding tongue painted on the chin symbolises the
bear.

The second principle seems to be quite opposed to the first one. When
the artist decorates any object with the representation of an animal, he
distorts and dissects the animal in such a way as to show the whole body
on the decorative field ; but a closer examination of this tendency proves
that it originates mainly in the necessity felt by the artist of introducing
all the symbols, which are distributed over the whole body of the animal,
in the decoration. To give a few instances, bracelets are decorated in
such a way that the animal is split along its back, and then represented
in such a manner as to make it appear as though the arm were pushed
through the opening. On tattooings the animals are shown as split
through along their backs or along their chests, and then flattened out,
so that a symmetrical design results. Carvings on totem poles must be
interpreted in the same way, the animal being represented as bisected
along the rear side of the totem pole, and extended so that the two margins
of the cut appear on the borders of the carved portion of the pole. The
distortion and section of animals is nowhere carried further than in
representations on boxes, on slate dishes, and on Chilcat blankets ; but in
all these decorations we recognise the endeavour to bring such forms of
the animal into view as are essential for an understanding of the design—
that is to say, all those parts of the animal are represented which serve as
its symbols.

So far as I am aware, the process of conventionaiising has not led to
the formation of geometrical designs, which are exceedingly rare on
decorated objects from the North Pacific coast. They are found only in
certain kinds of basket work and in mattings.

Finally, it may be well to add a brief explanation of the economic
system prevailing among these Indians, which was fully set forth in the
Fifth Report of the Committee. This system finds its expression in the
so-called ‘potlatch.’ The meaning of this custom has been much mis-
understood, and the recent enactment of a law making the potlatch a
criminal offence is probably in great measure due to a misconception in
regard to its meaning.

The economic system of the Indians of British Columbia is largely
based on credit, just as much as that of civilised communities. In all his
undertakings the Indian relies on the help of his friends. He promises
to pay them for this help at a later date. If the help furnished consisted
in valuables, which are measured by the Indians by blankets as we
measure them by money, he promises to repay the amount so loaned with
interest. The Indian has no system of writing, and therefore, in order to
ive security to the transaction, it is performed publicly. The contracting
of debts, on the one hand, and the paying of debts, on the other, is the
potlatch. This economic system has developed to such an extent that the
capital possessed by all the individuals of the tribe combined exceeds
many times the actual amount of cash that exists; that is to say, the
conditions are quite analogous to those prevailing in our community: if
we want to call in all our outstanding debts, it is found that there is not

682 REPORT—1898.

by any means money enough in existence to pay them, and the result of
an attempt of all the creditors to call in their loans results in disastrous
panic, from which it takes the community a long time to recover.

It must be clearly understood that an Indian who invites all his
friends and neighbours to a great potlatch, and apparently squanders
all the accumulated results of long years of labour, has two things in his
mind which we cannot but acknowledge as wise and worthy of praise.
His first object is to pay his debts. This is done publicly and with much
ceremony, as a matter of record. His second object is to invest the fruits
of his labour so that the greatest benefit will accrue from them for himself
as wel] as for his children. The recipients of gifts at this festival receive
these as loans, which they utilise in their present undertakings, but after
the lapse of several years they must repay them with interest to the giver
or to his heir. Thus the potlatch comes to be considered by the Indians
as a means of insuring the well-being of their children if they should be
left orphans while still young. It is, we might say, their life insurance.

The sudden abolition of this system—which in all its intricacies is very
difficult to understand, but the main points of which were set forth in the
preceding remarks—destroys therefore all the accumulated capital of the
Indians. It undoes the carefully planned life-work of the present gene-
ration, exposes them to need in their old age, and leaves the orphans
unprovided for. What wonder that it should be resisted with vigour by
the best class of Indians, and that only the lazy should support it, because
it relieves them of the duty of paying their debts ?

But it will be said that the cruel ceremonies connected with some of
the festivals make their discontinuance necessary. An intimate know-
ledge of the Indian character leads me to consider that any interference
with these very ceremonials is unadvisable. They are so intimately con-
nected with all that is sacred to the Indian that their forced discon-
tinuance will tend to destroy what moral steadiness is left to him. It
was during these ceremonies that I heard the old men of the tribe exhort
the young to mend their ways ; that they held up to reprobation the young
women who had gone to Victoria to lead a life of shame ; and that they
earnestly discussed the question of requesting the Indian Agents to help
them in their endeavour to bring the young back to the good, moral life
of old.

And the cruelty of the ceremonial exists alone in the fancy of those
who know of it only by the exaggerated descriptions of travellers. In
olden times it was a war ceremony, and captives were killed and even
devoured ; but with the encroachment of civilisation the horrors of the
old ceremonies have died out. An old chief has been heard addressing
his people thus : ‘ How lovely is our time! No longer do we go in fear
of each other ; peace is everywhere. No longer is there the strife of
battle ; we only try to outdo each other in the potlatch,’ meaning that
each tries to invest his property in the most profitable manner, and
particularly that they vie with each other in honourably repaying their debts.

The ceremony of the present day is no more and no less than a time
of general amusement, which is expected with much pleasure by young
and old. But enough of its old sacredness remains to give the Indian,
during the time of its celebration, an aspect of dignity which he lacks at
other times. The lingering survivals of the old ceremonies will die out
quickly, and the remainder is a harmless amusement that we should be
slow to take away from the native, who is struggling against the over-
powerful influence of civilisation.

[North-Western Tribes of Canada. 1

> > g 2 2 = x ) g
eee ie ie fbr hee 8 to
4 3
a S 4 _ =
i — oa reed —_——_ —
wey + +
n mes! =a spy
© ®
3 “4 © A 3 2 A a g em 2
Boe ode (eit | ele le | gis
| = 4H a a 4 A 4 4 wl
8 z ECan ie: FZ a | A a a | A P
le 3 = e S £ PI 2 3 PI 8
o Lio} o fo) oS i) io) oy o ° o
2 EI L 2 E nD ra D2 R a R
| < © <q Oo ©
2 Pp : :
< < <
— he Jon
em ) ae te Re rom ee | oe Roe
30 31 33 35 40 50 50 50 55 60
mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mam. |
1,621 | 1,479%| 1,556 | 1,507 | 1,463 | 1,474 | 1,429 | 1,348 |
1,347 | 1,239 | 1,326?) 1,238 | 1,186 | 1,226 | 1,180 | 1,096
699 633 756 592 636 688 682

836 | 791 | 800; 799 | 744| 762] 718
385 | 348 | 310?) 361 | 323 | 330] 335

1,666 | 1,526 | 1,668 | 1,522 | 1,461 | 1,588 | 1,539 | 1,464 |

184} 173} 181] 180; 172 178 188
146 | 164; 148] 157] 157) 155} 151
120} 111} 106] 124}; 120] 101} 118
142 | 147 /1455 | 147} 139] 137] 142
44 49 50 56 55 49 53
38 | 39 38 58 32 37 39

\th shoes on spruce boughs. ® Father of No. 41

79°3 | 94:8 | 81:8 | 87-2 | 91:3 | 87:1 | 80:3 | 809
845 | 75°5 | 72°38 | 844 | 86:3 | 73:7] 831 | 79:
864 | 796 | 76:0 | 67°9 | 58:2 | 75:5 | 73:6) 67:9

43:1 | 42°8 | 48°52) 39°2 | 43:6 | 468 | 48:0 | 46-7
102°8 |103-2 | 107-2 |101:0 | 100-0 | 107-8 | 107-7 | 108-6
516 | 63-4 | 51:3 | 52°99 | 51:0} 51:8] 506 | 49-3
23°8 | 23°5 | 19°92) 23:9 | 22:1 | 22-4] 23-6 | 25-6

63th Report, Brit. Assoc., 1898.)

North-Western Tribes of Canada, 1
1, Sdatiumn
and the result a. Pemberton Meadows, Anderson Lake, Siton Lake.

wults in disastro

== ] If, Females
recover. [ee = = a —— = | | == —. = = Se oe
© invites all his : | 2 jis | a) 5} | 8 | 9 | 10 | 1 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 1 18 | 19 | 20 | 2 ] 2 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 || go | a1 | s2 | sa | si | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | so | 40) 4 43 |) 44) 450 | 4en [a7 a8
See toe j ial S | 7 “| || | ; | | =| lea =
rtf a | We (| AARP allele ainsi ale Ae | |
y and with much = e)elelelelelele(2lelelelelelele/slelalzielele SES IER ERIE | SEW ESSERE EUW 5 TA EL es Ba 3
invest the fruits a Wes P 2 2 Flee ele Fle 2lalelel Fl Fle lelele lel laeleielsleisieyelelelElglsleleiaiajelelele !
them for himself { SSS ze VE] || i Be dass [tet iia tla || 2 Derelict Ue la Ea cd [a |} ta |] | || & | 2 = /7)/<s|a)/a)/o]8 | a] a] 8 é
peteuase fae = = ya | us eee es Besa AN al We I ie |e | | mile eee L = =|
: | Z =a ihe an Sih Z = A 5 la.| = |
rete eee sila ee EW Wea lal eielalla | las le eee tel | alla l (gl Ele Wella WE :
g/£/4 > 3 z Se Z. Zi2 | g ¢ z £ ae Sus p | 2 a | 2 = g Z
beat be | a aie eg | Sua isle MS Wega ialiisiiab lie Weis eg heals alae eae alesis ale lial eeillig CS el) SRE ae alae
ee lelelel2 4 | ERIS eh re heehee lh a SE £\2|4 lg |e | 8 ua litae)|iosaniteae tiie. || ¢ = &
met xt ie = ; VElElElSlelf]elel'l SEE CEE WEE A ET ESE eS eal ela le HAE alc) aye We AS We a lee
| capital of the | JEIEB)ZIS)2)/2)/8) 21S) 2) ss) e 1S eI ee ele) Sel Sele) el] el eee) e)3)s)a)8 B/B)/a}e/2\2)2 Bl/a)ei|alale)s
e present gene | CIEL |) 2 sete ig ula celle lsc (natal lsat ee) eis} *l|eyele | + IL sage = 2 2 |
es the orphans | | call 2 2 | 2 Es 2 2 aeeat Re 2|4/ 4] | SOE | 2 2
with vigour by - —- =\= a = . | = ee eS SS ES ee i |
port it, because | B. | | F. | 3B F \ F | ¥ Feo || Fe F F| FE
d with some of } 40 au 40 || 40 | 90 65 | 65 | 70 | zo | 80 | go |) ga | 93 || 97 26 | 28 | a9 | 29
intimately con- Height standing 1,770 | 1,680 |1,604 1,698 | 1,670) 1,681 }1,602*/1,618 (1,700 1,682") — }1,641 911,686 |LA75 | 1,582) — | — 1,604 | 1,493 |1,686 | 1,6387) 1,491 | 1,677 | 1,547 |)498*) 1,542 1,
forced arate | Height of shoulder 16487 |1,402 | 1,282 |1,902 1,838 1,10 |1,921 |1,996 | ng00 | — }1,820 |1,206 {1,182 1,263) — | — 2 | 1,928 | | 1,268 |1,212 1,288 | 1,286
ft to him. It Length of arm 672) 658} 624) 676} 620 | 690) 695| 551) Go| c19 | 6a4| O14 o | — == Git | 650) 718) 677 | 20 855 | 666
capiiers | Finger-reach 1,859 |1,649 )1,640 |1,714 |1,098 |1,705 | 1,078 |1,726 |1,710 |1,052 }1,722 1,702 1,681 | — -|- jsi6 1449 [1,622 | 1,592 | 1,044 | 1,508 | 1,606 |1,594 | 1,658 1,516 | 1,604 |
and that they Height sitting eT | B44 | 848 | 830 | 619 880 | 850) 865 | #28 | — — | — || 608 | 6232) veo | sa9| 766 | 760) 835) 788 | 787 | | 768 | 601} 00 | .
sents ara Width of shoulders 408 | 406 | 382) 400 | 836 380 | 416 | 890 | gos | Bos | — — } — || 280] 316 | 373 | 355 335 | S64) 852) 829 | 360] B74 | 9358] 848 | 325] 380) 950) x5) 448) 3107) Bel) 323) 390 335 | Ms
on = =! ae | z | a pall a3 peices Les | Saez Es s
: Length of head 180 | 188) 176 | 177 | 188} 182 182 | 188 | 192 | 172 188 | 181 1a | 176 i yo5 | 171 | ¥ tsa | 169) 176 | 188| 186) 172) 474) 188] 175} 177) 175) 181] 184) 173) 181) 180) 172) 178) 183) 188
Breadth of head 167} 165| 168} 166) 158 | 157 158 | 167] 168 | 168 167 | 14a 168 ier) 152 | 155 | 148 | i67| 154) a47| “167 | 164! x47] 154) 149] 16x | 163) 162) 147] 4G] 164) 98] 157] 157] 155] ioL} 148
Height of face 116} 120) 118} 116) 119 | 121 n6 |} 4 0 106] 110} 110} 107/) 92) 90 | 115 | 112] 109) 102) 111] 106) 106] 108] 112] 110 | 109} 120] 113] 120) 111) 106) 124) 120) 101) 118) 189
Breadth of face 45] 146} 144 al iis | 148 143 | 167 14 49 | 148} 144) 140) 127 | 198 | 139} 198] 136) 199] 144) 142 1s5 | 140)} 198) 184 ya | iso] 138] 142) 147 lasso | ast] as9) 137) 142] 110
Height of nose 2. 48| 66] 60} 62) 49 50 ol AT 60 62 ti] 64 2 | a) 42) 47 43] 49] 41] 44) 40) 49) 48] de} 44 15| 45) 49] 44] 49] 50) 56) 66) 49) 58) a3 ¢
Rreadth of nose - | fo} 41 | 40} 42) 40] 85) 42] 3a] 58 39 so} a1] a3] 43]) st) s2] so] sa] si] so] 40] a | 37| 89} 38 | s2| a4| s4] 38] 99 | 98) SB] 32) 37) 39] 36
Length-brendth index. 856 | 82 | 995 887 | 905 926 | 881) 850 | gon] B84] 876 | 901] B61) B95] B29] KOO ase | 790| 867 | 602 |) 21] 96) seo | 4o8| o1| ass | 895) ave | S65) a85| s14| G20 | gi4| S69) 12) 795) 9¢8] Bis | 872) 918] s7a
epee : 74) 748 | 779 | 843| 797] 794] 780 $10 | 703) 882 | a8) 520] 868} 800] Box) 720] B13) 7O4 711 | 769) 764 | 764 |) 724 87] siz | sor} 734) 71) 746) 785] 740) 12] Bea] As) SoH) BLO) B45) 755) 728) Sea) BoB) 787
Bisel sare 972 | 763 | 762| 778] 736 ») 800) 758/816 | 840) 75:0] O60} 804] 745) 309] BLO) TKO 187 1) 769) go4| 706 | 827 \ 820 681 | 791 | 688 | 878) 93:2 028 | 765 | 771|.s18| se4| sos | 76¢| 773] S64] 796) 760) S19} a82) 765) 7
ee ao 2} 437 | 432) 426) 460] 431 | 421) 492) 404) 416) 454 405 439/449] 460| 455 | 460) — | 434] 463) tea] soa} — | — | 419 | 465 | 34 | 457 420 | 4s6| 154) 440) 422) 467) 457) 4a7| 4n2| 409) 442] 482] 428 cay EP [aie ge jas ee
Peepers {66 |104-6 )1024 | 1000 | 108-0 | 1024 |10461 | 102 | 1050 | 105: | 1088 | 100-2 1025 os: |1004 } 105-4 } 107-4 }1063,) — }1027 |1101 | 1065 1056 | — | — |10n6 | 107%6 |1025 |1047 | 1027 | 101-0 |101'8 | 1086 | 104-6 | 102-9 | 08:5 | 1011 | L0K1 | 108 | 1004 1028 }1082 ae io Bs os bis me
jaa pa ig 635 | 633) G12) 622) 618} GOO] B11 | 515] 494 482 | O87 | GID | 642 650) 625) 500) BIL) S24) — 624) 508) — - 634 ul 499] 652] 611 | G10] 630] 608| 628} G3) 512) Gre) Brs| Gk1| 493) 516) B34) BLS : = : :
_Tedex of width of shoulders. | 2601| 228 | 208| 293 | 299) any 22% | 205 | 290] 2921 219! 250 290 288 |. 266] 229) 293) aaa | — 238) 28} — | — | or | 284] 296) an4| 217 | oa 209 | 235 | 237] 238 | x29 | a4] 223] 2n9| 238] 285] 19-97) 299] 221 | 224) 236) 256

‘Son of No, 18; measured barefoot on sprace boughs. * Son of No, 16; meagured with shoes om spruce boughs. * Measured with shoos on spruce boughs. * Father of No, 2; left Jog aliort; measured with shoes on spruce boughs. » Father of No, 1; measured with shoes on spruce boughs, * Father of No. 41,
* Mother of No, 1, * Doughtor of No. 22,

[North-Western Tribes of Canada.

2

82:2

80:0

673

an

42-2
99°4

23°7

55:2

43°9
103°6
53:2
22°2

45°3
105°6
51:3
22°8

§ Mother of No. 56.

97 | 98 | 99 | 100 | 101 | 102 | 103 | 104 | 105

gS

ay, “a a

oe © Ae o A Ba g ) I

ome | soe | ale | Sr) ale

Se eit le | e-) s | s | hee

8 ry <3} oO

mM
io] = 8
eee ee a le re | gle aes
ss 's ee fa ‘3 sg 8 & & 3 3
o q (>) © | r=] rat q r=] aS) xe)
= 5 oe Hee 5 5 5 5 5 = a
- a ot & x ios Fy a 4 4
—Q Q [ee]
¥. | Bm | MB F. B. Beer bos. B. Pk oy
30 | 35 | 40 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 6 | 65 | 70 | 70
1,494 | 1,650 | 1,570 | 1,328 | 1,487 | 1,517 |1,563 | 1,480 | 1,492 |1,480 | —
1,238 | 1,297 | 1,274 | 1,056 | 1,205 | 1,241 | 1,281 | 1,226 | 1,229 |1,194 | —
618 | 674] 662| 584| 675 | 671| 667| 634| 654| 676| —
1,485 | 1,581 | 1,560 | 1,375 | 1,571 | 1,555 | 1,560 | 1,456 | 1,508 |1,545 | —
808 | 835 | 866| 708} 764] 793| 792] 760} 746| 720| —
336 | 344 | 372] 295] 340] 319] 348] 313] 336] 332] —
173 | 186 | 186| 164| 176] 183] 190] 178] 182) 180| 189
150 | 159| 150| 153| 151 | 148] 169] 153| 155 | 148| 154
112} 119| 118| 101| 109] 114] 113] 126] 114] 113] 109
139/ 149| 142] 133] 140] 140] 150| 144| 141 | 143] 144
49/ 51] 45] 45| 52] 45] 54| 54] 52] 48/| 50
Aonmeag ts 37) ae || -86.(\ as de | 37] 8s | 40 76
86-7 | 85:5 | 806] 93:3] 85:8] 809] 83:7] 86-0] 85-2 82-2) 81°5

83:1.| 75-9 | 77-9

[Worth- Western Tribes

1. Sdatliumu (continued),

= IL. Females
| = a ; = See SaTRESa Sar ==
lSyeneet | a7 61 | 66 | | 7 7 | 78 | 79 a1 | ss | s3 | 64 | 85 | 86 | a7 | #3 | 89 | 90 | 1 | 2 105
eae == A =|) || sd Ee LIE | | = = eee
| | ln elas | |inamil eat | ;
| ye el as Wee 2 ie 2 ce] | a lle Dales | 4 |
| A Walelals gle 2) 3/3 Bleleiglel/aie} ‘3 | 8. | 53 S13) e) Ep || 38
| Name 2 }2)/4/)/2 /e/s 3/68/3 EP ee 4 2/8/32 | Soles ee A et EP 3) 8
s EE IER | Eye: 2 si7lé z qj Hebel icccin lias et Sh || eli |) tS =|s
“2 del to tet 8 heat S)/e/e£ | & | | | 2 e | \3
| S | | 5
| —— =I I |- - |e = = [ae ==) | ea eS fe ee
| | | | | | | 1 i | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | ) | i | | | |
| 5 as A | 5 bie] es | 8 | 3 | | 8 etl } 3 | 5 5 | 3 |
ep es Eerie i 3 WS eas es [ace year ep rece Gal 2e ey ee ey EP ae Aes syd 2 Be les lese cg
As Flalfiigielalelzlalalelelalelalelalalaialglelaigieii lala eleieibieveieiiielel gaia:
i B/2/F 1s /2/2)8)5 alelsleleleievelele le (ISS lS EFI E LSI SE) SIS lS iS 2/2 /S/S12 122i
ae || s in = = A = = = = is Sx joe | se Pe 7 = = a =|) = = | = = S a = | & a | = = =
| a | a) a | a ala |ala | « | a | | a | a | aja | |
| ld | Wile! | ea net
\. 2 a | a es | ae jee |Z =| eee | ce
Observer 8. | B. | B a | Oa B. | Bla |B) oe) Re] Be] Bw | BB B | ¥
| Age 28 ao | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 58 | 60 | oo | co | 6 | 7 |) 6 | 8 | 12 | 18 20 | 20 | 80
- ~ = -_—— aati j—|— | ——| -— |—_|
mo. | mm. mm. mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. mm, | mm mm. | mm, | mm. |] mm. | mm. | mm. | mm mm, | mm. m. | mm. |
sanding | 1160 | 1,275 | 1,208)) 1248 | 1,604 | 1,645 | 1,603 | 1,631 1,607 | 1,625 1,686 1,665 |1,648 |) 974 | 1,174 | 1,284 | 1,628 1,682 | 1,560 08 | 144
shoulder | 958 | 926 |1,007 | 960 | 1,080 1,309 | — 1,294 |1) 1,822 | 1,285 |1,260 }1,876 |) 747 | 948 | 1,080 | 1,249 1,260 | 1,296 1,282 | 1,238 |
Length of arm | 610) 490) 667 | 622 698 | j 112 | | | 761) 700) 785 |) 411} 502! 569 603) 698 6s3 | 618 |
Finger-reach }1,280 | 1,150 jit alata 1,531 |1,515 | | 1,666 | 1,788 | 1,654 | 1,679 |1,660 } 1,630 | 1,720 |1,718 1,758 | 1722 |1,689 | 1,681 |} 985 |1,168 | 1,807 | 1,977 | 1,688 | 1,616 |1,675 | 1,602 |1,690 | 1606 | 1,600 |1,485 | 1,581 |
Beat | 893) 696 | 650) 622 | 920) asa | 923 | sao | 535| s40| 00] 804) 875| 803| 905} as: 792] 828 | 846 || 525) 46 | 690} 703 | 785 | 749) 870) 827) 780) S07 77k | 808) 835 |
Width of shoulders | 261] 264] 298] 266 | sor | } 408 | 402 | 382 | 986] see] 985) 968 396) 84 | 406 | 400 944 || 922 258 | 286 | 830] 942) 429) 375) 356) 358) 346 938 | 836 | 344 |
5 altar eeast roa ere ‘\orerl| | Saleen at 3 zr == = er | pat = =) See foal bears | areas | ee | ee el eT |
poeret ot beat | 378) 168) 176) 370 187 | 182) | io} 700 | 187) 189) 192 | 12} 190) 192] 188 195 | 192 | 187 || 164) 157| 166} 181] 177| 166| 185) 172) 185) 181| 174 176 | 181) 181 | 168} 131) 179 186 |
| Breadth of bead | 157 152 | 160 | 163 6 | 158 | 107 | 16 166 | 162 | 157 ug 103 | 154 169 168 161 160 M8 189 | 141} 160) 164) 16) 166) 156 156 9) 149) 149 M46 156) 4s 159
| Height of face |} 89) 101 | 104 | 105 8 | 120 | 126] 123) 118] 119 | 118) 123 2} 120) 125 190 19 119 121 |) on 101 | 101 | ue 108 4) 119 109 105 Ml) 17 117} 108 1s 118 ug
Breadth of face | 127} 125] 127) 126 198} 151) 148) 153] 198 | 150| 156) a4] 149) 149] 146) 147 153 | 150 14 |) nig | 123) 193] ra] 185) 141) 144 138 aso} 131} 140} 135) 142) 141 149
| Sea Of nose ] 42] 40] oo} 42] si} co| 62] 55] 51) 55| ct} co| oo) o7| or] 67 oa] 54] 67] 65 | 4¢| 44] 52] 46] G1) 44 42] 42] 40] 48] 49] 39] 45} 46 51
| Breadth of os | 4) 31) as] 31} | 42] 38 38} 38} 40) 38) 48| 39] 34] 35 44] 44] 97) 88 2%) %) 92) 83) a6) 39) 37 86 33] 34} 34] 96 $3)
= SS eae | — _ — |. — _— = —— — ——| — a - i
‘Length-breadth index 902| 905! 909)! 9 | | q i | 55
\% : fe th index | 92] 905 | 909! 990 775 | 868 | o6 | 874) 839 | B84 | 857 | 818) 808] BOK) FO2| BIG | BLO | 746 | 849 |) 802 885 | 849 | 829] 864) 880] SES) 902 897 869 855
a ace 760 | 408 | B14 | 633 922| 796 | 851 865 | 798 | 76: | 872 | seu | 842 | B84 778'| 798 | 762) 840 s71| 621 | 842] 824 | B44 | B44) 757 61 500 799 779 | 814 | 753
|x index ‘| | 760 | 788 627 | 10 | 781 745 | OO1 | TAL | O79 | O84 | 696) O14 B16 | 816 | 649) 691 595 | 665 | 727 | 635 | 782) 765) 841 83:3, aT 627 | 822 673 ae BLS
Index of arm eallaralline sen lincailnccal =S\ mel Ir a a | = alee — ee | el ae Fi aa 163 | 2
Siara 22 | 146 | 405 | 428 | 429) 454 455) 447 436) — A496 | 446) 440) 4490) 487) 426 ATL | 485 | 440 | 4b8 422 | 429} 445 | 4393 | 452) 485 | 440) 436) 447) 447) 449 456 | 456) 442] 456 43:5 | 422 | 439] 45 441 | 428 seal
Totes ott poe ae [eee | 997 1028 | 1008 | 1024 |1008 |1054 | 1050 | 1036 | 1084 | 104°) | 1066 | 108-2 | 102-9 | 1052 | 101-4 | 105-8 | 1020 1002 | 1097 | 1047 | 1023 | 990 | 994 | 1018 {1032 1041 [1081 | 108-2 | 102-0 | 1025 | 108-6 | 1053. 1044 | 1045 | 1096 | 1069 1020 | 994 | 1036 | 1056 | 102-5 | 100-0 = 1oh1 ie : —
index of height sitting > | 2 | 7 oy 2 tr i U ou + —
east an asi | $94) G14 | Bi2) 518) BIT | 642) 608) 688 21 | 564) 506] 520) 521) 512] sea] o30| 547 ora | 504) 531} 516 || 539) 551 | 589] oLa| 516] B10) 597 soa | 21 | o20 528 | so6 | os | ors 539 | 552] 532 522] 508 | 514 | 501 | Ee
ders. | 218) 24-9] 296 | 299] 218] 200 | 215 | 220 os | 251 | 292| 241 | 220 | 246 | 225] 243 232| 255 | 228) 210] 921 1 216 ua] 927 | 231 | a2] 29% v5] 213} 244} 204 ae s10j] 5285) 32:88
* Son of No, 95 on of No. 60. * Bon of No. 70. ‘Father of No.8, re a © One hand sti * Daughter of No. 10 (IT). atelbee oNo: $8.

68th Report, Brit. [North-Western T'ribes of Canada. 3
1. StlatluTribes.
ce. Stlatliwmnn i
—— ; II. Females
ae Seas oo Bete & eb ee ets = 4
Number. 11 12 13 14 | 15 16
ae
= S °
, a # & & 3s
Name. 5 3 a } 2 é.
a » sl ot =] 5
< < a) mei ES a ee
Peay | z
| |
nied jssese
2 |
oe | go
no ag Bo eB seu ere
5 a, | @8 | gs Be
Be | Be | £8 | ge | 882/858
SS ao ma a Bes te mes | pss Set
Tribe . Ye Rai! Sine s=- | ay | SOF
a 3 PS Si | S'S | Digs | S oie
| Sp raed Os | OF | wae | woes
in ns esa ee | =D. | din®n |
a = S x, = si onl qa | Be a si |
sj dic
Observer B. B. B. B. B.
i. ee
Age 1J 19 23 40 45 55
a —— : |
mm, mm. mm, mm. mm, | mm.
Height standing 1,343 1,587 1,553 1,612 1,503 1,592
Height of shoulder | 1,080 1,285 1,263 | 1,360 1,220 1,310
Length of arm 586 | 682 690 681 672 662
Finger-reach . 1,373 1,643 1,625 1,618 1,612 1,605
Height sitting 711 786 794 860 800 793
Width of shoulders 284 372 332 828 | 337 354
|= |
Length of head 170) — 174 174 174 186 185
Breadth of head 149 147 147 143; 148 | 157
|
Height of face 107 | s-:116 114 120 | 108 106
Breadth of face 128 | 136 133 137 141 145
Height of nose 45 | 48 48 54 47 46
Breadth of nose 29 | 34 34 41 36 36
a eae z ach
Length-breadth index | 876 | 84:5 84-5 821 796 84:8
Facial index . 83°6 85:3 85:7 87°6 730 731
Nasal index . 64:4 70'8 70°8 159 766 78:3
Index of arm. 43°77 | 42:9 44:5 42°53 44°8 416
Index of finger-reach | 102-2 103°5 104°6 100°4 107°3 100'8
Index of height sitting) 53-1 49°4 51:2 53-4 53:3 | 49°9
Index of width of shou) 21:2 23:4 21:4 20-4 23°5 | 22:3

68th Report, Brit. Assoc., 1808.]
latlioma.
nn Half-bloods

I. Males

2. Slatliumu mixed with Shuscaup and

Tribe
Observer B. B, B. B.

4 24 30 30 40

mm, mm. mm. | mm.

i Lait 1,603 | 1,609
Height of shoulder oo | 1298 hong 1,462 1.290 | 203 | — |
Length ofarm 47)| (ony — 608 759 662 | o77 | — |
Finger-reach 1,160 1,006 = 1,390 Lin 13H 1,627 | 1,616 _
Height sitting 636 564 704 HO 864 B80 =
Width of shoulders 253 | 302 207 | | a7 | as2 | 385 | 350
Length of bead 176 | 182 al 185 19 | 187 |

eadth of Lead 5 164 163 | 157 | 186 |
Height of face oo | | 116 1a 19 |} 142
Breadth of face 129 151 M5 145 150
Height of nose 45 | 45 46 51 63 |
Breadth of nose a | 0! 43 a | 50 / 2 |
Leogth-breadth index | S43 (901 BBL 822 834
Facial {odex TAG B20 0 708 08 | aeT 880
Naval index 6 | ota 489 | onD 636 765 | 786
Index of arm -| 400 | 422 4G | 42 42:0 =
Index of fnger-reach 1012 1009 104-9 1025 1016 1022 =
Index of height silting wos | ci | 025 | 630 so | so | —
Index of width of shoulders. | 299 | 47, |] 289 | oop 0 | 20) —

¥ Son of No. 37 (lia)

1,685
783

1
1

* Father of No. 91 (1, b).

[Yoru
other Tribes.

Andresi

mm,

S48
080

5x6

| a0

sw6
O14

TI, Females

PEI) SCR] ret
3 Bate]
ect ty

2

¥. Shuswap
M. Suita

690 | 631

1,026 | 1,518

| 860

| a2

Td | a7) | ard
7) ) adr | tan
Ho) ut | 120
136 | 133 | 487
44 1s | Gt

uM a4 1
Ho | ao

467 | 870

70x | 769

| a9 | 405 | don
1085 | 1040 | 1004
sou | v2 | oa

| 234 | ora | ou

|
|
|

Western Tribes of Canada,

Kaltei/on

500
a7

186
148
103
ma |
47 |
86

706 |
730 |
756 |

ry
107
6u3

3

7a
78:8

in

| 100%

90

[North-Western Tribes of Canada.

4

45 46 47 48 49 | 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
|
| s
= a 2 5 a g g a ; q
= 8 a a 3) # a a 4S f 2 3
= o Fa g AY & ra I S 3 9 =
a BH 3 5 < iS Sg Ha) 5 be <
2 eh See a Seno it a
a La)
s)
| o o o
mY, av. oye ul ested a Pa ae AY. 4 BY. 4 a4
Pee ee oe Be Pe Be | eee
5 S) 5 Sit) theme ool eS: S a o 2 2 S)
2) o 5 =| tos o cs o q g )
SI fs} 3 3 os = } op fe} 3 a °
Sy NS ee ead ae eee i a = = = =
. R =) TA
eee) Soe | es 2 Se pe 2 ee
F. EF B. F. B. F. F, B. B. F. F, B.
50 50 50 50 50 55 55 55 55 55 55 58
mm. mm. mm. mm. mm, mm, mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm.
1,683 '°}1,648" 1,668 | 1,640 | 1,633 | 1,690 | 1,662 | 1,630 | 1,638 | 1,639 1,578 | 1,640
1,354 |1,333 | 1,377 | 1,319 | 1,340 | 1,336 | 1,361 | 1,336 | 1,320 | 1,351 1,254 | 1,333
740 718 746 741 722 764 viral 707 700 704 703 735
( 1,762 1,708 | 1,717 | 1,744 | 1,718 | 1,647 | 1,774 | 1,680 | 1,600 | 1,704 1,666 | 1,696
838 846 846 830 864 852 863 854 822 850 846 807
334 370 381 391 403 358 375 378 351 375 353 369
17] 183 189 185 185 192 186 189 187 191 179 190 178
14) 157 161 159 165 168 155 157 148 157 161 158 155
19; 118 122 118 oly 118 133 127 115 115 110 120 118
14} 149 154 146 153 158 143 150 147 144 152 147 148
53 52 49 55 54 56 55 48 53 49 51 53
5 ] 39 38 40 42 44 38 40 39 40 42 43 42
91)| 85°8 | 85:2 | 85:9 | 89:2 | 87:5 | 83:3] 83:1] 79:1] 82:2] 89:9.] 83-1 | 87:0
81} 79:2 | 79:2 | 80°8 | 76:5 | 74:7 | 93:0] 847) 78:2] 79°99 | 72-4 | 81-6] 79:7
'76)| 73°6 | 73:1 | 81°6 | 76:4 | 81-5 | 67-9 | 72:7 | 81:3] 75:5 | 85-7 | 84:3 | 79-2
44:0 | 43:5 | 44-7 . 45°2 | 443 | 45:2 | 46:4] 43:4 | 42:7 | 42:9 | 44:5] 44-9
|104-1 |103°6 | 102-9 | 1063 1052 | 97-5 |106-7 | 103-1 | 97-7 | 104-0 | 108-6 | 103-4
49°9 | 51:3 | 50:7 | 506 53:0 | 50°4 | 52:0 | 52-4] 501 | B18 | 53:5 | 49:2 |
19:9) | 23:8 22°8 ) 23°8 | 24-7 || QU) 22-6) 23:2 | B14 22°9 | 22:3 | 22:5

‘© Father of No. 15.

1 Father of No. 84.

NT rh et [North-Western Tribes of Canada, 4
3. Siema'olequma.
= 1, Males z
Number S 1 lez avg] a 9 | 10] m | 12 | a9 | 14 | 18 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 2 23 26 | 26 | 97 | 28 | so.) st | 92) | 3) sa |/ 95) ) se | a7 | 38) [a9 | 40 | a 4a | 44 | a5 | a6 | i wa | 55 | 66
s | re | 5 2 | | | =i a ite |
a)e)e | 4 |-& | snes = | | reer || 5 8 Ss Meal ise lt eelics: |arllngelus } |
= = 5 5 a 3 EB) 21a 3/3 * 3 = g s x 5 4 \ = g = 2 “ 3 5 B/Z 2/3 | 2 Call | 2 g | ls log s
Name ; 4} e |e Bla aalestily sisi }3/3)8])/38)42)43) 2] 2 22 8 |3 S003! | jeuiee ele)e/s)s)2ia] 48 4 | |
= es ielel/el2l8 2/3/| ase ea lpeallnceallesallecallbsalliee e)2)2)2 WON es EES || EE ee REO ete EL | et Fy 3 3 a) 3) 4
}8 a | 4 |e) |S te ees |) 2 | 3 | SPER ch ce ie ito tee) eee tis eR ees We) |) ce NS pees eet ah cel ll cel ey Ui |= Ss)? |) 3
= s | 2 3 a
| 6 5
| a aii | 5 5 | | = =
) | | |
| | | | | | |
| | |¥3 | ¢ 22 | | “2 2 |g
a me 2 oe || a Bo ibe d a |e Ig Veil cel ere ey |e] Pew. Woe g ay ect yee deed e | @ lig | ta Is Sz] 4/4] 2] 2] 4 ee ee | s\|4|4/%
oa. Si rahi) cd nnd Se COINS See SA cee | cme lice ullieae legal eenl SI er et ill se lg EO SERN HE che! ECU) HIE ed meet ied oe ae er Eee REED Ce ibe eee ct Ice |]
> alee lalaetetaiele tela iahe ls le lei elas felaietale ty (alg Wa laleseliameadlesal (ola iaieiWelpededs |e | mele 22 la lz ie
Z/2/a]4 Pal = 2/2/2 Enliery llr 2 | 3 Z| 3 : E 4/3 t ie 3 ei 4 sisi |g |e 2 | 6 | 3
yeaa Selassie lala le leele FFP UGE 2S Sls Slee e lel Bal Bal eel ele le ls le lelelalalile|e lela eleleleleien
= =| = 2/2/68 |2 eD|P Ch Vas a2) 3/3 & 5 6 | 3 BS |e a ea ace ag | ® liad anita 4/2/68 ys eal fis S8/Ele|s
| 1 |
B. B. | B B | 3 | a | a fa |e B B | B. Bi} e |) a | ela |e le} a | w]e Fr Bjm ir] e |e |r | B F | a
8 wo | 10 | 12 | a2 | a | aa | 4 15 | a6)| a7 82/35 | a5 | a5 |/as)] a7 | ase) 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 45 | 46 | 45 | 4a | oo | | 56 | G5 | 65 | os | 68
| om, | om. | mm. | mm. am mom: | mm. F mm, | mm. mm, | mm. . | mm. | men. om. | om, | mm om. | om. | mom. | mm. | mm. | mo. | mm. | mm
Height standing 1,236" 1,246 [1 1,566 | 1,605 1,676 | 1,614 0 | 1,690 | 1,617 1,681 4 1,711 |1,748 1,680 | — 10" 1,544 16480) 1,868 | 1,640
Height of shoulder : | 900 | 983) o87 1,266 } 1,880 |1,370 1,858 | 1,855 [1,422 1,360 | — {1,200 |1,288 /1354 [1,998 |1,377 |1,519 |
Length farm. 514 607 | G10) 19 | SAI 710 | 772} 737 757 | 108 | 766 745} — | o72| oss 718 | 76) TAL
Finger-reach ~ | 1218 | 1,182 | 1,203 [1,243 1,301 | 1,426 [1,340 | 12 |1,488 | 1,402 | 1,696 | 1,078 | 1,604 | 1,047 | 1,786 | 1,66: 1097 | 1797 | 1,748 | 1,090 1,796 | — |1,658 | 1,607 ros 1717 | 1,744
Height sitting 6 698 | 698 | 672) G77) 705) 778) 719 | 834 | 770| 780| 798| 868) B97 $15 | 900 | 859) 870 $48 | — | 898] BaL 816 | 816 | 830
Width of shoulders 263 | 285 | 300 289) 312) 935| 362] a73 877 | 406 | 395] 350 378] — | sx6| 373| s31 | 370 301 |
ie sces| ee = soe Bos =| & 3 = |e i |
Length of head. 176 | 178 7 178 | 177 isi | 181 196} 190] 169] 152] 191 185 | 187] 181 | 182 1s9 185
Breadth of head ‘ 151 | 166 146 155 | 154 | 168 | 160} 158) 101 103) 161 159 149} 161 357) 155) 162) 161} 167 156) 151) 168} 167 | 157 | 101 165
Height of face 96] 110] 99 | 108 m4} 1 120} 116] 128] 124} 119] 190 120 110} 128 T9g]} 322) 11g) 124) 124 131) 417} 121} 111) 118 | 122 17
Breath of face. 128 | 192 | 130) 130 142) 194 | 188 150} 4} asa] isn] 148) 154 148 198} 148 Wet} 161) 165} 158] 153 144) 149) 151] 162) 149 | 164 158
Height of nose. is 49} 40) 41 43] 49 | 46 si} 49] 67] 65] 51] at is 49] 51 pa] 55 | 50] 52] 65 65| so] 52 B8)] 88 62 65
Breath of nose 5: 31|} 35 | so] st 37| 38] 98 42} 42] ar] 42] 44] a2 a7 40] 44 43] 42] 43/ 39| 39 41] av] s7}_ 38] 30] se] so] as | 40] 42)
Length-brealth index . sca] are] 819 | asa | Koo} sco] 812 | 767) 870 870! 901) g2| 803 874 | 823 | o1o 361 S64 se 80-90] 87 sor | 805 35 so2| soa | 701 | ssa| sza] s7a| so2) aos| en2| sov| 592] 3) su 22
Faclalinder. 2. 760| 998] 761 | s00| 754] sis} 804) a20| 502 788 404 | 800 seo | S10 Sit BL | 827 769) 81 | 707} Si) 856) 795] S08 810) sus} s80/ S21) 909] srs | 801 | 730/ 702] 72] sos 705 oa) | g17| 782] 700] 724) S16) 797
ae 70s | 714| 900) 829] 857 | 720| 727] 771| s60 | 05 Ao 719 | 76 699 77a | 741 s08| sii] si6| sox) aso | 827) 704 750 so4| 800 | O73 760| soo} 70) 781 | Siu) 704 e79 | 727 765 | 867 | 813 | 792
es Sa lsat Weal A om geal ase lasail ao) eaia) igen AegeRil ial 5 Secale tit is | aoa| ae 7) 420 | 40
- = «| 496) 445) 41a | 405 | 423] ato! 424) 450) 489] 430) 453] 490 | Aa) 404 404 455 | 439 | 462 424] 457 | 438] as2] ano} sau] 429] 400 | 447 407 | 450 | 453 | Jo1 — | 46 48 401 | 444) dbo] 45 | 447) aga | 403) 452) 404 faz | 429) 445) 09
pecreach Jos |1032 | 97% | 998 1018 1033 | 995 |1006 |10n5 | 996 | 1080 | 1061 | 1087 | 1024 1084 1048 | 1080 | 102 1008 | — |10¢0 |1019 |101'8 |103.0 1088 }105:3 | 1050 |1088 }106:3, 1081 | 104-4 | 1044 ors | 1058 }1069 | — | 99 JorT 1004 |1080 1024 1068 1052 975 | 1067 977 | 1040 | 1056 }1084
Todex of height sitting . a4 | 671 6 | 658) 546| Geo| co] 518) 6a7 | b10| O45 avo | 6u| 028 627 27 | 526 | 510 524 | 5u4 11] s1G) 688 612) 627] so1| n22) BA) G30 54) 550) 6 so | oa) cos) — |/n91] 610] 499) 013) 07| 600) 680} 04) 020 ie nay Be ane
Jodex of width of shoulders. | 291 | 282] 212| 220 | 205) 220 | 202) 298 | 188] o10| 210) 191 | 209 200 232 | 236 | 290 24 | 280 227 | 248 | 220) 295] 229) avo] 208] sro) eta) sto] 255) 213 ava] a ge) — | ars | ete] 199 | are | 228) 20%) 2 226 4 | 223
- | _i_ —— - — = = 7 aa ‘i 7. e W Father of N w BL.
* Son of Now 4iand H4 * Brother of No. 9, + Brothor of Nos. 8 and 09. * Sirothier of Nos. 6 and 09, * Brother of No, 6, * Brother of No, 78, Son of No. 45, "Father of No. 1 (IV). Father of No, 9. Father of No. 15, Father of No. 84
oa ty a pine ee

[North-Western Tribes of Canada. 5
02 | 103 | 104 | 105 | 106 | 107 | 108 | 109 110 | 111 112 | 113
2 2 & =
eee tes | |) ee +a le | BTS
Meee ties |e js | 4 | eB | ei] a ies | g
< 4 'e) & a q FI D = & a
o 4 a] vy o 4 4 4 rid
fee |e |e |e | 8) 8B | Bl et a L
ee | oO Sy: Ed) Ne SI LS ae es to me ==
Bee |e) ei elie lel el|a] aie
Meee be lB (el ele le | el a |
< Ss) o me 5 S) Ss) = S)
i F F, B. B F B. B. F. F. B. F,
0) 50 50 50 50 55 55 58 60 65 65 70
m. mm mm, mm. mm. mm, mm. mm, mm, mm mm, mm,
89 | 1,534 | 1,506 | 1,470 | 1,510 | 1,551 | 1,520 | 1,617 1,614 | 1,495 | 1,525) —
89 | 1,240 | 1,232 | 1,208 | 1,245 | 1,238 | 1,234 1,323 | 1,332 |1,226 | — —
21} 670; 664; 703; 665} 708! 686] 707] 751 670 | — =
38 | 1,540 | 1,507 {1,570 | 1,550 | 1,621 | 1,571 1,633 | 1,644 | 1,520 | 1,543 | —
66} 808 | 792; 769] 780} 812] 800} 842] 790] 750 807 | —
45] 331 | 333] 318] 314] 328] 330] 332] 345] 312 337 | —
feyetee | 172); 180} 174} 178} 178] 183| 178 | 170 187 | 190
bt | 154/ 145) 150/ 149] 154] 153] 146| 155 143 | 149] 155
17} 114/ 112] 110] 111 EE TOR IT NT Os 6109 120
ited) 137} 185) 136 | 137 | 139| 137] 147] 138 141 139
19 50 49 50 45 51 50 54 52 43 52 48
36 37 35 32 35 37 39 38 37 39 35 41
2 | 865 | 843 83:3] 85:6! 865] 85:9] 79:8] 886] 841 79-7 |} 81:5
‘2 | 82:0 | 81:8} 81:5 | 81:6} 83:2] 82:7] 85:4! 79-6 | 79:3 77:3 | 86:3
‘5 | 740} 71-4 | 64:0 | 77-8 | 72:5 | 78:0 | 70-41! 71:2! 90-7 67:3 | 85-4
3 | 43:8 {| 44:0 | 47-8 | 44:0 | 45:7] 451 | 436] 466] 45-0) _ —
1 | 100-4 | 100-0 |} 106-8 | 102-6 | 104-5 | 103-4 | 101-0 | 101:9 | 101-7 1012 | —
5 | 528 | 525 | 52:3 | 51:7 | 52:4! 526] 52:0] 49:1 | 50:3 53°), .—
7 | 216 | 221 | 21-6 | 208 | 21:2} 21:9| 20:5 | 21-4! 20-9 | 223 | —

16 Mother of No. 3.

=)
i=}

68th Report, Brit. Assoc., 1898.]

aad F 4 North-Western Tribes of Canada, 5
7 4 }. Stlemao!lzquma (continued),
= | I. Mal = - = = — = —- ~= = — =
= =| 2 — | IL. Females
=. ler | 5s | 60 | 60 | oi | c2 | 6s sata SS — — — — ~— = + —
= 23 28 (ee se | 63 | -64 [Ves | 66 | oz | 6s | 69 | 7 | m1 | 72 | 7 | 74 | 76 | 76 | 77 | 78 80) | st |) 82) |e fa | eof 86 far fe | 509m fon fae | 98 [oe [ise [ae] or | 98) [90 | soo | son | tos | tos | r04 | x05 | 06 [tor 08 a0 | vio | una | 12)| is X
| i | Ee —_ : s 2) Z| = a eet
j2|/2 | SH Bale: No Weaece|fea|itas lige alla Ig 5 lites |e < | 2 | eS ks ile 2 | a A - |
13/3 SS /elalewayslelelelaislslPlaglslelevele|alelela pl/e|2 |e Z |) 2 2 2 3 > Pel lle |e tenis 2
le|e|/2)2l]2/3 alauerelelileleleleiflaldialglilsiiltial: 26 Valles i 2/2/83 z ap eoleaie | 2)|3 | 2 3 ihe sg | 8 |i i
| | alles baa tees |r 2|/8]6 g het | Sith ts SWE EN fae (le cs ©) ‘ Baie . 3 Bul von lien 3
eal aa a) ete IS | |
| - - - — =} -| |\— — = SS | ——— =
| | | i | | | | | | | |
%\|gs\ 2 || Il | | | | | | | | |
5 B l=3| 3 ais 2 lg = z 2 Ells |: “4 2 2 Z 4 | 4/12 g “| 2.| 8 | | u 4 e|4|4)4 4
5 6 |42| 8 lesa) |e | Shek |}ele]/2£)/2)4)48 2 $12) )2)e1¢)2) 2 meen se lcs || aol hist 38 slal4)2ie)2e138
2 S| s 1/32] % eye ye)/2)2)5)8)/8)]/2/8 a/3|4| EO] WE IVSNINSE ae eS eS alns AVE )/4)é |4)3)s] 4 | reuleeal B) 4s | 8 We |S 8 &
bts e 22 =| Sites cn a s = s ma =| =p LE! = = 2 =eirs: 1 2 |S s = = = < Fa s | = 7 2 g 4 2
=| 2] 8 |24/3 Sieea esi lean lcselea ca ee (eseileeellediinenled \3 ey Se AEP WE ea) ee ep | q\si=|3|2 Fle g\s JwelZl/azls|/ei3ie 3
med 0] 7S | Mea | eas Sia) 3 |e | 38 [3 )4 s a et eh et Ie 4 Eb eh ep eo el PE er We We Ss) | 2 | & =) (EP |) 5 = | a/R/S)ela)2i2 é
| 6 |aa| = ail? 2 2/2/@)/2@/2)/s)2)8 2 it fel |p ee || é|a]3 2/2 & = 6|a 2/6 |/d|/5) 2
|
| |
= LL z | :
serer “3 oe | P| ¥ BBB BE tear D y | | fa [e i yx |nleln| | x |B |e | & |e |B
E =). 80s ROG BBO Ree 6s fe | @ 7 |e [oo fos fog) a a0 an fan fae [fas fas fae fae loan | am faz |) as: |%20 Jeo | a2 a2 | ae foes | 28 56 | 55 | 68 | 60 | us | oo
. = = =a al alee eal =a palais F \SsheaearlS = a ae a aes (OC ec
Seiieapding © =| | 704 1,602 pa poe ian, aR Alera nets lresov 169 11590 Wis6h [1,620 |1.017 | 1,614 | 1,405 | 1,585 | —
eight of shoulder jaaze 1,279 |1,305 | 1,897 |1,298 | 1,319 7a1)|'764 |\ 600 rey fier 1,170 1,238 -
F AL Had 3 | 166 266 ft “
See =| 759) 701) 723) 785) 797) 722 )) a96 | 407 | 451 49 661 | 704 706 676, 670 708 =
Fxer-reach -|- 1,002 | 1,678 |1,703 )1,595 | 1,681 998 | 985 {1,104 1,689 1,584 | 1,688 | 1,693 1,510] 1,550 } 1,021 1,683 -
Let sitting =. -| 1 765) sa] 855 816 oti | p92 826 779 | | si9| 821 £08 7s0| s12| soo] S42 =
Fath of shoulders 361 339} 380] 308 aio | 99 366 as | 35 | 345 Eau a4] sa] 330 | saz _
‘es i. \ a0 | 29 305 4 351 i 5 36 |
pr cag ey PEEL ye) FSCO CTE 11 | 467 | 159 | 166 180 | 185 480) 161] 181 | 166] 183 | 11| iva 1eo | i71| 18a | i) 175 180) 174) 175] 178) 188 190
Lg 9 oN HE ary) Say oT | tea) a5 | an | 148 157 | 156 149 | 158 | 150 168 ui7| 146} 162] 137) 164 150} 149) 164] 153) 146 165
poeiieares 120 | 118) 418) (322) 921 | a) 70} o1| o 14 121 nz) 19] 11) 105 1s} y19| 120) 17) 14 no} m1} 14) us} 17 120 |
Bro eee 183') 140.) 350) 153) 148 ier an 1 146 143 140) 117 145 | 139 136} 134] 160) 14) 199 1s5| 136} 197| 130] 187 139
Helge bo Drees fea) A) CL) a7 | 36 | 37 | 43) a7] a4] 46 60 45) 47 | 52] 45 bi] ss] 48| | 0 to] 45) 51} 50) Gt 48
Breadth of nose 4) 40) 40) auf as) — | ar |\ as | sa i 33\| 35 ao | 37 »| si] 34] 8] 30} se] 36] asl 37 s2] 35] sz] 39] 98 mn
ena eae ] 888) 802) 860) 834] 7861 ao1| #20) Kon! BOT) KL 570. var? | sua | ave | x08 | 007| 879 sea | sro) 522) &| #65 | 13 | 693 68
Yacial index a a | 797) *LK | 705 | 769 | 7406 | 724 | 747 | 706 144 7s1| g41 | 839 i 400! 12] 820] 818 B15 ee
Het 769) 105) 745) — | ss8| 917) 892) 764 | 972 814 S26 508 S07) | 75) 740)) Td | 640) Chey
[Wiexotarm. . 441 | 458 | 457] 455 | 492 | 482] 440 | 440 Ava |4s)|v4g4)| azo (laze | Gis ave | aay |)4ea | age | 408 462 | 438 | 455) 450 | 457 410 | 137 43) 198) 440] 478 | oe
Index of finger-reach . .| — usa |1o 7 | 105 | 1000 | 104-4 | 1014 | 101-9 1018 101-5 Jaon7 {103-9 Jo00 | 968 |103-9 }105.9 |101-a | 107-7 1054 |1032 |1026 | 1011 | 1027 | 1016 | 108-8 1661 | 1004 | 1000 | 1008 |1026 | 1016
Index of height sitting. -| 524) 508) cio| 524| coa| soe | 492} 621 BAB | seo! sit) 553) 514 Gio GOR 536 | 530) 526) 524 684 | 528 550 525 | ov) OL | O24
rit 2 2 b 2: a)" . on) 09 216 | 22 216 | 212
Index of width of shoulders. | 210] 296 | 220| 20] 211 | 241] 297217 | 210 220 | 225 | 217 299) 922| 298] 19 251 | 284 | 217 | 240 A) 358 28.2 ay¢| 24 | 206 | 208)
™ Slater of No. 72. W6ierofNow6andB | x @ Sister of No. 1, 1 Daughter of No, 46, \s Daughter of No. 7 (LV.). \" Mother of No. 3.

le 5 Sa en le CS = —— ee
-— ie Ea

68¢h Report, Brit. Assoc., 1898.]

— I. Males
Number. 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
x) 2 i) | a

Name 8 E E ei x 3 6 2

q oS Lm n fo

ow 3 iS ss a 5 .

| n ' rs © 4 | o

8 a & 3 2 5 2 | 3 q

See wig ee ie On) Stel ae

Tribe a rs} po o o | “s 0 q =

° an x ° I = Qa s 3

r= id a a g < P| Ay

Ss < S) a “si | fs

Observer B. B. B. F. B. F, ¥. Bs

Age 60 60 60 60 65 65 65 68
mm. | mm. | mm. |} mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm.
Height standing 1,718 | 1,512 | 1,546 | 1,591 | 1,704 | 1,528 | 1,662 | 1,660
Height of shoulder 1,422 | 1,185 | 1,279 | 1,305 | 1,397 | 1,298 1,349 | 1,362
Length of arm 759 692 704 723 735 737 722 731
Finger-reach . — 1,683 | 1,602 | 1,673 | 1,703 | 1,595 | 1,681 | 1,692
Height sitting 901 | 767 | 785 | 833] 855! 774! 9816] 865
Width of shoulders 361 356 339 380 358 368 376 361
Length of head 189 177 176 193 181 | 195 188 193
Breadth of head 160 159 | 157 166 151 | 165:°5|) 149 166
Height of face 120) 113) 13) 122] 121 | 117 117 | 114
Breadth of face 153 | 149 150} 153] 148 | 153 149 | 147
Height of nose 52 55 | 54 56 51 | — 56 | 59
Breadth of nose 44; 40, 41 41 38 — 44 43
Length-breadth index . 84-7 | 898 | 89:2| 860} 93-4 |°s51| 793] 86-0
Facial index . 784 | 75-8 | 75:3 | 79:7 | 81:8 | 76:5 | 78:6 | 77:6
Nasal index . 846 } 72:7 | 75:9 | 74:5 | 74:5 | — 786 | 72°9
Index of arm. 44-1 | 45°38 | 45:7 | 45°5 | 43:2 | 48:2] 43:5] 44:0
, 4 Index of finger-reach — |111°3 | 103-7 | 105-2 | 100-0 | 104:4 | 101-1 | 101-9
Index of height sitting . 52-4 | 508] 51:0] 52:4] 50:31 50:6] 49:2] 52-1
Index of width of shoulders. | 21:0] 23:6 | 22:0 | 23-9 | 21:1 | 244 OMT SoU,

“1 Sister of No. 72.

4. Silemas'lequma and Other Tribes mixed, b. Silatuma, Sikentsoqe
ae 1 Males | Ii, Females ] 1. Males ] I. Fer I] T Males aa ] =I
=a = a ee ora al 7 Sao = ———_________ =
; Es es ae SaaS pease a Ca I Es |
Py ii ye [EE le | 5 ;
: lelglele el 3 | }2)42/8/3)2]2,/ 8 as |
z 3 | = | aes) 98. Bla i |i) &] rs stile
Sane 2 é is.) 9) Ea a | 2 | ~ A AMEN lex Sa lisailmealeauieaminen | ao ceilis
3 g Bj 2) 2 | = | 2/2 £ 2 |% 2/32] 4 | : S| 2)
s|/e&\/2/4 5 5 glelalaelaieeleiele)"|a)a)|4
3 | 8) 2 2 |
ie u eal & 6 | 3) 4 & ia |
—— = | 1 ) i | i) ale - + -
| | | | Hag ema el P| ie i |
43 |4- a3 | z Ie lz 2 |i a lee | /
3 23 2 g|zisls Suis SSN Ta mal z |
52/33 (22 38) 4 ajeials ala alalai#| 8} el e|e elej2lfi)el;elelelelaele! a
‘ 2/\7= 2 a | g E g g & g 3 | 2 g g 3 g 3 3 g
Tite Ss, Si 32/32 a3\ 2 B) se } 2 | 8 g |g g) el) ee) a | ai] | ela Weer acca camel | alld Wee Wee ila
2a |3°| 2323 || & glElile ela|s CRE EEE zlala Ble )e leave) a laeleisielela
ag | a | os | Ps 2 E 3 4 | i | | ag | 4
| | zat |
(a | | |
Observer Be vw. | ¥ 2) || eK B. | 2. |
Axe | 10 | 12 | 12 | 9 | o | ju | 0 | 10 |
| om) om. om mm. mm mm, | mo. | mm. | mm, |) me, | min, mo.) mm,| mu. | ma, | mr. | mm, | mm, | mm. | mm,
Height star 6 1A43' 1,530 1611 1,680 1,690 1,318) 1.286 | TATS* 1414?) 1,145 | 1,255 4 140s | 1455 | 1,650 | 1,406 | 1,569 | 1,614 | 1425 i 1,288 | 1065
Height of shoulder 1,159 1,290 1,318 1434 1,395 1,060 | 1,010 18 1,146 |} 905 | 1,009 ub {1,170 Wout 1175 | 1,000 }1,100
Length of arma Gis) 702| 748) 751 | 737 595 554 | asa | 072! 609 635 || 520 | 687
Finger-reach 1498 1,637 1,764 1,711 1,765 1,356 1418 | 1,042 )1,564 [iz || 125 1103
Height sitting 728 | as6 380 696 715| #12 87% 781 || cos |
Width of sboolders uo! 378! S354 281 a7 SUL) 265
Length of heal igs) 189) 185 | 176 186 | 179! 183 Jam) is | a6
Breadth of bead 159) 163) 159 165 150 162, NG 158 151 | 185) 163
Height of face 4 123} 124 ns oo) 1 108) 113) 122 We 106 | 112
Breadth of fare z | 5° ««152 «152 ISL Wt 186 | WG 188) WS |) M2 | uo) 134 } 127) 131) 127) 134) 129) 134) 136 124| 129) 127) 126) 126} 130 137
| Mefght of nose oo) 8| 47] av} fo) az) ot] 40) 48) 44) 48) a4) 42 42} 40] 44] 49) 42] an) 45) a7
| Breadth of nose 38) 38) 41 a5 | at} 39 | Jo) 40) st} 36 33} 30] 33| 32] ss| 35] 35| a7
Length-breadth iniler #31 KEG | BLO) B62 85-9. 018 TR] 85 8h0 | rr | 800 | 895 gis | 838) 852) so2| s58| si | 822) are
Facial index fs | 765) 81) 816 ALO i TL) 769) 796 703 | 769) $90 | 833 64 806) 784) B11) sit} 811! 900) S90] 764
Nasal index AIS | Ro) 820 724 W744) 799 O78 v8 909 | 898 | 774 857 786 | 760| 750| 744 | 786) 796) 775) 737
Toler of arm (07 464 465 401 456 | 458] 440 | 458) 424 450) 488 | 450 | 401 | to] ant | 425] 400) 192] 495 avy | 458) 410 ab 426 484] — | 408) 461) 401) 450) 409) 4060
Index of finger-reach 1038 1036 hove. 1050 103% | 1005 1021 1064 | 998 1009 | 1062 | 1030 105% 1052 10L5 | 1026 | 1026 | 1006 | 1004 | 1032 | 106-0 | 1003 105°9 1031 | 100-7 | 1028 | 104°8 | 1045 | 1005 | 101-9 | 100-2 1059 1028 | 1007 | 102-9 | 1000 | 1014 | 103-0 |} 105-9 | 1054 | 106-1
Index of height sitting. | 605 | 629| 547 | BAB) G37) GLK | COG) B91| 601] 481) BIG} co1| c10| G20] ca4| ch| ooo] cso] c22) ox2| o6c| O68 532) oti) 596) G19 | — | 518) ce4] sa8| 090 o21| 540 | 32] ceo} Ges) — | s40] 30) ot1| oo-
Isdexof width otsboalders | 236) 254 | 220) a20| 24) 224) 29) 297) 200) i95)| 9a | 294] a8 | 220] 211 | 295] 227] 252] 200) se0| 238] 208 asa] 220 | 216 | sea] 230] aa] sro] avs | a4 224) 240 | 228| 232) 215) — | 923] 231) 237) ava

Son of No.6 (II1,)

* Father of No, 89 (IIL)

) Drother of No. 3.

4 Brother of No, 1.

* Brother of No. 6.

* Sister of No, 4.

68h Report, Brit. degoe., 1898.) _ (Worth: Western Pribes of Canada. 7%
7. Buonaparte. 8. Shusirap Half-bloods.

== | 1. Males IL Females 1. Males Il. Females

100 | 105 | 107

Namber see|| | G SU) [ao an [2 oe ya 6 7 | 8 1 1s | 19 | 20 | 21
ian — il Sale i le ; = = Alea
| l@ 3 gs | 5S] 8 {if ) ce 2 rc 2| 3 3 g/|2
jane = - 8 | = 2 | £2 | = | zg] | | 2 a sa 3 | a et |e
2 5 | 3 |ae | z | | 3 2 E\s “ | 3
ria a ! 5 S\4
a Si | |. | Tall 4 = | | =
2) se old eae a lg ow &| ¢g| 6 Ea E | 13 | §
£)€/2)2)2 |e leat] é)2)2) 8) = lee teats 22 |2e| 3 | lee = | 2) Ig
g/S/o}/o]}5 RRBs) oo} 5 |/6) 5] 6 |g gea| o3 3a /E | a ae te a | 3
a|2)2 2 )2 |SeiR2e s]2]2)2|2 a: aa) 24 2 a |3
Tribe Biilgilieed = | 2s |gee 2/43/43) 8 | ss o32l a= a3] 5s Ga $2 fs
| 2/2)2) 2/4/2283) 2) 2) 2] 2 | 5 | Ss cealee bes! 2a | 62 é He Ee a\= 9
EERE RN Efe ecco) oc: 2/2 | ee eee] ce ag | ar 2 $A e |e
Ja |R|a}sa bal otsteai| s\ alal|a Eel eles | oe Ld = &
: | | | | | |_ = Ea ball la! « Eni
Observer © - -| B B. Fr. F. F. BR B. | B. B. b ;
fey ae 5 4 \o) 0} 43) | 36 re a Ee
ae [om | mm, | mm.) mm. | mm. | mom. | mm. | mm
Height standing - * = 1,022 1,155" 1,198 1,787 14277 1, 2 |1,601 1,510 | 1,552
eight of shoulder «| 755 | 901 | 962 1101 | 1,142 1,322 | 1,211 | 1,290
Length of arm A | 401} 496) 527) o27| on 706
Finger-reach. . «| 1,064 | 1,163 |1,245 | 1,440 | 1,500 1727 | 1210 1,016,
Height sitting 52 | 636 | 633| 730] 768| 913) 858 | Goa) 722) 716 ws
Width of shoulders 232 | 266) 250) 310) 825) 397) 385 § 274) 301880 a
Length of bead {aor | 173| a67| 174] 173| 189) 181 | 474) 100 142
Breadth of bead | 10] 149) 149) 150) 155 } 1455) 130 pad

Height of face. wa! 101) 96) 101 108 99° 105 os,

Breadth of face. ©. | 121] iz2| as} 128] 133 126 137 126 y27| 129) 1M 10

Height of noc 4, 43) 45) 41) 43) 47] WW) 48 | | a we) 4G) 45 49

Breadth of nose , a | | { | mn! | si) aill! (a7 a

ace Es 1 | pa]

Vengib-breadth index . | 2] e61| 692] 602) ooo | B10 | 850 463 858 86 | 869) 815 m1
|Facillindex. . | 750| 828) 703| 780) s12| ao2| 887 |) 766] 850 740 720 | 829) 767| 820) 867 77 | sid] 709 785
jBaeel oder) a elf SL 78s) | 750 al 724) 774 | 727 || 727) Th) 721 857 | 696 | 825 | 755 | 829 BOD) | LO) | eae Ds
| | is] fz | ae

Wohexotam . | 395 | 42m | 499] 454| 448 | 494 | 909) 499| 452] a1 | ai7| 4s) goa | ana] 425 | 440) 405] 407) 432] 405) 448) 411} — | 40n| 450) 429] 439) 460) 44a) ao | 447

Tedex ol Gngertesch . 104 |1007 |1089 | 104-5 |1056 |1047 |1082 1022 |101'6 |1044 |1061 |1057 | 97:5 |100% |1011 | 998 |1041 |1068 |105-0 | 1023 | 980 |1060 ||1000 | — |1033 | 995 |102%5 | 1008 |1057 |1024 |1060 | 1010
Index of height siting | Gi0| 648 | 628 | 629] 530 G14 |) 662) 661! 642) Gi3| oa! 562! 623] 648 | GON) GOO) 521 | 528) Da2| 504] 599 || GOO) — | B24) 620) 529) 729) 536) 628) 628) 525

Todexof width of boulders. | 227 | 929 | 208| 225 | 297 | 291| 291) 292] 299| 266) 295 | 232 || 221 | ave] a05| 210] 220| 216 | a0] 221] 219] 296]] 220] — | 224 | 218] 220] avd) sto] 224] 228) 287

* Brother of Nos 4 and 6, * Brother of Nox 2 and 6, » Brother of Now. 2 and 4, * Trrother of No. 2 rother of No, 1, * Hirothor of No. 18. * Brother of No. 7. ANNO
- * Tirother of No. 0 * Not lovel ground; measured with sliocs * Sister of No. 12. Sister of No. 1);
1 Sister of No. 4. 1 Sistor of No. 14. Bister of No, 6; Sister of No. 11,

| North-Western Tribes of Canada,

8

II. Females
| | 48 | 49 | 50 | 51 s2 | 53 | 54
qd a 3 © 8 ]
cee |) Se) | Ste | | 2 | el &
5) SS Sc a = (=
o|| § | a Vy See = a 8 @ hig
(S" | | | = eS ar)
b.. S | ee Os ee |) Oe
| So aan ea ana |
| | | |
=|| A & A & A A A a a a 5
es Ss 3S Ss ue) ‘2 pe) 3 HE < 3 3S
cleowepe fe )eie|é|s | 8s) sis
eu. +: |
a | | | | |
SS S| | Sol GA aa ee Ee
foe F. | &B. | eek eh Be Rk Bee eee
55 55 55 | 55 55 6 9 11 12 13 20
mm. | mm. | mm mm. | mm. rm. | Mmm. | mm. | mm, | mm mm.
1,540 {1,580 |1,594 {1,588 |1,635'3|1,097 |1,320'\1,37015|1,317 {1,487 |1,580
1,285 |1,283 {1,293 |1,815 [1,353 || 840 {1,037 /1,131 {1,045 {1,210 |1,315
644 | 705 | 708 | 693 | 731 || 454 | 576 | 647 | 596 | 670 | 722
— 11,636 [1,686 [1,591 (1,695 |/1,092 |1,348 |1,504 [1,383 [1,518 /|1,652
816 | 825 | 835 | 839 | 845 || 618 | 727 | 724 | 717 | 788 | 799
360 | 363 | 380 | 346 | 323 || 245 | 266 | 296 | 298 | 300 | 314
178 | 183 | 186 | 188 | 184 || 167 | 170 | 173 | 169 | 181 | 181
155 | 162 | 158 | 165 | 157 |} 140 | 151 | 149 | 146 | 142 | 145 |
124 | 129 | 112 | 121 | 125 92 95 | 110 | 112 | 106 | 112
146 | 149 | 150 | 151 | 145 || 117 | 134 | 133 | 127 | 1382 | 133
57 50 | 51 54 57 40 40 47 42 42 40
36 | 41 43 39 40 29 36 34 33 | 36 36
87-1 | 885 | 849 | 87-8 | 85:3 || 83-8 | 888 | 861 | 86-4 | 78:5 | 80-1
84:9 | 866 | 74:6 | 801 | 862 || 78°6 | 709 | 82-7 | 88-2 | 80:3 | 84-2 |
63:2 | 820 | 84-3 | 72:2 | 701 || 72:5 | 90°0 | 723 | 786 | 85-7 | 90:0 |
el ae bee fk Sa
41:8 | 446 44-5 | 436 | 44-6 || 41:3 | 43°6 | 47-2 | 45-2 | 45-0 | 45-7 |
— 1085 [105-8 |100-2 |103-7 || 99:5 [102-1 |109°8 {105-0 |102-1 |104-6 |
| 53-0 | 52:2 | 525 | 52°8 | 51-5 || 56-2 | 55-1 | 52:8 | 54:3 | 52-9 | 506 |
| 23-4 | 23:0 | 23:9 | 21-8 | 197 | 228 20:2 | 21:6 | 22:6 | 20-1 | 19-9
er; 5 and 10. 4 Daughter of No. 68. 1s Daughter of No. 38.

68/1 Report, Lrit, Astoc,, 1898.)

By, Chileon [North Weatewn Tribes of Canada,
= 1. Males = =, == = = —— ==
La = Toe Sales IL Females
ae : Ley sf ah ef eh |e ao fa fas) |) na aa |) ae] te] az jaa |) 01) /) 20!) || ar) |ifea) Fes ree |) 250 isons: 20 | 30 | 3 2 5) 38 3 F
Nesters E | ] 5 | I JB) | | l. | | a7) | 38 | ED ee || 37 |) 38 | 39 | 40 2 [4a [a | as en |s0) | 0 |) 02)))) sa
| iT | j | — |
| { s = Ss ie | | | e | | |
§ |= Calle 3 Balle | | \4 2 |
ire Q e = Shale ta iadls ia SN Se ts Is i 6 cl ede ep ey Ila rep eseeliore A ese \ ce. {| 3
Ps iy z 2] 3|3 5 | BS) SB las) SAS a es see Ss eee | gas eg Seale ag lg fe eet a/_/2 a/2]e/2)/8 2/8
Name |= 4 SE Se EERIE ER FOR SENG iiss (cle IT tel AE GRIEG re Wen ESM Er ER WEE TER EE | eI Ee wT ER ta || F S | Ag | a1 a iss |e he le
=| a |e e|/Zi/aj/2/s)e)e)=|2 8|4|4 z 1 = | Jel eieia) sia | )/é6)/e|4 eyP reise) s8)alal eta ies
| | | a 5 \aa| 8 | S| Wye Tee 4) = II bom NUT Aste
———— = ; 1 | in| ial = aa i = / : 1
j | | | | | | i i | / i 1 i =] an i 1 } |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | |
gis | & Er ll i | = = | Cr enN er |) Gel ceecedcr heen tog a ee | a | | | ||
Sans Saleculpcal | 13 | et Nera es SS See Wis ene I a/3 /3e 2/218 /8 |s)8)2 843138
Ta } 4] | 22 122 Ses 2 2) 22 B/E |S)81/2/3)8 18/8 )8) 8 1218
|® S | 3 | 6 aléeialaiéiala Wesin | ecteamesen esial|i sal eet || ea allltie etl eal
| | \6 6 ejeisjslslsajea SiS /S (S/S /S Sls (Si clslsls
| | | |
| | | |
ato) je] | =| | | |__| je |
—___—— = = = all — |= "= leat Saal as = i—
Oberer ajo je |e} pieilele]e)o|e | ole |e |e [oF |e F(a |e Br |e | @ | oo B.
ip EA ee Ee 11 |) 12 20 | 36) || 95 || 95 || 9s 80 | 30 | 30 | 30 | so | at | 35 | 40 | 40 | 40 | ac | 45 oan law
= al alles ee ce sa (a [ee |S eile el oe eal es sa ell tans | ae
log «= HuI0X|1/0907),2667)1940 1.28 *)1308 1,276 sas: fias0 27 fins 1,610 1,670 11,634 1,613)) 1,688 1,035 "7/1,007 1,820'41,3700
of shoulders 855 | — [1,014 (1,094 [1,062 1,037 1,003 1444 11,605 {1,426 [1,404 1,817 1,346 1,916 {1,863 | 840 {1,097 1,181
Length of arm 5 44 | — | 535 orl | 566 | bas 536 755 | 762 704 722 693 | 731 |) 454 | 575 | Giz
each > i290 3 1,835. 1,290 1,314 4,832 [1,648 {1,826 |1,78 1,688 | 1,672 1,591 11,695 1,092 [1,348 {1,504
6 — | 710 | oso | 887 | 919 | 19 | — 87 | — | 885 | 850 | go1 | svi | S03 | s10 | sus aso | 845 | ois | 727 | 724
riaih Gt shouides aE Tear | 255 898 | 406 | 72 | 370 sot | 396 857 | 948 | 351 | 985 | 338 | 355 | 353 a6 | 328 || 245 | 266 | 296
Leogibof head . « «| 163 178 | 167 | 176 | 109 192 | 190 | 187 | 190 195 | 191 | 188 | 181 | 195 | 168 | 1st | 191 | 194 | 189 | 189 | 181 | 186 | 160 | 179 | 185 | 182 | 178 18h |) 107 | 170 | a7s | aco
Breadth of head a 8 48 | 152 | 7 | 149 163 | 160 | 167 | 153 1et | 166 | 161 | 168 | 168 | 165 | 150 | 66 | 155 | 13 | as9 | 148 | 162 | 152 | 156 | 158 | 109 | 155 | 157 | 140 | 151 | 149 | 146
| Height of face ars 104 | 111 | 10k | 98 120 | 191 | 130 | 127 iz | igs | ai | aiz | 129 | 10 | 121 | ise | age | ayo | 195 | 11 | 126 | 121 | 125 | 120 | 124 | 124 | 9a} 95} 110 | 113
| Bresth of face ; 190 | 131 | 130 | 192 150 | 154 | 161 | 147 148 | 162 | 152 | 153 | 148 | 154 | 197 | as5 | 147 | 149 | 151 | 145 | 347 | 144 | a49 | 144 | 150 | 146 145 |] 117 | 134 | 183 | 197
Height ofnose . 43} 46] 46) 39 | a4] 47 | 44 | 49) co] 03 | a7 | to | oo) 56) 49 S| ca) 65) 49) 54] 56) co} cs} sa} 58} 55] 65] 65 | o1] o8| os} oo | 67 67) 40} 40] 47 | 42
Breadth ofnose . . | 31] 82} St} 35] 88) 38 | at | s9 | 42] 89 | 38) 38 38 | 41 | 38 | 38 98] 38} 42] 48] 40] 39) BA] 42) 87] 87] 40) 41] 44] 40] 42] 36] 41] 36 40 | 20 )]| 88) Bd} 88
Length-breadth index . . | $39) ‘saa | o10 | 400 | 882 | gou | 787 | #21 | 807 | 850 | B19 851 89 | 812 | 810 | a05 | 856 | 852 | ars | 86a | H41 | 869 | ao | a7 | Bro | asa | ses | 17 | 709 | 862 | Bia | sre | 871 | 44 | 87a | Bou | o29 | ora #53 | se | aun | c61 | aoa | 785
Vocalinder. . . ./ 795 800 | 847 | 800 | 742 | 780 | 498 | 780 | B84 | 818 | 857 951 | 762 | 884 | 80-0 | 401 | gor | Ro4 | 848 | 89x | 995 | so | go4 | 8o9 | 796 | 705 S44 | 883 | 852 | 857 | 872 | 81:6 | 90% | 857 | seo | a¥9 | aay | B20 | a19 862 || 780 | 709 | s27 | e82 | so
Naalioer . .. | soo | a3 | 21 | 798 | 721 | cow | o74 | 698 | 804 | 808 | 773 | 790 | ako | 746 mT | 804 | 649 | o79 | 792 | 601 | 770 | 73:5 | 709 | tH | esa | Teo | 794 | 764 | ROT | 741 | G96 | 680 | 745 | 712 | 712 | 727 | 745 | 800 | 784 | 807 | o79 | 745 | 22 ToL | 725 | 900 | 724 | 786 | 857
ieee ara 5 a1) — [424 495 [ass [41a [ass [aro | — [442 [ag | 456 | ace | 495 490 [468 | 457 | 459 | 426 | 496 | 440 Jada | 430 | 496 | asa | 497 | 432 | 480 | 438 | 457 | arr |/4e9 | ase | an [doa faz | 4d | 448 | asc | 4: 455 |418 | 400 | 445 [ase | 446 | 419 | 436 | 472 | a2 | a0
Index of fngerresch . . 1017 996 | 998 | 999 1020 | 995 | 99% los0 | — |Lo45 |1030 j1054 1016 |104-0 1027 [106-0 |1004 |1050 |101'5 [1057 {1096 [1038 |1008 |1041 j109:9 1048 |1022 /1062 |1039 f1043 [1023 |1o38 LOTS |1042 [1055 |1os4 1037 1064 |1o03 lors | — [1085 /1058 [1002 jloa7 | 995 [1021 jt08'8 [1050 j1021
Index of height sitting. | 551 | 550] — | cM | — | ote | oes | cos | — | 519 | o17 | oe | 547 | 498 set | 592 | 537 | ovo |o2d | o27 | — | o20 | oon | 497 | 530 | ors | — | can | o85 | 605 | oan | 505 | 507 | 530 | 490 | ory | oxo | ot | oV9 = jovo | sea | oxo | ove | ore |) o62 | oon | ope | ots | 020
| Index of width of shoulders. | 228 | — | 218 | 200 | 212 | ays | 207 |199 | — | 201 | 218 | 292 | 220 | 217 a9 | 214 | 295 | g29 | 229 | 215 | 220 | 219 | 204 | 190 | 227 | 245 | 299 | 205 | 240 | 209 | 219 | 223 | 209 | 229 | 206 | 295 | a1 | 295 | 228 25 | 234 | 230 | 209 | 208 | 197 | e24 | 202 | 210 | 226 | 202
‘Eon of Nol *Sonof No.2), *SouofNo.28, ‘SonofNo.48. * Munchback. * SonofNo.48 7 Cousin of No, 18, —_* Father of No. 1; cousin of No 12; son of Nos) 41 and "Father of No.2" Father of No. i," Fatherof No, 51, |" Father of No. 18, "Father of Nox Gand 10, Daughter of No 68. '* Daughter of No, $8.
— ==

oe al

OSth Repu

= 3
Name ©

Tribe .

Observer

Height standin},

Finger-reach ,
Height sitting
Width of shoul

| Vorth- Western Tribes, Canada,
9b. Chileotin,

Half-blood.

| Male ||

10. Carrier,

‘)

Males

Length of head
Breadth of hea
Height of face
Breadth of face
Height of nose
Breadth of nose

Length-breadth
Facial index .

Nasal index .

Index of arm .
Index of finger-
Index of height

Index of width

———

Mother of No. 61.

76 2 3 4 || 5
a <3 | ss |
1 5 ime | o a4 ~ 1D eS |
5p I Ste. ies & iz § 5
= = 43 | 5 | @ 2 ie 5
' |] }
| \ | et: |
} | |
| | | Do
| o8
Nuves gq | | tS q sf
& g a a3 a we Lee) So Se
os = S | gia || § § ge 8 | 35
4 3 a Bo || = 2 | 24 Boy ae
‘s) S) Sr aaa a A |g | 3 i Ps
| ar eo
) | apis:
| =e
F Hee Bee it Be Boole Be |r Bech sagen tw a
A, \ 70 |. 75 12 17> |) 18 1) Boot es 13
1,548 | — | — |/1,495 || 1,685 | 1,654 | 1,775 | 1.535 || 1,423
1,288 | -- | — {1,192 |/1,364 | 1,328 | 1,477 | 1,265 | 1,170
me =| || “eos |) Tel | 725 | TTF) 7OO>|) 668
1,624 | — | — [\1,577 ||1,757 | 1,702 | 1,705 | 1,647 || 1,495
sig| — | — || 763 || 855| se2| 931 | 775 || 765
same =) ell saa) || 37a| Seal sve (> apg ll teas
171| 169| 175 || 185 || 190} 185 | 196] 179'|| 180
154| 149] 149 || 151 || 164] 156] 160] 153 | 159
114 | 197| 106 |} 107 |] 129] 121 | 141 | 130|| 112
143! 140] 136 || 136 || 152] 146] 155] 140 || 131
54 58 53 || 47 59 51 58 53 44 |
36| 39] 39 35 36°| 37) 39) “37 j| < 38
90:1 | 88:2 | 85-1 || 81:6 || 863 | 84:3 | 81-6 | 85:5 || 88-3
797 | 907 | 77:9 || 787 || 849 | 82:9 | 91:0 | 92:8 | 85:5
|
66-7 | 67-2 | 73:6 || 745.1 61-0 | 72:5 | 672 | 69:8 || 72:7
: |
458| — | — || 44:9 || 447] 43:9 | 403 | 45:5 || 46:3
1049 | — | — |/105-5 || 104-3 |102°9 | 96-1 | 107-3 || 105°1
528} — | — || 51-2 || 50:9 | 52:2 | 52:3] 503 || 53:9
213| — | — || 22:8 || 222 22:0 | 21:0 | 281 | 17°5

4oe., 1893,

(Worth- Western Tribes, Canada,
9b, Chilcotin,

9a, Chileotin (continued), Halfslood. 10, Cavvier,
: es Females (oontinved) | arate Males
Number 58 Jer | | c6 | cz | 6 o9 | vo | 1 | 72] zs | 4 I 2 5 1
fa (al a |
ane 3 2/23 | S38 5 STE Se ees act
2 2 | 8 a|4 Z Zs a |e} 3
— —|—| - SSS = S| —
I | z=
isl
= 5 = 5 2A,
3 g 5 | 3s
=| ae
a2
| as
> EN) a ee 5 a Fl:
25 | 26 | 90 | a0 | 30 | a5 | 38 | 45 | 47 | 56
mp. | mm no.| mm.| mom. | mm. | om ‘om, | mm.
1,556 1,604 1,571 |1,608 11,050 1,555 | 1,543, 1,002 1,776 |1,535
P 1254 1,964 1303 1906 |1,30) 1,294 1,228 1,281 1,264 1,285 jt |2,265
Length of ann OH 738 G55 | 75 690 | o91 680 | 657 | 683 O81 117 | 700
Finger-reach 1,590 1,718 1,560 1,018 1,085 1,000 1,667 | 1,524 | 1,639 4,502 bis
Helgbt sitting — | poi} ss} aio Bil as2 836 | TAL) 709 | 931
Width of sboaldi SIR 32 343 373° HG | B37) 362 874 |
Length of heed -| 18s 180 176 172180183184 7 196 | 170 | 160
Breadth of bead . =| 163 119 16 157 155 161 165 100)) -26a)/) 150)
Height of face 110 m4 uy 160 14 18k 116 MATS 1180) LS
Bresdih of fae 160} 145° 189/138 Mi 6 139 | 143-48 135 165)) 1401), 181
Height of nose | 49) 48) 49) 45 49| 56) 39| BL) 51 45 68))) 1687, asl
Breadth of nose 36| 36) 37| 35 so} 8] 97] so) 41| 35| se fees RE)
| Length-breadih index - | 890) 896) BO | KB | HS4 | BNO] ONE | B72) B47 | 875! 902 816 | 865 =
Facial index 733) 779 777 826) 858) B30) 822) 895 885 | 819 10) are 7
Nasal index s18| 860 778| 776) 612) 7a! 910 804 086 S712) OSB Le
Index of rm. +) 448) 452) 420 473) 4o4| 431! 497 | 498 1 428 are 4 {405 | 105 hes) Be
Tndex of Gioger-reach - 102% |1060 1003 1009 | 1066 |1021 |1017 | 997 |1011 1057 1080 1082 10s] — ]10110}) 1000); 1060 } 1008 |1ok9 | — | — |}1065)) eet} | 1080 POS eR
Index of befght sitting — | 534 550 529) 6a9| 507) odo | 082] 519) os | 025 O19 — | cos} os4| c05| 525) c28| — | — || 5v2|| boo) o22) nau ie | ae
} a3 | a9) 220] 2
Index of width of hoalders | 205 | 298| 215) 207| 206] 214 296 | 920) 223) 234 | 210 | 206 — | 215] 224 | 200) 217 213 | |e PERE Ee ey eo

Partly mixed with Carrier.

+ Danghter of No. 69.

\ Mother of No. 18, Mother of No. 60, # Mother of No, Ol,

( [North-Western Tribes of Canada. 10

untci’nemua = 1i. Half-blood 13. Okanagan. 13a. Okanagan
od with Nilakya'pamua. half-blood.

swap.
fan | Males | _ Female i Males Female | Male
Numi 14 | $f 2 ae 4 a ieee oa 1
| |
| | St ep | |
4 Paes, Fs Boe ae | S =
| ‘1 —
x ' 3 | 5 |
| A : Sth \|
| Se | i
= | | 1| I
A ) | |
| a =| | a
= a a St | s
Bae Jf) 2 &| | es | é
| ig 2 ES ep = ee a §
| : ~ > ‘ o
| An a | ss fe) EX) me . Is
: atest a| & = i ret
| ie | |
a fash |
Obse} B. F. | B BE | BL) B F
\| \| = |
Age | 30 ie | 15 || 4 | mi} i} i | 12
|---| i 2
mm. | mm. | wm. mm. | mm. | mm.) mm. ) mm.
Heig}1,674 1,412 |1,393 || 1,402 | 1,292 |1,442 | 1,554 | 1,432
Heig] 1,364 1,142 }1,112 || 1,127 | 1,024 | 1,142 | 1,256 | 1,172
Leng) 737 | 609 -619 599 564] 602 G84 634
Fing41,748 | 1,475 1,434) 1,43 1,323 {1,452 | 1,622 | 1,446
Heigl 393 | 724 | 746) © 739 683 | 733 | 836 — | 726
Wid} 398 321} 320, 316 oss | 296) 362 | 310
188 g6| 180|| 156 | 183] 198 || 179 176
Bread 158 } 153 | 1851 143 150] 146} 155 116
Heig] 119 | 107) 104 99 || 100] 116 110 95
143 132) 133 || 127 || 128-| 127)) 141 129
49 V-"4a| 451° 41 42| 47 4 | 3
36 33 34 29 31] 39 32 | 3
i =
840 823 | 839 || 923 | 820| 777 | 866 83-0
83:2 81-1 | 782 |) 780 | 781] 906 | 780 | 73°6
73°5 | 767) 7G || 707 | 738| 830) 727 | 721
——— | = = =)
44°] | 432 | 445 || 428 || 437] 418 || 441 | 44-3
4104-4 1045 |1029 | 1022 | 102-4]100-7 | 104-4 ! 101-0
535 51-3) 537 || 52:8 || 629 | 544 |) 53:9 | 50:8
23°8 | 99-8| 2301) 226 | 221] 206) 234 | 21-7

Uta'ngt.

Female

Nomber 1 2 |

11d. Ura'ngt ant

i.

lle. Na

= Uf. Nakyapannug’o'é and other

pamug'de. tribes mie
Female Females
6 7 8 10 | ap 13

|
Observe F ¥ th i B Fr B. B. B B. B a
‘ mM) 46 co 65 16 | 66 0 | 00 o
analhiea flan | a ae, ial oe, en
Height stand IAG 1,102 1460" 0 1,673 |1,510} 1,500 | 1,467
f 1187 1,014 5 282 | 1,278 | 1,273 | 1,185
far 500 632 = ca 690 | oss] 658 |
Finger-reac 144s {1 = 1,028 17783 {1.710 | 1,610 [1,600] 4,568,
Tieight sittin 7 - | | 830 —| Bu
Width of Te 33; 2 WT $42 B48 38 | 350
1 he 7 M7 192 73 | 188 184
| Breadth of t 156 61 1s it Hiss } 151 16}
ght of fa 99! 101) 101 108 7] i)
f fo 151 10 1 in 13 1s 0
40 43 18 wo i
a | 37 a i) 40 a
breath ind 97a 764 “or 21
800 618 812 sit | 60| 897 850
7k ue 708 O42 | 610 oon 166
“ua| 422 43 = 169 490)| 447 124
ch 1029 | 1045 1 1022 =_ 1057 1024 {1030 1002 1003
sitting m6) 022] a | ot | o7 | =) = || Fro 586 ||
dex of width of shoulders .| 238! 231] 918 ao | — || | 222| a9) 994 29 |)

11g.
Nkantetnenua.

Man

60

4,670

IAI
819

1,850

Wh Vkantevnrnua

mixed with

[Worth- Western Tribes of Canada,
. Half-blood

Nelakya'panua

Males

186 | 180
158 | 101
107
182
1s
30
423
Sil) 782
fo, a8
92) 406
1046 | 102-9
ia! 537
299 | 290

13. Okanagan,

10

13a. Okanagan

Half-Blood.
Female Males Tene Male t
iy i 1 ah 3 1

i, F, | &. i F.
u 13
1,402 1432
1127 1,172
oak

1416

155 isa} 188

1 150 | 146

00 too || 115

127 128 | 127 10
i2] 47 u 7
os] u9

o23 | 820] 777
740 | 781] 906

707 | 78} 850

428 | 4a7|are|| 441 |
1022 | 1924 |1007 |) 1044
628 bed | O30
205 | 4

¥ Sister of No, 4

[North-Western Tribes of Canadd. il
718. Heiltsuk .
Half-
II. Females esac
6 a. es ere ton is |). 12) | rs Vo ne We ae
: io = aia | — cate
S) } See
ee 0 a m |
Poems |e Pe) a fe) ee he
eee is) ee)" |} 2) 8) e
ieee «| | |
Z | |
| | =]

8 poe
= | s 3 | 4 | ci
oO ic) 23 ime ec a fou sey ea
a 0) a oS i a a
sas pea | 2 | | 2] é a. era
a) 3 a. ee} lee octet ees rl fac}
im) a . i=) | :

a a | a
| |

Meeeraoer | Bb eR Ob Rh Wh Be pie
60 | 70 20 25 | 40 50 55 | 60 35

ek aaa ae —|_——
mum, mm, mm, mm mm, mm. mm mm. mm
1,568 | 1,623 |1,574 | 1,414 |1,533 | 1,465 | — / 1,443 |1,618
1,285 | 1,326 | 1,301 | 1,158 1,265 |1,210 | — |1,181 | 1,305
754 | 743| 718| 633| 633 | 640| — | 667| 733
1,780 |1,774 | 1,654 |1,486 | 1,528 [1,543 | — | 1,536 | 1,723
ee | SiG: | — | S88 | 765, — | — 5
398 {| 358| 375 | 332| 351/ 360; — | — | 393
185 | 190| 185 | 181] 179/ 181! 184| 186| 185
170| 170| 155 | 153] 162] 155| 167} 167] 156
126| 127] 112] 120! 123] 113] 118] 114) 124
163} 159} 146] 141| 165] 162] 148/ 150! 143
ba} 52| 45| 50| 62] 48| 49| 47] 52
47| 42| 37/ — | 40| 38/ 43} 40] 33
91:9 | 89:5 | 838! 84:5 | 905 | 85:6 | 90:3 | 844 84:3
173 | 799 | 767 | 85:1 | 79:4 | 74:3 | 79:7 : 76:0 | 86:7
81:0 | 808 | 822) — | 769 | 792) 87-8) 851 | 635
48-0 | 459 | 45:7] 449] 41:4] 436] — | 463 | 455
114-2 |109:3 }105*1 | 105-1 | 99-7 |105°3 | — | 106-4 | 1068
Pee | SiG) —= | 548 | 51-4.) — rl Loe =
29:9 | 245 | — | =. | odes

26:4 | 22:1

23°9 | 23°5

a4 | 264 | 230)| 295! 920

. =<
Aesoe., 1898]
12, Tlingit. 18. Haida. [North-Western Pribes of Canada. 1h
——<—— Sa =e = Vt. Trinehian 15. Gyitkshon. 16. Yieka’. 17. Bi'lyula. 1S. Heittauk |
| Baik : ch See a = ——— Se SS
— is ] ]
P eee ood, : = - || 1. Males IL. Females | Males Males I. Males We I. Mates | Malt:
Namber Gpeacieeen {yt 7 | 9 | a0 | a = = >) — ——— j= = = es —
—— = = ra a d ae 4 | 6 nee DAE Can fanttall WD | FSC) tae eS 1 a|3 1 2 “1 | DC ean ee |) u | 16
i Ee ] |
(lz Veni pe (ial eh esa eee| alll ll =a eeal oe ean se = eel ae a a | a oe
}2] 7] 23\8. 3: Nese hie Z Alle ile FORE Aiba ie | |
Namen yee es mies ge (A5 | Bs ja |] & |) | = Bhs is 2 | ae Je |2e| & iS a 3,2 |
s/s a3\3e 22 22 a le) 4 g | é \ 24 [2 \esle)e)2)\e le g |g E
Liles | se|g 5% allie au roe 3 | 3 |e 2123/5) 2 |e | xis | AMS e | Cc | =
2 212 3 3 | g | 8 |az 2 | g=| 2 (2/218 | |
= == =: Sa Se FB 5 2 | So Cs EWE Webi | ite |) et iS I | | | |
it | | Z| | ale > | fan ae iam = —-!= = ar Se =
3. ] | 2) | | | | yon tl
= eS zp | a | ee es | 23 /S2/ = 3 |=] 5 | | = |e 2
z Fa | 3 4 = E | & wh) 3) 3 cl o | selagl| 3 2 S = 2 = 3s | mules
Tribe : 2 cI Say | 30/8 Biase | ae 2 | $2\s¢| = = en 3 =z 3 |3 es
ri ies tos | 2 22 {se lase Be) ee) = & 2 ¢ r z Vee 2 hese ies
| is Ea 32 | tee | ata fad 2 | on] & 5 2 = = | =i |]
ie | | ao | aei|iac | > 3 A | s a } a
| Sailh t au heal z = | i
{ = | |
sien Bl] a aa ee a relia |—|— ee | es El ee | Pe is
= s | | I. B. | B. | op. | B. |B. |B. |B. B. | 3.) B || a. | yy. | Fe req) ne (fae |e ¥ ;
Ane a gee 13 | 4 | a9 | a imeealivearlaeni | | caer - =} = -
== —== so 18 | | SE | 28 2S | (2 | | sa | as | 45 | 48 | 0) || 20 | go | 2 | a0 | co | oo | 10 35 15
mo. | mm | om. | mm se | errel| bers | to a | =| ] | — —— = = = - — —
Height standing - . 72 | 1,654 wy mom. | mm. | mm. | mo. | mm, | mm, | | mm. | mm. 1. | am . | 7 He mm. | om. | mm. | mm, | mut. | mom,
ear ee Hl eal beset es {1,048 | 1,008 |1,462 |1.500 {1,628 | 1.6508, 19801760 | 17a2 / 104 | Torres 1t8 (10% 1ye6o | yon | 720 | 102 |e | 1/608 1785 1,000 | 1.697 {rani 1,683 | 1tes | —" [1448 |a\610,
ae | : syed] 390)) it 4a16)/2.292 1.246 | — | 4s fair |1,203 | 1,833 | 1,207 /i,o08 |aya4u [1,198 |1,902 |1,978 |1,a10 || 1,105 | 1,004 |) 1,060 | 1,888 | 1,924 | }1an7 [1,904 | fans 1,205 |1,210) —
Finger-reach = - 1,810 1,483 | 1486 719 | ox} oso) 1a) 713) ose) 633} — | zo | 701 oes | 688) 780 | 687 —| m0} 71) 775) os) 778| 718 | 758} 741 | 738| 784) 701] oos| 7a7) 701 | 769 } csi! oss} oo) — -
Height sitting oy | a 1,658 | 1,553 | 1,501 (1,631 | 1,081 | 1,654 1,660)} 1,810 | 1,802 | 1,546 |1,613 yess A765 1,677 1,830 | 1,730 | 1,792 |1,755 | 1,687 | 1,828 1,686 | 1,778 iret Ai ‘isis 1,677 ‘}1,400 1,784 }a,826 1,721 1A86 (G25, {hows Tew |
sian ears elie at 792 | 528 835 | 924) o1n| 808] $18) 826 |) 817) 892 953/ 870) 800) s90| 827 | ais | 905 ])v3a)| (naz | iees. |) asa) — | — | — | (938) 4a} ees) et) — | — | 810) = ey8| 765) —
~ = = on Osi] 9 =| 996 ast) 86) siz) 360 | ao9 | 97a au | art | aco) ai | 364) 407) 364) 366) a8] 422) 495) 972] ais | 400) B01 | B08) sal | 376 35s] 376) 332) 261 -
Length of heal . . | 168 go |) 493 neers — —|— —|—}= |—— | ee — — [ese aes —— =|—
Breadth of beail 3 181 i a a Be oy Ey og 176 181 | 187 | 90 | 487) 1921 185| 190) 290 | to | 789 | 198! 199) 194 iss) 191| 191) 161) 190] 180 163) 141 | 185 | yoo] 185 | 181) 170 ia
Height of face Alea scall ae eh Stee eee M8) 167 | 163 156) 157) 161) 160 154) 150) 160! 153! 106 166) 158) 159) 162 | 167 | 107 159 | 168) 170} 170 155) 100) 102 167 |
recess a bf Mo) at |! 117 ! a Na yar) 118 | at) wn) 428) 120) 110| 122) 1 1012 | 124 | 110 16 1 | az! as! ier} ue) 120) 128) 110) 118
Height of nose Ai oa ts ee TEN) 1k 140 | 150 M9) 150) 119) 158 | to! 165} 146) tai! 162! 163 aoa] 151! we 150) 40] 11) toa) 162) 14K
Divedi oBrcs eee anenat | ect ai i pal bed se fies a | 45 a7 | 50) os! oo] 2) oa] so] ia] BL) ot Bo) ol) 58) of wo ce) 4a) av) 47 oe
in — — 40). 39 40] 33 us i oo 41} 09) 41 12) (38) 41] 85] 35) 42) 43) 4B) 48 ’
Length-breadth index. .| 214 | 89: sail tacall woul fae = | Le =| |
mei ey ne on0 | aac] sz9| roo! sia | goa! sin} Spx! spe StL | 808 | 7H9 | S04 | ) sor sso 879| 928 | p04) aoa
i . . . «| 30 z 4 o a1] 7 4 7 | | | |
Nasal index . 4 4 Peal (eel ces BLO} S48) S41 80-7) 639) 797] BLS }} BLT | BSL | 873 805 | 718) Bld) 810 | 80-0 | 780 | 840 | 762] KOO | SL6
= |— i) | 833) 688 | 717 | 761) 739) 699) 864 | 786 | 760 | 684 $20) 780) 707 S10 | a1 | 774 Kid | 824) 843) 860 | 83:0 c |
Indexofarmm =... | 495 | Fi Naas | 4a - =r i =|— i - — — Soa a
| ates or ase ae aes Be [3 436 | 453 | 405 | 444 a2] 433 | 320) 108) — | 408] — | sar] aoa | Er (PET (es fe P| | FEC) Wea || asa | se7| ase | az0| as0| d60| 466] 4p5| as0| aso) 159] 457| aco] 04 — | 403 | 155
ae eee. oT allah ot | 1028 J107 }106-1 )10%% |106- |s08a | 107 J1oHa }1087 | 1086 J1002 |1003 }1007 | 103-4 1086 |103-0 |105:6 |106-0 |1070 | 1052 |1ova |104 |1111 | 103 | 1031 |1083 || 1005 |108-2 | 104-8 |1027 |106-4 | 106 | 104-3 | 105-2 }ross 1142 | 1099 |1051 | 1051 | 997 = peal 10658
| 5 3) Ges | 643) G69) 688) 655 | 657 | BAe) G24) GTA | GOB) G42) 521) 629) 638} 530) 628 | ror} ot7| 92) ooa| o37| san| mi) sis| s29\| oes! 626] ono! o20| soo) — | — | — | sa2| ota) cea) tox) — | — | ste) — | DAS eae (|

| Index of width of shoulders. | 25:8 | 24+ pee 3 \
otshonldem.| 258 | 244 | 229 | 295 | 232] 940] 219 | 290] 255 | 228] 258] 221] 210) 224] 220] 207] — || 296 2a0| 237 || 20 | 220] 296] 287] 290 | 224 | 107] 220 | 261| 2107 /| 208 | 208 | zee | 25a) ear | 223) 2x8) 176) 241 | 202

i
12
i
|
Mu
©
a

1 Height =; ae -
eight of polbY/6f second ogec\610) * Son of Nos, 6 and 14. * Father of No. 2, © Mothor of + Brother of No. 6. * Brother of S

68th Repo [North-Western Tribes of Canada. 12
20. Kwakiutl Men.

nales |
Number. .|17 | 18 | TOW 20 | 2h | 2a 2 3 |
@ | 2 |
Eile | a | 3 Ri aes a
eeisenoe (oe |e: | 4 | 2 |= Ws
Name . peat Suen, OS @ A fH | & < ig
a | Met w | 3 ro = ss w
TD eS x ral a iS) = a q
= yen See ia es i = 3
tds) ee a Zz
2 ee | we! |
; oF ||
ig] 23
Be i & | a oS
& oat on le ah 7 “s re) gs >. = aa
q (=| q Rl = a = 12 ot = ot Se
} e)e | = ge) 8 Sh (es) so) oe
pve a | & | # (at) & | eel Fa | Ee | ge
E iS Ieee) s _| y|| BIEN Me ers
ese ober os | EE tee fe Stl Se
aoe <8
fy malar
Observer B B B B. | B B B B
Age 40 40 40 52 60 || 35 45 40
3 | ‘
m. | mm. | mm. | mm | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm.
Height standing,528 §| 1,457 | 1,492 | 1,508 | 1,544 | 1,462 | 1,540°1,610'"| 1,670
Height of shoul},244 | 1,192 | 1,222 | 1,223 | 1,254 | 1,203 || 1,242 | 1,310 | 1,357

Length of arm | 647 | 619 | 669) 617 | 692 679 672 | 745 | 764
Finger-reach . |,588 | 1,505 | 1,551 | 1,482 | 1,634 | 1,558 | 1,604 | 1,727 | 1,793
Height sitting |865 | 762} 800] 828| 808 | 784 |} 863 |} 843] 806
Width of shoul| 367 | 343 | 308] 356] 3438 3840 || 369) 3878] 390

Length of head 1837) 1667) 1617) 1697; 1767 1837) 1847) 189% 2052
Breadth of heaj 1547) 1467 1537) 1447) 1557) 1607) 1557) 1617) 1572
Height of face} 118 | 116) 114] 118} 120}; 119 124 | 135] 1380
Breadth of facqg 149 | 141 138 | 147] 153} 150 139 | 147] 157
50 45 49 49 52 54 56 58 53
35 36 35 35 38 36 37 36 42

Height of nose
Breadth of nos

Length-breadtl]84-2 7) 88:07} 95:07) 85-27) 88:17 87-47! 84:27) 85:24 76:62
792 | 82°3 | 82°6 | 80:3 | 78:4 | 79:3 || 89-2 | 91:8 | 82-8
80:0 | 71:4 | 71:4 | 73:1 | 66°7 || 66:71 | 62:1 | 79-2

Facial index .
Nasal index .

Index of arm.

42-4 | 44:9 | 40:9 | 44:9 | 46°56 || 43°6 | 46:3 | 45-7
103°3 | 1040 | 98:3 | 105°8 | 106°6 || 104-2 |107°3 | 107-4
52°2 | 53:7 | 54:8 | 52°5 | 53-7 |) 56°0 | 52°47) 48:3
235 | 20°'7 | 23°6 | 22°3 | 23°3 || 24:0 | 23:5 |. 23-4

® Daughter of Nos. 6, 17. * Head flattened behind,

=

Sth Report, Brit. Assoc., 1898.)

19, Avov/ky'ender.

(North-Western Tribes of Canada, 12

20, Kwakintl Men,

amber on wi
ae Waalix tha iee ha |
2 = | EE
= & Ee
Name = = 25
z el =
= mal a |
z l= lan Sale
ay |23| 3z
#2 = | Ze
= | 22] 5 | | hee
Ss = (55 =
Tribe 22 m |e \3%
| ae 5 ee a
Se = a | ed
28 == =e
| — Aa NE eS LO LE = | elf
| Observer : 7) en Jl (ie Fe B |B | ;
i ? oo | 65 | 17 | 20 | 20 3 | 40 | 40 | {co} a5 |46 ao
oe te a as fee cS tases BS fesse PALES LS | al es
om.) om.|mm mm | mm. | mm.|mo.| mm, mm. mm, me. | mm. mm. | mm. | mm. mm. | mm, | mm. | | om. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm,
Height standing. 1560 | 1,666 1,68 (1617 1,613 1,577" 1,693 11500 1,668 1,624 1,532* 1,520 1,02 1,678 | 1,620 |1,528" 1.467 |1,492 |1,608 | 1,644 | 1.462 | 1,540%1,610"" 1,670
Height of shoolder 1,867 | 1301 1801 1,307 1,208 1197 145 1846 1,94 240 1,214 | y,904 | 1,201 |3244 | 1,192 | 1,90 1254 [1,203 |) 1,242 | 1,810 | 1,307
Length of arm O73| 709) 704) 775) 689) tis | TOL) v27) 70x) 7in| G81 eso! G10) 29) os2| G70) AT) c19| cov 602 746 | 764
Finger-reach - 1,598 | 1,688 | 1,714 | 1,780 | 1,682 1,046 | 1,746 1,593 1,695 11,764 |1,608 | 1,688 1,660 | 1,620 | 1,591 {1,692 | 1,688 | 1,505 | 1,651 1,634 1,727 | 1,793
Height sitting | 847) 918 | v13) 826! B03) x67) B31) BAG BN) BBO) BIO) 520 S15) 437 | B44) 865} 762] 800 808 848 | 806
Width of sboulders | sa] 248) 3x7] 505) 975 soo! asa a71| gas| 928] s28 47] 340) a20| 351| 307] gia | 308 ua 878) 390
| — —|— i= —- = ae } <1 t
Length of head | ar) tho | 10) 90 aan4 ty0* tks 1HO" 1814 170) 116) 169 182% 180%, 1895 160% 1614 160"! 1704 189 205%
Breadth of head | 49) 159 I! 167# 16627 168! 161? 149% 157" 166) 152) 160] 1637 191% 160% 1643 140% 1639 144)! 105% 1014) 1574
| Height of face m4! 186 | 135 as] rot 115, 128 116 | amt m1 | ais] t08| 118) 126) 146 | 11a] 116) 114 | 118] 220 195 | 180
| Breadth of face 138 | 47 162/ 163) 166| 156) 164 148) 156) 40! 187} 142] 199) 145) 148) 149] 141] 188] 147] 168 147] 167
Height of nose 1s| oA wo) 67 | 56 so) 00} o7| 49| 47] 40) c3| 65] m1) co! 45) 49| 49) se 58) 68
Breadth of nose a7) 7 a 40 | 41} 40) 45) 98) 40) $3) 5) 96) 31] 95) 37) 95) 80) me) 85) 98 ao | 42
Length-breadth index m2 69! S11) R147 7004 asd | 8947 Bist exo | so4| 862| 904") Bs" gear 480" UFO} BOW HBS B74") 8524 766%]
| Facial index . | 826 si7| asa | 876) #65 | 707) 91| 777 | anv | 79a) H89| ToL) sve) so) 777 | ei | B26 | 808] 7h4| 799) BOL) O18) S28
| Neal index 04 766 | 782 702 742 765) 748 700) 702 oTH| 145) KT5) ORG 726 | 700| goo} 714) 714) 781] 607) cor | G21) 792
Index of arm wi (92 478 428 154 4 4V8 69) M7 128 | 424) 410) 4a4 | 445 | 490 | aaa | a0o 409 | 465 | avo | 469 | 407
Index of fioger-reach 1024 1050 1101 104% 1044 1096 1002 (04 1050 | LoL [1081 | 101-2 | 101-2 | 107-4 | 1084 |108%8 | 1010 |105°8 | 106% | 1002 | 107-8 | 1074
| Todex of height sitting ey 560 ch) 665) 542| 2a a4 o28 049) 646 | o58| 656 | 513) 665) cow! s22| 67) 518) G26) 547} GOO! 5241) 499
| Jodex of width of shoulders. 214 208 295 214 win 957 | ¥o1 289 400) 20H | 212 | 280] 27 | 208| 251 | 240) 296 | 207) 280) 228 | 8-8) 200) a55 | 234
Slightly deformed. * Deformed 1 Strongly deformed. Head somewhat asymmetrical, Imbecilet * Father of No.11, * Daughter of Nos. 6,17.’ Head flattened bebind,
* Mother of No. 11. * Brother of No.2 Brother of No. 1,

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 683

Papers based largely on Investigations carried on for the Commnuttee on
the North-Western Tribes of Canada.

1.—Reports I.-XII. of the Committee on the North-Western Tribes of Canada.

2.—Alex. F. Chamberlain. Der Wettlauf. Hine Sage de Kitonaqa. ulm Cr-
Quell, Ba. IIT. (1892), 8. 212-214.

3.—Hinige Wurzeln aus der Sprache der Kitonaqa-Indianer von Britisch-
Columbien. Verh. d. Berl. Anthrop. Ges. (1893), 8. 419-425.

4.—Notes on the Kootenay Indians. Bd. I. The Name. Amer. Antiquarian,
vol. xv. (1893), pp. 292-294.

5.—Notes on the Kootenay Indians, their History, &c. Bd. II. Linguistic Data.
Thid., vol. xvi. (1894), pp. 271-274.

6.—Notes on the Kootenay Indians. Bd.III. Mythology and Folk-lore. Zdid.,
vol. xvii. (1895), pp. 68-72.

7._Sagen vom Ursprung der Fliegen und Moskiten. Am Ur-Quell, Bd. IV.
(1893), S. 129-131. Contains abstracts of Kootenay legends.

8.—The Coyote and the Owl (Tales of the Kootenay Indians). Wemoirs of Intern.
Congr. of Anthrop.. (1893), Chicago, 1894, pp. 282-284.

9.—A Kootenay Legend: The Coyote and the Mountain-Spirit. Jowrn. Amer.
Fothk-lore, vol. vii. (1894), pp. 195, 196.

10.—Words Expressive of Noises in the Kootenay Language. Amer. Anthrop.
vol. vii. (1894), pp. 68-70.

11.—New Words in the Kootenay Language. Jbid., pp. 186-192.

12.—Beitrag zur Pflanzenkunde der Naturvélker Amerikas (list of Kootenay
Plant-names, with notes on their use). Verh. der Berl. anthrop. Ges. (1895), pp.
551-556.

13.—Alex. F. Chamberlain. Sulle significazioni nella lingua degli indigeni
americani detti Kitonaga (Kootenay) dei termini che denotano gli stati e le con-
dizioni del corpo e dell’ animo: saggio di psicologia filologica. Arch. per
Vv Antropol. (Firenze), vol. xxiii. (1893), pp. 393-399.

14,—Incorporation in the Kootenay Language. Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci.,
vol. xliii. (1894), pp. 346-348.

15.—Word-formation in the Kootenay Language. Jbid., vol. xliv. (1895),
pp. 259, 260.

16.—Kootenay Indian Personal Names. Jbid., pp. 260, 261.

17.—Franz Boas. Development of the Culture of North-West America. Science,
vol. xii. p. 194.

18.—Petroglyph on Vancouver Island. Traditions of the Kootenay. Verhand-
lungen der Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie (Berlin, 1891), S. 158-172.

19.—Vocabularies from the North Pacific Coast. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. (1891),
pp. 173-208.

20.—Chinook Jargon. Science, vol. xix., No. 474.

21.—Vocabulary of the Kwakiutl Language. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soe. (1892),
pp. 34-82.

22.—Classification of Languages of the North Pacific Coast. Memoirs of the
International Congress of Anthropology. Chicago, pp. 3389-346.

23.—Bella Coola Texts. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. (1895), pp. 31-48.

24.—Indianische Sagen von der nord-pacifischen Kitiste Amerikas (Berlin,
Asher & Co., 1895), 8. vi+363. Map.

25.—The Social Organization and Religious Ceremonials of the Kwakiutl
Indians. Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. (1895), pp. 311-736.

26.—Sprachen-Karte von Britisch-Columbien. Petermann’s Mittheilungen (1896),
No. 1. Map.

27.—The Decorative Art of the Indians of the North Pacific Coast. Bulletin
American Museum of Natural History (New York, 1896), pp. 123-176.

28.—Franz Boas. Die Entwicklung der Geheim-Biinde der Kwakiutl Indianer.
Bastian-Festschrift (1896), S. 435-444.

29.—Songs of the Kwakiutl Indians. Internat. Archiv fiir Ethnog., Supplement
(1896), pp. 1-9.

30.—Traditions of the Ts’etsa’ut. Journ. Amer. Folk-lore (1896), pp. 257-268 ;
and 1897.

684.

REPORT—1898.

INDEX TO REPORTS, IV.-XII.

The references are given to the pages of the separate copies.

pages of the Reports are as below :—

Separate copies.

PAGES
iv 123

Vv Hos iif
vl 1-163

vii 1-43
viii. Teval

é Ix. TEA uh
x 1-71

xi 1223

xii fe 6

Adoption among Kootenay, viii. 14.
Awiky’énéq: Physical characteristics, xii.
table.

Beliefs: Bilqula, vii. 15; Kwakiutl, vi.
61, xi. 10; Shuswap, vi. 92; Songish,
vi. 25; tribes of Lower Fraser River,
ab-Gyl hile

Bilqula: Birth, v. 41, vii. 11; current
beliefs, vii. 15; death, vii. 13; houses,
vii. 4; linguistics, vi. 127; marriage,
vii. 12; maturity. v. 42, vii. 12; medi-
cine, vii. 17; potlatch, vii. 6; mytho-
logy, iv. 8, vii. 6, 13; physical charac-
teristics, v. 12, vii. table 3; religion,
vii. 14; secret societies, vii. 6 ; shaman-
ism, vii. 15; social organisation, vii.
3; tribes, vii. 2; wars, vii. 15.

Birth: Bilqula, v. 41, vii. 11; Coast Sal-
ish, v. 44; Kwakinutl, v. 42, vi. 58, xi.
5; Nootka, vi. 39; Shuswap, vi. 89;
Songish, vi. 20; Tlingit, v. 40; Ts’Ets’-
a/ut, x. 45; T’simshian, v. 40.

Boas (F.): Report on Indians of British
Columbia, iv. 1-10, v. 5-97 and 6 plates,
vi. 10-163, vii. 2-43, ix. 1-11, x. 2-71,
xn? 123. xu, 117; 27256.;' ‘social
organisation of Haida, xii. 21-27.

Boas (F.) and L. FARRAND: Physical
characteristics of the Tribes of British
Columbia, xii. 1-17.

British Columbia: Comparative vocabu-
lary of languages spoken vi. i140, x. 68;
food of Indians, v. 19; government
and law v. 34; hunting and fishing,
v. 19; implements of Indians, v. 19;
mythology, iv. 6; physical characteris-
tics of coast tribes, v. 11; potlatch
v. 38; senses and mental character of
Indians, v. 18; topography of coast,
v. 6; tribes, v. 8; wars, v. 39.

The corresponding

Report.
PAGES
1888 233-255
1889 797-893
1890 553-715
1891 407-449
1892 545-615
1894 453463
1895 522-592
1896 569-591
1898 628-688
Canoes, Chilcotin, xii. 20; Kootenay,

vili. 22; Songish, vi. 14.

Carrier: Physical characteristics,
table 8.

CHAMBERLAIN (A. F.) on Kootenay,
Vill. 5=71.

Charms of Kootenay, viii. 25.

Chilcotin: L. Farrand, xii. 18; armour, xii.
20; canoes, xii. 20; death, xii. 20;
dress, xii. 20; houses, xii. 19: indus-
tries, xii. 18; inheritance, xii. 19; lo-
cation, xii. 18; marriage, xii. 18;
mythology, xii. 21 ; physical character-
istics, xii. table 9; shamanism, xii. 19;
social organisation, xii. 18; vocabu-
lary, xii. 37.

Childhood of Kootenay, viii. 13.

Children, growth of Indian, xi. 15.

Clothing of Ts’Ets’a’ut, x. 39.

Coast Salish: Birth, v. 44; death, v. 45;
houses, v. 22; marriage, v. 44; religion,
v.51; shamanism, v. 59; social organ-
isation, v. 32.

Colour perception of Kootenay, viii. 11.

Columbia River: Physical characteristics
of tribes, vii. 24.

Comox: Physical characteristics, v. 17,
xi. 16.

Comparative vocabulary, vi. 140, x. 68.

Crania from North Pacific coast, de-
formed, vi. 95.

Crime among Kootenay, viii. 14.

Customs of Sarcees, iv. 12.

xii.

Death: Bilqula, vii. 13; Chilcotin xii.
20; Coast Salish, v. 45; Héiltsuk-, vi.
58; Kootenay, v. 46, viii. 16; Kwa-
kiutl, v. 43, vi. 58, xi. 7; Nisk-a’, x. 52;
Nootka, vi. 43; Sarcees, iv. 15; Shus-
wap. vi. 91; Songish, vi. 23; tribes of
lower I'raser River, ix. 5; Ts’Ets’a’ut,
x. 46; Tsimshian, v. 41.

- _

ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.

Deformed crania from North Pacific
coast, vi. 95.

Dress: Chilcotin, xii. 20; Kootenay, viii.
24,

Hthnology, linguistic, Horatio Hale on,
viii. 1-5; of British Columbia, Horatio
Hale on, v. 1-5, vi. 1-10.

FARRAND (L.) and F. Boas, Physical
characteristics of tribes of British
Columbia, xii. 1-17.

FARRAND (L.), Ethnology of Chilcotin,
xii, 18-21.

Festivals of Nisk’a’, x. 52.

Fishing: Kootenay, viii. 20; Songish, vi.
Gs ‘tribes of lower Fraser River, ix. 7.

Food : Indians of British Columbia, Vv.
19; Kootenay, viii. 27; Shuswap, vi.
85; Songish, vi. 15.

Future life among Tlingit, v. 46.

Gambling: Sarcees, iv. 14; Songish, vi.
19.

Games: Kwakiutl, xi. 10; Nisk-a’, x. 61;
Nootka, vi. 38; Shuswap, vi. 89;
Ts’Ets’a ut, x. 47.

Genealogies of tribes of lower Fraser

’ River, ix. 3, table i.

Gitamat : Physical characteristics of, vii.
20.

Government and law among Indians of
British Columbia, v. 34.

Government of Shuswap, vi. 86.

Haida: Houses, v. 22; linguistics, v. 71 ;
mythology, iv. 7 ; physical characteris-
tics, v. 12, 15,vii. 20, xii. 15, 42, table 11;
secret societies, v. 58, vil. 48 ; shaman-
ism, v. 58; social organisation, iv. 4, v.
23, 26; worship and prayers, iv. 9.

HALE (Horatio), Introductory letter, iv.
1-4; ethnology of British Columbia,
v. 1-5, vi. 1-10; linguistic ethnology,
vili. 1-5; Sarcees, iv. 21-23.

Harrison Lake: Physical characteristics
of tribes, vii. table 5.

Héiltsuk:: Death, vi. 58; physical cha-
racteristics, xii. table 11; social organ-
isation, iv. 5, v. 23, 29.

History of Ts’Ets’a’ut, x. 35.

Houses: Bilqula, vii. 4; Chilcotin xii.
19; Coast Salish, v. 22; Haida, v. 22;
Kootenay, vill. 22; Kwakiutl, v. 22;
Nisk‘a’, xi. 12; Nootka, v. 22; Shus-
wap, vi. 80; Songish, vi. 11; Tlingit,
v. 22; Ts’Ets’a'ut, x. 40; Tsimshian,

V. 22, xi. 12.

Hunting ard fishing in n British Columbia,

eho

Hunting:

685

Kootenay, viii. 19; tribes of
lower Fraser River, ix. 7; Ts’mts’a’ut,
x. 41.

Implements of Indians of British Colum-
bia, v. 19.

Indian children, growth of, xi. 15.

Indian words, transcription of, iv. 4, vi.
10, vii. 2, x. 2, xii. 38.

Indians of British Columbia, reports on,
iv. 1-10, v. 5-97 and 6 plates, vi. 10-
163, vii. 2-43, viii. 5-71, ix. 1-11, x. 2—
71, xi. 1-23, xii. 1-61.

Industries: Chilcotin, xii. 18; Shuswap,
vi. 83.

Inheritance: Chilcotin, xii. 19 ; Kootenay,
viii. 14.

Introduction to report of Committee, by
Sir Daniel Wilson, vii. 1.

Kootenay: Adoption, viii. 14; canoes,
viil. 22; charms, viii. 25; childhood,
viii. 13; colour perception, viii. 11 ;
crime, viii. 14; death, v. 46, viii. 16;
dress, vili. 24; fishing, viii. 20; food,
viii. 27 ; houses, viii. 22; hunting, viii.
19; linguistics, v. 93, viii. 45; manu-
factures, viii. 23; marriage v. 46, 13;
maturity, v. 45; medicine, vill. 29;
music, viii. 17; mythology, iv. 9, viii.
31; ornaments, vill. 25; painting, viii.
16; physical characteristics, vili. 58;
property and inheritance, viii. 14 ; reli-
gion, vili. 15 ; report of A. F. Chamber-
lain, viii. 5-71; senses and mental
character, viii. 8; shamanism, v. 59,
viii. 15; sign language, vili. 36; social
organisation, iv. 6, viii. 12; tattooing,
viii. 16; terms of relationship, viii. 12 ;
tribes, viii. 6; worship and prayers,
iv. 10,

Kwakiutl: Birth, v. 42, vi. 58, xi. 5; cur-
rent beliefs, vi. 61, xi. 10; death, v.
43, vi. 58, xi. 7; games, xi. 10; houses,
v. 22; linguistics, vi. 103, xi. 17; mar-
riage, v. 42; mythology, iv. 7; physi-
cal characteristics, v. 12, 15, vii. 21, x.
tables 3, 4,5; xii. table 12 ; religion, v-
61, vi. 58; secret societies, v. 52, vi. 62 ;
shamanism, vi. 59, xi. 2; social organi-
sation, v. 29, 33, vi. 56; tribes, vi. 52;
worship and prayers, iv. 9.

Kwakiutl type, xii. 16.

Languages spoken in British Columbia,
comparative vocabulary of, vi. 140.

Linguistic stocks, iv. 4.

Linguistics: Bilqula, vi. 127; Haida, v.71 ;
Kootenay, v. 93, vili. 45; Kwakiutl, vi.
103, xi. 17; Ntlakya’pamuq, xii. 27;

686

Nisk-a’, x. 62, xi. 18; Nootka, vi. 116;
Okanagon, vi. 135; Salish languages,
vi. 127; Sarcees, iv. 17; Shuswap, vi.
131; Snanaimuq, vi. 128; Stla’tlumH,
vi. 133; Tlingit, v. 60; Ts’Ets’4’ut, x.
66; Tsimshian, v. 81.

Lku’‘igen. See Songish.

Location: Chilcotin, xii. 18; Sarcees, iv.
10; Shuswap, vi. 80; Ts’Ets’a’ut, x. 34.

Lower Fraser River: Physical character-
istics of tribes, vii. 22; tribes, ix. 1.

Lytton, Physical characteristics of Indians
of, v. 18.

Manufactures: Kootenay, viii. 23; Song-
ish, vi. 14.

Marriages: Bilqula, vii. 12; Chilcotin,
xii. 18; Coast Salish, v.44; Kootenay,
y. 46, viii. 13 ; Kwakiutl, v. 42; Nisk:a’,
x. 54; Nootka, vi. 42; Sarcees, iv. 14;
Shuswap, vi. 90; Songish, vi. 23; tribes
of lower Fraser River, ix.4; Ts’Ets’a’ut,
x. 45; Tsimshian, v. 40.

Maturity: Bilqula, v. 42, vii. 12; Koo-
tenay, v. 45; Nootka, vi. 40; Shuswap,
vi. 89; Songish, vi. 22; Ts’Ets’a’ut, x.
45; Tsimshian, v. 40.

Medicine: Bilqula, vii. 17 ; Kootenay, viii.
29; Songish, vi. 24.

Mental character: Indians of British Co-
lumbia,‘v. 18; Kootenay, viii. 8.

Music: Kootenay, viii. 17; Nisk-a’, x. 50,
51; Nootka, vi. 36-38, 41, 44, 46, 48-50 ;
Ts’nts’a’ut, x. 46.

Mythology: Bilqula, iv. 8, vii. 6, 13;
Chilcotin, xii. 21; Haida, iv. 7; Koo-
tenay, iv. 9, viii. 31; Kwakiutl, iv. 7;
Nisk:a’, x. 50; Nootka, iv. 8, vi. 43;
Ntlakya’pamuq, iv. 8; Salish, iv. 8;
Songish, vi. 27; Tlingit, iv.6; tribes of
British Columbia,iv. 6; tribes of lower
Fraser River, ix. 9; Ts’Ets’a‘ut, x. 47;
Tsimshian, iv. 7.

Nasal index of skulls, xi. 16.

Nicola Valley, Tinneh tribe of, x. 30-34,
xii. 18, 38.

Nisk-a’: Death, x. 52; festivals, x. 52;
games, x. 61; houses, xi. 12; linguis-
tics, x. 62, xi. 18; marriage, x. 54;
music, x. 50, 51; mythology, x. 50;
physical characteristics, x. tables 1, 2;
xii. table 11; religion, x. 61; secret socie-
ties, x. 54; shamanism, x. 59; social
organisation, x. 48; totem poles, x. 52.

Nootka: Birth, vi. 39; death, vi. 43;
games, vi. 38; houses, v. 22; linguis-
tics, vi. 116; marriage, vi. 42; matu-
rity, vi. 40; music, vi. 36-38, 41, 44, 46,
48-50; mythology, iv. 8, vi. 43; omens
relative to birth of twins, vi. 39; paint-

REPORT—1 898.

ings, vi. 35, 40; physical characteris-
tics, v. 12, 15, vii. 21; potlatch, vi. 36;
religion, vi. 43; secret societies, vi. 47 ;
shamanism, vi. 44; social organisation,
vi. 32; tattooing, vi. 38; tribes, vi. 31.

Northern type, xii. 15, 42.

North Pacific Coast : Deformed crania, vi.
95; physical characteristics of tribes,
vii. 18, x. 3.

| Northern Oregon: Physical characteris-

tics of tribes, vii. 26.

Ntlakya’pamuaq: Linguistics, xii. 27 ; my-
thology, iv. 8; physical characteristics,
x. tables, 7-11, xii. table 10.

Okanagon: Linguistics, vi. 135; physical
characteristics, x. table 11.

Ornamentation, Ts’Ets’a/ut, x. 43.

Ornaments, Kootenay, viii. 25.

Painting : Kootenay, viii. 16; Nootka, vi.
35, 40; preliminary notes, iv. 5.

Physical characteristics: Bilqula, v. 12, vii.
table 3; Chilcotin, xii. table 9; coast
tribes of British Columbia, v.11; Comox,
v.17; Gitamat, vii. 20; Haida, v.12, 15,
vii. 20, xii. table 11; Indians of Lytton,
v. 18: Kootenay, viii. 38; Kwakiutl, v.
12, 15, vii. 21, x. tables 3-5; Nisk-a’,
x. tables 1, 2; Nootka, v. 12, 15, vii.
21; Ntlakya’pamuq, x. tables 7-11;
Okanagon, x. table 11; Oregonian
Tinneh, vii. table 9; Sanitch, v. 17;
Sarcees, iv. 16; Shuswap, viii. 71. x.
table 11; Sishiatl, x. table 5; Songish,
v. 17; Ts’Ets’a’ut, x. table 1; Tsim-
shian, v. 12, 15, vii. 20.

Physical characteristics of tribes: Coast
of Washington, vii. table 6; Columbia
River, vii. 24; Harrison Lake, vii.
table 5; Lower Fraser River, vii. 22, x.
table 6; North Pacific coast, vii. 18, x.
3; Northern Oregon, vii. 26; Southern
Oregon vii. 28.

Potlatch: Bilgula, vii. 6; British Colum-
bia, v. 38; Nootka, vi. 36.

Preliminary notes on mythology : Bilqula,
iv. 8; British Columbia. iv. 6; Haida,
iv. 7; Kootenay,iv. 9; Kwakiutl,iv.7 ;
Nootka, iv. 8; Ntlakya’qamugqQ, iv. 8;
Salish, iv.8; Tlingit, iv. 6; Tsimshian,
iv. 7.

Preliminary notes on painting, iv. 5.

Preliminary notes on social organisation :
Haida, iv. 4; Héiltsuk’, iv. 5; Koote-
nay, iv. 6; Salish, iv. 5; Tlingit, iv. 5.

Preliminary notes on tattooing, iv. 5.

Preliminary notes on worship and prayers :
Haida, iv. 9; Kootenay, iv. 10; Kwa-
kiutl, iv. 9; Salish, iv. 10; Tlingit, iv.
9; Tsimshian, iv. 9.

_ Preliminary report by F. Boas, iv. 1-10.
Property among Kootenay, viii. 14.

=z

Relationship: Kootenay, terms of, viii.

12; Salish laneuages, terms of, vi. 136.

Religion: Bilqula, vii. 14; Coast Salish,
vy. 51; Kootenay, viii. 15; Kwakiutl,
v. 51, vi. 58; Nisk:a’, x. 61; Nootka,
vi. 43; Shuswap, vi. 93; Songish, vi.
28; tribes of Lower Fraser River, ix.
9; Ts'Ets‘a’ut, x. 46; Tsimshian, v.
49.

Reports on Indians of British Columbia,
iv. 1-10, v. 5-97 and 6 plates, vi. 10-
G3, vil. 224 ores 227 1x 1223," xii.
1-61.

y
7
j
;

Salish languages: Linguistics, vi. 127;
terms of relationship, vi. 156.

Salish : Mythology, iv. 8 ; social organisa-
tion, iv. 5; worship and prayers, iv.
10.

Sanitch : Physical characteristics, v. 17.

Sarcees: Customs, iv. 12; death, iv. 15;
gambling, iv. 14; linguistics, iv. 17;
location, iv. 10; marriage, iv. 14; origin,
iv. 11; physical characteristics, iv. 16 ;
remarks by Horatio, Hale, iv. 21-23 ;
report by EF. Wilson, iv. 10-21;
shamanism, iv. 15; traditions, iv. 12.

Secret societies : Bilqula, vii. 6 ; Haida, v.
58; Kwakiutl, v 52, vi. 62; Nisk-a’, x.
54; Nootka, vi. 47; Songish, vi. 26;
Tsimshian, v. 56.

Senses and mental character: Indians of
British Columbia, v. 18; Kootenay,
viii. 8.

Shamanism, Bilqula: vii. 15; Chilcotin,
xii. 19; Coast Salish, v.59; Haida, v.
58; Kootenay, v. 59, vili. 15; Kwa-
kiutl, vi. 59, xi. 2; Niska’, x. 59;
Nootka, vi. 44; Sarcees, iv. 15: Shus-
wap, vi. 93; Songish, vi. 28; Tlingit,
y. 58: tribes of lower Fraser River, ix.
9; Ts’Ets’a’ut, x. 45; Tsimshian, v.
58.

Shuswap: Birth, vi. 89; current beliefs, vi.
92; death, vi. 91; food, vi. 85; games,
vi. 89; government, vi. 86; houses, vi.
80, industries, vi, 83; linguistics, vi.
131; location, vi.80; marriage, vi. 90;
maturity, vi. 89; physical characteris-
ties, viii. 71, x. table 11, xii. table 7;
religion, vi. 93; shamanism, vi. 93;

. sign language, vi. 87; social organisa-
tion, vi. 85; war, 86.

Sign language : Kootenay, viii. 36 ; Shus-

wap, vi. 87; Songish, vi. 25.

Sishiatl, physical characteristics, x. table
5

Skulls, nasal index, xi. 16.

i 7 ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 687

Slaves of Chilcotin, xii. 19.

Snanaimuq: Linguistics, vi. 128.

Social organisation: Bilqula, vii. 3; Chil-
cotin, xii.18; Coast Salish, v. 32; Haida,
iv. 4, v. 23, 26; Héiltsuk:, iv. 5, v. 23,
29 ; Kootenay, iv. 6, viii. 12 ; Kwakiutl,
v. 29, 33, vi. 56; Nisk-a’, x. 48; Nootka,
vi. 32; Salish, iv. 5; Shuswap, vi. 85;
Songish, vi. 17; Tlingit, iv. 5, v. 23,
25; tribes of lower Fraser River, ix.
3; Ts’Ets’a/ut, x. 44; Tsimshian, v. 23,
24, 27,

| Songish: Birth, vi. 20; canoes, vi. 14;

current beliefs, vi. 25; death, vi. 23;
fishing, vi. 16; food, vi. 15; gambling,
vi. 19; houses, vi. 11; manufactures,
vi. 14; marriage, vi. 23; maturity, vi.
22; medicine, vi. 24; mythology, vi.
27 ; omens relative to birth of twins,
vi. 22; physical characteristics, v. 17;
religion, vi. 28; secret societies, vi.
26; shamanism, vi. 28; sign language,
vi. 25; social organisation, vi. 17 ; tat-
tooing, vi. 22.

Southern Oregon: Physical character-
istics of tribes, vii. 28.

Sti/‘atemag:.Physical characteristics, xii.
table 6.

Stla'tluma : Linguistics, vi. 133; physical
characteristics, xii. tables 1, 2, 3.

Stlemqd'lequm@: Physical character-
istics, xii. tables 4, 5, 6.

Summary of the work of the Committee,
xii. 40-56.

Tattooing : Kootenay, vili. 16; Nootka,
vi. 38; Songish, vi. 22; preliminary
notes, iv. 5.

TEIT (James): Tinneh of Nicola Valley,
x. 31-33

Terms of relationship: Kootenay, viii.
12; Salish languages, vi. 136.

Thompson River type, xii. 15, 42.

Tinneh of Nicola Valley, x. 30-34 ; James
Teit on, x. 31-33.

Tinneh, Oregonian: Physical character-
istics, vii. table 9.

Tlingit: Birth, v. 40; future life, v. 46;
houses, v. 22; linguistics, v. 60 ; mytho-
logy, iv. 6; shamanism, v. 58; social
organisation, iv. 5, v. 23, 25; worship
and prayers, iv. 9.

Totem poles of Nisk‘a’, x. 52.

Traditions of Sarcees, iv. 12.

Transcription of Indian words, iv. 4, vi.
10, vii. 2, x. 2, xii. 38.

Tribes: Bilqula, vii. 2; coast of Washing-
ton, physical characteristics, vii. table
6; Columbia River, physical character-
istics, vii. 24; Harrison Lake, physical
characteristics, vii. table 5; Kootenay,
viii. 6; Kwakiutl, vi. 52; Nootka, vi.

688 REPORT—1898.

31; Northern Oregon, physical cha- v. 49; secret societies, v. 56; shaman-
racteristics, vii. 26; Southern Oregon, ism, v. 58; social organisation, v. 23,
physical characteristics, vil. 28. 24, 27; worship and prayers, iv. 9.
Tribes of Lower Fraser River, ix. 1; cur- | Twins: Omens relative to birth, Nootka.
rent beliefs, ix. 11; death, ix. 5; fish- vi. 39; Songish, vi. 22. ;
ing, ix. 7; genealogies, ix. table 1; Village of Ts’Bts’a’ut, x. 39.
hunting, ix. 7; marriage, ix. 4; my- Vocabulary of Chilcotin, xii. 37.
thology, ix. 9; physical characteristics, | —-— comparative, x. 68; languages
vii. 22, x. table 6; religion, ix. 9; spoken in British Columbia, vi. 140.
shamanism, ix.9; social organisation, |
1b i |

Ts'Ets’a/ut : Birth, x. 45; clothing, x. 39; | War of Shuswap, vi. 86.
death, x. 46; games, x. 47; history, | Wars: Bilqula, vii. 15 ; Indians of British

x. 35: houses, x. 40; hunting, x. 41; Columbia, v. 39.

linguistics, x. 66; location, x. 54; | Washington: Physicai characteristics of

marriage, x. 45; maturity, x. 45; | tribes of coast, vii. table 6.

music, x. 46; mythology, x. 47; orna- | WILSON (E. F.), Report by, on Sarcees,

mentation, x. 43; physical character- iv. 10-21.

istics, x. table 1; religion, x. 46; WILSON (Sir Daniel), Introduction by, to

shamanism, x. 45; social organisation, Report of Committee, vii. 1.

x. 44; villages, x.39. | Words in language of Tinneh of Nicola
Tsimshian: Birth, v. 40; death, v. 41; Valley, x. 33, xii. 38.

houses, v. 22, xi. 12; linguistics, v. 815 | Worship and prayers, Haida, iv. 9;

marriage, v. 40; maturity, v. 40; my- Kootenay, iv. 10; Kwakiutl, iv. 9;

thology, iv. 7; physical characteristics, Salish, iv. 10; Tlingit, iv. 9; Tsim-

vy. )2, 15, vii. 20, xii. table; religion, shian, iv. 9.

Torres Straits Anthropological Dxpedition.—Interim Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir W. TURNER (Chairman), Professor A.
C. Happon (Secretary), Professor M. Foster, Dr. J. Scorr-
Kewtir, Professor L. C. Misti and Professor MARSHALL WARD,
appointed to investigate the Anthropology and Natural History of
Torres Straits.

Tue party, consisting of Drs. Haddon, Rivers, MacDougall, and Myers,
and Messrs. Ray and Wilkin, left London in the ‘Duke of Westminster’
on March 10, and arrived at Thursday Island on April 22, where Dr.
Seligmann joined the expedition. Dr. Haddon adds :—After various
delays, Murray Island was reached on May 6; here we occupied a dis-
used Mission House. The whole party stayed in Murray Island for a
fortnight, and a number of anthropological and psychological obser-
vations were made. As the Rey. J. Chalmers sent the ‘Olive Branch’
to take on those who wished to proceed to Port Moresby, Mr. Ray, Dr.
Seligmann, Mr. Wilkin, and myself took this opportunity of crossing to
the mainland. Delena was reached on May 27, and Port Moresby on
May 31. In the absence of the Governor, Sir William Macgregor, Mr.
Musgrave gave us every assistance, and the ‘ Peuleule,’ a small Govern-
ment schooner, was put at our disposal for a fortnight. Short visits were
paid to Kaile, Kappakappa, &c., and a stay of nearly a fortnight was
wade at Hula. The annual dance at the neighbouring village of Babaka
was witnessed and photographed. ‘This is evidently a fertility dance for
the gardens, and probably also for the girls. It is similar to the famous
annual dance at Kalo, which is about three and a half miles distant. At
Kerepunu we saw and photographed canoes being hollowed out with stone
adzes. We have photographed several processes, such as tattooing, fire
making, pile driving, pottery manufacture, &c. After our return to Port

———————————— LL rr Cr

ON THE TORRES STRAITS ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXPEDITION. 689

Moresby we made a short excursion to the Astrolabe Range, and measured

‘a few Taburi natives. Some mountaineers who visited Port Moresby

were also measured and had their eyesight tested. Dr. Seligmann paid a
visit to the Rigo district, and had not returned at the time this was
written ; he will remain some time longer in this part of New Guinea.
The rest of us left Port Moresby on July 7, and spent a few days in the
neighbourhood of Hall Sound and in the Mekeo district. Murray Island
was reached on July 20. Drs. Rivers, MacDougall, and Myers have
obtained a large number of observations in experimental psychology,
which promise to be of great interest. The whole of the party have
enjoyed good health so far, no serious case of illness having occurred.

Silchester EHacavation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
A. J. Evans (Chairman), Mr. Jonn L. Myres (Secretary), and
Mr. E. W. Brasroox, appointed to co-operate with the Silchester
Excavation Fund Committee in their Explorations.

THE excavations at Silchester in 1897 were begun on May 3, and
continued, with the usual interval during the harvest, until November 4.

Theareaselected for excavation included twoinsule(X VII.and XVIII),
extending from insula III. (which was excavated in 1891) to the south
gate, and lying on the west side of the main street through the city from
north to south (v. plan). The area in question contains about five acres.

The northern margin of insula XVII. is entirely filled with the
foundations of two large houses of the courtyard type, presenting several
unusual features. The southern part of the ansula contained the remains
of a house of the corridor type of early date, portions of apparently two
other houses of the same type, and two detached structures warmed by
hypocausts and furnished with external furnaces, perhaps for boilers, of
which no examples have hitherto been met with at Silchester. Near one
of these was discovered a well containing at the bottom a wooden tub in
an exceptional state of preservation. It will be added to the collection in
the Reading Museum.

Insula XVIII, like XVIL., has the northern fringe entirely covered
with the foundations of buildings. These belonged to one house of
‘unusual size and plan, and perhaps two other houses. The remainder of

the insu/a is unusually free from buildings, and even rubbish pits. It

contains, however, towards the south gate, foundations of an interesting
corridor house with an attached inclosure containing six circular rubble
bases. It is possible that these are the supports for stone querns, and
that the building was actually a flour mill. In a well near this building
were discovered two more tubs, which have been successfully raised and
preserved.

The architectural fragments discovered in 1897 were few in number :
among them were a terra-cotta antefix, parts of two inscribed tiles and of
a marble mortar, a stone slab with moulded edge, apparently portion of a
pedestal or some such object, and two fragments of capitals, evidently
from the basilica.

The finds in bronze, iron, and bone are of the usual character. Among
the bronze articles are two good enamelled brooches, several chains, and a
curious socketed object surmounted by the head of an eagle—perhaps to fit
on a staff. The finds in bone and glass were unimportant.

1898. Mx

690 REPORT—1898.

The pottery includes a number of perfect vessels of different kinds.
One of these, a jar of grey ware with painted black bands, is of unusual
size, being nearly 2 feet high and 22 inches in diameter.

A detailed account of all the discoveries was laid before the Society of
Antiquaries on May 26, 1898, and the objects found were exhibited, as in
former years, at Burlington House.

The annexed plan of the Roman town shows the portions excavated
down to May, 1898.

Ras wD ww ow ans

et a me me me

a

es)

It is proposed during the current year to excavate the two insula
south of insule XV. and XVI. (excavated in 1896). With them must
also be included the ground to the south of them, a triangular piece
almost as large as a third insula. When the examination of this area
is completed considerably more than half the city, including the whole of
the south-west quarter, will have been systematically excavated and
planned. As the insu/e@ and adjoining portions now (1898) under
examination cover nearly eight acres, the expenses of the excavations this
year will be more than usual.

The Committee therefore ask to be reappointed, with a further grant.

——— sl

_—

ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN. OO]

r

Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in
Public Elementary and other Schools—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir Dougtas Gatton (Chairman), Dr. FRancis
WARNER (Secretary), Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Dr. J. G. Garson,
and Mr. HK, Waite WALLIS. (Report drawn up by the Secretary.)

PAGE
APPENDIX.—Table showing co-relations of conditions of defect among 1,120
children, subnormal in constitution, mental, or physical 3 2 - 692
In presenting our sixth annual report we give a further account of those
children whose mental and physical condition renders them unfitted for
the public education provided in ordinary elementary day schools. The
facts upon which our research is based are the recorded observations of
the 1,120 children who appeared to require special care and training, a
catalogue of whom was given in our last report (1897)—viz., 597 boys,
523 girls.

Some account of these children is given in the Annual Report (1898)
of the Childhood Society, to whom we are indebted for access to the
records of those cases. _

It is by studying the co-relations of the cases, and the relative fre-
quency with which the main classes of defect are associated in boys and
girls, respectively arranged in age-groups, that new information is mostly
obtained. This work has proved laborious, and results are given in the
table appended. This statement of facts observed may be compared with
the results of the examination of 100,000 children seen in ordinary
schools.!

The facts tabulated show that great difficulties must arise in making
any provision for the proper care of these children, who are altogether
below the normal or average in bodily and mental power ; they show a
much greater tendency than average children to become delicate under an
adverse environment, especially the girls ; this, as might be expected, is
most marked in those under seven years of age.

The main classes of defect are indicated in the table by symbols :—
A. Defect in development of body ; B. Abnormal nerve-signs; C. Low
nutrition ; D. Mental dulness.

The large proportion of both boys and girls who present ‘ abnormal
nerve-signs’ or irregularities in movement, balance, and response in action,
shows the importance of trying to remove each such sign of brain-dis-
orderliness in detail by carefully adapted physical training ; such abnor-
mal conditions do not appear to pass off naturally in these children, as is
shown by the fact that among cases with developmental defect, they are
almost as frequent among the older as the younger children.

The remarks made above show that the improvement of the brain con-

' Report on the Scientific Study of the Mental and Physical Conditions of Child-
hood, with particular reference to children of defective constitution, and with
recommendations as to education and training, based on 100,000 children examined.
Published at Parkes Museum, Margaret Street, London, W., the office of the
Childhood Society.

Wawa

692 REPORT— 1895,

dition of children below the average in mental and physical development,
requires much labour on the part of skilled teachers, combined with good
hygienic surroundings, and that such work must necessarily not be esti-
mated by average results.

It appears that research, founded on observation, affords results of
scientific and social value, while much remains to be done before any
method of mental hygiene can be firmly established.

The Committee desire to be reappointed, to act. in conjunction with
the Childhood Society, for the scientific study of the mental and physical
conditions of children ; to assist them in presenting the results of their

observations in a duly co-related form they ask a grant of 20/. in aid of
their work.

Taste based on the observation of 1,120 children who appeared to require

special care and training on physical or mental grounds—Boys 597, Girls
523—showing the co-relation or the association of the main classes of defects
in this Group. The Table rs arranged in fowr columns, giving the percent-
ages for children im the Age-groups and at all ages. The percentages are
taken on the number with the main class of defect. Thus: of all cases with
developmental defect at all ages 90 per cent. of the boys and 92-3 per cent. of
the girls were mentally dull. Of all the dull children at all ages 86°3 per

cent. of the boys and 87:5 per cent. of the girls also presented abnormal Nerve-
signs.

2 :
ac 7 years and Ave 8-10 jAge 11 and

All ages
under over =

B. |G |B. |G. |B. |G. |B |G.

All cases with Developmental defect.

AB ‘, 91:2 | 89:0 | 92°0 | 90°5 | 83°7 | 85:9 | 89'2 | 889 | Per cent. with Abnormal Nerve-signs.

AC 772 | 83°5 | 69°5 | 77°0 | 48°8 | 641 | 65°2 | 7674 55 » Low nutrition.

AD 90:3 | 90:4 | 91-4 | 96°0 | 87-8 | 92°3 | 90°0 | 92°3 ‘ » Mental dulness.

ABC. 74:5 | 787 | 68:2 | 73°0 | 45°5 | 57:7 | 62°8 | 71°5 s » Nerve-signs and Low nutri-

tion.

ABD. 85°1 | 86'3 | 87-4 | 88°9 | 77-2 | 82°0 | 835 | 85°8 - » Nerve-signs and Dulness,

ACD. T3T | 795 | 67°5 | 76-2 | 47-1 | 615 | 72°8 | 73'8 ES » Low nutrition and Dulness.
/ ASCD ‘ 72°83 | 774 | 66°9 | 73°0 | 44°6 | 57-7 | 616 | 71:0 x » Low nutrition and Dulness,

and Nerve-signs.

| No. ofcases—B .| 142 | 153 | 186 | 148 | 141 |115 | 469 | 418 | All cases with Abnormal Nerve-signs.

AB : 5 . | 732 | 84°9 | 747 | 77-0 | 73°0 | 582 | 73:7 | 74°8 | Per cent. with Developmental defect.
| BC : A . | 640 | 76°5 | 586 | 64:9 | 41°1 | 42°6 | 55°0 | 62°5 as » Low nutrition.

BD 3 : - | 88°7 | 93°5 | 8675 | 91°8 | 82°3 | 85:2 | 85°9 | 90:2 3. s» Mental dulness,

ABC. ° « |59°S | 751 | 554 | 62°1 | 39°7 | 39-1 | 52-0 | 60°3 + 5, Developmental defect and

ee Low nutrition.
ABD. . + | 683 | 82°3 | 70°9 | 75°6 | 67:3 | 55°3 | 69°0 | 72:2 is 35 Developmental defect and
| Dulness.

ISB CID. . « |62°7 | 75°2 | 575 | 67:8 | 39:7 | 40°8 | 53°7 | 617 a 5, Low nutrition and Dulness,
{| ABCD A . | 585 | 73°9 | 54:4 | 62°1 | 39-0 | 39°0 | 50°9 | 59:7 = s, Low nutrition and Dulness,
| | | and Developmental defect.
| No. of cases—C «| 96 | 126 |115 |105 | 63 | 57 | 274 | 288 | All cases with Low nutrition.

AC * . | 916 96°83 | 913 | 92-4 95-2 87-7 | 92°3 | 93°3 | Per cent. with Developmental defect.

BC i. a - |94°8 | 92°8 | 94°7 | 92-4 | 92-0 | 85°9 | 94-2 | 91°2 ss » Abnormal Nerve-signs.

cD : « | 93°7 | 95:2 | 93°9 | 96:2 | 93°6 | 89°5 | 93°8 | 94-4 » 5 Mental dulness.

ABC. - | 88°5 | 91°2 | 89°5 | 87°6 | 888 | 79-0 | 89°1 | 87-4 es » Developmental defect and

Nerve-signs.
1 Weal o ae . |87°5 |920 | 88-6 | 91-4 | 92°¢ | 842 | 89°0 | 90-2 “A » Developmental defect and
Dulness.

BCD. 92°7 | 91:2 | 93:0 | 91°4 888 | 82°5 | 92:0 | 89°5 3 » Nerve-signs and Dulness.

ABCD. __ .|864 |89°6 | 87:8 | 87-6 a2 | 78:9 | S73 | 86°7 | > 5, Nerve-signs and Dulness,
|

and Developmental defect,

ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN. 693

r

TABLE—continued.

:
7 years and Agel and] gy ance |
> under | 48¢ 8-10 over Allages | ae
/ — — j— — ——_ —
Baa |B.) G. LBS |G. | Bs. 1G. |

No.ofcases—D . 146 157 I77 | 159 | 144 | 115 | 467 | 431 | All Dull Children.

AD é : . | 705 | 84:0 | 77-9 | 76°1 | 74-9 | 62°6 | 74:7 | 75-4, Per cent. with Developmental defect.

BD 7 : . 863 | 91°0 | 90°0 | 85°5 | 80°5 | 85:2 | 86°3 | 87°5 s » Abnormal Nerve-signs.

Ce Dr . . - | 616 | 76-4 | 61-0 | 63° | 40°9 | 44°3 | 55-0 | 631 o » Low nutrition.

ABD. 2 . G64 | 80-2 | 74°5 | 704 | 65-9 | 55°6 | 694 | 70°0 bs » Developmental defect and

“ Nerve-signs.
ACD. 3 . 57-4 | 73-9 | 57-6 | 60°3 | 40°3 | 41-7 | 52-2 | 60°3 | Per cent. with Developmental defect and
Low nutrition.

BCD. j . | 60°9 | 73-2 | 60°5 | 60'4 | 388 | 40°8 | 53-9 | 598 | 3 » Nerve-signsand Low nutri-
tion.

ABCD : . 568 | 719 | 57-0 | 57°8 | 381 | 39:0 | 5171 | 58-0 Fa » Nerve-signs and Low nutri-
tion, and Developmental
defect,

No. of cases—A B. 104 | 130 | 139 | 114 | 103 | 67 |346 | 313 | All children with Developmental defect and

| Nerve-sians.

ABC. ‘ | 82°7 | 88:5 | 74°1 | 80°7 | 54-3 | 67-1 | 70°5 | 80°5 | Per cent. with Low nutrition.

ABD. .__ . | 93:2 | 96-9 | 95:0 | 98-2 | 99:2 | 95:5 | 93°6 | 96:5 . » Dulness.

mecD . - | 792 | 86°8 | 72°6 | 80°6 | 53-3 | 6771 | 69:0 | 79°8 ' » Dulness and Low nutrition.

No. of cases—A C. | 88 | 122 | 105 | 97 | 60 | 50 | 253 | 269 | All children with Developmental defect and

Low nutrition.

ABC. . 96°6 | 94:2 | 98:0 | 94:8 | 93-3 | 96°6 | 96-4 | 93°6 | Per cent. with Nerve-signs.

ACD. A . | 95°4 | 95°0 | 97-1 | 989 | 966 | 96-0 | 96-4 96°6 9 ss Dulness.

ABCD . | 94°2 | 99-5 | 96-1 | 94°7 | 91-6 | 89°9 | 94-4 | 93-0 5s » Dulness and Nerve-signs.

No. of cases—A D. 103 | 132 |138 | 121 | 108 | 72 | 349 | 325 | All children with Developmental defect and

Duilness.

ABD. | 941 | 95-4 | 95°6 | 92°5 | 88:0 | $88 | 92°8 | 92:9 | Per cent. with Nerve-signs.

AcD r, 81°5 | 87:8 | 73°9 | 79°3 | 53-7 | 666 | 70:0 | 80°0 = » Low nutrition.

ABCD F 80°35 | 85°5 | 73°1 | 76°0 | 50°9 | 62°5 | 68:4 | 77-0 A » Low nutrition and Nerve-
signs.

No. of cases—BC. 91 | 117 |109 | 97 | 58 | 49 | 258 | 263 | All children with Mere ates and Low

nutrition.

ABC. ~, . 93°4 | 983 | 945 94:8 | 96°5 | 91'S | 94°5 | 95°8 | Per cent. with Developmental defect.

BCD. ._ . | 97:8 | 98:3 | 98-1 | 98:9 | 96:5 | 95-9 | 97°6 | 98-0 55 » Dulness.

ABCD ._.. 911 | 965 | 92°5 | 94:7 947 | 91-8 | 926 | 94-9 s » Dulness and Developmental
defect,

No. of cases—B D. | 126 | 143 | 161 |136 | 116 | 98 403 |377 | All children with Nerve-signs and Dulness.
ABD... __ . | 76*9 | 88-1 | 81-9 | 82:3 | 81-9 | 65:3 | 80°4 | 80°1 | Per cent. with Developmental defect.
BCD. ._ . {706 | 80-4 | 66:4 |70°5 | 48-2 | 49°9 | 62°5 | 68°5 a y, Low nutrition.

ABCD s « | 65°8 | 78:9 | 62-7 | 67-5 | 47-3 | 45°9 | 59°3 | 663 on » Low nutrition and Develop-
mental defect.

No. of cases—C D. | 90 | 120 | 108 | 101 | 59 | 51 | 257 |272 | All children with Low nutrition and Dulness.
Ac e + «+ « | 93°3 | 96°6 | 94°4 | 95-0 | 98:3 | 94:1 | 94:9 | 95°5 | Per cent. with Developmental defect.

BC - . | 98°8 | 95°8 | 99:0 | 95°0 | 94-9 | 92°1 | 98°0 | 94:8 fa » Nerve-signs.

AB G hd wd - | 92°2 | 94-1 | 93°5 | 91-0 | 93-1 | 88-1 | 93°0 | 91-9 *p » Nerve-signs and Develop-
mental defect.

No. of cases—A BC) 85 | 115 |103 | 92 | 56 | 45 | 244 |252 | All children with Developmental defect,

Nerve-signs, and Low nutrition.

ABCD . . | 97°6 | 98:2 | 99:0 | 99-9 | 98:1 | 99-9 | 98-0 | 99-0 | Per cent. with Dulness.

No. of cases—A B D| 97 | 126 | 132 | 112 | 95 | 64 | 324 |302 | All children with Developmental defect,

Nerve-signs, and Dulness.
ABCD . - |85°5 | 89°S | 76°5 | 82°0 | 57-8 | 70°3 | 73°7 | 82°7 | Per cent. with Low nutrition,
| No. of cases—A C D 24¢ | 260 | 102 | 96 | 58 | 48 |244 |260 | All children with Developmental defect, Low
} nutrition, and Dulness.
ABCD A .-| 98°7 | 973 | 98:9 | 95:7 | 94-7 | 93°7 | 97-9 | 96°0 | Per cent. with Nerve-signs.
No. of cases—B C D! 252 | 258 | 107 | 96 | 56 | 47 |252 |258 | All children with Nerve-signs Low nutri-
4 tion, and Dulness.
SaABCD . « | 93:2 | 98:0 | 93:4 | 95°7 | 981 | 95°5 | 947 | 96°8 | Per cent. with Developmental defect.

694 REPORT—1898.

The Lake Village at Glustonbury.—Third Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp DawkIns,
Sir Jonn Evans, General Pirt-Rivers, Mr. A. J. Evans, and
Mr. A. BULLEID (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Since presenting the last Report much progress has been made with the
exploration of the Lake or Marsh Village near Glastonbury. Twelve more
dwelling mounds have been examined, as well as the ground between and
around them. The southern end of the settlement has been compietely
explored, and the investigations have yielded much of importance. The
timber substructure in this locality was in a better state of preservation
and more massively made than in any part of the village hitherto examined,
the arrangement of the logs being exceptionally clear. Some of the
dwelling mounds were of more than ordinary interest in their construction,
and from the various objects found on and around the floors, and the
following observations in connection with them may be specially noticed.
Mounds A, B, C,and D formed an interesting group, showing the gradual
growth of the village and the construction of dwellings from time to time
as they were required ; this was easily recognised in these mounds by the
floor of one mound overlapping the floor of the mound immediately con-
tiguous to it. The clay of mound A overlapped that of C, B and C that
of D. Mound A was the latest construction, D the earliest, B and C were
of intermediate date, and the dwellings may have been of contemporary
erection. Mounds A, B, and C were of medium size ; the foundation of
wood was strong and well arranged, especially under mound C. Mound
D was remarkable for its series of baked clay hearths, and for a circular
basin-shaped depression in the floor of the dwelling within a foot or two of
one of the uppermost hearths. The sides and base were hard-baked, and it
appeared to have had asemicircular moulded rim raised two or three inches
above the level of the floor ; it measured two feet across the rim, was
nine inches deep, and the sides were nearly straight, sloping downwards
and inwards towards the base, which was about twenty-one inches in
diameter. It contained fragments of the fallen sides and a little fire ash
and charcoal. A somewhat similar depression was discovered in mound J
and was described in the last Report. Dwelling mound D was also note-
worthy for the number of bone needles, broken and complete, found with
numerous splinters and sharp fragments of bone near them. Mound E
was of large size, oval in shape, and composed of five layers of clay; it
contained two hearths of stone and several of baked clay. In this dwelling
mound there were found the remains of what may have formed a small
furnace of baked clay, fragments of several three-cornered crucibles, and
some small pieces of bronze. Mound F was small and had not the appear-
ance of a dwelling mound. It contained three remarkable groups of clay
hearths, each group consisting of three superimposed hearths. Associated
with this mound were quantities of pottery and fire ash.

Mound A A: the chief feature in this dwelling mound was the thick-
ness of its clay floor, the vertical measurement of its thickest part being
10 feet ; the mound was fairly symmetrical in outline and was about
30 feet in diameter. Beneath the lowest part of the clay, and lying in a
layer of brushwood and rushes, part of the framework ostensibly of a loom
was discovered ; judging from its position, and from the worm-eaten
condition of the wood, it had evidently been discarded and thrown away

ON THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. 695

before the first dwelling belonging to this mound was erected. Amongst the
timber used in the foundation of the mound were many piles and pieces
of wood quite disconnected from the purposes originally intended, and
evidently belonging to a previous arrangement at another part of the
village.

With reference to the smaller objects, these compare favourably in
number with former seasons, especially with regard to pottery, bronze,
iron, horn, and glass. Among the finds are the following :—

Stone.—One small celt, fifteen quern stones of various sizes, shapes, and
completeness.

Bronze.—Thirty ; including spiral rings, fibulz and penannular brooches,
pieces of tub bands, fragments of bordering, rivet-heads and studs.

Jron.—Fifteen ; three more or less complete adzes, two billhooks, part
of a reaping-hook, one file, and several rings.

Lead.—Two spindle whorls.

Glass.—Several blue beads.

Worked Bone.—Fifty-five pieces ; including gouges, needles of various
sizes, polishing bones, and other implements.

Horn.—F¥itty ; amongst which are several hammer heads, combs, cheek
pieces, a knife handle, and a die.

Whorls, loomweights, sling-stones, and pottery were dug up as formerly
in quantities. °

The following is a summary of the more important finds during the
past seven years :—

Stone.—One complete celt, and the half of a second,

One flint saw.

One flint arrow-head.

Thirty quern stones more or less complete.

One hundred and fifty whetstones and hammerstones.

Bronze.—One hundred and sixty-five pieces.

Iron.—Eighty.

Lead.—Thitty.

Amber.—Two complete beads.

Jet.—One ring.

Glass.—Highteen rings, beads, and pieces.

Crucibles.—Fragments of about twenty.

Worked Bone.—Three hundred and twenty, besides numerous pieces
showing knife marks.

Horn.—Two hundred and fifty-five.

Kimmeridge Shale.—Kighteen, including rings and portions of armlets.

Baked Clay other than Pottery.—Many triangular perforated blocks
and weights of other shapes, wattle, timber, and finger-marked clay,

Sling pellets of baked and unbaked clay, several thousand.

Spindle whorls, one hundred and thirty-five.

Perforated tusks and teeth, seven.

Human Bones.—Portions of about twenty-five bodies, including four
complete skulls.

Pottery and bones of animals, several cart-loads.

Worked Wood.—Portions of tubs, cups, and ladles ; handles, wheel
spokes, parts of the framework of one or more looms, and a complete
ladder seven feet high.

696 REPORT—1898.,

An Ethnological Survey of Canada.—Second Report cf the Committee,
consisting of Dr. G. M. Dawson (Chairman and Secretary), Pro-
fessor D, P. PENHALLOw (Vice-Chairman), Mr. E. W. Brasroox,
Professor A. C. Happon, Mr. E. S. Harruanp, Sir Jonn G-
Bovurrot, Abbé Cuoa, Mr. B. Sutte, Abbé Tancuay, Mr. C.
Hiuu-Tout, Mr. Davin Boye, Rev. Dr. Scappina, Rey. Dr. J.
Macuigean, Dr. Merée BeavucHemin, Rev. Dr. G. Patrerson.
Mr. C. N. Bett, Hon. G. W. Ross, Professor J. Mavor, and
Mr. A. F. HUNTER.

APPENDIX PAGE.

I. Haida Stories and Beliefs. By C.Hinu-Tout . , : , B 700
Il. Customs and Habits of Earliest Settlers ef Canada. By BENJAMIN SULTE 709

AT a meeting of the Committee held on August 20 last in Toronto
the resignation of the Chairman from that office was accepted, and Pro-
fessor Penhallow was nominated as Chairman ; but through a misunder-
standing this proposal was not brought before the General Committee.
Professor Penhailow has since consented to act as Vice-Chairman.

Since the presentation of the first report of this Committee at the
Toronto meeting some progress has been made in the further organisation
of the work, and some results of interest have been obtained ; but the:
field of work in Canada is so vast and so varied that it has thus far been
found possible only to attack limited problems where special opportunities
have occurred of enlisting competent observers. As pointed out in con-
nection with the first report, the investigation presents two main branches =
(1) That dealing with the white races, and (2) that dealing with the
aborigines or Indians. These, however, are not entirely distinct, for a
particularly interesting line of inquiry is that relating to the Métis or
‘ half-breeds,’ resulting from the intermixture of the whites and Indians.
Nothing has yet been accomplished in the last-named field of work, but it
is anticipated that some observers may soon be enlisted for it.

The efforts of the Committee were to some extent handicapped in the
first year of its existence by the want of any fund to be employed in the
furtherance of its work ; but with the grant made by the Association at
its last meeting the definite organisation of this work became possible.
As a preliminary the Committee issued a general circular, together with
Schedules relating to physical types.

Copies of these have been distributed to each member of the Commit-
tee, while large numbers of Schedule B, with proportionate numbers of
Schedule A, have been placed in the hands of those who are undertaking
special work. So far the Committee has distributed about 700 copies
of these papers. The Schedules are, with slight modifications, the same
as those issued by the Committee for Great Britain, and have been adopted
tentatively until their actual use should indicate the special directions im
which changes are required. It was found almost immediately that
several alterations will be required in the future, the number of facial
types in particular being quite inadequate to the requirements of such
studies on this continent.

Three sets of anthropometric instruments have been purchased. These
have been distributed to Mr. Charles Hill-Tout, of Vancouver, who has

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 697

already accomplished much good work among the coast tribes of Indians,
and who proposes to continue his studies during the present summer ; to
Mr. A. F. Hunter, of Barrie, Ontario, who has associated with him Dr. F.
Tracey, of Toronto, and to Dr. A. C. Hebbert, of Montreal, who proposes.
to make liberal use of the material to be found in the various military
organisations of the city, public institutions, and also, probably, the
students of the universities.

The Committee has also purchased a camera specially adapted to its
work in the field. This has been placed in the hands of Mr. Hill-Tout,
who hopes to secure a large number of negatives during the present
summer. ‘These negatives remain the property of the Committee.

Communication with the Committee appointed by the American
Association for the Advancement of Science for an Ethnographic Survey
of the United States has been opened through its chairman, Dr. Franz
Boas, and it is hoped that such co-operation may be secured as will lead
to results of mutual advantage.

In pursuance of a resolution of the Committee at the meeting of
August 20 in Toronto, communications were opened with the several
provincial governments of Canada for the purpose of obtaining, if possible,
grants in aid of photographic and other registration involved in the work
of the Committee. Nothing has, however, so far resulted from the com-
munications referred to in the way of material aid, although some of the
replies received indicate the possibility that such aid may be forthcoming
in the future.

Mr. David Boyle, having been commissioned by the Government of
Ontario to obtain photographs of some of the Indians of the province in
connection with his investigations of Iroquois religious rites, has, however
expressed his intention of conducting this work as far as possible in con-
formity with the requirements of the Committee’s schedule.

At the meeting above referred to a resolution was also passed concern-
ing the desirability of taking steps for the preservation of the Serpent
Mound in Otonabee township, Ontario ; and in October last letters were
addressed on the subject to the clerk of the township and to the clerk of
Peterborough County Council. At a later date the former replied that
his Council considered the work of preserving the mound a provincial one,
while the latter stated that the County Council had sent a memorial to
the Ontario Government on the subject. Further representations have
since been made to the Government, and it is probable that the mound
may be acquired next year.

Proceeding upon the lines of investigation adopted by Mr. B. Sulte in
regard to the province of Quebec, a preliminary account of which was
appended to the last report, a similar inquiry has been undertaken by
Mr. A. F. Hunter in regard to the composition of the population of the
several counties of the province of Ontario. This is not as yet sufficiently
complete for publication, but some idea of its character, and the great
interest likely to attach to such a record of the foundation of the people
of this province, consisting of the most varied elements, may be gathered
from the subjoined preliminary analyses referring to two counties only
out of the forty-two for which partial information has already been
obtained. These are quoted with Mr. Hunter’s permission, and with the
object, largely, of inducing a similar analysis of the equally interesting
elements brought together in the peopling of New Brunswick, Nova
Scotia, and Prince Edward Island.

698 REPORT—1898.

Simeoe Co.

‘= Se a “ =

No. Immigrants Date Townships where settled
1 i aceadehare Scots 5 ; . | 1820 | West Gwillimbury.
2 | North of England (small) . . | 1820 | Penetang Road, W. Gwillimbury.
3 | French Canadians ; : . | 1828 | Tiny.
4 | Negroes (now chiefly gone) . . | 1828 | Oro (20 families), Sunnidale.
5 | Ulster Protestants (extensive) . | 1830 | Tecumseth, Essa, Innisfil.
6 | Irish Catholic (smaller) ; . | 1830 | Adjala, Vespra, Flos, and Medonte
7 | Argyleshire Scots . 1832 | Nottawasaga, Oro. |
8 | Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire 1832 | Innisfil, Essa. |
Scots |
9 | Germans (small) . ? ; . | 1832 | Nottawasaga.
10 | Londonderry 4 . | 1850 | Innisfil.
11 | Border District Scots (small) . | 1850 | Innisfil.
i2 | Indians (Chippewas) (population, | — | Beausoleil and Christian Islands. |
|
York Co.
| No. Immigrants Date | Townships where settled
55s “ a
| 1 | Germans (Berczy’s 60 families) . | 1794 | Markham.
| 2 | French Royalists (20 families) .| 1798 | Yonge St. (King and Whitchurch).)
| 3 | Davidites (?) (from New York) . | 1800 | East Gwillimbury. |
4 | Eskdale (Dumfriesshire Scots) . | 1800 | Scarboro.
| 5 | Quakers (from Pennsylvania) . | 1805 | King and Whitchurch.
6 | English (West of England) . . | 1820 | Richmond Hill (Vaughan and
Markham).
— | Pennsylvania Dutch . : .| — | York and Vaughan.
— | Mennonists or Tunkers s .| — | Yonge St. (Whitchurch).
— | Highland Scots . — | Vaughan, King.
— | Annandale (Dumfriesshire) Scots — | Vaughan.
— | Negroes : — | Vaughan and King.
—- | Indians (Chippewas) (population, — | Georgina and Snake Islands,
118

In British Columbia the immigrant population is so newly established,
and has occurred so largely by individual accretions from sources already
most heterogeneous in character, that it seems scarcely possible to pursue
with profit a similar method of study. The native races, however, there
afford, whether from an ethnological or an archzeological point of view, a
field of inquiry still wide, although daily narrowing and requiring prompt
and efficient action if much is to be placed on record for posterity.

Mr. ©. Hill-Tout has been able to accomplish some work in this
province, in the record of such facts as have come to his notice, and these
are presented in Appendix I. of this report. Mr. Hill-Tout writes as
follows :—

‘IT send in some notes on the folklore of this district, which l
have sought to record whenever possible on the lines suggested by the
English Committee, and trust they will be found useful. I also enclose
set of (3) photographs in duplicate of a rock-painting found on a cliff
about twenty miles from Vancouver. The Indians of the neighbourhood
know nothing of it or of its meaning. I venture no opinion upon it
myself. In my next report I hope to have more to communicate. I have
in hand the following :—

Ss

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 699

‘1, Report on the Archeology of Lytton and its neighbourhood.

‘2. Folklore stories from same area.

‘3. Vocabulary and Grammar notes on the Ntlakapamuq.

‘4, Vocabulary and Grammar notes on the Squamish and Matsqui
Yale, and other divisions of the Salish.

‘5, Ancient tribal divisions and place-names.

‘6. An account of a great confederacy of tribes in the Salish region of
“ Chilliwack.”

‘I regard the collection of vocabularies and grammar notes from every
dialect and sub-dialect as imperatively necessary for linguistic comparison
The lack of these has caused me the loss of much valuable time and
retarded my own labours in this field. The work on these lines already
done, though excellent on the whole as far as it goes, is altogether too
limited and inadequate. If we are ever to be in a position to formulate
a law of permutation of letters for the languages of this region it is
absolutely necessary that specimens of dialectal difference from every
division of a stock be collected. It is not a simple undertaking, and will
require considerable time to accomplish, but its importance cannot be
over-estimated.

‘In this connection it gives me pleasure to inform the Committee that
several of the leading anthropologists of Australasia have accepted the
evidence of Oceanic affinities of the Kwakiutl-Nootka and Salish stocks
as set forth by me in a paper presented at the recent meeting of the
Royal Society of Canada. Dr. Carroll, the editor of the ‘‘ Australasian
Anthropological Journal,” in particular regards the evidence as practically
conclusive.

‘The photographic and anthropometric work of the Survey I hope to
begin next month, the camera and instruments for which have just come
to hand.

‘In concluding this report I desire to call the attention of the
Committee to the fact that much important archeological work is awaiting
development here for lack of funds to carry it on; the necessity for
energrtically prosecuting which, without further delay if it is to be done
at all, I cannot impress too strongly upon all who are interested in this
work of the Survey. Every month sees valuable records defaced and
obliterated, either by relic hunters or by the progress of civilisation, and
the day is not far distant when all trace of the past life and conditions of
the aborigines such as are contained in the middens and mounds will be
entirely swept away.’

Pending a more complete analysis of the early immigrants from France
to Quebec, which it is hoped may take eventually a tabular and numerical
form, Mr. B. Sulte has extended the inquiry communicated to your
Committee last year by following up the indications of the habits and
mode of life of the early colonists by means of such contemporary records
as stili exist. It is not too much to hope that eventually we may possess
a very complete picture of this unique occupation of a part of the North
American continent from Old France, and of the formative stages
of a new French-speaking people, in all its aspects. The paper forms
Appendix IT. of this report.

In conclusion the Committee has to report that of the grant entrusted
to it at the Toronto meeting a balance of 35/. 17s. remains. The Com-
mittee asks to be reappointed and to be permitted to expend the above-

700 REPORT-—1898,.

mentioned amount ; also that a further grant of 50/. may be accorded to
it in aid of its investigations, which promise to be of increased importance
and value during the ensuing year.

APPENDIX IT.
Haida Stories and Beliefs. By C. H1tu-Tour.
Cosmogonical Myth and Story of the Origin of the Haida People.

In the remote past Sha-ldnd ruled in his kingdom in the grey clouds that
overshadowed the vast deep. All below was a dark and watery waste.
At this time Yet/th, the Raven, was the chief servant of Sha-lana. One
day Yetlth ventured to interfere with the conduct of affairs in Cloudland,
and was cast forth into the outer world. The Raven flew back and fore
over the deep until he became weary. He grew angry at finding no place
where he could rest, and beat the water with his wings till it flew up into
the clouds on either side of him ; and when it fell back again it was
transformed into rocks, upon which he rested himself. These rocks grew
and extended themselves on every side until they reached from North
Island to Cape St. James. Later these rocks became changed into sand,
upon which a few trees eventually sprang up and grew, and thus were the
Queen Charlotte Islands brought into existence. The Raven now desired
someone to assist him in his kingdom, so one day he piled up on the
beach two large heaps of clam-shells near by the present site of Sisk, and
then transformed them into human beings, whom he made his slaves.
They were both of the same sex and female. Ina short time these two
slaves became dissatisfied with their condition, and complained to their
creator, the Raven, that he had mismanaged affairs in making them both
of the same sex. The Raven listened in anger to their complaints, but
finally altered their condition notwithstanding, and changed one of them
into a man, by casting limpet-shells at her. Thus were the progenitors of
the Haidas created. The Raven, growing weary of his lonely life, took the
woman for his wife, but as she bore him no children he wearied of her and
sent her and the man to a spot now called Skidegate. Wearying of his
loneliness once more, he determined to revisit his former home in Cloud-
land and secure, if possible, a beautiful wife from among the daughters of
the heavenly chiefs. One bright summer morning he started off on his
long journey. He soared upward over the lonely sea until the land he
had created appeared to him to be a small mosquito. At last he came to
the walls of heaven. He concealed himself until the evening, and then,
assuming the form of a bear, scratched a hole in the wall, and thus made
his entrance into his former home. The place had greatly changed since
he had been an inhabitant there, and consequently he took time to con-
sider everything that he saw, so as to forma similar kingdom on his return
to earth. There he found that everyone was considered a god or chief,
and all were submissive to the Chief of Light, who still held supreme
power as of old. He also found that the Great Chief had divided his
kingdom into villages and towns, into lands and seas, and had created
a moon and stars, and made a great luminary to rule over all, which
was called Jine the Sun. At last he was caught by the hunters of the
King and brought into his presence. As the Raven appeared to be a

————eE CC ~—“—SSC*‘(S;«S

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 701

heautiful and tame bear, he was kept as a playmate for the King’s
youngest son. He now spent three years in intimate relationship with
the royal family, and had sutticient time to make careful and necessary
observation prior to his descent to the lower world. It was customary
for the children in the Land of Light to disguise and transform themselves
into bears, seals, and birds. Now it so happened that the Raven, under
his disguise of bear, was strolling on the beach one evening, looking for his
supper of clams, when he espied three other bears approaching him. He
knew at once they were children of a great chief, and, instantly transform-
ing himself into a large eagle, stole the sun, which happened to be setting
at the time, also the fire-stick that was used to kindle the fires, and flew
over the walls of heaven with one under each wing, together with one of
the three children. When the people found that the sun had been stolen,
they reported the matter at once to the King. He then ordered his land
to be searched, and if they found the thief to throw him down to Het-gwau-
lana, the chief or ruler of the lower regions. But a messenger arriving,
who stated that he had seen a large bird flying over the walls of their
city with the sun under his wing, at once all gave chase, and the Raven
was followed. In his flight from his pursuers he dropped the child, who
fell down through the clouds into the sea close to the Raven’s kingdom.
The Raven also descended, bearing with him the sun and the fire-stick in
safety to the earth. When the child fell into the sea he cried aloud for
assistance, and immediately the little fishes came in a great shoal to his
aid and carried him on their backs safely to the shore. These fish are
very numerous around Rose-spit at the present day, and their forms, say
the Haida, have remained dinted in the blue clay of that district from the
day when they bore the heaven-born child ashore until now. The great
chief was a lover of peace, and consequently did not allow his followers to
pursue the Raven down to the earth, as Chief Het-gwau-lana might then
be tempted to enter heaven and give them perpetual trouble. So the
Raven was unmolested, and another sun was created in heaven by the
Great Ruler, who loved light and hated darkness,

Now the Raven thought that he had secured a chief’s daughter, but
the child turned out to be a chief's son. The Raven loved him exceed-
ingly, and built a house at Rose-spit especially for the accommodation of
the child and the sun. The child grew to be very powerful, and had

_ command over all animals, fish, and birds. Whenever he called to the

fish they would at once appear and bear him out to sea. Whenever he
wished to fly through the air he would call to the birds. They would at
once come to bear him wherever he wished to go on their wings. The
bears and other animals attended to his daily wants, and supplied him
with salmon and berries. The animals, birds, and fish were created by
the Raven for the sole benefit of this heaven-born child. The Raven also
kept the sun and fre-stick in a very strong and secure room, as he was
afraid that his two former slaves would return and steal them. Presently
the slave-wife of the Raven returned, and begged to be re-admitted into
the Raven’s society. The request was granted, and she became once
more the mistress of the Raven’s household. She took a great interest in
the child, and attended to his every wish. In course of time the child

grew to be a handsome young man, and began to love the woman. She

returned his love, and at last resolved to become his wife. The Raven
seon found that they were living as man and wife, and he became very
angry, and threatened to kill the woman. This treatment caused the

702 REPORT—1898.,

pair to escape from the house and hide themselves in the bush. When
they fled from the Raven’s house they carried with them a large cedar
box, in which the sun and the fire-stick were placed. Day after day, and
month after month, they wandered southward without proper nourish-
ment, and in great fear of the Raven. They also carried with them the
box containing the sun and the fire-stick. One evening, faint and weary,
they sat down near a little creek, and the woman, being very hungry,
wept bitterly. Her husband walked a little distance up the stream, and
at last found a dead land otter, but they could not eat it, as they had no
fire with which to cook it. On the following morning they remembered
that they had the fire-stick in the box they were carrying. They at once
determined to see if they could produce a fire with it. They were
successful, and soon had a good fire, with which they cooked the otter.
Having made a hearty meal, they proceeded on their way. When they
reached Cape Ball they were hungry again, whereupon the youth began
to sing one of the songs taught him in heaven, and the sea receded four
miles from the shore, leaving a great whale stranded on the beach. The
youth surrounded the whale with a circle of stones and rocks so that it
should not escape. This circle of boulders is said to exist to-day. The
runaway couple lived on whale flesh until they reached the channel
which divides Graham and Moresby Islands, where they settled and built
a house. On this spot the village of Skidegate afterwards sprang up.
Here they lived for several years in peace and prosperity, and a daughter
was born to them, which caused them great joy. In course of time the
daughter grew to womanhood, and was an exceedingly beautiful woman,
and they would have all been perfectly happy but taat there was no
prospect of a husband for the maiden.

Year after year passed by, and they had given up all hopes of a
husband for their daughter, when one day there came from the North
Island, around the west coast, the Raven’s male-slave, whom he had
made on the beach at Sisk. This forlorn creature now desired the
parents to give him their daughter to wife. The father indignantly
refused his request, and became very angry at what he considered a great
piece of impudence on the part of a clam-shell-made man. How could
such a being as he look to wed with the daughter of a heaven-born chief !
But the slave was not to be so easily repulsed. He betook himself to the
woods surrounding the house, and whenever the father was away would
go and talk with the mother. She regarded him as her brother, seeing
that they had been created together, and told him all her secrets, and
even went so far as to tell him where her husband kept the chest con-
taining the sun which he had stolen from the Raven’s house at Rose-spit.

This treasure was stored away in a strongly built house in the woods,
where the heaven-born man would frequently go to pray to the gods in
the Kingdom of Light. The woman was not wise in thus divulging the
whereabouts of her husband’s precious treasure; for the slave, on asking
a second time for the maiden, and receiving a good kicking from her
father,! went away in great wrath, vowing that he would be revenged.
As soon as night fell, having watched the chief retire to rest, he betook

1 It is interesting to note in this connection that the heaven-born man
thought ncthing of taking the slave for his wife, but was much incensed at the idea
of his daughter becoming the wife of a slave. We see that the same notions pre-
vailed among the Haidas generally, for although a chief could marry any of his
female slaves, no slave could marry a free-born woman under pain of death.

- Pe.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 705

himself to the treasure-house, and easily entered it through the smoke-
hole. He then seized a club that he found on the floor, and smashed the
box to pieces, taking care not to injure the sun. When he had wrought
this havoc he began to ponder upon his miserable lot in life, and presently,
becoming enraged at his ill-fortune, threw down the sun and kicked it to
pieces. But the broken parts, instead of falling to the ground, leaped
up into the sky, the largest piece becoming a sun, the next biggest a
moon, and the other pieces stars. Thus were created the Haida sun and
moon and stars, according to the traditions of the ancients.

When the wretched slave became calm once more he speedily realised
the danger he now stood in at the hands of the heaven-born man. So
before dawn of the following morning he was well on his way to his former
abode at North Island. He travelled only by night, hiding himself in the
forest during the day, thus avoiding the keen eyes of the Raven and a
meeting with his sister's husband. At last he reached home, and for days
he sat brooding over his cruel lot until the happy thought struck him that he
should do as the Raven had done and go and seek a wife for himself from
among the daughters of heaven. But the difficulty was how to get there.
This he overcame in the following manner. Taking his bow and arrows
in his hand one moonlight night he shot an arrow at the moon, which
embedded itself in that luminary’s face ; he then shot another into the
notch of the first and another into the notch of this again, and so on until
he had a line of arrows reaching from the moon to the earth. But all
this was not accomplished in one night. According to one tradition he
took 364 nights over his task, which later were lengthened into 364 days
and nights, which number just makes up the Haida year of 13 months of
28 days each. They account for the discrepancy between their year of
364 days and ours of 365 by saying that the slave occupied one day in
climbing the arrow ladder, which has been left out of their reckoning.
When the slave had completed the ladder he lost no time in climbing up
it into heaven. He arrived there early in the morning, and the first thing
that he saw was a beautiful woman swimming in a lake of crystal. He
stealthily approached the side where she seemed likely to step ashore
after her swim to await her. She presently swam in his direction, and no
sooner had she put her foot upon the beach than he seized and dropped
with her through the clouds into the sea close by the shore of North
Island. As they descended the Raven happened to be flying near the
spot, and perceiving something unusual in the air above him watched to
see what it was. At first he thought it to be a pair of large eagles, but
presently discovered it to be his slave and a beautiful heaven-born woman.
No sooner had the slave led his prize into the house than the Raven
appeared and demanded that the woman should be given over to him.
The slave declining to comply with the request, the Raven became angry,
seized the woman, and transformed the man into an invisible spirit and
drove him away from his presence for ever. Furthermore, he cursed him
and bade him wander over the land and take upon himself the task of
caring for the growth and development of every living thing the Raven

had created.

Thus the Wanderer, as the slave is now termed by the Haidas, is
always busily engaged causing the berries and roots to grow for the
support of the people. Every plant, flower, and tree is under his control,
and thus it is that Haida-land produces the finest trees for canoes through-
out the whole northern region. At the present time the Haidas

704 REPORT—1898.

believe that he is fulfilling his destiny, and they think of him with
gratitude and offer him sacrifices of berries, roots, salmon, and bear-grease.
These they place in hollow trees that he may eat when he feels hungry.
They believe that he wanders upon the earth night and day, and will
continue to do so until the end of time, when the Raven will recall him.
But woe to the Haidas when this takes place ; for the trees and plants,
the fish and animals, the fowls of the air, and even the very land itself
will pass away and cease to be, and then will their own end come.

Haida Moon Stories.

In early times the Haida moon met with several misadventures, but
as every tribe had a tribal moon of its own the consequences were not so
serious as they wouid otherwise have been. When the Raven was in the
‘Land of Light’ he saw that each tribe there had a separate moon, and
he adopted the same plan for the Haidas. The principal moon of the
race is that derived from the large splinter kicked off the sun by the
‘clam-shell’ man in his anger at being refused the hand of the heaven-
born man’s daughter for wife, as related in the cosmogonical lore of the
Haidas. The beaver once ate up the moon of the Masset tribe, and
the Raven had to supply another. The sun once chased the moon up the
Naas River into the interior of the mainland, where she could find no food.
About spring-time, being desperately hungry, she demanded food from her
worshippers, who produced the ‘candle-fish,’ or wlakan, which were made
to run up the river in great numbers for the purpose. To offset this the
sun’s worshippers produced the salmon to eat up the ulakans, and it was
only at the intervention of the ‘ Wanderer,’ who fought the salmon, that
the little fish were rescued.

The moon is not to be insulted with impunity. Once a naughty boy
was sent to gather sticks for the fire, but did not want to go, urging that
it was dark. His father made him go, telling him that the moon would
presently rise and there would be plenty of light. The lad went and
stood on the seashore to wait for the moon to rise. As it appeared above
the horizon he mocked it by putting his fingers to his nose. Presently a
giant came down from the moon and snatched up the boy, and he may
now be seen on clear nights in the moon with a bundle of sticks over
his shoulder.

Nilakapamug Moon Story.—With the above may be compared the
belief of the Thompson Indians.

Once there was an old woman who was very meddlesome and interfer-
ing. She was perpetually making mischief in the village. The people
endured her as long as they could, but at last determined they could
stand her no longer. They agreed to seek a new settlement and leave
her behind. So each family got out their canoes, and loaded them with
all their belongings and paddled away. As each left, the old woman
begged to be taken on board, but was told that the canoe was too full
already, that the next boat would be best for her. They all made the
same excuse, and presently the last canoe passed her and she was left
behind. As she sat bewailing her lot the moon rose, and she called to it
to have compassion on her. The moon came down almost to the ground
to see what the old woman was wailing about, and she, seizing the
opportunity, leaped up into it and was carried up into the sky. In her
hand as she leaped she held a little birch-bark bucket, and on clear nights
she can still be seen in the moon with her little bucket in her hand.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 705

Haida Beliefs, dc,

Frog.— Among the Haidas the frog is regarded as the embodiment of
wisdom, whence the medicine-man obtains gifts from his favourite spirits.

Marriage Customs.—When a man fancied a girl for his wife he went
to her uncle, the brother of her mother (who alone has any voice in the
matter), and make overtures to him by means of presents. The uncle
being willing, the man then makes known his wishes to the young
woman. She thereupon procures the assistance of her companions and
prepares for the ceremony. When she is ready the man goes to her
dwelling, a great feast is then made to which friends of both parties are
invited, and during the course of the feast he rises and claims her as his
wife in the presence of all assembled. On the following day she and her
friends go to his house, when a second feast is made, after which they are
regarded as man and wife.

Weasel Belief.

The weasel causes great alarm and fear among the Haidas. He is the
heart-eater and man-slayer. He is supposed to enter the dwellings
stealthily at night and pass into the man’s interior through the fundament.
The weasel] then feeds upon the man’s heart and he shortly dies. This
happens to those who do not honour the Raven.by doffing their caps when
a bird of this species flies over heads.

The Myth of Tou; or, the Little Mountain and the Spider.

On the shores of Masset Inlet a long time ago lived two little
mountains. One was a good mountain and the other was not. The good
mountain was satisfied with his lot, with his food of hair-seal and halibut,
was blessed with a good digestion, and an even temper. The bad brother
Tou wanted dog-fish, and grumbled and growled all the time because the

chief of the waters would not let him have his sister’s rations as well as

his own. At last he determined to change his place of abode, and one
moonlight night he set out on his journey. He travelled fifty miles,
tearing up the ground and making a dreadful noise as he went, and finally-
pulled up on the Northern Coast near Rose-spit, where the dog-fish
abound. Here he stayed, and his walls of black basalt now tower 200 or
300 feet above the shore. He now gets all the dogfish he desires, but
still he is not satisfied. A large spider lives in the clouds over his head,
which makes itself very disagreeable to him by pulling his hair and
screaming and howling in his ears.

This spider caused much disquietude among the Haidas themselves
also. No one would venture to go to sleep near its abode. But once a
Haida warrior determined to seek out the spider and fight with it. Sohe
took a barbed spear, a wooden drum, and a big whistle and went to seek
the enemy. He made such a din with his drum and whistle that the
spider came down to see what was the matter. When the spider perceived
the man he came at him open-mouthed, screaming and growling the while.
The warrior thrust his spear into the terrible creature’s jaws, which
stopped its noise and prevented it from closing its mouth. To the spear

_ was attached a long cord, with which the man now tethered the spider to a

tree so that it could not get away. The spider finding itself fast grew

terribly angry, and began to break up the mountain, and hurled large

masses of it at the warrior, who had much ado to avoid them. At last
1898. ZZ

706 REPORT—1898,

the spider succumbed to hunger and died ; and its body was then cut into
extremely small pieces by the female relatives of the warrior. But though
the spider no longer troubles Tou, he has not ceased to grumble yet.

Tidal Wave Myths.

The tidal waves are believed by the Haidas to be caused by three
sisters who dwell on the West Coast. When they are annoyed in any
way they revenge themselves by raising these great waves and smashing
the canoes cf the Haidas and drowning their occupants. The devil-doctor
is the only intermediary between the sisters and the people, and his
services must be well paid for before he acts.

Tschimose Myth.

The Haidas belief in the existence of a fearful man-eating monster,
who lives half in and half out of the sea. This dreadful being is seen
once in about fifteen years, and his appearance presages a time of famine
or pestilence and sickness.

The Killer-whale Myth.

When a Haida is drowned it is believed that his spirit is translated to
the body of a Killer-whale. These whales were therefore formerly much
honoured, and never killed by the Haidas. The appearance of one of
them off the shore in front of an Indian’s dwelling is always regarded as a
‘call’ to some member of the household, who will shortly meet with his
death by drowning.

Land-otter Myth.

The Haidas believe that the land-otter has the power to enchant men.
He meets hunters and wanderers in the forest in the guise of a beautiful
maiden, who says to the victim, ‘Come and sit down with me.’ The wise
man is able to detect the enchantress by the pronunciation of the words
she uses, and so escapes her charms. The unwary, yielding to her wiles,
become her slaves, or are found wandering in the woods bereft of their
senses, She is also supposed sometimes to place certain leaves which have
magical qualities in the springs frequented by the people. Hence, before
taking a drink the Haida first throws a little water over the right
shoulder, saying at the same time, ‘ Land-otter, land-otter, go from me !’

The Thunder-eagle Myth.

This widespread myth is found also among the Haidas. They regard
the thunder-eagle as their deadliest foe. They suppose that he dwells as
a lonely god among the most awful recesses of the mountains, and that
when he is hungry he robes himself in eagle form and swoops down upon
the land, darkening it with the shadow of his widespread wings, whose
motions give rise to the thunder. The lightning is supposed to come
from the tongue of a fish which the thunder-eagle carries under his
pinions.

The Mouse Myth.

This myth of the mouse is one of the most firmly implanted in the
minds of the Haidas. It enters very intimately into their lives. The
younger members are beginning to laugh at the notions connected with it
now, but their elders still firmly believe in them. To them the harmless

ON THE ETHNOLQGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 707

little rodent is a veritable demon. They believe that its home is the
stomach of human beings, and that every person has one or more of them
in his stomach, If a person is bad-tempered, immoral, passionate, a liar,
thief, &c., they attribute these qualities in him to the mice-demons in his
stomach. Again, if a person is taken ill, his father turns all his goods and
belongings out of doors ; he next proceeds to catch a mouse. Having
secured one, he puts it into a small box and gives it plenty of grease to
eat. He abstains himself from all food for three days. Each morning he
takes the box and mouse down to the sea and drinks about a quart of salt
water He then returns and throws himself on his bed, places the box
containing the mouse under his pillow, and goes to sleep. He sleeps
throughout the day and following night, sentinels being placed about the
house to prevent anyone from disturbing him or making a noise. In the
morning he rises, goes down to the beach, drinks his quart of salt water,
and returns to sleep till the following morning. He keeps this up for
three successive days. If during this while he imagines or dreams that
a person or spirit from the invisible world has appeared and revealed to
him the name of the individual responsible for his son’s illness, he straight-
way rises and goes to this individual and charges him with the act, and
demands his reasons for attacking his son in this manner. If, however,
no vision or dream comes to him, after the third day has passed he takes
the mouse in his hand and goes into every house in the place, and holds
the mouse in front of each person until he is satisfied that he has found
the individual guilty of the offence. If the mouse nods its head twice
before anyone, it is to the Haidas plain proof that the culprit is revealed.
Tn the older days this person would be found dead in the woods a little
while after.

If one of these harmless little creatures has scampered over any food
the Haidas would never think of eating it. They believe it is then im-
pregnated with poison. It is all thrown into a fire and consumed.

Cloud Myth.

When the clouds hang low the Haidas believe that a soul is being
snatched away, and expect to see one of their number shortly die.

Transmigration of Soul.
The Haidas believe in the transmigration of souls in this way : If, when
@ person dies, the nearest female relative of the deceased is about to be
delivered of a child, the soul of the deceased will pass into the body of the
new-born infant and live again.

Specimens of Songs of the Haida.
Berry Song.

Whit squate, squate, whit squate squate
A la whit, a la whit:
Kalunga olthé, kalunga olthé
Siamzi whé, siamzi whe whit.
The above is an invocation to a bird called the ‘ whit,’ which is sup-
posed to ripen the berries. It is besought to bring many large and nicely
coloured ones.

ZZ2

708 REPORT—1898,

Ridicule Song.

Yelthgowasu kingung
Laou wangung, laou shugung
Laou iching, laou iching
Laou kanga? laou kanga ?
Yelthgowasu kingun.

Translation.—NotE.— Yelthgowasu is a man’s name.

Yelthgowas sees it,
He does it, he says it,
He it is, he it is ;

Did he see it ? did he see it 4
Yelthgowas saw it.

Devil Doctor's Song to the Spirit of the North Wind.

Ada adda di whi silthliga adi gwudakoustloga
Dikwun kwul dungalthdagang alskid ada hi hi hi e.

Ditto to the East Wind.

Oh, hiaa, oh hiaaohiaaaa
Kalke kona kishaaa

A skidje a dung a thu kagwalgudied
Kalke kona kish a a a ho.

Nore.—‘ Skidje’ is the daughter of the mist and east wind, but has now
become a diver on account of her poverty. She and her father, the east
wind, are invoked to cause fair weather and keep off snow and ice.

. Wind Song.
Di whiskada gwe he he
Di whiskada gwe he he
Hangi kwungust, di whiskada agwi.

Translation of above.
The wind is whistling to me,
The wind is whistling to me,
The wind is blowing boisterously in my face.

Specimen of Haida Syntax.

Itil kwogada daha itil Aunguans,

(Us love you our Father great ;)
Altsulth heth il istaiang kit unga,
(Therefore down he sent son his ;)
Jesus Christ nung alth etil kaginsh is,
(Jesus Christ he our Saviour is ;)
Altsulth Jesus itil hagunan kwotalang,
(Therefore Jesus us for died.)

T am indebted to the Rev. Mr. Harrison for information on the Haidas.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 709

APPENDIX II.

Customs and Habits of Earliest Settlers of Canada,
By BENJAMIN SULTE.

It is intended in this paper to explain the mode of living of the
explorers, and afterwards of the first settlers on the shores of the
St. Lawrence, as well as the modifications they introduced in their customs,

habits, &c., in order to conform themselves to the requirements of the new
country. There are two phases to be examined in connection with this :
from 1535 to 1631, and from 1632 to 1660 or thereabout.

Let us follow, first, the explorers of Eastern Canada, and see who
they were, how they acted in regard to climate, dress, and food. The men
of Cartier and Roberval (1535-44) were all Bretons and unaccustomed
to residence elsewhere than at home in Brittany. The result was that
most of them perished by the effect of cold, bad nourishment, disease, and
despair, whilst the present French Canadian would not experience any
hardship were he to find himself in the same situation.

When Champlain (1604-30) describes the miseries of life in Acadia
and the lower St. Lawrence, he merely states for our information that his
men and himself had acquired very little knowledge in that sense above
that of previous explorers. They still persisted in depending upon the
provisions brought from France—salt pork, beans, flour, mostly affected
by the influence of weather, time, &c., and not always abundant enough
to cover the period at the end of which a fresh supply would be sent. It
was considered good fortune when one or two of the men could handle a
gun and shoot some game. As for the art of fishing, nobody seems to
have known anything of it, and these people starved alongside of a world
of plenty, since they had the rivers, and lakes, and the forests lying all
around their miserable camps.

The only superiority of the Champlain men over the crew of Cartier
consisted in the building of a house or two, but even at this they showed
rather poor conception of comfort. Chauvin, in 1599, went to Tadoussac
and left there sixteen of his followers to winter, without the elementary
precautions of providing them with eatables and warm quarters. In the
spring of 1600 the place was found empty, and none of the men are men-
tioned afterwards. The Indians had always been friendly to them, but
could not take such inexperienced folks to the woods. The same thing
happened to De Monts (1604-5) in Acadia, when nearly all his party died
of scorbutic disease and want of food during the rough season. Champ-
lain, who knew these facts recorded from the years of Cartier, did not
succeed any better in 1608, when he lost twenty men out of twenty-eight.
This was repeated yearly afterwards, but in smaller proportions.

Even as late as 1627 the ‘winter residents’ of Quebec were ignorant
of the advantage of cutting trees during the summer in order to prepare
dry fuel for the October—April season. It was Pontgravé who advised
them to do so, and no doubt they recognised it was a great forethought.
They used to pick up whatever the wind would blow down of branches in
the forest, and if that material proved insufficient on extremely cold days,
then they tried their hands at felling some trees near by and supplying
them in blocks to the steward’s room. No wonder that the writings of
the period in question so often complained of the evil of smoke and the
small quantity of heat produced by the burning of such green wood.
Stoves being unknown to the hivernants in Canada, a caboose supplied

710 xl REPORT—1898,

the place of that indispensable adjustment, and the men, unoccupied most
of the time, slept around it, starved there, got sick and died on the spot,
one after the other, as a matter of course. Father Biard, evidently ahead
of his generation, once made the remark that an iron box (a stove) such
as used in Germany was preferable by far to the poisonous system of
caboose. The improvement made by Champlain in his house at Quebec
consisted in substituting an ordinary chimney for the open fireplace above
alluded to. It is likely that Louis Hebert in 1617, and Guillaume Couil-
lard about 1620, built similar smoke-escapes in their homes ; they also
had the good sense to fit door and window sashes so as both to close her-
metically and open easily when required. These marvels were not to be
surpassed for a long while after that.

The equipment provided for the men of Cartier, Roberval, Chauvin,
De Monts, and Champlain was not generally suitable in Canada. Slouch
felt hats are not equal to fur caps in winter ; boots and shoes of European
fabrics could not compete with the moccasins ; and as for overcoats, it
may be said they were not fit for the climate. Gloves, trousers, and under-
clothes adapted to the exigencies of 30° below zero constituted a puzzle
for these people. Snowshoes and mitts were doubtless adopted at an
early date from the Indians.

Jt was well known throughout France that Canada was a purgatory
for civilised people, and would never be settled by Christians.

Building houses was not customary in Quebec until 1632, because the
men (all without families) were located for the winter in what was called
the fort.. As it was not intended to increase the colony, no carpenter was
needed for other purposes than to keep the sbips in repair.

This awkward situation remained the same during twenty-six years.
What was the cause of it? Simply this: the men for Canada were
recruited from the working classes (if not of the worst), through the
suburbs of large cities and towns, the very individuals who were the least fit
for the trials to be met in a wild country. For instance, a shoemaker is
not called upon to find his daily bread and meat by sowing wheat, plant-
ing vegetables, or hunting and fishing. Those men do not know how to
manufacture clothing or to dress themselves appropriately ; neither can
they prepare beaver or other skins to make a soft and warm garment,
Their ‘ coaling’ power was also limited, for the wood standing in the
forest was for them a foreign product, accustomed as they were to receive
their fuel all cut up and dry at the door of their homes. Necessity, it is
said, is the mother of invention ; but this only applies to people who
already live by inventions, such as poor country folks—not the ‘citizens’
who depend upon the shops in their street. Furthermore, those who
came to Canada ‘took no stock’ in the future of the country, and they
returned to France (when not buried here) in haste, without having had
time to learn much. The fur companies did not ask them to become
Canadians. They had no reason to turn a new leaf and devise a means
of life so completely different from their habits and aspirations.

Now we will close this unfortunate period by saying that about twelve
or fifteen of the youngest men, still employed in the neighbourhood of
Quebec in 1631, were merged into the subsequent immigration and
became equally competent with that new formation, 7e., the actual
settlers. This little squad, strange to say, was all from Normandy, and
every one of them educated far more than ordinary people: this was the
gy pee result of a century of wrong management in the affairs of

anada.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 711

Coming to the second phase, we have to introduce farmers of Perche,
Beauce, Normandy, and Picardy, numbering forty-five, from 1632 to 1640,
besides twenty-six from Champagne, Lorraine, Brie, Poitou, Maine, during
the same nine years. This period gives an average of eight settlers per year
only, which may be considered the proportion for twenty years afterwards.

The group of Perche took the lead from 1632 and kept it for ever.
They came married, bringing their farm implements, cattle, &c., and in
less than two years after their arrival conquered the soil, learned how to
face the climate, and made themselves literally at home, where their pre-
decessors had miserably perished by scores during many years.

The typical Percherons knew the way to clear the forest, because their
country was covered (especially in those days) with trees. They produced
all sorts of grain, poultry, cattle, pigs, &c.,and so they did in Canada from
the outset. Every woman had a trade of her own—the men also. Take
Beauport, near Quebec, as an example : the first ten or twelve agricultural
families located there were composed of a stonemason, a carpenter, a
tiler, slater or thatcher, a blacksmith (often called armourer), a miller, a
shoemaker, a ropemaker, a leather-dresser, and two or three weavers.
Before the clothes brought from France were worn out the ‘ Canadian’
manufacture supplied the little colony with fresh woollen stuff of various
fabrics from serge and camlet to much thicker cloths, as well as linen
made of their culture of flax. It soon became a saying that the ‘habitant’
(so named by contrast with the roving fur-trader) needs no help from
France, except in the line of iron and steel tools and firelocks. From
head to feet they could provide for themselves ; their table was well sup-
plied, their houses comfortable ; in fact they lived in luxury. The
culinary art had many adepts amongst them, and this has been trans-
mitted through generations.

The hygienic aspect of the situation must have been well understood
by those early settlers, because not even the children were affected by the
influence of the new climate and habits of life. Scorbutic diseases dis-
appeared from 1632—that is to say, never prevailed amongst actual
settlers or habitants, but continued to follow the men sent to the advanced
posts for a winter or two in the pursuit of the fur trade.

Boots and shoes brought from France soon became known as bottes
et souliers francois, to be used indoors on special occasions only. Bottes
et souliers sauvages served all other purposes at every season. The long
overcoat, or capot, made of coarse woollen cloth with a nap on one side
(frieze) called bwre in French, is a remarkable instance of their
ingenuity. This coat has a hood attached to the collar and dropping
behind : it is buttoned up and down, double-breast, and made tight around
the body by a wide and long woollen sash of bright colours, altogether an
immense improvement over the ‘caban’ or dreadnought-coat of the
mariners, well known in England and France. Their mode of colonisation
also differed from that which could have been expected, considering that
in France the country people are centralised in villages somewhat away
from the fields they cultivate. The first attempt made in Canada to lay
out farms (1632) consisted in having them in a row facing the river and
distant from one another about four arpents: each lot of land measured
forty arpents deep, making one hundred and sixty square arpents for a
farm. This system was adopted by the whole of the colony as it gradu-
ally got settled—notwithstanding the authorities who were in favour of
the formation of villages in preference to what they styled a ‘dispersed
order.’ The advantage of such an arrangement is to bring the house a

712 REPORT—1898.

few steps from the river ; to permit easy access to the public road situate
between the house and the river; to keep social intercourse as close as
possible by the vicinity of neighbours addicted to the same profession. In
a case where twenty habitants so covered eighty to one hundred arpents
on a line following the water’s edge, they did nothing else but open a
street, and so they could visit each other with facility at all times. Four
feet deep of snow in the winter was beaten down within two hours by the
passage of forty or fifty horses and men. This of course was at first
done on snowshoes until horses were introduced (1665), and then this
arrangement worked to perfection. That was the time that the French
carriole—on wheels—was dismounted, put on runners, and became the
comfortable family vehicle so popular in Canada East during the snowy
season.

Anyone who will peruse the numerous works containing letters and
documents relative to the years 1632-70 in this colony may obtain more
information on this subject. In conclusion I may mention inventories
(existing in original) of household effects, which afford a fair idea of
the contents of the early residences, such as furniture and utensils,
from 1640 to 1670. The kitchen has a special fireplace where the cook-
ing was done. Two or three chimneys (brick or stone) heated the main
part of the house. Wooden floors everywhere, smooth, clean, covered
with rug-carpets. Sleeping rooms upstairs. Double doors and windows
for the winter. A large and well-lighted cellar, with a compartment for
ice to be used during the summer months. The four walls of the building
made of thick lumber placed flat one over the other in a horizontal posi-
tion. No chairs, but forms for two, four, or six persons. No wine, but
cider and beer sometimes, also guildive, a second-class brandy, and rum.
Flannel, serge, heavy cloth, linens of various descriptions, all home-made,
and of which the farmer’s wife felt proud, were stored in cupboards or
closets. The population came altogether from that part of France where
cider and beer were most in use ; they immediately started a brewery
and a plantation of apples on arriving in Canada. Guildive and rum
came from France.

The evident superiority of the men who came immediately after 1631
over those who had previously tried to reside here is the object I wish
to impress upon the mind of the reader. The manner in which they
practised agriculture, their habits, customs, dresses, all things belonging
to them, were afterwards adopted by all the new comers. Such is the
evidence very clearly shown by our archives.

Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.—Sizth Report of
the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. W. BraBroox (Chairman),
Dr. Francis Gatton, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. A. C. Happon, Dr.
JOSEPH ANDERSON, Mr. J. RomiLLy ALLEN, Dr. J. BEppoE, Mr.
W. Crooke, Professor D. J. CunnincHam, Professor W. Boyp
Dawkins, Mr. ArtourR J. Evans, Mr. F. G. Hivton Prices, Sir H.
Howortu, Professor R. Mertpoua, General Pirt-Rivers, Mr.
E. G. RAvENsTEIN, Dr. H. O. Forses, and Mr. E. Sripney Hart-

LAND (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
1. As in previous years, the Committee has had the advantage of the

co-operation of several gentlemen, not members of the Association, but
delegates of various learned bodies interested in the Survey.

ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 713

Mr. George Payne, one of the delegates of the Society of Antiquaries ;
Mr. E. Clodd, Mr. G. L. Gomme, and Mr. Joseph Jacobs, representing the
Folklore Society ; Sir C. M. Kennedy, K.C.M.G., representing the Royal
Statistical Society ; Mr. Edward Laws, the Venerable Archdeacon Thomas,
Mr. S. W. Williams, and Professor John Rhys, representing the Cambrian
Archeological Association ; and Dr. C. R. Browne, a representative of the
Royal Irish Academy, have continued their valuable services. Other
members of the Committee are delegated by the Anthropological Institute.

2. Having last year, in its Fifth Report, recapitulated the steps taken
towards the fulfilment of the duty entrusted to the Committee, it is
unnecessary to do more here than make a brief record of its further
proceedings.

3. At the time of the last report the Committee had appointed the

_ Rev. H. M. B. Reid to carry on the work in Galloway initiated by the
late Rev. Dr. Gregor, and the Rev. Elias Owen, F.S.A., and Dr. H.
Colley March as special observers in North Wales and Dorsetshire
respectively.

4. No complete report has yet been received from the two former
gentlemen ; but the Rev. H. M. B. Reid has sent some notes of customs, in
anticipation of a fuller report. Dr. Colley March devoted some weeks of
the autumn of last year to inquiries and observations in Dorsetshire. His
preliminary report on the folklore of the district has been received. In
addition to this, he measured and took photographs of a number of typical
inhabitants. Dr. March has kindly undertaken to proceed with his
inquiries, and it is hoped that, if the Committee be re-appointed, a
further and fuller report may be made next year. Meanwhile, the
physical measurements and photographs are postponed, to be dealt with
when his inquiries in the district are completed. Dr. March has also
forwarded a sketch and photographs of the famous Giant of Cerne Abbas.

5. The Committee is indebted to Captain Bryan J. Jones for a report
of some interesting traditions and superstitions collected by him at
Kilcurry, co. Louth, Ireland, together with a careful sketch-map of the
village, showing the spots believed to be haunted and the route tradition-
ally assigned to the ‘ Dead Coach.’

6. The Committee has also to acknowledge communications from Mr.
John Fielder Child, of observations at Farnborough, Hants ; Mr. Adam
Lander, of observations in Ross-shire, Scotland ; and the Right Rev. the
Lord Bishop of Barrow-in-Furness of observations at Churt, Surrey.

7. The Committee has received, by the kindness of Mrs. and Miss
Gregor, a wooden mould for making horn spoons, obtained by the late
Rey. Dr. Gregor in Galloway. This interesting relic of the domestic
arrangements of the past has been handed to the Folklore Society,
and deposited by them in their case in the Cambridge University
Museum.

8. Early in the present year the Committee, by the courtesy of the
Anthropological Institute, the Royal Archeological Institute, and the
Folklore Society, distributed to the members of those bodies a circular
calling attention to the objects and methods of the Committee’s inquiries,
and asking for assistance. Several replies were received, but, with the
exception of Captain Jones’s report on the traditions of Kilcurry, the
Committee regrets to be unable as yet to record any definite result.

9. In view of this the Committee desires to call attention to paragraphs
18-26 of its last year’s Report, and to emphasise the fact that, while the

714 REPORT—1898,

whole scheme of the Committee’s inquiries includes a number of subjects,
thus appealing to persons interested and capable of rendering assistance
in various ways, it is not considered necessary for each observer to deal
with them all. Having regard to the movements of population and the
spread of education, some subjects, such as current traditions and beliefs,
and dialect, are more immediately pressing than others equally important
for the purposes of the Committee.

10. Moreover, it is a question whether the time has not arrived for
considering some practicable suggestion for employing a paid and expe-
rienced assistant to make observations in parts of the country which may
be expected to yield results of special value for the inquiries.

11. The grant appropriated to the Committee at the Toronto meeting
has not been drawn, and some balance remains in hand from that appro-
priated at the Liverpool meeting. The Committee asks to be re-appointed
and permitted to use this unexpended balance, and to be provided with a
further grant, so as to have at its disposal the total sum of 50/. during
the coming year.

Functional Activity of Nerve Cells—Second Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. W. H. GAsKELL (Chairman), Professors BURDON
SanpErson, M. Foster, EH. A. Scuarer, J. G. McKeEnpricx,
W. D. Hatuisurton, J. B. Haycrarr, F. Gotcu, C. 8S. SHER-
RINGTON, and A. B. Macatuum, Dr. J. N. Lanaury, Dr. G.
Mann, and Dr. A. WALLER (Secretary), appointed to investigate the
changes which are associated with the Functional Activity of Nerve
Cells and their Peripheral Extensions.

APPENDIX. PAGE
I, Structural Alterations observed in Nerve Cells. By W. B. WARRING-
TON,MD. . ‘ ‘ . 3 : : . ; : d ». 715
Il. Hecitatory Electrical Changes in Nerve. By FRANCIS GorcH, /.2R.S.,
and G. J. Burcu, M.A. > 716

Ill. The Effects upon Blood-pressure produced by the Intra-venous Injection of
Fluids containing Choline, Neurine, and Allied Substances. By F. W.

Mort, I.D., F.R.S., and W. D. HALLIBURTON, MD. FRS. . ECT.

IV. The Myelination of Nerve Fibres. By H. V. ANDERSON, UD. . e W1T
V. The Histology of Nerve Cells. By GUSTAV MANN, M.D. S - ait eo

Tue following investigations have been carried out during the past
year :—

Dr. G. Mann : Histological changes in nerve cells.

Professor Boyce and Dr. Warrington: Changes in nerve cells after
section of nerve fibres.

Dr. J. L. Bunch : Position of cell stations on the course of sympathetic
nerves.

Professor Sherrington : Activity of nerve centres correlating antago-
nistic muscles.

Professor Gotch : Electrical changes in nerve fibres during activity.

Professor Halliburton and Dr. Mott: Effects of neurine and choline
upon the vascular nervous system.

Professor Waymouth Reid and Dr. Macdonald: Electro-motive
changes in the phrenic nerve.

Dr. Anderson : On the myelination of nerve fibres.

The results of several of these investigations have been already in part

-

ON THE FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITY OF NERVE CELLS. 715

published in the ‘ Journal of Physiology,’ and in [the ‘ Proceedings of the
Royal Society,’ 1897 and 1898. In addition the following reports have
been received. ;

APPENDICES.

I. On Structural Alterations observed in Nerve Cells.
By W. B. Warrineton, J.D.

A paper was published in the ‘Journal of Physiology,’ vol. xxiii, on
the structural alterations observed in nerve cells :—

(1) Of the anterior horns of the spinal cord after section of the

osterior roots.
(2) After division of the axons belonging to them.

Summary of Part I.

Records of observations made on eight cats and one monkey are
ven.
‘i These observations show that after sections of several posterior roots,
from the fifth to the ninth post-thoracic inclusive, a considerable per-
centage of obviously altered cells are found : their distribution in the case
of the cat is practically limited to the seventh and eighth segments, and
especially to the postero-lateral group of cells in those segments.

In the monkey the upper part of the seventh segment is picked out.

The effect is to a very slight extent a crossed one, and presents the
remarkable feature that more affected cells were found in the sixth seg-
ment of the crossed side than on the side of the lesion.

In the cervical region, in one case, similar but slight changes were
found limited to the seventh segment ; in the other the spinal cord was
practically normal.

The significance of these results and of their limitation to certain cell
groups is discussed, and the view adopted that the structural changes
correspond to the altered functional state of motor cells deprived of the
afferent impulses which impinge upon them.

Summary of Part II.

Observations were made on eight cats, one monkey, and on material
supplied from the autopsy room (I am indebted for the material in the
case of the monkey and one cat to Professor Sherrington).

The observations show that—

1. Distinct and easily recognisable changes in nearly all the cells of a
segment of the spinal cord are found on the side of the lesion after section
of an anterior root.

2. Similar but less marked changes follow division of the facial nerve,
and still less distinct alteration after division of the oculomotorius nerve.

3. The fate of such altered cells and the ultimate condition of the
nucleus of origin are not yet definitely ascertained.

4, The age and nature of the animal experimented on is a factor in

716 REPORT—1898.

determining the rapidity and degree of alteration met with in the nerve
cells.

A paper on the Morbid Anatomy of a case of lead-poisoning will appear
in the spring number of ‘ Brain,’ by Dr. Laslett and myself.

An examination of the various segments of the spinal cord and the
corresponding nerves was made, and it was found that certain cells in the
anterior horns showed changes comparable with those described after
division of an anterior root, and that these altered cells were limited to
these segments from which the most degenerated peripheral nerves and
anterior roots were derived, the posterior roots being in all cases normal.

II. On Excitatory Electrical Changes in Nerve.
By Francis Gotcu, F.2.S., and G. J. Burcu, ILA.

The authors have employed the apparatus described in their previous
report, and have succeeded in obtaining photographic records of the
movement of the mercurial meniscus of the capillary electrometer due to
the electromotive changes produced in nerve in response to a single
excitation. The results have been briefly set forth in communications
both to the Physiological Society! and the Royal Society.2. In these
communications it will be seen that the authors have studied the influence
of varying conditions of the nerve upon the character of the electrical
response as indicated by that of the photographic record.

The records themselves are sufficiently large to permit the determina-
tion of the time relations of the electromotive changes, and thus afford
data for the more precise estimation of the characters of the propagated
excitatory state constituting the so-called ‘nervous impulse.’

From an analysis of the records it is thus possible to obtain a history
of the amount and extent of the change in any one portion of the nerve
when the state of excitation reaches this portion, this state having been
started in the nerve trunk by a single stimulus. When two contacts on
the uninjured nerve are arranged in connection with the instrument, a
change of the above character occurs, first under the proximal contact
(z.e. that nearest the seat of excitation), and later under the distal one ;
the algebraic sum of the two effects is a rapid biphasic change indicated
in the photographic record by a spike. Each complete change under one
contact only is indicated in the record by a sudden rise, followed by a
prolonged tail or after effect ; the E.M.F. of the former attaining a
maximum of -03 volt with great rapidity, that of the latter a maximum
of -003 volt ,3,, second later.

Starting with these fundamental characteristics, the authors have
examined the influence of the following changes of condition : (1) electro-
lytic changes produced by polarising currents ; (2) persistent electromotive
changes produced by localised injury ; (3) local alterations in temperature ;
(4) variations in the intensity of the stimulus ; (5) the frequent repetition
of the stimulus ; (6) CO, gas, &c. The research is now being extended to
comprise the electromotive effects produced in mammalian nerves, both
peripheral nerve trunks and nerve roots, as also those known to exist in
the spinal cord.

Endeavours are also being made to obtain records of the changes in
mixed nerves, roots and cord, evoked by reflex discharge of the central

1 Journal of Physiology, vol. xxii. (xxxii.).
? Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. |xiii. 1898, p. 300.

ON THE FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITY OF NERVE CELLS. 217

_ nervous system, in the hope that the character of the discharge from the

efferent nerve cells may be thus elucidated.

The research has, so far, amply fulfilled the expectations of the authors,
and it is particularly gratifying to them to feel that the results are not
dependent upon the possession of a particular capillary electrometer.
This is shown by the circumstance that when, owing to an unfortunate
accident, the instrument was broken, a second one, made for the purpose,
has given, if anything, better results than that originally employed. It
appears, therefore, that any electrometer of adequate sensitiveness and
sufficient rapidity will furnish records of the change, if appropriately used.
Since every delicate capillary electrometer is, from the nature of things, a
perishable instrument, this fact is one of great importance for the prosecu-
tion of the present research.

III. The Effects upon Blood-pressure produced by the Intra-venous Injection
of Fluids containing Choline, Neurine, and Allied Substances. By
F. W. Mort, 1.D., F.R.S., and W. D. Hatirsurton, W.D., F.R.S.

In the communication on this subject published in the British Associa-
tion Report last year we stated that cerebro-spinal fluid removed from
cases of brain atrophy (particularly from cases of general paralysis of
the insane) produces a fall of blood-pressure. From the similar result
produced by choline we thought it possible that the toxic material
derived from the disintegration of nervous tissues, and contained in the
cerebro-spinal fluid, was choline also. We have now completed our
chemical examination of the material, and proved that our supposition is
correct.

The fall of blood-pressure which occurs is partly of cardiac origin, but
its main cause is vascular dilatation in the splanchnic area. This was
investigated by the use of Barnard’s cardiometer, and by the use of
air-plethysmographs applied to various organs. The intestinal oncometer
used we owe to the ingenuity of Mr. A. Edmunds, B.Sc., who has
described the instrument in the ‘Journal of Physiology,’ vol. xxii. 1898,
p. 380.

By means of section of the spinal cord, and also by the use of large
doses of nicotine, we have cut out the influence of the central nervous
system, and of peripheral vaso-motor stations. Choline still produces,
under these circumstances, the usual fall of blood-pressure, which is there-
fore due to the action of the poison on the neuro-muscular apparatus of
the blood- vessels.

The allied alkaloid, neurine, produces somewhat different results, and
is far more toxic. There is a primary fall in arterial pressure, mainly of
cardiac origin ; the slowing of the heart and deepening of respiration are
very marked symptoms. Usually this is followed by a rise of pressure,
due to constriction of peripheral blood-vessels. In some cases this latter
phase is absent ; and in some few cases, using very small doses, the second
phase only occurs.

IV. On the Myelination of Nerve Fibres. By H. V. AnpErson, UD.

A systematic investigation of the peripheral nervous system of man,

the cat, and the rabbit has been commenced to ascertain the relative

718 REPORT—1898.

progress and date of medullation of the various fibres of the cranial,
spina], and sympathetic nerves.

Afferent fibres have been distinguished from efferent by the use of
the Wallerian method, and the number of afferent fibres in various
somatic and sympathetic branches has been determined in kittens from
a few days to several weeks old. At the same time the intra-spinal
degeneration resulting from section of posterior roots in kittens of
different ages has been traced by Marchi’s method. By these observa-
tions an attempt has been made to divide the fibres of all the peripheral
nerves into embryological systems, and to trace the distribution of each
afferent and efferent system separately.

Several experiments have also been performed according to V.
Gudden’s method upon kittens and rabbits a few days old to determine—
(1) the effect upon the development of a posterior root ganglion of section
of the corresponding posterior roots or peripheral nerve trunk respec-
tively ; (2) the changes produced in certain posterior rootlets, spinal
ganglia, and cells of the spinal cord by cutting many peripheral branches,
each of which contains a relatively large proportion of fibres belonging
to a given embryological system ; (3) the effect upon the development of
the fibres of the cervical sympathetic nerve of section of the nerve itself,
or of branches of the superior cervical sympathetic ganglion ; (4) the
central origin of the fibres of the cervical sympathetic nerve by the
atrophy of cells following section of the nerve in very early life; and
(5) the alterations in the cells of a sympathetic ganglion resulting from
section of its pree- or post-ganglionic fibres respectively.

I append a summary of some of the observations made :

The two systems of afferent fibres, which are the first to become
medullated, are found to be common to both the somatic and sympathetic
nerves, and to assume their fatty sheath before the efferent visceral fibres.
The two afferent systems mentioned are distinguished from each other,
not only by the considerable interval between the dates of their medulla-
tion, but also by the mode of their peripheral termination, the fibres of
the earliest medullated system alone entering end-organs. The later
medullated afferent fibres of both somatic and sympathetic nerves have
not yet been fully investigated.

The efferent somatic fibres do not all become medullated at the same
time, and certain embryological relations have been observed between
certain cranial and spinal efferent fibres. The various visceral efferent
fibres also develop their medulla at different dates.

Section of the posterior roots in very young animals has little, if any,
effect upon the development of the corresponding posterior root ganglion,
but section of the trunk of the nerve distal to the ganglion causes marked
macroscopic and microscopic changes in the same duration of experiment,
viz., about eight weeks. These results confirm the work of Lugaro upon
the spinal ganglia of adult animals. In the second form of experiment

‘obvious changes are found, also in the posterior roots, and it is possible
by this method to connect certain posterior root fibres with given afferent
nerves.

Early section of the cervical sympathetic nerve markedly hinders the
development of the fibres of that nerve, and though some fibres become
eventually medullated, they are small, and stain only a faint grey colour
with osmic acid. Jn two kittens in which the internal carotid branches
of the superior cervical sympathetic ganglion had been cut some days

—_- °°

ON THE FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITY OF NERVE CELLS. 719

previously to the commencement of medullation in the cervical sym-
pathetic nerve, I found later a smaller number of fibres medullated
upon the cut side, and also many atrophied cells in the ganglion; but in
a third experiment, in which longer time had elapsed since the section of
the same branches, there was little, if any, difference in the two cervical
sympathetic nerves. I have therefore made other experiments to decide
what are the results following section of post-ganglionic fibres, but the
experiments are not yet complete.

The section of the cervical sympathetic nerve in a young kitten
appeared to have little, if any, effect upon the development of the superior
cervical sympathetic ganglion.

In the cord of a kitten 120 days old, in which part of the cervical
sympathetic nerve had been removed on the eighth day after birth, I
found that the small cells in the lateral horn of the first, second, and
third dorsal segments upon the cut side were very decidedly fewer in
number than upon the uncut side. I have twice repeated this experi-
ment, but the spinal cords have not yet been examined.

Some of my experiments by the atrophy method point clearly to the
correctness of Mott’s hypothesis, that cells of Clarke’s column are con-
nected with afferent nerve fibres supplying the lower limb.

A preliminary account of some of the observations made has been
given in a thesis for the M.D. degree at Cambridge, and it is hoped that
fuller details may soon be published.

V. The Histology of Nerve Cells. By Gustav Mann, WD.

Over seventy different fixing methods were used, and chemically most
diverse substances chosen so as to eliminate, if possible, all appearances
due to arte facts. Reducing and oxidising, acid, neutral, and alkaline
fixations, acid, neutral and alkaline stains, with reducing and oxidising
substances added, were tried, and these results were obtained :—

(1) In all nerve cells there exists a peripheral zone, destitute of Nissl’s
bodies, and in this zone numerous fibrils and bundles of fibrils are seen.

(2) The zone-like origin of the axis cylinder is due to a special
accumulation of the plasm constituting the peripheral zone.

(3) At the periphery of nerve cells the fibrils were not observed to
branch.

(4) Bundles of fibrils run also through the centre of cells, past the

- nucleus, but the fibrils never come into contact with Nissl’s bodies.

(5) In spinal ganglia two distinct bundles of fibrils may be dis-
tinguished, one corresponding to the peripheral and the other to the
central process. These bundles are arranged in vortices.

(6) In central and peripheral multi-polar nerve-cells bundles of fibrils
may be traced from dendritic processes to the axis-cylinder process, and
from one dendritic process to another.

(7) The thorn-like excrescences seen in Golgi preparations are arte-

facts, caused by the potassium bichromate.

(8) The nodes of Ranvier are only crossed by the neuro-fibrils,
Photographs of wax models were taken, and the course of the fibrils

traced in the following cells : Two giant cells of Malapterurus, motor cell

from anterior horn of spinal cord of the ox, spinal ganglion cells of rabbit
and dog, cell from spiral ganglion (cochlea) of guinea-pig, first giant cell
of Amphioxus, sympathetic nerve-cell of rabbit. Photographs of nerve-

720 REPORT—1898.

cells of motor, olfactory, visual area from the dog’s brain, showing fibrils,
were also taken.

All attempts made as yet to obtain the substance which shows a great
affinity for basic dyes, and is found in Nissl’s bodies, were unsuccessful.

The Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when introduced
into the Circulation.—Second Interim Report of a Committee, con-
sisting of Professor HE. A. ScHAFER, F.R.S. (Chairman), Professor
CG. S. SHERRINGTON, F’.R.S., Professor R. W. Boyce, and Professor
W. H. Tuompson (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tw continuation of the above inquiry during the past year attention has
chiefly been directed towards ascertaining the effects produced by
albumoses and peptone upon the secretion of urine. The objects kept in
view were threefold : (1) to determine the influence of the substances in
question upon nitrogenous excretion at the kidney ; (2) to see if any
important differences were manifested by the several substances when
compared with each other ; (3) to ascertain to what extent the substances
remained in or were excreted by the kidney from the animal body.

The products examined were (1) Witte’s Peptone, (2) Proto-albumose,
(3) Hetero-albumose, (4) Deutero-albumose, (5) Ampho-peptone, (6)
Anti-peptone.

The following report is to be regarded as a statement of the year’s
work, and not as a finished research. The carrying out of the investi-
gation was placed in the hands of the Secretary.

The method adopted was as follows :—Dogs were exclusively em-
ployed, the animals being anesthetised with a mixture of chloroform and
ether, preceded, except in a few of the earlier experiments, by a hypo-
dermic injection of a solution of morphine. The dose of morphine
employed was small, under two milligrammes per kilo. of body weight.

Cannule were placed in both ureters, and urine collected for definite
periods before and after an injection of the substance employed. With
the exception of hetero-albumose the substances were dissolved in physio-
logical saline solution—‘6 per cent. sodium chloride. The quantity of
solvent employed was 4 c.c. per kilo. of body weight for animals below
twelve kilos. Above this weight a maximum of 50 c.c. was adopted.
Hetero-albumose was dissolved in 2 c.c. per kilo. of weak caustic soda
solution (-2 per cent.).

The injection was made through a cannula placed in the external
saphenous vein, and the substance introduced very slowly from a burette
to avoid lowering of blood-pressure. The time occupied with the injection
varied for the most part from fifteen to twenty minutes.

A record of blood-pressure was taken from the left carotid artery, and
showed that the injection of the substances could be accomplished without
appreciable lowering. The record was not continuous, but was taken at
minute intervals during the period of injection. While the subsequent
collection of urine proceeded, a record was taken every fifteen minutes.

As arule, urine was collected for one hour, then the substance was
injected, and urine collected for a second hour, likewise for a third, fourth,
and also for a fifth.

The amount of total nitrogen and the quantity of urea were estimated in
the different samples of the urine. That passed subsequent to the injection

ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PEPTONE. 721

was also examined for the presence and amount of the albumose or
peptone excreted.

The results, so far as ascertained at the date of this report, will be set
forth under the following headings: (1) Influence on the quantity of
urine secreted ; (2) Influence on the amount of nitrogen and of urea pro-
duced ; (3) Amount of peptone or albumose excreted.

I. Influence on the Quantity of Urine.

As will be seen in the following table, the introduction of the various
substances was followed by a very large increase in the amount of urine
secreted. The outflow reached its maximum in the second hour after the
injection, and then gradually declined. But even at the end of four hours
there was still, in the majority of cases, a decided increase, as compared
with the outflow prior to the injection. A few experiments showed no
increase.

TaBLE I.—Showing Quantities of Urine secreted per hour in cubtie
centimetres.

(The injection was made at the end of the first hour, and extended over a period of
15 to 20 minutes.)

Weight Quantity of

Exp. |Hourl Hour 2 Hour 8 Hour 4/Hour 5] of Dog Fluid
in kilos. injected
I.— Witte’s Peptone.
I.| 5:5 60 102 63 =), 29 | 11:8 | 50 c.c.
II. { 14:5 | W7 1245 | 56 | 36 14:5 | 50 ,,
/ II. Proto-albumose.
Vs (el2"""| 70 149 75 64 153 | 50,,
XVI. | 105 i{ oe ge 37s 1075 | 71 | 215 | 126 | 80,
30m. 33°5
XX. | 15 15m, 24 83 63:5 | 17:5 i) 127 60.
15m. 25°5
| { 80m. 17°5 . : ™
XXI.| 22 1 30m. ae 21°25) 22 9 6 11°3 | 45 ,,
Ill. Hetero-albumose.
XXII. | 13:5 | 6 Nil | Dog | — | 13:2) 20,, KoH. 2%
45m. 33 wee, é
XXVII.} 13 || 73m. 20 53 90 33°5 | 15 83 | 20 ,, NaOH. 2%
IV. Deutero-albumose.
XIII.) 10 ) 27°35 305 | 12 |10 |) 19°75) 50,,
XIX. | 10-5 | 15-0 60 | 39 | 29 | 140 | 50.,,
XXXII. 3°5 22°75 13°25| 6 | | 63 | 24.,,
V. Ampho-peptone.
TII.| 45 | 172 188 58 175 | 14:5 | 50 ,,
We isc: 49 85 56 19°5 10°5 | 50 ,, |
VI.| 3:75 | 11:25 8 | 80} 40,, |
z = wield. 4S°S..), ook esl en DAs ' |
XI: [0/05 11 G0 Oe 2 5/185 | 265 | 235 | 119 30, |

722 REPORT—1898.
TABLE I.—continued.
| |Weight Quantity of
Exp. {Hour 1 Hour 2 Hour 3 Hour 4 Hour 5 of Dog Fluid
| | iinkilos. injected
VI. Anti-peptone.
VII.| 6 51 PL | bb AZ 138 | 50 c.c
VIII, | 13:25 10 16 7°25) 4:25 8-2 | 40 ,,
TX...) 5°25 22 13 8 6 94 | 40,,
XVII.} 8:66 38 27°5 | 18 — 15:0 | 50 ,,
XVIII. | 18 78 L7Or | vu 35 160 | 50 ,,
’ 50m.10°5 | :
XXVIII.| 4:3 per }us LZ | Uh 8 11°3 | 30,,
= 45m.22'5 Sac: | oe d Lf
XXX. | 21 we 1425 f 36 75 98) 40 | 126 8-1 | 25 ,,

The figures in italic in the column for the second hour show the amount of urine
passed in the number of minutes indicated. ‘The same applies, mutatis mutandis, to
the subsequent tables.

No marked difference was manifested by the various substances in
regard to the amount of diuresis produced, except that the proportion of
instances where no increase of urine manifested itself was decidedly
greatest in the case of the substance anti-peptone.

It is doubtful, however, if any stress can be Jaid upon diuretic influences,
since control experiments made by injecting corresponding quantities of
normal saline solution, without peptone or albumose, showed that a
marked increase of urine, also reaching its maximum in the second hour
afterwards, was produced by the solvent employed. This is illustrated
in the following table :—

TaBLe II.—Showing the Influence of Normal Salt Solution upon the
Quantity of Urine secreted (expressed in cubic centimetres).

(The injection was made at the end of the first hour, and extended over a period of
4 to 8 minutes.)

Exp.

*

NOorwhe

Hour 1 | Hour 2
16 28
15 32
21 67
12 29
16°5 76

6:25 15:25

13 12°25

Hour 3

* In Experiment No. 1 an injection of 12 c.c. of caustic soda solution,

Hour 4

195
16
51
75

18°75
5:25

Weight | Quantity

Hour 5 of injected

Dog | per Kilo.

185 | 67k! 4 cc
= 64 ,, 4 5
16 168 ,, 3° 5
23 1D ays Zee
40 14:9 ,, 3°5
11 19:5 || 2*Diey
= 148 ” 3 ”

Total
Quantity
injected

.| 28° ¢c.c*

26
50
30
50
50
45

strength, was made at the end of the third hour.

The above effect, produced by small quantities of normal salt solution,
when introduced into the circulation, has proved to be a matter of very
considerable interest, and forms the subject of a different research, which
has arisen out of the present one.

Some observations were made on the reaction of the urine passed

before and after the injection of the proteid.
showed the normal urine to be alkaline.

0:2%

The majority of cases
This alkaline was reduced to

neutrality in the second or third hours or both, and gradually returned to a
weakly alkaline condition, for the most part, before the close of the fifth hour,

ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PEPTONE.

723

II. Influence on the Excretion of Nitrogen and of Urea.

(a) Percentage Output.—The urine secreted in such large quantities
proved to be very dilute, the percentage quantity of nitrogen and of urea
being much reduced. The dilution ran almost parallel with the increase
of urine, that of the third hour being the most dilute, and as the quantity
of urine again reduced, it also became more concentrated. The following
table illustrates this in detail so far as the percentage amount of total

nitrogen is concerned.

Taste III.—Showing the Quantity of Nitrogen per cent. in the Urine
Secreted (expressed in Grammes).
Exp. | Wie of | Hour 1 Hour 2 Hour 3 Hour 4 | Hour 5
I. Witte’s Peptone.
I. 118 k. | 2°399 0°731 0269 0°391 | 0°575
Ti ala 5. 5 1:677 | 0:986 0°319 | 0°591 0°:795
II, Proto-albumose.
XV. | GE A 5:023 1:299 0°406 0580 | 0-655
: ; (40 m.) 1-4 5 ; :
VI. | 12°6 ,, 1:148 ee m.) 0389 0°218 0°308 0-641
[ (30 m.) 0°742
xx.| 127 , | 1179 |4 (5m) 0266!| 0-298 | 0-77 1512
| | G75 m5 0220 |
PERG (30 m.) 0-491 :
OeSE | 113, | 0-742 ee m> ose y| 070 0907 | L574
Ill. Hetero-albumose.
MeXIT. | 132 ,, 2°358 |° 2°150 — — —-
; : (45 m.) 0°512 | : 3 ‘
XXVII | 83, | 0-763 { (ism) 0-392 ;| 0207 | 0864 | 0-815
IV. Deutero-albumose.
XIII. | 19°75 ,, 7-767 2°380 1166 3:091 3°954
XIX. 14 ro 6°395 3802 0°820 1114 | 1°501
XXXIT 63 4, 2778 1:071 0°840 1:103 —
V. Ampho-peptone.
ST-| 14:5" ,, 0°568 0:293 07160 0°345 0:848
Wo 10:5’, 3°214 0728 0:290 0°283 0°896
VI. 8 5 1:714 1:294 0°790 0:269 —
; ; (40 m.) 1:369 ‘ 3 na
XXIx.| 1-9 , | 1-512 { (20m) 0322} | 0339 | 0409 | 0577
VI. Anti-peptone.
VER | 13:8), 4:217 0826 1:075 1:792 1:722
VIII. 82 ,, 2142 2°710 1:753 1°319 2°302
IX. idk, Pa 4:990 1:495 1:454 1-960 2°654
XVII. | 15 rh 4012 1:302 0:798 1°736 ao
me XVIII. | 16 “ 2°548 0:608 0:238 0442 0°829
| ; (50 m.) 2°341 :
| XXVUI | 113 ,, | 3920 be m) Lire {| 0999 | 13ic | 1288
Xxx. | 81 , | 0-792 bee m.) esp o228 | 0379 | o-91

(15 m.) 0°392

The percentage output of urea suffered a corresponding decrease, with
_ return. It is not considered necessary to give a table.
>

3AQ

724 REPORT—1898.

(5) Output Hour by Hour.—Notwithstanding the dilute condition of
the urine passed, it was found that the excretion of nitrogen and of urea,
when measured hour by hour, suffered a decided increase as a result of
the injection. This increase, with few exceptions, reached its maximum
in the second hour (first after the injection). Part of the nitrogen
increase of this hour, as will subsequently appear, is due to an excretion
of proteid—albumose or peptone—with the urine. The increase of total
nitrogen hour by hour is shown in the following table :—

Taste 1V.—Showing the Quantity of Nitrogen excreted per Hour in the
Urine (expressed in Grammes).

| | I Quantity
Weight | | _of N.
Exp. of Dog Hour 1 Hour 2 | i
a ti | aon gual
I. Witte's Peptone.
I} 118 k; -1319 | 4385 | -2742 |
[14s ., | -2432 “7067 =| “3388 |
Il. Prote-albumose.
AV. | 153 ,, | -6027 “9094 6049

f (40m) -1750 |:

{ ‘ Pe eb } 2348
f (30m.) -2486

| } “1893
t

WA
nr
te
a
5
%

(45 m.) “0638
(45 m.) 0560
(30 m.) 0567 \

L om.) 0437 |

Ill. Hetero-aldumese.

| 1990 <<]| = |
(45m) “1691 ]! scn- |

“0979 { (45 m.) 0644 } 1865 |
IV

’. Deutero-albumose.

“154

XIII. | 19°75,, | 5204 6545 | 3455 | ‘3704 aes “2012
XIX. }38 » | “4477 5T04 | 4922 | -4346 | 4352 | “1408
XXXII.| 63 ,, | 0972 2434 | -1113 | 0662 | — not
deter-
mined
| | as yet
V. Ampheo-peptone.
TI} 145 ,, | -2556 | 5014 | 3000 | -2072 | “1485 | -1098
Vv. los a» | “2357 3567 | 2463 | -1584 | -1747 | “1483
iad 8 ,,| 0651 1455 «| 0632 | 1075 | — | "1342
coe | 44. yrs { (40 m.) “1848 i vor |. | ss | 1618
XXIX. 119 ., | 0756 |) (om) 0886 p |} 0727 1083. | “1355 1
VWI. Anti-peptone.
VIL. }138 ,, | 2530 4213 | -2312 |
VII. | &2 ,, | -2838 ‘2710 | -2804
TX. | 94 | -2619 3289-1890
| XVIJI6 . | 3475 | “4947 | -2194
| XVII. }16 ° ,, | °3058 “4739 =| 4046
wit Lave ; f (Om) 2458 ]| .
XXVHIL 113 » | 1698 |} Crom) 012 f| 2699
(ee eee f (45m.) “1581 ' ‘
Xxx.| 81 ,,| tesa |f (552 ‘Seso |} sua )
peg st bs. a) oh abe a OM ile lp ReaD eo

ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PEPTONE,

725

But the urea—estimated by the method of Morner and Sjogvist, which
avoided the inclusion of any of the proteid—also showed a parallel
increase, reaching its maximum likewise in the urine of the second hour.

This is made clear by the following table.

Moreover, it will be seen on

examining the last column of this table, that the proteid injected could
not have supplied nearly enough nitrogen to make up the increase of the
second hour alone, to say nothing of the lesser increase shown in the
following hours :—

TABLE V.—Showing the Quantity of Urea excreted per Hour (expressed —

as Nitrogen in Grammes.)

Exp. of Doe Hour 1 Hour 2 Hour 8 | Hour 4| Hour 5 Poiteled
I. Witte’s Peptone.
I. |118 k.| 2 | ‘8679 | 2285 |-1751 |-1494 | -0863
1. 145 , | +2128 5954 | -2859 |-3025 |-2500 | -1078
II. Proto-albumose.
XV. 1153 ,,| °5350 ‘7722 | ‘5507 |-3885 \:3655 | 1565
Xv1 | 12:6 ,,| -0991 { any beret 2062 |-1809 |*1198 | -1271
(30m.) +1801"
xx. | 12-7 ,,| 1453 |4(75m.) -0538 ¢} +1618 |-1137 |-1172 |} +1271
(15m.) “0518
XxI. | 11-3 ,,| -1198 aaa: eae +1185 |-0660 |-0706 | -1174
Ill. Hetero-albumose.

XXII. } 132 ,,| 2569 | a a ies a ae a
xxvut.| 83 ,,| -0671 { ah cas 1638 |-1079 |-0937; —
IV.. Deutero-albumose.

XIII. | 19°75 ,, | 4499 ‘5159 | 83177 |°3105 |-2929 ) -2012
XIx.|14 || -3863 4536 | -4284 |-3636 |-3736 | 1408

2 i . i 3 not de-
XxiI.| 63 ,,| 0747 1962 | -0976 |-0544 | — | Dot cS.
V. Ampho-peptone.
TIL. | 145 ,,) 2268 4938 | +2290 |-1552 |-1151 | -1098
v.|105 ; | -2002 2764 | -2249 |-1388 |-1554 | -1483
vi] 8 || -0443 0822 | -0426 |-o766| — | -1342
XXIX. 119 ,, | -0533 { keds on 0414 |-0846 |-1079 | “1618
VI. Anti-peptone.
VII. | 13:8 ,, | °2235 -3510 | 2020 |-2408 |-2570| 1998
vill. | 8:2 > | -2307 ‘1915 | -2253 |-o711 |-0714 | -1427
1x.| 94 ”| -2959 2661 | -1288 |-1366 |-1398 | -1427
xvi. |15 >| -3108 3910 | -1911 |-2788| — | -2140
Xvi. |16 || -2439 3691 | -3379 |-2667 |-2352 | -2283
XXVIII | 11-3 ,, | +1246 Fisk ere 1418 |-1138 |-0806 | -1712
XXx. | 81 ,, |: -1385 hana Ba -1849 |-1277 |-0973 | +1156

726 REPORT—1898

The marked increase in the hourly output of total nitrogen and of
urea, beyond that contributed by the proteid injected, cannot, however,
be solely attributed to any influence which the substances employed
might be supposed to exert upon nitrogenous metabolism. A similar
though less marked influence is shown after the injection of normal salt
solution alone. This is expressed in the following table, where it will be
observed that the maximum effect is likewise shown in the second hour :—

Taste VI.—Showing the Effects of Normal Salt Solution on the Nitrogen
excreted Hour by Hour (expressed in Grammes).

(N.B.—The injection of normal saline was made at the end of the first hour.)

Weight | Quantity} Total
of injected | quantity
Dog _ | per kilo. | injected

Exp. No.| Hour 1 | Hour 2 | Hour 3 | Hour 4 | Hour 5

- 1115 0956 0857 0551 ‘0767 67k. | 4 c.c.} 28 cc.

1

2 *1050 "1204 — —_ — 64, /4 ,, 26) ,,
3 "1570 "2082 *2066 0923 1120 | 168 ., |) -3~ ,, 50 ,,
4 1754 *3021 "2489 2113 2OTE Alb. 75s Woes 30D).
5 *B497 5533 “3748 "2583 2285 |149,, | 35 ,, 50 ,,
6 *2481 3181 2378 ‘2677 ‘2482 |.19:5 ,, | 25. .,, 50 ,,
ic Nitrogien not dejtermined 48. os | pokes AD 5s

* In Experiment No. 1, an injection of 12 c.c. of caustic soda solution, 0:2 per cent.
strength, was made at the end of the third hour. A mixture of morphine and atropine
was employed by mistake to inject this dog.

Observations upon body temperature, taken per rectum, showed that a
steady rise occurred after the injection was made. The rise generally
appeared towards the end of the first hour after injecting, and for the most
part continued to increase till the end of the experiment.

Thus, in Experiment XXI. (proto-albumose) the temperatures were as
follows:—Normal 37:4°C.; at end of first hour 37° C—the injection was then
made ; at the end of the second hour, temperature 37°C. ; at the end of
the third 37-8; at end of fourth 38°C. This was not the highest tempera-
ture attained by any means; the maximum in several experiments reached
40° C., and in one it reached 41-2° C.

This rise of temperature occurred even when the fluid injected was
previously sterilised by boiling, and notwithstanding precautions to keep
the animals cool while on the table. A similar rise of temperature also
took place when sterilised normal salt solution was injected. In some of
the experiments the maximum temperature was attained in the third hour
(second after injection), followed by a return towards normal in the subse-
quent hours.

III. Amount of Peptone or Albumose excreted in the Urine.

This was regarded as an important point to determine. It bears upon
the question as to whether the substances under observation are to be con-
sidered as wholly foreign to the blood, or to be looked upon in the same
light as dextrose, which is excreted by the kidneys only when the amount
in circulation exceeds a certain point.

Previous experimenters had arrived at different conclusions with regard

—

ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PEPTONE. 727

to the reappearance of peptone at all in the urine after injection into the
circulation,

Schmidt-Miilherm,' who first studied the question, used large doses, and
obtained suppression of urine lasting from twenty to ninety minutes. In
the urine subsequently passed he detected no peptone. Fano? obtained
similar results, as did also Grosjean* many years later, both likewise
employing large doses. /ofmeister,4 meanwhile, had however shown that
these substances reappeared very quickly in the urine, and devised an
ingenious method, based upon the depth of tint given by the biuret re-
action, for estimating how much proteid became excreted. He corrected
his estimation by the use of the polarimeter, and came to the conclusion
that 66 to 80 per cent. of the peptone introduced was expelled from the
body within twenty-four hours. Owing to difficulties in the employment
of these methods, neither can be regarded as capable of yielding accurate
results. This is, indeed, admitted by the author, and, as we shall see, the
figures he arrived at are a good deal too high.

In the earlier experiments of this research, no other sufficiently reliable
method of estimating the amount of peptone or albumose excreted was
apparent. From the first, it was seen that the substance appeared only
in the urine secreted during the hour immediately following the injection,
and from the depth of the biuret tint it was obvious that not nearly all
the proteid injected came out again.

On more close examination it was found that the output of proteid was,
as a rule, confined to the urine of the first forty or forty-five minutes
succeeding the injection. It was also seen, on comparing the urea nitrogen
of this period with the total nitrogen of the same time (which included
that of the excreted proteid), that the whole difference was considerably
ess than the nitrogen injected. But this difference included the nitrogen
of other compounds than urea, which I shall subsequently call ‘extractive’.
nitrogen. If a safe deduction, to represent the ‘extractive’ nitrogen,
could be made, then we should have ascertained the amount of proteid-
nitrogen which reappeared. Such a deduction was arrived at by basing a
calculation on the ‘extractive’ nitrogen of the urine secreted immediately
after the peptone or albumose ceased to come out. When this was accom-
plished in forty to forty-five minutes, the urine of the remaining part of
this hour furnished the basis of calculation. The same principle was,
however, applied to many of the earlier experiments. The deduction in
these cases was calculated on the ‘extractive’ nitrogen of the third hour,
and the subtraction made from the ‘difference’ nitrogen of the whole of
the preceding hour.

In both cases the urine which furnished the basis of calculation was
more dilute than that of the peptone (or albumose) excretion-period ; con-
sequently, the amount deducted is safe, in the sense of being under rather
than over the mark.

In the following table, which gives a succinct statement of the facts

} Schmidt-Miilheim, ‘ Beitrige zur Kenntniss des Peptons und seiner Physiolo-

gischen Bedeutung,’ Archiv f. Physiolog, 1880, p. 33.

? Fano, ‘Das Verhalten des Peptons und Tryptons gegen Blut und Lymphe,’
Archiv f. Physiolog, 1881, p. 277.

8 Grosjean, ‘Recherches sur l’Action physiologique de la Propeptone et de la
Peptone,’ Travail du Lab. de Physiologie de VUniv. de Litge, tome iv. 1891-92,
Also Archiv. de Biologie, 1892, xi. p. 381.

+ 4 Hofmeister, Zeitschrift f. Physivlogis:he Chemie, 1881, p. 127.

728 REPORT—1898.

arrived at, the earlier experiments (where the calculations are based on
what I have called the ‘difference’ nitrogen of the whole second hour) are
indicated by an asterisk :—

TaBLeE VII.—Showing the Amount of Proteid excreted
(expressed in Grammes.)

Proteid N.+ | Per Period on
Exp. Weight | Nitrogen] extractive raaihae Tae Fl rg cent, of | which Caleu-
of Dog | injected | N. of 2nd tive N preneter Proteid lation is
hour 5 excreted based

I. Witte’s Peptone : not estimated, data insufficient. The same applies
to Hetero-albumose.

Il. Proto-albumose. Average 47 per cent.

*XV. 1153 k.| °1565 *1372 0645 0727 46°45 One hour
AVL |126 ,,| :1271 “0591 0076 0515 40°52 40 min,
XX. /|12-7 = ,,| °1271 0785 0094 0691 54°37 45 min. |
III. Deutero-albumose. Average (2)
*XITI. | 19°75 ,,| -2012 1386 0250 1136 56°46 | One hour
(urine contd.
albumen)

*XIX.|14 ~—,, | "1408 "1868 0159 1009 71:65 | One hour

XXXII.| 63 ,, — — — — — Not as yet
estimated
IV. Ampho-peptone. Average 39 per cent.
*V. (105 ,,[ +1483 0803 0123 0680 45°86 One hour
*VI.| 8 ,,| °1342 0633 0206 0427 31°82 prac
XXIX., | 119 ,,| °1618 0756 0125 0631 38°95 40 min
V. Anti-peptone. Average 27°5 per cent.

*VIII. | 8:2 ,,| ‘1427 0795 0344 0451 31°60 | One hour
*XVIII.|16 ,,| -2283 1048 0306 0742 32°11 Bs -
KXVIII} 11:3, | 1712 0518 0168 0350 20°44 50 min.

XXX. | 81 ,,| 1156 "0417 0114 0303 26°21 45
|

The average of amounts of excreted proteid are, for proto-albumose,
47 per cent. for deutero-albumose (not calculated); for ampho-peptone,
39 per cent. ; for anti-peptone, 27:5 percent. But even these averages are
considerably too high, for two reasons : first, because they include experi-
ments where the calculation is made on a longer period than the actual
‘ peptone ’-excretion period ; and, secondly, because it is fairly certain that
the deduction made, for ‘extractive’ nitrogen, even in the later experi-
ments, is too low. If we examine Table VI., which gives the effect of
normal salt solution upon the output of nitrogen, we shall see that the
augmentation caused by it is greatest in the second hour, and the same
applies to urea. Consequently, it is believed that a much greater, probably
twice as great, deduction might safely be made for the ‘ extractive ’ nitrogen
of the excretion period in the peptone and albumose experiments. This
would considerably reduce the proportion throughout, below that shown in
Table VII.

The experiments, therefore, would make it appear probable that

ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PEPTONE. 729

peptones and albumoses are not wholly foreign substances to the circu-
lating blood. This conclusion cannot, however, be pushed too far, since
it is uncertain to what extent any given substance introduced into the cir-
culation is again recoverable from the urine, nor is it certain how long the
substances in question retain their identity after being so introduced.

It is significant, however, in the light of Siegfried’s work, that anti-
peptone remains in the system to a much greater extent than any of the
other substancesemployed. Some of the experiments were performed with
anti-peptone kindly supplied by Professor Siegfried, for which best thanks
are here expressed.

The research is still in progress.

Fertilisation in Phceophyceee.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor J. B. FarMER (Chairman), Professor R. W. PHILLIPS
(Secretary), Professor F. O. Bower, and Professor Harvey
GIBSON.

Tue Committee beg to report that they have again devoted the whole
of the 15/. placed at their disposal to aiding Mr. J. Lloyd Williams in the
prosecution of his researches on the Fucacee and Dictyotacee. Mr.
Williams’s interesting discovery of the occurrence of motile antherozoids
in Dictyota and Taonia was announced to the Botanical Section at the
meeting at Toronto. A full description of these antherozoids has been
published in the ‘ Annals of Botany ’ (December 1897).

The following is a brief summary of the points to which Mr. Williams
has been directing his attention more particularly :—

(1) The Fertilization and Cytology of Ascophyllum and Fucus.—This
investigation is in continuation of a joint research by Professor Farmer
and Mr. Williams on these genera, the results of which are in course of
publication in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society.’

(2) The Process of Fertilization in Halidrys.—Certain remarkable
phenomena accompanying the act of fertilization have been observed in
ipeeted Siliquosa, a description of which will appear in the paper referred
to above.

(3) The Zones of Growth and Periods of Maturation of the Sexual
Products in Fucacee.—Mr. Williams has subjected all the species of
Fucaceez in the Menai Straits to a careful and continuous examination,
and his observations add greatly to our knowledge of what may be called
the Natural History of these species.

(4) The Examination of the Sexual Cells in Dictyota and Taonia.—
The discovery of motility in the male sexual cells in these genera has
already been referred to. Further, the process of fertilization has now
been observed, the occurrence of parthenogenetic germination of the
oospheres confirmed, and an interesting discovery of a marked periodicity
in the maturation and liberation of the sexual cells in Dictyota has been
made. Upon this subject the Committee are glad to learn Mr. Williams
ain - submit a paper to the Section at the forthcoming meeting at

ristol.

Since the last meeting of the Association, Mr. Williams has been
appointed Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Botany at the Univer-

730 REPORT—1898,

sity College of North Wales, Bangor, and he is thus favourably situated
by residence at the seaside for the prosecution of the studies which he
has on hand. The Committee would earnestly recommend the continua-
tion of the grant for another year, and, convinced that interesting results
will accrue to science as a result of Mr. Williams’s investigations, they
would propose to devote it again to assisting him in his work.

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

ON

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.

ey 2h pernln So Fre Ae Ae
= ( ;

——

ALA MATTAWOAM

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

ON

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.

PRESIDENT OF THE CONFERENCE—Professor A. W. Ricxer, M.A.,
D.Sce., Sec. B.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Tue President of the Section of Mathematics and Physics has already
expressed the pleasure with which British physicists welcome the distin-
guished band of visitors who have assembled to take part in the Interna-
tional Conference on Terrestrial Magnetism. None join in that welcome
with more cordiality than those who are especially interested in the science
with which the Conference will be occupied. To us it is a source both of
gratification and pride that the International Committee, to whose action
this meeting is due, should have allowed us to play the part of hosts to
the eminent men from many lands who have responded to their call.
Some whom we would gladly have seen here, but who have been prevented
from attending by various causes, have nevertheless shown the interest
which they take in our proceedings by sending written communications.
Thus our meeting is as fully representative as we could have hoped.

It may be interesting to those who are unaware of the fact if I remind
the Conference that this is not the first occasion on which students of
Terrestrial Magnetism have taken counsel together during a meeting of
the British Association.

Fifty-four years ago the then President of the Association, the Very
Rev. George Peacock, Dean of Ely, stated in his address that the period
was drawing to an end for which a series of magnetic observatories had
been established by international co-operation. ‘Six observatories,’ he
stated,' ‘were established, under the zealous direction of M. Kupffer, in
different parts of the vast empire of Russia, the only country, let me add,
which has established a permanent physical observatory. The American
Government instituted three others, at Boston, Philadelphia, and Washing-
ton ; two were established by the East India Company, at Simla and Sin-
gapore ; from every part of Europe, and even from Algiers, offers of
co-operation were made.’ The observations thus provided for were to be
carried out for three years only, but, as nearly the whole of that time
was spent in preparation, the period was doubled. When the term thus

1 Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1844, p. xliv.

704 REPORT—1898.

fixed drew to an end, the question arose as to whether it was desirable to
extend it further, and M. Kupffer (Director-General of the Russian System
of Magnetic and Meteorological Observations) addressed a letter to Colonel
(afterwards Sir Edward) Sabine, suggesting the propriety of summoning a
magnetic congress to be held at the next meeting of the British Asso-
ciation.

Tn accordance with that suggestion the Congress was held during the
meeting of the Association at Cambridge in 1845. The number of dis-
tinguished foreigners who attended in person was considerable, in spite of
the difficulties of travel fifty years ago. Amongst those who were present
was M. Kupffer; Dr. Erman, of Berlin, the celebrated circumnavigator
and meteorologist; Baron von Senftenberg, the founder of the Astronomical
and Meteorological Observatory of Senftenberg, in Bohemia; M. Kreil,
the Director of the Imperial Observatory at Prague; Dr. von Boguslawski,
the Director of the Royal Prussian Observatory at Breslau; Herr Dove,
Professor of Physics in the University of Berlin ; and Baron von Walters-
hausen, a gentleman who had taken part in the magnetic observations of
Gauss and Weber at Gottingen, and had executed a magnetic survey of
portions of Italy and Sicily. In addition to these a number of well-
known British men of science were invited to be present, amongst whom
T need only mention the Marquis of Northampton (President of the Royal
Society), Sabine, Sir John Herschel, Lloyd, Airy, Brown, and Sir James
Ross, then recently returned from his celebrated expedition to the Ant-
arctic Seas. Letters were also received from Wilhelm Weber, Gauss,
Loomis, Lamont, Quetelet, Von Humboldt, and others.

The principal question which this conference had to decide was whether
‘the combined system of British and foreign co-operation for the investi-
gation of magnetic and meteorological phenomena, which [had then] been
five years in progress, must be broken up.’' I will not trouble you with a
recapitulation of the recommendations of the Congress, some of which
have been carried out, while others have not yet been realised ; but one
resolution will, I am sure, so exactly express your own sentiments that I
venture to quote it, viz. : ‘That, the cordial co-operation which has hitherto
prevailed between the British and foreign magnetic and meteorological
observatories having produced the most important results, and being
considered by us as absolutely essential to the success of the great system
of combined observation which has been undertaken, it is earnestly recom-
mended that the same spirit of co-operation should continue to prevail.’
Whatever changes half a century may have wrought in the problems
which press upon magneticians, and in the difficulties which confront
them, there can be no doubt that they are still of the same spirit as that
in which this resolution was framed.

It is true that we sometimes meet with the objection that interna-
tional conferences of all kinds are now too numerous, and that their
decisions, from their very number and complexity, cease to attract atten-
tion or to command respect. Admitting that this objection is not without
weight, it may be answered by two remarks. The closer union between
scientific workers in different countries which these meetings encourage,
the strengthening of the ties of intellectual sympathy by those of personal
friendship, are in themselves good. It is surely a hopeful omen that
science, as she reaches her maturity, forgets or ignores the political and

1 Brit. Assoc. Lep., 1845, p. 69.

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 735

geographical boundaries which sometimes seemed so important in her
youth, and that workers for the common good are more and more learning
that it is good to work in common.

But there are special and cogent reasons why the science of Terrestrial
Magnetism should be cosmopolitan. The advance of some sciences is
most easily achieved by the methods of guerilla warfare. In a hundred
different laboratories widely separated workers plan independent attacks
on Nature. In different Universities and Colleges little groups are devising
stratagems and arranging ambuscades in the hope of wresting from our
great opponent some of the treasures which she yields only to the violent
who take them by force. But for those who would unravel the causes of
the mysterious movements of the compass needle concerted action is
essential. They cannot, indeed, dispense with individual initiative, or
with the leadership of genius, but I think that all would agree that there
is urgent need for more perfect organisation, for an authority which can
decide not only what to do, but what to leave undone.

The advance of the science of Terrestrial Magnetism must depend
upon the establishment, the maintenance, and the utilisation of the
records of observatories. The bulk of the material to be dealt with must
in any case be vast, and every needless addition to it, every obstacle in
the way of its being readily comprehended and easily used, is a drawback
which proper organisation should prevent.

Thus it is wasteful to devote to the multiplication of observatories,
in regions of which we know much, energy and funds which would be
invaluable if applied to districts of which we know little or nothing. I
take some credit to myself in that within the last few months I have
assisted in checking well-intended but mistaken proposals to add to the
number of the magnetic observatories which we already possess in this
country.

Again, it is desirable that the records of the observations should be so
published as to be ready for application to the problems the solution of
which they are intended to subserve, and that the individual worker
should not be harassed by petty differences in the methods of presentment,
which often entail on him labour too enormous to be faced. On this
point something has already been done by international co-operation, and
we may hope that this meeting will do much to complete the task.

Lastly, there are many investigations which are now undertaken
independently at irregular intervals which would be far more useful if
planned in common. Thus, there has of late been a great outburst of
energy in Europe devoted to magnetic surveys more detailed than have
ever before been accomplished. Is it too much to hope that when the
time comes for these to be repeated they may be carried out simulta-
neously, and reduced by the same methods, so that we may have a mag-
netic map of Europe in which no uncertainty as to the accuracy of
details is introduced by the necessity for correcting for the secular change
over long intervals of time ?

Taking it for granted, then, that international co-operation is desirable
for purposes such as these, I come next to the question of the nature of
the machinery by which it shall be secured. And here I may at once state
that the arrangements under which we are meeting to-day are in some
respects abnormal, and that plans for the future will have to be formall
or informally considered before we part. Meanwhile, it is desirable that
I should state precisely the circumstances which have brought us together.

736 REPORT—1898. :

The last meeting of the International Meteorological Conference was
held in Paris in September 1896. It was attended by several men of
science specially interested in Terrestrial Magnetism, and, perhaps on this
account, a new departure was taken by the International Committee, in
the appointment of a ‘Permanent Committee for Magnetism and Atmo-
spheric Electricity,’ to which certain specific questions were referred.
Eight gentlemen were nominated as members of this Committee, with
power to add to their number. We in turn co-opted eight other mag-
neticians, taking care that as far as possible all countries in which
Terrestrial Magnetism is specially studied should be represented. About
the same time, and, as I believe, in ignorance of the establishment
of this Committee, a suggestion for the assembling of an International
Conference on Terrestrial Magnetism was made in the Journal of that
name by Professor Arthur Schuster. It appeared to me and to Professor
Schuster himself that it would be a great pity if this suggestion resulted
in the establishment of a rival organisation, and I at once submitted to
the Committee the question whether, in their opinion, it was desirable
that we ourselves should take the responsibility of summoning an Inter-
national meeting, with the view of obtaining a wide discussion of the
points submitted to us by the Meteorological Conference. This sugges-
tion was approved, and, as the British Association was willing to allow us
to organise the conference as a branch of Section A (Mathematics and
Physics), to undertake the expense of sending out the necessary notices,
to print our papers in its Report, and to extend to foreign members of
the Conference all the privileges of foreign members of the Association, it
was also determined that so hospitable an invitation should be accepted
with the gratitude it deserved. But although the main result has been
achieved, and a representative gathering of magneticians has assembled in
Bristol, it cannot be denied that our relations to the various bodies with
which we are connected are somewhat complicated, and that our consti-
tution is devoid both of simplicity and symmetry. I take it that these
facts are signs of health and vigour rather than symptoms of decay.
Terrestrial Magnetism has been attracting far more attention of late years
than in the not very distant past. The necessity for meeting, for common
action, for common publication has been forced upon us. We have cared
more for meeting than for the terms on which we were to meet, more for
acting together than for drawing up an elaborate deed of partnership,
more for the promotion of science than for a flawless paper constitution.
Thus, and in my opinion most wisely, we have sought to attain our ends,
not by starting a brand new International Association, but by making use
of machinery which is already in existence, which has stood the test of
time, and is, as I believe, capable of being put to new uses in meeting our
wants and supplying our deficiencies.

I confess, however, that in this arrangement we have been compelled
to pay scant attention to the simplicity and even to the logical consistency
of our schemes. We are an International Conference on special subjects
—Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity—summoned by a
Committee owing its authority and bound to report to another International
Conference of wider scope, which regards ‘our sciences as branches of
Meteorology.

On the other hand, this Committee is for the moment a part of the Com-
mittee of the Section of Mathematics and Physics of the British Association,
though it retains its right of separate meeting, more especially for the

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 737

discussion of its report to the International, Meteorological Conference.
It is evident that here there is plenty of opportunity for collision between
rival authorities, for confusion between conflicting jurisdictions ; but to
all questions as to the precise limits of authority and jurisdiction it is
sufficient to reply in the most general terms. The whole of the arrange-
ments are temporary, to meet an immediate pressing need. The work of
the Conference will be conducted like that of a Department of the
British Association. The members of the International Committee will
act as the Committee of the Department, but some of their work will be
done on the General Committee of Section A, of which other magneticians
will also be members. Should it be necessary, they will hold some
separate meetings, and some such meetings will certainly be necessary
to discuss their report to the International Meteorological Conference.
These general regulations will probably suffice for all practical purposes.
Tf cases occur which they do not cover, we must deal with them as they
arise.

With regard to the future, I do not propose to lay before you any
detailed scheme, but in discussing the matter among ourselves the fol-
lowing principles should, in my opinion, be adhered to. The International
Meteorological Conference has held a number of successful meetings. I
believe that I am correct in saying that the right to attend that Conference
was at first confined to those who were officially connected with Meteoro-
logical and Magnetic observatories, but that of late invitations have been
more widely distributed. If the authorities of that Conference see their
way to inviting in future most or all of those who are known to be
specially interested in Terrestrial Magnetism, I do not see why the
Magnetic Conference, which would then be constituted once in five years,
should not meet all our requirements. If, however, additional meetings
are necessary, I would urge that they should be held in turn in different
countries, and, if possible, in connection with existing societies which play
elsewhere the part taken by the British Association in this country.

That a permanent committee should be established is essential,
and the mode of appointing this body must no doubt be considered,
but I hope that in the course of the next few days the committee may
be able to discuss the whole question, and that when the next meeting of
the Meteorological Conference takes place we may be able to lay before
the Committee suggestions which may lead to the foundation of an Inter-
national Magnetic Association on a stable and permanent basis.

Another matter of great importance is the maintenance of an inter-
national journal devoted to ‘Terrestrial Magnetism. This we now
possess, thanks to the energy of Dr. Bauer, and I feel sure that all present
will agree that such a means of intercommunication is invaluable. I
believe, however, that the enterprise is threatened with financial dangers,
and I desire to take this opportunity of urging all those who are interested
in its success to do what they can to support it by increasing the circula-
tion. There is every reason for making more use of a common journal.
The records of the observatories are necessarily so bulky, that anyone
who desires to obtain the facts as to the magnetic state of the earth
at any given time must collect or consult a large library of quarto
volumes, in some of which the magnetic facts are mingled with data
interesting chiefly to the meteorologist or astronomer. It is no doubt
essential that an account of all the work done at each observatory should
be aaa in a collected form, and that full details of the magnetic

: 3B

9

738 REPORT—1 898.

observations should be given; but for many, nay, for most, purposes,
those who use the records will require only final results; the means of
the various elements for the year, for each month, or for any other period
which may hereafter be adopted, and the diurnal variation, are in general
wanted, rather than the hourly values. If these means could be published
together, once a year, an enormous boon would be conferred upon mag-
neticians. For special purposes the theorist will have to test his views by
reference to the results published in their fullest detail; but it would be
no slight gain if the more salient facts could be compared by being placed
side by side in the same journal. One advantage such a system would
unquestionably possess. It would impress upon the authorities of the
observatories the necessity for adhering to a common form of publication.

Some small beginnings have already been made. The Kew Observa-
tory Committee now publish in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Royal Society the
annual means of the elements recorded by all the observatories which
send their publications to Kew. By comparing two of these tables, the
secular change can at once be determined. But the system is capable of
extension, not merely to the normal values of the elements, but to
disturbances. By common agreement, Greenwich and Pare St. Maur
publish in each year the records of the same magnetic storms. If this
agreement could be extended, and if the facts thus selected were brought
into juxtaposition, we might hope for a fuller and more instructive
analysis than is at present usual.

Turning from questions of organisation, the primary business of our
conference will be to discuss four questions submitted to our Committee
by the International Meteorological Conference.

The first two of these refer to the methods for calculating and pub-
lishing the monthly means of the magnetic elements which should, in our
opinion, be adopted. I will not anticipate the discussion which will take
place on these points, except to say that it will be necessary to bear in
mind not only what is desirable but also what is practicable in view of
the resources at the disposal of the directors of the various magnetic
observatories.

Another question deals with the relative merits of long and short
magnets, and on this point we shall have the advantage of hearing a
report on the subject by M. Mascart.

Lastly, there is a very important proposal for the establishment of
temporary magnetic observatories at certain specified places. General
Rykatcheff and Professor von Bezold present an excellent report on this
subject, and I will only remind you, that whereas the accuracy of the
mathematical expression of the magnetic state of the earth’s surface depends
entirely on the number and position of the spots at which the magnetic
elements are accurately known, the establishment of temporary observa-
tories will be a costly undertaking, for the carrying out of which all the
resources at the disposal of international science will have to be employed.

Another point of considerable practical importance will also be brought
before us. The rapid extension of electrical railways and tramways is a
serious menace to magnetic observatories. From all parts of the world
we hear of observatories ruined or threatened by the invasion of the
electrical engineer, Toronto and Washington have already succumbed,
Potsdam, Pare St. Maur, Greenwich, and Kew are besieged, and the issue
largely depends upon whether these great national observatories can or
cannot make good their defence.

es ie

_——

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 739

It seems to be a law of Nature, ruling alike the human race and the
humblest microbe, that the products of an organism are fatal to itself.
The pessimist might infer that we are in presence of another instance of
the universality of the application of this law, and that pure science is
threatened by the very success of its practical applications. The smoke
of our cities blots the stars from the vision of the astronomer, who, like
the anchorites of old, flies from the world to mountains and desert places,
It is only in the small hours of the morning when

‘Save pale recluse, for knowledge seeking,
All mortal things to sleep are given,’

that the physicist can escape from the tremors of the trafic of a great town.

Civilisation as it spreads by aid of the means that science has placed at
its disposal is destroying records, and obliterating houndaries by the study
of which the anthropologist and the biologist might have read far back
into the history of our race. And now in turn the science of Terrestrial
Magnetism, which, on the one hand, is forging another link to connect
the sun and earth, and, on the other, is penetrating within the surface
of the globe to depths beyond the ken of the geologist, is threatened by
the artificial earth currents of the electric railway.

That the crisis is serious there can be no doubt, but I will only antici-
pate the fuller discussion which will take place by stating that magneticians,
in common with the rest of the world, recognise the great benefit which
electric traction confers upon the community at large. We are not so
foolish as to desire to embark on a crusade against a great industrial
improvement of which science may well be proud ; on the other hand, we
must hold fast to the position that provision for the conveniences which
are immediately appreciated by the public should be made with as little
damage as possible to those studies which are not less for the ultimate
benefit of the race.

Had science, when the use of coal was introduced, been sufiiciently
advanced to devise means for smokeless combustion, an evil which now in
more senses than one darkens the lives of the inhabitants of our great
towns might have been prevented from attaining its present gigantic
proportions.

We are now at the beginning of another industrial epoch, which may
indeed, if power is transmitted from a distance on a large scale, brighten
our skies, but which threatens to saturate the earth beneath us with electric
currents. That these may interfere with the general comfort is evident
from the injury which has been done to underground pipes at Washington
and elsewhere. The construction of a powerful electrical railway in the
immediate neighbourhood of the laboratories of a college would interfere
with its efficiency, and make it impossible to perform experiments of
certain types. In such a case, however, something could be done by
arranging the experiments to suit the conditions under which they would
have to be performed. But in the case of a magnetic observatory no such
protective measures are possible. The very object of the observatory is to
measure the earth’s field, and if that field is artificially altered no modifica-
tion of the methods of measurement, however ingenious, can overcome this
fundamental defect. I am glad to take this opportunity of acknowledging
that both the danger to pure science and the necessity for obviating it have
been acknowledged by those who are chiefly interested in the technical
applications of science ; and in particular that one of the principal

3B2

740 REPORT—1898.

technical journals, the ‘ Electrician,’ has supported the view that industry
can and ought to respect the necessities of research.

If, however, there be any who are inclined to ask whether the careful
study of Terrestrial Magnetism has led or is leading to any definite results,
or whether we are not merely adding to the lumber of the world by piling
up observations from which no deductions are drawn, we may answer that,
though the fundamental secret of Terrestrial Magnetism is still undiscovered,
the science is progressing. In the presence of several of the most active
workers I will not enter into a detailed discussion of the tasks to which
they are devoting themselves ; I will only ask that the doubter should
compare a good summary of the state of the science of Terrestrial Magnetism
written fifteen or twenty years ago, such as that contained in the article by
Balfour Stewart in the ‘Encyclopedia Britannica,’ with what would be
written on the same subject to-day. Additions would have to be made to
the descriptions of the instruments employed, to the discussion of the
theory of the diurnal and secular change, while such questions as the
reality of earth-air currents and the tracing of loci of local disturbance
have only been dealt with effectively in very recenttimes. When, too, we
compare the older models of the magnetic state of the earth with that
devised by Mr. Henry Wilde we cannot but admit not only that a great
advance has been made in forming a simple diagram of the magnetic state
of the earth, but that it is possible that the model contains a very pregnant
hint as to the physical construction of the earth as a magnetic body.

The fact that Mr. Wilde has imitated the declination and dip with
remarkable accuracy all over the surface of the earth by means of a simple
arrangement of electrical currents, and by coating the oceans with thin
sheet iron, has not attracted the attention it deserves. Whether the phy-
sical cause thus suggested be due to the greater depth to which the under-
ground isothermals penetrate below oceans, the bottoms of which are
always cold, or whether the geological nature of the rocks is different
below the great depressions and elevations of the earth’s surface, respec-
tively may be open to question, but I am persuaded that the matter should
be more fully investigated.

Tn conclusion, let me once more revert to the points on which I dwelt
at the beginning of this brief address. We meet with the confidence of
men who know that their science is progressing, but with the mingled
hopes and fears of those who still have to deal with the great unsolved
problem of the causes of Terrestrial Magnetism and of its manifold fluctua-
tions. This solution will be most easily attained if we are not merely
content to collect facts, but if we so arrange that they shall be easily
dealt with. To observe is our first duty, to organise our second, and if
these be fulfilled we may hope that a theory of terrestrial magnetism will
in the future crown the efforts not merely of him on whom the first
glimpse of the truth may flash, but of the international co-operation
which has, by way of preparation, made ‘the crooked straight and the
rough places plain.’

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 741

The following Papers were read :-—

l. On the Relative Advantages of Long and Short Magnets.
By Professor E. Mascarr.*

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

On employait autrefois des barreaux longs et lourds, sans doute par
Vidée que les forces agissantes étaient plus grandes et que les résultats
devaient étre plus sirs. Les barreaux de Gauss pesaient quelquefois
plusieurs livres. La boussole de Gambey pour la déclination avait un
aimant d’environ 50 cent. de longueur ; celui de la boussole de variations
était encore plus long et les aiguilles d’inclination n’avaient pas moins de
25 cent. Depuis plusieurs années on a beaucoup réduit les dimensions
des barreaux ; ce qui permit de rendre les instruments plus faciles 4
transporter, et je crois qu’au point de vue de la sensibilité on n’a fait qu’y
gagner, comme pour le compas de Lord Kelvin.

Considérons, en effet, un barreau de forme déterminée (tige a section
rectangulaire, par exemple). Soient

m la masse du barreau.

p son poids.

p le rayon de giration autour d’un arc transversal passant par le milieu.

k = mp” le moment dinertie.

M Je moment magnétique.

Hla composante horizontale du champ terrestre.

Désignons par les mémes lettres accentuées, m’, p’, p', k’, M’, les
grandeurs correspondantes pour un aimant de méme forme dont la longueur
est f fois celle du premier. On peut admettre que l’aimantation reste la
méme dans les deux cas, quoique toute chose égale l’avantage restera
encore pour diverses raisons aux aimants courts. On aura alors

1° Si les deux aimants sont suspendus 4 des fils sans torsion sensibl
pour déterminer le produit HM, les durées d’oscillations ¢’ et ¢ donnent
rapport
CRYO PEM of 1) Mb a
a) 35" a Sy cea) CA

(1) tof

2° La torsion des fils de suspension n’est jamais nulle. Dans un fil
unique la section s doit étre proportionnelle au poids du barreau (»!
straction faite de l’étrier) ; par suite
eee

s

1 Question referred to the Permanent Committee by the Paris Meteorological
Conference.

742 REPORT—-1898.

D’autre part le couple de torsion c’est proportionnel au carré de la
section

aa
Cums?

Le rapport du couple de torsion au couple directeur magnétique est
done

(2) oY =e paride REN ge
SM OHM £8 EM -

, 3° Sil existe un frottement dans ]’appareil, comme pour les aiguilles

montées sur pointe ou les aiguilles d’inclinaison dont les tourillons roulent
sur des plans, le frottement est proportionnel au poids du barreau. Le
couple directeur magnétique est lui-méme proportionnel au moment mag-
nétique et, par suite, au poids. Tous les barreaux de méme forme sont
done équivalents & ce point de vue. Sans aller plus loin, examinons les
conséquences des équations (1) et (2). Il y a tout avantage a rendre les
oscillations rapides. Si on veut les mesurer, l’opération est plus facile,
sans avoir recours aux méthodes compliquées de Gauss. D’autre part, les
oscillations ramortissent beaucoup plus vite et l’on n’a pas a craindre les
variations de toute nature, telle que les déplacements du zéro, pendant la
série des observations.

La remarque s’applique encore mieux aux instruments de variations
qui prennent sans retard et sans osciller la position qui convient a l'état
actuel.

Done supériorité des aimants courts.

L’équation (2) montre aussi que le rapport du couple de torsion du fil
au couple directeur magnétique est proportionnel au cube f? du rapport
de symétrie et par conséquent du poids du barreau. Toutes les causes
derreur qui entraine la suspension sont donc exagérées pour les barreaux
lourds.

On verrait de méme que les dimensions des barreaux ne jouent pas de
role dans les expériences de déviation pour déterminer la valeur absolue
de H, puisque les formules ne dépendent que du rapport des longueurs du
barreau déviant et du barreau dévié.

Enfin les causes d’erreur étrangére, telle que la présence de petits
traces de fer dans l’instrument ou dans le voisinage, deviennent importants
et impossibles 4 éliminer lorsque le moment magnétique et la distance
des péles deviennent trop grands.

A tous les points de vue il y a donc intérét a réduire autant que
possible les dimensions des barreaux, si la précision des lectures d’angles
reste suffisante.

After considering this report the Permanent Committee passed the following
resolution :—‘ Unless special reasons exist to the contrary, it is desirable that the
dimensions of the magnets should be as small as possible, provided that the accuracy
of the results is adequately maintained.’

2. On the Construction of Magnets of Constant Intensity under Changes
of Temperature. By J. R. Asuwortu, B.Sc.

The paper describes experiments on a remarkable property of drawn steel
wires. Magnets made of such wires, after a series of heatings and coolings, reach
a cyclic state in which, contrary to general experience, an increase of temperature

UBERSICHT
ZUR ZEIT BESTEHENDEN MAGNETISCHEN OBSERVATORIEN.
ZUSAMMENGESTELLT VON M. ESCHENHAGEN IN POTSDAM.

68% Report Brit. Assoc. 1898. Plate 6.

°

@ OBSERVATORIEN OBSERVATORIEN.
AE —— EN
Bil Tersleatlerecs

wad abscttes Mees

Mocha
Deane
Qurmoat-Fersst,

© Oude
1, Cap de cule Bets
A Bk Fra ob Asst

SRES PRESEN ENS REE PERSE

GielebgewicbUlinien der Tigllcben Voulation des Erdmagns sms

Tilustrating Paper by Professor von Bezold and General Rykatcheff on the Establishment of Temporary Magnetic Observatories
in Certain Localities, especially in Tropical Countries,

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 743

produces an increase of magnetic moment, and decrease of temperature a decrease
of magnetic moment. It is easy, by several processes which are described, to
change this abnormal effect to the normal one, in which higher and lower
temperatures produce lower and higher magnetic moments respectively. In
passing from the abnormal to the normal state by any of these processes a stage
is reached at which change of temperature neither increases nor decreases the
magnetic moment, and, for changes within the atmospheric range of temperature,
the intensity of such a magnet remains constant.

An account is given of the behaviour at different times of magnets of constant
intensity which have been tested at intervals during eighteen months. In
conclusion, experiments on the cause of the abnormal thermo-magnetic effects
are described.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Establishment of Temporary Magnetic Observatories in Certain
Localities, especially in Tropical Cowntries. By Professor voN Bezoup
and General RyKaTcHeErFrF.

[ Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in cxtenso.]
[PLATE V.]

Die nachstehenden Vorschlaige stiitzen sich wesentlich auf eine
Abhandlung, welche der eine der Unterzeichneten im Jahre 1897 veréffent-
licht hat.! In dieser Arbeit wurde versucht, durch Vergleichung mit
den Beobachtungen die Hypothese zu priifen, dass die Krifte, welche die
erdmagnetischen Erscheinungen hervorrufen, in der Erdoberflache selbst
ein Potential besitzen ; auf Grund von Werthen, die ihm Herr A. Schmidt
fiir je 72 um je 5 Langengrade von einander abstehende Punkte auf 4
Parallelkreisen mitgetheilt hatte, gelang der Verfasser zum Schluss, dass
die in Procenten der Amplitude des Potentials ausgedriickten Abwei-
chungen von jener Hypothese um den 40-45 Grad noérdlicher Breite am
gréssten ausfallen, d. h. also gerade in jenen Breiten, fir welche die
meisten und besten Beobachtungen vorliegen ; diese Abweichungen
erreichen hier Werth bis zu 89% der Amplitude, wihrend sie in niedrigen
Breiten nur wenige Beobachtungen vorhanden sind, viel kleiner sind
theilweise sogar ganz verschwinden. TFiir die Theorie des Erdmagnetismus
wiire es von héchster Wichtigkeit, dariiber Gewissheit zu erlangen, ob
dieses Resultat nicht vielleicht durch den Mangel an Beobachtungen,
besonders aus dem Aequatorialgebiete, bedingt ist.

In derselben Arbeit hat der Autor auf Grund der von A. Schuster ?
mitgetheilten Werthe eine Karte entworfen, welche fiir den Sommer ein
anschauliches Bild vom Verlaufe der Gleichgewichtslinien des Potentials
der taglichen Variation giebt ; die Darstellung der Karte bezieht sich auf
den Mittag nach Greenwicher Zeit.

Unter Annahme der Hypothese, dass die tigliche Variation ausschliess-
lich und unmittelbar durch ein unverinderliches System von Kriaften

' Sitzungsberichte der K. Preuss. Ahad. d. Wissensch. zw Bertin, xviii. 1, April
897.
* Philos. Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 13),

744, REPORT—1898.

hervorgerufen wird, welche die Erde umkreisen, wiirden alle auf dem-
selben Parallelkreise belegenen Punkte auch die gleiche Tagesschwankung
der Siid-Nord- und West-Ost-Componente des Erdmagnetismus besitzen.
Dieses theoretisch abgeleitete Resultat wird durch die Beobachtungen
zum Theil bestitigt ; doch liegen leider zu wenig Beobachtungen vor, um
diese Frage endgiltig entscheiden zu kénnen. Ein Blick auf die Karte,
von welcher eine Copie beiliegt, zeigt uns, welch’ eine hervorragende Rolle
bei diesem Curvensystem die Parallelkreise 38 Grad nérdlicher Breite
und 40 siidlicher Breite spielen, iiber welche die Aktionscentren fiir die
tigliche Periode hinwegzuziehen scheinen, so dass es vom gréssten
Werthe wire, sowohl aus den diesen Parallelkreisen benachbarten Breiten,
als auch aus den zwischen beiden liegenden, d. h. aus den Tropengegenden
geniigende Beobachtungen zu besitzen.

Schliesslich wird in der citirten Arbeit auf die hohe Bedeutung
hingewiesen, welche detaillirte bis auf die Secunde genau gleichzeitige
Simultanbeobachtungen haben, die zu vereinbarten festen Terminen, wenn
auch nur im Laufe eines kurzen Zeitabschnitts, anzustellen waren.
Derartige Beobachtungen, wie sie auf Anregung von Herrn Professor
Eschenhagen! im Jahre 1896 versuchsweise ausgefiihrt wurden, kénnen
gleichfalls nur in magnetischen Observatorien gemacht werden, welche
uber die ganze Erde vertheilt sein miissen.

Aus diesen Griinden ware die Existenz einer Reihe von Observatorien
und insbesondere unter den bezeichneten Breitengraden besonders wiin-
schenswerth. Wenn wir aber die Vertheilung der bestehenden Observa-
torien ins Auge fassen, die auf der Karte durch schwarze Punkte
bezeichnet sind, so sehen wir, dass bloss in Europa ein hinreichend dichtes
Netz von Observatorien vorhanden ist; in allen tbrigen Erdtheilen
treffen wir eine deprimirende Oede an. In Bezug auf die erwahnten
besonders interessanten Breitengrade geniigt die Bemerkung, dass im
ganzen Aequatorialgiirtel zwischen 10° nérdlicher und 10° siidlicher
Breite nur ein einziges Observatorium, dasjenige in Batavia, besteht, und
dass ferner auf der siidlichen Halbkugel siidlich vom 35 Breitengrade
gleichfalls nur ein Observatorium (in Melbourne) functionirt ; auf der
nérdlichen Halbkugel existirt dstlich von Tiflis, zwischen dem 35 und 45
Breitengrade, auf einer Strecke von 100 Lingengraden kein einziges
Observatorium, und ebenso ist weiter dstlich von Japan auf eine Entfer-
nung von 140 Lingengraden auch kein Observatorium vorhanden.

Fir die Untersuchung der erdmagnetischen Erscheinungen auf der
ganzen Erde, fiir die Entwickelung der Theorie dieser Erscheinungen
und fiir die Priifung der bisher aufgestellten Hypothesen ist es daher
unumginglich nothwendig, dass die bezeichneten gegenwiirtig bestehenden
grossen Liicken wenigstens fiir’s erste darauf heschranken, eine gewisse
Minimalzahl, sei es auch nur tempordarer Observatorien, zu begriinden.
Die Errichtung eines Observatoriums in Taschkent, die Wiederaufnahme
der abgebrochenen Beobachtungen im friiheren russischen Observatorium
zu Peking (resp. die Begriindung eines neuen magnetischen Observatoriums
in Wladiwostok), sowie die Organisation von magnetischen Beobachtungen
beim Lick-Observatorium wiirden die Liicken in der Reihe der magne-
tischen Observatorien um den 40 Grad nérdlicher Breite erganzen ; im
Aequatorialgiirtel kénnte die Begriindung von Observatorien in Quito,
Paré, Colombo, sowie die Eréffnung der in St. Paul de Loanda und

1 Terrestrial Magnetism, vol. i. p. 55.

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 74

Dar-es-Salam bereits projectirten Observatorien den gegenwirtigen
ungeniigenden Zustand verbessern. Auf der siidlichen Halbkugel
miissten ausser den bereits projectirten Observatorien in Santiago de
Chile und La Plata noch ein Observatorium am Cap der guten Hoffnung
und ein anderes wo moéglich auf einer der Inseln St. Paul oder N.
Amsterdam begriindet werden. Die Subkommission empfiehlt somit,
ausser den bereits friiher projectirten, bestandigen Observatorien, sich.
fiir die Begriindung folgender temporarer Observatorien zu verwenden :

1. Taschkent F : : 8 A . Russland.

2. Peking . : : : : : . China.

3. Lick-Observatorium : é : . Vereinigte Staaten N. A.

4. Quito. - ‘ : 5 6 . Ecuador.

5. Paré z : : 5 . . Brasilien.

6. Colombo. 3 . 2 : : . Anglo-Indien.

7. Cap der guten Hoffnung : 5 . England.

8. ‘St. Paul oder N. Amsterdam . ; . Eine der grossen Seemichte,

z. B. Frankreich.

Den hier aufgezihlten sollte sich wenigstens noch ein Observatorium
in héheren siidlichen Breiten anschliessen, sei es auf den Falklandsinseln,,
auf Kap Horn oder an einem anderen in diesen Breiten gelegenen
Punkte. ,

Im Hinblick auf die Schwierigkeiten, welche die Errichtung gerade
dieses Observatoriums bieten wird, schien es jedoch richtiger, keinen
bestimmten Vorschlag zu machen, sondern zunichst nur eine allgemeine
Anregung zu geben.

After considering this report the Permanent Committee passed the following
resolution :—‘ That it is desirable that temporary magnetic observatories should be
established in places such as the following :—Taschkent, Peking, the Lick Ob-
servatory, Quito, Para, Colombo, Cape of Good Hope, St. Paul or N. Amsterdam,
Honolulu, and Point Barrow or Sitka, or some other station in a high latitude in
North America.

‘That these observatories should, if possible, be provided with both absolute
and variation instruments, of which the latter should be self-registering instruments,
and should be established for at least seven, and, if possible, for eleven or twelve
years, z.e., for a complete sunspot period.’

2. The Application of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Solution of some
Problems of Cosmical Physics. By Artuur Scuuster, /.R.S.

In dealing with a subject in which a great part of the work is purely statistical,
it is always advisable to keep in mind the real problems which form the ultimate:
object of the statistical inquiry. It may be of interest, therefore, to the Congress
to have a short summary of what I consider to be the most pressing questions of
7 physics on which the science of terrestrial magnetism may throw some

ight.

We know that the greater part of the magnetic forces which we observe on
the surface of the earth are due to inside causes, but our information is barely
sufficient at present to decide whether an appreciable portion, possibly amounting
to 5 per cent. of the whole, may not have an outside origin. The outside forces
must be divided into two different types, according as they are stationary in space
or revolve with the earth. Stationary outside forces may be due to magnetic
effects of the sun or moon, or generally to magnetic induction in that part of space.
through which the earth moves. A magnetism fixed in space would give rise to a
Variation haying the sidereal day for period, and if the force is of solar origin

746 REPORT—1898.

there would also be an annual period. If the sun were transversely magnetised
we should, in addition, have two periodicities, neither of which, as I have lately
shown, is, as commonly supposed, equal to the synodical revolution of the sun,
but one of which is equal to the period of sidereal revolution, and the other as
much larger than the synodical revolution as that is larger than the sidereal period.

Ina Presidential Address to the Royal Society(‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ vol. lii. p. 305),
Lord Kelvin made an appeal for the investigation of those periodicities which might
be due to solar magnetism, But, on entering into the question, I find that it would
be necessary to compare carefully the daily variations in the southern and northern
hemispheres. At present we know too little of the movements of the magnetic
needle in the southern hemisphere to attack the problem with success. I should
consider it, therefore, a matter of the greatest importance to obtain comparisons in
the daily curves on stations of approximately the same iatitude north and south of
the equator. A few temporary observations at well-chosen places would be sufli-
cient for this purpose.

My investigations on the diurnal variation have led me to the conclusion that
part of the effect is due to currents induced inside the earth, and the results seemed
to satisfy the conclusion that the interior of our globe was a better conductor than
the outer layers. But daily variations have also been observed in the earth
currents which pass close under the surface of the earth, and it is doubtful at
present how much of the observed daily variation is due to these earth currents.
As the latter must be affected considerably by the nature of the ground, as regards
its electric conductivity, it seems to me to be of interest to make observations at
places not too far apart from each other on the same circle of latitude, and to
compare especially the daily variations on small islands surrounded by sea with
those on land stations. There, again, a short series of observations will be suffi-
cient. The possibility of obtaining by means of the diurnal period information as
to the electric conductivity of the interior of the earth seems to me to justify a
closer investigation than the present data allow us to enter into.

That component of a possible solar magnetisation which is parallel to the
earth’s axis will produce a permanent effect, adding itself to the normal elements
of terrestrial magnetism. Similarly, any magnetic forces which revolve with the
earth, either because they have their origin in electric currents in the atmosphere,
or because they are induced in space by the revolution of the earth, will produce
permanent effects which can only be separated from the intraterrestrial causes by
the analysis of spherical harmonics. Hence attention should be given to the
gradual perfection of the calculations which, originated by Gauss, have recently
been developed by Ad. Schmidt.

But the first step towards the improvement in the analysis by spherical har-
monics must be the definite answer to the question as to whether the whole, or
nearly the whole, of the observed forces have a potential. As far as is shown by
direct observations in limited regions on land, the line integral of magnetic force
taken round a closed line vanishes, On the other hand, if the available observa-
tions over the whole of the globe are collected, Ad. Schmidt has shown that a
quite appreciable portion does not fit in with a potential. It might be thought
that electric currents traverse the earth’s surface chiefly over the ocean districts
or in the polar regions; but it seems almost impossible to reconcile the values
obtained by Schmidt for these currents with the known facts of atmospheric elec-
tricity. On the whole, it seems most probable that our measurements of magnetic
forces over some of the ocean regions are affected by a systematic error.

It seems to me that the whole science of terrestrial magnetism is almost at a
standstill until this point has been cleared up.

I believe that the greatest service that could be rendered to the science of
terrestrial magnetism would be a magnetic survey over some line, passing as nearly
as may be found possible along a circle of latitude round the earth. ‘Two lines,
one in the northern and one in the southern hemisphere, would be better than one;
but even leaving the southern hemisphere out of account, the question raised by
Ad. Schmidt should be settled as soon as possible by a direct determination of the:
integral line of magnetic force round the earth.

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 747

It is worth pointing out that a ship may do useful service to our subject with-
out making a single magnetic observation. Ifa vessel was to start from Europe
with orders to sail always at right angles to the direction of the magnetic needles,
it would trace out an equipotential line and thus connect points of equal potential
in the American continent and in Europe. The drift of the vessel, owing to wind
and sea currents, would, of course, slightly change its course, and some corrections
would be necessary, involving the approximate knowledge of the magnetic forces,
which are probably known with sufficient accuracy for that purpose.

If a suitable ship were to be found willing to enter on such an expedition, the
value of the results would, of course, be much increased by more accurate mag-
netic determination. A full discussion of the best available method for such
determination seems to me to be called for, and it is probable that the beautiful
marine galvanometer of Mr. Sullivan may be made useful for the purpose. Per-
haps the Conference will initiate the appointment of a Cofmmittee to draw up a
report on the subject.

In conclusion, I may sum up the cosmical and terrestrial problems which we
may hope to bring nearer their solution by magnetic observations :—

1. The possibility of magnetic induction of that part of space through which
the earth is moving, either due to solar magnetisation or to some other cause.

2, The electric conductivity of space.

3. The distribution of electric currents in the atmosphere giving rise to the
diurnal variation.

4, The distribution of electric currents in the atmosphere giving rise to per-
manent magnetic force.

5. The electric conductivity of the interior of the earth.

6. The possibility of electric currents traversing the surface of the earth.

3. Antrag auf Massnahmen zur systematischen Erforschung der Saecular-
variationen der erdmagnetischen Elemente. Von Dr. Ap. Scumipt in
Gotha.

Bei dem lebhaften Interesse, das man in den letzten Jahren wieder begonnen
hat der erdmagnetischen Forschung zuzuwenden, ist zu hofien, dass die grossen
Liicken unsrer Kenntniss von der raumlichen Verteilung der magnetischen Kraft
in nicht zu ferner Zeit wenigstens einigermassen ausgefillt sein werden. Soll es
indessen moglich sein, die zu erwartenden Messungen in vollem Masse auszuniitzen,
so muss vor allen Dingen fiir eine hinreichende Feststellung der saecularen Aende-
rungen gesorgt werden, ohne die (von ihrem selbstiindigen Werte ganz abgesehen)
die Reduction der natiirlich iiber viele Jahre zerstreuten Beobachtungen auf eine
bestimmte Epoche unméglich ist.

Die Bestimmung der saecularen Variationen hat auch schon bisher stets die
grésste Schwierigkeit und die Hauptquelle der Unsicherheit bei allen Darstellungen
der erdmagnetischen Kraftverteilung gebildet, und dies wird, wenn nicht geniigende
Vorkebhrungen zur Beseitigung des bestehenden Uebelstandes getroffen werden,
in Zukunft immer mehr der Fall sein. Gegeniiber den gesteigerten Anforderungen
an Genauigkeit, die wir heute stellen miissen und bei den verfeinerten jetzigen
Messungen auch stellen kénnen, geniigt es nicht mehr, eine oft sehr ungleichartige
Reihe von Messungen, die zufillig im Laufe der Jahre ungefihr an demselben Orte
gemacht worden sind, zusammenzufassen und daraus—nicht selten durch Extrapo-
lation— Werte der saecularen Schwankung abzuleiten. Und es macht sich immer
empfindlicher merklich, wenn auf weiten Gebieten nicht einmal solche unvollkom-
mene Messungsreinen vorhanden sind.

Nach der jetzigen Lage der Wissenschaft miissen wir es als durchaus notwendig
erachten, dass an einer nicht zu kleinen Zahl von Orien, die miéglichst gleich-
miissig uber die Erde zerstreut sind, regelmiissig wiederholte Beobachtungen aller
erdmagnetischen Elemente mit verglichenen Instrumenten und zwar stets genau
an demselben Punkte angestellt werden, um den Einfluss von lokalen Stérungen
auszuschliessen.

748 REPORT—1898,

-

Magnetische Observatorien sind dazu natiirlich keineswegs notig ; sie wiirden
andrerseits, auch wenn ihre Zahl noch betrachtlich vermehrt werden sollte, nicht
ausreichen. Fiir den bezeichneten Zweck geniigen, wenigstens bis auf weiteres,
viel einfachere Vorkehrungen, die bereits einen grosseu Fortschritt gegentiber dem
jetzigen Zustande darstellen wiirden. Wenn etwa an jenen Punkten, die man
Saecularstationen nennen kénnte, von Zeit zu Zeit—etwa alle 5 Jahre—Messunger
angestellt wiirden, so diirfte dies zunichst durchaus geniigen. Hs scheint mir eine
der wichtigsten und dringendsten Aufgaben zu sein, Massnahmen zu beraten, die
dazu dienen k6nnen, dieses Ziel zu erreichen, ohne aussergewohnliche Mittel,
besonders in pecuniarer Beziehung, zu erfordern. Auf eine solche Massnahme
mdochte ich besonders hinweisen, nimlich auf die wiinschenswerte Beteiligung der
im Ausland stationierten Schiffe der Kriegsmarinen der seefahrenden Nationen—
eine Beteiligung, die man bei dem grossen praktischen Interesse, das gerade eine
zuverlissige Bestimmung der Saecularvariation fiir die Vorausbestimmung der
erdmagnetischen Elemente besitzt, wohl schwerlich vergebens erbitten wiirde.
Schon jetzt’ werden ja vielfach die Reisen dieser Schiffe u. a. gelegentiich zur
Anstellung magnetischer Beobachtungen verwertet ; was hier gewiinscht wird, ist
weniger eine starke Vermehrung solcher Messungen, als vielmehr eine planmiis-
sigere und nach internationalem Abkommen geregelte Auswahl der Stationen und
eine annihernd regelmissige Wiederholung der Messungen an geniigend vielen
dieser Stationen, Gerade dieser letztere Wunsch ist ohne Schwierigkeit zu erfiillen,
da die Schiffe der Kriegsmarinen auf ihren Reisen im allgemeinen immer wieder
dieselben Punkte beriihren. Ohne dass die sonstigen Aufgaben, denen diese Schiffe
zu dienen haben, beeintrichtigt wiirden, liessen sich daher an zahlreichen Orten—
Hafenplitzen des Festlandes wie von Inseln—die gewiinschten Beobachtungen
leicht gewinnen, etwa in der Weise, dass in einem mehrijihrigen Cyklus jeder Ort
einer bestimmten Gruppe je einmal an die Reihe kiime. Ein international
geregeltes Zusammenwirken der Marinen der verschiedenen Staaten wiirde dabei
den Vorteil gewiihren, dass mit bestimmt begrenzten Mitteln méglichst viel erreicht
werden kénnte, weil durch eine planmiissige Verteilung der Stationen die Arbeits-
vergeudung vermieden wiirde, wie sie in einer zwecklosen Anhiiufung yon Beob-
achtungen an identischen oder sehr nahe benachbarten Punkten lige.

Es ist richtig, dass durch die im vorhergehenden vorgeschlagenen Beobach-
tungen nicht allen berechtigten Wiinschen entsprochen wiirde, denn es wiirden
dabei manche weitausgedehnte Gebiete keine Beriicksichtigung finden, so
besonders die héheren Breiten der siidlichen Halbkugel. Aber es wiirde
immerhin ein auf anderem Wege schwer zu gewinnendes, wertvolles Beobach-
tungsmaterial zusammengebracht und dauernd ergiinzt werden. Die Unter-
suchung jener abgelegenen, z.T. schwer zugiinglichen Gebiete miisste nach wie
vor besonderen Unternehmungen vorbehalten bleiben.

Auf Grund dieser, hier nur kurz angedeuteten, aber leicht weiter auszufiih-
renden Betrachtungen erlaube ich mir den Antrag zu stellen:

Das internationale Comitee mége—

1. Erwiigungen dariiber anstellen, wie die Gewinnung hinreichender Beobach-
tungen zur fortlaufenden Ermittelung der Saecularvariation eingeleitet und
dauernd gesichert werden kann ;

2. Insbesondere die hydrographischen Aemter der Kriegsmarinen aller see-
fahrenden Staaten um ihre Mitwirkung dabei in der zuvor angedeuteten Weise
zuersuchen,

4. On Simultaneous Magnetic Observations.
By Professor Dr. EscuenyaGen. (Potsdam.)

Under this head Dr. Eschenhagen gave an account of the results obtained at
Potsdam by increasing the sensitiveness of the self-registering horizontal magnetic
force instrument, till 1 mm. represented -000004 C.G.S. unit and 24 cms. one
hour.! Under these conditions, well-marked waves of period about 30 seconds,

1 Sitz. Ber. Ahad., June 24, 1897.

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 749

and amplitude about ‘000012 C.G.S. unit, can at times be detected, and have been
shown not to be due to any peculiarities of the instrument used. They occur
generally between 6 A.M. and 6 p.m., but up to the present no direct effect of solar
radiation on them has been proved. In the records taken at Potsdam and at
Wilhelmshaven during 1895 they appear, within the limits of errors of observation,
simultaneously ; but till more extensive observations have been made it is im-
possible to say how far this may be general.

Dr. Eschenhagen also gave an account of his further work on the frequency of
occurrence of these small waves at Potsdam during the different hours of the day
and the various months of the year, and exhibited curves embodying his results.

He considered that these waves were of sufficient importance to justify the
investigation of them being taken up by all observatories, and suggested that
similar self-registering instruments should be used at all stations, and that both
the north and west components should be recorded.

5.! Discussion on Monthly Means.

M. Moureaux described the results of determining the monthly mean declina-
tion by the various methods which have been used by magneticians. The results
obtained differ considerably from each other, in two cases by 14 per cent. He
considered that two means should be calculated: the first by taking all days into
account, the second by taking only undisturbed days.

Messrs. Rykatcheif, Mascart, Eschenhagen, Schuster, Snellen, Riicker, and
Schott took part in the discussion which ensued.

After the discussion the following resolution was passed by the Permanent
Committee :—‘In calculating monthly means all days are to be taken into con-
sideration. It is desirable to give in addition means calculated without taking
disturbed days into account.’

6.' A discussion was held as to the publication of the differences
between the hourly means of the components of the magnetic force (X,Y,Z)
and the monthly means.

After the discussion the following resolution was adopted by the Permanent
Committee :—‘It is desirable to publish the monthly means of the Geographical
Components of the Magnetic Force for each month, and also the differences
between the hourly means for each month and the monthly means for that month.’

7. On Magnetic Observations in the Azores. By ALBERT, Prince of Monaco.

After having perceived the capital importance of the Azores, from their
geographical position, for the establishment of meteorological observatories with a
view to weather predictions, I thought that these observatories might be of
service to other branches of science. For instance, the communications of Messrs.
Neumayer, Mascart, von Bezold and other eminent meteorologists, to the Inter-
national Conference of Meteorologists in 1896 show that magnetic observations
made at the Azores would offer the following advantages: (1) a situation near
latitude 40° N. (page 22). (2) Remoteness from the permanent causes of perturba-
tion of actual magnetic observation, such as electric lighting, tramways, and other
applications of electricity ; and (3) a geographical position intermediate between
Europe and America, capable of furnishing most useful indications for the
comparison of the magnetic curves obtained in these two parts of the world
(pp. 36 and 90).

_, The examination of these considerations and different interviews which I had
with M. Mascart, Director of the Bureau Centrale Météorologique of France

? Question referred to the Permanent Committee by the Paris Meteorological
Conference.

750 REPORT—-1898.

convinced me of the advantage which would be gained if Captain Chaves,
Director of the Meteorological Observatory of Ponte Delgada, came to Europe to
study the practical details of the magnetic service there. I therefore communicated
my ideas to the Portuguese Government, who recalled Captain Chaves to undertake
a mission in this sense.

Captain Chaves, after having finished his studies at the observatory of St. Maur
under the enlightened direction of M. Moureaux, has pointed out to me the
importance of taking the present opportunity of magnetically reconnoitring the
archipelago, as a preliminary to the definitive installation of the observatory.
This would be useful, not only to determine the value of the different magnetic
elements, till now almost unknown,! but besides, to determine in the island of
St. Michael, which appears likely to present conditions favourable to the installa-
tion of the central observatory of the Azores, the locality most suitable for the
combined services of meteorology and magnetism.

Feeling certain that the views of Captain Chaves are just, and well knowing his
competence, being also aware that the Portuguese Geodetic Commission finished
last year the survey of tke island of St. Michael, and that this year it will finish
the survey of the neighbouring island of Santa Maria, I have resolved to under-
take the charge of the above-mentioned magnetic reconnaissance.

With this end I am now having the necessary instruments constructed; and I
announce to the International Commission that I hope to be able to put Captain
Chaves in the position to be able to commence the magnetic reconnaissance of the
Azores towards the month of April of next year.

8. On Magnetic Observatories in Cape Colony. By Dr. BEATTIE
and Mr, Morrison.

9. Sur le Mouvement diurne du Péle Nord d'un Barreau Magnétique
suspendu par le centre de gravité. Par J. B. CAPELLO.

[PLATES VI.-VIIL.]

En combinant les variations diurnes de l’inclinaison avec celles de la décli-
naison, sur un plan perpendiculaire 4 la direction de linclinaison, résulte une
courbe fermée.

Les variations ou écarts de l’inclinaison sont positives vers le sud, et celles de
la déclinaison positives vers l’ouest.

Il faut avertir que les écarts de la déclinaison doivent étre multipliés par le
cosinus de V’inclinaison, afin de les projeter sur un plan perpendiculaire & la méme
inclinaison.

Il est intéressant de comparer ces courbes obtenues en divers points ou stations
du globe.

Ta 1&e Planche contient les courbes de Kew, Paris (Parc St Maur), Perpignan
et Lisbonne en 1894 et 1895.

Les courbes de Kew et de Lisbonne sont déduites des jours tranquils (cing
jours choisis & chaque mois), celles de Paris et de Perpignan sont déduites de teus
les jours.

i Qeme Planche contient les courbes de Lisbonne et de Kew de 1896; de
St Pétersbourg (1873-85) et des jours dits normaux, et celle de Lisbonne de
1864-72, excepté les perturbations, d’aprés la méthode du Général Sabine.

La 8*me Planche contient les variations diurnes du Bifilaire, du vertical et de
V'inclinaison 4 Lisbonne et Kew, 1894-95-96,

1 In fact, even the value of the Declination, one of the most important magnetic
elements, is given for one and the same place, Horta in Fayal, with differences
amounting to 1° 22’ in an interval of two years. Thus Preston in 1889 gives 26° 52°
and the Acorn in 1891 gives 24° 30’.

a —

Plate 6.

Lusborie 189 4

Planthe ae

endu par le centre de gravite.’

Nbservatory of &

inted out to _
alls reconasitis te
of the obser,

re resolred ts

m able to pat Casi
recommaissite od

by Dr. Barn

rrean Mognige
CarELLo.

sc celles de ls dei
Linaicon, résiie Se
rs To end, et cols
étre romltiplits pe
vodicalaire i le >=
ors paints oa rast

S* Maar), Peas

65% Report Brit. ¢

Kew 1834 Paris 1834 Popignan 8394 Lisbonne 183%

Popignan O95

Kew 1895 Paris 1895

Ohague dnisite- 7

Ilustrating M. Capello's Paper ' Sur lo Mouvement diurne du Pole Nord d'un Barreau Magnétique suspendu par le centro de gravite.

Plane ere

Plate 6,

68% Report Brit. Assoc. 1898. Plate 7.

JSC Letersburg [673-65

Lisbonne J8I6. Lusboramve 1864-72

Plance 2eme

Illustrating M. Capello’s Paper ‘ Sur le Mouvement diurne du Péle Nord d’un Barreau
Magnétique suspendu par le centre de gravité.’

68 Report Brit. Assoc. 1898. Plate 8.

Kew
Lisbonne

/m. = 00000136 cg.s. /mim-=0:°0668.

Planche 3eme. |

Illustrating M. Capello’s Paper ‘ Sur le Mouvement diurne du Péle Nord d’un Barreau
Magnétique suspendu par le centre de gravité.’

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 751]

Retournant @ la 1° Pl. on remarque que les courbes des observatoires plus
au nord sont plus rondes que celles des autres situés plus au sud.

_ Ainsi, Kew de 1894 et 1895 affectent Ja figure elliptique; ensuite vient Paris
avec la forme plus allongée; Perpignan encore plus étroite et mince du coté
de Youest, et finalement Lisbonne, dont les courbes sont plus larges du cété de louest,
et minces de lest, affectant la forme d’un oo.

On voit un autre fait plus remarquable. Tandis que dans les courbes de Kew,
Paris et Perpignan le mouvement vers Y’ouest, du matin au soir, est par le sud du
point moyen, & Lisbonne il est par le nord, de facon que le mouvement est rétro-
grade en regard des autres,

Pour mieux faire ressortir cette circonstance, nous avons dans la 2°™e P], donné
les courbes de Kew et de Lisbonne pour l'année 1896.

Le mouvement & Kew est direct (selon les aiguilles d’une monire) ; celui de
Lisbonne est invers.

Nous avons vu (1*° Pl.) que la partie de la courbe du soir se déplace vers le
sud, au fur et & mesure que la latitude est plus petite; on peut dire qua Lis-
bonne Je déplacement est si grand qu'il traverse la courbe du matin.

Il est facile de reconnaitre que les courbes plus ou moins rondes et le mouve-
ment direct ou inyers dépendent de la valeur diurne ou des écarts de V’inclinaison.

En effet, si la variation diurne de V’inclinaison est positive dans les heures
du jour (9a.—2p.) le mouvement sera direct, et au contraire sera inyers si elle est
négative dans les mémes heures. 4

Les écarts de Vinclinaison 4 Lisbonne sont négatifs dans les heures (10a,—2p.)
au contraire de ceux de Kew, Paris, ete. Mais la variation diurne de l’inclinaison
dépend des deux variations, ou des écarts des deux composantes H et V, comme i]
6V 6H
Mi adds

Dans la 3°™° PJ. on voit les variations diurnes des composantes H, V, et
inclinaison & Kew et Lisbonne, d’aprés les cing jours calmes de chaque mois,
dans les années de 1894-95-96.

On voit que les valeurs des écarts de H & Lisbonne sont plus petites que la
moitié des mémes écarts 4 Kew, et que, au contraire, les écarts du vertical sont
plus grands que le double de ceux de Kew; quoiqu’ils aient le méme signe, le
résultat est de changer le signe des écarts de l’inclinaison 3 Lisbonne aux heures
du jour (9 ou 10a.—2p.).

Afin que la forme de la courbe de Lisbonne soit semblable 3’ celle de Kew,
il faudrait, du moins, doubler les variations de H, et réduire & la moitié celles
de V.

Nous avons fait V’expérience, et il a résulté effectivement une courbe trés
semblable a celle de Kew, avec le mouvement direct &c.

On pourrait ainsi attribuer ces différences aux valeurs de K, de H et de V,
c'est-d-dire, & la mauvaise détermination de ces coefficients 4 Lisbonne, mais on ne
doit jamais croire qu’on puisse commettre des erreurs si grossiéres, surtout en con-
sidérant qu’il s’agit des différentes déterminations pendant une période de 85
années.

Le but nord d’un aimant suspendu par le centre de gravité, et par un fil sans
torsion, devrait décrire sur un plan perpendiculaire 4 leur direction une courbe
égale ou trés semblable & celles des 12° et 2’me PJ,

Un barreau magnétique cylindrique et ereux devrait étre suspendu par le centre
de gravité, muni de lentilles ou de miroirs, de fagon que tous les mouvements
seraient enregistrés sur un papier photographique placé sur un plan perpendiculaire
& la direction de Vinclinaison, et ce papier devrait étre disloqué rapidement & la fin
de chaque heure par une certaine quantité, afin que les traces ne seraient en-

est facile de voir, d’aprés la formule 6i = sin? cos? (

brouillées.

Je pense qu’un instrument semblable serait difficile 4 construire, surtout en
conséquence de la petitesse des mouvements, mais il pourrait faire de bons

Services 4 la science du magnétisme terrestre.

Vo2 REPORT—1898.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The Conference did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1, An Account of the late Professor John Couch Adams's Determination of
the Gaussian Magnetic Constants. By Professor W. Grytis ADAMS,
F.R.S. See Reports, p. 109.

2. On a Simple Method of obtaining the Expression of the Magnetic
Potential of the Earth in a Series of Spherical Harmonics. By ARTHUR
Scnuster, /.2.S.

The methods which have been employed so far to represent the earth’s magnetic
potential in a series of spherical harmonics suffer from the serious defect that the
different coefficients are not determined independently of each other. Thus, in
the latest and most accurate computation of Adolph Schmidt, the value of the first
and largest coefficient was found to be 1,872, 1,918, or 1,921, according as the
expansion is supposed to end with terms of the third, fifth, or seventh order
respectively. If the value of the potential were known at all points of the earth’s
surface, it is well known how by a direct integration over the surface of the
sphere each coefficient may be separately determined. But there are large tracts
of the earth over which the magnetic forces have not been directly observed, and
hence some form of interpolation is always implied in whatever method is employed.
A certain amount of uncertainty results from this interpolation ; but perhaps less
than is commonly supposed, owing to the fact that neglecting magnetic masses
actually situated in the surface, the potential, and all its different coefficients must
be continuous. A complete knowledge of the potential over any finite part of the
earth’s surface is therefore theoretically sufficient to fix it all over the globe, and,
at any rate, the continuity of the potential and of its derivatives facilitates and
justifies the process of interpolation.

The whole interest of the expansion in a series of spherical harmonics centres
round the first few coefficients. It would be waste of labour to obtain a complete
representation of the potential, as we know that a very large number of terms
would be necessary for the purpose. The sole object of the expansion can only
lie in the separation of the outside and inside forces, and for the present, at any
rate, our interest in the outside forces must be confined to the first few terms,
Hence I consider it a matter of great importance to obtain these terms separately
in such a way that their value does not depend on the number of terms which are
taken into account. I believe that the following method solves the difficulty.

I write P,, for the zonal harmonic, T,” for the tesseral harmonic defined by

P

& yA"
T,,” =sin’ 6 aa

where 6 is the colatitude and p= cos 6.

If it be required to represent a function, V, of 6 and the longitude X, in a series
of spherical harmonics, it is known that the coefficients will depend on integrals of
the form

[VIy" cos od do,

« being a surface element. The method I propose depends on a transformation

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 7953
which will allow the aboye integral to be expressed as a finite sum of integrals
having one of the forms:

| . Vcos pé cos od dédn,
o Jo
or

| ib V sin pO cos oa dOdx.

o Jo
In other words, if V is expressed in a series the terms of which are of the form
cos p6 cos oA or sin pé cos oA, and if equations are obtained once for all to give
cos pé or sin pé in a series of tesseral harmonics, the problem of expansion is solved,
though the independence of the hicher and lower terms is not necessarily secured.
The first step of the procedure which is common to all methods consists in
expressing V in the form

a = : V=H,)+F, cosd+F, cos 2A+ ...) 1)
+F/ sn vr+F,/ sin 204-05. force 7 : (

where F and F’ are functions of the colatitude. If V is given discontinuously ; as,
e.g., if it is known at the points of intersect:on of a number of latitude and longitude
circles, each latitude circle will give an equation of the above kind. If the number
of such equations is sufficient, the values of F and F’ may be plotted in terms of 6,
and by calculation or mechanical integration we may obtain the values cf F and I”
either as a series

FF, =a,+a, cos@+a,cos26+ . : : : (2)
or in the form
F, = 6, sin 6+6, sm 26+ . A : : : (3)

Only one of these forms is useful for our purpose, as I proceed to show.
If o be even, T,” may be expressed in the form of a finite series of the form

T° = @, cos nO +a, cos (2—-2)O+ ...
Hence, if « be even

| T,,” cos p6d6=0 if p>n;
: 0
and the integral will also vanish if p+ is an odd number. It follows that for 7
even
+1

f C)
| At, sin pOdp=3| T,” [cos (p+ 1) 4—cos (p—1) 6] dd
= 0

=0 if p> x or if (p +7) is an even number.

It follows that (o even) we may obtain a number of series in which the sines
of multiples of @ are expressed, as in the following scheme, where the numerical
coefficients are left out for the sake of simplicity :—

sin 6 ail Bea Weve

sin 26 =TigtTast .

sin 6 Sige Tigh esis rv)
sin (o + 1) d= er ate

sin p6 = Tota tiges: + <=

Whenever p is smaller than o the series begins with the term T,’or T,\,
according as p be odd or evén ; but when p is larger than o the series begins with

1898, 36

754 REPORT—1898

If, therefore, F, be expanded in a series of sines, as indicated in (3), the sine
functions may by (4) be expressed in tesseral harmonics, and each coefficient of

2 Z
a coefficients of the

sine series if m is even, and on oa coefficients if 2 be odd. Thus, the first
coefficient, which is of the third degree, only requires one coefficient in the series
of sines, and will be independent of all the others.

For the simplest. case o=0; equations (4) resolve themselves into the well-
known ones:

T,,’ in the final representation of V will only depend on

4. 5 9

~ sin 0=Py— 5 em Po Taus ie

Boog op, (p28 pee

— ain 28=8P, qPs 198 12h ee -
° ° . . e (5)

32 .. 45
aan 36 =5P, me P,

64. 77
5, sin 40=7P,- 7 P,

Hence, to expand a function into zonal harmonics, we may, if chief attention
is to be directed to the first few terms, express it in a series of the sines of multiples
of 6, and substitute the above values, P, only occurs in the first equation, P,
only in the second, P, only in the first and third, and so on.

We may show in a similar manner that if o is odd, we must use (2) (the
cosine form of the series) for F,.

For the expansion of

T ’ sin 6=sin7* a"Pn
du?

=@n41 C08 (n+ 1) O+a,-1cos(n—1)O6+ ...
leads to the conclusion that

1
eae cos péduz =0 when p>n+1 and when p + 2 is even.

We find thus for ¢=1

. =sT/+i T,’ + ee aks
= coy = T+ ae
T cos 20 = —8T,'+ 5 Ty’ + a 4.d0c ee ae Ge
% cos 38= — 5T,' + os se er
a cos 40= — 70,4 Te
where T,’ will only occur in the first and third equations; ae generally a term
n+

of degree will occur in 5 equations if 2 be even, and in > equations if x be

odd.
In the case of the magnetic potential the quantities which are directly observed
are the forces which are connected with the potential V by the relations

dV . dV

Sa é Sls . ° e ° . 7
7 Y sin8 a (7)

the radius of the sphere being, for simplicity’s sake, taken as unity.

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 755

{X =force to north; Y=force to west; \ =longitude measured eastward. |

If Y sin 6 be expanded in a series of surface harmonics the potential V will be
obtained immediately in a similar series; but somewhat difficult complications
arise when V is to be obtained from the series for X. his ditticulty completely
disappears in the method here proposed, for X being expressed in a series of
circular function, we may integrate with respect to 6 without changing the nature
of the series. The process to be employed may be summed up as follows :—

Express both X and Y in the form—

X=X,+X,cosk+X,cos2\+ ...
+X,/sinh+X,’ sin 2A+ .
Y=Y, cosd+Y, cos 2A+ ...
+ Y,’ sind + Y,’ sin 2A +

and further express X, and Y. in Fourier’s cosine series for even and in the sine
series for o odd. If V is then calculated by either of the equations (7) and the
substitutions, or (5) or (6) of the corresponding equations are performed, the
potential will be expressed in a series of spherical harmonics. The values of X
and Y are not known in the polar region, but must be obtained by interpolation.
The term zzterpolation is the appropriate one because the value of X, and Y, are
known at the poles, vanishing there except for Y,. Also the first o differential
coefficients of X, and the first s—1 differential coefficients of Y, will vanish at
the same points. The value of Y, and Y,’ is very approximately known at the
a previous investigations, and also its first differential coefficients will
vanish.

I have not taken account of the possibility of earth currents traversing the
surface of the earth in sufficient intensity to affect magnetic forces. The investi-
gations of Adolph Schmidt have shown how the problem must be treated when
their influence has to be taken into consideration. ‘The general method of
expansion here suggested wi!l remain the same.

3. On Magnetic Observations at Funafuti. By Captain E. W.
Creak, &.N., RS.

4. On the Relations between the Variations in the Earth Currents, the
Electric Currents from the Atmosphere, and the Magnetic Perturbations.
By Seri Lemstrém. ;

The paper contains an historical sketch of the observations and researches
made on the earth currents by Lamont, Airy, Wild, Blavier, and others. The author
describes the method employed by him for measuring the electromotive force of
the electric currents coming from the atmosphere, and gives the evidence of the
fact that the variations of earth currents occur a short time (five minutes) before
the magnetic perturbations, and that the former are more numerous than the
latter. From the observations in Sodankyla it is, however, proved that all
magnetic perturbations are not preceded by variations in the earth currents, but
that these probably are caused by electrical currents from the atmosphere to the
earth, or vice versa.

The proofs of that conclusion are: (1) That the magnetic perturbations in polar
regions have a contrary direction to those in more southern countries; (2) That at
_ the times of auroras the electrical curreut from the atmosphere varies much, and
must exert on magnetic instruments a marked influence depending on their position,
_ relative to the space within which this current is moving. It follows from this that
we cannot find the causes of the magnetic variations, or, rather, perturbations,
before we have investigated the earth currents and the electrical currents in the
‘atmosphere,

The author’s experience shows that we must seek the key to these relations in

302

756 REPORT—1898.

the polar regions. Researches have shown that the magnitude of these variations
of the earth currents increases with the latitude in a very high ratio. When the
diurnal variation in Pawlowsk has a value of O, 0008 volt, it rises in Sodankyla
(7° more to the north) to O, 0600, or 75 times more. Moreover, we find from the
lately published third volume of the observations from the international polar
stations at Sodankyla and Kuttala that the earth currents as well as the electric
currents in the atmosphere depend intimately on the belt of the maximum polar
light. It will be very clearly seen that we also have a maximum belt of the earth
currerts and even of the currents in the atmosphere. The paper finishes with a
proposition that the International Conference on Terrestrial Magnetism and
Atmospheric Electricity should discuss the two following questions: What signifi-
cation must be attributed to the earth currents and the electric current from the
atmosphere in the explanation of the causes of magnetic perturbations? What is
to be done for the further iavestigation of the connection between the magnetic
perturbations and the electric currents ?

The author also proposes that the International Conference should take steps for
establishing two international polar stations, one in the North of America, the other
in the North of Europe, both situated in the southern border of the polar light
maximum belt. In connection with both these principal stations there should be a
northern by-statior, in which, us well as in the principal stations, all the magnetic
variations, the earth currents, and the electric currents from the atmosphere, besides
all meteorological observations, should be made simultaneously, and with self-
registering apparatus of the best construction, the details of which ought to be
stated by the International Conference.

In connection with these observations it ought to be expressed as desirable that
all magnetic observatories should, if possible, establish similar observations with as
identical instruments as possible. Since the researches of the electric currents
from the atmosphere require points elevated about 400 m., it seems difficult to
unite these observations with those in an observatory. We, however, must
remember that the electrical resistance in the circuit, from the earth to the atmo-
sphere, is so great that one can put in several miles of wire without any sensible
augmentation of it. It is well understood that the mountain on which an apparatus
for out- or in-streaming of electricity is placed can without serious damage be far
away from the observatory.

5. On the Interpretation of Larth-current Observations.
By Artuur Scuuster, /.R.S.

If two metallic plates are inserted into the ground and connected by a wire
an electric current is found to traverse the conductor, and this is generally called
the ‘earth current.’ It is not, however, obvious at first sight what the connection
is between this observed current and that which traverses the ground when the
earth plates are removed. The statement sometimes made, that the observation gives
the difference of potential of the earth at the two points at which the plates are
inserted, would be true, provided the connecting wire has a sufficiently large
resistance, if earth currents were only due to chemical or thermo-electric forces.
But as there can be little doubt that earth currents are chiefly, if not entirely,
effects of induction, a separate investigation is necessary as to the interpre-
tation to be attached to the galvanometer indications.

Let A and B be two points in a line of flow of the currents traversing the
earth, and consider a tube of flow passing from A to B. The specific resistance of
the ground being p, let p be changed to p’ for the material enclosed by the tube.
1 determine in the first place the effect of this change of resistance on the
distribution of currents. The change of resistance could be counterbalanced
by an electric force—(p—p’) u acting throughout the tube, where w is the density
of the undisturbed currents, and it is therefore equivalent to the introduction of an

electromotive force |e--) udl in the tube of flow, d/ being an element of its
length and the integration being extended from A to B. If and u are constant

PR 4:

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 757

within the tube, the additional current flowing through it, owing to the change of
resistance, will be
(p—p') ul
R+5

where R denotes the resistance of the tube, and S the resistance of the ground
between A and B. If the resistivity p’ is of the order of magnitude of that of
copper, it will be small compared to p, and may be neglected in the above
expression.

Imagine now this tube of flow between A and B to consist of two overlapping
tubes, one of material equal to that of the rest of the ground, the other of copper,
and let the latter tube be lifted out of the ground without altering its total
resistance, but keeping its connection at A and B. The current traversing the
lifted-up part will remain the same as before, provided that the electromotive forces
of induction are not sufficient to produce an appreciable current in a circuit made up
of the original and displaced position of the tube, a condition which will be satisfied
in the case of earth currents, except perhaps at times of great magnetic storms.

We have now an arrangement equivalent to that used in earth-current observa-
tions, for the only effect of the earth plates at A and B will be to diminish the
earth resistance S.

The observed current 7 will be connected with u by the relation

me pul ?
R+5
The resistance R+S is measured by the introduction of an electromotive force

e in the circuit; if the observed current, under these circumstances, be increased
by a quantity 2’, the equation

ree!

piv’
will give the current density of the earth current. It is seen that w is proportional
to the conductivity of the material of which the ground is made up, and that a
knowledge of that conductivity, which may vary from day to day, according to
the amount of moisture contained ia it, is therefore essential to a correct inter-
pretation of earth-current observations.

If the circuit is a long one, S may be smell compared to R, and the latter

,
quantity will be pe , a being the cross section of the wire, so that

a

we £4 2s
ap

which shows that the current densities in the wire and ground are in the propor-
tion of their conductivities.

_ The above investigation pcints to the importance of measuring the conductivity
of the ground wherever earth-current observations are made. Samples of the soil
taken from different depths would probably give different results, and would then
indicate how the current density varies with depth.

6. On the Construction of Magnetic Observatories. By Dr. SNELLEN.

A magnetic observatory should fulfil the following purposes. As it is desirable
that regular observations be made in many places of the absolute values of the
magnetic elements, a base-station is required for the reduction of observations. Also
it is desirable to observe continuously regular variations of these elements. And,
finally, there ought to be facilities for carrying on researches connected with
magnetism in general.

A combination of two observatories, one for absolute measurements and another
for observing and recording continually the variations of the earth’s magnetism,
will fulfil these conditions. It is desirable to have them in separate buildings.

758 REPORT—1898.

Both should be constructed of non-magnetic substances; this 1s a necessity
both for metallic connecting pieces and for the stone or other material of which
the building is constructed.

Another condition is that temperature variations should be reduced as much as
possible, especially in the vaiiation observatory.

All materials employed for the construction of the magnetic observatories at
De Bilt, near Utrecht, in the Netherlands, have been subjected to a most rigorous
examination as to their magnetic condition before they were accepted for the
buildings,

The observatory for absolute measurements consists of two rooms, one built of
stone and wood, the walls being double, and the interstices filled with sawdust.
It contains six pillars for making absolute measurements, at a distance from each
other of four metres, to enable comparisons of instruments and methods to be made.
It has no windows except in the ceiling, one above each of the pillars. The other
room, of smaller dimensions, has large windows on three sides for making astro-
nomical observations.

The observatory for variation observations consists of two rooms, wholly sepa-
rated from each other and surrounded by a corridor. The whole is enclosed in a
building which has double walls, 1:60 metre thick, the interstices of which are
filled with loose dry peat moss, &c. Daylight is not admitted into this observatory.
Diurnal temperature variations are by these means wholly excluded.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

A joint meeting with Sections A and G was held for the purpose
of discussing the Magnetic and Electrolytic Effects of Electric Railways,
at which the following Papers were read :—

1. On the Disturbance of Magnetic Observatories by Electric Railways.'
By W. von Buzoup, Director of the Potsdam Observatory.

The demand of the authorities of the Potsdam Observatory that no electric
railway with an earth return should be allowed to approach them within 15 kilo-
metres having been characterised as exorbitant, the author states in this paper
some of the reasons which have led to its being made. It was felt that a distance
sufficiently great to prevent any possibility of disturbance should be temporarily
fixed till experiments had been made to find to what distance from such railways
the earth currents were still perceptible, and how these distances were affected by
the condition of the soil, In the meantime it is known that a variable current
like that of an electric tramway has been detected telephonically by Strecker at a
distance of 17 kilometres; that at Greenwich, 6°84 kilometres from the line of the
South London Electric Railway, the disturbances of the horizontal force due to the
railway vary between ‘OU004 and ‘0U007 C.G.S. unit, and of the vertical force
between 00004 and ‘00009 C.G.S. unit; while at Washington, 420 metres from
an electric railway, the disturbances of the horizontal amount to ‘00010, and of
the vertical force to ‘0030 C.G.S. unit; and at Toronto, 120 metres from a line, to
0012 and ‘0037 C.G.S. unit respectively. The effect of such disturbances on
magnetic measurements, which are at present made almost universally to ‘00001
C.GS. unit, will be readily understood, and when it is remembered what important
results have followed a further increase of sensitiveness of the instruments at
Potsdam, the limit of 15 kilometres seems small enough. While the author is
anxious that no unnecessary hindrance should be placed in the way of tramway
engineers, and assures them that the limit will be lowered as soon as experiment
has shown them that it can be done with safety, he points out that they have a
simple remedy in their own hands—2.c. to provide an insulated return,

} For the complete paper see Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, part 24, 1898.

SS

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 759

2. On the Magnetic Effects of Electric Railways at Berlin.
By Dr. EscHennacGEN, of Potsdam,

Dr. Eschenhagen gave an account of the experiments which had been made in
Berlin to determine the effects of the electric railways there, and the way in
which they decreased with distance from the line. Although up to the present
the results do not justify any general statement being made, Dr. Eschenhagen
anticipates important results from the method he has now adopted of using large
coils in series with delicate galvanometers as detectors of earth currents.

Papers on the subject were also contributed by Dr. C. Schott, Pro-
fessor A. W. Riicker, Mr. W. H. Preece, F.R.S., Signor Luigi Palazzo,
and Professor J. A. Fleming, F.R.S.

After the discussion the Permanent Committee passed the following reso-
lution :—

‘The Committee are of opinion that any sensible magnetic disturbance produced
in a magnetic observatory by electric railways or tramways is seriously detrimental
and may be fatal to the utility of the Observatory. They consider that special
precautions should be taken to prevent such disturbances, and append as an
example the provisions for the protection of the Kew Observatory inserted in a
Bill passed by the English Parliament authorising the construction of an electric
railway, the nearest point of which is to be at a distance of 1 kilometre from the
Observatory.’

Clause for the Protection of Kew Observatory.

(1) The whole circuit used for the carrying of the current to and from the
carriages in use on the railway shall consist of conductors which are insulated
along the whole of their length to the satisfaction in all respects of the Com-
missioners of Her Majesty’s Works and Public Buildings (in this section called
‘the Commissioners’), and the said insulated conductors which convey the current
to or from any of such carriages shall not at any place be separated from each
other by a distance exceeding one-hundredth part of the distance of either of
the conductors at that place from Kew Observatory.

(2) If in the opinion of the Commissioners there are at any time reasonable
grounds for assuming that by reason of the insulation or conductivity having
ceased to be satisfactory a sensible magnetic field has been produced at the
Observatory, the Commissioners shall have the right of testing the insulation and
conductivity upon giving notice to the Company, who shall afford all necessary
facilities to the engineer or officer of the Commissioners or other person appointed
by them for the purpose, and the Company shall forthwith take all such steps as
shall in the opinion of the Commissioners be required for preventing the production
of such field.

(8) The Company shall furnish to the Commissioners all necessary particulars
of the method of insulation proposed to be adopted and of the distances between
the conductors which carry the current to and from the carriages.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Form of the Isomagnetic Lines in the Neighbourhood a7 |
the Volcano Etna.’ By Luici PALazzo.

The author made absolute determination of the magnetic elements at a number
of stations in Sicily and the neighbouring small island, and relative determinations
in the district surrounding each station by means of small portable instruments,
In three of the islands, the rocks of which were of volcanic origin, the variations

_ of the elements were found to be large and irregular, even where the constitution of

1 For full details see the Rendiconti d. Accad. d. Lincei, December 5, 1897.

760 REPORT—1898.

the ground was uniform and its surface plane. He expresses the results of his deter-
minations by tracing the course of the isogonic line for 10° 30’, which passes through
the west and is parallel to the lines in Italy, that for 10° which passes through the
centre, and for 9° 30' which passes through the east of the island and is profoundly
modified by the presence of Etna, the isoclinal lines for 54°, 53° 30’, 53°, 52° 30’,
52°, which, with the exception of the 2nd and 3rd, passing respectively to the
north and south of the volcano, are quite uniform, and the isodynamic line for -252,
which has nearly the same shape as the isoclinals. By comparison of his results
with those obtained by Christini in 1882, the author concludes that the annual
changes of the elements are :—

Declination . : : : : . —5'6’
Inclination . : . F A pre [1
Horizontal Intensity : : : . + *000017

2. On the Influence of Altitude above the Sea on the Elements of Terrestrial
Magnetism. By Dr. VAN RiJCKEVORSEL and Dr. W. VAN BEMMELEN.

The object of an investigation, which lasted from 1895-97, was to see if we
could detect any influence of altitude above the sea on the magnetic elements.
For various reasons, the Rigi was thought to be the mountain most suitable to
our purpose, and in 1895 our observations were taken solely in order to discover
if this mountain was really non-magnetic. We found that it was so.

In 1896 complete series of observations were taken, both on the mountain and at
its base, ata large number of stations. The discussion of these observations seemed
to show a very slight decrease of the horizontal and a somewhat larger, though
atill very slight, increase of the vertical component.

However, this result was very doubtful, because we found at the same time
that the Rigi, though certainly non-magnetic as a mass, was covered all over with
superficial centres of attraction, very weak, but still causing disturbances which
seriously interfered with our results.

We resolved, therefore, to try again in 1897. In that year we took dips only
at 198 stations, one of us always observing near the base of the mountain, the
other, absolutely simultaneously with him, on tne top or on the slopes. Although
this time also the small, but numerous, local disturbances were a decided drawback
for the discussion, the following results were obtained :

1. We think it is proved, that if there be an influence of the height above the
sea on terrestrial magnetism it is so exceedingly small as to make it unfeasible to
detect it with our present surveying instruments. Therefore it is decidedly
unnecessary to take altitude into account in magnetic surveys.

2. If, nevertheless, it should ultimately be found that there is such an influence,
however small, it is more likely that it would be an increase of the vertical force
with altitude than anything else.

3. On the Variation of Terrestrial Magnetic Force with Altitude.'
By Professor J. Liznar.

The author has endeavoured to eliminate the effect of the nature of the soil
and shape of the surface at any point, on the variation of the magnetic force with
height above the surface at the point, by basing his calculations on the results for
the 205 stations in Austria at which observations of the magnetic elements have
been made. He divides the stations into three groups—the first including those of
altitude less than 200 metres, the second between 200 and 400, and the third
above 400 metres. The mean value of an element for the stations of a group, he
considers to be the value of the element for the mean altitude of the group, almost

1 The complete paper is published in Wiener Anzeiger, 1898, p. 168.

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 761

completely freed from local effects. Taking these values for the three mean stations,
he finds the increase of the elements per kilometre of ascent to be as follows :—

North component. . —*00034 C.G:S. Horizontal force . . —‘00029 C.G.S.
West oy caeeeeten OOUO2O cm Declination . . . . +65:03'
Vertical ,, . . — 00064 ,, Dip. . s - . —0°65'

The variations calculated on the assumption that the earth is a uniformly
magnetised sphere are much smaller, and the author considers that the discrepancy
arises from the fact that part of the magnetic potential of the earth is due to an
external source.

Extracts from the Report of the Permanent Committee on Terrestrial
Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity to the International Meteoro-
logical Conference.

Constitution of the Committee.

The Committee on Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity appointed
at Paris in September 1896 consisted of eight members. These gentlemen found
that it was desirable to add to their number by co-option, and the constitution of
the Committee is now as follows :—

Appointed at Paris: Professor Riicker (President), Professor Eschenhagen,
Professor Liznar, M. Th. Moureaux, Sig. L. Palazzo, Dr. Paulsen, Dr. van
Rijckevorsel, General Rykatcheff.

Co-opted: Dr. Bauer, Professor W. von Bezold, Sig. Brito-Capelio, Dr. Carlheim-
Gyllenskjold, Professor Mascart, Professor T. Mendenhall, Professor A. Schmidt,
Dr. C. Schott, and Professor A. Schuster.

International Conference.

In consequence of a suggestion, made originally by Professor Schuster, that
arrangements should be made for an International Conference of those interested
in Terrestrial Magnetism, the Committee decided to summon such a conference ;
and the hospitable invitation of the British Association to hold the meeting in
connection with that of the Association at Bristol (September 7-14, 1898) was
accepted.

‘he details of the arrangements are described in the President’s address.

Meetings of the Permanent Committee.

The Committee held meetings on September 7, 9, 12, and 13, at which the
following resolutions were unanimously approved :—

A. Questions referred to the Committee by the International Meteorological
Conference.

(1) The following resolution of M. Dufour (Report of Paris Conference, p. 30).

‘In calculating monthly means, all days are to be taken into consideration. It
is left open to each director to give in addition means calculated without taking
disturbed days into account.’

This was approved by the Committee with the substitution of the words ‘ It is
desirable’ for the words ‘It is left open to each director.’

The Committee were also of opinion that the quiet days chosen by the directors
of the different observatories should be communicated to the President of the
Permanent Magnetic Committee, and circulated by him, and also that it is desirable
to inquire if it will be possible to select the same quiet days for the different
observatories.

(2) The resolution proposed by Professor von Bezold and M. Mascart (Report,

p- 31) :—
‘It is desirable to publish the monthly means of the components X, Y, Z, and,

762 REPORT—1898.

at least for the months of January and July, the differences dX, dY, dZ of the
hourly means from the preceding means.’

In lieu of this the Committee adopted the following resolution :—‘It is
desirable to publish the monthly means of the Geographical Components of the
Magnetic Force for each month, and also the differences between the hourly means
for each month and the monthly means for that month,’

(3) The resolution proposed by General Rykatcheff (Report, p. 32) :—‘It is
desirable for the progress in Terrestrial Magnetism that temporary observatories
should be installed in certain localities, especially in tropical countries.’

On this subject a Report was prepared, at the request of the President, by
Professor von Bezold and General Rykatcheff. For the Report, and the reso-
lution passed by the Committee, see p. 743.

The Committee were informed by Dr. C. Schott that it was the intention of the
Coast and Geodetic Survey of the United States to establish a magnetic obser-
vatory at Honolulu.

In the course of the discussion on the above resolution, the Committee also
resolved :—3a. ‘That it is desirable to point out that observatories at great dis-
tances from others should be provided with both absolute and self-registering
variation instruments.’

(4) The question as to the relative advantages of long and short magnets, raised
by M. Mascart at the Paris Conference (Report, p. 39). For the Report, and the
resolution passed by the Committee, see p. 741.

B. Resolutions passed by the Committee on matters arising during the Inter-
national Conference.

(1) Professor Eschenhagen made a statement to the Conference as to his recent
investigations on minute disturbances made by very sensitive apparatus with a
very open time scale.

In view of this statement, the Committee expressed their sense of the impor-
tance of the resolutions on this subject passed by the Paris Conference (Report,
p. 35) and the hope that the principal observatories would carry out simultaneous
observations of the character proposed.

M. Moureaux informed the Committee that preparations for such observations
were already complete in the observatory at Parc St. Maur.

The Committee took note of the statement that Professor Eschenhagen would
be willing to give information as to the construction of the instruments used by
him.

(2) The Committee also passed the following resolution :—‘ The Committee is
of opinion that the early establishment of a magnetic observatory at the Cape of
Good Hope provided with absolute and self-registering variation instruments
would be of the highest utility to the science of Terrestrial Magnetism, especially
in view of the Antarctic expeditions which are about to leave Europe, and that
the observatory should be established at such a distance from electric railways and
tramways as to avoid all possibility of disturbance from them.’

Directions were given that the proper steps should be taken to obtain the
approval of the British Association for this resolution, with the request that, if
approved, it should be forwarded to the Colonial Government.

(8) On the motion of Professor Adolph Schmidt, the Committee resolved :-—
‘ That it is desirable that magnetic observations taken in regions not included in a
magnetic survey should be repeated from time to time, care being taken to secure
the identity of the point of observation.’

(4) Professor Eschenhagen was requested to draw up a detailed scheme for
the exchange between the various observatories of the curves of the self-registering
variation instruments taken during important magnetic storms, and to lay the
scheme before the next meeting of the Conference.

(5) With reference to certain inquiries which Professor Eschenhagen suggested

—_———or |

ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 763

should be addressed to the Directors of Magnetic Observatories, the Committee
was of opinion that, although it would be outside the scope of their duties to make
the inquiries, it was desirable that the information should be collected and
published.

(6) After the discussion on the magnetic disturbances introduced by electric
railways and tramways, a resolution was adopted by the Committee, which is
given on p. 759.

Future Organisation of the Committee.

The Committee took into consideration their own future organisation and
passed the following resolutions: ‘ It is desirable that Terrestrial Magnetism should
continue to be within the scope of the International Meteorological Conference,
provided that—

(a) Invitations to attend that Conference are issued as widely as possible to
Directors of Magnetic Observatories and to all students of Terrestrial Magnetism.

(6) That the Permanent Committee on Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric
Electricity, as established at the Paris Conference, be continued.

(c) That in future there shall be a Magnetic Section of the International Meteoro-
logical Conference, which shall elect or otherwise share in the appointment of a
permanent Magnetic Committee.

(d) That the Magnetic Committee have power to summon an International
Magnetic Conference at times other than those at which the whole of the Inter-
national Meteorological (and Magnetic) Conference may meet.’

The Committee also consider that the President of the Permanent Magnetic
Committee should only hold office between two successive meetings of the Inter-
national Meteorological (and Magnetic) Conference.

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

SECTION A.-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The President delivered the following Address :—

I sHatt, I feel sure, have your sympathy if I begin by referring to the great loss
which mathematics and physics have sustained in the untimely and disastrous
death of Dr. John Hopkinson. It has often been said that he who leads in mathe-
matics at Cambridge cannot follow the engineering life of Westminster. But a
striking disproof of the generality of this statement was furnished by the brilliant
work in the domains of theory and practice which was accomplished by him for
whom we mourn.

Science has lost much, but the wife and mother has lost more, and to her, who
in one day saw effaced so large a portion of her life, goes forth the expression of
our grief and sorrow.

A year ago Section A was charmed with a Presidential Address on the poetry
of mathematics, and if amongst those who entered the Physics lecture-theatre at
Toronto on that occasion there were any who had a preconceived notion that
mathematics was a hard, dry, repellent type of study, they must, after hearing
Professor Forsyth’s eloquent vindication of its charms, have departed convinced
that mathematics resembled music in being a branch of the fine arts. Such an
address, however, cannot but leave a feeling of regret amongst those of us who,
engulfed in the whirl of the practical science of the day, sigh for the leisure and
the quiet which are necessary for the worship of abstract mathematical truth,
while the vain effort to follow in the footsteps of one gifted with such winning
eloquence fills me with hopeless despair.

Section A this year is very fortunate in having its meetings associated with
those of an ‘International Conference on Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric
Electricity,’ which is attended by the members of the ‘ Permanent Committee for
Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity’ of the ‘ International Meteoro-
logical Conference.’ It has been arranged that this Permanent Committee, of
which Professor Riicker is the President, shall form part of the General Committee
of Section A, and also shall act as the Committee of the International Conference,
which will itself constitute a separate department of Section A. For the purpose,
however, of preparing a Report to the International Meteorological Conference,
and for similar business, this Permanent Committee will act:independently of the
British Association.

My first duty to-day, therefore, consists in expressing the honour and the very

at pleasure which I feel in bidding you, members of the International Con-
e

rence, most heartily welcome.
Among the various subjects which it is probable that the Conference may
desire to discuss, there is one to which I will briefly refer as I am able todo so

768 REPORT—1898.

in a triple capacity. The earth is an object of much importance, alike to the
terrestrial magnetician, the telegraph electrician, and the tramway engineer ; but
while the first aims at observing its magnetism, and the second rejoices in the
absence of the earth currents which interfere with the sending of messages, the
third seems bent on converting our maps of lines of force into maps of lines of
tramway.

It might therefore seem as if electric traction—undoubtedly a great boon to
the people, and one that has already effected important social developments in
Awerica and on the continent of Europe—were destined in time to annihilate
magnetic observatories near towns, and even to seriously interfere with existing
telegraph and telephone systems. Already the principle of the survival of the
fittest is quoted by some electrical engineers, who declare that if magnetic observa-
tories are crippled through the introduction of electric tramways, then so much the
worse for the observatories. And I fear that my professional brethren only look at ie
askance for allowing my devotion to the practical applications of electricity to be
tainted with a keen interest in that excessively small, but none the less extremely
wonderful, magnetic force which controls our compass needles.

But this interest emboldens me to ask again, Can the system of electric
traction that has already destroyed the two most important magnetic observa-
tories in the United States and British North America be the best and the fittest
to survive? Again, do we take such care, and spend such vast sums, in tending
the weak and nursing the sick because we are convinced that they are the fittest
to survive? May it not perhaps be because we have an inherent doubt about the
justness of the survival cf the strongest, or because even the strongest of us feels
compelled to modestly confess his inability to pick out the fittest, that modern
civilisation encourages not the destruction but the preservation of what has obvious
weakness, on the chance that it may have unseen strength ?

When the electrical engineer feels himself full of pride at the greatness, the
importance, and the power of his industry, and when he is inclined to think
slightingly of the deflection of a little magnet compared with the whirl of his
1,000 horse-power dynamo, let him go and visit a certain dark store-room near the
entrance hall of the Royal Institution, and, while he looks at some little coils
there, ponder on the blaze of light that has been shed over the whole world from
the dimly-lighted cupboard in which those dusty coils now lie. Then he may
realise that while the earth as a magnet has endured for all time, the earth as a
tramway conductor may at no distant date be relegated to the class of temporary
makeshifts, and that the raids of the feudal baron into the agricultural fields of his
neighbours were not more barbarous than the alarms and excursions of the tram-
way engineer into the magnetic fields of his friends.

A very important consideration in connection with the rapid development of
physical inquiry is the possibility of extending our power of assim:lating current
physical knowledge. For so wide have grown the limits of each branch of
physics that it has become necessary to resort to specialisation if we desire to
widen further the region of the known. On the other hand, so interlinked are all
sections of physics that this increase of specialisation is liable to hinder rather
than assist advance of the highest order.

An experimenter is therefore on the horns of a dilemma—on the one hand, if
he desires to do much he must confine hiniself more or less to one line of physical
research, while, on the other hand, to follow that line with full success requires a
knowledge of the progress that is being made along all kindred lines. Already an
investigator who is much engaged with research can hardly do more as regards
scientific literature than read what he himself writes—soon he will not have time
to do even that. Division of labour and co-operation have therefore become as
important in scientific work as in other lines of human activity. Like bees, some
must gather material from the flowers that are springing up in various fields of
research, while others must hatch new ideas. But, unlike bees, all can be of the
‘ worker’ class, since the presence of drones is unnecessary in the scientific hive.

Englishmen have long been at a disadvantage in not possessing any ready

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 769

means of ascertaining what lines of physical inquiry were being pursued in foreign
eountries—or, indeed, even in their own. And, so far from making it easier to
obtain this information, our countrymen have, I fear, until quite recently, been
guilty of increasing the difficulty. For every college, every technical school in
Great Britain—and their number will soon rival that of our villages—seems to
feel it incumbent on itself to start a scientific society. And in accordance with
the self-reliant character of our nation each of these societies must be maintained
in absolute independence of every other society, and its proceedings must be pub-
lished separately, and in an entirely distinct form from those of any similar body. To
keep abreast, then, with physical advance in our own country is distinctly difficult,
while the impossibility of maintaining even a casual acquaintance with foreign
scientific literature lays us open to a charge of international rudeness.

There is, of course, the German Berbldtter ; but the Anglo-Saxon race, which
has spread itself over so vast a portion of the globe, is proverbially deficient in
linguistic power, and consequently, till quite recently, information that was
accessible to our friends on the Continent was closed to many workers in Great
Britain, America, and Australia.

Influenced by these considerations, the Physical Society of London, in 1895,
embarked on the publication of abstracts from foreign papers on pure physics, and,
as it was found that this enterprise was much appreciated, the question arose at
the end of the following year whether, instead of limiting the journals from
which abstracts were made to those appearing in foreign countries, and the papers
abstracted to those dealing only with pure physics, the abstracts micht not with
advantage be enlarged, so as to present a réswmé of all that was published in all
languages on physics and its applications.

The first application of physics which it was thought should be included was
electrical engineering, and so negotiations were opened with the Institution of
Electrical Engineers. After much deliberation on the part of the representatives
of the two societies, it was finally decided to start a monthly joint publication,
under the management of a committee of seven, two of whom should represent the
Institution of Electrical Engineers, two the Physical Society, and three the two
societies jointly. ‘Seience Abstracts’ was the name selected for the periodical,
and the first number appeared in January of this year.

A section is devoted to general physics, and a separate section to each of its
branches; similarly, a section is devoted to general electrical engineering, and a
separate section to each of its more important sub-divisions, ‘The value of ‘ Science
Abstracts’ is already recognised by the British Association as well as by the Insti-
tution of Civil Engineers, for those societies make a liberal contribution towards
the expenses of publication, for which the Physical Society and the Institution of
Electrical Engineers are responsible.

At no distant date it is thought that other bodies may co-operate with us, and
we have hopes that finally the scheme may be supported by the scientific societies
of many Anglo-Saxon countries. For our aim is to produce, in a single journal, a
monthly record in English of the most important literature appearing in all

languages on physics and its many applications. This is the programme—a far
wider one, be it observed, than that of the Beiblittery—which we sanguinely hope
our young infant ‘Science Abstracts’ will grow to carry out.

The saving of time and trouble that will be effected by the publication of such
a journal can hardly be over-estimated, and the relief experienced in turning to a
single periodical for knowledge that could hitherto be obtained solely by going
through innumerable scientific newspapers, in many different languages, can only be
compared with the sensation of rousing from a distracting and entangled dream to
the peaceful order of wakeful reality.

I therefore take this opportunity of urging on the members of the British
Association the importance of the service which they can individually render to
science by helping on an enterprise that has been started solely in its aid, and not

_ for commercial purposes.

The greatness of the debt owed by industry to pure science is often impressed
1898. 3D

770 REPORT—1898.

on us, and it is pointed out that the comparatively small encouragement given by
our nation to the development of pure science is wholly incommensurate with
the gratitude which it ought to feel for the commercial benefits science has
enabled it to reach. This is undoubtedly true, and no one understands better
than myself how much commerce is indebted to those whose researches have
brought them—it may be fame—but certainly nothing else. The world, however,
appears to regard as equitable the division of reward which metes out tardy
approbation to the discoverer for devising some new principle, a modicum of the
world’s goods to the inventor for showing how this principle can be applied, and
a shower of wealth on the contractor for putting the principle into practice. At
first sight, this appears like the irony of fate, but in fact the world thus only
proves that it is human, by prizing the acquisition of what it realises that it
stande in need of, and by valuing the possession of what it is able to comprehend.

Now, is there not a debt of which those who pursue pure science are in their
turn equally forgetful—viz., the debt to the technical worker or to some technical
operation for the inception of a new idea? For purely theoretical investigations
are often born of technics, or, as Whewell puts it, ‘Art is the parent, not the
progeny, of science; the realisation of principles in practice forms part of the
prelude as well as of the sequel of theoretical discovery.’ I need not remind you
that the whole science of floating bodies is said to have sprung from the solution
by Archimedes of Hiero’s doubt concerning the transmutation of metals in the
manufacture of his crown. In that case, however, it was the transmutation of
gold into silver, and not silver into gold, that troubled the philosopher.

Again, in the ‘History of the Royal Society at the End of the Eighteenth
Century,’ Thomson says regarding Newton: ‘A desire to know whether there was
anything in judicial astrology first put him upon studying mathematics. He dis-
covered the emptiness of that study as soon as he erected a figure; for which
purpose he made use of one or two problems in Euclid... . He did not then
read the rest, looking upon it as a book containing only plain and obvious
things.

The analytical investigation of the motion of one body round an attracting
centre, when disturbed by the attraction of another, was attacked independently
by Clairault, D’Alembert, and Euler, because the construction of lunar tables had
such a practical importance, and because large money prizes were offered for their
accurate determination.

The gambling table gave us the whole Theory of Probability, Bernoulli’s
and Euler’s theorems, and the first demonstration of the binomial theorem ; while
a request made to Montmort to determine the advantage to the banker in the game
of ‘ Pharaon’ started him on the consideration of how counters could be thrown,
and so led him to prove the multinomial and various other algebraical theo-
rems. Lastly, may not the gambler take some credit to himself for the first
suggestion of the method of least squares, and the first discussion of_the integra-
tion of partial differential equations with finite differences contained in Laplace’s
famous ‘ Théorie Analytique des Probabilités ? ’

The question asked Rankine by James R. Napier regarding the horse-power
which would be necessary to propel, at a given rate, a vessel which Napier was
about to build, resulted in the many theoretical investigations carried out by
Rankine on water lines, skin-friction, stream lines, &c. For, as Professor Tait has
said, ‘ Rankine, by his education as a practical engineer, was eminently qualified
to recognise the problems of which the solution is required in practice; but the
large scope of his mind would not allow him to be content with giving merely the
solution of those particular cases which most frequently occur in engineering as
we now know it. His method invariably is to state the problem in a very
general form, find the solution, and apply this solution to special cases.’

Helmholtz studied physiology because he desired to be a doctor, then physics
because he found that he needed it for attacking physiological problems, and lastly
mathematics as an aid to physical research. But I need not remind you that it is
his splendid work in mathematics, physics, and physiology, and not his success in
ministering to the sick, that has rendered his name immortal.

Se ea aL er ——S

in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 771

Did not Kepler ask: ‘How many would be able to make astronomy their
business if men did not cherish the hope of reading the future in the skies?’ And
did he not warn those who objected to the degradation of mingling astrology
with astroncmy to beware of ‘throwing away the child with the dirty water of
its bath?’ Even now, may we not consider all the astronomical research work
done at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, as a by-product, since the Observatory
is officially maintained merely for the purposes of navigation? And are there
not many of us who feel assured that, since researches in pure physics and the
elucidation of new physical facts must quite legitimately spring from routine
standardising work, the most direct way—even now at the end of the nineteenth
century—of securing for the country a National Physical Laboratory is to speed
forward a Government Standardising Institute ?

Lastly, as you will find in Dr. Thorpe’s fascinating ‘Life of Davy,’ it was the
attempt to discover the medicinal effect of gases at the Pneumatic Institution in
this city that opened up to Davy the charm of scientific research. And, indeed,
the Royal Institution itself, the scientific home of Davy, Faraday, Tyndall,
Rayleigh, and Dewar, owes its origin to Romford’s proposal ‘for forming in
London by private subscription an establishment for feeding the poor and giving
them useful employment ... connected with an institution for introducing and
bringing forward into general-use new inventions and improvements by which
domestic comfort and economy may be promoted,’

Coming now to physics proper, there is one branch which, although of deep
interest, has hitherto been much neglected. We possess three senses which
enable us to detect the presence of things at a distance—viz., seeing, hearing, and
smelling. The first two are highly cultivated in man, and, probably for that
reason, the laws of the propagation of the disturbances which affect the eyes and
the ears have been the subject of much investigation, whereas, although to many
animals the sense of smell is of far greater importance than those of seeing or
hearing, and although, even in the human brain, a whole segment—a small one in
modern man, it is true—is devoted to the olfactory fibres, the laws of the production
and propagation of smell have received practically no attention from the physicist.
For some time past it has, therefore, seemed to me to be of theoretical and practical
importance to examine more fully into the physics of smell. Various other occupa-
tionshave hitherto prevented my advancing much beyond the threshold of the subject,
but, as it seems to me to open up what is practically a new field of inquiry for the
physicist, I take this opportunity of putting on record some facts that have been
already elucidated.

Various odoriferous substances have been employed in the experiments, and
for several of these I am indebted to Mr. W. J. Pope. Although the physicist
has been allowing the mechanical side of the subject to lie dormant, the chemist,
I find, has been analysing flowers and other bodies used in the manufacture of
scents, and then synthetically preparing the odoriferous constituents. In this way,
Mr. Pope informs me, there has been added to the list of manufactured articles,
during the past seven years or so, vanilin, heliotropin, artificial musk, irone and
ionone, which give the perfume of the violet ; citral, that of lemongrass ; coumarin,
that of hay, and various others; and he has kindly furnished me with specimens of
several of these artificial scents, together with other strongly-smelling substances.

If it be a proof of civilisation to retain but a remnant of a sense which is so
keen in many types of dogs, then I may pride myself on having reached a very
high state of civilisation. But with the present investigation in view this pride
has been of a very empty character, since I have been compelled to reject my own
nose as quite lacking the sensitiveness that should characterise a philosophical
measuring instrument. The ladies of my family, on the contrary, possess a nasal
quickness which formerly seemed to me to be rather of the nature of a defect,
since, at any rate in towns, there are so many more disagreeable odours than
attractive ones. But on the present occasion their power of detecting slight smells,
and the repugnance which they show in the case of so many of them, have stood

3D2

772 REPORT—1898.

me in good stead, and made it possible to put before you the following modest
contribution to the subject.

There is a generally accepted idea that metals have smells, since, if you take up
a piece of metal at random, or a coin out of your pocket, a smell can generally be
detected. But I find that, as commercial aluminium, brass, bronze, copper, German-
silver, gold, iron, silver, phosphor-bronze, steel, tin, and zinc are more and more
carefully cleaned, they become more and more alike in emitting mo smell, and,
indeed, when they are very clean it seems impossible with the nose, even if it be a
good one, to distinguish any one of these metals from the rest, or even to detect its
presence. Brass, iron, and steel are the last to lose their characteristic odour with
cleaning, and for some time I was not sure whether the last two could be rendered
absolutely odourless, in consequence of the difficulty of placing them close to the
nose without breathing on them, which, as explained later on, evolves the
characteristic ‘ copper’ and ‘iron’ smell. But experiment shows that, when very
considerable care is taken both in the cleaning and the smelling, no odour can be
detected even with iron or steel.

Contrary, then, to what is usually believed, metals appear to have no smell
per se. Why, then, do several of them generally possess smells? The answer is
simple; for I find that handling a piece of metal is one of the most efficient ways
of causing it to acquire its characteristic smell, so that the mere fact of lifting up
a piece of brass or iron to smell it may cause it to apparently acquire a metallic
odour, even if it had none before. This experiment may be easily tried thus:
Clean a penny very carefully until all sense of odour is gone; then hold it in the
hand for a few seconds, and it will smell—of copper, as we usually say. Leave it
for a short time on aclean piece of paper, and it will be found that the metallic
smell has entirely disappeared, or, at any rate, is not as strong as the smell of the
paper on which it rests. The smell produced by the contact of the hand with the
bronze will be marked if the closed hand containing it be only opened sufficiently
for the nose to be inserted, and it can be still further increased by rubbing the
coin between the fingers.

All the metals enumerated above, with the exception of gold and silver, can be
made to produce a smell when thus treated, but the smells evolved by the various
metals are quite different. Aluminium, tin, and zinc, I find, smell much the same
when rubbed with the fingers, the odour, however, being quite different from that
produced by brass, bronze, copper, German-silver, and phosphor-bronze, which all
give the characteristic ‘copper’ smell. Iron and steel give the strong ‘iron’
smell, which, again, is quite different from that evolved by the other metals. In
making these experiments it is important to wash the hands carefully after
touching each metal to free them from the odour of that metal. It is also neces-
sary to wait for a short time on each occasion after drying the hands, since it is
not until they become again moist with perspiration that they are operative in
bringing out the so-called smell of metals.

That the hands, when comparatively dry, do not bring out the smell of metals
is in itself a disproof of the current idea that metals acquire a smell when slightly
warmed. And this I have further tested by heating up specimens of all the
above-mentioned metals to 120° Fahrenheit, in the sun, and finding that they
acquire no smell when quite clean and untouched with the hands.

Again, dealing with the copper group, or with aluminium, zo smell is produced
by rubbing any one of them with dry table-salt, strong brine, or with wet salt,
provided that a piece of linen is used as the rubber; but if the finger be substituted
for the linen to rub on brine, a smell is observed with copper and German-silver,
this smell, however, being rather like that of soda; and, whether dry salt,
brine, or wet salt be rubbed on aluminium, a smell is noticed if the finger be used
as the rubber, this smell being very marked in the case of the brine or wet salt.
Again, although even when linen soaked in brine, or having wet salt on it, is used
to rub tin, iron, or steel, a faint smell is noticed, this is much increased when the
finger is substituted for the piece of linen.

As a further illustration of the part played by the skin in causing metallic
smells, it may be mentioned that the explanation of certain entirely contradictory

Eye

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 773

results, which were obtained in the early part of the investigation, when linen
soaked in strong brine was rubbed on aluminium, was ultimately traced to one
layer of moist linen of the thickness of a pocket-handkerchief, allowing the finger
to act through it, so that an odour was sometimes noticed on rubbing aluminium
with the piece of linen soaked in brine. For it was found that when two or more
layers of the same linen soaked in the same brine were employed to separate the
finger from the aluminium during the rubbing no smell could be detected.

From the preceding it seems that the smell in these cases is evolved partly by
contact with the finger, partly by the action of the solution of salt, and partly by
the rubbing of the solid particles of salt against the metals. That the friction of
solid particles against metals is operative in evolving smells is also illustrated by
the smell noticed when iron is filed, or when aluminium, iron, or steel is cleaned
with glass-paper or emery-paper in the air. Indeed, the smell thus evolved by
aluminium Mrs, Ayrton finds particularly offensive. A slight smell is also noticed
if iron or steel be rubbed in the air with even a clean piece of dry linen, and each
specimen of the copper group, with the exception of the phosphor-bronze, which
was tried in this way, gave rise to a faint, rather agreeable smell. No indication
of odour could, however, be thus produced with aluminium or zinc when both the
metals and the linen rubber were quite clean. It should, however, be borne in
mind that all these experiments, where very slight smells are noticed, and espe-
cially when the odour rapidly disappears on the cessation of the operation that
produced it, are attended with a certain amount of doubt, for the linen rubber
cannot be freed from the characteristic smell of ‘ clean linen,’ no matter how care-
fully it may be washed.

Before, then, a metal can evolve a smell, chemical action must apparently take
place, for rubbing the metal probably frees metallic particles, and facilitates the
chemical action to which I shall refer. All chemical actions, however, in which
metals take part do not produce smell; for example, no smell but that of soda, or
of sugar, respectively, can be detected on rubbing any single one of the series of
metals that I have enumerated with a lump of wet soda, or a lump of wet
sugar, although chemical action certainly takes place. Again, no metallic smell
is observable when dilute nitric acid is rubbed on copper, German-silver, phosphor-
bronze, tin, or zinc, although the chemical action is very marked in the case of
some of these metals. Weak vinegar or a weak solution of ammonia is also
equally inoperative. On the other hand, merely breathing on brass, copper, iron,
steel, or zinc, which has been rendered practically odourless by cleaning, produces
avery distinct smell, while a very thin film of water placed on iron or steel
evolves a still stronger odour. Such a film, however, produces but little effect
with any of the metals except these two; and if the whole series is lightly touched

in succession with the tongue, the iron and steel smell as strongly as when

breathed on, the German-silver more strongly than when breathed on or covered
with a water film, and the other metals hardly at all.

Now, as regards the explanation of these metallic smells, which have hitherto
been attributed to the metals themselves. This, I think, may be found in the
odours produced when the metals are rubbed with linen soaked in dilute sulphuric
acid, For here, apart from any contact of the metal with the skin, the aluminium,
tin, and zine are found to smell alike; the copper group also smell alike, and the
iron and steel give rise to the characteristic ‘iron’ smell, which, in this case, can
be detected some feet away. Now, it is known that when hydrogen is evolved
by the action of sulphuric acid on iron, the gas has a very unpleasant smell,
and this, Dr. Tilden tells me, is due principally to the presence of hydro-
carbons.'' I have been therefore led to think that the smell of iron or steel when

1 T am informed that as all ordinary iron and steel contain, beside carbon, the
elements phosphorus, sulphur, and silicon in quantities more or Jess minute, these
substances, by combining with a portion of the liberated hydrogen, form compounds
which have strong and characteristic odours, and, though in small quantity, con-
tribute to the general effect. Of the hydrocarbons produced, the greater part
consists of members of the paraffin series ; but these are accompanied by more or less

774 REPORT—1898.

held in the hand is really due to the hydrocarbons to which this operation gives
rise; and it is probable that no metallic particles, even in the form of vapour,
reach the nose or even leave the metal. Hence, although smell may not, like
sound, be propagated by vibration, it seems probable that particles of the metal with
which we have been accustomed to associate the particular smell may no more
come into contact with the olfactory nerves than a sounding musical instrument
strikes against the drum of the ear.

And the same sort of result may occur when a metal is rubbed, for, althouch
in that case particles may very likely be detached, it seems possible that the
function of these metallic particles may be to act on the moisture of the air, and
liberate hydrogen similarly contaminated; and that in this case also it is the
impurities which produce the smell, and not the particles of the metal with which
we have been accustomed to associate it.

This view I put forward tentatively ; and to further elucidate the matter I am
about to begin a series of smell tests in various gases, artificially dried, with
metals as pure as can be obtained.

I next come to the diffusion of smell. From the experience we have of the
considerable distance at which a good nose can detect a smell, and the quickness
with which the opening of a bottle of scent, for example, can be detected at a
distance, I imagined that tubes not less than 15 or 20 feet in length would be
required for ascertaining, even roughly, the velocity at which a smell travels.

3ut experiment soon showed that when the space through which a smell had to
pass was screened from draughts, it diffused with surprising slowness, and that
feet could be replaced by inches in deciding on the Jengths of the tubes to be used.
These are made of glass, which is relatively easy to free from remanent smells.

When the room and tube had been freed from smell by strong currents of air
blown through them, the tube was corked up at one end and taken outside to have
another cork, to which was attached some odoriferous substance, inserted at the
other end. ‘The tube was now brought back to the odourless room, and placed in
a fixed horizontal or vertical position, and the unscented stopper was withdrawn.
As a rule, immediately after the removal of the stopper, a smell was observed,
which bad been transmitted very quickly through the tube by the act of corking up
the other end with the stopper carrying the odoriferous material. This first whiff,
however, lasted only a very short time, and then a long period elapsed before
any further smell could be detected at the free end of the tube, whether that end
was left open or closed between times. Finally, however, after, for example,
about eighteen minutes in the case of a three-feet horizontal tube, having a large
cotton-wool sponge saturated with oil of limes attached to one cork, the smell
became definite and recognisable.

It would, therefore, appear that the passage of smell is generally far more due
to the actual motion of the air containing it than to the diffusion of the odoriferous
substance through the air. And, as a striking illustration of this, the following is
interesting:—After the stopper had been in contact with the odoriferous substance
for some time, it, of course, acquired a smell itself, which gradually spread in the
rvom in which the experiment was made. And although this smell was due simply
to the exposed part of the stopper, while the air inside the tube was at one end in
contact with a mass of the odoriferous substance itself, the only place where the
smell could not be detected during the course of the experiment was the space
inside the open end of the glass tube. And, what seemed very surprising, it was
found necessary, in several cases, to blow air through the room to clear out the
smell which emanated from the outside of the stopper before the smell coming
along the tube from the mass of odoriferous substance which was inside it at
the other end could be detected. A further proof of the important part played by

of unsaturated hydrocarbons belonging to the olefine and other series. In view of
the fact that marsh gas at one end of the scale and parafiin wax at the other are
both practically odourless, it is doubtful whether the liquid paraffins have much
smell when pure, and it would, therefore, appear probable that the hydrocarbons
whieh give the peculiar odour to the hydrogen escaping from iron may be the
unsaturated compounds referred to above.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 775

the motion of the air in diffusing smell was the fact that a strong smell at the free
end of the tube could at any time be caused by merely loosening the stopper to
which the scented sponge was attached ; for sniffing at the free end then made
a draught through the tube which brought the scent with it.

Further, although the glass tubes were coated outside with a thick layer of
non-heat-conducting material, so as to check the formation of convection currents,
due to difference in the inside and outside temperature caused by handling, the
rate of travel of a smell from a given odoriferous material was found to be much
quicker when the tube was vertical than when it was horizontal. But this, I am
inclined to think, may have been caused by a small convection current which
still was produced in spite of these precautions.

For, as suggested by Dr. Ramsay several years ago, a substance must have a
molecular weight at least fifteen times that of hydrogen to produce a sensation
of smell at all, and, further, since camphor, with which many of my experiments
have been made, has, when vaporised, a density about five times that of the air,
it seems unlikely that scent vapour should ditluse much more quickly upwards
through a vertical column of air than through a horizontal one. At the same
time, not only are the tests with the glass tubes very striking, but the general
impression which exists that smells rise—indeed the very fact that the nasal
channels of animals open downwards—tends to show that, whether due to draughts
or not, smells have really a tendency to ascend. And the following result obtained
with glass tubes closed at one end with stoppers carrying respectively camphor,
menthol, oil of limes, &c., and at the other end with corks, is instructive on this
point. For, on uncorking such a tube after it had been closed for a long time and
allowing the odour to stream out of it through the open air towards the experi-
menter’s face, it was always found that the tube had to be brought much closer
when the scent stream was poured downwards than when she was in a vertical
position and it was allowed to ascend, although, when it was poured downwards,
the experimenter brought her nose into as favourable a position as possible for
receiving the smell, by lying down with her head thrown well back.

As an illustration of the inefliciency of diffusion alone to convey a smell
you will find that if you hold your breath, without in any way closing your nose
either externally or by contracting the nasal muscles, you will experience no
smelling sensation even when the nose is held close to pepper, or a strong solution
of ammonia, or even when camphor in a minute tube is introduced high up into
the nostril. Mere diffusion from the lower nasal cavity into the upper cannot
apparently take place with sufficient ease to produce the sense of smell, so that an
actual stream of air through the upper portion of the nose seems necessary even when
the nose is a very sensitive one. This stream, for substances placed outside the
nose, is produced by breathing zm, no smell being detected while breathing owt.
On the other hand, if a substance be placed inside the mouth its flavour is recog-
nised when the air is forced outwards through the nostrils—that is, at each
expiration. Hence we may experience alternately two totally different smells by
placing one substance outside the nose and the other in the mouth, the one smell
being noticed in inhaling and the other in exhaling. And the latter can be
increased by smacking the lips, which, I think, has really for its object the forcing
of more air through the nostrils at each expiration.

Experiments on the propagation of smells in a vacuum have also been com-
menced in my laboratory, and the results are no less surprising than those obtained
with the propagation in air. A U-tube, seven inches high, had the odoriferous
substance placed inside it at the top of one limb, and a very good vacuum could be
made by allowing mercury to flow out of the tube. Then the two limbs were
separated by raising the mercury column, and, air being admitted at the top of
the other limb, without its coming into contact with the odoriferous substance, the
nose was applied at the top of this limb.

When liquids like ammoniated lavender smelling-salts, solution of musk, and
amyl acetate were employed, and various devices were used for introducing the
liquid, and preventing its splashing when it boiled on exhausting the air, it was
found that the time that it was necessary to leave the two limbs connected for a

776 REPORT—1898.

smell to be just observable was reduced from a few minutes or seconds when the
tube was filled with air to less than half a second for a good vacuum; with solid
camphor it was reduced from twenty minutes to one second; and, when moist rose
leaves were used, from fifty minutes to two seconds. But with solid particles of
musk the time was not reduced below twenty minutes by taking away the air;
while with dried lavender flowers and dried woodruff leaves no smell could be
detected after the two limbs had been connected for many hours, and a good
vacuum maintained. These experiments are, of course, somewhat complicated by
variations in the amount of odorous surface exposed, but they seem to indicate
that with these particular dried substances either the rate of evolution of the
scent, or its rate of propagation, or both, are very slow even in a good vacuum.
I have also carried out some tests on the power of different substances to
absorb various scents from the air. Lard, it is well known, is used to absorb the
erfume from flowers in the commercial manufacture of scents, perhaps because it
has little odour of its own, and because the scent can be easily distilled from it.
But if lard, wool, linen, blotting-paper, silk, &c., be shut up for some hours in a

box at equal distances from jasmine flowers, dried woodruff leaves, or from a‘ —

solution of ammonia, I find that it is not the lard, but the blotting-paper, that
smells most strongly when the articles are removed from the box. On the other
hand, when solid natural musk is employed, it is the wool that alone acquires
much smell, even after the box has been shut up for days.

Another noteworthy fact is the comparatively rapid rate at which grains of
natural musk are found to lose their fragrance when exposed to the air. The
popular statement, therefore, that a grain of musk will scent a room for years
supplies but another example of the contrast between text-book information and
laboratory experience.

The power of a smell to cling to a substance seems to depend neither on the
intensity of the smell nor on the ease with which it travels through a closed
space. Musk has but a faint smell, but the recollection of the greeting of a rich
Oriental survives many washings of the hands. The smell of rose leaves, again, is
but faint, and it travels very slowly through air in a tube; and yet the experi-
ments on its propagation in the glass vacuum apparatus were rendered extremely
troublesome by the difficulty experienced in removing the traces of the smell from
the glass between the successive tests. Rubbing its surface was quite ineffectual,
and even the mercury had to be occasionally shaken up with alcohol to free it
from the remanent smell. In fact, we found, as Moore put it:

‘ You may break, you may shatter the vase if you will,
But the scent of the roses will cling to it still’

This absorption of scents by glass, and the ease with which I found that jasmine
flowers could be distinguished from woodruff leaves, even when each was enclosed
in a series of three envelopes specially prepared from glazed paper, and when many
precautions were taken to prevent an odour being given to any of the envelopes
in the operation of closing, as well as to prevent its diflusion through the joins in
the paper, led me to try whether an actual transpiration through glass could be
detected with the nose. For this object a number of extremely thin glass bulbs
were blown from soda and from lead glass, so thin that they exhibited colours like
a soap bubble, and felt, when gently touched, like very thin oiled silk, and after a
little ammoniated lavender, amyl nitrite, ethyl sulphide, mercaptan, solution of
musk, oil of peppermint, and propylamine had been introduced into them respec-
Hii they were hermetically sealed, and placed separately in glass stoppered
bottles.

In some cases, on removing the stopper from a bottle after many hours, a faint
odour could be detected, but so, generally, could a minute flaw after much searching ;
the crack, however, being so slight that it did not allow sufficient passage of the
air to prevent the bulb subsequently breaking, presumably from changes of atmo-
spheric pressure. Aud in those cases where a smell was detected without any
flaw being found in the glass, the subsequent breaking of the bulb put an end to
further testing. The question, therefore, remains unanswered.

eee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. HEL

In presenting this brief introduction to the physics of smell, I have aimed at
indicating the vast territory that waits to be explored. That it will be found to
contain mines of theoretical wealth there can be no doubt ; while it is probable that
a luxuriant growth of technical application would spring up later on. Already, for
example, Mrs. Ayrton unintentionally picks out inferior glass by the repugnance
she shows at drinking water out of certain cheap tumblers. To conclude, I may
say that one of my fondest hopes is that an inquiry into the physics of smell may
add another to the list of wide regions of knowledge opened up by the theoretical
physicist in his search for answers to the questions of the technical man.

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations.
See Reports, p. 80.

2. Lenses not of Glass. By J. W. Girrorp.

Glass passes light to A =3612, calcite to A= 2064, and quartz to A=1852, the
most refrangible line of aluminium. Seventy deviations were measured between
A\=7951 and \=2147. Over that range an uncorrected quartz lens F=11” gives
1:76” of chromatic aberration; when corrected by calcite this may be reduced to
0:24”. <A partially achromatised lens where error =0'798’ gives less spherical
aberration and a flatter field. In this the achromatism curve is so nearly a straight
line that a glass plate once tilted at the angle required, the spectrum may be
photographed from 4 =7951 to A= 2147 with good detinition throughout.

There are only four elements known which give lines beyond the range of cal-
cite. These lenses are therefore suitable for spark photography of projectiles.

The best lens for achromatism was calculated not from the dispersive powers,
but from the refractions for \=1852, an imaginary deviation for calcite being
obtained by graphical extrapolation. Fluor-spar corrected by quartz gives better
achromatism.

3. On the Articulation and Acoustics of the Spirate Fricative
Consonants.| By R. J. Luoyp, D.Lit., MA., F.RSE.

The writer compared the results of his recent paper* with those of foreign
observers.
The best German results * compare as under-:—

!

i A { | ch ch
| f | ih : sh in licht in loch | h
=. bes
Trautmann ah Maes 1584 1760 1760 3168 1408 | =
Trautmann, 2nd res. . _— — -- +2376 —_ _ _
Lloyd, neutral type 1408 1584 2570 2046 2500 1491 1320
ine fle 4 ef - | 704-2816 | 880-2816 | 792-3168 | 792-3168 |1760-2982 | 528-1760 287-2816
oyd, influence of neu- ) very ee very very a , .
tral type . * +) slight slight strong strong strong | moderate | nil

The differences between the first and third lines are probably personal for s,
but national for sh and ch. They represent, in V.D. per. sec., the strongest sound
heard in these consonants when articulated in isolation; and they are in each case
created by the resonance of the oral cavity, before or behind the frictional passage.
But this fixity of articulation and resonance’is simply the combined result of con-
venience and habit. They may be easily made to vary through the wide ranges
given in the fourth line; and in actual speech they do vary, under the influence of

» Neuere Sprachen, vol. vii. 2 Roy. Soe. Edin., Proc, vol. xxii.
% Trautmann, Sprachlaute, 1885.

778 REPORT—1898.

adjacent articulations, but with varying degrees of alacrity, as shown in the last
lines of the table. Hence this resonance, though essential and very strong, does
not differentiate these consonants from each other. Compared with other noises
in Nature, they ranked as feebly differentiated hisses; but our cognition of their
differences is sharpened by practice and heredity. A hiss may be differentiated
by (1) the pressure behind it ; (2) the length, width, or roughness of its aperture ;
(3) the resonance of the cavity from which (and into which, if any) it proceeds.
Diagrams were shown to prove that the difference of / arises from the great length
and width of the frictional passage; that the difference of f and ¢/ arises from the
frictional passage of the latter being four times longer than the other, and the
pressure greater; that the rest all differ from these in having some kind of fore-
cavity, which greatly modifies and subdues the frictional noises; that s and sh
differ from ch in having strong resonances proceeding from both the fore-cavity and
the hinder-cavity, and reinforcing.each other; and that s is distinguished chiefly
from sh by a second friction, which takes place against the tips of the lower teeth
and thus comes unsubdued to the ear.

4. On the Conservation of Energy in the Human Body.
By Epwarp B. Rosa and W. O. ATWATER.

The total energy taken into the body in the form of food is determined, and
balanced against the total output. The experiments continued for a period of four
to eight days, and the subject was in one case at rest while in the other he did
eight hours of hard work each day. The output of energy consisted of—

1. Heat radiated from the body and also carried away as latent heat of water
vapour given off from lungs and skin.

2. Mechanical work done.

3. Potential energy of materials contained in excreta and urine.

The heat was determined by use of the respiration calorimeter briefly described
last year before Section A. (‘The results of experiments were not given then.)

The food, exhaled air, and excreta are all analysed, and a balance is found for
carbon and nitrogen taken in and given off from the body.

The work done is compared with the total energy received and dissipated, and
so the mechanical efficiency of the man as a machine is derived.

These are the first experiments, so far as we know, which give these results.
The apparatus has been developed during six years of active work, involving a large
amount of labour and expense, being supported by appropriations from the United
States Government.

5. On a Pneumatic Analogue of the Potentiometer.
By W.N. Suaw, FBS.

The apparatus was designed to exhibit two air circuits, having one part of the
path of the air common to both, but two separate aéromotive forces. ‘This
arrangement was obtained by having three openings to an otherwise closed box.
One of the openings had a sliding shutter, and this formed the common portion
of the two circuits. Each of the other openings was provided with a vertical
glass tube, and a small gas jet, either in or below the tube, as the case may be;
the hot air thus supplied gave rise to aéromotive forces. By adjusting the sliding
shutter the flow in one tube could be made to go in the direction of the aéromo-
tive force appropriate to that tube, or in the reverse direction, or could be arrested

altogether by adjusting the position of the shutter. In this last-mentioned |

case, the one aéromotive force is exactly balanced by a fraction of the second and
larger aéromotive force by the adjustment of resistances in a manner similar to the
balancing of an electromotive force in the compensation method of measuring
electromotive forces.

The direction of motion of the air in the tubes was identified by a specially
designed detector of air-motion consisting of a very light mica flap attached to a

0 Ne

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 779

knife edge, counterpoised for a suitable position. For exhibition to the section
these detectors replaced the more sensitive rotating indicators which are adapted
only for inspection from quite short distances. : d

The application of the experiment to the illustration of cases of air motion on
a larger scale in certain examples of ventilation was pointed out.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Comparison between Charging a Secondary Cell at Constant Potential and
at Constant Current, more especially as regards Efficiency. By A. A.
CaneEn and J. M. Donapson,

The method of charging secondary cells at constant potential has only com-
paratively recently come into vogue, and the probable reason for its adoption now
is the saving of time thereby effected.

Little, however, is known and nothing, as far as we are aware, has been published
with regard to the efficiency and physical characteristics of the method.

The following tests were carried out to investigate these matters, and in order
to make a fair comparison between charging at constant potential and charging
at constant current a complete set of experiments by each method was tried on
one cell.

This cell was of the Tudor type and had two positive plates (pasted) and three
negative plates (unpasted). The size was that called 11 L.A., and its listed
capacity, charging at 20 ampéres and discharging at 36, was 108 ampére hours.

In order to get the true or working efficiency of the cell, it was charged and
discharged many times without intermission, until charge and discharge curves
obtained in consecutive experiments did not appreciably ditfer.

On February 24, 1898, charging at constant potential was begun, and, in all,
50 charges and discharges were carried out, the intervals between charge and
discharge, discharge and charge being, on an average, one minute.

During the charge the potential difference between the terminals of the cell
was kept constant at 2°51 volts, and charging was continued until the current had
fallen to 10 ampéres. ‘

During the discharge the current was kept constant at 36 ampéres, and the
discharge was stopped when the P.D. had fallen to 1°82 volts.

The last charge was given on March 4, and on March 7, after a preliminary
discharge, charging at constant current was started.

The cell was charged at a constant current of 20 ampéres, and charging was
continued in the first 22 tests until the P.D. had risen to 2°51 volts. During the
twenty-third and following charges this limit was increased to 2°58 volts, in order to
increase, if possible, the capacity, which was low in comparison with that obtained
after a charge at constant P.D.

Discharge took place at a constant current of 36 ampéres and was stopped
when the P.D. had fallen to 1:82 volt.

Forty-six charges and discharges were carried out.

As, however, the capacity of the cell when charged at constant current was
considerably less than that after a constant P.D. charge, we suspected that the
heavy currents passed through the cell during the charges at constant P.D. had
injured it, and so this method was again started to see if the capacity was still the
same,

This was on March 17, after an interval of only half an hour.

Seven charges and discharges were sufficient to show that the capacity had not
diminished, and these experiments brought the tests to an end.

Results obtained by Charging at Constant P.D.

Capacity and Efficiency.—The curves of charge and discharge drawn from the
results of experiments 37-46 inclusive lie very near together, and the mean of
the results was used in calculating the working efficiency.

780 REPORT—1898.

The means of the results of experiments 13-49 inclusive, which do not differ
much from the above, are also given.

The mean capacity and efficiencies from tests 6 and 7 of the second series of
constant P.D. tests are also given, and it will be noticed that the energy
efficiency is somewhat less than in first series.

Ampere Ampere Quantity | Ener:
Experiments tek Watt brs. oy ys se Bfficieney Efficiency
put in puean taken out Been ou per cent. | per cent.
1st Series—
Mean of 37-46 91°89 230°4 86:07 163°5 CBM te
Go LO=A9 91:97 230°7 85:99 | 1632 93°5 70°8
2nd Series —
Meanof 6and7 93°60 235 85:2 161:0 91:0 68°5

The density of the acid varied from 1:159-1:175 in the first series of tests and
from 1:154-1:174 in the second series of tests.

‘Gassing,’ or the brisk evolution of hydrogen bubbles from the negative plates,
occurred just after the first rapid fall of current was over; this was when about
two-thirds of the charging time had elapsed.

Resistance.—Only approximate figures can be given, as no special arrangements
were made for taking the E.M.F. accurately at the moment of making or breaking
the circuit.

During the last few tests of the second series the resistances were as below :—

Beginning of charge End of charge Beginning of discharge End of discharge
0:0033 ohm. 0:01 ohm. 0:0043 ohm. 0:0033 ohm.

Shape of Curves.

Charging.—At the beginning of the charge the currents are, of course, very
large, about 170 ampéres being the usual initial current.

During the first three minutes of the charge a curious phenomenon always took
place. The current fell by about 10 or 20 ampéres, and then rose again very
rapidly. After remaining fairly constant for about three minutes, the current falls
very rapidly te about 40 ampéres, and then drops much more gradually, becoming
nearly constant at 10 ampéres at the end of the charge.

This initial falling and rising again of the current we considered to be due to
an excessive liberation of hydrogen by the large currents, causing a temporary
increase in the back H.M.F, of the cell.

It did not occur in the first few experiments of the second series of tests at
constant P.D., but appeared to a lesser extent in the last. The curves in these
tests showed a steady falling off of current throughout.

Discharging.—The P.D. shows a very rapid initial drop, after which the curve
bends off nearly at right angles, and then keeps quite level for a considerable time.
After this the P.D. falls at an increasingly rapid rate. After a charge at constant
current, the P.D. falls rapidly at first, and the change to the nearly level portion
is not abrupt.

In the first case—z.e. after a constant P.D. charge—the rapid fall is practically
over in the first three minutes, and after this the curve is nearly level; whereas in
the other case the initial drop lasts three or four times as long, and the curve after-
wards shows a gradual fall.

Charging at Constant Current.

By this method we obtained considerably smaller capacities, but higher
efficiencies.

The working efficiency was obtained from the results given by experiments 44
and 45.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 781

The mean of experiments 23-45 is also given.

| Ampere , < Ampere Quantity | Energy
Experiments hrs. Watt hrs. hrs. Watt-hra, Efficiency|Efficiency

| putin oes taken out | ken out per cent. | per cent.
44 and 45 68°35 152°1 65°25 123:1 95°4 81-0
23-45 — = —

= 95-1 81:0

The Density varied from 1:155-1:167, a less range than when charging at
constant P.D.
Resistances.—

Beginning of charge End of charge Beginning of discharge End of discharge
0:0038 ohm. 0:0077 ohm. 0:0041 ohm. 0:0034 ohm.

The shapes of the curves of charge and discharge at constant current are very
well known, and need not be commented upon here.

Comparison of the two Methods of Charging.

What we have to compare in order to get an insight into the relative advantages
and disadvantages of the two methods are:

1. The discharge capacity, or the energy we can get out of the cell.
2, The time needed for charging.

3. The storage efficiency or ratio of Speen ate

watts put in
4. The life of the ceil.

The first three are put into tabular form below, and we thus see that by charging
at constant potential the time of charging is less than half that which is required
if we charge at constant current, and that the capacity is 30 per cent. greater if
the first method is employed, but that the energy efficiency is 10 per cent. less.

This loss of efficiency is probably due to the excessive heating caused by the
large initial currents.

With regard to the life of the cell when charged at constant P.D., we can only
say that after more than fifty charges and discharges the cell seemed in no way
the worse.

The plates were not at all bent, neither was the amount of sediment at the °
bottom of the cell notably greater than at the beginning of the tests.

— Nae

Time of Capacity Efficiencies
— Charging,
minutes |Ampére hrs.! Watt hrs. | Quantity Energy
taken out | taken out | percent. | per cent.
Charging at Constant 82 86 163 933 703
P.D, 251 volts,
Charge till current
=10ampéres. Dis-
charge at 36 am-
peres till P.D. 1:82
volt.
Charging at Constant 206 65:2 123 953 81
Current 20 am-
peres till P.D.=
2°58 volts. Dis-

charge at 36 am-
peres till P.D. 1:82
volt.

a ele

782 REPORT—1898,
2. On a Magnifying Telephone.| By Professor Otiver Lopar, F.R.S,

For the purpose of ‘ calling up’ in a system of magnetic induction telegraphy, and
for other purposes, the author has devised a kind of telephone which emits a loud
sound when stimulated by an exceedingly feeble alternating current. This is done
partly by dispensing with iron inthe moving part and utilising the motion of the
coil instead, partly by aid of a large wooden sound-board, and partly by a com-
bination of telephones and microphones in series, alternately electrically and
mechanically connected, each microphone receiving a disturbance mechanically
and passing it on electrically in a magnified condition to the next by reason of the
fresh energy of its battery.

3. On the Measurement of Small Differences in Resistance.
By E. H. Grirriras, 7.2.8.

4. The Dynamical Theory of Refraction, Dispersion, and Anomalous
Dispersion. By Lord Ketvin, G.C.V.O.

The dynamical theory of dispersion, as originally given by Sellmeier,? con-
sisted in finding the velocity of light as affected by vibratory molecules embedded
in ether, such as those which had been suggested’ by Stokes* to account for the
dark lines of the solar spectrum Sellmeier’s mathematical work was founded on
the simplest ideal of a molecular vibrator, which may be taken as a single material
particle connected by a massless spring or springs with a rigid lining of a small
vesicle in ether. He investigated the propagation of distortional waves, and
found the following expression (which I give with slightly altered notation) for
the square of the refractive index of light passing through ether studded with a
very large number of vibratory molecules in every volume equal to the cube of
the wave-length
2 2

+™
Raa UM ea
T° =K, 7 =K);

2 7
pe =lim{—,

+m, ,+ &e.,

where r denotes the period of the light ; x, x, k,,, &c., the vibratory periods of the
embedded molecules on the supposition of their sheaths held fixed; and m, m,, m,,,
&c., their masses. He showed that this formula agreed with all that was known
in 1872 regarding ordinary dispersion, and that it contained what we cannot
doubt is substantially the true dynamical explanation of anomalous dispersions,
which had been discovered by Fox-Talbot* for the extraordinary ray in crystals
of a chromium salt, by Leroux ® for iodine vapour, and by Christiansen ° for liquid
solution of fuchsin, and had been experimentally investigated with great power
by Kundt.’

Sellmeier himself somewhat marred ® the physical value of his mathematical
work by suggesting a distinction between refractive and absorptive molecules
(‘refractive and absorptive Theilchen’), and by seeming to confine the application
of his formula to cases in which the longest of the molecular periods is small in
comparison with the period of the light. But the splendid value of his formula
for physical science has been quite wonderfully proved by Rubens, who, however,

1 See Proc. Inst. Hlec. Engineers, Dec. 1898.

2 Sellmeier, Pogg. Ann., vol. cxlv. 1872, pp. 399, 520; vol. cxlvii. 1872, pp. 386
525.
3 See Kirchhoff-Stokes-Thomson, Phil. Mag., March and July 1860.

4 !ox-Talbot, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1870-71.
5 |.eroux, Comptes Rendus, vol. lv. 1862, pp. 126-128.
6 Christiansen, Pogg. Ann., vol. exli. 1870, pp. 479, 480 ; Phil. Mag., vol. xli. 1871
p. 244; Annales de Chimie, vol. xxv. 1872, pp. 213, 214.
7 Kundt, Pogg. Ann., vols. cxlii., cxliii., cxliv., cxlv. 1871-72.
8 Pogg. Ann., vol. cxlvii. 1872, p. 525.

—

-. nan

id

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 783

inadvertently quotes 1 it as if due to Ketteler. Fourteen years ago Langley ? had
measured the refractivity of rock-salt for light and radiant heat of wave-lengths
(in air or ether) from °43 of a mikron to 5:3 mikrons (the mikron being 10% of a
metre, or 10-4 of a centimetre), and without measuring refractivities further had
measured wave-lengths as great as 15 mikrons in radiant heat. Within the last
six years measurements of refractivity by Rubens, Paschen, and others, agreeing
in a practically perfect way with Langley’s through his range, have given us very
accurate knowledge of the refractivity of rock-salt and of sylvin (chloride of
potassium) through the enormous range of from ‘4 of a mikron to 23 mikrons,

Rubens began by using empirical and partly theoretical formulas which had
been suggested by various theoretical and experimental writers, and obtained
fairly accurate representations of the refractivities of flint-glass, quartz, fluor-spar,
sylvin, and rock-salt through ranges of wave-lengths from *4 to nearly 12 mikrons.*
Two years later further experiments extending the measure of refractivities of
sylvin and rock-salt for light of waye-lengths up to 23 mikrons showed deviations
from the best of the previous empirical formulas, increasing largely with increasing
waye-lengths. Rubens then fell back + on the simple unmodified Sellmeier formula,
and found by it a practically perfect expression of the refractivities of those
substances from *434 to 22°3 mikrons.

And now for the splendid and really wonderful confirmation of the dynamical
theory. One year later a paper by Rubens and Aschkinass ° describes experiments
proving that radiant heat after five successive reflections from approximately parallel
surfaces of rock-salt and again of sylvin is of mean wave-length 51:2 and 61:1
mikrons respectively. The formula which Rubens had given in February 1897, as
deduced solely from refractivities measured for wave-lengths of less than 23 mikrons,
made yp” negative for radiant heat of wave-lengths from 37 to 55 mikrons in the
case of reflection from rock-salt, and of wave-lengths from 45 to 67 mikrons in the
case of reflection from sylvin! (u? negative means that waves incident on the
substance cannot enter it, but are totally reflected).

5. Continuity in Undulatory Theory of Condensational-rarefactional
Waves in Gases, Liquids, and Solids, of Distortional Waves in Solids,
of Electric Waves in all Substances capable of transmitting them, and of
Radiant Heat, Visible Light, Ultra-Violet Light. By Lord Ketvin,
a a EO

Consider the following three analogous cases:—I. mechanical, II. electrical,
III. electromagnetic.

I. Imagine an ideally rigid globe of solid platinum of 12 centimetres diameter,
hung inside an ideal rigid massless spherical shell of 13 centimetres internal dia-
meter, and of any convenient thickness. Let this shell be hung in air or under
water by a very long cord, or let it be imbedded in a great block of glass, or rock,
or other elastic solid, electrically conductive or non-conductive, transparent or non-
transparent for light.

I. (1) By proper application of force between the shell and the nucleus cause the
shell and nucleus to vibrate in opposite directions with simple harmonic motion
through a relative total range of 10-° of a centimetre. We shall first suppose the
shell to be in air. In this case, because of the small density of air compared with
that of platinum, the relative total range will be practically that of the shell, and

1 Wied. Ann., vol. liii. 1894, p. 267. In the formula quoted by Rubens from
Ketteler, substitute for “oo the value of «found by putting r=oo in Sellmeier’s
formula, and Ketteler’s formula becomes identical with Sellmeier’s. Remark that
Ketteler’s ‘M’ is Sellmeier’s ‘mx?’ according to my notation in the text.

? Langley, Phil. Mag., 1886, second half-year.

3 Rubens, Wied. Anm., vols. liii. liv. 1894-95.

4 Rubens and Nichols, Wied. Ann. vol. Ix. 1896-97, p. 454.

5 Rubens and Aschkinass, Wied, Ann., vol. xiv. 1898.

784 REPORT—1898.

the nucleus may be considered as almost absolutely fixed. If the period is x4 of a
second, frequency 32 according to Lord Rayleigh’s designation, a humming sound
will be heard, certainly not excessively loud, but probably amply audible to an ear
within a metre or half a metre of the shell. Increase the frequency to 256, and a
very loud sound of the well-known musical character (C,,,) will be heard.?

Increase the frequency now to 82 times this, that is to 8192 periods per second,
and an exceedingly loud note 5 octaves higher will be heard. It may be too loud
a shriek to be tolerable ; if so, diminish the range till the sound is not too loud.
Increase the frequency now successively according to the ratios of the diatonic
scale, and the well-known musical notes will be each clearly and perfectly per-
ceived through the whole of this octave. To some or all ears the musical notes
will still be clear up to the G (24756 periods per second) of the octave above, but
we do not know from experience what kind of sound the ear would perceive for
higher frequencies than 25000. We can scarcely believe that it would hear no-
thing, if the amplitude of the motion is suitable.

To produce such relative motions of shell and nucleus as we have been con-
sidering, whether the shell is embedded in air, or water, or glass, or rock, or
metal, a certain amount of work, not extravagantly great, must be done to supply
the energy for the waves (both condensational and rarefactional), which are caused
to proceed outwards in all directions. Suppose now, for example, we find how
much work per second is required to maintain vibration with a frequency of 1000
periods per second, through total relative motion of 10-° of a centimetre. Keeping
to the same rate of doing work, raise the frequency to 10+, 10°, 10°, 10°, 10%,
500 x 10'*. We now hear nothing ; and we see nothing from any point of view
in the line of the vibration of the centre of the shell, which I shall call the axial
line. But from all points of view, not in this line, we see a luminous point of
homogeneous polarised yellow light, as it were in the centre of the shell, with
increasing brilliance as we pass from any point of the axial line to the equatorial
plane, keeping at equal distances from the centre. The line of vibration is every-
where in the meridional plane, and perpendicular to the line drawn to the centre.

When the vibrating shell is surrounded by air, or water, or other fluid, and
when the vibrations are of moderate frequency, or of anything less than a few
hundred thousand periods per second, the waves proceeding outwards are conden-
sational-rarefactional, with zero of alternate condensation and rarefaction at every
point of the equatorial plane and maximum in the axial line. When the vibrating
shell is embedded in an elastic solid extending to vast distances in all directions
from it, two sets of waves, distortional and condensational-rarefactional, according
respectively to the two descriptions which have been before us, proceed outwards
with different velocities, that of the former essentially less than that of the latter
in all known elastic solids. Each of these propagational velocities is certainly
independent of the frequency up to 10‘, 10°, or 10°, and probably up to any
frequency not so high but that the wave-length is a large multiple of the distance
from molecule to molecule of the solid. When we rise to frequencies of 4x 10",
400 x 1012, 800 x 101#, and 3000 x 10", corresponding to the already known rarge
of long-period invisible radiant heat, of visible light, and of ultra-violet light,
what becomes of the condensational-rarefactional waves which we have heen
considering ? How and about what range do we pass from the propagational
velocities of 3 kilometres per second for distortional waves in glass, or 5 kilometres
per second for the condensational waves in glass, to the 200,000 kilometres per
second for light in glass, and, perhaps, no condensational wave? Of one thing we
may be quite sure; the transition is continuous. Is it probable (if ether is abso-
lutely incompressible, it is certainly possible) that the condensational-rarefactional

1 Lord Rayleigh has found that with frequency 256, periodic condensation and
rarefaction of the marvellously small amount, 6 x 10—° of an atmosphere, or ‘ addition
and subtraction of densities far less than those to be found in our highest vacua,’
gives a perfectly audible sound. The amplitude of the aérial vibration, on each side
of zero, corresponding to this is 1:27 x 10-7 of a centimetre. Sound, vol. ii. p. 489
(2nd edition).

2 Math. and Phys. Papers, vol. iii. art. civ. p. 522.

eee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 735

wave becomes less and less with frequencies of from 10® to 4 x 10", and that there
is absolutely none of it for periodic disturbances of frequencies of from 4 x 10!” to
3000 x 10!?? There is nothing unnatural or fruitlessly ideal in our ideal shell,
and in giving it so high a frequency as the 500 x 10” of yellow light. It is abso-
lutely certain that there is a definite dynamical theory for waves of light, to be
enriched, not abolished, by electromagnetic theory; and it is interesting to find
one certain line of transition from our distortional waves in glass, or metal, or
rock, to our still better known waves of light.

I. (2) Here is another still simpler transition from the distortional waves in an
elastic solid to waves of light. Still think of our massless rigid spherical shell,
13 centim. internal diameter, with our solid globe of platinum, 12 centim.
diameter, hung in its interior. Instead of as formerly applying simple forces to
produce to-and-fro rectilinear vibrations of shell and nucleus, apply now a proper
mutual forcive between shell and nucleus to give them oscillatory rotations in
contrary directions. If the shell is hung in air or water, we should have a
propagation outwards of disturbance due to viscosity, very interesting in itself;
but we should have no motion that we know of, appropriate to our present subject,
until we rise to frequencies of 10°, 10 x 10!*, 400 x 123”, 800 x 10", or 3000 x 10%,
when we should have radiant heat, or visible light, or ultra-violet light proceeding
from the outer surface of the shell, as it were from a point-source of light at the
centre, with a character of polarisation which we shall thoroughly consider a little
later. But now let our massless shell be embedded far in the interior of a vast
mass of glass, or metal, or rock, or of any homogeneous elastic solid, firmly
attached to it all round, so that neither splitting away nor tangential slip shall be
possible. Purely distortional waves will spread out in all directions except the
axial. Suppose, to fix our ideas, we begin with vibrations of one-second period,
and let the elastic solid be either glass or iron. At distances of hundreds of kilo-
metres (that is to say, distances great in comparison with the wave-length and
great in comparison with the radius of the shell), the wave-length will be approxi-
mately 3 kilometres.!_ Increase the frequency now to 1000 periods per second : at
distances of hundreds of metres the wave-length will be about 8 metres. Increase
now the frequency of 10° periods per second: the wave-length will be 3 millim.,.
and this not only at distances of several times the radius of the shell, but through-
out the elastic medium from close to the outer surface of the shell; because the
wave-length now is a small fraction of the radius of the shell. Increase the frequency
further to 1000 x 10° periods per second; the wave-length will be 3x10-* of a
millimetre, or 3 mikroms,’ if, as in all probability is the case, the distance between
the centres of contiguous molecules in glass and in iron is less than a five-hundredth
of a mikrom. But it is probable that the distance between centres of contiguous
molecules in glass and in iron is greater than 10-° of a mikrom, and therefore it is

? Math. and Phys. Papers, vol. iii. art. civ. p. 552.

? For a small unit of length Langley, fourteen years ago, used with great advan-
tage and convenience the word ‘mikron’ to denote the millionth of a metre. The
letter 2 has no place in the metrical system, and I venture to suggest 2 change of
spelling to ‘mikrom ’ for the millionth of a metre, after the analogy of the English
usage for millionths (mikrohm, mikro-ampére, mikrovolt). For a conveniently small
corresponding unit of time I further venture to suggest ‘michron’ to denote the
period of vibration of light whose wave-length in etheris 1 mikrom. Thus, the
velocity of light in ether being 3 x 108 metres per second, the michron is } x 10—!4
of a second, and the velocity of light is 1 mikrom of space per michron of time.
Thus the frequency of the highest ultra-violet light investigated by Schumann (‘1 of
a mikrom wave-length, Sitzungsber. d. k. Gesellsch.d. Wissensch. zu Wien, cii. pp. 415.
& 625, 1893) is 10 periods per michron of time. The period of sodium light (mean
of lines D) is ‘589212 of a michron; the periods of the ‘ Reststrahlen’ of rocksalt
and sylvin found by Rubens and Aschkinass (Wied. Ann. Ixv. (1898) p. 241) are
51:2 and 61:1 michrons respectively.

No practical inconvenience can ever arise from any possible confusion or momen-
tary forgetfulness in respect to the similarity of sound between michrons of time
and mikroms of space.—K. :

1898. 35

786 REPORT—1898.

probable that neither of these solids can transmit waves of distortional motion of
their own ponderable matter of so short a wave-length as 10-° of a mikrom.
Hence it is probable that if we increase the frequency of the rotational vibrations
of our shell to one hundred thousand times 1000 x 10°, that is to say, to 100 x 101”,
no distortional wave of motion of the ponderable matter can be transmitted out-
wards; but it seems quite certain that distortional waves of radiant heat in ether
will be produced close to the boundary of the vibrating shell, although it is also
probable that if the surrounding solid is either glass or iron these waves will not
be transmitted far outwards, but will be absorbed, that is to say, converted into
non-undulatory thermal motions, within a few mikroms of their origin.

Lastly, suppose the elastic solid around our oscillating shell to be a concentric
spherical shell of homogeneous glass of a few centimetres, or a few metres, thick-
ness and of refractive index 1-5 for D light. Let the frequency of the oscillations
be increased to 5092 x 10" periods per second, or its period reduced to 589212 of a
michron: homogeneous yellow light of period equal to the mean of the periods
of the two sodium lines will be propagated outwards through the glass with
wave-length of about 3x 589212 of a mikrom, and out from the glass into
air with wave-length of *689212 of a mikrom. The light will be of maximum
intensity in the equatorial plane and zero ineither direction along the axis, and its
plane of polarisation will be everywhere the meridional plane. It is interesting to
remark that the axis of rotation of the ether for this case coincides everywhere
with the line of vibration of the ether in the case first considered ; that is to say,
in the case in which the shell vibrated to and fro in a straight line, instead of, as
in the second case, rotating through an infinitesimal angle round the same line.

A full mathematical investigation of the motion of the elastic medium at all
distances from the originating shell, for each of the cases of I. (1) and I. (2), will
be found in a volume containing my Baltimore Lectures on ‘ Molecular Dynamics
and the Wave-Theory of Light,’ soon, I hope, to be published.

II. An electrical analogy for I. (1) is presented by substituting for our mass-
less shell an ideally rigid, infinitely massive shell of glass or other non-conductor
of electricity and for our massive platinum nucleus a massless non-conducting globe
electrified with a given quantity of electricity. For simplicity we shall suppose our
apparatus to be surrounded by air or ether. Vibrations to and fro in a straight line
are to be maintained by force between shell and nucleus as in I. (1). Or, consider
simply a fixed solid non-conducting globe coated with two circular caps of metal,
leaving an equatorial non-conducting zone between them, and let thin wires from
a distant alternate-current dynamo, or electrostatic inductor, give periodically
varying opposite electrifications to the two caps. For moderate frequencies we
have a periodic variation of electrostatic force in the air or ether surrounding the
apparatus, which we can readily follow in imagination, and can measure by proper
electrostatic measuring apparatus. Its phase, with moderate frequencies, is very
exactly the same as that of the electric vibrator. Now suppose the frequency of
the vibrator to be raised to several hundred million million periods per second.
We shall have polarised light proceeding as if from an ideal point-source at the
centre of the vibrator and answering fully to the description of I. (1). Does the
phase of variation of the electrostatic force in the axial line outside the apparatus
remain exactly the same as that of the vibrator? An affirmative answer to this
question would mean that the velocity of propagation of electrostatic force is
infinite. A negative answer would mean that there is a finite velocity of propa-
cation for electrostatic force. This velocity, according to views regarding con-
ceivable qualities of ether described in my article ‘On the Reflection and
Refraction of Light,’! might be greater than, equal to, or less than the velocity of
light.

° ILI. The shell and interior electrified non-conducting massless globe being the
same as in IL., let now a forcive be applied between shell and nucleus to produce
rotational oscillations as in I. (2). When the frequency of the oscillations is mode-
rate, there will be no alteration of the electrostatic force and no perceptible mag-

1 Phil. Maz., vol. xxvi. 1888.

5

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 787

netic force in the air or ether around our apparatus. Let now the frequency be.

raised to several hundred million million periods per second ; we shall have visible
polarised light proceeding as if from an ideal point-source at the centre and
answering fully to the description of the light of I. (2). The same result would
be obtained by taking simply a fixed solid non-conducting globe and laying on wire
on its surface approximately along the circumferences of equidistant circles of lati-
tude, and, by the use of a distant source (as in II.), sending an alternate current
through this wire. In this case, while there is no manifestation of electrostatic
force, there is strong alternating magnetic force, which in the space outside the
globe is as if from an ideal infinitesimal magnet with alternating magnetisation,
placed at the centre of the globe and with its magnetic axis in our axial line.

6. Heat of Combination of Metals in the Formation of Alloys.
By ALEXANDER Gatt, D.Sc.

Hitherto few experiments have been made to determine the heat of combination
of zine with copper, or of other pairs of solid metals. Not only in connection with
the theory of contact electricity in particular, but generally in respect to chemical
affinities it is important that we should have some knowledge in regard to this
question, and at the request of Lord Kelvin I have carried out the following
experimental investigation in the physical laboratory of the University of
Glasgow.

The method of procedure was to dissolve a known weight of an alloy and also
under similar conditions the same weight of a mixture of the elements which are
present in the alloy, the proportions taken being the same as those known to be in
the alloy, and noting the initial and final temperature in each case. The heat of
combination of the metals in the alloy may be estimated after noting the excess of
the heat of solution of the mixture over that of the alloy.

A large number of preliminary experiments were made to determine the most
suitable conditions for the investigation. The nature and strength of the solvent
and its quantity for a given mass of the metals to be treated, keeping in view
the advisability of obtaining a moderate range of thermometric readings and the
necessity of minimising as far as possible the violence of the reaction between
metals and solvent, had to be settled.

Messrs. Johnson, Matthey & Co., of London, kindly made for me and analysed
five different alloys of practically pure zinc and copper, and they also supplied
separate specimens of zinc and copper similar to those used in making the alloys.
To facilitate solution the metals used were first reduced to powder by filing with
a fine file. The method of experimenting finally adopted was carried out in
detail as follows: One end of a short Jength of closed thin glass tubing was
sealed to a very small glass bulb. Near the point of attachment there were, on
opposite sides, two oval-shaped openings in the bulb. The glass tube was free
to move up and down a certain distance through one of two holes bored through
a short common cork. Special care being taken to see that the bulb was clean

and dry, it was drawn down from the cork about six centimetres, and the cork

fixed inaclamp. The filings (‘5 gramme was the quantity always used in each

of the experiments) were then most carefully inserted into the bottom of the

bulb by one of the openings, and the bulb was then drawn up close to the

cork, Through the other hole in the cork a very thin sensitive short-range ther-

“‘mometer, whose marked divisions correspond to 0:05° C., was passed. The cork
‘earrying the bulb and attached tube and thermometer was then carefully fixed in

_ the neck of a small flask of thin glass containing nitric acid of density 1-360,
_ 60 cubic centimetres of which were used in nearly every one of. these experiments.

Holding the flask by the lip, it was gently shaken so as to give the acid a rotating

_ motion; in this way the flask and contents soon attained a uniform temperature,

which was carefully noted. The bulb was now plunged to near the bottom of the

* flask by quickly pushing down the glass tube to which it was attached ; this plan

|
;
:

effectually got rid of the difficulty of escaping fumes previously experienced. At
the same instant the flask was inserted into an empty can, jacketed roand the

3E2

788 REPORT—1898.

sides and bottom. Water in the jacket was heated by a Bunsen burner put below
the can. A sensitive thermometer was suspended in the centre of the can, and
the air there was maintained at a temperature about half a degree below the
maximum temperature which would be attained by the solution in the flask. ‘The
time required for complete solution was about 55 seconds, the rotatory motion
given to the liquid being kept up all the time. The moments of maximum tem-
perature and complete solution were almost always nearly coincident in each
experiment. The total weight of the whole apparatus (excluding acid and powder)
was 20°5 grammes, and its water equivalent was taken as 3-5 grammes,

Heat of combina- | Absolute amount
tion of the metals | of heat evolved by
in the formation |the combination of|
of one gramme | the metalsin the
of the alloy, ex- | formation of one

Composition Mean increase of temperature
of solution per gramme of
metal dissolved, expressed in

Alloy gener Zine degrees Centigrade pressedas a frac- | gramme of the
tion of the heat alloy, expressed
of solution of one | in (gramme-
- E d f t i
Percentage | Percentage | Mixture | Alloy Difference pra Oe he a tare unite
A 25:14 74:86 21:08 21:08 0:00 0 0
085 _ 1
B 38°38 61°32 19°29 1844 | 0:85 19°29 207 47
ns 04. 1 .
Cc 49°1 50°9 17°82 16°88 0°94 17-89 = 19 52
0°535 1
i i * 4 | § See eee!
D 62:27 37°73 15925 15°390 0°535 15-995 = 398 30
E 75°225 24775 14:09 13°68 0:41 Oh ty he 23
ae 1409 — 344

Alloy C contains the metals in their ordinary combining chemical proportions.

7. A Platinum Voltmeter. By Professor H. L. Cattenpar, W.A., FURS.

This is an instrument for measuring electric pressure or current by means of
the increase of resistance of a fine platinum wire due to the heating effect of the
current passing through it. It is most suitable for use as a voltmeter. Like other
hot-wire voltmeters, it is equally available for direct or alternating currents.
Unlike those instruments which depend upon increase of length with rise of tem-
perature, the fine wire is not subjected to any strain. This makesit possible to use
a much finer wire, securing greater delicacy and sensitiveness, and also consuming
less power. The change of resistance is very large, being 100 to 200 per cent., and
can be measured with great accuracy, whereas the change of length in the expan-
sion voltmeter is very minute, and necessitates the use of magnifying gear, which
is liable to introduce friction or strain. The platinum voltmeter, being simply a
platinum resistance thermometer, constructed of very fine wire, is perfectly free
from change of zero.

The changes of resistance of the fine wire are most conveniently indicated and
recorded by means of the automatic recorder which is used for electrical
thermometers. This apparatus was exhibited at the conversazione of the Royal
Society. It consists essentially of a bridge-wire, forming part of a Wheatstone
bridge or potentiometer, in which the galvanometer contact is automatically main-
tained at the balance point by means of a pair of motors controlled by the galvano-
meter. Tho recording pen is directly attached to the contact piece, and moves
with it along a straight slide.

(The apparatus was exhibited in action, together with specimen records, and
illustrative lantern-slides. )

The construction of the voltmeter is simply that of a platinum thermometer, .
exactly similar to those used for determining the temperature cycles of steam in
the cylinder of a steam-engine, as described in the Proc. Inst. C. E, yol. exxxi.

Eee

;

enka

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 789

The sensitive part consists of a loop of pure platinum wire, one-thousandth of an
inch in diameter, suitably protected in a tube or other enclosure.

On account of its great sensitiveness, and the large change of resistance, the
instrument is best adapted for measuring small variations of voltage over a limited
range, such as 100 to 120 volts. This gives a scale of 1 cm. per volt with a scale
of approximately equal parts over the range covered.

8. On Radiation from a Source of Light in a Magnetic Field.
By Professor T. Preston, /’.2.S.

9. On the Discovery by Righi of the Absorption of Light in a Magnetic
Field. By Sitvanus P. Tuompson, D.Se., /.LRS.

<n intense horizontal beam of sunlight or arc-light is passed along the axis of
a Ruhmkorti’s electromagnet. It is polarised at its entrance by a Nicol’s prism,
and by a second Nicol turned at right angles to the first it is extinguished at its
exit. Let a sodium flame be now placed between the poles of the magnet. When
the electromagnet is excited there appears in the field of vision a yellow spot of
light, which, on being examined by a direct- vision spectroscope, shows the emission
spectrum of sodium. If the observation is made without a spectroscope, and the
analyser is turned, the yellow light does not disappear, but turns into a white
light of increasing brightness. Its occurrence cannot therefore be accounted for on

~ the basis of the I'wraday phenomenon of the rotation of the plane of polarisation.

This result may be considered upon the following basis. Let 7, be the frequency
tor a single absorption line in the spectrum of the body under examination. If the
field-magnet is excited, then in consequence of an action the converse of that which
exists in the Zeeman phenomenon the body no longer absorbs light of the fre-
quency 7,, but instead absorbs two kinds of light—namely, one having a right-
handed circular polarisation and of frequency ,, the other having a left-handed
circular polarisation of frequency »,; the numbers 7, and », being so related that
one of them is slightly less than m, and the other slightly greater. Optically the
result is that there is now present circularly polarised light, some right-handed of
one frequency, some left-handed of a different frequency, which, being circularly-
polarised, cannot be cut off in any position of the analysing Nicol. The latter
allows only the transmission of components parallel to its principal plane of
section ; and the yellow light which appears on the stimulation of the electromagnet
is a proof that an effect converse to the Zeeman effect occurs in those cases where
the body is absorbing instead of emitting light.

The intensity of the light which becomes visible on the stimulation of the
magnetic field is obviously proportional to the intensity of the source of light from
which emanates the beam that travels along the axis of the apparatus. A com-

aratively weak magnetic field suffices to produce the phenomenon. A field of
intensity 300 C.G.S. units suffices; and with the ordinary pattern of Ruhmkorff
magnet a single bichromate cell is adequate. The author has found no difficulty in
repeating this fundamental effect in the laboratory of University College, Bristol.

If lithium is used, the light which appears is of course red; if thallium is used,
the light is green.

Apart from its great sensitiveness the new method of observation possesses
other features. What was said above about the beam having frequency 7, also
holds good for any and every other colour absorbed by the body, even in cases
where these colours follow one another continuously and the absorption spectrum
is no longer a line spectrum, The new method permits the proof to be given that
the Zeeman effect occurs in bodies in which its occurrence could not be demon-
strated in any other way. For, in order to carry out the observation of Zeeman
in its original form, it was necessary that the spectrum, whether an emission or an
absorption spectrum, should consist of sharply defined lines, since otherwise the
splitting of the lines could not be demonstrated.

790 REPORT—1898.

Righi has also observed the converse effect in nitric oxide. A small tube of
glass, 32 mm. long and 15 mm. in diameter, is closed at its ends with thin discs of
microscope glass cemented on with gutta-percha, and is provided with side-tubes
by means of which it can be filled with dry nitrous fumes. This is placed between
the poles of the magnet in a field of intensity about 2,000 C.G.S, units. A strong
beam of white light is passed through the polariser at one end, then through the
tube containing the nitrous fumes (in a direction parallel to the magnetic lines),
then through the analyser, the latter being turned so as to cut off’ all the light.
Looking back through the analyser the field appears absolutely dark. On turning
on the exciting current there instantly appears a green-blue light, this being the
tint which is complementary to the yellow-red that nitrous fumes usually show by
transmission.

Applying a hand spectroscope one observes that the spectrum of this green-
blue licht is the complementary of that of the ordinary absorption spectrum ;
though in detail each dark ‘ line’ would be replaced by two bright ‘lines’ close
together. In fact, for every ray of frequency 7, that would be absorbed by the
substance when not in the magnetic field, there issue two rays of slightly differing
frequencies z, and n,; so that the light which appears when the field is made is
practically identical (unless very great dispersion is applied to resolve it finally)
with the light absorbed, however that light may be distributed in the spectrum.

If while looking at the green-blue light through the spectroscope the analyser
is slightly turned, we get the ordinary spectrum of the yellow-red light due to
absorption.

Here, then, we have the curious result that we can observe the emission-spectrum
of a non-luminous gas.

This has been confirmed in the following experiment. A pellet of metallic
sodium was gently heated in a current of dry hydrogen so that a non-luminous
vapour of sodium was produced in a tube lying along the magnetic field. The
arrangements were otherwise as before. When the analyser was crossed no
light whatever was seen until the magnet was excited, when the ordinary radiation
spectrum of sodium vapour (modified in reality by the doubling of each line) at
once flashed out.

10. On the Dissipation of Energy in the Dielectric of a Condenser.
By Epwarp B. Rosa and Artuur W, SMITH.

The heating effect of an alternating E.M.F. upon the dielectric of a condenser
is measured by a wattmeter, using a coil of wire in series with the condenser to
give resonance and raise the voltage upon the condenser. The wattmeter measures
the energy expended upon coil and condenser, the current being nearly in phase
with the E.M.F. The coil loss is then deducted from the total to give the net
energy expended upon the condenser. This is then divided by the energy stored
to give the net loss, in per cent., and hence the efficiency.

The efficiency is detined as follows :-—

ae Energy stored—Inergy dissipated
Energy stored

and » is proved to be 1—z cot d, where ¢ is the angle between the current and
E.M.F. for the condenser.

In a second series of experiments the condensers are placed in a calorimeter,
especially designed for the purpose, and the heat measured while they are subjected
to a measured E.M.F. at a known frequency. This gives the efficiency, which
agrees with the previous work, though by a totally different method.

It is found that the percentage of loss in paraflin paper condensers is relatively
small, varying with the temperature and condition of the paper before paraflining
it. In deeswaa and rosin condensers the energy lost is much greater, and increases
as the temperature rises up to a maximum value and then decreases as the tempera-
ture rises further, until the dielectrie begins to soften, then it increases rapidly.
Exact numerical yalues are given for the losses.

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 791

11. Hydrometers of Total Immersion. By A. W. Warrineton, M.Sc.

The writer has made a series of experiments with the object of showing that
the hydrometer becomes an instrument of scientific precision if it is modified so
that when used it is totally immersed in the liquid.

Small ring-shaped platinum weights are slipped over the ungraduated neck of
a glass hydrometer until the latter has nearly attained the specific gravity of the
liquid to be tested. The temperature of the liquid is then slowly altered until
the hydrometer and the liquid have exactly the same specific gravity.

With proper precautions this method gives results accurate to one in a million
for temperatures from 0° to 40° C,

To determine the specific gravity of a solid a glass hydrometer is employed,
which, in form, is not unlike a Nicholson hydrometer without its tray. Two ex-
periments are made at approximately the same temperature, in one of which the
hydrometer is weighted only with mercury, and in the other it is weighted with
the solid together with the necessary amount of mercury. The results are correct
to one in a hundred thousand.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The Section was divided into two Departments.
The following Reports and Papers were read :-—

DEPARTMENT [.—MATHEMATICS.

1. Report on Tables of certain Mathematical Functions.
See Reports, p. 145.

2. The Mathematical Representation of Statistics.
By Professor F. Y. Epcrworru.

1. Among methods of representing statistics of freguency Professor Karl
Pearson’s separation of a given group into two normal curves comes first. This
method is based on a vera causa ; such composite groups are known to exist. An
accurate fit, too, is obtained.

2. These advantages attach also to another method, which consists of a second
—as the normal law, of a,fist—approximation to the result of numerous inde-
pendent agencies co-operating. A given unsymmetrical group may commonly be
generated by shifting each element of a certain normal curve to a distance which
is the square of its original distance from a certain point. This method has two
additional advantages: (a) It is easily worked, as the constants can be determined
by percentiles (without taking moments); (4) the correlation between unsymme~
trical observations may be obtained from the correlation of the generating normal
surface.

3. A third class comprises formule of which the a priori basis is doubtful.
An extreme instance—which, however, fits observations very well—is the juxta-
position, with a common greatest ordinate, of the halves of two different normal
curves. Formule of the third class, obtained by substituting other functions for
the square in the second method, are found to fairly represent statistics wholly
unsymmetrical, as those of incomes, house valuations, Xc.

3. On the Use of Logarithmic Co-ordinates. By J. H. Vincent.
See Reports, p. 159.

792 REPORT—1898.

4, Stream Line Motion with Viscous Fluids in two Dimensions, and in
three Dimensions. By Professor H. 8. Hexte-Suaw, LL.D. See
Reports, p. 136.

5, Mathematical Proof of the Identity of the Stream Lines obtained by
means of a Viscous Film with those of a Perfect Finid moving in two
Dimensions. By Sir G. G. Stokes, /.R.S. See Reports, p. 143.

6. On Graphic Representations of the two simplest cases of a Single Wave :
(a) Condensational-rarefactional, (b) Distortional. By Lord Ketyry,
G.C.V.0.

For the simplest possible elementary wave of condensation and rarefaction,
begin with an infinitely thin spherical shell containing air 1 per cent. denser than
the air around it, and let the resistance of the shell be suddenly annulled. For
the simplest possible elementary distortional wave, begin with a globular portion
in the interior of a large homogeneous elastic solid, with proper application of
tangential force to keep it turned round any diameter through half a degree of
angle from its position of undisturbed equilibrium, and let the disturbing force be
suddenly annulled.

Diagrams were exhibited to the Section by aid of which all the details of the
two kinds of discontinuous wave thus produced were fully explained.

7. A New Method of Describing Cycloidal and other Curves.
By Professor H. 8. Here-Suaw, LL.D.

A brief description of the instrument by which the curves are obtained was given.
The instrument is described at length, together with certain of its practical appli-
cations, in a paper read before Section G, an earlier form having been shown in
May of the present year at the Royal Society Soirée, although no printed description
of it has hitherto appeared.

The essential points are :—

(1) The employment of auxiliary circles instead of the actual pitch circles of
two sheets of cardboard which turn in connection with each other.

_, (2) A method by which the actual axis of rotation for each sheet is dispensed
with, virtual axes only being employed.

By means of this instrument the describing pen or pencil used to mark out
the cycloidal or involute curve can be made to draw the complete curve instead of
only a portion of it as obtained by the ordinary methods, while the use of the
virtual centres enables circles of any diameter to be employed, since it is no longer
necessary to have a fixed centre for the cardboard within the limited range of a
drawing-board or drawing-table. Hence, in the limit, the cycloid itself in which
the circle rolls along a straight line, or an inyolute curve when the straight line
rolls on a circle can be obtained, as well as ordinary epicycloidal and hypocycloidal
curves, and the methods in which these curves are obtained are illustrated, as well
as the rules for the adjustment of the instrument for any required conditions.

Since one well-known method of describing an ellipse is by means of a point
attached to a cirele rolling within another of twice its diameter, it is obvious that
this instrument, the essential principle of which is the rolling of two imaginary
pitch circles upon each other, can be applied to draw ellipses. of any required
eccentricity or magnitude. ;

Finally, the second feature of the new instrument above referred to, and which
the author believes to be new, enables centres of curvature of two surfaces
revolving on each other to be continuously varied.

The instrument was brought before the Section because it appears to offer to

RSS ee ts—<“=i—s

' hae eae

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 793

those interested in mathematics, and especially to those engaged in teaching the
subject, a rapid means of describing rolling curves as well as envelopes,

8. The Recent History of the Theory of the Functions used in Analysis.
By KE. T. Wuirraker.

Some recent advances in the theories of the known analytical functions are
described in this paper. The problem of the expression of two variables, con-
nected by any algebraic relation, as uniform automorphic functions of a new
variable, is discussed ; in this problem, Klein’s generalised form of Lamé’s equation,
from which the functions of harmonic analysis may be derived, is of importance.

9. The Dynamical Explanation of certain observed Phenomena of
Meteor Streams. By Dr. G. Jounstone Stoney, F.2.8.

The following are the principal results arrived at in this communication :——

Assiduous observation has brought to light several unexpected events in
connection with the many meteor streams which intersect the earth’s orbit. Some
meteoric streams present differences in the duration and character of the showers of
meteors in our atmosphere to which they give rise in successive years. The shower
of meteors may be either brief or prolonged over many days; with some streams the
radiant is, roughly speaking, stationary; in other cases it shifts across a portion of
the sky in a variety of ways; the disposition of the shower about its maximum
may be either symmetrical or unsymmetrical; and so on. Some of these events
astronomers have succeeded in reconciling with the dynamical conditions under
which meteors move; but there are others which still demand explanation, and
the present paper is an inquiry with regard to these.

The meteors in a meteor stream are bodies of too small mass and too much
separated to have any sensible influence on one anothe1’s motion. This simplifies
the problem, for it justifies our treating each individual meteor as moving in its
own orbit round the sun, disturbed only by the attractions of the surrounding
planets, and assures us that whatever phenomena may present themselves, they
must result from these independent motions of the individual meteors. So long
as a meteor is at a distance from all the planets, their influence upon its motions
may be investigated by the known methods of dealing with planetary perturbations.
It is only when the meteor happens to pass close to some planet, whether the earth
or another, that special treatment is required. The study of what then occurs is
the aim of the present communication; and it is found that the unexplained
phenomena of meteors are either the direct or the indirect outcome of the events
which then develop themselves.

A sufficient investigation is possible by a method indicated by Laplace—a
method of approximation which is indeed obvious. Laplace desires us to picture
to ourselves a sphere of a certain size surrounding the planet as centre, and
accompanying the planet along its orbit. Then a good approximation to what
oceurs may be obtained by regarding the meteor, while farther from the planet
than the boundary of this sphere, as moving in an orbit round the sun under the
influence of the sun’s attraction only; and while inside the sphere as moving
relatively to the planet under the influence of the planet’s attraction only. This
is equivalent to supposing that the meteor while in the close neighbourhood of the
planet receives from the sun the same acceleration both in amount and direction
as he impresses upon the planet. This is evidently an approximation to what
actually occurs, and furnishes as good a general result as we can hope to obtain in
the absence of definite information with regard to the elements of each separate
meteoric orbit.

With this theorem of Laplace’s we shall combine a consideration of which
effective use was made by the late Professor Hubert A. Newton in the inquiry
into the origin of periodic comets which is published in the Reports of former

794 REPORT—1898.

meetings of the British Association. He there pointed out that if a body of small
mass crosses in front of a planet it draws the planet forwards, increases the planet’s
kinetic energy, and necessarily loses itself an equal amount of kinetic energy.
This manifests itself by a slackening of its speed. The opposite effect is produced
when a meteor passes behind a planet. Its speed is thereby increased. Accordingly,
if a meteor from sub-stellar space—the space which lies between the solar system
and the nearest stars—approaches the sun along a parabolic orbit, and happens to
traverse Laplace’s sphere and to pass in front of the planet, it will find itself,
when it emerges from the sphere, moving with a speed too slow for parabolic
motion, and accordingly its orbit round the sun is thenceforth elliptic and it
becomes a permanent member of the solar system. When this happens to a group
of meteors from cosmic space, instead of to an isolated meteor, a new periodic
stream of meteors is added to the solar system.

Thus the great Leonid swarm may have been drawn into the solar system by
having, while a nearly compact cluster, passed in front of the great planet Uranus
—an event which probably happened (as was pointed out by Le Verrier) at the
end of February or beginning of March in the year 126 of the Christian era.

This great meteor stream consists conspicuously of two classes of meteors, one
or both of which are found in every meteor stream, These we may call ortho-
meteors and clino-meteors. Ortho-meteors, when they are present, are those
which form a stream the individual members of which pursue very nearly the
same path. Accordingly those of them which are intercepted by the earth
enter the earth’s atmosphere on some definite day and from one direction.
In the case of the Leonids they take 334 years to traverse their immense orbit,
with deviations in the case of individuals from the mean periodic time which are
so small that they all seem to be less than a week—that is, less than the 1,700th
part of the mean periodic time. Yet these very small deviations have enabled the
swarm of ortho-Leonids slowly to draw itself out along an arc of its orbit. until
now, at the end of seventeen centuries, the stream is long enough to take more
than two years to pass the earth’s orbit when it comes round, which it does three
times every century. It thus happens that on each return of the ortho-Leonids,
the earth has time to come round twice to the place where the earth’s orbit
intersects the orbit of the meteors. The earth, therefore, now pierces the stream
six times in a century, and, although in early times the number of its transits was
fewer, this event cannot have occurred less than some 70 or 80 times.

On each such occasion the earth intercepts a vast number of meteors, but those
that pass close enough to have their orbit sensibly changed must be much, pro-
bably 100 times, more numerous. AlJl the ortho-Leonids thus affected become
clino-Leonids. They are one class of clino-Leonids—namely, those which have
been deflected by the earth into orbits which sensibly differ from the ortho-orbit.
At the end of each revolution in their new paths they would, if there were no
perturbations, return to the position close to the earth’s orbit from which they
started, so that the earth does not on account of what has happened lose its chance
of encountering them on future occasions. But other parts of their new orbits will
in general lie farther from the ortho-orbit, and the meteors moving in them will,
moreover, have sensibly different periodic times. The variety of their periodic times
will cause these clino-Leonids gradually to spread themselves round the whole ring,
so that the earth encounters some of them every year and not only in the years
when the ortho-Leonids return. Again, these clino-orbits having deviated from the
ortho-orbit, perturbations will act differently upon them and will cause their nodes
to advance, some faster and some slower than the node of the ortho-Leonids,
This will enable some of them to encounter the earth for some days before and for
some days after the ortho-date. By the ortho-date is meant that day in the
middle of November when the earth reaches the node of the ortho-orbit. .

So far, everything agrees with observation; but there is one other respect in
which these earth-born clino-Leonids do not behave in the way observed. The
shifting of the node would be accompanied in them by a corresponding shift of the
radiant of about the same amount and in the same direction. ‘This would involve
an advance of the radiant which would amount to about 14° in longitude during

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 795

the prolonged and feeble shower of clino-Leonids which has been observed. As
no such considerable progression of the radiant has been observed, it is plain that
these terrestrial clino-Leonids are not what have been chiefly recognised as
Leonids.

We must turn, then, to the planetary clino-Leonids, to those other clino-Leonids
which are such because they were acted on differently from the ortho-Leonids
when the great planet Uranus drew the whole swarm into the solar system.

When we trace out the dynamical consequences of the conditions which then

revailed we find results which are everywhere in agreement with the observations.
‘These planetary clino-Leonids are such as had been differently deflected by Uranus,
and were thrown into slightly differing planes with slightly differing periodic
times from the ortho-Leonids. ‘The differences in periodic times have caused them
to extend—one set of them backwards and the other forwards—round the whole
ring, thus bringing some of them to the earth every year; while the variety of their
planes and of the deflections which they sutfered in them has had two effects. It
causes the earth to encounter them for some days before and for some days after
the ortho-date; and it occasions a forward shift of the radiant which seems to
amount to about ten minutes daily. That the sparse shower presents itself for
some days before the ortho-date is owing to the more deflected clino-Leonids
having been now for seventeen centuries less acted on by perturbations than the
ortho-Leonids. This has led to a shower rate at which their nodes have advanced
along the ecliptic, and has also occasioned a gradual shift towards the westward
of their radiant, which was originally displaced towards the east. Similarly, the
clino-Leonids which were originally less deflected by Uranus than the ortho-
Leonids, present themselves now at dates subsequent to the ortho-date, and reach
us from radiants which originally lay west of the ortho-radiant, but have since
been carried eastward by the quicker advance of their node. It is not likely that
these shifts in opposite directions are exactly equal, but the difference is not such
as to have attracted the notice of observers. It is therefore of small amount, but
may perhaps be detected in observations which have been recorded. Thus in the
list of (unfortunately very rough) determinations of radiant points, recently
collected by Mr. Denning on page 20 of his pamphlet on the ‘Great Meteoric
Shower of November,’ there are seven determinations which were made on days
or groups of days preceding the ortho-date, and six upon days or groups of days
after that epoch. The mean of the positions given by the determinations before
the ortho-date is

AR 148° 437 § 22° 51’,
and the mean of the determinations after the ortho-date is
AX 150° 40’ § 22° 14’,

which, so far as these observations can be trusted in a matter of so much delicacy,
indicates a small shift in longitude towards the eastward accompanied by a slight
change in latitude, which also is indicated by the theory.

Although it is plain that the clino-Leonids which have been recorded as
Leonids have been chiefly, perhaps almost exclusively, the planetary clino-Leonids,
it is certain that terrestrial clino-Leonids also exist, although they probably present
themselves in our atmosphere in fewer numbers. They may be distinguished
from the planetary clino-Leonids by the greater progress in longitude of their
radiants, the position of which (within a degree) depends upon the date, advancing
nearly a degree each day. They may probably have been already often observed ;
as it is not unlikely that they are some of those meteors which have been recorded
as resembling Leonids, but which, nevertheless, have been supposed by observers to
belong to other systems because their radiants were not in accordance with what
has hitherto been supposed to be exclusively the radiant of the Leonids.

After dealing in detail with the phenomena of the great Leonid swarm, the

796 REPORT—1898, .

investigation goes on to treat more briefly of other meteor streams, and indicates
the dynamical conditions which presumably have given rise to several remarkable
phenomena, such as the various other kinds of shifting radiants, the approximately
stationary condition of some of them, the unsymmetrical distribution of some
prolonged showers about their maximum, and other effects which have been
observed.

10. Survey of that part of the Scale upon which Nature works, about
which Man has some Information. By Dr. G. Jounstone Stoney, F.R.S.

1l. The Imaginary of Logic. By Professor G. J. StoKeEs.

Absence of a philosophical or logical theory of the imaginary. General adoption
of the view that 6—1 is uninterpretable in single or pure algebra. Paradoxical
character of this position. How can what is essentially meaningless possess an
important meaning in its extraneous use? Logical theory of the imaginary.
Derivation from the law of duality. Application to De Moivre’s theorem. ‘The
Carnot-D’Alembert paradox. Quaternions. Comparison of the Calculus of
Boole’s Laws of Thought with that of Grassmann’s ‘ Ausdehnungslehre.’ Relation
of both to ordinary mathematics.

DepartTMENT II.— Merroro.oey.

1. Report on the Ben Nevis Observatory.—See Reports, p. 277.

2. Report on Meteorological Photography.—See Reports, p. 283.

3. Report on Seismological Investigation.—See Reports, p. 179.

4. Interim Report on the Montreal.Meteorological Observatory.
See Reports, p. 79.

5. A Quantitative Bolometric Sunshine Recorder.
By Professor H. L. Cattenpar, IA., FBS.

This instrument is essentially a recording bolometer, in which the difference
of temperature between a blackened and a bright platinum thermometer of equal
resistance is recorded in pen.and ink in the form of a continuous curve on a
revolving drum. It differs from ordinary sunshine recorders in giving a strictly
quantitative record of the quantity of heat received by the earth’s surface, and not
merely the number of hours of bright sunshine.

The sensitive part of the instrument, which is exposed to the radiation to be
measured, consists of a pair of differential platinum thermometers wound on flat
plates of mica, the one black and the other bright, and placed side by side in a
horizontal plane so as to record the vertical component of the sunshine, on which
the quantity of heat received by the surface of the earth mainly depends. The
instrument gives a very complete record of the character of the sunshine, as well
as of its intensity. The passage of small clouds, which would leave no trace on

a

a

:

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 797

an ordinary burning glass or photographic record, is very clearly shown. It is
also found that, when the sky is obscured by clouds of sufficient thickness to
prevent any trace of burning on the ordinary cards, a very considerable percentage
of the sun’s heat may still penetrate.

The recording apparatus used is identical with that required for records of
temperature, pressure, voltage, &c., and may be located in any convenient situation,
at any required distance from the bolometer. It has been in use for more than a
year at McGill College, Montreal, for obtaining records of sunshine, temperature,
&c., and has been in regular operation at a distance of more than a mile from the
observatory, where the recording apparatus is kept under the charge of the usual
observatory assistants.

A simple form of planimeter is attached to the instrument when used for
recording sunshine. The reading of the planimeter gives directly at any time the
total quantity of heat received, and can be readily reduced to the number of
equivalent hours of ‘bright sunshine’ by means of a suitable factor.

(The apparatus was exhibited in action, together with specimen records, and
two illustrative lantern-slides. )

6. Progress in the Exploration of the Air by means of Kites at Blue Hill
Observatory, Massachusetts, U.S.A. By A. Lawrence Rorcn, S.£.,
A.M., Director.

Since the report was presented to the Toronto Meeting of the Association great
progress has been made in the work. The Hargrave Kite has been perfected by
making it larger, more rigid, and relatively lighter, and by concaving the surfaces
exposed to the wind the vertical component of the latter is increased. In general,
these kites, with a short line, rise from 50° to 60° above the horizon and pull about
one pound per square foot of lifting surface in a wind blowing 20 miles per hour.
Elastic bridles diminish the angle of incidence of the wind asits pressure increases,
and thereby enable the kites to fly in gales. A meteorograph, made by Mr. Fer-
gusson, of the Observatory staff, which records the pressure of the atmosphere, the
temperature, and relative humidity of the air and the velocity of the wind, weighs
but 3 lbs. Since the use of wire and more efficient kites the mean height of the
flights has been increased from about 1,000 feet in 1896 to above 7,000 feet during
the past few months, and the heicht of 10,000 feet has six times been exceeded.
The meteorograph reached an altitude of 11,086 feet above the hill in October
1897," and its maximum altitude of 11,440 feet on August 26, 1898. A descrip-
tion of the apparatus employed and a discussion by Mr. Clayton, of the meteoro-
logical records obtained until February 1897, were published this year as an Appen-
dix to the Blue Hill observations for 1896, in the ‘Annals of the Astronomical
Observatory of Harvard College,’ vol. xlii, part 1. It is expected that the final
discussion will be published by the Smithsonian Institution. In consequence of my
report to the International Aéronautical Conference at Strasburg in April 1898,
it was recommended that all central observatories should employ this method of in-
vestigation as being of prime importance for the advancement of meteorological
knowledge.

7. A New Form of American Kite. By Professor A. Scuusver, F.R.S-

8. Analogies between the Yearly Ranges of some Meteorological and Magnetic
Phenomena. By Dr. vAN RisCKEVORSEL.

This is the second part of a paper read at the Toronto meeting, in which it
was shown how exactly similar the yearly temperature curves are for a large part

£ee Nature, November 18, 1897, and February 17, 1898.

798 REPORT—1898.

of Europe, and how the anomalies which these curves show may contribute in a
large degree to the discovery of their origin.

In the diagram which was exhibited to the Section are plotted down six annual
curves for temperature, air-pressure, rainfall, magnetic declination, and for the
vertical and horizontal components of the earth’s magnetic force. A portion of these
curves are for Greenwich, others for two different stations in the Netherlands.
It is now shown that all these curves, however dissimilar in their general direc-
tions, are exactly alike in their anomalies. Except in a very small number of
instances, where the data at hand were not yet sufficient to make the phenomenon
appear, every maximum or minimum in one curve seems to have its exact counter-
part in every other curve, be it meteorological or magnetic. This is even the case
for very small accidents of a curve, so that it is probable that it will ultimately
prove to be true for every single feature of these curves, however insignificant.

These facts, in the first place, show once more how all the phenomena on the
earth must be, to a large extent, governed by one and the same potent cause. But
they also seem to give a valuable method for discovering, if not always the cause
of meteorological phenomena, yet of the centre on the globe from which such a
cause emanates.

It is also shown how the cause of a certain minimum in the temperature
curves, indicating a sudden cooling in the last days of June all over the British
Isles and part of Western Europe, what ever it may be, must have its seat to the
west or north-west of the coast of Scotland, and at no great distance.

9. The Classification of Polydiurnal Weather Types in relation to the Prolon-
gation of the Daily Forecast in Western Europe. By Douetas ARcHI-
BALD, I.A., FR. Met.Soe.

The results of modern meteorological investigation, whether official or amateur,
statistical or synoptic, have shown the existence of specific types of weather em-
bracing wide areas and intervals of time varying from several days to months, and
seasons which tend to produce persistence or recurrence ofthe more ephemeral changes
connected with the passage of the smaller, temporary, and movable cyclonic and
anticyclonic systems.

These large weather types may be roughly classified as:—(1) Seasonal or
monthly, and (2) y daily.

The former appear most clearly in tropical countries, such as India, where the
y daily changes are small and where the summer season is always characterised by
the formation of a permanent cyclonic area over Persia and North-Western India,
with subsidiary low pressure troughs over the Ganges basin, round which the so-
called S.W. monsoon circulates with a complete reversal of pressure conditions at
the opposite season.

These normal conditions, expressed thus in general terms, are evidently the
result of seasonal actions due to the direct influence of the sun on the Asiatic con-
tinent and Indian Ocean, and, stated thus, may be predicted to recur and form a
large proportion of the seasonal forecast every year.

When, however, we descend from the general to the particular we find each
year’s S.W. and N.E. monsoon differ from that of every other year.

Superposed on the regular normal type is what may be termed the yearly
seasonal abnormal type, corresponding to which both the intensity and shape
of the seasonal cyclone and anticyclone and the accompanying weather vary. Such
type, however, once initiated at the critical commencing month of the season, is
found to persist more or less all through. This is the practical basis of the seasonal
or x monthly weather forecast of the Indian Service, so ably worked by Mr. Eliot,
F.RS., at Simla.

In Europe the seasonal type, though still manifest, is not large enough in com-
parison with the y daily changes to enter in as a specific factor in the forecast.

On the other hand, the restriction of the forecast to 24 or 36 hours is unneces-
sarily arbitrary in view of the study of y daily types foreshadowed by the late

ae ee eee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 799

Hon. Ralph Abercromby and laboriously carried out by Professor Képpen
and Professor J. Van Bebber in their recent discussion of ‘ Die isobaren Typen des
nordatlantischen Ozeans und West-Europas.’ [Hamburg, 1895.]

Abercromby, in his ‘ Principles of Forecasting by means of Weather Charts,’
published by the Meteorological Council, classifies weather types under four heads
—northerly, southerly, easterly, and westerly.

_ Professors Képpen and Van Bebber recognise twenty specific types of y daily
weather.

A comparison of these with Abercromby’s shows them to be all included in
one or other of his four primary headings, of which they form specific sub-types.

The investigation further shows that :

(1) They admit of being more scientifically classified under the heads O
oceanic, K continental, L littoral, P peripheral, N northerly, and S
southerly. Sub-variations are denoted by suffixes, thus: O,, O,, 0,
O,, &e.

(2) Certain groups occur preferably at each season, z.c. the seasonal type or
tendency partly controls the formation of the y daily types.

(3) The intensity and paths of travelling high and low pressure systems
vary with each type and season.

(4) Their effect in raising or lowering temperature and otherwise materially
altering the weather is specifically shown by comparisons at such places
as Hamburg and Munich.

(5) Their average duration is found to be about four days, and this figure is
remarkably constant on the average for all the twenty species.

(6) There appears to be a fairly definite tendency on the part of certain types
to succeed other types or to recur, such recurrence in some cases ap-
proximating to the seasonal permanence exhibited in the tropics.

In fine, a science of weather types is growing up by which even now the weather
may, with due regard to a sudden change of type, be provisionally forecasted in
general terms, and particularly for agricultural purposes, for half a week or more.

The present daily forecast in England is admirable for the purpose for which it

was primarily instituted, viz. storm warning.

For agricultural purposes it is too short, while its assumption of precision in
the matter of rainfall for each sub-division is not always warranted by the results.
The author, therefore, suggests that in view of the hopefulness of the field un-
locked by Professors Képpen and Van Bebber, steps be taken to compare the past
weather maps of the British office with the types they have determined, and that a
supplemental forecast be presently attached to the daily forecast, giving a more
general forecast of conditions likely to continue for three or four days, based on the
ascertained presence of a certain type over Western Europe and as far over the
Atlantic as can be determined through tke aid of arriving ship’s logs.

10. The Rainfall of the South-Western Counties of England.
By Joun Hopkinson, /.R.Met.Soc., Assoc.Inst.C.L.

The counties here considered as South-Western are Monmouth, Hereford, Wor-
cester, Gloucester, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall. They cover an
area of 11,273 square miles, which is between one-fourth and one-fifth that
of England, and nearly one-tenth that of the British Isles. The mean monthly
rainfall for the ten years 1€81 to 1890 at 72 stations in these counties has been
calculated, and the mean annual rainfall at 113 stations, being one to the nearest.
100 square miles in each county. Thus, for example, the annual rainfall of the
smallest county, Monmouth (496 square miles), is deduced from the records of five
stations, and that of the largest, Devon (2,586 square miles), from the records of
twenty-six stations,

800 REPORT—1898.
The monthly and annual means for each county and for the whole area at the
72 stations are as follows :—

Mean Rainfall in the South-Western Counties of England, 1881-1890.

IS ih 228 Races “ Hes higi ee | ee ow
aire larch tiC yn trey || Peds q a | o.9 eo] a6 i}
of |] 69] 29 oo 6] 29). 2s | ss | Ste ‘3
2 |88| 23] #2 | 22] 23) 82) 8] 8] gs
S| a) Meee Safe | Se Be ie 5S eee
Bio | Ha | Bio Oa F 19 A» | as fapelerrey S]h|) PhS
ins ins. ins. 1ns ms. ins ims. | ms ins ins
Jan 3°55 | 2°45 | 2°16] 2°50 | 2-48 | 2°95 | 2°95 | 3:35 | 3°87 | 3:06
Feb 2°15") 2:19) 1:98 |) 2:11} 2:19 | 2:55 | 2:33 | 2-91 | 3:49 |) 2-63
Mar 2°74 | 1°95 | 1°83} 2:09 | 2:03 | 2°32 | 2°40) 2°73 | S11] 2°49
April 2:29 | 1:95 | 1:84] 1°97 | 2:17 | 2°43 | 2°53 | 2:34,| 2:60 | 2:30
May 2°76 | 2°29 | 2:33 | 2:19 | 2°16 | 2:07 | 2°35 | 2°27 | 2°39 | 2:31
June 2°44 | 2:34 | 2:29 | 2°38 | 2:50] 240] 2:40] 2:19 | 2°36 | 2°33
July 3°51 | 2:37 | 2°35 | 3:05 | 2°86 | 2°64 | 3-47 | 3:13 | 3°67 | 3:12
Aug 277 | 2°34 | 2:37 | 2°46] 2:39 | 2:49 | 2°91 | 2°76 | 2:82 | 2:66
Sept 3:02 | 2°18 | 2°23) 2:52 | 2:42 | 2°87 | 3:07 | 2°95 | 3:56 | 2:88
Oct .| 3:14 } 2:70 | 2°56 | 2°67 | 2:78 | 346) 3:70 | 4:16 | 4:67 | 3:59
Nov. .| 429 | 3:30 | 3:07 | 3°42 | 341 | 4:12 | 408 | 4:44] 5°05] 410
Dec. .| 2°93 | 2:24] 2:02 | 240] 2°65 | 3:24) 3:30] 3°83 | 4:74 | 3:32
Year 86:19 | 28°30 | 27:03 | 29°78 | 80-04 | 33°54 | 35°49 | 37-06 | 42°33 | 34-79

The annual means at the 113 stations are—Monmouth (5 stations), 36°19 ins. ;
Hereford (9 stations), 28°64 ins.; Worcester (7 stations), 27:02 ins.; Gloucester
(13 stations), 29°39 ins.; Wilts (14 stations), 29°71 ins.; Dorset (10 stations),
33°53 ins.; Somerset (16 stations), 85°54 ins. ; Devon (26 stations), 37:24 ins.; and
Cornwall (13 stations), 42°48 ins. ; the mean for the whole area being 34:08 ins.

During the ten years 1881 to 1890 the rainfall in this part of England was
rather less than that for the twenty-five years ending 1890 and that for the thirty
years ending 1895. Twenty stations fairly distributed over the area give for the
twenty-five years an annual mean of 1:2 inch more than for the ten years, and
twelve stations give for the thirty years exactly the same excess over the ten years,
so we may assume that the mean rainfall deduced for the ten years 1881 to 1890
is about an inch, or 3 per cent., less than it would have been had it been worked
out for twenty-five or thirty years.

The mean for the 115 stations, one to each 100 square miles in each county, is
no doubt more accurate for the decade 1881-90, as well for the whole area as for
each county, than that for the 72 stations, but it is evident that the latter is much
nearer the mark for the thirty years 1866-95, the true mean for the whole area for
this period probably being about 35 inches per annum.

The rainfall in these counties follows the general rule for England of increase
from east to west. Dividing them into three groups, N., 8.E., and S.W.,
22 stations for the northern group, Monmouth, Hereford, Worcester, and Glouces-
ter, give an annual mean of 30:08 inches; 20 stations for the south-eastern group,
Wilts, Dorset, and Somerset, give 33°64 inches; and 30 stations for the South-
Western group, Devon and Cornwall, give 38°82 inches. In the first group the
driest month is April, with a mean fall of 2-01 inches; in the second, the driest
month is May, with a mean fall of 2°23 inches; and in the third, the driest month
is June, with a mean fall of 2°25 inches. In each group the wettest month is
November, with a mean fall of 3°51 inches in the first group; of 3:91 inches in the
second ; and of 4°65 inches in the third. From October to April and in July Wor-
cester is the driest county; in May, Wilts; in June, Devon; and in August and
September, Hereford. From September to April and in July Cornwall is the
wettest county ; in May, Monmouth; in June, Wilts; and in August, Somerset.

The mean annual rainfall at twelve stations, every county being represented by

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 801

one or two, for the thirty years 1866 to 1895, in five-yearly periods, was .as
follows :—For the first lustrum, 1866-70, 35:76 inches; for the second, 1871-75,
39°02 inches; for the third, 1876-80, 40°15 inches; for the fourth, 1881-85, 38:25
inches; for the fifth, 1886-90, 33:07 inches; and for the sixth, 1891-95, 34:84
inches.

The memoir was accompanied by a map showing the position of the rainfall
stations and their height above mean sea-level.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

A discussion was held in conjunction with Section B on the Results of the
Recent Solar Eclipse Expeditions.

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Interim Report on Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.
See Reports, p. 158.

2. Dilute Solutions. By KE. H. Grirritus, £.R.S.

3. Conductivity of Dilute Solutions. By W.C. D. WHETHAM.

4. Velocity of the Electricity in the Electric Wind.
By Professor A. P. Cuarrock.

It is shown that when an electric wind is produced by discharge in air from a
point against an earth-connected metal plate, the momentum imparted to the air
is proportional to the distance from point to plate. From this the author concludes,
first, that the velocity of the electricity is directly proportional to the electro-
static field which moves it, and secondly, that there is no appreciable kick-off or
reaction at the point.

Values are given for the velocity of the electricity relatively to the point and
plate in unit electrostatic field and in various gases (not specially purified) at nor-
mal temperature and pressure—

+ —
Dry air. . : . 342 . : . 423 cm. per sec.
Hydrogen A . 1050 . F . 1150 i
Carbon dioxide 2200). , . 205 7

As it is shown that the velocity of the wind in which the electricity moves is
negligible compared with that of the electricity itself, it follows that these values
are those of the electricity carriers relatively to the gas through which they pass.
Close to a sharp point it is probable that the actual velocity reached by the carriers
exceeds 10° cm. per second.

5. Dalton’s Law. By W. N. Suaw, FBS.

Discrepancies between the sum of the partial pressures of air or nitrogen and
saturated vapour and the pressure of mixtures of air and saturated vapour indicat-
ing, primd facie, a departure from Dalton’s law were shown by Regnault! to exist
for water vapour, the extent of the differences being on the average nearly half a
millimetre.

Regnault himself in his classical paper on the pressure of vapours,? sought to

' Ann. de Chim. [3] vol. xv. 2 Mém. de l'Institut, vol. xxvi.
1898, 3F

802 REPORT—1898.

throw additional light on these discrepancies by examining the increase of pressure
produced by adding ether or some other volatile liquid to an atmosphere, the
pressure of which nad been previously measured. In the course of these experi-
ments, he concluded that he had satisfactorily ascertained the cause of the
phenomena to be the condensation of the vapours on the vertical sides of the
containing tube under a pressure of vapour less than the saturation pressure
corresponding to the temperature. He regarded Dalton’s law as being true in
fact for a gas-filled space completely surrounded by a sufficiently thick layer of the
evaporating liquid. In a vessel with solid vertical walls gravity prevents the
formation of a layer of the required thickness on the vertical sides. This hypo-
thesis was held to account for the fact that if the mixture were compressed, as in
a Boyle’s law tube, the pressure gradually diminished after the initial compression
to a value less than that required by Dalton’s law; in the case of ether about 10
mm, of pressure were missing on this account.

Such an hypothesis would give a satisfactory explanation of the phenomena if
the sides of the glass vessel were gradually dissolved away by the liquid condensed
on the sides, as, for example, would be the case if the tube were made of rock salt ;
but if the action between the glass sides and the vapour were merely a mechanical
one, the supposed continuous evaporation of liquid from the horizontal surface and
its return to the stock by condensation on the vertical sides and running down
them would seem to contradict the principle of conservation of energy.

Regnault’s explanation is the more difficult to accept if the density of the
vapour be considered. Professor J. J. Thomson, in his ‘ Application of Dynamics
to Physics and Chemistry,’ has shown that the addition of air-pressure upon a
liquid surface in contact with its saturated vapour ought to result in a slight
additional evaporation causing a slightly increased density of vapour, and the
experiments of the Author upon air at various degrees of saturation! indicated
experimentally some slight increase of density beyond that required to correspond
to the vacuum pressure, so that any apparent departure from Dalton’s law could
not be attributed to the want of mass of vapour in saturated air.

The point might be investigated by ascertaining experimentally the behaviour
of a mixture of air and vapour under isothermal conditions in the neighbourhood of
the point at which condensation begins to occur. At great rarefaction the mix-
ture would behave as a perfect gas, and if the isothermal relation between p and
1/v were plotted on a diagram (with a suitable correction if necessary for the
deviation of the air from Boyle’s law) the curve obtained would be a straight line
through the origin represented by p=kx1/v. At great concentration if Dalton’s
law were strictly true the relation would again be represented by a straight line,
viz. :—

p=k’ xllv+p,,
where k’ is the Boyle’s law constant for the contained dry air, and p, is the
saturation pressure of the vapour. This line would cut the vertical line 1/v=0, in
the point distant p, (¢.e the theoretical saturation pressure) from the origin,
and it would cut the line y =0 in the point 1/v= =e. These two theoretical
lines would meet if produced at an obtuse angle in the theoretical saturation
point.

If, on the other hand, at the greater concentration there were a discrepancy from
Dalton’s law proportional to the total pressure and therefore represented by the
relation,

p=k’x\|v+p, —rp,

the observations should still show a straight line not quite coinciding in direction
with the theoretical line for Dalton’s law, but cutting that line in the point on the

horizontal axis( 2, 0) and cutting the vertical axis at a point distant (1—)) p-
from the origin.

1 Phil. Trans., vol. clxxix. (1888), ‘Report on Hygrometric Methods,’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 805

A series of observations thus plotted would enable one to determine whether
the actual behavicur of the mixture at higher pressures tended to approach to agree-
ment with Dalton’s law or some modification of it such as that suggested.

Regnault’s observations include a series of determinations of the pressure and
related volumes of mixtures of air and ether vapour for the temperature 7:7° C,
They also show the dry-air pressures for the series of observed volumes. A
diagram showing two sets of his observations was exhibited. The pressures varied
between 600 and 1,400 millimetres. It was pointed out that for the observations
at greater rarefactions the Boyle’s law line was very strictly adhered to until the
pressure reached 80 per cent. of saturation, then slight discrepancy in the direction
of loss of pressure was indicated, increasing until it amounted to upwards of 10
millimetres for the theoretical saturation point ; beyond that the discrepancy showed
a slightly diminishing value. A straight line drawn to show a theoretical defect
from Dalton’s law amounting to Ap, where A = ‘007, agreed much more satisfactorily
with the plotted observations.

The second series of observations made with a greater amount of ether showed
the discrepancy from Dalton’s law gradually vanishing with increased pressure.

It was pointed out that in drawing his conclusions Regnault had not taken
account of the supersaturation of air which would result from compressing air even
at a constant temperature in the absence of nuclei for condensation and the time
that would be required for the gradual deposition of the excess of moisture upon
the liquid surfaces exposed to it.

Moreover, it seemed most unlikely that if the presence of air caused a dis-
crepancy of 10 mm. for a total pressure of 1,000 mm. the increase of the pressure
to 1,400 mm. should do away with the discrepancy previously caused ; in other
words, the line connecting the observations and intersecting the theoretical line at
the highest pressure recorded is antecedently improbable and unreal.

The conclusion drawn was that Reenault’s explanation is probably an unreal
one, and that an actual divergence from Dalton’s law is indicated. The amount of
the divergence, however, cannot be finally deduced from Regnault’s observations,
and must wait for a repetition of those or similar experiments, in which the errors
which may be due to supersaturation are guarded against.

6. On the Determination of the State of Ionisation in Dilute Aqueous Solu-
tions containing two Electrolytes : No. 2. By Professor J. G.
MacGrecor, Dalhousie College, Halifax, N.S.

In the Report of last year methods were described of determining the ionisa-
tion coefficients in solutions containing two electrolytes, with or without a
eommon ion, and with no mutual chemical action other than double decomposition ;
and a statement was given of tests of accuracy which had been applied to the
coefficients thus obtained, by the employment of them for the calculation of the
conductivity of the solutions. Since that date other tests have been applied by
students in my laboratory, as follows:—E. H. Archibald has shown that the
conductivity of solutions containing K,SO, and Na,SO, can be calculated within
the limits of experimental error up to a total concentration of about 1 gr.-eq. per 1.
T. C. McKay has obtained the same result for solutions containing BaCl, and
NaCl. Archibald has completed his observations (referred to last year) on the
conductivity of solutions containing NaCl and K,SO, (and therefore also KCl and
Na,SO,); and they show that the conductivity is similarly calculable up to a total
concentration of about 0°5. Archibald has also shown that if the variation, with
concentration, of the surface tension and specific gravity of simple solutions of
K,SO, and Na,SO, be known, the s. t. and sp. gr. of mixtures up to concentrations
of about 1 and 0°5 respectively can be calculated, the method employed being that
of my paper in the ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ vol. 44; and that with similar data as to the
sp. gr. of NaCl, KCl, Na,SO,, and K,SO, solutions, the sp. gr. of solutions con-
taining all these salts up to a concentration of about 0:3 is calculable, It should
be noted also that calculations made, by the aid of these coefficients, on the

3F2

804 REPORT—1898.

assumption that no double salt exists in solution, of the conductivity and sp.
gravity of mixtures of K,SO, and CuSO, solutions (Archibald), and of the con-
ductivity of mixtures of K,SO, and MgSO, solutions (McKay) have been found
not to agree with observation, except at much lower concentrations than the
above, a fact which is probably connected with the formation of double salts by
these substances. The limit of experimental error in the above observations was
about 0:25, 0-1, and 0:005 per cent. for conductivity, surface tension, and sp.
gravity respectively. For accounts of the experiments see current volumes of
‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. and Trans., N.S. Inst. Sci.’

Schrader, in his ‘ Elektrolyse von Gemischen’ (Berlin, 1897), has tried to
determine the ionisation coefficients in mixtures of electrolytes with a common
ion by means of electrolytic measurements, using expressions for the coefficients
in terms of the conductivity of the mixture, the amounts of the distinctive ions
transferred by the.current and the Hittorf’s transference numbers for these ions.
He requires, however, to make a necessarily doubtful assumption as to the relation
between the transference numbers in the mixtures and in simple solutions ; and
some of the quantities involved in his expression for the coefficients are incapable
of exact measurement. We cannot, of course, test his values by calculating the
conductivity of his mixtures. But if N,, N, are their concentrations with respect
to the two electrolytes, and V,, V, the dilutions of their isohydric constituents,
his coefficients (a,,a,) should satisfy the equations: a,/V,=a,/V., and N,V, +
N,V, =1 (see last year’s paper). Inserting his values of the a’s and N’s, we may
then find the V’s and the corresponding a/V’s. The a/V’s corresponding to the
V’s thus found may also be obtained with great accuracy from Kohlrausch’s and
Archibald’s observations of conductivity on the assumption'that no double molecules
are formed in solution, and that both the H's of H,SO, act as cations. When
Schrader’s results are thus tested, his a/V’s are found to be in error in the case of
solutions containing KI and KCl by from 1 to 10 per cent., and in the case of
solutions containing H,SO, and CuSO, by from 3°6 to 60 per cent. In the former
case the discrepancy is not greater than might be expected from the defects of the
method. In the latter it is; and this result is interesting, as it is difficult to
account for so great a discrepancy except by the assumption of the existence of
molecules of the acid sulphate in solution.

“7. The Carbon-Consuming Cell of Jacques. By 8. SKINNER.

The cell consists of an iron vessel containing fused caustic soda in which a
carbon rod is placed, the carbon forming the positive element when the cell is
sufficiently hot. At lower temperatures the iron is positive. The cell polarises
rapidly, and, following the method of Jacques, the polarisation may be removed by
blowing air into the fused soda. In the experiments here described, in the place
of forcing in air, sodium peroxide is added to the fused soda. The electrolyte then
consists of caustic soda, sodium ferrate, and sodium peroxide. This form of celi
shows little polarisation. To show that the oxidising substance depolarises at the
surface uf the iron, experiments were made in a crucible nearly divided into two
parts by an iron plate reaching almost to the bottom of the vessel. ‘The carbon
was placed in the liquid caustic soda on one side, and the sodium peroxide added to
that on the other. Lt was found that there was an immediate increase in electro-
motive force on adding the peroxide, thus demonstrating that the depolarising
action of the oxidiser was at the iron surface. Another experiment was made in an
iron U-tube, the UY being loosely plugged with iron wire. The carbon rod was
immersed in the soda on one side, and the peroxide was added in the other limb.
The same effect was observed.

Experiments were also made to find the rate of consumption of the carbon, and
hence to deduce the electro-chemical equivalent. ‘hese measurements were
complicated by the disintegration of the carbon in the molten liquid even when no
current was passing. It is hoped by using more dense and pure carbon to prevent
local action and disintegration, and therefore to obtain an experimental value for
the eleetio-chemical equivalent of carbon.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 805

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

A discussion was held in conjunction with the International Magnetic Con-
: ference and Section G@ on the Magnetic and Electrolytic Actions of Electric
Railways.

Communications were made by Dr. C. Schott, Professor A. W. Riicker, Sec. R.S.,
Dr. Eschenhagen, Dr. von Bezold, Mr. W.H. Preece, F.R.S., Signor Luigi Palazzo,
and Professor A. J. Fleming, F.R.8. See p. 758.

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Electric Standards.
See Reports, p. 145.

: 2. On Standard High Resistances. By ¥F. B. Fawcerr.

The author finds that the electrical resistance of metallic films deposited on
glass in high vacua may be rendered constant by prolonged heating in oil under
reduced pressure. Resistances of a megohm and upwards have thus been con-
structed which have not varied more than 0-001 per cent.in the four months since
they were finished. The most suitable alloy seems to be one of gold and platinum,

and for this the temperature coefficient is about 0-01 per cent. per degree Centi-
grade. The coefficient is, however, somewhat dependent on the thickness of the
film, being less for thin films than for thick ones.

3. On the Electric Conductivity and Magnetic Permeability of a Series
of New Alloys of Iron. By Professor W. F. Barrerr, W. Brown,
and R. A. HapFIELp.

WLDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Drop of Potential at the Carbons of the Electric Are.
By Mrs. Ayrton.

The carbons employed were of the same kind as those used for all my previous
experiments on the arc, namely, solid ‘ Apostle’ carbons, the positive 1] mm. and
the negative 9 mm. in diameter. In order to eliminate errors caused by the differ-
ence in hardness or construction of the carbons, only those were used with which
it was. found that the P.D. between the carbons was within half a volt of that
given by the equation which I published in 1895 connecting that P.D. with the
length of the arc and the current flowing.

To find the fall of potential between each of the carbons and the arc a third
carbon was used, varying in diameter between 0°5 mm. and 2mm. This was
brought up to the crater of the positive or the white-hot spot on the negative car-
bon, and the P.D. between it and the main carbon was observed just before it
touched the main carbon. The P.D. was measured by means of a high-resistanee
@Arsonval galyanometer having a resistance of a million and a half ohms in
circuit,

Experiments were made with ares of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 mm., and with cur-
rents of 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, and 14 amperes.

The drop of potential at the positive carbon, I find, is affected both by the length
of the arc and the value of the current, and the connection between this P.D. in

806 REPORT—1898.

volts, the current in ampéres, and the length of the arc in millimetres may be
expressed by the equation :—

Wess +231!

oe

2 lick, bet cram aL)

The drop of potential between the arc and the negative carbon, on the other hand,
is, I find, affected by the ewrrent only, and not by the length of the are. The
equation expressing its connection with the current is—

r 13°6
V=76 ee s ’ . ; BEA ©
EO ire (2)

I

Thus this drop of potential at the negative carbon is by no means insivnificant, nor
have I ever found its sign to change, either with silent or with hissing arcs, as it is
said to do by some observers. In all my experiments this drop of potential has
been from arc to carbon, and its value has been about one-fourth of the value of
the corresponding fall of potential at the positive carbon.

From equations (1) and (2) we can tind the equation for the drop of potential
at the positive carbon plus the drop of potential at the negative carbon ; 7.e., the
whole fall of potential from carbon to carbon minus the fall of potential through
the arc itself. It is
22°64 3:11

; galt leon)

Now, the equation I found three years ago for the totat P.D. between the main
carbons, which included, of course, the drop of P.D. in the arc itself, was

11:66 +1058 ey

V =38'88 +

V =58'88 + 2:077+

The coincidence between the first terms of equations (3) and (4) shows that
this constant quantity has at last been tracked home, and that it belongs of to
the positive carbon alone, as has hitherto been supposed, but to both the positive
and negative carbons in the proportions of about four-fifths to the former and one-
tifth to the latter.

It must be remembered that the experiments upon which equation (3) is based
were made nearly two years after those from which equation (4) was obtained, and
that for the new equation (3) itself the experiments consisted of two entirely sepa-
rate sets ; the one made to find the drop of potential at the positive carbon and the
other to find the drop of potential at the negative carbon.

As regards the accuracy with which equations (1), (2), and (3) express the
results of the experiments, it may be mentioned that each of the 124 values from
which these equations for the fall of potential at the carbons alone were formed
was the mean of the results of from 6 to 12 experiments. Of these 124 values 96
differed by less than 1 volt from the numbers calculated from the equations, 26
differed by between | and 2 volts, and only 3 differed by more than 2 volts, and
these three all belonged to equation (1).

This closeness of agreement between the observed and calculated values is the
result of no series of ingenious guesses, but of the algebraical expression of three
very simple straight line laws which, I find, exist between the power expended at
each of the carbons, the current flowing, and the length of the arc. These three
laws may be most simply expressed thus :—

If W be the power in watts expended at either of the carbons (measured by
multiplying the current by the fall of potential at the carbon) and a, 4, ¢, d, e, and
f ke constants, then

: eee W =a+0A with a constant length of are,
For the positive carbon { Wits arene ‘ O eaneae

For the negative carbon W=e+fA.

A combination of the first two laws gives equation (1), and the third gives
equation (2),

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ae 807

The method employed for finding the above falls of potential at each of the
carbons was not original, It was first used by Lecher ten years ago, and has
since been employed by Uppenborn, by Professor Silvanus Thompson, and by many
others. These, however, all used a third carbon placed in a stationary position in
the arc, while I considered that more accurate results could be obtained by bringing’
the point of the third carbon up to touch the hottest part of the main carbon, and
observing the Jast P.D. registered by the voltmeter before it fell to zero. Very
accurate and definite results were obtained in this way compared with any I could
get by the ordinary method, but in interpreting these results it is necessary to take
ito account the disadvantages under which add experiments made with a bare
carbon dipping into the arc labour.

1. The third carbon may not take up the exact potential of the part of the arc
in which it is placed.

2. If it does, it will bring all the parts of the arc that it touches to practically
one potential, which will be greater than the least, and less than the greatest of
the potentials that existed in that portion of the arc before it was occupied by the
exploring carbon.

3. It repels the arc, and, therefore, makes its real length greater than its
apparent length. Hence the insertion of the exploring carbon usually increases
the P.D. between the main carbons by from a half to two volts.

As regards the first disadvantage, it is, of course, possible that there is a
contact P.D. between the carbon vapour and the solid exploring carbon, but, even
if it exists, this P.D. is probably small compared with the P.D,’s with which we
are dealing, and I have, therefore, neglected it in the calculation of the equations.

The second point appears to be much more important, for it is quite possible
that the variable part of the fall of potential at each of the carbons, given by
equations (i) and (2), may be mainly produced by the exploring carbon being
in communication with the arc, not only at its tip, but also along a part of its
length. For whether the fall of potential at the carbon itself be a constant or
not, it is quite certain that the potentials of the other points at which the arc
touched the exploring carbon varied both with the current that was tlowing and
with the length of the arc before that carbon was inserted. Hence a portion of
the variation in the values given by equations (1) and (2) must have been created
by the use of a bare carbon in the arc, and it is at least possible that the whole of
those variations were created in the same way.

Many attempts have been made to explore the are with insulated conductors,
notably by Uppenborn, who tried wires embedded in clay, steatite, and glass tubes,
and had to abandon them all. I myself have tried asbestos coverings for the
carbons, but the asbestos melted and fell in drops like metal. Now that the
importance of insulating the exploring carbon is so very apparent, however, it will

be worth while making a very great effort to find some insulating material that

will stand the heat of the arc, and will yet not have to be so thick as to disturb it
unduly. This I hope very shortly to do, and thus to completely solve the question
of the constancy of the drop of potential at the carbons of the arc.

2. Some Huperiments on the Effect of Pressure on the Thermal Con-
ductivities of Rocks. By Dr. C. H. Less.

The experiments were made by the ‘lamellar’ method, the rocks tested being
eut in the form of flat circular dises and placed between discs of steel, the tem-
peratures of which were indicated by thermometers placed in holes in them. Two
dises of rock between three discs of steel were used in each experiment, the central
disc of steel having embedded in it a coil of insulated wire through which an
electric current of known amount could be sent. Through the upper and lower
steel discs, which were hollow, a flow of water was maintained. Thermal con-
tact between steel and rock discs was improved by a thin layer of glycerine. The
results show an increase of conductivity as the pressure is raised from zero to 800
or 900 lbs. per square inch, which is very small in the case of granite and marble,

808 REPORT—1898.

slightly greater in the case of slate, and about 3 per cent. in the case of a
rather soft sandstone.

3. On the Determination of the Thermal Conductivity of Water.
By 8. R. Mitner, &.Sc., and Professor A. P. Cuarrock.

This is a description of a modification of the method of Dr. C. H. Lees, in
which the same platinum coils are used both for providing the flow of heat and
for measuring the resulting temperature gradient. The result obtained by taking
the mean of about forty separate determinations is 0:001435 c.g s. units at 20°C.

4, Experiments on the Influence of Electricity on Plants.
By Seri Lemstrom.

A brief sketch is given of previous experiments and theories founded thereon.
The author has taken up the subject again for the following reasons :—

(a) In previous experiments there was nearly always a favourable result when
artificial electricity was used. The extraordinary development of the vegetation
in northern regions, in spite of the hard climatic circumstances. Periodicity in the
crops of different seeds, which follows closely the periodicity of the sun-spots and
the auroras, at least in more northern countries.

(4) The same periodicity in the development of the annual rings in the pine-
wood.

(ec) The unexplained physiological functions of the needle-formed leaves of the
pine and of the brush on the ears of the seed.

After having found, and as nearly as possible proved, that the auroras are caused
by electric currents in the atmosphere, the author began a long series of experi-
ments, using a current of static electricity from points:

1. In the laboratory with various seeds ;

2. In Wichtis parish in Finland on a small cornfield ;

3. On the field of the Horticultural Society in Helsingfors and on a wheat-
field in the Estate Brédtorp.

As all these experiments, performed in 1885 and 1886, had given favourable
results, about 40 per cent. increase of the plants treated with electricity, the author
made the necessary preparations for more extensive experiments in the year 1897.
They were carried out on the Estate Brédtorp, with the friendly assistance of
the proprietor, Baron Edvard Hisinger.

Three fields of 50 m. were used for the experiments, and three of the same area
as control-fields.

The results were the following :—

There has been in general an increase in the seeds of at least 40 per cent.; in
the roots from 25 per cent. to 75 per cent., depending on the kind of plant and on the
nature of the soil; beans, 75 per cent.; strawberries and raspberries as high as
75 per cent., and the time for their ripening shortened at least one-third.

From these experiments it follows :—

1. The more fertile the soil the greater the increase;
2. Some plants were improved by electricity, whilst others, such as carrots,
behaved differently.

Later experiments, however, have shown that this peculiarity depended on
want of water. It seems that under the influence of electricity the plants absorb
water in greater quantity.

In the year 1888 the experiments were made near the Castle Laferté, in Bour-
gogne, through the kindness of Baron Arnould Thénard.

The results were in general the same as in Finland, though the weather during
the summer of 1888 was not favourable.

Among the facts which result from these experiments it is proved that elec-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 809

tricity, given to plants during days with a clear burning sun, can damage them
very much, if enough water is not also given at the same time.

In what way does electricity exert an influence on plants? Lither the gases
in the air are transformed to ozone and nitric oxides, which being heavy fall down
upon the plants and increase the activity of their vegetation; or the electricity in-
duces the juices of the plants to ascend more rapidly in their capillary tubes (the
Gernez phenomenon).

Though there is much not yet explained, the method is ready to be used for
practical purposes, especially as the author has succeeded in constructing ap
electric mac\\ine that will be much more applicable for the purpose than the older
ones, amongst which the well-known Wimshurst machine has been used with good
effect.

For the present occasion the author has this summer carried out some experi-
ments in Finland, at the cottage Kammio near Helsingfors, through the kindness of
Dr. W. E. Lybeck, on some especially interesting plants. Of these, the tobacco plant
did not yield, in earlier experiments, to the favourable influence of the electric
currents, through want of water. Photograplis of the experimental and the control
field, which were watered to the same extent, have been prepared. The pictures
were taken at the same distance from both fields, and show that under the influence
of the current the results are at least 40 per cent. better than without it. The
current was applied for four hours in the morning and four hours in the afternoon,
with many interruptions, however, from June 17 to July 30, The total number of
hours was 161.

5. The Action of Electricity upon Plants.
By EH. H. Coox, D.Sc. Lond., Clifton Laboratory, Bristol.

The experiments recorded in this Paper were commenced so far back as 1886.
They have been repeated many times as the conditions afiecting the results gradu-
ally became known. They may be considered under three heads: (1) ‘Those
relating to the germination of seeds; (2) those relating to the growing of plants
in soil; (3) those dealing with the lower forms of plant life, such as Alge,
Fungi, &c.

The influence of electricity on the germination of seeds showed that the general
effect was to give an increased development in the seeds amounting to from 10 to
20 per cent more than in the non-electrified ones.

The influence on growing plants showed that in almost every case the electri-
eally-treated plants came to maturity first, and they were also the first to show
above the soil, but I could not satisfy myself that with the currents employed, viz.,
from 1 to 30 milliamperes, and with an E.M.F. of from 5 to 25 volts, any increased
rate of growth was observable after the cotyledons appeared above the soil.

In order to compare the effects of the battery, the induction coil, and the
machine, experiments were made with the same seeds grown, (1) without any
electricity, (2) with a current passing between carbon electrodes, (3) under the
positive point from a Wimshurst machine, (4) under the negative from the same,
(5) under the positive point of an induction coil, and (6) under the negative point
of an induction coil. In every case the positive end of the coil produced the
greatest effect. This was with an E.M.F. of approximately 45,000 volts.

Experiments have been made with veast, spirogyra, and other large-celled
fresh-water Algie. It is intended to continue these experiments.

Applications on the Large Scale—Experiments have been made by M. Barratt
and M. Spechnew by connecting large plates of copper and zinc sunk in the soil
with a wire and growing plants between them, and also by connecting plates to «
battery. It is, however, evident that if atmospheric electricity could be employed,
a practically unlimited source is available. Beckeinstener was the first to try this.
Following him, several experimenters in France and other countries have invented,

_ perfected, and used what has been called the ‘Geomagnetifére’ with remarkable

results. The instrument is practically a lightning-conductor set up in the middle
of a field, and connected below with a series of cross wires running under the soil

S10 REPORT—1898.

near the roots of the plants. The results obtained with this instrument, as given
in the French journals, were so remarkable, that I was very desirous of making a
trial in Clifton. Accordingly, in the early spring, M. Pinot de Moira, who is an
excellent amateur gardener as well as a careful experimenter, put up one in his
garden on Clifton Hill. Potatoes, beans, peas, &c., were grown near the wires and
in other parts of the garden. An increased effect was distinctly observed in all
cases, thus confirming in some measure the results of the French experimenters,
It is, however, much to be desired that further and continuous experiments should
be carried out.
The theories to account for the action were then considered.

6. Experiments with the Brush Discharge.
By E. H. Coox, D.Sc. Lond., Clifton Laboratory, Bristol.

7. The Ancient Standard Weights and Measures of the
City of Bristol. By W. R. Barker.

This group of Standard Weights and Measures forms an interesting link
with the past history of the city at various stages. The apparent rarity of
local standards of this kind was referred to and accounted for. Three periods
were recognised in which wholesale veforms were introduced by the issue of
fresh standards—Henry VII., Elizabeth, George IV. (Imperial System). Each of
these three issues is represented by one or more specimens in the collection. As
circumstances required, or sovereigns succeeded to the throne, intermediate
standards were issued, or the old ones were adopted under the new reign, so that,
in addition to those mentioned above, there are in this collection other standards
authorised under six other sovereigns, the whole embracing the long period from
1495 to 1824. In all there are eighteen measures of capacity, two standard yard
measures, and thirteen weights. The marks, dates, and other peculiarities of each
were considered chronologically.

8. Some Preliminary Experiments on the Luminosity produced by
striking Sugar. By J. Burke, M.A.

The experiments show that the appearance of the flash produced when two
lumps of sugar are struck is independent of the gas in which the impact occurs ;
for instance, the effect is the same both in colour and intensity whether the spark,
if we might so call it, takes place in air or coal gas, and moreover is independent
of the pressure of the gas. The experimeuts have also been tried in water with
similar results. The spectrum of the flash is continuous, and contined to the more
refrangible end of the visible spectrum; which seems to show that the luminosity
cannot be due to the particles of sugar on the impinged surface becoming white hot ;
but that the effect is probably due to some change in the configuration of the
crystals. The fact that the surrounding medium in which the spark occurs does
not alter the luminosity either in colour or intensity, seems to show that chemical
action with the surrounding medium does not take part in the production of the
light. An almost continuous luminosity can be produced by striking rapidly the
circumference of a rotating wheel of sugar. The effect is very much greater when the
wheel is struck while it is rotating than when it is at rest; but the mere rubbing
of the surface, whilst rotating, does not give rise to a very marked effect. The
sugar wears out very rapidly, and in order to keep the image of the spark on the
slit of the spectroscope the whole apparatus is moved slowly at the rate of about
2 inches an hour, by which means the luminosity always takes place along the axis
of the collimator.

a

— a ae

——— a a OU Trt Cr

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 811

9. On the Electromagnetic Theory of Reflection on the Surface of Crystals.
By Dr. Cuas. E. Curry.

When ordinary light: strikes the surface of an isotropic insulator, as glass, at
such an angle that the reflected and the refracted rays form a right angle with
each other, the reflected ray is found to be linearly polarised (Brewster's law).
To my knowledge, however, little is known about the light reflected from the
surface of crystals.

Tn the treatment of the behaviour of light on the surface of crystals it is
customary to make use of the so-called ‘uniradial azimuths’ introduced by
MacCullagh ; their determination depends on the properties of the given crystal
(the reflecting surface used, &c.), and the angle of incidence of the given wave, but
not on the azimuth, in which the given oscillation is taking place. These uniradial
azimuths are, as we know, rotated through certain angles upon reflection. Are
there now angles of incidence ¢, for which the uniradial azimuths coincide with
each other after reflection? The general condition for such a coincidence is 4

sin 6, sin (p—@,)
cos 8, sin (P—¢,) cos (b+ f,) — tan e, sin *f,

sin v, sin (6 —¢,) 1
cos 8, sin (b— #,) cos (H+ >,) — tan e, sin °h,, @)

where o refers to the ordinary and e to the extraordinary wave; ¢, and ¢, denote
here the angles of refraction of the ordinary and extraordinary wave respectively,
6, and 6, their respective azimuths, and «, and e, the small angles between the
directions of propagation of these waves and those of their so-called rays.

This condition (1) may be regarded as an equation for the determination of the
angle @; we observe that it does not contain the azimuth 6 of the incident wave.
It thus follows: when ordinary light strikes the surface of the given crystal at
such an angle o, determined by this equation, it will be reflected as linearly
polarised, as in the case of an isotropic insulator, or certain phenomena as those
of interference will make their appearance; which of these phenomena occur will,
however, depend upon the assumption made with regard to the behaviour of the
ether-molecules in the film between the two bodies. Conversely, observations of
such phenomena might throw light on the assumption to be made.

The above equation for ¢ 1s, however, too general to admit of a solution; all
information must thus be gained from an examination of x
special cases; I have chosen the following one for the
present purpose, since it appears to be of particular interest.

Let one of the principal planes of the given crystal be taken
as reflecting surface, and let the plane of incidence lie in
one of the other two, as indicated in the annexed figure.

4 (y = reflecting plane, w y incident plane) ie
The above equation for ¢ then reduces to J,
sin (p—®@,) cos (b+,) — tane, sin*,=0; . : s*

its derivation, into which I cannot enter here, requires considerable care, chiefly
on account of the appearance of indeterminate forms.
. Explicitly, it can be written

ev? —(A* — B®) sin *] cos 6 =B /v?— A? sin 7 [v? + (A2—B?*) sin *], . (8)

where 4, 5, Care three medium constants of the dimensions of a velocity, and v
the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic disturbances in air.
For isotropic insulators, i.e. A = B= C, this equation for ¢ becomes

sin *@= = - c : : . (4)

* C£ also P. Volkmann, Vorlesungen tiber die Theorie des Lichtes, p. 341,

812 REPORT—1898.
which is identical to the condition that
=e
p rt p, 2 ?

or, in more familiar form, that the reflected and the refracted rays form a right
angle with each other. It is evident from the above simple relation that, if » and
¢ can be determined by experiment, A will be given.

Even a general examination of the above special equation (3) would be too
long here; I shall, therefore, confine myself to the particular case where A, B, and
C are assigned given numerical values; for sulphur Boltzmann! has found the
following values for the constants of electric induction :

4773 3:970 3°811.
For these values the above equation (3) reduces approximately to
sin °f + 51°7 sin 4 + 494°8 sin *@ —440=0,
one root of which is j
gp = 64° 44’;
the other roots are imaginary.
Similarly, we find another angle of polarisation ¢ on interchanging the above

wv (A) and y (B) co-ordinate axes with each other. The general equation in
must then evidently be written

v* [v? + (A?—B?) sin *] cos $= A./v* = B? sin *¢ [v? — (A®— B?) sin *9].
This equation reduces for the given particular case to
sin “fp — 53.35 sin *¢ + 617.53 sin * —-465=0;

one root of which is
p =62° 7’ 30";

the other roots are imaginary.

If now we are able to determine by experiment two such critical values of ¢,
characterised by linearly polarised light or other phenomena, we should then have
two equations for the determination of the quantities 4 and B. Although the
actual solution of these equations with regard to A and B offers difficulty, very
approximate ones can always be found.

Similarly, to determine the third medium-constant (, we have only to choose
those principal planes of the given crystals as reflecting and incident planes, for
which the above formula (2) reduces to a function of C and A or B only.

1 Cf. Pogg. Ann. 153, 1874. ‘Experimentaluntersuchung tiber das Verhalten
nicht Jeitender Kérper unter dem Einflusse elektrischer Krifte.’ Also Poincaré’s
Llectricité et optique, vol. i. p. 129.

a i i

Ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 813

Secrion B.—CHEMISTRY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—Professor F. R. Japp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Stereochemistry and Vitalism.

Or the numerous weighty discoveries which science owes to the genius of Pasteur,
none appeals more strongly to chemists than that with which he opened his career
as an inyestigator—the establishing of the connection between optical activity and
molecular asymmetry in organic compounds. The extraordinary subtlety of the
modes of isomerism then for the first time disclosed ; the novelty and refinement
of the means employed in the separation of the isomerides ; the felicitous geometrical
hypothesis adopted to account for the facts—an hypothesis which subsequent
investigation has served but to confirm; the perfect balance of inductive and
deductive method ; and lastly, the circumstance that in these researches Pasteur laid
the foundation of the science of stereochemistry: these are characteristics any one of
which would have sufficed to render the work eminently noteworthy, but which,
taken together, stamp it as the capital achievement of organic chemistry.

Physiologists, on the other hand, are naturally more attracted by Pasteur’s
subsequent work, in which the biological element predominates; in fact, I doubt
whether many of them have given much attention to the earlier work. And yet
it ought to be of interest to physiologists, not merely because it is the root from
which the later work springs, but because it furnishes, I am convinced, a reply
to the most fundamental question that physiology can propose to itself—namely,
whether the phenomena of life are wholly explicable in terms of chemistry and
physics; in other words, whether they are reducible to problems of the kinetics of
atoms, or whether, on the contrary, there are certain residual phenomena, inex-
plicable by such means, pointing to the existence of a directive force which enters
upon the scene with life itself, and which, whilst in no way violating the laws of
the kinetics of atoms—whilst, indeed, acting through these laws—determines the
course of their operation within the living organism.

The latter view is known as Vitalism. At one time universally held, although
in a cruder form than that just stated, it fell, later on, into disrepute ; ‘ vital force,’
the hypothetical and undefined cause of the special phenomena of life, was
relegated to the category of occult qualities; and the problems of physiology were
declared to be solely problems of chemistry and physics. Various causes con-
tributed to this result. In the first place, the mere name ‘ vital force’ explains
nothing; although, of course, one may make this admission without thereby
conceding that chemistry and physics explain everything. Secondly, the older
vitalists confounded force with energy ; their ‘ vital force’ was a source of energy ;

814 REPORT—1898.

so that their doctrines contradicted the law of the conservation of energy, and
became untenable the moment that this law was established. I would point out,
however, that the assumption of a purely directive ‘ vital force,’ such as I haye just
referred to, using the word ‘force’ in the sense which it bears in modern dynamics,
does not necessarily involve this contradiction ; for a force acting on a moving body
at right angles to its path does no work, although it may continuously alter the
direction in which the body moves. When, therefore, Professor J. Burdon
Sanderson writes: ‘The proof of the non-existence of a special “ vital force” lies
in the demonstration of the adequacy of the known sources of energy in the
organism to account for the actual day by day expenditure of heat and work,’ he
does not consider this special case. The application of the foregoing principle
of dynamics to the discussion of problems like the present is, I believe, due to the
late Professor Fleeming Jenkin. A third ground for abandoning the doctrine of a
‘vital force’ was the discovery that numerous organic compounds for the pro-
duction of which the living organism was supposed to be necessary could be
synthesised by laboratory methods from inorganic materials. It is the validity
of some of the conclusions drawn from the latter fact that I wish especially to
consider.

Recent years have, however, witnessed a significant revival of the doctrine of
yitalism among the physiologists of the younger generation.

It is not my intention to offer any opinion on the various arguments which
physiologists of the neo-vitalistic school have put forward in support of their
views; these arguments and the facts on which they are based lie entirely outside
my province. I shall confine myself to a single class of chemical facts rendered
accessible by Pasteur’s researches on optically active compounds, and, considering
these facts in the light of our present views regarding the constitution of organic
compounds, I shall endeavour to show that living matter is constantly performing
a certain geometrical feat which dead matter, unless indeed it happens to belong
to a particular class of products of the living organism and to be thus ultimately
referable to living matter, is incapable—not even conceivably capabie—of perform-
ing. -My argument, being based on geometrical and dynamical considerations, will
have the advantage, over the physiological arguments, of immeasurably greater
simplicity ; so that, at all events, any fallacy into which 1 may unwittingly fall
will be the more readily detected. é

In order to make clear the bearing of the results of stereochemical research on
this physiological problem, it will be necessary to give a brief sketch of the stereo-
chemistry of optically active organic compounds, as founded by Pasteur and as
further developed by later investigators.

Substances are said to be optically active when they produce rotation of the
plane of polarisation of a ray of polarised light which passes through them. The
rotation may be either to the right or to the left, according to the nature of the
substance ; in the former case the substance in said to be dextro-rotatory; in the
latter, levo-rotatory. The effect is as if the ray had been forced through a twisted
medium—a medium with a right-handed or a left-handed twist—and had itself
received a twist in the process; and the amount of the rotation will depend upon
the degree of ‘ twist’ in the medium (that is, on the rotatory power of substance)
and upon the thickness of the stratum of substance through which the ray passes,
just as the angle through which a bullet turns in passing from the breech to the
muzzle of a rifle will depend upon the degree of twist in the rifling and the length
of the barrel. Ifthe bullet had passed through the barrel in the opposite direction,
the rotation would still have been in the same sense ; since a right-handed (or left-
handed) twist or helix remains the same from whichever end it is viewed, in
whichever direction it is traversed. This also applies to optically active substances ;
if the polarised ray passes through the substance in the opposite direction, the
rotation still occurs in the same sense as before. This characteristic sharply
distinguishes the rotation due to optically active substances from that produced
by the magnetic field, the latter rotation being reversed on reversing the direction
of the polarised ray.

Optically active substances may be divided into two classes, Some, like quartz,

LL <« i

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 815

sodium chlorate, and benzil, produce rotation only when in the crystallised state ;
the dissolved (or fused) substances are inactive. Others, like oil of turpentine, cam-
phor, and sugar, are optically active when in the liquid state or in solution. In the
former case the molecules of the substance have no twisted structure, but they unite
to form crystals having such a structure. As Pasteur expressed it, we may build up
a spiral staircase—an asymmetric figure—from symmetric bricks; when the stair-
case is again resolved into its component bricks, the asymmetry disappears. (I
will explain presently the precise significance of the terms symmetry and
asymmetry as used in this connection.) In the case of compounds which are
optically active in the liquid state, the twisted structure must be predicated of the
molecules themselves; that is, there must be a twisted arrangement of the atoms
which form these molecules.

The earliest known experimental facts regarding the rotation of the plane of
polarisation by various substances, solid and liquid, were discovered by Arago and
by Biot.

’ After this preliminary statement as to what is understood by optical activity,
we may consider Pasteur’s special contributions to the solution of the problems
inyolved.

Pasteur tells us, in the well-known ‘ Lectures on the Molecular Asymmetry of
Natural Organic Products,’ which he delivered in 1860, before the Chemical
Society of Paris, that his earliest independent scientific work dealt with the
subject of crystallography, to which he had turned his attention from a conviction
that it would prove useful to him in the study of chemistry. In order to perfect
himself in crystallographical methods, he resolved to repeat all the measurements
contained in a memoir by De la Provostaye on the crystalline forms of tartaric
acid, racemic acid, and their salts. These two sets of compounds have the same
composition, except that they frequently differ in the number of molecules of
water of crystallisation which they contain; but whereas tartaric acid and the
tartrates are dextro-rotatory, racemic acid and the racemates are optically inactive.
It was probably this circumstance that decided Pasteur in his choice of a subject, for
it appears that, even as a student, he had been attracted by the problem of optical
activity. In the course of the repetition, however, he detected a fact which had

‘escaped the notice of his predecessor in the work, accurate observer as the latter

was—namiely, the presence, in the tartrates, of right-handed hemihedral faces,
which are absent in the racemates. Hemihedral faces are such as occur in only
half their possible number; and in the case of non-superposable hemihedry, to
which class that of the tartrates belongs, there are always two opposite hemihedral
forms possible: a right-handed or dextro-form, and a left-handed or levo-form.
Which is right, and which is left, is a matter of convention; but they are opposite
forms, and differ from one another exactly as the right hand of the human body
differs from the left: that is, they resemble one another in every respect, except
that they are non-superposable—the one cannot be made to coincide in space with
the other, just as a right hand will not fit into a left-hand glove. The one formis
identical with the mirror image of the other: thus the mirror image of a right
hand is a left hand. Such opposite hemihedral crystalline forms are termed
enantiomorphs; they have the same faces and the same angles, but differ in the
fact that all positions in the one are reversed in the other for one dimension of
space, and left unchanged for. the other two dimensions; this being the geometrical
transformation which an object appears to undergo when reflected in a plane
mirror. Enantiomorphism is possible only in the case of asymmetric solid figures :
these alone give non-superposable mirror images. Any object which gives a
mirror image identical with the object itself—a superposable mirror image—must
have at least one plane of symmetry.

The hemihedry of the tartrates discovered by Pasteur is in every case in the
same sense—that termed right-handed—provided that the crystals are oriented
according to two of the axes which have nearly the same ratio in all the tartrates.

Pasteur was inclined to connect the molecular dextro-rotatory power of the
tartrates with this right-handed hemihedry; since in the racemates both the
hemihedry and the rotatory power were absent. A similar connection, which,

316 REPORT—1898.

however, held good only for the crystalline condition, had, as he points out, been
already observed in the case of quartz, the crystals of which occasionally exhibit
small asymmetric (tetartohedral) faces, situated in some specimens to the right
and in others to the left; the former specimens being dextro-, the latter, levo-
rotatory. The possibility of this connection was first suggested by Sir John
Herschel.

Pasteur’s views were confirmed by an unexpected discovery which he made
shortly after. Mitscherlich had stated, in 1844, in a communication to Biot,
which the latter laid before the French Academy of Sciences, that sodium
ammonium tartrate and sodium ammonium racemate were identical, not merely
in chemical composition, but in crystalline form, in specific gravity, and in every
other property, chemical and physical, except that the solution of the former salt
was dextro-rotatory, that of the latter inactive. And to make his statement still
more definite, he added: ‘The nature and the number of the atoms, their arrange-
ment, and their distances from one another, are the same in both compounds.’

At the time this passage appeared Pasteur was a student in the Ecole Normale.
He tells us how it puzzled him, as being in contradiction to the views universally
held by physicists and chemists, that the properties, chemical and physical, of
substances depended on the nature, number, and arrangement of their constituent
atoms. He now returned to the subject, imagining that the explanation would be
found in the fact that Mitscherlich had overlooked the hemihedral faces in the
tartrate, and that the racemate would not be hemihedral. He therefore prepared
and examined the two double salts. He found that the tartrate was, like all the other
tartrates which he had investigated, hemihedral ; but, to his surprise, the solution
of the racemate also deposited hemihedral crystals. A closer examination, how-
ever, disclosed the fact that, whereas in the tartrate all the hemihedral faces were
situated to the right, in the crystals from the solution of the racemate they were
situated sometimes to the right, and sometimes to the left. Mindful of his view
regarding the connection between the sense of the hemihedry and that of the
optical activity, he carefully picked out and separated the dextro- and levo-hemi-
hedrai crystals. made a solution of each kind separately, and observed it in the
polarimeter. To his surprise and delight, the solution of the right-handed crystals
‘was dextro-rotatory ; that of the left-handed, lzevo-rotatory. The right-handed
crystals were identical with those of the ordinary (dextro-) tartrate; the others,
which were their mirror image, or enantiomorph, were derived from the hitherto
unknown levo-tartaric acid. From the dextro- and levo-salts thus separated he
prepared the free dextro- and levo-tartaric acids. And having thus obtained from
racemic acid its two component acids—dextro- and levo-tartaric acids—it was an
easy matter to recompose racemic acid. He found that, on mixing equal weights
of the two opposite acids, each previously dissolved in a little water, the solution
almost solidified, depositing a mass of crystals of racemic acid.

These two tartaric acids have the same properties, chemical and physical,
except where their opposite asymmetry comes into play. They crvstallise in the
same forms, with the same faces and angles; but the hemihedral facets, which in
the one are situated to the right, are, in the other, situated to the left. Their
specific gravities and solubilities are the same; but the solution of the one is
dextro-rotatory ; of the other, levo-rotatory. The salts which. they form with
inorganic bases also agree in every respect, except as regards their opposite
asymmetry and opposite rotatory power. They are enantiomorphous.

Pasteur, discussing the question of the molecular constitution of these acids,
anticipates in a remarkable manner the views at present held by chemists. ‘ We
know, on the one hand,’ he says, ‘ that the molecular structures of the two tar-
taric acids are asymmetric, and on the other, that they are rigorously the same,
with the sole difference of showing asymmetry in opposite senses. Are the atoms
of the right acid grouped on the spirals of a right-handed helix, or placed at the
solid angles of an irregular tetrahedron, or disposed according to some particular
asymmetric grouping or other? We cannot answer these questions. But it can-
not be a subject of doubt that there exists an arrangement of the atoms in an
asymmetric order having a non-superposable image. It is not less certain that

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 817

the atoms of the left acid realise precisely the asymmetric grouping which is the
inverse of this,’

The idea of the irregular tetrahedron is, it may be explained, derived from the
hemihedral facets. Imaginé these to develop in the case of dextro-tartaric acid
until the other faces of the crystal disappear, and there results an irregular tetra-
hedron. Repeat the process with a crystal of lzvo-tartaric acid, and the enantio-
morphous tetrahedron—the mirror-image of the former—is obtained. We shall
¢ later that the idea, on the one hand, of two asymmetric tetrahedra, and, on
the other, that of two opposite helices, given as alternatives by Pasteur to explain
the grouping of the atoms within the molecules of dextro- and lwvo-tartaric acids,
are in reality identical.

The precision of Pasteur’s views as to the asymmetry of these acids enabled
him to discover two further methods of separating them. Thus he points out that
although these acids will possess equal affinity for any given symmetric base, such
as potash, or ammonia, or aniline, yet.their affinities will not be equal if the base,
like quinine or strychnine, is itself asymmetric ; because here the special one-sided
asymmetry of the base will modify its mode of combination with the two enantio-
morphous acids, The solubility is different in the case of the dextro- and levo-
tartrates of the same asymmetric base ; the crystalline form, the specific gravity,
the number of molecules of water of crystallisation, may be all different. Potassium
dextro- and levo-tartrates are mirror images of one another; quinine dextro- and
lsevo-tartrates are not. Pasteuremployed in his experiments the asymmetric base
cinchonicine, which he converted into its acid racemate, and allowed the solution
to crystallise. The first crystallisations consisted of pure levo-tartrate of cin-
chonicine, whilst the more soluble dextro-tartrate remained in the mother liquor,
from which it finally crystallised in forms totally distinct from those of the levo-
tartrate.

Pasteur’s third method is of physiological interest, and is, moreover, the
stepping-stone to his later work on ferments. As we shall see presently, he
regarded the formation of asymmetric organic compoundsas the special prerogative
of the living organism. Most of the substances of which the animal and vegetable
tissues are built up—the proteids, cellulose—are asymmetric organic compounds,
displaying optical activity. Pasteur had shown that two compounds of inverse
asymmetry behaved differently towards a third asymmetric compound. How
would they behave towards the asymmetric living organism ?

It had frequently been noticed that impure calcium tartrate, when mixed with
organic matters, as is the case when it is obtained in the process of preparing
tartaric acid from argol, readily underwent fermentation. Pasteur examined the
action of the ferment (apparently a Penicillium) on ammonium tartrate—a sub-
stance which had the advantage over calcium tartrate of being soluble—and, finding
that the fermentation here followed a normal course, ending with the destruction
of the tartrate, repeated the experiment with ammonium racemate, examining the
sclution from time to time with the polarimeter. The fermentation proceeded,
apparently, as before; but the solution, originally optically inactive, became levo-
rotatory, the activity gradually increasing in amount until a maximum was
reached. At this point the fermentation ceased. The whole of the dextro-
tartrate had disappeared, and from the solution the levo-tartrate was obtained in
a state of purity. The asymmetric living organism had selected for its nutriment
that particular asymmetric form of tartaric acid which suited its needs—the form,
doubtless, which in some way fitted its own asymmetry—and had left the opposite
form either wholly or, for the most part, untouched. The asymmetric micro-
organism, therefore, exhibits a power which no symmetric chemical substance,
such as our ordinary oxidising agents, and no symmetric form of energy, such as
heat, can ever possess: it distinguishes between enantiomorphs. If we oxidise
racemic acid with nitric acid, for example, both the enantiomorphous constituents
are attacked in exactly the same degree. If we heat racemic acid, whatever
happens to its right-handed constituent happens equally to its left-handed con-
stituent: the temperature of decomposition of both is the same. Asymmetric
agents can alone display selective action in dealing with enantiomorphs.

1898, 3G

818 i REPORT—1898.

By the action of heat Pasteur converted ordinary tartaric acid into racemic

acid, in which process a portion of the right acid is converted into the left, an
equilibrium being established ; and lvo-tartaric acid may be converted into
racemic acid in the same way, the inverse change taking place. At the same time,
a new tartaric acid is formed in both cases: mesotartaric acid, or true inactive
tartaric acid, which resembles racemic acid in having no action on tbe plane of
polarisation, but differs from it in not being separable into two acids of opposite
activity. According to our present views, it contains two equal and opposite
asymmetric groups within its molecule. Racemic acid is thus inactive by enter-
molecular compensation ; mesotartaric acid, by zzt/amolecular compensation.
' Pasteur, generalising somewhat hastily from the few cases which he had
studied, came to the conclusion that all organic compounds capable of exhibiting
optical activity might exist in the foregoing four forms—dextro, levo, racemoid,
and meso. As regards the dextro and levo forms, this is correct; as regards the
racemvid form it is generally correct; but the meso form, as we now know, is a
very special case, implying that the molecule contains two structurally identical
complexes of opposite asymmetry.

Were I following the exact historical order, I should introduce here Pasteur’s
view that compounds exhibiting optical activity have never been obtained without
the intervention of life—a view which it is the object of the present address to
consider. The later developments of stereochemistry, however, throw so much
light on this question, and enable us to discuss it with such precision, that we
shall turn our attention to these first. Before so doing, however, we may note
that, in spite of the immense growth in the material of stereochemistry, and in
spite of the development of the theoretical views of stereochemists, hardly any
‘experimental method of fundamental importance for the separation and trans-
formation of optically active compounds has been added to those described in
Pasteur’s classical researches, although it is almost forty years since these came to
a close. Perhaps Walden’s remarkable discovery of a method for the transforma-
tion of certain enantiomorphs into their optical opposites without previous racemi-
sation, is the only one entitled to be so classed.

Pasteur was in advance of his time, and his theory of molecular asymmetry
‘was a seed that lay for many years in the ground without germinating.

In 1858, just about the period when Pasteur was concluding his researches in
the foregoing field, Kekulé published his celebrated theoretical paper, ‘On the
Constitution and Metamorphoses of Chemical Compounds, and on the Chemical
Nature of Carbon, in which he showed that, by assuming that the carbon atom
had four units of affinity, the constitution wf orgatic compounds could be satis-
factorily explained. This was the starting-point of the theory of chemical
structure, and from that time to the present day organic chemists have been
engaged, with enormous expenditure of labour, in determining the constitution or
molecular structure of the carbon compounds on the lines of Kekulé’s theory.

In order that Pasteur’s ideas should bear fruit it was only necessary that

‘his purely general statements with regard to molecular asymmetry should be
specialised, so as to include the recognised constitution of organic compounds. It
was from this union of Pasteur’s theory with that of Kekulé that modern stereo-
chemistry sprang. The necessary step was taken, independently and almost
simultaneously, by Van’t Hoff and Le Bel, in 1874. I will briefly state their
conclusions, so far as these bear on the subject of optical activity.
_ Jf we examine the structural formule of a number of thoroughly investigated
optically active organic compounds, we shall find that the molecule of each
contains at least one carbon atom of which the four affinities are satisfied by
‘four different atoms or groups—an asymmetric carbon atom, as it is termed.

The four affinities, or directed attractive powers, of the carbon atom are not
to be conceived of as lying in one plane. The simplest assumption that we can
make with regard to their distribution in space is that the direction of each makes
equal angles with the directions of the three others. We may express this
differently by saying that the four atoms or groups attached to the carbon atom
are situated at the solid angles of a tetrahedron, in the centre of which the carbon

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 819

atom itself is placed. If the four atoms or groups are all identical they will be
equally attracted by the carbon atom; consequently they will be equidistant from
it, and the tetrahedron will be regular. If they are all different the force with
which each is attracted will be different; they will arrange themselves at different
distances from the carbon atom; and the tetrahedron will be irregular: it will
have no plane of symmetry. Any compound of the formula CHX’Y’Z’ can there-
fore exist in two enantiomorphs, applying this term to the molecules themselves—
in two non-superposable forms, each of which is the mirror image of the other:
thus—

Fie. 1. Hig, 2.
x’
nA Zz = H

'\
\
\

Y’ y’

(In these figures no attempt has been made to represent the tetrahedra as irre~

gular; the opposite asymmetry is indicated merely by the opposite order of the four

attached atoms or groups, In reality, however, they would be irregular, The
carbon atom itself is not shown.)

If we consider any particular set of three atoms or groups—for example,

HI, Z’, and Y’—looking towards that face of the tetrahedron about which they are

arranged, any order, thus HZ’ Y’, which is clockwise in one figure, will be counter-

clockwise in the other. In like manner, a continuous curve, passing through the

four atoms or groups in any given sequence, will form a right-handed helix in the

one case and a left-handed helix in the other. We thus find that the foregoing

_ assumptions—the very simplest that could be made—regarding the distribution of

_ the four affinities of carbon and the different degree with which four different

_ atoms or groups will be attracted by the carbon atom to which they are attached,

lead to the asymmetric structures postulated by Pasteur to account for optical

ee tame, enantiomorphous irregular tetrahedra, and right- and left-handed

helices.

Fic. 3.

That a‘spiral arrangement, right- or left-handed, will produce rotation of the
_ plane of polarisation in its own sense, may be shown by various experiments:
thus in Reusch’s optically active piles of plates of mica, produced by crossing
successive plates of biaxal mica at an angle of 60° to one another ; or in the twisted

. . : V5 4
jute fibres recently described by Professor Bose, which, according to the direction *< /\ © © ©
3G 2

‘820 REPORT—1898.

of the twist previously imparted to them, rotate the plane of polarisation of electrie
waves either to the right or to the left.

If two of the four atoms or groups attached to carbon are identical, there is no
asymmetry, and no optical activity. ‘Thus, in a compound of the formula
CH,X'Y’, which we may represent by our tetrahedral scheme as shown in fig. 3,
the two hydrogen atoms are equidistant from the carbon atom; the system has a
plane of symmetry passing through X’ Y’ and the carbon atom, and has therefore
a superposable mirror image.

lf the molecule contains only one asymmetric carbon atom, the latter may
be either positive or negative, so that the substance may exist in two forms of
opposite optical activity; in addition to which we may have the racemoid
combination of the two, which will be inactive but separable. Mandelic acid,
C,8,.CH(OH).COOH,} is a case in point: it is known in these three forms.

CH(OH).COOH
If, as in the case of tartaric acid, | , the molecule contains two
CH(OH).COOH
asymmetric carbon atoms, and at the same time consists of two structurally
identical halves, then these two atoms may be either both positive or both nega-
tive, reinforcing each other's effect in either case ; or one may be positive and the
other negative, when, owing to the structural identity of the two halves of the
molecule, the effect of the one will exactly compensate that of the other, and the
compound will be inactive, but not separable. Furthermore, there may be the
racemic combination of the bi-dextro- form with the bi-levo- form: a combination
inactive, but separable. We have thus the explanation of the four forms observed
by Pasteur.

In fact, all the complex cases of isomerism that have been met with among
compounds of this class—compounds structurally identical, but configuratively
distinct, as it is termed—amay be satisfactorily explained, and their possible number
accurately predicted, by means of the theory of the asymmetric carbon atom.

I must apologise to the organic chemists among my audience for inflicting on
them this very elementary exposition of what to them is a well-known theory.
But outside the circle of organic chemists the theory is, I fear, far from well
known. Thus, av eminent physicist, in his ‘Theory of Light,’ referring to the
rotation of the plane of polarisation by liquid or dissolved substances, says: ‘ 1 am
not aware that any explanation of it has ever been suggested.’ And in the
‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society ’ for the present year, another eminent physicist,
after quoting with approval this purely personal confession, goes on to suggest the
possibility of the molecules having a twisted structure, and points out that a
right-handed twist ‘ would appear right-handed when looked at from either end,’
apparently unaware that such conceptions have been commonplaces of stereo-
chemistry for the past quarter of a century at least.

This brief sketch of the theory was therefore necessary in order that we may
ed eres discuss Pasteur’s views on the relation between optical activity
and life.

Whenever we prepare artificially, starting either with the elements, or with
symmetric compounds, any organic compound which, when it occurs as a natural
product of the living organism, is optically active, the primary product of our
laboratory reactions, however closely it may in other respects resemble the natural
product, differs from it in being optically inactive. Pasteur was greatly impressed
by this fact. In the Lectures delivered in 1860 he says: ‘ Artificial products have
no molecular asymmetry; and I could not point out the existence of any more
profound distinction between the products formed under the influence of life, and
all others.’ And again, he refers to ‘the molecular asymmetry of natural organic
products’ as ‘the great characteristic which establishes perhaps the only well-
marked line of demarcation that can at present be drawn between the chemistry
of dead matter and the chemistry of living matter.’ He would not admit that
even racemoid forms, optically inactive by intermolecular compensation, might be

? The asymmetric carbon atom is represented by an italic C.

: ‘
.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 821

artificially prepared; thus, to the suggestion that the malic acid which he had ob-
tained from Dessaignes’s artificial aspartic acid might possibly be the racemoid form
(as we now know that it is), he replied : ‘That is improbable, for then not only should
we have made an active body from an inactive one, but we should have made two
—a right and a left.’

The view that racemoids could not be prepared artificially did not long remain
tenable. In 1860, the year in which the foregoing lectures were delivered, Perkin
and Duppa, and, independently, Kekulé, obtained from dibromsuccinic acid a form
of tartaric acid which Pasteur recognised as racemic acid. But the succinic acid
employed had been prepared from amber, a substance of vegetable origin; and
there was still the possibility that herein lay the source of the optical activity of
the two constituents of the artificial racemic acid. This objection, which was
raised by Pasteur himself, fell to the ground when, in 1873, Jungfleisch prepared
racemic acid from Maxwell Simpson’s synthetic succinic acid, and separated it
into its right and left constituents by means of the sodium ammonium salt.

‘Thus falls the barrier,’ wrote Schiitzenberger, ‘ which M. Pasteur had placed
between natural and artificial products. This example shows us how reserved we
must be in attempting to draw distinctions between the chemical reactions of the
living organism and those of the laboratory.’

To these words, which, although written a quarter of a century ago, may fairly
be taken as representing the prevailing belief of chemists at the present day, Pas-
teur aeplied as follows:

‘Contrary to M. Schiitzenberger’s belief, this barrier still exists. . . . To trans-
form one inactive compound into another inactive compound which has the power
of resolving itself simultaneously into a right-handed compound and its opposite
(son symétrique), is in no way comparable with the possibility of transforming an
tnactive compound into a single active compound. This is what no one has ever
done ; it is, on the other hand, what living Nature is doing unceasingly before our
eyes.

On this and subsequent occasions Pasteur did little more than reiterate opinions
which he had previously expressed. As he himself stated, he was then occupied
with other problems which absorbed his entire time and energies. ‘The result has
been that the opinions have suffered neglect and even misrepresentation. Thus
Ostwald, in his ‘ Allgemeine Chemie,’ translating, or rather paraphrasing, the fore-
going passage, omits the word ‘ single "—which is the key to Pasteur’s meaning—
and then condemns the statement as illogical.

Pasteur’s point is, that whereas living Nature can make a single optically active
compound, those laboratory reactions, to which we resort in synthesising such
compounds, always produce, simultaneously, at least two, of equal and opposite
optical activity; the result being intermolecular compensation and consequent
Optical inactivity. Not necessarily implied in Pasteur’s statement, but entirely in
harmony with it, is the fact that we can sometimes produce artificially a single
compound containing within its molecule two equal and opposite asymmetric
groups, and therefore inactive by iztramolecular compensation ; thus in the oxida-
tion of maleic acid to mesotartaric acid.

Let us consider the cause of this limitation of our synthetic reactions. Why
cannot we produce, by laboratory processes, involving the play of symmetric forces
and the interaction of symmetric atoms and molecules, sizgle optically active com-
pounds? To answer that question, let us turn our attention to the mechanism of
the change in which a symmetric carbon atom becomes asymmetric.

A simple case of such a change, typical of all similar changes, is the transfor-

_ mation of a compound, CH,X’Y’, by substitution, into CHX’Y’Z’. If we follow

this process by means of our tetrahedral model, we see at once why, in our ordinary
laboratory reactions, both enantiomorphs must be generated in equal quantity.
The molecule of the compound, CH,X’Y’, of which the tetrahedral representation
is given in fig. 3, has, as we have already seen, a plane of symmetry passing
through X’Y’ and the carbon atom; and from this plane of symmetry the two
hydrogen atoms are equidistant on opposite sides. Any purely mechanical,

822 REPORT—1898.

symmetrie force, therefore—any force, for example, such as comes into play in the
motions of the symmetric molecules of a gas or a liquid—which affects one of these
hydrogen atoms in one molecule of the compound CH,X’Y’, has an equal chance
of affecting the other hydrogen atom in another molecule. If the right-hand
hydrogen atom in fig. 3 is replaced by the radicle Z’, we obtain the enantiomorph
represented in fig. 1; if the left-hand hydrogen atom, that represented in fig. 2.
The chances in favour of these two events being equal, the ratio, :

Number of occurrences of event I.

Number of occurrences of event II.

will, if we are dealing with an infinitely great number of molecules, approximate
to unity. We therefore obtain a mixture, optically inactive by intermolecular
compensation.

All cases of the conversion of symmetric into asymmetric compounds may be
referred to the same category, no matter whether the chemical process is one of
substitution or of addition, or whether the resulting molecule contains one or more
asymmetric carbon atoms. Thus, in the reduction of a ketone of the formula
X’.CO.Y’ to a secondary alcohol of the formula X’.CH(OH).Y’ ; in the transforma-
tion of an aldehyde by the addition of hydrocyanic acid into a nitrile of an
a-hydroxy-acid ; in the oxidation of fumaric acid to racemic acid—cases typifying
the various additive processes in which asymmetric groupings are produced—there
is one condition common to all: in the symmetric compound, with which we start,
there are, in every case, two identical points of attack, equidistant from the plane
of symmetry of the molecule, and the result is that the two possible events happen
in equal number, so that the mixture of enantiomorphs obtained is optically in-
active by compensation. We are, of course, in many cases able afterwards to
separate these enantiomorphs by the methods devised by Pasteur, and thus obtain
the single optically active compounds; but we cannot produce them singly as long,
as we have at our disposal only the symmetric forces which we command in the
laboratory.

Precisely the same state of things prevails when symmetric molecules unite,
under the influence of symmetric forces, to build up an asymmetric crystalline
structure. When, for example, sodium chlorate crystallises from its aqueous solu-
tion, the number of right-handed crystals is, on the average, as was shown by
Kipping and Pope, equal to the number of left-handed crystals. The same fact
was proved by Landolt by observing the optical inactivity of the mixture of micro-
scopic right and left crystals obtained by adding alcohol to a concentrated aqueous
solution of sodium chlorate. The two possible asymmetric events occur in equal
number.

Non-living, symmetric forces, therefore, acting on symmetric atoms or mole-
cules, cannot produce asymmetry, since the simultaneous production of two oppo-
site asymmetric halves is equivalent to the production of a symmetric whole,
whether the two asymmetric halves be actually united in the same molecule, as in
the case of mesotartaric acid, or whether they exist as separate molecules, as in the
left and right constituents of racemic acid. In every case, the symmetry of the
whole is proved by its optical inactivity.

The result is entirely different, however, when we allow symmetric forces to
act under the influence of already existing asymmetric, non-racemoid compounds.

Thus, if we start with an optically active compound—a compound containing
one or more asymmetric carbon atoms and non-racemoid—and, by appropriate
chemical reactions, render asymmetric some carbon atom in the compound which
was not previously so, then it does not follow that the two forms represented by
the two possible arrangements of this new asymmetric carbon atom will be pro-
duced in equal quantity. The compound with which we start has no plane of
symmetry ; and, although there are still the two possible points of attack, one will
be more exposed than the other; in fact, one mode of attack may so predominate
that apparently only one asymmetric compound is formed, the other compound, if
formed at all, escaping detection by the smallness of its amount. A case in point

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 823°

is the conversion of d-mannose by combination with hydrocyanic acid into the’
nitrile of d-mannoheptonic acid, studied by Emil Fischer, in which only one nitrile’
is formed, although there are two ways in which the hydrocyanic acid may attach:
itself to the aldehyde group of the mannose. On the other hand, the same general
reaction, in the union of hydrocyanic acid with ordinary aldehyde CH,.CHO
—a symmetric compound —yields the right and left forms of lacto-nitrile’
CH,.CH(OH).CN in equal quantity, the two asymmetric events occurring in’
equal number, and the resulting mixture of compounds being inactive. It is the
difference between guidance and no guidance: the asymmetric group present in
the mannose guides into a particular path the symmetric forces which bring about:
the addition of the hydrocyanic acid ; in the case of the symmetric aldehyde the
result is left to pure chance. The latter action is like that of tossing a perfectly
balanced coin; in the former the coin is heavily weighted on one side. ‘The say-
ing, ‘les dés de la Nature sont pipés, is certainly true of living Nature and its
products. ;

This guiding action displayed by asymmetric compounds may even impart a
bias to the crystallisation of those molecularly symmetric substances already
referred to, which crystallise in enantiomorphous forms. Thus, Kipping and Pope
have recently made the interesting observation that the crystals of sodium chlorate
which are deposited from an aqueous solution containing 200 grams of d-glucose
to the litre consist, on an average, of about 32 per cent. of right-handed to 68 per
cent. of left-handed crystals, the asymmetric carbohydrate, by its mere presence,
favouring the formation of the one asymmetric form of the inorganic salt at the
expense of the other.

These observations possibly afford a clue to the mode of action of the living
organism in producing single enantiomorphs. ‘This production of single asym-
metric forms may be a result of the asymmetric character of the chemical com-
pounds of which the tissues of plants and animals are built up. ‘The optically
active products of the organism—the carbohydrates, the terpenes, tartaric acid,
asparagine, quinine, the serum of the blood, and countless others—have been
formed in an asymmetric environment, and their asymmetry is an induced pheno-
menon. They have been cast, as it were, in an asymmetric mould. According to
this view they are a result of the selective production of one of the two possible
enantiomorphous forms. The same would hold good with regard to the organised
tissues themselves, developed from inherited asymmetric beginnings in the ovum
or the seed, or obtained by fission. The perplexing question of the absolute origin
of these asymmetric compounds I will discuss later.

Another view has been put forward by Emil Fischer. In his lecture on
‘Syntheses in the Sugar Group,’ delivered before the German Chemical Society in
1890, he says:

‘Starting with formaldehyde, chemical synthesis leads, in the first instance, to
the optically inactive acrose. In contradistinction to this only the active sugars
of the d-mannitol series have hitherto been found in plants.

‘ Are these the only products of assimilation [of carbon dioxide and water]?
Is the preparation of optically active substances a prerogative of the living
organism ; is a special cause, a kind of vital force, at work here? I do not think
so, and incline rather to the view that it is only the imperfection of our knowledge
which imports into this process the appearance of the miraculous.

‘No fact hitherto known speaks against the view that the plant, like chemical

_ synthesis, first prepares the inactive sugars; that it then resolves them into their

active constituents, using the members of the d-mannitol series in building up
starch, cellulose, inulin, &c., whilst the optical isomerides serve for other purposes
at present unknown to us.’

There are, therefore, two opposite processes which would account for the pre-
sence of optically active compounds among the substances generated in the living
organism, and which we may briefly describe as selective production and selective
consumption. An instance of artificial selective production is the formation of
only one nitrile of d-mannoheptonic acid already cited. Selective consumption,

§24. REPORT—1898.

dissociated, however, from the previous production of the racemoid form,
may be illustrated by the fermentation of-dextro-tartaric acid in the action,
studied by Pasteur and already referred to, of a mould on racemic acid, the levo-
tartaric acid remaining untouched, and by numerous similar fermentations since
discovered. Selective consumption is not restricted to living ferments; various
cases are known of enzymes, or soluble ferments, which can effect the hydrolysis
of one glucoside, but not of its enantiomorph. As Emil Fischer, who studied this
phenomenon, says: ‘ nzyme and glucoside must fit each other like key and lock,
in order that the one may exercise a chemical action on the other. And a similar
selective action, embracing the much more complex phenomenon of alcoholic fer-
mentation, is displayed by E. Buchner’s soluble zymase obtained from yeast cells.

It is true, moreover, that the organism sometimes produces both enantiomorphs.
Thus the lactic ferment converts carbohydrates into racemoid lactic acid ; ordinary,
or levo-rotatory, asparagine is accompanied in plants, as Piutti showed, by a small
quantity of its optical isomeride; and there are other cases.

_ These facts might be taken as evidence in favour of Fischer's view that selec-
tive consumption is the cause of the phenomenon we are discussing. But I do not
think that, in the present state of our knowledge, we can decide between the two
views. For that matter both may be correct, each may explain particular cases.
What I wish to point out is that Fischer's statement that the ‘ miraculous’
character of the phenomenon is eliminated by his assumption appears open to
question. It is just as much, or as little, miraculous after as before. The pro-
duction of a single asymmetric form, and the destruction of one of two opposite
asymmetric forms, are problems of precisely the same order of difficulty, and there
are only two ways in which either of thera has ever been solved: firstly, by the
direct action of living matter, and, secondly, by the use of previously existing
asymmetric non-racemoid compounds, which are, in the last resort, due to the action
ot life. Directly or indirectly, then, life intervenes.

Doubtless this will appear a very extraordinary statement in view of Jung- |
fleisch’s synthesis of racemic acid and its resolution into dextro- and levo-tartaric
acids by the crystallisation of the sodium ammonium salts. The process does not
take place in a living organism; nor is the aid of life invoked in the shape of a
micro-organism as in Pasteur’s third method of separation. No asymmetric base
of vegetable origin is employed as in Pasteur’s second method, so that the indirect
action of life through its products is also excluded; sodium and ammonium are
symmetric inorganic radicles, and no substance of one-sided asymmetry is intro-
duced from beginning to end. ‘The process is one of ordinary crystallisation; the
two forms are deposited side by side, the operator afterwards picking out the right
and left crystals and separating them. The reason why the two tartrates crystal-
lise out and not the racemate, is that at the ordinary temperature of the air at
which the crystallisation is conducted they are less soluble than the racemate.
At a higher temperature, on the other hand, these solubilities are reversed and the
racemate is deposited. The conditions are precisely those which govern the forma-
tion or non-formation of ordinary double salts.

Consequently, the overwhelming majority of chemists hold that the foregoing
synthesis and separation of optically active compounds have been effected without
the intervention of life, either directly or indirectly. Every manual of stereo-
chemistry emphasises this point.

I have already hinted that I hold a contrary opinion. I have held it for
some time, but have not ventured to give public expression to it, except in
lecturing to my students. I was deterred chiefly by the impression that I stood
alone in my belief. I find, however, that this was a mistaken impression. In a
lecture on ‘Pasteur as the Founder of Stereochemistry, which Professor Crum
Brown delivered before the Franco-Scottish Society in July 1897, and which is
published in the ‘ Revue francaise d’Edimbourg,’ he says, referring to the separation
of enantiomorphs by crystallisation :—

_‘ The question has often occurred to me: Do we here get rid of the action of a
living organism ? Is not the observation and deliberate choice by which a human
being picks out the two kinds of crystals and places each in a yessel by itself the

————— ee SS—~—~S~S—s—ste

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 825

specific act of a living organism of a kind not altogether dissimilar to the selection
made by Penicillium glaucum? But I do not insist on this, although I think it is
not unworthy of consideration.’

It is this question, so precisely posed by Professor Crum Brown, that I would
discuss in detail. I think we shall find that the answer to it will be in the sense
which he indicates. The action of life, which has been excluded during the
previous stages of the process, is introduced the moment the operator begins to
pick out the two enantiomorphs.

It will doubtless be objected that, if this is the case, there can be no such thing
as a synthesis of a naturally occurring organic compound without the intervention
of life, inasmuch as the synthetic process is always carried out by a living
operator.

Here, however, we must draw an important distinction. In the great majority
of the operations which we carry out in our laboratories—such as solution, fusion,
vaporisation, oxidation, reduction and the like—we bring to bear upon matter
symmetric forces only—forces of the same order as those involved in the chance
motions of the molecules of a liquid or agas. All such processes, therefore, might
conceivably take place under purely chance conditions, without the aid of an
operator at all. But there is another class of operations, to which Pasteur first
drew attention: those into which one-sided asymmetry enters, and which deal
either with the production of a single enantiomorph, or with the destruction (or
change) of one enantiomorph in a mixture of both, or with the separation of two
enantiomorphs from one another. We have already seen that such processes are
possible only under one-sided asymmetric influences, which may take the form
either of the presence of an already existing enantiomorph, or of the action of a
living organism, or of the free choice of an intelligent operator. They cannot
conceivably occur through the chance play of symmetric forces.

We must, therefore, in classifying the actions of the intelligent operator, dis-
tinguish between those actions in which his services might conceivably be
dispensed with altogether and those in which his intelligence is the essential factor.
To the former class belongs the carrying out of symmetric chemical reactions; to
the latter, the separation of enantiomorphs.

Take the synthesis of formic acid—a symmetric compound—by the absorption
of carbon monoxide by heated caustic alkali. Given a forest fire and such natu-
rally occurring materials as limestone, sodium carbonate, and water, it would not be
difficult to imagine a set of conditions under which a chance synthesis of sodium
formate from inorganic materials might occur. Ido not assert that the condi-
tions would be particularly probable ; still, they would not be inconceivable. But
the chance synthesis of the simplest optically active compound from inorganic
materials is absolutely inconceivable. So also is the separation of two crystallised
enantiomorphs under purely symmetric conditions.

The picking out of the two enantiomorphs is, moreover, to be distinguished
from the process of similarly separating the crystals of two different non-enantio-
morphous substances, although this distinction is commonly ignored by classing
both processes together as mechanical, in opposition to chemical separations. In
the case of the non-enantiomorphs there may be differences of solubility, of specific
gravity and the like; so that other means of separation, involving only the play of
symmetric forces, may be resorted to. Such a process may justly be regarded as
‘mechanical.’ But the two crystallised enantiomorphs, as we have seen, have the
same solubility—at least in symmetric solvents; the same specific gravity ; behave,
in fact, in an identical manner towards all symmetric forces ; so that no separa-
tion by such means is feasible. It requires the living operator, whose intellect
embraces the conception of opposite forms of asymmetry, to separate them. Such
& process cannot, by any stretch of language, be termed ‘ mechanical.’ Conscious
selection here produces the same result as the unconscious selection exercised by
the micro-organism, the enzyme, or the previously existing asymmetric compound.

I need not point out that if the operator chooses to bring about the separation
by an asymmetric solvent, or some other asymmetric means, he is still making use
of his conception of asymmetry. He merely effects his end indirectly instead of

826 REPORT—1898, .

directly. But in either case he exercises a guiding power which is akin, in its’
results, to that of the living organism, and is entirely beyond the reach of the
symmetric forces of inorganic nature.

In like manner, it is not of the least consequence, for the purposes of the present
argument, whether the micro-organism, with which we have compared the operator, '
acts directly in fermenting one of two enantiomorphs, or whether it acts indirectly
by first preparing an asymmetric enzyme which displays this selective action.
The contention, therefore, of EK. Fischer, Buchner, and others, that the discovery:
of enzymes and zymases ‘has transferred the phenomena of fermentation from
biological to purely chemical territory, is true only as regards the immediate
process, and leaves intact the vitalistic origin of these phenomena.

We thus arrive at the conclusion that the production of single asymmetric
compounds, or their isolation from the mixture of their enantiomorphs, is, as
Pasteur firmly held, the prerogative of life. Only the living organism with its
asymmetric tissues, or the asymmetric products of the living organism, or the
living intelligence with its conception of asymmetry, can produce this result.
Only asymmetry can beget asymmetry.

Is the failure to synthesise single asymmetric compounds without the inter-
vention, either direct or indirect, of life due to a permanent inability, or merely to
a temporary disability which the progress of science may remove? Pasteur took
the latter view, and suggested that the formation of chemical compounds in the
magnetic field, or under the influence of circularly polarised light, would furnish a
means of solving the problem; and Van’t Hoff also thinks the latter method
feasible. As regards magnetism, Pasteur’s suggestion was undoubtedly based on a
misconception; the magnetic field has not an asymmetric structure; it is merely
polar, since the rotation which it produces in the plane of polarisation of a ray of
light changes sign with the direction of the field. As regards circularly polarised
light, I must confess to having doubts as to whether it can be regarded as an
asymmetric phenomenon: the motion of the ether about the axis of the ray is
' circular, not spiral; and it is only by considering the difference of phase from
point to point along the ray that the idea of a spiral can be evolved from it. In
tact, are there such things as forces asymmetric in themselves? Is the geometrical
conception of asymmetry applicable to dynamical phenomena at all, except in so
far as these deal with asymmetric material structures, such as quartz crystals, or
organic molecules containing asymmetric carbon atoms? But this is a question
which I would submit to the judgment of mathematical physicists.

One thing is certain—namely, that all attempts to form optically active com-
pounds under the influence of magnetism or circularly polarised light have hitherto
signally failed. These forces do not distinguish between the two equally exposed
points of attack which present themselves in the final stage of the transformation
of a symmetric into an asymmetric carbon atom.

But even if such an asymmetric force could be discovered—a force which would
enable us to synthesise a single enantiomorph—the process would not be free from
the intervention of life. Such a force would necessarily be capable of acting in
two opposite asymmetric senses ; left to itself it would act impartially in either
sense, producing. in the end, both enantiomorphs in equal amount. Only the free
choice of the living operator could direct it consistently into one of its two possible
channels.

I will briefly recapitulate the conclusions at which we have arrived. Non-
living, symmetric matter—the matter of which the inorganic world is composed—
interacting under the influence of symmetric forces to form asymmetric compounds,
always yields either pairs of enantiomorphous molecules (racemoid form), or pairs |
of enantiomorphous groups united within the molecule (meso-form), the result
being, in either case, mutual compensation and consequent optical inactivity.
The same will hold good of symmetric matter interacting under the influence
of asymmetric forces (supposing that such forces exist) provided that the latter are
left. to produce their effect under conditions of pure chance.

If these conclusions are correct, as I believe they are, then the absolute origin of
the compounds of one-sided asymmetry to be found in the living world is a mystery

EE. rl rrr CO rr™™—S

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 827

as profound as the absolute origin of life itself. The two phenomena are intimately
connected, for, as we have seen, these symmetric compounds make their appearance
with life, and are inseparable from it.

How, for example, could levo-rotatory protein (or whatever the first asymmetric
compound may have been) be spontaneously generated in a world of symmetric
matter and of forces which are either symmetric or, if asymmetric, are asymmetric
in two opposite senses? What mechanism could account for such selective pro-
duction? Or if, on the other hand, we suppose that dextro- and leevo-protein were
simultaneously formed, what conditions of environment existing in such a world
could account for the survival of the one form and the disappearance of the other ?
Natural selection leaves us in the lurch here; for selective consumption is, under
these conditions, as inconceivable as selective production.

No fortuitous concourse of atoms, even with all eternity for them to clash and
combine in, could compass this feat of the formation of the first optically active
organic compound. Coincidence is excluded, and every purely mechanical explana-
tion of the phenomenon must necessarily fail.

I see no escape from the conclusion that, at the moment when life first arose, a
directive force came into play—a force of precisely the same character as that
which enables the intelligent cperator, by the exercise of his Will, to select one
crystallised enantiomorph and reject its asymmetric opposite.

I would emphasise the fact that the operation of a directive force of this nature
does not involve a violation of the law of the conservation of energy. Enantio-
morphs have the same heat of formation; the heat of transformation of one form
into the other is nil. Whether, therefore, one enantiomorph alone is formed, or
its optical opposite alone, or a mixture of both, the energy required per unit weight
of substance is the same. There will be no dishonoured drafts on the unalterable
fund of energy.

The interest of the phenomena of molecular asymmetry from the point of
view of the biologist lies in the fact that they reduce to its simplest issues the
question of the possibility or impossibility of living matter originating from dead
matter by a purely mechanical process. They reduce it to a question of solid
geometry and elementary dynamics; and therefore, if the attempted mechanical
explanation leads to a reductio ad absurdum, this ought to be of a correspondingly
simple and convincing character. Let us see how far this is the case.

Life is a phenomenon of bewildering complexity. But in discussing the problem
of tke origin of life this complexity cuts two ways. Whilst, on the one hand, it
is appealed to by one set of disputants as an argument against the mechanical
theory, on the other it affords shelter for the most unproved statements of their
opponents. I will take a concrete instance from the writings of an upholder of the
mechanical theory of the origin of life, the late Professor W. K. Clifford. He
says:

‘Those persons who believe that living matter, such as protein, arises out of
non-living matter in the sea, suppose that it is formed like all other chemical com-
pounds. That is to say, it originates in a coincidence, and is preserved by natural
selection. . . . The coincidence involved in the formation of a molecule so
complex as to be called Ziving, must be, so far as we can make out, a very elaborate
coincidence. But how often does it happen in a cubic mile of sea-water? Per-
haps once a week; perhaps once in many centuries; perhaps, also, many million
times a day. From this living molecule to a speck of protoplasm visible in the
microscope is a very far cry; involving, it may be, a thousand years or so of
evolution.’

It was easy for Clifford to write thus concerning life itself, for it was difficult
for any one to contradict him. But had he been asked whether any mechanical
(symmetric) coincidence would suffice to convert an infinitely great number of
molecules of the type shown in fig. 8 into that shown in (say) fig. 1, to the exclu-
sion of that shown im fig. 2; or whether, given a mixture, in equal proportions, of
molecules of the types shown in figs. 1 and 2, any mechanical (symmetric) condi-
tions of environment would bring about the destruction of one kind and the

$28 é REPORT—1898.

survival of the other, I think his exact mathematical and dynamical knowledge
would have prevented him from giving an affirmative answer. But short of this
aflirmative answer, his other statements, it seems to me, fall to the ground.

I am convinced that the tenacity with which Pasteur fought against the
doctrine of spontaneous generation was not unconnected with his belief that
chemical compounds of one-sided asymmetry could not arise save under the
influence of life.

Should any one object that the doctrine of the asymmetric carbon atom is a
somewhat hypothetical foundation on which to build such a superstructure of
argument as the foregoing, I would point out that the argument is in reality
independent of this doctrine. All that I have said regarding the molecular
asymuetry of naturally occurring optically active organic compounds, and all the
geometrical considerations based thereon, hold good equally of the hemihedral
erystalline forms of these compounds, about which there is no hypothesis at all.
The production of a compound crystallising in one hemihedral form to the exclu-
sion of the opposite hemihedral form, as in the case of the tartaric acid of the
grape, is a phenomenon inexplicable on the assumption that merely mechanical,
symmetric forces are at work. Nor is this conclusion invalidated even if we
ultimately have to admit that the connection between molecular and crystalline
asymmetry is not an invariable one—a point about which there is some dispute.

At the close of the lectures from which I have so frequently quoted, Pasteur,
with full confidence in the importance of his work, but without any trace cf
personal vanity, says :—

‘It is the theory of molecular asymmetry that we have just established—one of
the most exalted chapters of science. It was completely unforeseen, and opens to
physiology new horizons, distant but sure.’

J must leave physiologists to judge how far they have availed themselves of
the new outlook which Pasteur opened up to them. But if I have in any way
cleared the view towards one of these horizons, I shall feel that I have not
occupied this chair in vain.

Some of my hearers, however, may think that, instead of rendering the subject
clearer, I have brought it perilously near to the obscure region of metaphysics ; and
certainly, if to argue the insufficiency of the mechanical explanation of a phe-
nomenon is to be metaphysical], I must plead guilty to the charge. I will, there-
fore, appeal to a judgment—metaphysical, it is true, but to be found in a very
exact treatise on physical science—namely, Newton's ‘Principia.’ It has a marked
bearing on the subject in hand :—

“A ceca necessitate metaphysica, que utique eadem est semper et ubique, nulla
oritur rerum variatio,’

_ Iwill merely add that this is certainly true of the particular rerwm variatio
in which optically active organic compounds originate.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On the Extraction from Air of the Companions of Argon and on Neon.
By Witu1aM Ramsay and Morris W. Travers.

In the Presidential Address to the Chemical Section of this Association, delivered
last year at Toronto, it was pointed out that the densities of helium and argon
being respectively 2 and 20 in round numbers, and the ratio of their specific heats
being in each case 1:66, their atomic weights must be respectively 4 and 40. If
the very probable assumption is made that they belong to the same group of
elements, it appears almost certain on the basis of the Periodic Table that another
element should exist, having an atomic weight higher than that of helium by about
16 units, and lower than that of argon by about 20. There is also room for

———————— eet

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 829

elements of higher atomic weight than argon, belonging to the same series. The
search for this element was described in last year’s Address, and, it will be remem-
bered, the results were negative.

Reading between the lines of the Address, an attentive critic might have
noticed that no reference was made to the supposed homogeneity of argon. From
speculations of Dr. Johnstone Stoney, it would follow that the atmosphere of our
planet might be expected to contain new gases, if such exist at all, with densities
higher than 8 or thereabouts. Dr. Stoney gives his reasons for supposing that the
lighter the gas the less its quantity in our atmosphere, always assuming that no
chemical compounds are known which would retain it on the earth, or modify its
relative amount. Therefore it appeared worthy of inquiry whether it was possible
to separate light and also heavy gases from argon.

The beautiful machine invented by Dr. Hampson has put it in our power to
obtain, through his kindness and that of the ‘Brin’ Oxygen Company, large
quantities of liquid air. We were therefore able to avail ourselves of the plan
of liquefection, and subsequent fractional distillation, in order to separate the

ases.

On liquefying 18 litres of argon, and boiling off the first fraction, a gas was
obtained of density 17 (O=16). This gas was again liquefied and boiled off
in six fractions. The density of the lightest fraction was thus reduced to 13:4, and
it showed a spectrum rich in red, orange, and yellow lines, differing totally from
that of argon. On re-fractionating, the density was reduced further to 10°8; the
gas still contained a little nitrogen, on removing which the density decreased to
9°76. This gas is no longer liquefiable at the temperature of air boiling under a
pressure of about 10 millimetres ; but if, after compression to two atmospheres, the
pressure was suddenly reduced to about a quarter of an atmosphere, a slight mist
was visible in the interior of the bulb. This gas must necessarily have contained
argon, the presence of which would obviously increase its density ; and in order to
form some estimate of its true density, some estimate must be made of the relative
amount of the argon. We have to consider a mixture of neon, nitrogen, and
argon, the two latter of which are capable, not merely of being liquefied, but of
being solidified without difficulty. Under atmospheric pressure nitrogen boils at
—194°, and solidifies at —214°, and the boiling-point of argon is —187°, and the
freezing-point — 190°; the vapour-pressure of nitrogen is therefore considerably
higher than that of argon. The mist produced on sudden expansion consisted of
solid nitrogen and argon; and for want of better knowledge, assuming the vapour-
pressure of the mixture of nitrogen and argon to be the sum of the partial pressures
of the two, it is obvious that that of argon would form but a small fraction of the
whole. The vapour-pressure of argon was found experimentally to be 109 milli-
metres at the temperature of air boiling in as good a vacuum as could be produced
by our pump; but as we have only to consider the partial pressure of the argon at
a much lower temperature, we do not believe that the pressure of the argon can
exceed 10 millimetres in the gas. This would correspond to a density for neon of
96,

The ratio between the specific heat at constant pressure and constant volume was
determined for neon in the usual way, and, as was to be expected, it approximates

closely to the theoretical ratio, being 1°655. We therefore conclude that, like

helium and argon, the gas is monatomic.

It may be remembered that the refractivity of helium compared with that of
air is exceptionally low—viz.,.0:1238. The lighter gas, hydrogen, has a refractivity
of 04733. It was to be expected from the monatomic character and low density
of neon that its refractivity should be also low; this expectation has been realised,
for the number found is 03071. Argon, on the other hand, has a refractivity
not differing much from that of air—viz., 0'958. Since the sample of neon certainly
contains a small amount of argon, its true refractivity is probably somewhat
lower. Experiments will be carried out later to ascertain whether neon resembles
helium in its too rapid rate of diffusion.

The spectrum of neon is characterised by brilliant lines in the red, the orange,
and the yellow. The lines in the blue and violet are few, and comparatively

830 , REPORT-—1898.

inconspicuous. There is, however, a line in the green, of approximate wave-length
5,030, and another of about 5,400.

A few words may be said on the other companions of argon. The last fractions
of liquetied argon show the presence of three new gases. These are krypton, a
gas first separated from atmospheric air, and characterised by two very brilliant
lines, one in the yellow and one in the green, besides fainter lines in the red and
orange; metargon, a gas which shows a spectrum very closely resembling that of
carbon monoxide, but characterised by its inertness, for it is not changed by
sparking with oxygen in presence of caustic potash ; and a still heavier gas, which
we have not hitherto described, which we propose to name ‘xenon.’ Xenon is
very easily separated, for it possesses a much higher boiling-point, and remains
behind after the others have evaporated. This gas, which has been obtained
practically free from krypton, argon, and metargon, possesses a spectrum analogous
in character to that of argon, but differing entirely in the position of the lines.
With the ordinary discharge the gas shows three lines in the red, and about five
very brilliant lines in the blue; while with the jar and spark-gap these lines dis-
appear, and are replaced by four brilliant lines in the green, intermediate in position
between the two groups of argon lines, the glow in the tube changing from blue to
ereen. Xenon appears to exist only in very minute quantity.

Indeed, all of these gases are present only in small amount. It is, however,
not possible to state with any degree of accuracy in what proportion they are
present in atmospheric argon. Of neon, perhaps, we may say that the last fraction
of the lightest hundred cubic centimetres from 18 litres of atmospheric argon no
longer shows the neon spectrum, and possesses the density of argon; it may be
safe to conclude, therefore, that 18 litres of argon do not contain more than
50 cubic centimetres of neon ; the proportion of neon in air must therefore be about
one part in 40,000. We should estimate the proportion of the heavy gases at even
less,

It follows from these remarks that the density of argon is not materially
changed by separating from it its companions. A sample of gas, collected when
about half the liquid argon or about 10 cubic centimetres had boiled off, possessed
the density 19:89; the density of atmospheric argon is 19°94, But, of course, we
give this density of argon as only provisional;' for a final determination the
density must be determined after more thorough fractionation.

With a density of 9°6, and a consequent atomic weight of 19:2, neon would
iollow fluorine and precede sodium in the Periodic Table; as to the other gases,
further research will be required to determine what position they hold.

[October 10, 1898.—The sample of neon alluded to above has since been found
to contain a small trace of helium. The presence of this light gas has no doubt
made the density of neon given in this communication somewhat too low. The
actual density has not yet been determined, but the density will obviously not be
materially altered W. R. ] j

2. On the Position of Heliwm, Argon, Krypton, &c., in the Pervodic
Classification of the Elements. By Professor J. Emerson REYNOLDS,
ERS.

3. Report on the Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.
See Reports, p. 294.

4, A new form of Stand for Electrolytic Analysis.
By Dr. Hueu MarsHaAtt.
5. Report on the Continwation of the Bibliography of Spectroscopy.
See Reports, p. 439.

1 July 30, 1898,

as OE EE

ha Fea ~

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 851

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Some Researches on the Thermal Properties of Gases and Liquids.
By Sxpney Youne, D.Sc., F.R.S., University College, Bristol.

Gases under moderate or low pressures are characterised by the simplicity
of the laws relating to the variation of their volume with temperature and
pressure. But when the pressure is greatly increased, these laws no longer hold
good ; at constant temperature the product pv, instead of remaining constant,
diminishes until a minimum is reached, and at still higher pressures increases
again, and this increase continues up to the highest pressures that have been
reached.

A most important advance in the explanation of the behaviour of compressed
gases and of liquids was made just twenty-five years ago by Van der Waals,
who, taking into account the two facts (1) that the molecules of a gas attract one
another, (2) that they occupy a finite volume, and are not mere mathematical
points, proposed the formula

(>+ 5) (v—b) =RT

in place of the simple one pu=RT. The formula of Van der Waals expresses

very well the general relations of pressure, temperature, and volume for both

gases and liquids, but does not give the actual values with sufticient accuracy,
and many attempts have been made to alter it in such a way as to bring about

a better agreement. It is noticeable that at constant volume the formula becomes

p=KT—c, where K and e¢ are constants, depending on the volume, and this

simple relation has been found to hold good for gases by Amagat, and for both
gases and liquids by Ramsay and myself. Within the last tew years I have
investigated the behaviour of a hydrocarbon, isopentane,’ through a very wide
range of volume (1‘6—4000 cc. per gram), and of normal pentane through a
_ smaller range, and the data so obtained have led Rose-Innes ? to a formula
-’ Re iia) 4
ence ti hos kago4| — tae,
based on the simple one y= KT—c, which reproduces the observed isothermals
from the largest volume to about 3°4 c.c. per gram, with a maximum error of
slightly over 1 per cent.

A complete investigation of this kind requires, however, a large amount of
time, and can only be carried out with very stable substances of comparatively
low critical temperatures; and it occurred to me about eleven years ago that a
careful study of certain generalisations, deduced by Van der Waals from his
formula, might yield valuable results, and perhaps indicate the direction in which
the formula requires alteration.

The generalisations may be stated thus :—If any two substances, A and B,
are compared at pressures, P, and P,, proportional to their critical pressures, 7,,
and 7,,, their boiling points (absolute temperatures), T, and '[, will be propor-
tional to their critical temperatures, 6,, and 6,,, and their volumes, both as liquid,
V, and V;, and as saturated vapour, x, and v,, will be proportional to their
critical volumes, $., and doy. It would follow from this that at ‘ corresponding’
pressures the ratios of the actual to the theoretical density of saturated vapour,

—————————— eS ,trt—t—i‘S—

:. . should be the same for all substances.

: It is convenient to speak of the ratio of the pressure to the critical pressure as
_ the ‘reduced’ pressure, 7, the actual pressures, P,, P,, being called ‘ correspond-
ing’ pressures.

is ' Proc. Phys. Soc. vol. xiii. p. 602.
; Tbid., vol. xv. p. 126 ; vol. xvi. p. 11,

832 REPORT—1898.

I proposed, therefore, to determine the vapour pressures and the specific
volumes (both as liquid and as saturated vapour) of a considerable number of
substances from low temperatures to their critical points, and in the first place I
chose some compounds of elements belonging to the same group in the periodic table,
as it seemed possible that some points of interest might thus arise. The first
substances I examined were the four monohaloid derivatives of benzene, as well
as benzene itself,' and the result of the investigation was to show that, when the
haloid derivatives are compared together, the generalisation, as regards tempera-
ture and pressure, hold good accurately ; hut there is this peculiarity about these
compounds, that their critical pressures are equal, or very nearly so, and therefore
‘corresponding’ pressures are in this case equal pressures, The critical pressure
of benzene itself is different, and when the hydrocarbon is compared with any of
its haloid derivatives, the differences between the temperature ratios are much
greater. As regards the volume ratios, the differences are small in all cases.

The only other substances, bearing on the periodic arrangement of the
elements, which have been yet examined are the tetrachlorides of carbon and
tin.? The critical pressures differ considerably, and the relationship resembles
_ that of the normal paraffins to each other, which will be referred to later. Many
of the chlorides of the elements are very hygroscopic, and attack mercury at
high temperatures, and it was thought better to postpone their further examina-
tion, and to obtain the data for a few series of homologous organic compounds,
Up to the present, in addition to the three lowest alcohols, investigated by
Ramsay and myself, ten esters* and four paraffins * have been studied, and with
the exception of the alcohols it has been observed in every case (and the same

remark applies to the tetrachlorides of carbon and tin), that the ratios a at any

. . . . 7 . 0, . .
reduced pressure increase with rise of molecular weight. No definite relation is

observable between the molecular weights and the ratios a and —. in the case of
: 0 i)
the esters, but with the three normal paraffins (pentane, hexane,and heptane) and

the two tetrachlorides, the ratios _" increase and — diminish slightly with rise
) tt)
of molecular weight. With the alcohols, on the other hand, the ratios e and
i)

Vv : Cia AR
— are irregular and — diminish.

* Another point of interest is the comparison of isomeric compounds; but up to
the present the only two pairs of isomers investigated are methyl butyrate and
isobutyrate, and normal and iso-pentane. In both cases there is a clear relation-
ship between the ratios and the constitution, the normal and iso-compounds
standing to each other in much the same relative positions as a higher and lower
normal paraffin.

It is worthy of remark that the volumes of a gram of all four paraffins are
nearly the same (4'266—4°303) at the critical point.

Looking at the data for the twenty-six substances examined, it is evident that
they may be divided into groups—(1) benzene and its haloid derivatives, ether,
the tetrachlorides and the paraffins; (2) the ten esters; (8) the alcohols; (4)
acetic acid. The members of group (1) may be regarded as normal; the devia-
tions of the ratios from constancy are small, though, as pointed out, they exhibit

certain regularities; in group (2) the values of ” are rather higher, and of
V yather lower than in group (1); in group (3) the ratios Z and ” are very
0 : 0 Do

1 Prans. Chem. Soc., vol. lv. p. 486.

2 Tbid., vol. lix. p. 911.

3 Thid., vol. 1xiil. p. 1191.

4 Thid., vol. lxvii. p. 1071; vol. Ixxi. p, 446; vol. Ixxiii. 675; Proc. Phys. Soc.
vol. xiii. p. 602. - -

0

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 833

high ; for acetic aid . and V. are high, but 2 very low. The marked dif-
0 0 A ee

ferences between the alcohols and acetic acid, and the large deviations in both cases,

are probably to be accounted for by the fact that the molecules of the alcohols at

moderate temperatures are polymerised in the liquid, but not the gaseous state,

whilst with acetic acid there is polymerisation in both states.

The ratios Le at the critical point should, according to Van der Waals, be

the same for all substances, the molecules of which undergo no dissociation or
polymerisation, and he gives the value of this ratio as § or 26. Now the ratio
depends on the constant 6 in the equation

(»+ “) (v—b) =RT,

and Van der Waals takes 6 to be four times the actual volume of the molecules
in unit mass of substance; O. E. Meyer, however, contends that 6=4 x 4/2
times the volume of the molecules, and it has been pointed out by Heilborn and
by Guye that, if that is so, the ratio 2°6 should also be multiplied by 4/2, which
would give the value 3:77. It is remarkable that the mean value for the twelve
substances in group (1) is 3°77, from which it may be concluded that the
molecules of these substances in the critical state are simple like those of the gas.
(At the same time it is to be noticed that with the three normal paraffins and

, shows a slight increase with rise of molecular weight.

The ratios for the ten esters area little higher (3:87 to 3-95); decidedly
higher for the alcohols, especially methyl-alcohol (4:52 —4-02), and much higher
for acetic acid (5:00). It would appear from this that the molecules of the
alcohols and acetic acid are polymerised to a considerable extent at the critical
point, and this conclusion is supported by the generally abnormal behaviour of
these substances, and agrees with that of Ramsay and Shields, that in the liquid
state at moderate temperatures their molecules are decidedly complex, whilst
those of the majority of the compounds examined by them are probably simple.

I hope to continue the investigation of the paraffins and other hydrocarbons
in order to obtain further light on the points referred to, and it will be of interest
to compare the molecular volumes at the critical points, and at a series of reduced:
pressures.

The accurate determination of the critical constants is a matter of great
importance. It is best to employ an apparatus similar in principle to that of
Andrews, in which the temperature, pressure, and volume can be altered at will ;-
though the critical temperature may be determined with but small error in a
sealed tube, if the quantity of liquid taken is such that its critical volume is
approximately equal to the capacity of the tube. With a pure substance, free-
from air, two independent determinations of the critical temperature should
certainly not differ by 0°:1, unless the temperature is above 300°, when the
experimental difficulties are greater. The error in the determination of the
critical pressure should not exceed 0:2 per cent., but the critical pressure is greatly-
affected by the presence of even very small quantities of impurity (and, of course,
of air); and in comparing two specimens of the same substance, one of which is
known to be pure, the agreement of the critical pressure is probably the most
delicate test of the purity of the other.

The only method yet known by which the critical volumes can be accurately
determined is the indirect one based on the ‘law of diameters’ of Cailletet and
Mathias. These physicists made the very important discovery that the mean
densities of liquid and saturated vapour for any ‘normal’ substance are a linear
function of the temperature (or D =Dj—at where =the mean density), and
since, at the critical point, the two densities are equal—or rather there is only
one—the value of D at that point gives the critical density, from which the
critical volume is, of course, easily calculated. I have been able to show that the

1898, 34

the two tetrachlorides

834 REPORT—1898.

law of Cailletet and Mathias holds good with great accuracy right up to the
critical point (with normal pentane observations were taken to within 0°-05 of
the critical temperature) for all the compounds examined except the alcohols. It
has, in view of these results, been suggested, I think justly, by M. Guye, that a
serious deviation from the law may be taken as a proof of the existence of
molecular dissociation or polymerisation.

It is true that a few years ago I was under the impression that a direct
determination of the critical volume was possible, and the values obtained do,
indeed, bear as nearly constant ratio to the true critical volume, but they are
about 14 per cent. too low. The probable explanation of the error has been given
by M. Gouy, who pointed out that, at the critical point, a substance is so extremely
compressible that in a long column the density increases very considerably from
top to bottom, owing to the pressure exerted by the substance itself.

In the course of these researches ample proof has been obtained that the
views of Andrews regarding the behaviour of a substance in the neighbourhood
of the critical point are correct, and also that the vapour pressure of a pure sub-
stance is quite independent of the relative volumes of liquid and vapour. These
points are referred to because they have been called in question by several
observers during the last few years.

Two of the substances examined attack mercury at high temperatures, and it
was therefore impossible to determine either their vapour pressures or specific
volumes by the methods employed for the other liquids. The difficulty, as
regards vapour pressure, was overcome by sealing a wider tube to the lower end
of the volume tube, and using such a quantity of liquid that during the observa-
tions the lower end of the column was always in the wider and cold part of the
tube. The height of the column of mercury in the tube must, under these condi-
tions, be calculated.?

A method of determining the specific volumes of both liquid and saturated
vapour in a sealed tube was also devised.” When the specific volumes of the
liquid are already known, this method, in a simplified form, is very convenient for
determining the specific volumes of saturated vapour.®

It is obviously necessary that, in order to obtain trustworthy results, pure
substances must be employed and, indeed, more time has been spent in the prepara-
tion of the pure substances than in the determination of their physical constants.
The difficulties met with in the fractional distillation of liquids, more especially
in the separation of pure hydrocarbons from petroleum, have led to an extended
study of this subject, and both new apparatus * and new methods of procedure °
have been devised; it has thus been possible to separate perfectly pure normal
and iso-pentane (B. P. 27°95 and 36°3) from the complex mixture of hydro-
carbons in American petroleum.

2. On the Action of certain Metals and Organic Bodies on a Photographic
Plate. By W. J. Russetz, Ph.D., F.RS.

The author demonstrated that printers’ ink is capable of acting, in the dark, on
a photographic plate; also that wood, dry copal varnish, &c., can act in the same
way ; that among liquids turpentine, drying oil, the essential oils, &c., act in like
manner. In addition to these and many other organic bodies, certain metals have
the same property, and either in contact, or at a distance from the photographic
plate, can act upon it. In this way pictures of thin surface or pictures of opaque
bodies, such as skeleton leaves, lace, or paper, can be obtained. It was also shown
that ordinary writing ink was perfectly opaque to this kind of action, and that
even old and much faded ink was capable of stopping the action and producing a

1 Trans. Chem, Soc., vol. lix. p. 917.

2 Thid., vol lix. p. 37.

9 Thid., vol. lix. p. 125; Proc. Phys. Soc., vol. xiii. p. 617.

* Chem. News, vol. xxi. p. 177; Zrans. Chem. Soc., vol. lxxi. p. 440.
5 Phil. Mag., 1894 p. 8.

oe

Pe GN A oy

—————— << , °°

e

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 835

picture. The author also demonstrated that the action could pass through such
media as thin sheets of gelatine, celluloid, gutta-percha, collodion, &c., and that
even a picture of a metal surface is obtainable through such media. It was sug-
gested that these different phenomena could be explained on the supposition that
hydrogen peroxide is in all cases produced.

3. The Action of Bacteria on the Photographic Plate. By Prercy FranK-
LAND, Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Mason University
College, Birmingham.

The action on the photographic plate which is exerted by uranium and its
compounds, by zine and several other metals, as well as by a number of organic
substances, naturally leads to the inquiry as to whether living structures may not
also be endowed with the power of recording their presence by action on the
sensitive film of the photographer. The author has opened up this inquiry by
investigating the behaviour of bacterial cultures towards highly sensitive photo-
graphic plates.

Gelatine cultures of the bacillus coli communis and of proteus vulgaris were
found when placed at a distance of half an inch from a photographic plate to pro-
duce the same effect as light, the exposure lasting over nine days in absolute dark-
ness. Definite pictures of the bacterial cultures were obtained by placing the
sensitive film in actual contact with the cultivations, the exposure being extended
over a period of fourteen days. Similar results were obtained with agar-agar
cultivations.

As this action does not take place through glass or mica, the author is of
opinion that it is not due to any form of radiation, but to the evolution of volatile
matter entering into reaction with the photographic film. As far as the author's
experiments have gone, the action is exerted both by bacteria which liquefy
(proteus vulgaris) and those which do not liquefy gelatine (6. coli communis and
the typhoid bacillus). It is, however, quite possible that considerable ditferences
in respect of this activity may be found to exist in the case of different bacteria,
and that this property may become of importance in their diagnosis.

Bacterial growths which are luminous in the dark (photo-bacterium phos-
phorescens) were found to exert a still more powerful action on the photographic
plate.

The author proposes extending these investigations not only in connection with
bacteria but also in respect to other organised structures, vegetable and animal,
living and dead.

4, Further Experiments on the Absorption of the Réntgen Rays by
Chemical Compounds. By J. H. Guapstonn, D.Sc. F.RS., and
WatteR HIBBERT.

At the two previous meetings of the British Association the authors had ex-
amined the absorption of Réntgen rays, especially by metals and metallic salts.
During the past year they have endeavoured to perfect the quantitative methods
employed for estimating the comparative intensity of radiographs taken simulta-
neously ; and to determine whether the amount of absorption is purely an atomic
phenomenon, or whether the amount of rays absorbed by a compound body depends
to any extent on its physical condition or manner of combination.

In the experiments recorded the authors had again employed the Lummer-
Brodhun photometer; and had endeavoured to get rid of irregularities of exposure
by placing the objects simultaneously exposed to be radiographed at a considerable
distance from the radiating point (averaging 15 or 16 inches), and rotating them
during the experiment. They believe that in this way the effect upon the sensitive
plates can be determined within + 2 per cent. An experiment was usually
repeated about six times, and the mean taken.

Among the results arrived at were the following. Finely-pounded glass gave

3H 2

836 REPORT—1898.

a radiograph about 3 per cent. deeper than the same quantity of the same class
when in the form of a polished plate. Paraffin gave the same amount of absorp-
tion whether it was solid or liquid. Pounded crystals of sulphate of copper and
ammonia gave practically the same absorption as a mere mixture of the two con-
stituent salts. Finely-divided metallic copper was found to absorb about 2 per
cent. more rays than the same amount of copper as black oxide or as red oxide.
That there was little or no effect produced by difference of atomicity was shown
by a comparison of these two oxides, and also of the two oxides of mercury, which
absorbed practically the same amount. The protoxide and peroxide of lead were
identical in their results; and the ferric oxalate gave only 1 per cent. less absorp-
tion than the ferrous oxalate, plus as much oxalic acid as was necessary to equalise
the carbon and oxygen in the two salts.

The old experiment with carbon and various hydrocarbons was re-examined,
with a final result which may be expressed by the figures :—

Carbon ; 4 ‘ . | solid, black i : F | C | 100
Anthracene . : : », White : : dott Grea ly | 96
Naphthalene : : 3 fr ‘ Crue 93
Amylhydride . ; . | liquid, colourless Chi 96°5
Turpentine. : ; : . : : | Ci, Hi, 95
Benzene . : : -| » 5 : - | C, H, 94°5

The experiments of this year confirm the opinion previously expressed that the
absorption of the Réntgen rays by a compound body is dependent upon the absorp-
tion exercised by its constituents, little, if at all, modified by their physical condi-
tion, or by change of atomicity, or other difference of combination.

The authors are disposed, however, to ask the question—whether the law may
not be more than proximately true? There is superabundant evidence that the
Réntgen rays are not homogeneous. The slightly greater apparent absorption
produced by the pounded glass may be due to a little reflection or refraction from
the admixture of a small quantity of rays which, though they have passed through
aluminum foil, have properties somewhat analogous to ordinary light. The
slightly greater absorption caused by metallic copper and by black carbon may
also be due to the presence of such rays.

They think it possible that if these rays could he entirely sifted away, Rontgen
rays would be obtained, which in their passage through a body would he affected
merely by the nature of the atoms forming it, and that the law that the absorption
by a compound is the mean of the absorptions due to its several constituents
would be not proximately but absolutely true.

An apparatus was exhibited by which the ‘ grade’ of the Rontgen rays can be
investigated quantitatively.

5. Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colowrs.—See Reports, p. 285.

6. On the Cooling Curves of Fatty Acids. By Dr. A. P. LAURIE
and HE. H. STRANGE.

The melting-points of mixtures of fatty acids were determined by Heintz, and
the tables are quoted in the text-books, They show that the mixtures have a
lower melting-point than either of their constituents, thus showing a close analogy
to the behaviour of many alloys. We therefore determined to apply to these
bodies a method of investigation similar to that used by Professor Roberts Auster
in his experiments on alloys.

The melted fatty acids are placed in a test-tube surrounded by melting ice, and
a thermal junction connected to a mirror galvanometer inserted. The results
are photographed on a moving plate. The plate is calibrated by means of a
second thermal junction attached to a thermometer, and immersed in a large

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 837

volume of water. The cooling curves obtained in this way are of considerable
interest. The fatty acids investigated have been palmitic, stearic, lauric, and
myristic acids. The cooling curve of a pure fatty acid turns sharply round when
the solidifying point is reached, runs straight up the plate till the solidifying is
finished, and then turns sharply off again, One per cent. of another fatty acid quite
perceptibly alters the shape of the curve, so that the character of a cooling curve
seems a good test of purity. When a larger portion of a fatty acid is introduced a
second latent heat-point is developed, the curve showing a discontinuity below the
solidifying point of the mixture. As the solidifying point is lowered by introducing
more and more of the second fatty acid, this discontinuity is gradually merged in
the common melting-point of the mixture, thus reproducing the phenomena
observed by Professor Roberts Austen in the case of certain alloys. This discon-
tinuity can hardly be due to the formation of a compound, but is probably caused
by the presence of the ‘eutectic alloy’in the mass. We are now repeating our ex-
periments with synthetically prepared organic bodies of known constitution, and
studying also the cooling curve of water.

7. On the More Exact Determination of the Densities of Crystals.
By the Haru or BERKELEY.

A-comparison of the several values found by different observers for the density
of one and the same crystallised salt shows variations amounting in some cases to
10 per cent. As the density is assumed to be a physical constant, independent of
the manner in which the crystals have been produced, these variations are probably
due to errors of experiment.

The chief sources of such errors are (1) imperfect measurement of temperature
and volume, (2) occlusion of mother liquor, (3) adhesion of air, (4) hygroscopic
nature of the salts.

In the paper are described the methods devised by the author for reducing the
amount of these errors.

1. Two conical pyknometers, of about 7 c.c. capacity, with thermometer
stoppers and calibrated capillary side tubes, were used. One served as a counter-
poise, and was treated externally exactly like the other. They were repeatedly
heated to 130° C., and allowed to cool, in order to bring the glass into a con-
dition of molecular rest. For determining capacity the flask filled with water
was placed in a desiccator, from which the air was exhausted till, on tapping, the
water boiled. After it had thus been kept boiling for some time, the flask was
removed, and the stopper inserted in a position and under a pressure which were
observed. After the two pyknometers had been wiped dry they were placed on
the balance pans, and when the temperature had become steady and the level of
the liquid in the capillary had, in consequence of evaporation round the neck,
fallen below the highest graduation, the weight, the level in the capillary, and the
temperature were noted. The greatest difference between any two out of eight
estimations of capacity thus made was 0:00029 c.c.

The liquid in which the crystals were weighed was carbon tetrachloride.
Owing to the high coefficient of expansion of this liquid, special means, which are
described, were devised for keeping constant the temperature of the balance case.
The evaporation between the neck and the stopper was at the rate of about 0:0001
gram per minute,

2. To remove occluded mother liquor the crystals may be reduced to powder
and then dried, the presumption being that the crystals will break across the
€avities containing the mother liquor, and that the latter on evaporating will
deposit crystals of the same kind, But the crushing process may produce change,
as in the familiar case of mercuric iodide; and it is better to form small crystals in
a solution kept at a constant temperature and constantly stirred. An apparatus
was planned and constructed for this purpose.

3. To prevent adhesion of air, the pyknometer with the weighed crystals at
bottom, together with a bulb holding a charge of carbon tetrachloride, were so

838 REPORT—1 898.

connected that, when the air had been exhausted from the flask, vapour from the
boiling carbon tetrachloride took its place in the interstices of the crystals. Then,
by tilting the vessel, the flask was filled with liquid tetrachloride. On removing
the flask the stopper was inserted as before. Eleven determinations of the density
of quartz show a maximum divergence of ‘02 per cent. ‘

4, To remove moisture retained on the surface of the crystals, a current of dry
air was passed through the flask till on passing out it yielded no moisture to
phosphorus pentoxide. The apparatus was then exhausted, and carbon-tetra-
chloride was admitted sufficient to cover the crystals. The flask was then filled up
as before. Four determinations by this method of the density of K?CO® show a
maximum divergence of ‘04 per cent.

8. The Equivalent Replacement of Metals. By Professor Frank Crowes,
D.Sc., Lond.

it has long been known that when iron is immersed in a solution of cupric
sulphate metallic copper is deposited, and an amount of iron passes into solution
which is exactly able to combine with the sulphate radicle liberated from the
cupric sulphate. The weights of copper and of iron which combine with the same
weight of sulphate radicle have been determined by carrying out the process
quantitatively, These weights are chemically equivalent to one another, for they
are able to combine with the same weight of the acidulous radicle.

In the case just cited the chemical change appears, at ordinary temperature
and with dilute cupric solution, to follow the simple course stated. But attempts
to extend this direct method of ascertaining the relative equivalents of metals
cease to be direct in certain cases, owing to the complicated nature of the reactions
which occur.

My attention was drawn to such a complication in the case of the action of
magnesium on cupric sulphate solution, and the nature of the reaction was ther
investigated by R. M. Caven, B.Sc., and myself. Commaille,! Kern,? and Vitali,®
had drawn attention to the facts that during the action of magnesium on cupric
sulphate solution cuprous oxide was deposited with the metallic copper, and hydro-
gen was evolved. These facts prove that the copper equivalent of magnesium
cannot be obtained by simply weighing the magnesium which passes into solution
and the deposit which was formed during the process. But we proceeded to make
a fuller examination of the nature of the reaction, and to show that when it was
quantitatively carried out the products enabled us to calculate the equivalents of
magnesium and copper.

Having obtained practically pure materials, we proceeded to study the reactions
when the conditions were varied by employing hot or cold and strong or weak
cupric sulphate solutions. We were met with the initial difficulty that cupric
sulphate solution deposits a basic salt when it is boiled: this salt we separated
and found to correspond in composition and properties to the formula 4CuSO,.
7Cu(OH),.H,O. Pickering had separated a similar salt, to which he attributed
the formula 6Cu0.2S0,.5H,O. Owing to the deposition of this salt complicating
the products, we avoided actual ebullition in our experiments.

The action is most simple when the magnesium is immersed in a hot strong
solution of cupric sulphate. Hydrogen is briskly evolved, a chocolate-coloured
deposit forms, and green flakes are produced which disappear before the reaction is
completed. Treatment of the brown deposit with dilute hydrochloric acid yields
colourless cuprous chloride solution and a small residue of metallic copper. The
hydrogen evolved was collected and measured, the metallic copper was weighed
directly, and the amount of cuprous oxide was determined by dissolving it in
hydrochloric acid and determining the amount of cuprous chloride thus formed by

1 Comptes Rendus, \xiii. p. 556.
? Chem. News, xxxiii. p. 236.
3 Journ. Chem. Soc., \xx. p. 419.

j
:
j
.
)
1

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 839

titrating it with standard permanganate solution in the presence of a sufficient
amount of magnesium sulphate. As a result of four experiments, the average sum
of the magnesium equivalents of the cuprous oxide, the copper, and the hydrogen
amounted to 0'102 gram, and the average weight of magnesium used was 0:105
gram. The ratios of the weights of hydrogen, copper, and cuprous oxide produced
were constant only when the conditions of the experiment were precisely similar.

When the hot cupric sulphate is dilute, or when it is employed at ordinary
temperature, the reaction pursues at first a similar course, but it soon becomes
very considerably delayed by the formation of a green basic cupric salt, inter-
mingled with colourless basic magnesium salt. Thus, the reaction on the magnesium
was asually complete in ten minutes in an excess of a hot, strong solution of cupric
sulphate ; but in weak and cold solutions it often extended over several days, and
even a week.

The percentage of hydrogen, compared with that which is equivalent to the
magnesium employed, was in the case of the hot solution 34:7 ; with the cold solu-
tion, it was 41°5 with weak solution, and 30°6 with saturated solution.

Various explanations have been given of the causes which lead to deposition of
cuprous oxide and to eyolution of hydrogen. It has been suggested that the
change is due to impurity in the copper salt; this we have disproved by using a
salt purified by frequent recrystallisation, and yielding 25-23 per cent. of copper
(theory = 25:39) ; we have also proved the purity of the magnesium employed.
Divers suggests that the evolution of hydrogen is due to the action of the mag-
nesium upon free sulphuric acid, which has been formed by hydrolysis of the
cupric salt. This seems to us to be an insufficient explanation of the rapidity
with which hydrogen is evolved. Cold cupric sulphate solution was found to give
no acid reaction with methyl-orange, although it is faintly acid to litmus paper.
Yet such a solution gives an immediate evolution of hydrogen when magnesium is
immersed in it, the evolution of the gas being very rapid in a hot and strong solu-
tion. After carefully studying the change, we are inclined to attribute the evolu-
tion of hydrogen in small degree to the presence of free sulphuric acid formed by
hydrolysis in cold solution, and in greater degree to the same cause in hot solution.
This involves the formation and separation of basic salt. This reaction, however,
does not account for all the hydrogen evolved, and one of us will be prepared
before long to advance a further explanation to account for this. Divers further
suggests that cuprous sulphate is formed and almost immediately converted by the
action of the basic cupric salt into cuprous oxide; this theory we also find to be
untenable.

._ The immediate separation of cuprous oxide and evolution of hydrogen, without
formation of basic salt, which occurs at the commencement of the reaction, may be
represented by the equation :

2Me + 2CuSO, + H,O =2MeS80, + Cu,0 + H,.

The action of the magnesium-zinc couple has been proved to be too slow to explain
the rapid escape of hydrogen, and if this were the origin of the hydrogen, its escape
would not immediately follow the immersion of the magnesiun.

9. A Note on Alkaline Chlorates and Sulphates of Heavy Metals.
By W. R. Hopaxinson and A. H. Coore.

Many solid sulphates, whether containing water of crystallisation or anhydrous,
when mixed and gently heated with potassium or sodium chlorate give off
chlorine gas in addition to oxygen. In many cases the evolution of the chlorine
seems to precede that of the oxygen. With sulphates containing crystallisation
water chlorine is evolved with it, as steam, on heating. Mixtures also of anhy-

. drous sulphates, as those of copper and manganese with chlorates, give olf a
mixture of oxygen and chlorine at temperatures very little above 100° C,

840 REPORT-—1898.

The theoretical equations
(1) MSO, + 2KCI10, = K,SO, + MCI1,O, and (2) MC1,0, = MCl, + 30,,

where M is a divalent or a polyvalent metal, scarcely hold at all.. In the
cases, lead, silver, mercury, where it seemed most likely to hold, it certainly does
not ; for the dry sulphates of these metals mixed in fine powder with potassium
chlorate, and very gently heated—to about 120°—give off chlorine very briskly,
and the residue is a mixture of potassium sulphate and chloride, and the oxide
and chloride of the other metal. In the case of lead, the peroxide is formed.

In a few cases this decomposition takes place with solutions of the salts.
Manganese sulphate and alkaline chlorate solution becomes brown after boiling a
few minutes.

We have mixed different sulphates and potassium chlorate in equivalent
quantities, and endeavoured to ascertain the relation between the oxygen and
chlorine evolved; but even with careful heating the results have not been very
concordant.

The sulphates of the following metals have been tried :—

Zn, Ni, Mn, Mg, Fe, Cu, with and without crystallisation water. Ag,
Hg, Pb, anhydrous, Several alums both with and without water.

It may be here noted that many metallic chlorates decompose when their
solutions are evaporated, even at the ordinary temperature and under reduced
pressure. This is notably the case with manganese and ferric chlorates.

The sulphates employed were carefully purified, and contained no free acid.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

A Joint Discussion with Section A on the recent Eclipse Expeditions was
held.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Teaching of Natural Science in Elementary Schools,
See Reports, p. 433.

2. Juvenile Research. By Professor H. E. Anmstrone, F.R.S.

3. Green Cobaltic Compounds. The Result of Oxidising Cobaltous Salts in
presence of Organic Salts of the Alkali Metals. By R. G. Durrant,
M.A. FCS.

Hydrogen peroxide and other oxidising agents are capable of forming green
solutions with cobaltous salts in presence of fairly concentrated solutions of
potassium bicarbonate, oxalate, glycollate, acetate, citrate, malate, lactate, and
succinate. Potassium may be replaced by the other alkali metals, and in some
cases by ammonium, barium, strontium, or calcium.

The cobalt in the green bicarbonate solutions has been shown to be present in
the cobaltic state by volumetric experiments involving, (a) the maximum depth

oar) ee

es &«*

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 841

of green, (6) the non-appearance of a precipitate, (c) the estimation of iodine
liberated.

A potassium salt, formed by the action of hydrogen peroxide on cobaltous
oxalate dissolved in potassium oxalate, has been isolated and analysed ; the formula
appears to be K,Co,(C,O,).,4H,0.

This body, unlike Kehrmann’s K,Co,(C,0,),6H,O, exhibits no dichroism. It
occurs in green, transparent, microscopic crystals, belonging in all probability to
the rhombohedral system.

The salt is very stable; its solution in water gives no precipitate with dilute
calcium chloride, while concentrated calcium chloride yields minute green, needle-
shaped crystals of the corresponding calcium salt.

The properties of the potassium salt in regard to its behaviour when heated,
solubility, lowering of freezing-point, action of acids, alkalis, reducing and oxidising
agents, have been studied, from which it would appear that a structural formula

KO,C—C(OH), C(OH),—CO,K
Sr x
AY ety
pone = ox
O O
a a
KO,C—C(OH), C(OH), — CO,K

is probable, the body having lost a previously acquired atom of oxygen between the
cobalt atoms.

The absorption spectrum of the aqueous solution exhibits two bright bands—
one in the red with centre near the C line; the other in the green with centre
approximately \=5150. The absorption spectra of other cobaltous and cobaltic
solutions have been studied; that of the bicarbonate green exhibits no red band,
but gives a single bright band in the green with centre approximately A = 5365.
There appears to be a reversal of the band in the green when cobaltous solutions
are oxidised to form these green compounds.

4. Analysis of Dorsetshire Soils. By C. M. Luxmoors, D.Se., FIC.

The investigation of the Dorsetshire soils, which has recently been commenced
at Reading College, is not forward enough to enable us to publish any results at
present, but an account of the methods that are adopted will perhaps be of interest.

As the object of the work is to obtain a general knowledge of the soils of the
county, the samples are taken from land lying on the various geological formations
that occur, and so selected as to be, in the opinion of local agriculturists, typical
of a more or less considerable area of land in the neighbourhood. Three samples
of the soil of each selected field, usually along a diagonal line, are taken much in
the manner directed by the Royal Agricultural Society, using, however, boxes
6 inches by 6 inches ia area and 18 inches deep, and made so that one side can be
readily removed, showing the soil in section. When the boxes are opened at the
laboratory the soil is separated from the subsoil, a division being made at the
arbitrary depth of 9 inches, and also at any other line where a definite change in
the character of the soil is manifest. The larger stones, if any, having been
removed, the sample is carefully divided so as to reduce it to about one kilo-
gramme ; the smaller stones and gravel are then separated by sifting under water,

and the fine earth passing a sieve ;-inch mesh is dried at a moderate temperature

ina copper oven. If the three samples taken from a field appear fairly similar, a
mixture of them is made for analysis, but the original samples are preserved for
reference. The chemical analysis of these mixed samples offers at present nothing
worthy of special notice; it includes, of course, in addition to the usual complete
analysis of the portion soluble in hydrochloric acid, a determination of the available
potash and phosphoric acid, according to Dyer’s method. A series of mechanical

842, REPORT—1898.

analyses of the soils according to a slight modification of Osborne's method of
subsidence has also been commenced. ‘This enables one to determine the percentage
of soil consisting of particles within certain limits of size, and thus to obtain a
rough approximation to the total surface area of the soil particles. No doubt the
attraction of the soil for moisture is dependent very largely upon the surface area
of the particles; though certain preliminary experiments, which the author was
enabled—through the kindness of Sir Henry Gilbert—to carry out at Rothamsted
some time ago on the soil of the Broadbalk field, lead him to believe that the
relation is not so simple as might at first sight be expected.

The selection of suitable fields and the collection of samples are carried out by
the agricultural staff of Reading College, and the author’s colleagues take the
opportunity of making notes at the time of the various physical features of the
land, &c. With a view to obtaining a thoroughly general knowledge of the soils
of Dorsetshire, it is proposed to sample and analyse one hundred of them, in the
manner indicated, during the course of the next five years. It is important to
mention that this investigation is being carried out under the auspices of the
Dorsetshire County Council, who have made a grant towards the necessary
expenses.

5. Report on the Carbohydrates of Cereal Straws.—See Reports, p. 293.

6. Interim Report on the Promotion of Agriculture.—See Reports, p. 312.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Recent Advances in the Leather Trade. By J. GorDoN Parker, Ph.D.

A new and important tanning material, containing upwards of 30 per cent. of
tannin, is canaigre. To light leathers, tannage with it gives suppleness and
mildness. Quebracho is increasingly used. The most important change of
method, however, in the manufacture of leather is the now almost universal
employment of extracts, principally those of oakwood and chestnut—a method
which is the indirect outcome of chemical science. Up to a comparatively
recent date there was no known chemical means by which one extract could
be detected from the other. The tanner’s chemist can, however, now determine
between them, and also detect their adulterants, quebracho, myrabolams, cutch,
divi-divi, algarobilla, &c.

The extended use of extracts has brought about improved methods of estimat-
ing the tanning values of materials used in tanning. The considerable
ditferences in the results of analyses of one and the same sample by different
chemists culminated in the holding in London of a conference, and the formation
at that conference of the International Association of Leather Trades’ Chemists ;
an Association from which much may be expected, particularly in the direction of
the adoption of standard methods for the analysis of tanning materiais.

In regard to the fermentation that takes place in tan liquors, chemistry had
already afforded considerable enlightenment. One no longer talks of the waste of
tannic acid and the formation of gallic acid; but the presence of acetic, lactic, and
propionic acids is detected, their percentage easily estimated, and in every well-
regulated tanyard their value and uses are thoroughly appreciated. The formation
of mould is checked, and the action of certain antiseptics thoroughly understood.

The bateing and puering of skins by means of dog and hen excrement is a
standing disgrace to the leather trade. Many substances in substitution for excre-
ment have been tried, but not with much success. The opinion is generally held
that bacteriological action is necessary in the bateing and puering process, and Mr.

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 843

J. T. Wood and others have succeeded in isolating over twenty different kinds of
bacteria from the puer and bate referred to, and in culturing the bacteria.
Within the last few weeks tubes containing cultures of the bacteria which are
suitable for bateing and puering purposes have, I believe, been put upon the
market in Germany. This is a form of applying the excrement bate that makes it
far less objectionable than heretofore.

Mr. Wood has also applied bacteriological investigation to the bran drench,
and he has shown that for some leathers acetic and lactic acids may be substituted
for the fermenting bran.

The rush after quick tanning processes is somewhat reactionary. No great
success has been achieved by the various drum processes, and no leather has been
made by any of them that will serve other than second-class work. Leather pro-
duced by the so-called electric process is‘being worked successfully in Sweden, and
the leather which is tanned in from eight to twelve weeks is to all appearance
satisfactory ; it has not been commercially tried in England. There is most pro-
bably what may be regarded as a rational limit of time for the conversion of hide
into leather, and it is doubtful whether the time that up to now has been regarded
as proper in such conversion will ever be very greatly reduced, as there is in
tanning more than simple chemical combination of tannin with hide substance,

In the extraction of tanning materials in the tanyard, English tanners are far
behind those of America and the Continent. A large amount of available
tannin is often wasted by cold extraction. Most of the large tanyards on the Con-
tinent extract with warm water in closed vats, some even extracting under pressure.
Analyses of over 300 samples of waste spent tan from over forty tanyards in Great
Britain have shown an average of over 9 per cent. of available tannic acid.
Supposing with valonia, costing 12/. per ton, and containing 36 per cent. of tannin,
5 per cent. to be thus wasted, a loss is incurred of 1/. 13s, 4d. per ton; and valonia
is only one of the materials used in this country.

Investigation in the case of oak bark shows 61 per cent. of tannin extracted
with cold water, and 95 per cent. with water at 60°C. Valonia extracted cold
gives over 70 per cent. of tannin; at 60° C. gives off the whole of it. Even with
hemléck, containing only about 16 per cent. of tannin, the Americans find warm
extraction pay, and the Germans years ago adopted the method. The fear of
darker colour in leather arising from the use of warm extracts is much

exaggerated.
| Chrome leather tannage has emanated from the chemist’s laboratory, and
_ leather is chromo-tanned by a two-bath process and by a one-bath process. The
_ leather tanned by either method, for it is leather, has many advantages over
vegetable-tanned leather. It is more elastic, more waterproof, and lighter and
softer for foot-wear, except as to soles, for which its water-resisting quality makes
it too slippery. Millions of dozens of skins are chromed weekly in America.
Owing to the labours of the late Professor von Schroeder, it is possible now to
determine at any period during the tanning process what amount of tannin a hide
has absorbed, and to Professor Proctor, of Leeds, we owe our present system of
analysis. As to the future, a great advance in our knowledge may be expected
from the several tanning schools and research laboratories that have come into
existence, but there is still a marked need of more research and of specially trained
chemists with a thorough knowledge of tanning.

2. Diamidated Aromatic Amidines, a New Class of Colouring Matters,
By E. Nogwtine, Professor of Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Mul-
, house.

____ The benzeny]-di-phenyl-amidine,

C,H;
¢=N—C,H,

H
\w<Gu,

844 REPORT—1898.

and its methylated derivative,

C,H;
C=N—C,H,
CH
Nw <G,H,

are white substances, having no colouring power at all.
lf we introduce in the latter one amido-group, or better, a di-methylated
amido-group, N(CH,),, we obtain a slightly yellowish substance
/ Co N(CHs)s
C=N—C,H,

dyeing wool, silk, and cotton previously mordanted with tannin in light
yellowish shades.

If another amido-group or di-methylated amido-group is introduced, we obtain
a real, strong colouring matter, dyeing the above-named fibres in bright yellow.

These substances

/ CoLN(CH;). / CHN(CH)e
CG =N—O,H,N(CH,).
CH and CH °

\x< 3 \a<o H,

may be easily prepared by acting on dimethyl-amido-benzo-methyl-anilide
CsH,N(CH,)e

with para-phenylene-diamine or dimethyl- para-phenylene-diamine in the presence
of oxychloride of phosphorus.
Benzenyl-diphenyl-methyl-amidine

<_ >-c =N-< Se
|
CH
N<GH,
may therefore be considered as a chromogen, similar to azo-benzene

CR)

Both, by the introduction of amido-groups, become real dye-stuffs, but whilst
azo-benzene itself is coloured, the amidine is colourless in itself, like anthra-
quinone and other similar chromogens.

3. The Oxidation of Glycerol in presence of Ferrous Iron. By Henry
J. Horstman Fenton, W.A., and Henry Jackson, B.A., B.Sc. Lond.

The peculiar influence which ferrous iron exercises upon the oxidation of
tartaric acid, and some other hydroxy-acids, which has been pointed out by one
of the authors in several previous communications, is now being investigated as
regards various classes of hydroxy-compounds. Mr. C. F. Cross, with the consent
of the authors, has subsequently applied this reaction to his studies on certain

——— eS re SSt~‘

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 845

carbohydrates, and Dr. Morrell is also making important investigations on the same
subject. The authors are at present engaged in studying the polyhydrie alcohols,
and the present communication deals with the results obtained when glycerol is
oxidized by hydrogen dioxide in presence of iron. Practically no result is ob-
tained in the absence of ferrous iron, but, in its presence, an energetic reaction
sets in, with the production of a liquid which powerfully reduces Fehling’s solu-
tion in the cold, and which, with phenyl hydrazine, gives an abundant yield of
glycerosazone, C,,H,,N,O. The oxidation-product contains therefore either dihy-
droxy-acetone, glyceraldehyde, or a mixture of both of these substances [‘gly-
cerose’], and is now being examined with a view of isolation.

4, Action of Hydrogen Peroxide on Carbohydrates in the Presence of Iron
Salts. By R.S. Morrett, I.A4., Ph.D., and J. M. Crorts, B.A., B.Sc.

Cross, Bevan, and Smith' have shown that hydrogen peroxide acts as a mild
oxidising agent on glucose in the presence of ferrous sulphate, giving acids, formic,
acetic, and probably tartronic, and a substance which reduces Fehling’s solution in
the cold, and yields with phenyl-hydrazine in the cold a mixture of osazones,

The action of hydrogen peroxide in the presence of ferrous sulphate on organic
acids has furnished important results in the case of tartaric acid, and the method
employed by Cross, Bevan, and Smith is on the lines suggested by Fenton,”

We have been able to identify the substance, which reduces Fehling’s solution
in the cold and reacts so readily with phenyl-hydrazine, as glucoson.

We have prepared from the solution methyl-phenyl-glucosazon, and verified the
property that this oxyglucose has of reacting easily with organic bases, e.g. (0)
tolyldiamine. The glucoson resists the action of ferments, as was found to be the
case by Fischer.*

The action of the hydrogen peroxide in the presence of iron salts is to oxidise
the (CHOH) group next to the CHO group in glucose, forming CHO.CO(CHOH),
CH,OH. With levulose and galactose a similar oxidation probably takes place.
The investigation of these substances is in progress. In these two cases we expect
to obtain (a) from levulose CH,OH.CO.CO(CHOH),CH,OH ; (4) from galactose
CHO.CO(CHOH).CH,OH (galactoson).

5. An Experiment illustrating the Effect on the Acetylene Flame of vary-
ing Proportions of Carbon Dioxide in the Gas. By Professor J.
Emerson REYNOLDS.

On a 10-Candle Lamp to be used as a Standard of Light.
By A. G. Vernon Harcourt, 7.2.8,

In previous years the author has made several communications to Sections A
and B on standard lights. As weight is expressed in grains and length in feet, but
a definite piece of brass or platinum is used to represent the grain, and a rule of
definite length to represent the foot; so light is expressed in candles, but some
more constant light than a candle-flame is needed to represent the candle. A
small air-gas flame, first described to this Section in 1878, has been thus used in
inquiries into the standard of light on several occasions since that date. The
illuminative value of coal gas has commonly been estimated by comparing the
distances at which the light of two candles and that of a standard Argand, con-
suming 5 cubic feet of gas per hour and giving a light of about 16 candles,
illuminated equally the surface on which they fell. In clear air and with careful
measurement of the smaller distance a comparison between a light of 16 candles

1 CLS. J. 1898, 73, 463. 2 C. 8S. J. 1894, 65, 899; C. S. J. 1896, 69, 546.
3 Ber, vol. xxii. p. 89.

846 REPORT —1898.

and the light of two or even of one candle can be accurately made. But a material
error is less likely to occur where the atmosphere may be foggy, and in a number
of routine observations, if the two lights compared are more nearly equal For
this reason in technical photometry it is better to make the standard of comparison
a light of 10 or 16 candles. An actual cluster of so many candles would give a
much more constant light than two candles, but its use on a photometer presents -
obvious and insuperable difficulties. Hence the need of a large but compact
standard flame.

After many trials of Argand lamps with wicks and chimneys, the author
concluded that the glass chimney was a source of variation, and that if possible
an Argand lamp without a chimney must be produced. The result of many trials
to produce a lamp of the right kind, and many adjustments, first large, then small,
to obtain from such a lamp a constant light, and a light of exactly 10 candles, has
been the lamp which is now before the Section.

The burner is supplied with a mixture of air and gaseous pentane from a
reservoir carried on a bracket at the top of the lamp. As this mixture falls down the
siphon connecting the two, fresh air enters the reservoir, which is provided with
cross partitions causing the air to travel backwards and forwards over the surface of
the pentane, and to mix with a proportion of pentane vapour, always large, though
varying in amount withthe external temperature. The variation in the proportion
of pentane thus occurring does not affect the output of light under the other
conditions about to be described. A casing round the burner with a conical top
steadies the flame, the upper part of which is drawn together into along brass
chimney which cuis off the light of this part of the flame. Round the chimney is
an outer tube, open below and connected above with a longer tube, which
descends and is connected below with the central chamber of the burner. The
longer tube is kept cool by having attached to it the bracket carrying the reservoir
in which the pentane evaporates, and also a triangle of blackened copper which
supports the bracket. Thus an air-current is produced, ascending in the heated
and descending in the cooler tube, which issues through the middle of the Argand
burner.

A steady flame of a height between 60 and 70 mm. is thus formed, giving a
total light of rather more than 10 candles. By setting the tube which receives
the top of the flame at a height of 47 mm., the light shed horizontally is reduced
to exactly 10 candles. The total height of the flame can be observed through a
small tale window in the side of the chimney; and regulated by means of a tap on
the outlet of the reservoir. A variation of a centimetre in the height of the flame,
or of a millimetre either way in setting the height of the chimney above the
burner, makes no measurable difference in the light emitted.

As the lamp is tall and its centre of gravity rather high, and as an upset would
cause a spilling of pentane which might be dangerous, a firm support is required.
A tripod, which for levelling and stability is best, has the disadvantage that, unless
the branches are very long, it offers a weak resistance to an upsetting force in three
directions. The stand of this lamp has been strengthened in these three directions
by being provided with three additional branches, whose screws are turned up so
as not to touch the table till the lamp resting on the other three branches has been
set upright. The screws of the three supplementary branches, which are made to
turn very easily, are then turned down in succession till a slight resistance shows
that each is just touching the table.

A number of comparisons have been made of four of these lamps one with
another, and between the lamps and the l-candle standard. The results show
that all the lamps give the same amount of light, and that this light is exactly ten
times that of the ]-candle standard.

7. On a Convenient Form of Drying Tube.
By A. G. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S.

A common method of drying gases is to pass them through a wash-bottle
containing sulphuric acid, and then through a U-tube filled with fragments of

———iw ”~SmrrcerS

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 847

pumice moistened with the same liquid. The number of corks and connections in
this arrangement increases the chance of leakage. The U-tube must be supported
in an upright position both when in use and afterwards, that the acid may not
come in contact with the corks; if too much acid is poured in, the bend becomes
blocked by a plug of liquid; there is no means of telling when the acid has become
less efficient by dilution ; nor is it easy to recharge the tube with fresh acid.

The form of drying tube shown avoids these defects. It is at once wash-bottle
and drying tube; it has one cork, and stands upright; the pumice-can be well
drenched with sulphuric acid, the excess draining down and filling the lower part,
through which the gas bubbles, to a convenient height; dilution announces itself,
and the acid is easily renewed. The shape is that of a Gay-Lussac burette, with a
constriction about 2 inches from the bottom. A piece of pumice, large enough to
block the constriction, is first dropped in, and the tube is filled to near the top
with small fragments of pumice. In charging with acid care is taken not to wet
the upper part of the tube; next day the level of the acid in the lower part of the
tube is marked with a strip of gummed paper. The small side tube which enters
the large tube near the bottom is the inlet for gas; when the moisture absorbed
has raised the level of the acid about 2 mm. above the mark the acid in the lower
part is poured off through the small tube, and fresh acid is poured in through the
pumice. The inlet and outlet tubes are made of the same height, so that a series
of similar drying tubes may readily be joined together.

8. Standards of Purity for Sewage Effluents.' By Dr. 8. Ripe.

The author discussed the ‘Standards of Purity for Sewage Effluents’ which
local authorities have hitherto had in wind in deciding as to whether they should
be permitted to be discharged into a river or not. It was pointed out that the
majority of these standards are arbitrary and artificial. The ‘ Oxygen consumed’
and ‘ Incubation’ tests, lately in dispute at Manchester, bacterial and chemical
figures, and the ‘ Fish test’ were passed inreview. But since the zztrogen is signi-
ficant of the more dangerous forms of pollution, a calculation of the proportion
between its oxidised forms, which are harmless, and the unoxidised, which are
liable to occasion smells and to be otherwise deleterious, will denote the extent to
which an effluent has been purified. The figure obtained, termed the ‘ percentage
of purification,’ ranges from none for raw sewage to 97°6 for a deep well in chalk.
Moreover, as several observers have proved, the oxygen of the nitrate and nitrites
is in an ‘ available’ form, and is capable, with the help of bacteria, of supplementing
the free dissolved oxygen of river water in destroying the remaining organic
matter. From these considerations a formula is deduced which embodies all the

_ natural data for the conditions of discharge of an effluent into a stream, including

the flow and aération of the latter, and the volume, oxygen required, and ‘avail-
able oxygen’ of the effluent. The result is a ‘factor of safety,’ C, which must
never be below unity. The application of the formula shows that the Thames,
with C=1-08, has so narrow a margin that it often has had to be supplemented,
especially in warm weather, by the addition of oxidising agents, while the Exe,
on the other hand, with C=7:9, has a large margin for natural purification.

It is concluded that ‘an effluent which has been properly prepared, and is in an
active state of wholesome bacterial change, under the above conditions of free and
potential oxygen, if clear and nearly free from odour, may be safely discharged
into any river of moderate volume.’

9. Action of Ammonia on Gun-cotton. By W. R. Honexinson and
Captain Owen, £.A., Artillery College, Woolwich.

Gun-cotton that has been thoroughly washed with alcohol and ether ignites or
explodes when heated to between 180° and 185°. Analysis of such gun-cotton gives
figures agreeing very closely indeed with those required by a cellulose tri-nitrate.

1 Printed in extenso in Sanitary Record, xxii. 490.

848 REPORT—1898.

Some time ago we made a number of experiments to ascertain whether contact
with other gases than air would influence this igniting point, and also whether
any or what effect would be produced on gun-cotton when exposed at about 100°
to the following gases:—Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, sulphur
dioxide, nitrous and nitric oxides, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, bromine, ammonia.

None of these gases was specially purified, but they were dried very thoroughly.

The carefully dried gun-cotton, in fine powder, was exposed to a current of the
gases ina tube. The tube was provided with a jacket through which steam or
alcohol vapour, &c., could be driven, so as to obtain approximately definite
temperatures.

‘With the exception of ammonia, not one of these gases above named had any
effect at temperatures below 100°.

With ammonia the first indication of an action was the ignition, and sometimes
detonation, of the gun-cotton at about the temperature of boiling alcohol. The
gun-cotton became yellow or brown just before exploding.

To ascertain the temperature of firing more nearly, the cotton was placed in a
U-tube heated externally by a water bath. Some samples, fine powder, fired at
76° (temperature of water bath). Othersas high as 80° or 82°. Pulped gun-cotton

fired at the lowest temperatures.
Tt was noticed that when the current of ammonia was very slight, red fumes
and a white cloud formed in the tube just before firing.

As this indicated a possible oxidation of the ammonia at the expense of the
NO, of the gun-cotton, some experiments were conducted in a similar manner, but
at temperatures not exceeding 20°.

No change was visible until the ammonia had passed over the cotton for some
hours, and then only a slight yellow colouration.

On washing this yellow product with water, a solution was obtained containing
a considerable quantity of nitrite.

Fresh gun-cotton of the same make gave but the slightest traces of nitrous
acid, even when boiled with water.

All alkaline solutions, boiled on gun-cotton, give strong reactions for nitrites.
The solutions are generally yellow.

Some gun-cotton was now spread out under a bell glass and ammonia gas
steadily introduced. After a few days moisture was observed condensing on the
interior surfaces of the bell glass, so the arrangement was simplified and the eun-
cotton supported a few inches above some strong ammonia solution under a large
bell glass. It was allowed to stand for some weeks in a cool place. The cotton
gradually became quite brown, and at the end of a month partially liquefied into
a brown jelly.

Exposure to light was found to very materially shorten the time necessary to
get this brown stage.

The substance was tested from time to time for nitrites. The amount appeared
to increase up to the liquefying stage and then diminish. ‘

After six weeks’ exposure to the damp ammonia atmosphere the mass was
placed over sulphuric acid in a desiccator and a good vacuum maintained for
three weeks. The mass swelled up and dried to a brown, porous, and friable body
without a sign of the original cellulose structure. Some ammonia was retained,
and was not entirely removed by heating for several days in a current of dried air.

The brown product is almost completely soluble in water and in alkaline solu-
tions, but scarcely at al! in alcohol or ether and very slightly in acetone. Strong
alkalies evolve ammonia. :

Strong sulphuric acid causes an effervescence, and SO, is evolved. Much car-
bonisation takes place. i
i Nitric acid (cold, strong) dissolves it quietly, and on dilution with water there
is no precipitate.

When heated in a dry state ammonia is first given off. It then explodes
feebly, producing red fumes and leaving much carbon.

Acetyl and benzoyl chlorides act upon it very energetically, and a light yellow
resin is left on evaporation. 7

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 849

Acetic acid dissolves the brown substance, carbon dioxide being evolved. The
product on evaporation leaves a clear, glassy substance.

In some later experiments the end of the ammonia action was considered to be
reached when the brown mass ceased to gain weight after exposing to dry
ammonia gas (nearly three months).

Nitrogen determinations in this sample gave 21:2 per cent. and 21:46 per cent.
Some earlier samples contained only about 20 per cent.

The carbon and hydrogen determinations are very unsatisfactory. Mean of
several carbon 21°5, hydrogen 3-5. ‘They show a slight loss of carbon and gain of
hydrogen compared to the original gun-cotton. There is evidently an increase
ot about 7 per cent. in the nitrogen. Possibly a further study of the acetyl com-
pound of this product may throw some light on the reaction.

The nitrates from starch, mannitol, sugars, are also affected in a similar manner
by ammonia. Glycerol nitrate (nitro-glycerine) is not affected either by gaseous
ammonia at 100° or by standing under strong ammonia solution for twelve
months.

Methyl and ethyl, amine, and aniline act upon gun-cotton in a similar but less
energetic manner than ammonia.

The subject is being continued,

10. On Nitroso-pinene. By J. A. Smyrur.

By the reduction of nitroso-pinene (C,,H,,NO) with zine in acetie acid
solution, there is formed, besides pinylamine, a new isomeric camphor (C,,H,,0)
called pinocamphone.

The boiling-point of pinocamphone is 211°-213°. Pinocamphone oxime melts
at 86°-87°. Pinocamphone semicarbazone melts at 208°. Reduction of ketone
with sodium gives an isomeric borneol, C,,H,,O (pinocampheole), which boils at
218°-219°. The phenylurethane of pinocampheole melts at 98°. Pinocampheole
and zine chloride yield cymene. Pinocamphone is the first synthetic camphor, the
oxime of which in treatment with dehydrating agents gives a nitrile. Oxidation of
pinocamphone yields a mixture of fatty acids. The reduction of bromnitroso-pinene
(C,,H,;NOBr,) with zinc in acetic acid solution yields, not pinylamine and
pinocamphone, but an unknown base and bihydrocarvone.

These results can only be satisfactorily explained on the assumption of
Wagner’s formula for pinene.

11. The Constitution of Oxycannabin. By T. B. Woon, V.A., W. T. N.
Spivey, J/.4., and T H. Easrerrienp, W.A., Ph.D.

Oayeannabin is a yellowish-white crystalline compound obtained by Bolas and
Francis in 1871 by the oxidation of pharmaceutical extract of hemp with nitric
acid. It has hitherto possessed little interest, since it was not known from what
naturally occurring compound the oxycannabin was derived, or what its chemical
relationships were.

The authors have found that that portion of hemp resin which boils at about
400° C. contains two compounds; one of these yields a crystalline acetyl derivative,
and has the formula C,,H,,0,. Cold fuming nitric acid converts this into a
crystalline trinitro compound C,,H,,(NO,),0,, which yields characteristic salts,
and which, by the action of hot fuming nitric acid, yields ‘Oxycannabin,’ together
with caproic, valeric, and butyric acids.

The formula ascribed by Bolas and Francis to oxycannabin was C,,H,,.N,0O, ;
in reality it has the formula C,,H,,NO,, which has nearly the same “percentage
composition, It is a lactone, and yields salts of the type C,,H,,NO,M’. Upon
reduction it yields an amido-lactone C,,H,,(NII,)O,, from which, by Sandmeyer’s
reaction, a crystalline iodo-lactone, C,,H,,1O,, has been obtained. The iodo-lactone,
when treated in alkaline solution with sodium amalgam, is reduced to the parent
cannabino-lactone, C,,H,,0,, a colourless liquid boiling at 290° C.

1898. aT

850 REPORT— 1898.

Cannabino-lactone, when oxidised with potassium permanganate, is converted
almost quantitatively into cannabino-lactonic acid, C,,H,,0,, which crystallises from
water in magnificent colourless needles, melting at 203° C., and which by potash
fusion under suitable conditions gives a quantitative yield of isophthalic acid.
If, now, we trace the relationships backwards, we are forced to the following con-
clusions :—

Isophthalic acid =C,H,O, i CHC ae t3}
CO,H
Cannabino-lac- | _ i Waa
tear acd aeRO! MORK, 700 ae
"yi lactone.
Cannabino-lac- Os i
tone ' a C,,H,,0, = CoH JCO _ m-Tolyl-
0 fies C,H, | ~ } butyro-lactone.

: Nitro-m-Tolyl-
Oxycannabin . =C,,H,,(NO,)O,= puppet a
= Nitro-cannabino-lactone.

There are three possible m-Tolyl-butyro-y-lactones, none of which is at
present known. Further research must show which of these is identical with
cannabino-lactone, and also the position of the nitro group in oxycannabin.

12. The Action of Certain Substances on the Undeveloped Photographic
Image. By C. H. Bornamuey, /.LC., £.C.S.

It has been known for some time to practical photographers that: just as there
are certain substances that have the power of ‘fogging’ or producing a develop-
able image on photographic plates, so there are substances that have the power of
destroying the latent image produced by the action of light. Several years ago
a plate which the author had fully exposed on a landscape was wrapped in three
or four thicknesses of tissue paper, and outside this some orange paper with
printed matter on the outer surface, the whole being enclosed in a metal box with
other plates. After some months the plate was developed, and it was found that
on the negative there was an image of the printed matter on the outside of the
paper, this image being much less opaque than the surrounding parts of the
negative. It followed that the printer’s ink had given off some vapour which had
passed through the several thicknesses of paper, and destroyed the developable
image produced by the action of light. Somewhat later it was found that in the
case of several exposed plates that were left in the dark slides for some weeks
the material composing the hinges of the slides had emitted some vapour that had
undone the work done by light, the hinges being represented by almost transparent
bands in the negatives. Abney showed long ago that hydrogen peroxide will
destroy the image produced by light, and the author finds that the vapour of the
peroxide has the same effect if allowed to act for sufficient time. It is probable,
therefore, that effects such as those just described are due to hydrogen peroxide
formed in the slow oxidation of the particular substance. Turpentine vapour,
which produces hydrogen peroxide when oxidised by moist air, also completely
destroys the developable image produced by light. Some evidence has been
obtained that in the earliest stages of the action the reducing effect of hydrogen
peroxide, as observed by Russell, is added to the effect produced by light, but
with longer time the hydrogen peroxide destroys the developable image so pro-
duced. The general conclusion is that hydrogen peroxide, when it acts in small
quantities or for a short time, acts as a reducer and produces a developable image
on the photographic plate ; but when it acts in a more concentrated form, or for a
longer time, it acts as an oxidising agent and destroys the developable image.

—

i

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 851

Probably both the reducing and oxidising actions take place simultaneously, and
the result at any given instant depends on their relative rates.

13. Report on a New Series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the
Elements.—See Reports, p. 313.

14. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.—See Reports, p. 311.

852 REPORT—1898.

Section C.—GEHOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEctiIon—W. H. Huptzston, M.A., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Introductory.—Ahbout this time last year British geologists were scattered over
no inconsiderable portion of the northern hemisphere, partly in consequence of
the International Geological Congress at St. Petersburg, and partly owing to the
meeting of the British Association at Toronto. From the shores of the Pacific at
Vancouver on the one hand, to the highlands of Armenia on the other, there were
parties engaged in the investigation of some of the grandest physical features of
the earth’s surface.

The geologists in Canada were especially favoured in the matter of excursions.
Everything on the American continent is so big that a considerable amount of
locomotion is required to enable visitors to realise the more prominent facts, If
there is no great variety of formation in Canada, yet the Alpha and Omega of the
geological scale are there most fully represented, from the great Laurentian com-

plex at the base to the amazing evidences of glacial action, in a country where ~

it is possible to travel for a whole day without once quitting a glaciated surface,
But Russia presented equal attractions, and in Finland almost identical conditions
were observed—viz. glacial deposits on Archean rocks. The great central plain of
Russia, too, with its ample Mesozoic deposits often abounding in fossils, offered
attractions which to some may have been stronger than the mineral riches of the
Urals or the striking scenery of the Caucasus.

It seems almost incredible, even in this age of extraordinary locomotion, that
scenes so wide apart were visited by British geologists last autumn. This year we
are more domestic in our arrangements, and Section C finds its tent pitched once
more on the classic banks of the Bristol Avon, and in that part of England which
has no small claim to be regarded as the cradle of English geology. But we may
goastep further. For if the strata observed by William Smith during the six
years’ cutting of the Somersetshire coal-canal imprinted their lessons on his recep-
tive mind, it is also equally true that Devonshire, Cornwall, and West Somerset
first attracted the attention of the ‘Ordnance Geological Survey.’ And thus it
comes to pass that the region which lies between the Bristol Channel and the
English Channel claims the respect of geologists in all partsof the world, not only
as the birthplace of stratigraphical paleontology, but also as the original home of
systematic geological survey.

The city of Bristol lies on the confines of this region, where it shades off north-
westwards into the Palzeozoics of Wales and north-eastwards into the Mesozoics
of the Midland Counties. There are probably few districts which display an equal
amount of variety within a limited circumference. The development of the various
formations was excellently portrayed by Dr. Wright, when he occupied this chair

|

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 853

twenty-three years ago—so well, indeed, that his address might serve as a text-book
on the geology of the district. In the following year (1876) there appeared the
Survey Memoir on the Geology of East Somerset and the Bristol Coal-fields by
Mr. H. B. Woodward, who has since contributed important memoirs on the
Jurassic rocks of Britain, which are so largely developed in Somerset and the
adjacent counties. Since that date many papers also have appeared in various
journals, and some of these, as might be expected, give new and perhaps more
accurate interpretations of phenomena previously described. In addition to this,
portions of the south-west of England have been geologically re-surveyed, and in
some cases new maps have been published.

I would call especial attention to the Survey map on the scale of four miles to
the inch, known as the ‘ Index-map,’ which has recently been issued. Sheet 1] in-
cludes this particular district ; but if a portion of sheet 14 is tacked on to its southern
border we obtain a block of country about 120 miles square, which has not its
equal for variety of geological formation in any part of the world within the same
space. If Europe is to be regarded as presenting a geological epitome of our globe,
and if Great Britain is an epitome of Europe, then, without doubt, this particular
block of the south-west, which has Bath for its more exact centre, with a radius
(say) of fifty miles, may be said to contain almost everything to be found on the
geological scale, except the very oldest and the very youngest rocks; while east of
the Severn and south of the Bristol Channel true Boulder clay is rare or absent.

It may be convenient to consider a few points which have arisen of late years
in connection with the geology of portions of the district now under consideration.

Paleozoic,—lf we omit the Silurian inlier at Tortworth, the geological history
of the country, more immediately round Bristol, may be said to commence with
the Old Red Sandstone, whose relations with the Devonian towards the south-west
have always presented some difficulty. And this difficulty is accentuated by
doubts as to the true Devonian sequence in West Somerset and North Devon.
Eyer since the days of Jukes that region has been fruitful in what I must
continue to regard as heresy until the objectors have really established the points
for which they are contending. The uncertainty is to be regretted, since it is
through these beds of West Somerset that the system is to be made to fit in with
the several members of the Old Red Sandstone.

There is a mystery underlying the great alluvial flats of Bridgewater which
affects more than one formation; so much so that one cannot avoid asking why
there should be Old Red Sandstone in the Mendips and Devonian in the Quantocks.
The line which separates the Old Red Sandstone of South Wales and the Mendips
from the West Somerset type of Devonian lies here concealed. I have already
suggested ' that, if we regard the Old Red Sandstone of South Wales as an inshore

_ deposit over an area which was deluged with fresh water off the land, we can

believe that further out to sea, in a south-westerly direction, the conditions were
favourable for the development of a moderate amount of marine mollusca. This
view not only does away with the necessity for a barrier, but it also, in a general
sense, suggests a kind of gradation between the Old Red and Devonian deposits.
Mr. Ussher, whose practical acquaintance with thia region dates from a long period,
stated a few years ago that, ‘as far as Great Britain is concerned, the true connec-
tions of the Old Red Sandstone beds with their marine Devonian equivalents have
yet to be carefully worked out on the ground.’* I am not aware that further pro-
gress has been made in this direction.

The Carboniferous Limestone of the Bristol area has attracted the attention of
SO many distinguished geologists that its paleontology and general features are

tolerably familiar. Of late years we owe some interesting petrographic details to
_ Mr. Wethered. The varying thickness of the Carboniferous Limestone and also

_ of the Millstone Grit in this part of England is noteworthy. If we follow the
_ Carboniferous Limestone in a south-westerly direction, across the mysterious

1) Trans. Devonsh. Assoc. vol. xxi. (1889), p. 45.
* * Prospects of obtaining Coal by Boring South of the Mendips,’ Proc. Som. Nat.
Soe. vol. xxxvi. (1891), pt. 2, p. 104.

S54 : REPORT—1898.

Bridgewater flats, a change is already noted in the case of the Cannington Park
limestone, which was the subject of so much discussion in former years. Referring
to this, Mr. Handel Cossham ' was so sanguine as to believe that its identification
with the Carboniferous Limestone would have the effect of extending the Bristol
coal-field thirteen miles south of the Mendips. However this may be, all further
traces of Carboniferous rocks fail at this point. After crossing the vale of Taunton,
when next we meet with them in the Bampton district, the Culm-measure type,
with its peculiar basal limestones, is already in full force.

In the new ‘ Index-map’ the Culm-measures are placed at the base of the Car-
boniferous series—below the Carboniferous Limestone. It is no part of my purpose
to attempt any precise correlation, but I would point out the somewhat singular
circumstance that the change to Culm rock occurs only a few miles to the south-
west of the line where, in the previous system, we have already seen that the Old
Red Sandstone changes into the Devonian. This curious coincidence may he
wholly accidental, or it may be the result of some physical feature now concealed
by overlying formations.

Since 1895 a new light has been thrown on the Lower Culm-measures by the
discovery of a well-marked horizon of Radiolarian rocks. One result of the im-
portant paper of Messrs. Hinde and Fox has been to alter materially our views
as to the physical conditions accompanying the deposition of a portion of the
Culm-measures. The paleontology leads the authors to conclude® that ‘the
Lower Postdonomya- and Waddon Barton Beds are the representatives and equiva-
lents of the Carboniferous Limestone in other portions of the British Isles; not,
however, in the at present generally understood sense that they are a shallow-
water facies of the presumed deeper-water Carboniferous Limestones, but altogether
the reverse, that they are the deep-water representatives of the shallower-formed
calcareous deposits to the north of them. . . . The picture that we [ Messrs. Hinde
and Fox] can now draw of this period is that while the massive deposits of the
Carboniferous Limestone—formed of the skeletons of calcareous organisms—were
in the process of growth in the seas to the north [z.c. in the Mendip area and
elsewhere] there existed to the south-west a deeper ocean in which silicious
organisms predominated and formed these silicious Radiolarian rocks.’

This is probably a correct view of the case; but one cannot help wondering
that the ocean currents and other causes did not effect a greater amount of com-
mingling of the elements than seems to have taken place. As a practical result,
this discovery of a Radiolarian horizon in the Culm-measures has been of service
in enabling surveyors to discriminate between Devonian and Carboniferous in the
very obscure area on the other side of Dartmoor. This, I ventured to predict,
would be the case when the paper was read before the Geological Society.

The principal features of the Bristol coal-field are too well known to call for
many remarks. It would seem that the Pennant rock was formerly regarded as
Millstone Grit, until Mr. Handel Cossham, in 1864, pointed out the mistake.’
Mr. Wethered gave a good description of the Pennant in his paper on the Fossil
Flora of the Bristol Coal-field.4 It might seem almost unnecessary to refer to the
existence of such a well-known formation as the Pennant, but for the fact that
in a recent scheme of the Carboniferous sequence in Somersetshire the Pennant
rock was wholly omitted.

The interest now shifts from tne almost continuous deposition of the later
Palzozoics, in one great geosynclinal depression, to an entirely different class of
phenomena. Nowhere, perhaps, are the effects of the post-Carboniferous interval
better exhibited than in those parts of the South-west of England where Tertiary
denudation has removed the Mesozoic deposits. Here we perceive some of the
effects of the great foliations which terminated the Paleozoic epoch in this part

' Proc. Cottes. Club, vol. viii. (1881-2) p. 20 et seg.

2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. li. (1895), p. 662.

% Since the Address was read, I have found that what Mr. Cossham showed was
tbat a small tract marked ‘ Millstone Grit’ in the survey map at Kingswood, east
of Bristol, belongs to the Pennant Grit (see Geol. Mag. ii. 110).

* Proc. Cottes. Club, vol. vii. (1878), p. 73.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 855

of the world. The immense amount of marine denudation which characterises
this stage is particularly obvious in the anticlinals, which were the first to suffer,
as they came under the planing action of the sea.

Attention may be drawn to a peculiarity which has no doubt been observed
by many persons who have studied a map of the Bristol and Somerset Coal-field.
It will be seen that the strike of the Coal-measures is widely different on either
side of a line which may be drawn through Mangotsfield to a point north of
Bristol. The beds north of this line have for the most part a meridional strike,
nearly parallel with the present Cotteswold escarpment; south of this line the
strike is mainly east and west, though much curved in the neighbourhood of
Radstock and the flanks of the Mendips. Of course, this is only part of an exten-
sive change in the direction of flexure, much of which is still hidden under
Mesozoic rocks. Mr. Ussher, in the paper previously quoted, tells us that the line
of change of strike may be traced in the general mass of the Paleozoic rocks,
from near Brecon in South Wales to the neighbourhood of Frome. This means
that within the Bristol district two distinct systems of flexure must have impinged
on each other in post-Carboniferous times. Have we not here, then, another
instance of extraordinary change within the limits of our area? This time it is
not a mere change in the nature of a deposit, like that of the Old Red Sandstone
into the Devonian, or of the Carboniferous Limestone into the Culm-rock, but a
change in the direction of the elevatory forces, which had made its mark on the
atructure of our island even at that early date.

At this point I ought to quit the Paleozoics; but there is just one subject of
interest which claims a momentary attention—viz. the probability of finding work-
able coal east of the proved Somersetshire field. I avoid the question of coal
south of the Mendips as being too speculative, on account of the chances of
deterioration of the coal-measures in that direction. But, in view of the forth-
coming meeting of the british Association at Dover, the question of finding coal
to the eastward of Bath becomes a specially interesting subject for discussion. It
is also a matter of some consequence whether the hidden basin or basins belong
to the meridional or to the east and west system of flexures. The latter is most
likely to be the case.! The vale of Pewsey has been mentioned as a suitable
locality for boring along the line of the recognised axis.

But prospectors should bear in mind the warning of Ramsay, that the basins
containing coal are but few in comparison with the number of basins throughout
the Paleozoic rocks. No doubt the line indicated is more favourably situated for
coal-exploration than the Eastern Counties; where, for instance, the Coal Boring and
Development Company has lately gone into liquidation. The unsuitability of East
Anglia asa field for coal-prospecting was insisted on in my second anniversary
address to the Geological Society,” and the results seem to have been very much
what might have been expected. If coal is to be found beneath the Secondary
rocks the line of search should be carried through the counties of Kent, Surrey,
Berkshire, and Wiltshire, though the three latter counties have hitherto been
content to leave their underground riches unexplored. The Kent Coal Explora-
tion Company is doing some good work with a reasonable chance of success;
though if they wish to find coal sufficiently near the surface they had better
adhere as much as possible to the line of the North Downs, since operations on
the Sussex side are only too likely to be within the influence of the Kimmeridgian
gulf, which was proved to exist at Battle (Netherfield). Mr. Etheridge, I hope,
will have something to tell us as to the progress of the Kent Collieries Corporation,
who now carry on the work at Dover.

Secondary or Mesozoie Rocks—Commencing a totally different subject, I must
now direct attention to the ‘red beds, and associated breccias so characteristic of

1 The boring at Burford, where coal was found at a depth of 1,100 feet, below a
surface of Bathonian beds, at a point thirty-five miles E.N.E. of the extreme end of
the Bristol coal-field at Wickwar, is not included in this category; since it must
belong to the meridional system, and is altogether outside the prolongation of the
axis of Artois.

2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. 1. (1894), p. 70.

856 REPORT—1898.

Eastern Devonshire. These rest in complete discordance on the flanks of the
Palxozoic highlands, and must be regarded as forming the base of the Secondary
rocks of that district.

By the Geological Survey this series has hitherto been mapped as Trias, but in
the new ‘ Index-map’ they are coloured as Permian. There is no paleontological
evidence which would connect them with the fossiliferous Permians, usually re-
garded as of Paleozoic age ; but it has been evident for some time past that opinion
was inclining to revert to the views of Murchison and the older geologists, more
especially as to the position of the breccias so largely charged with volcanic rocks.
The subject was dealt with by Sir A. Geikie in his address to the Geological
Society, where he speaks of some of these rocks as presenting the closest resem-
blance to those of the Permian basins of Ayrshire and Nithsdale.!

One difficulty which presented itself to the Devonshire geologists in accepting
the Permian age of the ‘red beds’ was, that the whole of the lower Secondary
rocks appeared as an indivisible sequence, proved by its fossils to be of Keuper
age at one end, and therefore inferentially of Keuper age at the other. Dr, Irving,
however, considered that at the base of the Budleigh-Salterton pebble-bed there is
a physical break of as much significance as that between the Permian and Trias of
the Midlands. In the marls which underlie this pebble-bed he recognised a strong
resemblance to the Permian marls of Warwickshire and Nottinghamshire; and
Professor Hull, who had been studying the sections east of Exmouth about the
same time, ultimately acceded to this view. Its acceptance by the Survey thus
throws all the Exmouth beds into the Permian; and that formation, according to
the new reading, has an outcrop of some 35 miles from the shores of the English
Channel to within 3 miles of Bridgewater Bay. The fertility of these red clays,
loams, and marls has long been recognised by agriculturists, and it is not im-
probable that the abundance of contemporaneous volcanic material may in some
measure have contributed to this result.

In conformity with the new mapping, the Budleigh-Salterton pebble-bed and
its equivalents to the northwards are accepted as of Bunter age, and thus consti-
tute the base of the Trias in the south-west. Like most pebble-beds, they are
irregularly developed between the Permians and a strip of reddish sandstone
(coloured as Keuper), which runs up from the mouth of the Otter to within a
short distance of Bridgewater Bay. The materials of the pebble-beds are not of
local origin, like so much of the breccia at the base of the Permian. The general
resemblance, both as regards scenery and composition, to the Bunter conglomerate
of Cannock Chase has been pointed out by Professor Bonney, who seems prepared
to endorse the recognition of the Budleigh-Salterton pebble-bed as a Bunter con-
glomerate. He was not impressed by any marked unconformity with the under-
lying series. ‘To some extent we may accept this view, since, whatever may be the
age of the Devonshire breccias and ‘red beds,’ they, in common with the Trias,
must have been deposited under fairly similar physical conditions in a sort of
Permo-Triassic lake basin.

The bulk of the Trias, including the Dolomitic Conglomerate of the Bristol
district, is still regarded as of Keuper age, though it is now admitted, as insisted
on by Mr. Sanders years ago, that the Dolomitic Conglomerate does not neces-
sarily occupy the base of the Keuper, but is mainly a deposit of hill-talus, which
has been incorporated with the finer deposits of the old Triassic lake as the several
Paleozoic islands gradually became submerged. The great blocks which fell from
the old cliffs were formerly regarded as proofs of glacial agency, and there are
persons who still believe, more especially with respect to the Permian breccias,
that such rocks are indicative of a glacial origin.

1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xlviii. (1892), p. 161.

* Cf. Irving. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vols. xliv. (1888), p. 149, xlviii. (1892), p. 68,
and xlix. (1893), p. 79; and Hull, op. cit. vol. xlviii. (1892), p. 60.

* Northwards, ¢.g. at Burlescombe, Wiveliscombe, &c., the equivalent conglome-
rates are largely, if not entirely, of local origin (ef. Ussher, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
vols. xxxii. (1876), pp. 378, 382; and xxxiv. (1878), p. 461). Mr. H. B. Woodward
confirms this. Note added October 1898.

_
ee le

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 857

In the ‘Index-map’ the Dolomitic Conglomerate and the Red Marl are thus
included under the same symbol and colour. But this is also made to include the
Rheetic—an arrangement which is hardly in accordance with the facts observed in
the Bristol area. On a small-scale map so narrow an outcrop as that of the
Rheetic could hardly be shown; yet its affinities are probably with the Lower
Lias rather than with the Trias. The late Edward Wilson, whose recent death
we all deplore, in his paper on the Rhietic rocks at Totterdown,' showed most
clearly that the ‘Tea-green marls,’ which had previously been associated with the
Rheetic, represent an upwards extension of the Red Marls of the Trias, in which
the iron had suffered reduction ; though there are indications of a change of con-
ditions having set in before the deposition of the Rbetics. The black Rhetic
shales which succeed usually have a sharp and well-defined base in a Bone-bed
with quartz pebbles, &c., indicating a sudden change of physical conditions, though
perhaps no marked unconformity. In the South Woeles district the Rhetic lime-
stones are said to be largely of organic origin, and, in addition to a Rhetic fauna,
to abound in the lamellibranchs so plentiful in the lowest Lias limestones.”

The late Charles Moore always deplored the comparative poverty of the Trias in
fossils. In his last communication to the Geological Society * he set himself to
describe certain abnormal deposits about Bristol, and to institute a comparison
with the region of the Mendips. He then suggested, on the faith of a sketch by
Mr. Sanders, that the famous Durdham Down deposit, already inaccessible,
might have been a fissure-deposit in the Carboniferous Limestone like those at
Holwell. He also stated that at one time he had been inclined to regard the
Reptilian deposit on Durdham Down as of Rheetic age; but the discovery of teeth
of Thecodontosaurus, identical with those of Bristol, in a Keuper Marl deposit
near Taunton, induced him to refer the Durdham Down deposit to the middle of
the Upper Keuper. He had arrived at the conclusion that the same genera of
vertebrata are found in the Keuper and Rheetic beds, though the species, with few
exceptions, are quite distinct.

But it is with the Lias that the name of Charles Moore is most intimately
associated. Time does not permit me todo more than allude to the wonderful
collections of Rhzetic and Liassic fossils made by him from the fissure-veins of
the Carboniferous Limestone, or of the treasures which are stored in the Bath
Museum. There never was a more enthusiastic paleontologist, and nothing pleased
him better than to exhibit the fossilised stomach of an Ichthyosaurus, stained by
the ink-bag of the cuttle-fish, on which it had been feeding, or some similar
paleontological curiosity. Everyone here knows how deeply the West of England
is indebted to Charles Moore for his unceasing researches, and I have been thus
particular in alluding to them because it was under his auspices that I first became
acquainted with the geology of this part of the country just thirty years ago.

Amonzst more recent work in the Rhetic and Lias, I might mention papers
by Mr. H. B. Woodward and Mr. Beeby Thompson, each in explanation of the
arborescent figures in the Cotham Marble. The latter revives an old idea with
modifications, and his theory certainly seems plausible. Mr. H. b. Woodward’s
Memoir of 1893 does full justice to the Lias of this district, and much original
matter is introduced.

It is, however, in the Inferior Oolite that the most important interpretations
have to be recorded since the days when Dr. Wright and Professor J. Buckman
endeavoured to correlate the development of the series in the Cotteswolds with that
in Dorset. To this subject I alluded at considerable length in my Address to the
Geological Society in 1893, pointing out how much we owed in recent years to the
late Mr. Witchell and to Mr. S. 8. Buckman. In the following year appeared Mr.
H. B. Woodward’s Memoir on the Lower Oolitic Rocks of England (‘ Jurassic
Rocks of Britain,’ vol. iv.), wherein he did full justice to the work of previous
observers. Meantime Mr. Buckman has not been idle, and his paper on the

1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xlvii. (1891), p. 545.
2 Ann. Rep. Geol. Surrey for 1896, p. 67 (1897).
3 Quart, Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxvii. (1881), p. 67.

858 REPORT—1898.

Bajocian of the Sherborne district! marks the commencement of a new era,
where the importance of minute chronological subdivisions, based upon the
prevailing ammonites, is insisted on with much emphasis. This system he con-
siders to be almost as true for the Inferior Oolite as fur the Lias,

There can be no doubt that its application has enabled Mr. Buckman to effect
satisfactory correlations between the very different deposits of the Cotteswolds and
those of Dorset and Somerset. In subsequent papers also he brings out an
important physical feature—viz. the amount of contemporaneous denudation which
has affected deposits of Inferior Oolite age in this country. This serves in part
to explain the absence of well-known beds in certain areas. For instance, in the
Cotteswolds contemporaneous erosion has, prior to the deposition of the Upper
Trigonia-grit, cut right through the intervening beds, so as to produce in the
neighbourhood of Birdlip a shelving trough 6 miles wide and about 30 feet deep.
Thus the extensively recognised overlap of the Parkinsoni-zone is accentuated
in many places.

We have a further instance of good work in the case of Dundry Hill. An
inspection of the l-inch Survey map would lead one to suppose that the Inferior
Oolite there rests directly on the Lower Lias. Recently, owing to the investiga-
tions of Messrs. Buckman and Wilson,” this apparent anomaly has been removed,
whilst beds of Middle and Upper Lias age, and even Midford Sands, have been
recognised. In this way the authors claim to have reduced the thickness assigned
to the Inferior Oolite on Dundry Hill by about 100 feet. In the paper above quoted
the vicissitudes and faunal history of the Inferior Oolite from the opalinus-zone to
the Parkinsoni-zone inclusive are shown with much detail; whilst the position of
the chief fossil-bed in time and place has been well established. The general resem-
blance of the Dundry fossils to those of Oborne, which I could not fail to notice in
working out the Gasteropoda of the Inferior Oolite, now admits of explanation.
Although the quondam Humphriesianus-zone is richly represented, yet the particular
Humphriesianum-hemera is held to be absent at Dundry. But if there is a
Sowerbyi-bed anywhere it should serve to connect these two localities, where,
according to Mr. Buckman’s phraseology, the principal zoological phenomenon is the
acme and paracme of Sonninine.

Mr. Buckman, as we have seen, is no longer satisfied with the old-fashioned
threefold division of the Inferior Oolite, and his time-table includes at least a dozen
hemereze, with prospect of increase. Granting that it would have been difficult to
solve the Dundry problem without a detailed knowledge of ammonite horizons,
there arises the question as to the utility of such minute subdivisions for the pur-
poses of general classification. Mr. Buckman has earned the right to put forwards,
if he pleases, the several stratigraphical rearrangements in which from time to
time he indulges. The Inferior Oolite has been his especial playground, and, as
the kaleidoscope revolves, this formation is perpetually made to assume different
proportions, even to the verge of extinction. But this practice is not without its
disadvantages; whilst the invention of new names tends to clog the memory, and
the novel use of old ones is apt to produce confusion.

We have not quite finished with Dundry yet, since that classic hill serves to
illustrate in Mesozoic times a peculiarity of which I have already pointed out two
notable instances in this district, where an abrupt and seemingly unaccountable
difference is observed in beds which are approximately synchronous. The problem
to be solved is this—why does the fossiliferous portion of the Inferior Oolite on
Dundry Hill resemble that of the neighbourhood of Sherborne, both in lithology
and fossils, rather than that of the Cotteswolds, only a few miles distant ?

Nine years ago Mr. Buckman offered an ingenious solution of this difficulty ;*
though his recent investigations at Dundry, and especially his appreciation of the
effects of contemporaneous erosion, may have caused him to alter his views. Like
most people who wish to account for strong local differences, he placed a barrier of
Paleozoic rocks between Dundry and the southern prolongation of the Cotteswold

' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol, xlix. (1893), p. 479.
2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. lii. (1897), p. 669. Cf. also Proc. Brist. Nat. Soe.
vol. viii. (1897), pt. ii. p. 188. 3 Proc. Cottes. Club, vol. ix. (1890), p. 374.

~~

f hyenas

——————— eww

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 859

escarpment. At that time it was not fully realised that the Inferior Oolite in
the Bath district is, for the most part, limited to the Parkinsoni-zone, so that the
comparison was really being made between beds of different age as well as different
physical conditions. The question resolves itself into one of local details, which
are not suited for a general address. Still, I think it may be taken for granted
that, notwithstanding the east-and-west barrier of the Mendip range, which acted
effectually previously to the Parkinsonz-overlap, there was in some way a com-
munication by sea between Dundry and Dorsetshire, more especially during the
Sowerbyi-stage, and this most probably was effected round the western flank of the
Mendips. Thus, without acceding to the necessity for a barrier facing the Southern
Cotteswolds, we may readily believe that much of the Inferior Oolite of Dundry
Hill is to be regarded as an outlying deposit of the Anglo-Norman basin. If this
be so, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the low-lying area of the Bridge-
water flats was, during part of the Inferior Oolite period, occupied by a sea which
was continuous from Sherborne to Dundry, and that, although the barrier of the
Mendips was interposed, communication was effected round the west flank of that
chain. This would make a portion of the Bristol Channel a very ancient feature.

We must now take a wide leap in time, passing over all the rest of the Jurassics,
and just glancing at the Upper Cretaceous system, which reposes on the planed-
down surface of the older Secondary rocks. The remarkable double unconformity is
nowhere better shown than in the South-west of England. Some of the movements
of the older Secondary rocks, prior to the great revolution which brought the
waters of the Cretaceous sea over this region, have been successfully localised by
Mr. Strahan, more especially in the south of Dorset.

Owing to Tertiary denudation the Chalk in this immediate district has been
removed, and we have no means of judging the relations of the Cretaceous deposits
to the Paleozoic rocks of Wales. If we may judge by results recently recorded
from Devonshire,' the Lower Chalk especially undergoes important changes as it
is traced westwards, and generally speaking terrigenous deposits seem more
abundant in this direction. At the same time the more truly oceanic deposits,
such as the Upper Chalk, appear to be thinning. As regards the possible depths
of the Cretaceous sea at certain periods, we are supplied with some interesting
material in Mr. Wood’s two papers on the Chalk Rock,? which has been found
especially rich in Gasteropoda at Cuckhamsley, near Wantage.

Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent.—A\though the Tertiaries of the Hampshire
basins are within the ‘ Index-map’ which we have been considering, they may be
regarded as beyond our sphere. Some of the gravels of Dorsetshire, which have
gone under the name of plateau gravels, are held by Mr. Clement Reid to be of
Bagshot age. Many of the higher hill gravels most likely date back to the
Pliocene, and even further, and represent a curious succession of changes, brought
about by meteoric agencies, where the valley-flat of one period, with its accumu-
lated shingle, becomes the plateau of another period—an endless succession of
revolutions further complicated by the Pleistocene Cold Period, which corresponds
to the great Ice Age of the North.

In the more immediate neighbourhood of Bristol, since some date in Middle
Tertiary time, the process of earth-sculpture, besides laying bare a considerable
amount of Palzozoic rock, has produced both the Jurassic and Cretaceous escarp-
ments as well as the numerous gorges which add so much to the interest of the
scenery. These phenomena have been well described by Professor Sollas, when
he directed an excursion of the Geologists’ Association in 1880, Should any student
wish to know the origin of the gorge of the Avon at Clifton, for instance, he will
find in the Report an excellent explanation of the apparent anomaly of a river
which has been at the trouble of sawing a passage through the hard limestone,
when it might have taken what now seems a much easier route to the sea by way
of Nailsea.

* Cf. Jakes-Browne and Hill, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. lii. (1897), p. 99.
? Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. lii. (1897), p. 68, and vol. liii. (1898), p. 377.
3 Proce. Geol. Assoc. vol. vi. (1881), p. 375.

860 REPORT—1898.

The origin and date of the Severn Valley is a still bigger question, and this
was broached by Ramsay, some five-and-twenty years ago, in a suggestive paper on
the River Courses of England and Wales.1_ He there postulates a westerly dip of
the chalk surface, which determined the flow of the streams in a westerly direction
towards the long gap which was being formed in Miocene times, near the junction
of the Mesozoic with the Paleozoic rocks. The still more important streams from
the Welsh highlands had no doubt done much towards initiating that gap; and by
the end of the Miocene period, if one may venture to assign a date, the valley of the
Severn, which is one of the oldest in England, had already begun to take form,
though many of the valleys of Wales are probably much older.

We may now be supposed to have arrived ata period when the physical
features of this immediate district did not differ very materially from what they
are at present. The great Ice Age was in full force throughout Northern Europe, and,
according to views which meet with increasing favour, the German Ocean and the
Irish Sea were filled with immense glaciers. What was taking place at that time
in the estuary of the Severn ?

This is a case which requires the exercise of the scientific imagination, of course
under due contro]. There is probably nothing more extraordinary in the history
of modern investigation than the extent to which geologists of an earlier date per-
mitted themselves to be led away by the fascinating theories of Croll. The astro-
nomical explanation of that ‘ will o’ the wisp,’ the cause of the great Ice Age, is
at present greatly discredited, and we begin to estimate at their true value those
elaborate calculations which were made to account for events which in all proba-
bility never occurred. Extravagance begets extravagance, and the unreasonable
speculations of men like Belt and Croll have caused some of our more recent
students to suffer from ‘the nightmare.’

Nevertheless Croll, when he confined his views to the action of ice, showed
himself a master of the subject, and his suggestions are often worthy of attention,
even when we are not convinced. Writing in the ‘ Geological Magazine’ in 1871,
he points out that the ice always seeks the path of least resistance ; and he refers
to the probability that an outlet to the ice of the North Sea would be found along
the natural hollow formed by the valleys of the Trent, the Warwickshire Avon,
and the Severn. Ice moving in this direction, he says, would no doubt pass down
into the Bristol Channel and thence into the Atlantic. Again,” referring to the
great Scandinavian glacier, he says, ‘itis hardly possible to escape the conclusion
that a portion of it at least passed across the South of Iingland, entering the
Atlantic in the direction of the Bristol Channel.’ These views were not based on
any local knowledge, but merely on general considerations. ‘The problem as to
whether there are any traces of the passage of such a body of ice in the basin of
the Lower Severn must be worked out by local investigators. Irrespective, too,
of the hypothetical passage of a lobe of the North Sea glacier, we are confronted by
a much more genuine question, namely, what was the possible termination towards
the south of the great body of ice with which our more advanced glacialists have
filled the Cheshire plain.

A recent President of the Cotteswold Field Club, of whom unfortunately we
must now speak as the late Mr. Lucy, took a lively interest in tke Pleistocene
geology of the district, and his papers in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Cotteswold Field

‘lub have always attracted attention. His map of the distribution of the gravels
of the Severn, Avon, and Evyenlode, and their extension over the Cotteswold Hills,
prepared in conjunction with Mr. Etheridge, isa valuable contribution to the history
of the subject.’ Again he wrote on the extension of the Northern Drift and
Boulder-clay over the Cotteswold Range,‘ and on this occasion described the in-
teresting section in the drifts presented by the Mickleton Tunnel. In his previous
paper, Mr. Lucy had carried the drifts with northern erratics to a height of 750 feet,

1 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. vol. xxviii. (1872), p. 148.
2 Op. cit. Dec. 2, vol. i. (1874), p. 257.

3 Proc. Cottes. Nat. Club, vol. v. pt. ii. (1869) p. 71.
4 Op. cit. vol. vii. pt. i. (1878), p. 50.

Se cl er

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 861

but he now claimed that ‘the whole Cotteswold Range had ceased to be dry land
at the time the Clays and Northern Drifts passed over it.’ We perceive from this
passage that Mr. Lucy was a ‘submerger, and in this respect differed from Croll,
who most probably wouid have attributed the phenomena to the action of his great
ice-lobe traversing the South of England.

The question which more immediately concerns us relates to the value of the
evidence which would require either a glacier or a ‘great submergence’ to account
for these things. The alleged phenomena are in many cases capable of other
interpretations. We have the authority of Mr. Etheridge that little or no true
Boulder-clay occurs in the Cotteswold area.!. On the other hand, the distribution
of much of the erratic gravel is probably due to agencies of earth-sculpture long
anterior to the great Ice Age. There remains one special piece of evidence
adduced by Mr. Lucy in favour of his contention, and this he considered of so
much importance that it formed the principal part of the subject of his annual
address to the Field Club on quitting the chair in 1895.?

He there referred more especially to the discovery zz the Inferior Oolite, on
Cleeve Cloud, of quartzose sand and of a boulder of a similar character to some
described in his previous papers. The sand and the boulder, he says, belong to
the period of the great submergence. Similar sand also appears in several places
on the hillside. He had previously recorded boulders of Carboniferous Limestone,
Millstone Grit, &c., in the Northern Cotteswolds, but not at so great an elevation.
He further proceeds to account for the absence of striz, and of the fact that the
Cotteswold rocks are not moutonnée, on the supposition that the soft oolites would
not retain striation, but would be crushed by pressure. Consequently, he claims
the top of Cleeve Cloud as a fine example of ‘ glacial denudation,’ whatever that
may mean. The boulder from Cleeve Cloud is now in the Gloucester Museum,
and might well become a bone of contention between the submerger and the
glacialist as to how it got into its elevated position of over 1,000 feet. Fortunately
there is a third explanation, which, if it be correct, shows how dangerous it is to
build theories, as well as houses, upon sand. Other distinguished members of the
Cotteswold Club are of opinion that the whitish sands on Cleeve Common belong
to the ‘Harford Sands,’ which constitute an integral part of the Inferior Oolite
itself. There may be some difference of opinion as to the concretionary nature of
the boulders, though these may well be nothing more than the ‘ doggers,’ or ‘ pot-
lids,’ so characteristic of calcareous sandstones. Mr. Winwood believes that
‘the so-called foreign boulder’ in the Gloucester Museum evidently came from the
* Harford Sands.’

So far, therefore, the evidences of glacial action in the Cotteswolds do not rest
on a very sure foundation. Yet the Severn Valley separates that range from an
area on the west, where there are clear evidences of local glaciation, as described
in the ‘Annual Report of the Geological Survey for 1896.’ Portions of this
material find their way into the river bed and elsewhere as Drift which has most
probably been rearranged—hence the so-called Boulder-clay and Drift in the bed
of the Severn. Once more, then, in the cycle of geological time we perceive that
our district lies on the confines of two distinct sets of phenomena. West of the
Severn and north of the Bristol Channel the evidences of considerable local
glaciation are obvious, whilst this can hardly be said of the Cotteswolds, the
Mendips, or the Quantocks.

To the more recent geoiogical history of our district it will be sufficient to
allude in the briefest terms, when I remind you of the paper by Mr. Strahan on
the deposits at Barry Dock, and the still later one by Mr. Codrington on the sub-
merged rock valleys in South Wales, Devon, and Cornwall. Here we have impor-
tant testimony to certain moderate changes of level which have taken place, and a
picture is presented to us of the Bristol Channel as a low-lying land surface, with
streams meandering through it. Thus a depression of something like 60 feet
appears to be the most recent change which the geologist has to record in the
estuary of the Severn.

1 Proc. Cottes. Nat, Club, vol. xi. (1893), p. 83.
2 Vol. cit. p. 1.

862 REPORT—1898.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Notes on the Geology of the Bristol District.
By Professor C. Luoyp Moraan, /.G.S.

(a) The chief features of the Silurian district of Tortworth were briefly de-
scribed. Attention was drawn to the probably contemporaneous Upper Llan-
dovery volcanic action. One or two new facts, as given in the ‘Guide’ to the
excursion to this locality, were alluded to. (+) The division of the Carboniferous
Limestone (between the Upper and Lower Limestone Shales) into an Upper and
Lower Series with a band of Oolite, the Gully Oolite, between them, was illus-
trated by typical sections in the Bristol district. (¢c) An interbedded volcanic
series near the top of the Lower Limestone at Woodspring, near Weston, was
illustrated by a map and photographs from microscopic sections. (d) Slides were
shown illustrating the unconformabilities of the district, and a sketch map of the
islands in late Triassic times was briefly described. (e) An attempt was made
to illustrate, by means of a diagram based on careful observations, the amount of
superficial contraction due to post-Carboniferous lateral pressure.

2. The Building of Clifton Rocks. By E. B. Wetunren, 7.G.S.

In this paper the author confines his remarks chiefly to the microscopic life
which he has discovered in the Carboniferous Limestone rocks at Clifton. He
contends that microscopic calcareous organisms have been the chief contributors to
the vast deposits in the Carboniferous sea, now represented by the cliffs on either
side of the gorge of the Avon at Clifton.

Broadly speaking, there were three stages in the formation of this limestone.
These were regulated by physical conditions, and favoured the existence of certain
forms of life. The fossil remains now denote the stages. They are as follows :—

Approximate Thickness
Stage 1. Lower Limestones (including the Lower
Limestone shales 500 feet, and Black Rock

series 470 feet . : ; d 2 cd : 990 feet
Stage 2. Middle Limestone . i : : Z 1,620 ,,
Stage 3. Upper Limestone . = : : : 100 _ ,,

The close of the Old Red Sandstone Period is marked by variegated sandstones
andshales. These beds pass into limestones and shales, and these again are followed
by massive limestones locally known as the Black Rock; the whole representing
the Lower Limestones, or Stage 1.

During this stage encrinites were so numerous in the waters that the ossicles
of these creatures are a distinguishing feature of the limestones. Vast numbers of
ostracoda at times lived, and some beds of the limestone are chiefly accumulations
of the remains of these small crustaceans. Monticulipora corals and polyzoa were
numerous in the waters, and also mollusca.

Another interesting feature, not before noticed in the Lower Limestones, is the
mass of incrusting organisms. These organisms formed a crust around the
fragmental remains of other organisms which collected on the sea floor, and to
such an extent did this process go on that the incrusting organisms contribute
considerably to the building up of some beds of limestone. Whether these crusts
are to be attributed to animal or vegetable growth is a matter of doubt.

The crinoidal life reached a climax during the time that the Black Rock
Limestone was in process of formation. Indeed, this rock is, in the main, a vast
accumulation of the ossicles of these creatures, associated with shells of mollusca,
fish remains, &e.

The Black Rock series terminate in dolomitised limestone, and on this rest the
‘Gully Oolites.’

The Lower Limestones terminate at these oolites, in which occur, though
sparingly, foraminifera and the minute spherical object calcisphera. This latter

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 863

body averages about ‘012 of an inch in diameter, but, small as it is, the caleareous
sphere has been an important contributor to the building of the rocks.

As calcisphzra is confined to the Carboniferous Limestone, and is so numerous
that it is seldom a thin section of the rock is obtained without finding it, the
organism is useful in determining the strata when doubtful. So far, the author
has not found calcisphera in the Lower Limestones, and the same remark applies
to foraminifera.

Above the horizon of the Gully Oolite the lower beds of the Middle Limestone
are characterised by the occurrence of the curious organism Mitcheldeania, but it
is not confined to this horizon.

Next follow limestones and calcareous shales full of the remains of little-
understood forms of microscopic life, which must have existed in great profusion.

As before remarked, the Middle Limestones are characterised by foraminifera
and calcisphera. At first these occur sparingly, but, later on, the rock is little
more than a Carboniferous foraminiferous ooze. Remains of corals occur and
other well-known fossils, but the bulk of the 1,600 feet of limestone included in
the Middle Series is in the main a vast calcareous deposit of the remains of
microscopic life which lived in the Carboniferous waters.

Owing to the Upper Limestones being so built over, the author is at present not
in a position to describe the microscopic life which the strata probably contain
associated with large organisms. e

3. On the Revision of South Wales and Monmouthshire by the
Geological Survey. By A. STRAHAN.

[Communicated by permission of the Director-General. ]

The original geological survey of South Wales was made under the direction
of Sir Henry De la Beche. The exact date of its commencement is uncertain, but
I am informed by Mr. Aveline that in 1840, when he joined, the staff was engaged
in the neighbourhood of Cardiff, and in 1841 Ramsay on his appointment found
that the survey had progressed westwards into Pembrokeshire and was at work at
Tenby and St. David’s.! By the end of 1845 the maps had all been published.
A complete list of the names which appear on them consisis of H. T. De la Beche,
J. Phillips, D. H. Williams, A. C. Ramsay, W. T. Aveline, J. Rees, T. E. James,
W. E. Logan, H. W. Bristow,? and H. B. Woodward.?

Previously, however,to the entry of the Survey into South Wales a considerable
tract had been mapped by Sir W. E. Logan. ‘ Unaided he commenced, in 1831, a
geological survey of part of the great South Welsh Coal-field, extending from
Crown (Cwm) Avon to Carmarthen Bay, and completed it in seven years, at no
small pecuniary sacrifice. Such was the estimate of the accuracy and value of this
survey by the late Director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, Sir Henry De
la Beche, that with Sir William’s consent it was adopted as part of the national
work,’® At the meeting of the British Association in Liverpool in 1837 Logan
exhibited his work, and in 1842 it was referred to by De la Beche as a beautifully
executed map.* After the lapse of nearly fifty years these maps, admirable though
they were, considering their date and the circumstances under which they were
made, had become obsolete. Not only was the topography scarcely recognisable,
but the development of the steam-coal trade had led to the opening out of many of
the Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire valleys and the working of what was
practically a virgin coal-field. On June 8, 1891, in the House of Commons, Lord
Swansea (then Sir Hussey Vivian) asked the Vice-President of the Council whether,
in view of the great importance of the South Wales and Monmouthshire Coal-field

' Memoir of Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay, by Sir Archibald Geikie, 1895, p. 42.
London, 8vo.

? Revisions chiefly of the Secondary Rocks in 1864, 1871, and 1872.

* An article in the Times of July 24, 1862, by Dr. Percy, quoted in Life of Sir
William EF. Logan, Kt., LL.D., .RS, L.G.S., by B. J. Harrington, 1883, p. 349.
London, 8vo. 4 Thid., p. 127.

864 REPORT—1898

and the fact that the coalfields of Durham, Northumberland, Yorkshire, and
Lancashire had been for the most part geologically surveyed on the 6-inch scale,
he would give directions that the geological survey of the mineral districts of
South Wales and Monmouthshire should be immediately taken in hand and
vigorously prosecuted on that scale. Answer was made that it would be arranged
with the Director-General that the survey should be commenced as soon as possible
and prosecuted as vigorously as the size of the disposable staff of the surveyors and
the exigencies of the other branches of the work would allow. The revision was
commenced five weeks later, and its progress up to date forms the subject of the
following note.

Until the year 1893 I was engaged alone upon the revision, but in that year I
was joined by Mr. W. Gibson, in 1894 by Mr. J. R. Dakyns, and in 1895 by Mr.
R, H. Tiddeman. In 1896 Mr. Dakyns retired, and his place was taken by Mr.
T. C. Cantril.

The area over which the revision will extend is embraced in the New Series
l-inch Ordnance Maps, 226-232, 244-249, 261-263, sixteen sheets altogether, and
amounts to a little over 2,000 square miles. Of these, three sheets (249, 232, 263)
have been published, one (248) is being engraved, while the surveying of two
more (231, 262) is nearly complete. The total area surveyed by the end of 1897
amounted to 1,006 square miles, in which 5,011 miles of geological lines had been
traced upon the maps.

The work is engraved on the l-inch New Series Ordnance Maps only, but
the lines are all traced in the field on the 6-inch maps. Olean copies of these
working maps are deposited in the Office, and can be consulted or copied as soon
as the corresponding l-inch sheet is published. At the same time sheets of
vertical sections illustrating the Coal Measures are prepared: two of these, giving
series of shaft-sections in Monmouthshire and Eastern Glamorganshire, have been
published, and others are in preparation. Explanations to accompany each sheet
of the map are also being written: in these the local geology will be briefly
explained; but it is proposed to describe the Coal-field as a whole in a separate
volume when the revision is complete.

I take this opportunity of acknowledging, on behalf of my colleagues and
myself, the invaluable assistance which we have received from the managers,
engineers, and surveyors in our work in the Coal-field. Without such aid the
mapping would have been impossible, and the unvarying courtesy with which it
was rendered has greatly facilitated a task that was far from easy. Of the
important information recorded in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the South Wales Institute
of Engineers, and the Cardiff Natural History Society also, we have freely availed
ourselves, acknowledgment of all of which will be made in due course.

In order that the map of the Coal-field should present the structure as con-
spicuously as possible, it was necessary to subdivide the great mass of Coal
Measures which had been represented by one tint only on the old map. At the
eastern end of the field it was apparent that a suitable threefold division of the
strata held good, the three divisions not only differing in their mineral contents,
‘but presenting such physical features as lent themselves to the purposes of the
geological surveyor. I wish, however, to point out that no correlation is intended
with the Upper, Middle, and Lower Coal Measures of other fields. Not only is it
extremely improbable that any representatives of the Upper Coal Measures exist,
but it is an open question how much of the Middle Coal Measures are present in
South Wales. The subdivisions referred to consist of—

1. An upper series of shales and felspathic sandstones with a few thin seams of
coal and ironstone. The sandstones are often indistinguishable from Pennant, but
the series is softer on the whole and forms cultivated land of flowing contour.
For its base the Mynyddislwyn Vein, a valuable and constant house-coal, served
conveniently.

2. The Pennant Series, which in Monmouthshire is made up almost wholly of
hard current-bedded highly felspathic grit with a few thin and impersistent coal
seams, This series forms uncultivated moorlands, intersected by deep valleys

—_—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 865

with rugged sides, At its base occurs the seam variously known as the Red Ash,
Tillery, Brithdir, or No. 2 Rhondda.

3. The Lower Coal Series (Steam Coal Series of Glamorganshire), which con-
sists principally of shales and thin beds of quartz-grit. This series contains the
thickest seams of coal and the bands or nodules of clay-ironstone which were
formerly worked in South Wales. It crops out all along the margin of the Coal-
tield, but is exposed only in the deepest valleys or along the crests of the anticlines
in the more central parts.

.Through the eastern end of the field these three subdivisions are readily
distinguished, but they expand rapidly westwards, and at the same time sandstones
not to be distinguished from Pennant appear in the upper part of the lower series,
while measures of the supra-Pennant type replace the upper grits of the Pennant
group. They continue, however, to form the most suitable broad divisions that
could have been selected, though a further subdivision may become necessary in
view of their increasing thickness.

The other rock-groups have been treated on similar principles. The Old Red
Sandstone of Monmouthshire at once lends itself to division into an upper series of
grits and quartz-conglomerates, a thick mass of red sandstones, and a great under-
lying deposit of red marls with thin limestones. Special attention has been paid to
the relations of these subdivisions to one another in view of the possibility of an
unconformity having remained undetected in the middle of the red strata; but
though the grits and quartz-conglomerates disappear in Brecknock, no break of
any significance in the sequence has yet been discovered. The conformity of the
Old Red Sandstone to the Upper Silurian rocks of Usk, however, may prove to be
more apparent than real, and must remain an open question for the present.

The Carboniferous Limestone also expands westwards and southwards, for, while
only 100 feet thick at Abergavenny, it is 500 to 700 feet in northern Glamorganshire,
and attains still greater dimensions in the southern part of that county. The lower
portion consists of shales with a more or less persistent limestone below, which
constitute the Lower Limestone Shales. In the main mass no subdivision has
been made, except that certain light-coloured oolitic bands have been picked out.

The mapping of the Millstone Grit is founded on purely lithological distinctions.
Over a large part of the north-eastern crop it consists of a grit (the Farewell Rock
of old miners) in the upper part; shales, and sandstones, occasionally with some
coal and ironstone, inthe middle; and a massive grit, usually crammed with quartz-
pebbles, in the lower part. This order, however, does not hold good everywhere,
and shales and sandstones are traced as far as practicable, and merely coloured on
themap assuch. Though perfectly conformable to the limestone, the oncoming of
the quartz-conglomerates seems to have been accompanied by some erosion, for
they fill small hollows in the topmost limestone, and are even suspected of cutting
across some of the beds, so asto simulate an unconformity. Matters are further
complicated by the fact that the upper surface of the limestone has undergone
extensive dissolution during later ages.

Some fossils which occur in calcareous shales and thin impure limestones in
the lower and middle parts of the Millstone Grit are all marine, but in the upper
part Anthracomya becomes the abundant shell, and indicates an approach to Coal
Measure conditions. Marine forms, however, recur at intervals high up in the Lower
Coal Series. It will be noticed that there is nothing corresponding to the ‘ Yoredale
Rocks,’ or upper part of the Carboniferous Limestone Series of the North of England,
nor to the alternating series of sandstones and limestones which border the Flint
and Denbigh Coal-fields.

The Secondary Rocks which fall within the revised area include Trias (Keuper
or New Red Marl), Rheetic and Lower Lias. These strata were deposited along a
land which was undergoing gradual submergence after prolonged exposure to
subaérial denudation. The New Red Marl, consequently, was irregularly distri-
buted in what must have been bays diversified by numaberless islands, and the old
shore-lines, though subsequently buried, have been revealed by denudation, so
that it is often possible to examine the cliffs against which the Triassic waves

1898. 3K

£66 REPORT—1898.

beat and the talus, more or less water-worn, which fell fromthem. ‘The continued’
sinking of the land led not only to the Rhietic overspreading the Trias, and extending
beyond it, but to the Lias eventually overlapping all earlier deposits. Each
formation, as it overlaps its predecessor and comes into contact with the Palaeozoic
rocks, becomes conglomeratic, and it thus happens that a conglomeratic subdivision
though actually continuous is of Triassic, Rhetic, and Liassic age in different
parts of its outcrop; a state of affairs which is not easily represented by the usual
methods of colouring a geological map.

The boundary between the New Red Marl and the Rhetic has hitherto been
taken at the base of some green marls which graduate downwards into the Red
Marls, but during the revision it became evident that the only satisfactory base to
the Rheetic occurred above the Green Marls and at the base of the black shales of
the Avicula contorta zone. At this horizon there is generally a grit or small
quartz-conglomerate which taken with the incoming of the Rhietic fauna indi-
cates a somewhat sudden change of physical conditions. It marks, in fact, the
first complete invasion of this area by the sea.

One of the most important parts of the revision has consisted in the tracing of
the various folds and faults through the Coal-field. The main anticlinal and’
synclinal axes are of course brought into prominence on the map by the subdivision
of the measures before referred to. Thus the difference of tint shows the positions
of the two deep synclines which introduce the Upper Coal Series at Caerphilly and
Llantwit on the south side, and at Blackwood and Gelligaer on the north side of
the main anticline ; while the anticlinal axis is itself brought into prominence by
the fact that it brings the Lower Coal Series up to the surface at intervals along its.
course. LHspecially, also, attention may be directed to the contrast presented by
the long dip-slopes of the north crop of the Coal-field to the straight and narrow
strips along the highly inclined south crop. Of the numerous flexures which have
been traced in the Palzozic rocks outside the Coal-field it is sufficient to state that
they run in about the same direction as those mentioned above, and that they do
not affect the Secondary Rocks, which in fact pass horizontally across them.
These east and west flexures are consequently assumed to be pre-Triassic.

To this series also we believe the great Vale of Neath disturbance and some
other kindred folds to belong. This great faulted fold seems to have attracted.
but little notice hitherto, though it displays many remarkable features, among
others a thrust by which Carboniferous Limestone has been pushed over a large
thickness of Millstone Grit. It will be remembered that the Carboniferous Rocks
of Somerset were still more intensely plicated and overthrust in pre-Triassic times,
and that there also the disturbances run in a general east and west direction.

The set of faults which run about north-north-west with such remarkable persist-
ency is a well-known feature of the Coal-field. Some of them can be traced out
into the Secondary area, and are there found to dislocate the Secondary Rocks
equally with the Carboniferous. While, therefore, they are obviously post-Liassic,
they may be of very much later date.

The exact representation of the faults, of whatever age, upon the map is of the
greatest importance in the Coal-field, and is managed as follows:—The surface-
position of the fault is indicated by a white line, or by a broken white line where

the exact position is uncertain. If the fault has been proved in the workings of -

the Mynyddislwyn Vein, its underground position in that vein is shown by a red
line, if in the Tillery Vein by a yellow line, and if in the Lower Coals by a blue
Jine. Thus a normal fault completely proved would be represented by four lines,
the order in which the lines occur indicating the direction, and their distance
apart the angle of the hade. A further difliculty remains, however ; for the plan-
position of a fault encountered in any vein in working up to it from the east would
not be the same as the plan-position of the same fault in the same vein if worked
up to from the west, owing to the hade. Ina fault of 100 yards the discrepancy
would amount to 35 or 40 yards, and it becomes necessary to record also from
which side the fault was proved, which is not always easily ascertained in old
workings. The coloured lines referred to are used on the 6-inch maps only ; on

i i

Ty, ow

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 867

the l-inch maps the underground faults are all shown by yellow lines to avoid
undue complication.

The glacial deposits are mapped simultaneously with the solid geology, and
are shown on the edition of the map for superficial geology. With the exception
of the admirable work of Prof. Edgworth David, and sundry observations by the
Rey. W.S. Symonds, they have not attracted so much attention as they deserve,
for South Wales formed a small independent centre of glaciation and exhibits
phenomena of great interest. The greater water-partings of the present day formed
the ice-partings of the Glacial Period, and the principal valleys gave the route to the
ice-flow. Thus a great mass of drift was transported from Brecknock round the north-
east corner of the Coal-field down the Usk Valley as far as the depression occupied by
the Usk Branch Railway. Another part was pushed over a minor water-parting
into the Rhymney Valley, but principally escaped along the Taff Valley, traversing
the entire Coal-field and emerging by the ravineat Walnut Tree; while a third portion
flowed south-westwards along the Neath and other valleys towards Swansea Bay.
The drift consists in part of coarse gravels or fine gravel and sand, and forms
characteristic mounds or ridges between which are inclosed innumerable water-
logged hollows, or meres. Nearer to its source, however, it becomes an extremely
tough boulder clay packed with glaciated boulders. The composition of the deposit,
the direction of the longer axes of the mounds, and, lastly, a large number of
striations on rock-in-place combine in determining the directions assigned to the
ice-flow. The southern limit to which the ice reached is no less clearly marked
than its birthplace, for the gravels get finer and thinner, and eventually die away,
sometimes before reaching the shores of the Bristol Channel.

4. On the Exploration of two Caves at Uphill, Weston-super-Mare, contain-
ing remains of Pleistocene Mammalia. By the late Epwarp WI1son,

F.G.S,
[Communicated by HERBERT BOLTON, F.R.S.E.]

Quarrying operations now proceeding in the Carboniferous Limestone near the
old parish church of Uphill have led to the discovery of two caves.

The caves are about half way up the face of the quarry, which is 100 feet in
height. The floor of each cave is covered with a deposit which varies from 1 to
2 feet in thickness.

A typical section of the upper cave deposits is as follows :—

Ft. In.
1. Deep purplish-red, soft, sandy Marl, containing blocks of Limestone 4 0
2. Greenish-yellow, soft, sandy Marl 3 3 . s s eal |
3. Greenish-drab argillaceous Sandstone ; : . : - . 5 6
4, Limestone floor.

bo

The Green Marl for a varying thickness in different parts of the cave
becomes brecciated and occasionally tufaceous.

The animal remains are contained in this bed, and consist chiefly of the teeth
and jaws of hyena, with gnawed and ungnawed bones of horse, mammoth, cave-
bear, fox, &c. ‘

The lowest of the two caves is partly filled with a deposit of coarse rubble,
and has yielded remains of hyena, rhinoceros, and the teeth and jaws of small
carnivora and rodents, together with worked flints, and a number of rounded
stones supposed to have been used as pot-boilers. The rubble deposit has evidently
undergone a certain amount of displacement, so that it is by no means certain
that the remains contained in it are contemporaneous.

3K 2

868 REPORT—1898.

5. The Comparative Actions of Subaérial and Submarine Agents in Rock
Decomposition. By Tuomas H. Houranp, A.2.0.8., F.G.8., Geo-
logical Survey of India.

In Europe, nearly all crystalline and igneous rocks of any considerable age
show signs of hydrous decomposition, which by the microscope can generally be
traced far beyond the limits of the very evident superficial crust of weathered pro-
ducts: in some cases, like the peridotites, the changes due to hydration, even in
rocks of Tertiary age, have resulted in a practically complete alteration of the
original constituents. Inworking over various parts of Peninsular India, the writer
has been struck by an almost constant absence of any but the most superficial traces
of hydration, even in minerals like olivine and nepheline, which are so noticeably
susceptible to the action of water. As in all tropical and moist climates, however,
a complete and rapid superficial decomposition is shown by most of the rocks, and
in some areas they are found to be changed into a ferruginous clay, which, though
forty or fifty feet thick, is found to retain the characteristic macroscopic structures
of the original rocks. In some districts, where the atmosphere is always warm, .
and during the monsoon season highly charged with moisture without great preci-
pitation of rain, the rocks are similarly decomposed at the surface, but, on account
of the limited amount of running water, the lime is retained in the decomposition
products, and forms a concretionary ‘kankar,’

In all these cases, however, although the action of the atmosphere is so striking,
the results are purely superficial, and a specimen of rock taken from within a few
inches of the clay products seldom shows a trace of hydrous decomposition, even in
thin sections under the microscope. This is just as true for such delicate minerals
as olivine and nepheline as for the commoner silicates. In many of the basic dykes,
certainly pre-Cretaceous and probably Lower Palzxozoic in age, the absence of ser-
pentine is so complete that unusual precautions are often necessary for the deter-
mination of the olivine, whilst in the numerous occurrences of dunite throughout
the Madras Presidency serpentine is extremely scarce. In a nepheline syenite
recently discovered in the Coimbatore district, and at least of Cuddapah age, the
nepheline on microscopic examination shows mere traces of alteration along the
fracture cracks.

In the light of European experience, where most of our petrographical data have
been established, the peculiarities of the Madras rocks call for some special con-
sideration, and the object of this paper is to suggest that the probable explanation
of the peculiarities now referred to arises from a contrast of the geological histories
of the two areas. In Europe all, or nearly all, the rocks have been submerged
below the sea during the later geological periods; in South India there is no
evidence beyond the immediate precincts of the coast-line of any depression below
sea-level since Cuddapah (probably lower Paleozoic) times. In Europe, therefore,
the features generally attributed to weathering are the compound effect of sub-
marine and subaérial action ; in South India the former class of agencies have not
affected the rocks now exposed, and the remarkable freedom from hydration which
they show suggests that the action of the atmospheric agencies is purely superficial.

Taking into consideration the presence of lime carbonate and other salts, with
a larger proportion of carbonic acid and the great pressure under which sea-water
attacks a submerged rock mass, it is theoretically to be expected that submarine
agencies are more potent means of decomposition than those of the atmosphere; but
these South Indian observations tend to show that serpentine and other forms of
hydrated products within rock-masses are due only to a very limited degree to true
weathering.

The products of atmospheric action are removed from the rock surface as fast as
they are formed, and deeper portions are pari passu brought to the surface. It is
not improbable that it is on account of this denudation, which has proceeded with-
out known interruption for so many geological ages, that relatively deep-seated
portions of the Earth’s crust have been brought to the surface in Madras, and that
the crystalline rocks there met with at times present peculiarities for which European
experience hardly prepares us.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 869

6. On Arborescent Carboniferous Limestone from near Bristol.
By Horace B. Woopwarp, £.2.S.

A specimen of Carboniferous Limestone, showing arborescent markings, was
obtained by Mr. Spencer G. Perceval from Brentry Hill, near Henbury, Bristol, _
and was presented by him in 1897 to the Museum of Practical Geology. /The
rock is about 6 inches thick, and the lower half is a current-bedded oolitic lime-
stone. The upper half comprises banded calcareous mud with a few layers of
oolitic grains, and the material in this portion of the rock has been disturbed, the
layers having been bent; while the hollows between the curves are partially
eroded and filled with irregular detrital material containing oolitic grains.

The surface of the block presents an irregular concretionary structure, resem-
bling that seen on many varieties of Cotham Marble; but it is not so pronounced
as in some of the mammillated surfaces seen in that rock. Bo

The appearances are probably due to mechanical disarrangement of the upper
layers produced prior to and during the consolidation of the rock, and they suggest
a pause in the deposition of sediment. _

It is noteworthy that the darker bands which produce the arborescent mark-
ings stand out slightly in relief on the weathered face of the block of Carboniferous
Limestone. This is also the case with an example of Cotham Marble which I
lately obtained on the South Wales Direct Railway at Stoke Gifford.

A small specimen of Carboniferous Limestone from Backwell, near Nailsea,
given to me by Mr. W. H. Wickes, shows indications of arborescent markings.
[Further references to the subject are given in the ‘ Geol. Mag.,’ Dec. 3, vol. ix.,
1892, 4 110; see also B. Thompson, ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.,’ vol. 1., 1894,
p. 393.

7. Report on Photographs of Geological Interest in Britain.
See Reports, p. 530.

8. Report on Photographs of Geological Interest in Canada.
See Reports, p. 546.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Papers and Reports were read : —

1. The Comparative Value of Different Kinds of Fossils in Determining
Geological Age. By Professor O. C. Marsu.

More than twenty years ago my attention was called to the subject of the
difference between the value of fossil Plants, Invertebrates, and Vertebrates, as
evidence of the geological age of the strata in which they were preserved. On the
comparative value of these different groups of fossils then depended the solution of
some grave problems in the geology of the Rocky Mountains. I therefore began a
systematic investigation of this subject, and gave the results in an address before
the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1877.' I stated the
case as follows :—

‘The boundary line between the Cretaceous and Tertiary in the region of the
Rocky Mountains has been much in dispute during the last few years, mainly in
consequence of the uncertain geological bearings of the fossil plants found near
this horizon. The accompanying invertebrate fossils have thrown little light on
the question, which is essentially whether the great Lignite series of the West is

1 American Journal of Science, vol. xiv. pp. 338-378, November, 1877.

870 REPORT—1898,

uppermost Cretaceous or lowest Eocene. The evidence of the numerous vertebrate
remains is, in my judgment, decisive, and in favour of the former view.

‘This brings up an important point in paleontology, one to which my attention
was drawn several years since—namely, the comparative value of different groups
of fossils in marking geological time. In examining the subject with some care, I
found that, for this purpose, plants, as their nature indicates, are unsatisfactory
witnesses; that invertebrate animals are much better; and that vertebrates afford
the most reliable evidence of climatic and other geological changes. The sub-
divisions of the latter group, moreover, and in fact all forms of animal life, are of
value in this respect, mainly according to the perfection of their organisation or
zoological rank. Fishes, for example, are but slightly affected by changes that
would destroy reptiles or birds, and the higher mammals succumb under influences
that the lower forms pass through in safety. The more special applications of this
general law, and its value in geology, will readily suggest themselves.’

In the statement I have quoted, I had no intention of reflecting in the slightest
degree on the work of the conscientious paleobotanists who had endeavoured to
solve the problem with the best means at their command. I merely meant to
suggest that the means then at their command were not adequate to the solution.

It so happened that one of the most renowned of European botanists, Sir
Joseph Hooker, was then in America, and to him I personally submitted the
question as to the value of fossil plants as witnesses in determining the geological
age of formations. The answer he made fully confirmed the conclusions I had
stated in my address. Quoting from that, in his next annual address as President
of the Royal Society, he added his own views on the same question.' His words
of caution should be. borne in mind by all who use fossil plants in determining
questions of geological age.

The scientific investigation of fossil plants is an important branch of botany,
however fragmentary the specimens may be. To attempt to make out the age of
formations by the use of such material alone is too often labour lost, and must
necessarily be so. As a faithful pupil of Goeppert, one of the fathers of fossil
botany, I may perhaps be allowed to say this, especially as it was from his instruc-
tion that I first learned to doubt the value of fossil plants as indices of the past
history of the world. Such specimens may indeed aid in marking the continuity
of a particular stratum or horizon, but without the reinforcement of higher forms
of life can do little to determine the age.

The evidence of detached fossil leaves and other fragments of foliage that may
have been carried hundreds of miles by wind or stream, or swept down to the
sea-level from the lofty mountains where they grew, should have but little weight
in determining the age of the special strata in which they are imbedded, and
failure to recognise this fact has led to many erroneous opinions in regard to
geological time. There are, however, fossil plants that are more reliable witnesses
as to the period in which they lived. Those found on the spot where they grew,
with their most characteristic parts preserved, may furnish important evidence as
to their own nature and geological age. Characteristic examples are found among
the plants of the Coal Measures, in the Cycads of Mesozoic strata, and in the fossil
forests of Tertiary and more recent deposits.

The value of all fossils as evidence of geological age depends mainly upon their
degree of specialisation. In the invertebrates, for example, a Linguloid shell
from the Cambrian has reached a definite point of development from some
earlier ancestor. One from the Silurian or the Devonian, or even later forma-
tions, however, shows little advance. Even the recent forms of the same group
have no distinctive characters sufficiently important to mark geological horizons.

If we take the Ammonites as another example from the Mollusca the case is
totally different. From the earliest appearance of this family the members have
been constantly changing, developing new genera and species, each admirably
adapted to mark definite zones or horizons, and already used extensively for that
purpose.

' Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., vol. xxvi. pp. 441, 143, 1877.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 871

The Trilobites offer another example of a group of invertebrates ever subject
to modification, from the earliest known forms in the Cambrian to the last sur-
vivors in the Permian. They are thus especially fitted to aid the geologist, as
each has distinctive features, and an abiding place of its own in geological time.

The above examples are all marine forms, and from their abundance, and wide
distribution, both in time and space, are among the best of all witnesses in marking
the succession and duration of changes in geological history.

If we turn now to the fresh-water Mollusca we find among them little
evidence of change from the earliest Paleeozoic forms to those still living, and can
therefore expect little assistance from them in noting the succeeding periods
during their life-history.

Among the fossil vertebrates the same law as to specialisation holds good.
‘The value of particular groups as witnesses of geological changes depends largely
-on their own susceptibility to change, and this is equally true of single genera and
species. There are indeed some primitive vertebrates, especially among the fishes,
that appear to have changed little during their geological life. The genus Lepr-
dosteus is a good illustration, and hence it is of limited value as evidence of what
has taken place during its known geological history. Other fishes, however, are
anuch better witnesses of the past.

The Reptiles as a class offer still better evidence of geological changes, and
in many instances may be used to advantage in marking horizons. The great
sub-class of Dinosaurs, from its beginning in the Triassic, shows marked changes
of development throughout the whole of Mesozoic time. During the Cretaceous
highly specialised forms made their appearance, and at the close of this period
when all became extinct the last survivors were the strangest of all, reminding
us, in their bizarre forms, of the last stages of the Ammonites, their contem-
poraries. The Crocodiles, too, show great changes during Mesozoic time, and are
thus of much value in determining geological horizons. So, also, are the Ptero-
dactyles and many other extinct reptiles, each according to the degree of specialisa-
tion attained.

The Mammals, however, are by far the most important class for marking
geological time, as their changes and the high degree of their specialisation furnish
the particular characters that are most useful to the geologist in distinguishing
definite zones and the more limited divisions of the strata containing their
remains. The few mammals known from the Trias are so peculiar that they can
give only hints of what mammalian life then was, but in the Jurassic the many
forms now known offer important testimony as to the different horizons in which
their remains are found. This is true, also, of the known mammals from the
Cretaceous ; all are of value as witnesses cf the past.

During Tertiary time, however, the enormous development of the class of
mammals, their rapid changes, and, most important of all, the highly specialised
characters they develop, offer by far the best evidence of even the smaller changes
of climate and environment that mark their life history throughout. The Ungu-
lates alone will answer the present purpose as an illustration, and even one group,
the horses, will make clear the point I wish to emphasise.

Near the base of the Eocene the genus Zohippus is found, representing the
oldest known members of the horse tribe. Higher up in the Eocene Orohippus
occurs, and still higher is Epihippus, near the top of the Eocene. Again through
the Miocene. more genera of horses, Mesohippus, Miohippus, and others, follow
in succession, and the line still continues in the Pliocene, when the modern genus
Equus makes its appearance. Throughout this entire series definite horizons may
be marked by the genera, and even by the species of these equine mammals, as
there is a change from one stage to the other, both in the teeth and feet, so that
every experienced paleontologist can distinguish even fragments of these remains,
and thus identify the zones in which they occur.

This is true of every group of mammals, although not to an equal extent, so
that in this class we have beyond question the best means of identifying the age
of Tertiary strata by their fossil remains.

I have thus briefly pointed out some of the evidence on which a decision may

872 REPORT— 1898.

be reached as to the value of the three different kinds of fossils—Plants, Inverte-
brates, and Vertebrates—in determining the age of strata. All evidence of this
kind is of value, but it is the comparative value of each group that is the impor-
tant point I wish to emphasise ; and I have brought the matter before this Section
of the Association in the hope that a better understanding on this question may
be reached: among geologists in the interest of the science to which we are all
devoted.

2. On Aggregate Deposits and their Relations to Zones.
By Rev. J. F. Buake, JLA., F.GLS.

An objection is sometimes made to the classification of strata in zones—by
means of certain fossils—that cases are known in which the characterising fossils
of more than one zone occur together in the same band of rock. It is sometimes
replied to this, that a careful search will show that these fossils occur in their
proper position even in this single band, the older type being found near the bottom
and the younger near the top. Without denying the partial truth of this, the
author regards these multizonal bands as having a special character which removes
them from the ordinary type of deposit, for the subdivision of which the method
of zones has been adopted. Zones are best observed in massive uniform deposits
such asthe Lias, Oxford Clay or Chalk, the formation of which has been continuous
through the life-history periods, or hemerz, of several species, which lie in the
deposits in their natural position, as they would fall to the bottom, or lie there, at
death, and be successively covered by subsequent portions of the deposit. These
multizonal bands, however, do not differ from this type simply in the smaller
amount of contemporaneous deposit, but show signs of being formed in a different
way altogether. The fossils do not lie in a natural position, but often stand on
end; they are not arranged in horizontal bands, but are confusedly mixed
together; and they include broken fragments often of a remanié character, and
these are in many cases of a considerable size. These peculiarities are ccnsidered
by the author as evidence that the deposit was a tumultuous one, in which the
material was drifted rapidly by strong currents in a horizontal direction. They
are in fact the sweepings of the bottom of the sea from the places where the fossils
originally lay, where they may or may not have been covered by deposit. It is for
this reason that the fossils in them belong to various dates, the actual deposit
itself being necessarily at least as young as the latest fossil it contains. The
author therefore proposes to distinguish such deposits as AGGREGATES.

Whereas ordinary deposits, especially those in which zones are best marked,
indicate tranquil deposition with the conditions remaining long unchanged, these
aggregates indicate a marked change of conditions, and therefore in ail probability
the commencement of a new group of rocks. For this reason they are of consider-
able importance. The author’s attention was specially directed to these aggregates
in Russia, where they are found at the base of a series, by some considered to be a
continuation of the underlying Jurassics, and by others to be the commencement of
the Cretaceous rocks. There are, however, many instances of them in this
country, as at Ilminster, where they are called Upper Lias ; also the ‘cephalopod-
bed’ of Gloucestershire, and the ‘junction bed’ above the Middle Lias on the
Dorsetshire coast. Similar phenomena are reported from the base of the Cretaceous
beds at Beer Head; and it is probable that the Faringdon sponge beds and the
Neocomian nodule beds of Potton are of the same character. They are also
reported from various localities in France and elsewhere on the Continent.

3. The Geological Structure of the Malvern and Abberley Ranges.
By TuEopore Groom, I.4., D.Se.

In the district between Abberley and Bromesberrow two types of geological
structure are distinguishable.
On the east is a comparatively undisturbed geological series ranging from the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 873

Permian to the Lias, and on the west a greatly folded and faulted series ranging
from the Archzean to the Old Red Sandstone, and capped in places by Coal-Measures
and Permian.

Several divergent views as to the mode of origin of the Malvern Range have
been offered.

Murchison maintained that the gneissic series was an igneous mass containing
metamorphosed representatives of the Lower Palzozoic beds, into which it had
been intruded.

Phillips regarded the range as a ridge of crystalline rocks against which the
Paleozoic beds had been deposited-on one side, and the New Red Sandstone at a
later date on the other.

Holl later introduced the idea of overlap of the Paleozoic beds against a
pre-Cambrian axis, and of post-Liassic faulting on the eastern side.

Still later Dr. Callaway suggested that the crystalline axis was a wedge of pre-
Cambrian rocks faulted up through the neighbouring deposits.

The author's conclusions are as follows :—

The Triassic beds have in no sense been deposited against the side of the range,
but are let down by a post-Liassic fault having a moderate downthrow, the Archzan
and Paleozoic floor lying at a comparatively short distance below the surface on
the eastern side of the range.

The Paleozoic beds, which are frequently extensively inverted along the whole
length of the two ranges, appear to be everywhere separated from the gneissic
series by a fault, which sometimes dips into the hill with a considerable hade.

This association of overfolds and thrust-planes suggests the forces concerned in
the building of mountain ranges, and other evidence points in the same direction.

The axis of the Malvern Range is not merely a complex of schistose and igneous
rocks, as hitherto supposed, but includes infolded and infaulted strips of Cambrian
and Silurian rocks, running along lines (which in some cases mark thrust-planes)
more or less parallel to the axis of the range.

The foliation of the schists in the neighbourhood of the most important of these
lines of dislocation has a very marked relation to the direction of the line, and
strongly suggests the formation of a secondary series of schists comparable with the
‘Newer Schists’ of the Scotch Highlands.

The structure of the range is to be explained on the assumption that we are
dealing with the basal wreck of an old mountain chain, running generally north
and south along the western border of the old ‘Mercian Highlands,’ the over-
folding and over-faulting of which have taken place chiefly from the east.

The easterly extension of this old range lies buried beneath the Triassic deposits
of the Vale of Gloucester.

4. The Age of the Malvern and Abberley Ranges.
By TuEovore Groom, I.A., D.Sc.

The prevailing view that the Malverns formed an island or tract of land in the
Cambrian and Silurian seas is based firstly on the supposed overlap, and, secondly,
on lithology.

According to the author the appearance of overlap is simply due to faulting,
and the Lower Cambrian beds, supposed to be absent from the area, are well repre-
sented, and their inclusion within the heart of the gneissic series, together with
Silurian rocks, proves that the Cambrian and Silurian seas extended well over the
site of the range.

The lithological resemblance between the Cambrian and Silurian pebbles and
erystalline rocks of the range is not complete, and is best explained on the assump-
tion that they have been derived from a neighbouring tract of land containing
types of rock similar to those now exposed in the Archean series of the Malverns,
and of other Midland tracts,

The geclogical structure, moreover, proves the elevation of the Malvern axis to
be due to Upper Paleozoic and later movements.

The age of the range is fixed by the circumstance that comparatively undisturbed

874 peportT—1 898.

Permian and newer Coal-Measures rest unconformably on overturned Silurian, Old
Red Sandstone, and older Coal-Measures.

The folds of the Malvern and Abberley Hills are connected with those seen in
the Woolhope, May Hill, Usk, and Tortworth districts, and with those of the
Forest of Dean, South Wales and Bristol Coal-field; and the author concludes that
these folds, together with those of other parts of the British Isles, belong to
the Great Hercynian system of mountains formed towards the close of the
Carboniferous period.

5. On the Probable Source of the Upper Felsitic Lava of Snowdon.
By J. R. Daxyns, JA.

Between Glaslyn and Bwlch Goch, as the lowest part of the ridge between
Crib Goch and the top of Crib y Ddysel is called, a mass of felstone rises like a
wall through the beds of the calcareous ashy series. ‘The trend of the dyke is
E.N.E. The best section is along the N.W. face, where the jelstone is clearly
seen standing as a wall against the truncated edges of the calcareous ashy beds.
The felstone shows lines of flow parallel to its side, and in some places is rudely
columnar, the axes of the prisms being perpendicular to the side of the dyke. It
is owing to this arrangement of the columns, and of the lines of flow, that I con-
sider the rock to bea dyke. Icall it a dyke because of the straightness of its
sides; but it is rather a boss than a dyke, as, while it is two hundred yards wide,
it is only about three or four hundred yards long. The rock is not like any of the
Lower Snowdonian felsites occurring in the immediate neighbourhood, but it is
decidedly like the upper felstone, which forms outliers on Crib Goch and Crib y
Ddysgl. It seems to me that we have here the source of the upper felsitic lava of
the Snowdon district. The boss is a plug of rock consolidated in and filling up
the orifice through which the upper lava flowed to the surface.

6. On the Occurrence of Arenig Shales beneath the Carboniferous Rocks
at the Menai Bridge. By Enyward GREENLY.

On the Carnarvonshire side of the Menai Straits, a little west of the suspension
bridge, some dark shales have been found for a short distance along the shore,
unconformably underlying the carboniferous sandstones. They have yielded Arenig
Graptolites and Orustacea. On the Anglesey side, just opposite, pebbles of
similar shales, also yielding Llandrilo-Arenig fossils, have been found in some glacial
gravels, Taken in connection with other evidence it is inferred that these shales
in all probability compose the floor of the Menai Straits east of the tubular bridge,
and that some additional light is thereby thrown upon the nature and physical
history of that hollow.

7. On an Uplift of Boulders at Llandegfan, Menai Straits.
By Epwarp GRreENLY.

A train of boulders of a massive grit, which occurs on the Anglesey shore of —

the Menai Straits at Garth Ferry, can be traced thence to the top of the hill at
Twr y Felin, Llandegfan. The outcrops of the rock are almost entirely below the
50 feet contour, while the boulders are found in considerable numbers up to @
height of 330 to 340 feet. The direction of carry is W.S.W. to W., and the dis-
tance in a straight line from Garth Ferry to the top of the hill is about a mile.

8. On the Comparative Dimensions of some Atoms.

By W. L. Avpison.

From the assumption that the attractive areas of the atoms behave as though
they possessed the form of the crystals, so that the crystal of an element may

i i i i ee i

ew. Se

j

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 875

regarded as an assemblage of such forms, the author, continuing the inquiry on
which he read a paper at the Toronto meeting, considers the ratio between the
space occupied by such an assemblage and the volume of the interspaces between
the atoms. By a-comparison with the atomic volume he obtains thus a series of
numbers which he regards as indicating the relative dimensions of the atoms of
the following elements: C, Si, Pb, Th, Sn, P, As, Sb, Bi, S, I, Fe, Ni, Pd, Pt.

9. Leadhillite in Ancient Lead Slags from the Mendip Hills.
By L. J. Spencer, I.A., L.GS.

Lead ores have been worked in the Mendip Hills (Hast Somerset) ever since
the time of the Romans; but during the present century operations have been
chiefly confined to the reworking of the old waste heaps of slags and slimes.
From these heaps upwards of 9,000 tons of lead were extracted during the ten
years ending 1880. The material now being worked at Priddy has the appear-
ance of a brown earth: it contains fragments of charcoal and limestone, and about
6 per cent. of lead as carbonate. Embedded here and there in this material are
blocks consisting of devitrified slag, partially fused galena, and fragments of
charcoal ; and in the cavities numerous small crystals of cerussite (PbCO,) and
anglesite (PbSO,) and, less frequently, of leadhillite.

Leadhillite has not been before observed under such conditions. In the
Roman lead slags at Laurion, in Greece, which have been in contact with sea-
water, Lacroix has noted the following secondary minerals: matlockite, penfieldite,
laurionite, fiedlerite, phosgenite, cerussite, hydrocerussite, and anelesite.

The colourless crystals of Mendip leadhillite have, perpendicular to the perfect
basal cleavage, an acute negative bisectrix with an optic axial angle in air of
2E =722°; at a temperature of 97° C.,2E=70}°. The frequent twinning and
the goniometric measurements (which are, however, not very good) are not incon-
sistent with the orthorhombic symmetry insisted upon by Miller. The basal
planes of complicated twin crystals always give a single sharp reflected image,
which is not the case with twin crystals of ordinary monosymmetric leadhillite.
A few crystals are optically uniaxial.

There therefore seem to be three kinds of leadhillite, all of which are identical
in outward appearance: (a) Monosymmetric, with the optic axial angle 2E=20°;
% ene ral (?) and optically uniaxial (susannite) ; (¢) orthorhombic, with
a — 4 .

Before 1874 the formula for leadhillite was given as PbSO,.3PbCO,, and that
now usually accepted is PbSO,.2PbCO,.Pb(OH),; but no two of the several
analyses that have been made are in close agreement, and other formule have
been proposed. Doubtless each of the above kinds has a definite chemical com-
position, and the variations shown by the different analyses are possibly due to
the fact that two ((a) and (0) or (4) and (c)) of the three kinds may occur together
in the same crystal, as observed by Bertrand and by myself in specimens from
Leadhills. It will therefore be necessary to examine optically each fragment that
is collected for future analyses of leadhillite.

10. Supplementary List of British Minerals.
by L. J. Spencer, W.A., F.GS.

During the forty years which have elapsed since the publication of Greg and
Lettsom’s ‘ Manual of the Mineralogy of Great Britain and Ireland’ a considerable
number of species, variety, and other names have been added to the list of minerals
occurring in the British Isles. In 1858 Greg and Lettsom recognised 241 British
species; but of these only 209 are given as numbered species by Dana in the
sixth edition (1892) of his ‘System of Mineralogy.’ To this list may now be
added 84 more, bringing the total number of British species up to 203, as com-
pared with the total of 824 known mineral species recognised by Dana in 1892,

876 REPORT— 1898.

Owing to the difficulty, in some cases, of defining a mineral species, to the uncer-
tainty of some of the determinations, and to the fact that a systematic search
through the whole of the literature has not yet been made, these numbers can only
be considered approximate.

Some of the most notable additions are of minerals which have been detected
by the microscopical examination of rock-sections, ¢.g., nephelite, nosean, and
various felspars, pyroxenes, and amphiboles.

In the following list are added 113 other names which have been applied to
British minerals; the species are distinguished by italics. The first observer and
date have been added (in parenthesis) wherever possible; in other-cases the
earliest reference found is given :—

Abriachanite (Heddle, 1879).
Achroite (Collins, 1876).
Agirite (Teall, 1888).
Aikinite (Museum Pract. Geol.).
Albertite (Morrison, 1884).
Alwngen (Smithe, 1882).
Amazon stone (Heddle, 1877).
Amblystegite (Judd, 1885).
Andesine (Heddle, 1877).
Andrewsite (Maskelyne, 1871).
Anorthite (Haughton, 1856).
Antigorite (Heddle, 1878).
Antimony ? (Garby, 1848).
Atacamite (Church, 1865).
Balvraidite (Heddle, 1880).
Baricalcite (Breithaupt, 1841).
Barytocelestite (Collie, 1878).
Bastite.

Bathvillite (Williams, 1863).
Bauxite (Sutherland, 1870).
Bayldonite (Church, 1865).
Beekite.

Beraunite (Greg, 1860).
Bhreckite (Heddle, 1879).
Botallackite (Church, 1865).
Bowlingite (Hannay, 1877).
Braumite ? (Collins, 1871).
Bruiachite (Macadam, 1886).
Bytownite (Teail, 1884).
Cantonite (Davies, 1877).
Cathkinite (Glen and Young, 1882).
Celadonite (Heddle, 1879).
Centrallassite (How, 1878).
Chalcosiderite (Maskelyne, 1875).
Cheneviwite (Adam, 1866).
Chloritoid (Heddle, 1879).
Chloropal (Church, 1866).
Chlorophyllite (Heddle, 1882).
Chrome-diopside (Teall, 1888).
Chrysoberyl (Haughton, 1856).
Chrysotile.

Churchite (Church, 1865).
Cleavelandite (Heddle, 1877).
Clinochlore (British Museum).
Cloustonite (Heddle, 1880).
Coccolite (Heddle, 1877).
Collyrite (Gladstone, 1862).
Cotterite (Harkness, 1878).
Craigtonite (Heddle, 1882).
Crocidolite (Heddle, 1879).
Cryptolite (Church, 1872).

Danalite (Miers and Prior, 1892).
Daphmite (Tschermak, 1891).
Delessite (Heddle, 1879).
Demidoftite (Greg, 1860).
Descloizite (Frenzel, 1875).
Devilline (Pisani, 1864).
Dolianite (Des Cloizeaux, 1862),
Dudgeonite (Heddle, 1889).
Dufrenite (Kinch and Butler, 1886).
Duporthite (Collins, 1877).
Edenite (Heddle, 1878).
Electrum (Forbes, 1867).
Ellonite (Heddle, 1882).
Enstatite.

Enysite (Collins, 1876).

Eosite (Schrauf, 1871).

Eulytite (Collins, 1881).
Evansite (Woodward, 1884).
Ferrite (Heddle, 1882).
Fibrolite (Heddle, 1882).
Fichtelite (Macadam, 1889).

Freieslebenite ? (Museum Pract. Geol.).

Funkite (Heddle, 1882).
Genthite (Heddle, 1878).
Gersdorfite (Forbes, 1868).
Gigantolite (Heddle, 1882).
Glaucophane (Blake, 1888).
Graminite (Collins, 1877).

-Grastite (Heddle, 1878).

Grossular (Heddle, 1878).

Griinlingite(Muthmann & Schroder, 1897).
» Halloysite (Heddle, 1882).

Haughtonite (Heddle, 1879).
Hausmannite (Goodchild, 1875).
Henwoodite (Collins, 1876).
Hibbertite (Heddle, 1878).
Hisingerite (Church, 1870).

Hovite (Gladstone, 1862).

Hullite (Hardman, 1878).

Hydrated labradorite (Heddle, 1880).
Hydrocerussite (Heddle, 1889).
Hydrophilite (Dana, 1892).
Hydroplumbite (Heddle, 1889).
Hydrozincite (Goodchild, 1883).
Iddingsite ? (Arnold-Bemrose, 1894).
Igelstrémite (Heddle, 1878).
Inverarite (Heddle, 1883).

| Jarrowite (Lebour, 1887).
| Johannite ? (Garby, 1848).

Langite (Maskelyne, 1864).

| Latrobite (Heddle, 1877)..

ee Sd

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 877

Lepidomelane (Haughton, 1859).
Letisomite (British Museum).
Leuchtenbergite (Glen and Young, 1876).

Prasilite (Thomson, 1840).
Protolithionite (Sandberger, 1885).
Proustite (British Museum).

Leucoxene (Geikie, 1879). Pseudo-hypersthene, &c. (Heddle, 1878).
Limnite (Church, 1865). Pseudophite (Heddle, 1879).
Linneite (Terrill & Des Cloizeaux, 1880). | Pyroawrite (Heddle, 1878).
Lisheardite (Maskelyne, 1878). Pyrophyllite (Foster, 1876).
Loganite (Harkness, 1866). Pyrosclerite (Heddle, 1879).
Lollingite (Collins, 1871). Reichite (Breithaupt, 1865).
Lndlamite (Field, 1877). Restormelite (Church, 1870).
Lussatite (Mallard, 1890). Rhabdophane (Lettsom, 1878).
Lyellite (Maskelyne, 1864). Riebechite (Harker, 1888).
Marmolite (Heddle, 1878). Rock silk, &c. (Heddle, 1879).
Martite (Heddle, 1882). Rubislite (Heddle, 1879).
Massicot ? (Collins, 1871). Sanidine.
Melanite (Teall, 1892). Scapolite (Ormerod, 1869).
Microcline. Schrautite ? (Thomson, 1887).
Mirabilite (Glen and Young, 1876). Schrotterite (Dana, 1868).
Monazite (Miers, 1885). Senarmontite (Davies, 1867).
Montmorillonite (Collins, 1878). Sericite.
Mottramite (Roscoe, 1876). Spangolite (Miers, 1893).
Mountain silk, &c. (Heddle, 1879). Spessartite (Heddle, 1878).
Necronite (Heddle, 1877). Stephanite (Davies, 1866).
Neotype (Breithaupt, 1841). Tallingite (Church, 1865).
Nephelite (Allport, 1871). Lavistochite (Church, 1865).
Nephrite (Heddle, 1878). Thorite (Heddle, 1883).
Nosean (Allport, 1874). Tobermorite (Heddle, 1880).
Okenite (Glen and Young, 1876). Totaigite (Heddle, 1878).
Oligoclase (Haughton, 1862). Tridymite (Lasaulx, 1876).
Omphacite (Teall, 1891). Turgite (Heddle, 1882).
Orangite (Heddle, 1883). Tyreeite (Heddle, 1881).
Ottrelite (Hutchings, 1889), Uigite (Heddle, 1856).
Pargasite (Heddle, 1878). Uralite.
Penninite (Heddle, 1878). Valentinite (Hall, 1868).
Penwithite (Collins, 1878). Vauquelinite (Davies, 1877).
Perthite (Heddle, 1883). Vermiculite (Parke, 1877).
Phlogopite ? (Heddle, 1878). Voltzite (Dana, 1868).
Pickeringite (British Museum). Walkerite (Heddle, 1880).
Picotite (Bonney, 1877). | Waringtonite (Maskelyne, 1864),
Picrolite (Heddle, 1878). Wicklowite (D’Achiardi, 1883).
i Piedmontite (Dana, 1892). | Wiéllemite (Glen and Young, 1876).
Pihlite (Heddle, 1879). | Wittichenite ? (Collins, 1871).
: Pilolite (Heddle, 1879). Woodwardite (Church, 1866).

Plumboaragonite (Collie, 1889). Xantholite (Heddle, 1879).

Plumbogummite (Dana, 1850). NXanthosiderite (Haughton, 1866).
Plumbonacrite (Heddle, 1889). Xonaltite (Heddle, 1882).
Polybasite (Joy, 1860). | Zeunerite (Weisbach, 1872).

Polytelite (Forbes, 1867).

11. On the Age and Origin of the Granite of Dartmoor, and its Relations
to the Adjoining Strata. By ALEXANDER SoMERVAIL.

The object of this paper is to furnish proof that the true age of the Dartmoor

_ granite, and most probably of the bosses of Cornwall, is referable to an interval or
_ period of time between the Lower and Upper Culm or Carboniferous system.
The author regards the proofs advanced by De la Beche and others, up to this
interval, as decisive, but thinks there is no evidence to support the post-Carboni-
- ferous or Permian Age of the granite.

In certain localities in the south of Devon there are conglomerates which
contain fragments of the Radiolarian cherts and other Lower Culm rocks. These
tagments conclusively prove that the Lower Culm had been elevated from a deep
sea, and worn down to supply materials for the formation of the conglomerates.

878 REPORT—1898.

These conglomerates, for certain reasons urged, undoubtedly belong to the
Upper Culm, and seem to rest unconformably on the lower members, or even on
the Devonian, thus marking a great interval.

The Lower Culm during its deposition and elevation was accompanied with
igneous action, resulting in basic products which occupied a line running through
what is now the centre of Dartmoor.

At the close of this interval great acid products rose up through this old line
of volcanic action, resulting in the great masses of granite. These granite masses,
especially that which forms Dartmoor in its upper and outer portions, may have
consisted of products of a trachytic nature, and formed like the Domite Puys
of Central France.

The Lower Culm rocks show the effects of great movements, cleavage
structure, &c.

The conglomerates are but little disturbed, showing no signs of the previous
great movements which affected the Lower Culm.

The interval between both is considered suflicient for the formation of the

rranite.
: The Devonian and Lower Culm strata had been folded and the strike determined
before the protrusion of the granite, as is clearly shown by the disposition and
relations of these strata to the granite.

The alleged fragments of granite in the Permian breccias accord better with
the inter-Culm than with the post-Culm or pre-Triassic age of the granite.

The conglomerates contain'much arkose matter, quartz, felspar, mica, &c., in
abundance, which would be difficult to account for if derived from the ordinary
Devonian and Lower Culm strata of the adjoining area.

12. Report on Fossil Phyllopoda.—See Reports, p. 519.

13. Report on Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.
See Reports, p. 529.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

The following Papers and Report were read:—

1. On the Relation and Extension of the Franco-Belgian Coalfield
to that of Kent and Somerset. By R. Erueriver, F.R.S.

2. The Laws of Climatic Evolution. By MarsDEN MANSON,
C.£., Ph.D.

The prime object of this paper is to formulate the laws of climatic evolution.
In its entirety this problem is one of the most far-reaching and grandest in
geological physics, embracing principles and laws applicable to other planets.
After presenting these laws, the author pointed out that in consequence of them a
hot spheroid rotating in space and revolving about a central sun, and holding
fluids of similar properties to water and air within the sphere of its control, must

- were ee

a. |

_-

————x.-- —-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 879

pass through a series of uniform climates at sea level, gradually decreasing in
temperature and terminating in an ice age; that this age must be succeeded by a
zonal distribution of climates gradually increasing in temperature and extent.

The conclusions reached were: (1) that in the case of the earth zonal distri-
bution of climates was inaugurated at the culmination of the ice age, and is
gradually increasing in temperature and extent by the trapping of solar energy in
the lower regions of the atmosphere, and that this rise has a moderate limit; (2)
that the ice age was unique and due to the physical properties of water and air,
and to the difference in specific heat of land and water ; and (3) that prior to the
ice age local formation of glaciers could occur at any latitude and period.

It was pointed out that Jupiter is apparently in a condition through which
the earth has passed ; and that Mars is apparently in a condition towards which
present climatic evolution is tending.

3. On the Sub-oceanic Physical Features of the North Atlantic.
By Professor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S., F.GS.

The remarkable results arrived at by Professor Spencer and other Americar
geologists regarding the sub-oceanic physical features of the Atlantic seaboard
and the West Indian Islands induced the author to undertake a similar series of
investigations along the eastern coast of the North Atlantic by the aid of
soundings of the Admiralty Charts. These investigations extend from the neighbour-
hood of Rockall (lat. 57° 30’ N.) as far south as Cape St. Vincent, a distance of
about 1,500 English miles, with a coast-line of about 2,000 miles, and were
determined by tracing a series of contour, or isobathic, lines on the charts. The
contours chiefly employed were those of 100, 250, 500, 750, 1,000, 1,200, and
1,500 fathoms. The features determined were as follows :—

1, The British and Continental platform, long since known under the name
of ‘the 100-fathom platform,’ extends for variable distances outwards to the
100-fathom contour; but the author has found that this contour by no means.
represents the physical limit of the platform, as the seaward margin is formed by
the abrupt descent of the sea-floor at depths varying, according to the position,
from 100 fathoms at the Vidal Bank off the coast of Scotland, to the 250-fathom
contour off the coast of Ireland in lat. 53° N. Off the coast of Spain the platform
generally coincides with the 200-fathom contour. The platform thus defined is
frequently indented by deep bays and traversed by old river channels, one of the
most remarkable of which is ‘the Hurd Deep’ in the English Channel, traceable for.
70 miles on the chart, and descending to a depth of 60 fathoms, or about 25 fathoms
below the general level of the platform at this part. The platform all through has a
floor of gravel, sand, and clay, with shells; and off the English coast has been
described by Mr. Godwin-Austen in his paper on ‘The Valley of the English
Channel.,’!

2. The second important feature indicated by the isobathic contours may be
designated ‘The Grand Escarpment,’ along which the platform above described
breaks off seawards. This escarpment is traceable from off Rockall and the Outer
Hebrides, between which there is a deep bay, southwards to Cape St. Vincent. It
follows the coast of the Bay of Biscay, at distances varying from 100 miles off the
western coast to 20 or 30 miles off the southern coast. This great escarpment, about
2,000 miles long from north to south, has nothing comparable with it as regards
magnitude in the British Isles and Europe. It is limited upwards by the 100 to 250
fathom contours, and downwards by those of 1,200 to 1,500 fathoms, thus giving
an altitude (regarded from the point of view of having been once a land feature)
of over 6,000 to 7,000 feet, according to locality. The base of the escarpment can
be clearly determined at several points, as, for example, north of the Porcupine
Bank (lat. 54° N.) and at the embouchure of the old cation of the river Adour,

1 Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc., vol. vi. (1849).

880 REPORT—1898.

where it opens out on the floor of the deep ocean at a depth of about 1,500 fathoms.
The slope of the escarpment varies considerably, but is occasionally almost pre-
cipitous, as, for example, off Cape Ortegal. From its base stretches the gently
sloping floor of the abyssal ocean formed of foraminiferal ooze, as determined by
Dr. G, C. Wallich and the ‘Challenger’ Expedition ; thus the escarpment serves to
separate the region of the calcareous floor from that of the platform composed of
mechanically constituted materials. That it was formerly a land feature is proved
by the presence of river channels and deep ravines or cafions once connected with
the streams which drain the adjoining lands.

3. Submerged River Channels and Caitons.—By means of the soundings the
courses of several rivers can be clearly traced, commencing at or near the shores of
the neighbouring lands, and generally becoming more determinate as they approach
the edge of the grand escarpment, through which they descend between precipitous
walls of rock, some thousands of feet in depth, towards the floor of the abyssal
ocean. Amongst those especially remarkable are the channels which drained the
Irish Sea and English Channel, the positions of which have been indicated by
several observers, including Mr. Godwin-Austen, Prof. Rupert Jones, Prof. Boyd
Dawkins, and Mr. Jukes-Browne; but it does not appear that they recognised the
fact that they are traceable down to depths of over 1,000 fathoms where they cut
through the great escarpment. Besides the channels of some British rivers, those
of the Loire, the Adour, Las Cubas, the Douro, and Tagus are very clearly defined,
as the contours are traceable for miles inwards from the margin of the escarpment,
indicating caiions of great depth, that of the Adour being traceable from the mouth
of the existing river to its opening on to the floor of the deep ocean at a distance
of 60 miles and a depth of 1,500 fathoms. In some cases the rivers have had double
channels when crossing the escarpment.

4, Sea-stacks and Isolated Rocks.—In addition to the above features, instances
occur of huge sea-stacks or isolated bosses of rock rising from very deep water.
One of these occurs off the north coast of Spain, and has an altitude of over 5,000
feet. In general form it was similar to the great bosses which rise from the waters
on the coast of Scotland, such as the ‘Bass Rock,’ ‘Rock of Dumbarton Castle,
and ‘ Ailsa Craig,’ but was vastly greater in dimensions than any of these. Un-
fortunately we are unable by means of soundings to determine the composition of
such masses, but they are probably formed of some excessively hard material, such
as felstone, basalt, or other voleanic rock able to resist the assaults of the ocean
waves for a longer period than the adjoining masses.

General Conclusion.—It will be evident that the features above described—the
submarine escarpments and river channels—must have been formed, the one by
wave action along rising or subsiding land surfaces, and the other by river erosion
during a period of emergence of the whole region. It is only under sub-aérial
conditions that such escarpments and river channels could have been formed ; hence
we are driven to the conclusion that the eastern side of the North Atlantic was
upraised to the extent of 9,000 or 10,000 feet at a very recent period. This
deduction is in harmony with that arrived at by Spencer, Upham, and other
American geologists, and forces us to the conclusion that the whole area of the
North Atlantic was a land surface to the depth of 10,000 feet at a very recent
period. The author has pointed out how such an uprising of the lands must have
affected the climatical conditions, resulting in a general lowering of the tempera-
ture ; and in connection with the alteration in the course and temperature of the
‘Gulf Stream’ must have brought about conditions over the northern hemisphere
such as those which are inferred to have been in force during the Pleistocene or
Glacial period.*

' M. Elisée Réclus has recognised this profound cafion, but is altogether at a loss
to account for its origin.
* ‘Another Possible Cause of the Glacial Epoch,’ Trans. Victoria Institute (1898).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 881

4. The Eastern Margin of the North Atlantic Basin.
By W. H. Hupuzston, £.2.S.

Definition of the Subject—Importance of oceanography in a geological
sense. The submerged continental shelf, the ‘edge,’ the suboceanic continental
slope, and the abyssal flat. The suboceanic continental slopes are the true
margins of the several oceans. Limit of region dealt with in the paper from
the Polar Ocean to about the 30th parallel of N. latitude. The suboceanic slope
has sometimes been described as a ‘submerged bank,’ a ‘terrace,’ or an ‘ escarp-
ment;’ these terms, it is believed, are in many cases misleading. Remarks of
Professor Milne on the tectonic importance of the suboceanic continental slope ;
he calculates that one-half of the earthquake shocks occurring throughout the
world have their origin in these slopes, especially towards the base; his division
into seismic and non-seismic districts.

Authorities for the Line Selected—Allowing for sinuosities and for the
easterly extension beyond Spitzbergen, this marginal line is not less than 5,000
miles, The principal authorities are Nansen’s paper ‘On Some Results of the
Norwegian Arctic Expedition,’ Mohn’s work ‘On the Norwegian North Atlantic
Expedition,’ Bartholomew’s ‘ Physical Chart of the North Polar Regions,’ and,
lastly, several of the British Admiralty charts from Shetland to Gibraltar.

Descriptive and Hypothetical—Section 1. Arctic and Sub-Arctie. Hydro-
graphical details of the marginal line of the North Polar Ocean (outside Franz
Josef Land and Spitzbergen) and of the Norwegian Atlantic are given, As a
whole, so far as is known, the marginal slopes appear to be less steep than in the
British-Biscayan region.

Discussion on the geological bearing of these details. It is contended that
the North Atlantic, the Norwegian Atlantic, and such portions of the North
Polar Ocean as have yet been sounded belong to one and the same great geo-
synclinal depression, which has locally been interrupted by volcanic extravasation.
These facts serve to remind us of the two principal schools of geographical evolu-
tion, and of the theories relating to the permanence or non-permanence of the
major features of the earth’s crust. The arguments for and against permanence,
both generally, and in reference to this particular region. It is suggested that a
considerable amount of change throughout geological time may have taken place
on the margins of the great oceans without materially affecting the great ocean
basins themselves. In this way the crust of the earth still retains traces of its
congenital features in the great ocean depths, and also in the position of the chief
continental areas. Lord Kelvin’s view that continents and ocean depths were
due to heterogeneousness of composition in different parts of the liquid which con-
stituted the earth’s surface before solidification; from this heterogeneousness, he
considers that the irregularities of the present surface followed as a dynamical
necessity.

Section 2. The Icelandic Shallows.—Here the volcanic masses of Iceland and
Feroe with their submarine attachments have produced a marked effect on the
depths of the ocean. The Norwegian Atlantic connects with the main Atlantic by
three channels ; minimum depth in the Feroe-Shetland or Lightning Channel 319
fathoms ; so that a little over 1,900 feet uprise is required to effect a land con-
nection with Iceland and South-east Greenland. (N.B.—There is some difference in
the maps on this point.) The suboceanic continental slope may be traced along
the south-east side of this channel, though the steepest declivity is only 24°;
thence along the Vidal Bank to the Porcupine Ridge, off the coast of Connaught.

Former land connection with Iceland and Greenland required by the
biologists. The views of Professor Spencer as to epeirogenic uplift on this side of
the Atlantic.

Section 3. The British-Biscayan Region.—Hydrographical details between
the South of Ireland and Ushant. Great width of the submerged continental
shelf or 100-fathom platform in this quarter. Increased steepness of the sub-
oceanic continental slope as the depths of the Bay of Biscay are approached.
Irregularity of the contours in places; an incline of 6° to be taken as representing

1898. 3L

882 REPORT—1898.

the steeper averages on the French side. Hydrography of the ‘ Fosse de Cap
Breton,’ of the deep channel off Bilbao, and of parts of the north coast of Spain.
Criticism of some of Professor Hull’s hypotheses with respect to this region.

5. The Great Earthquake of 1897. By R. D. OLpHam.

6. Report on the Pleistocene Flora and Fauna of Canada.
See Reports, p. 522.

7. On Worked Flints from Glacial Deposits of Cheshire and the Isle of
Man. By J. Lomas, 4.R.C.8., F.G.S., Pres. Liverpool Geol. Soc.

Flints are not common in the glacial deposits of N.W. England. In one
or two places in the Wirral, however, and in the Isle of Man, they are fairly plen-
tiful. Sometimes they occur in the Boulder Clay, but more frequently in Glacial
Sands and Gravels.

Some of the flints collected in these localities show undoubted signs of human
workmanship.

Prenton, Birkenhecd.—The flints exhibited were collected from a recent exca-
vation near Mount House. Soft Bunter is seen on the 8. and W. faces overlaid
by glacial sands. Between the two lies a bed of gravel containing small Lake
District and Scotch erratics up to 6 in. diameter, along with broken Triassic
rocks, clay galls, and marine shells. In this gravel most of the flints have been
found. (thers occur in the overlying sand, which also contains erratics and shell
fragments. Similar sand occurs at many places in the immediate neighbourhood,
and is usually overlaid by Boulder Clay.

Spital Sandpit.—False bedded clean sand is seen, containing gravel and rolled
clay galls, overlaid by tough Boulder Clay. The flints occur both in the gravel
and Boulder Clay.

Capenhurst.—Flints collected from gravel bands and clay in old sandpit
opposite church.

Mollington, near Chester.—Large sandpit, near high road, contains very little
gravel, and the flints mostly occur in the Boulder Clay which caps the section.

Cliffs, N. of Ramsey, Isle of Man.—Glacia! deposits in north of island well
exposed in the fine clifis which extend from Ramsey almost to the Point of Ayre.
Near Ramsey, sands and gravels predominate, and these get successively more and
more clayey towards the N.

In collecting the flints the author took great care to separate those found in
the talus slopes from those actually in the clays and gravels. The flints were
exhibited.

8. The Glacial Sections at Moel Trifaen.
By E. Greenty, /.G.S., and A. B, Bapcer.

Attention is called to the impending destruction of the best and clearest part
of the Moel Trifaen sections, and some lantern-slides shown to illustrate especially
the nature of the rock surface below the gravels and the relation of these to the
Boulder Clay. The terminal curvature in the slates is dwelt upon. This is well
marked, and is independent of the inclination of the surface, which does not exceed
3° to 4°. The laminw are bent over in a southerly direction. The displaced
lamine pass up into a breccia of angular and sub-angular fragments of slates which
underlies the gravels.

It is hoped that an effort will be made while yet there is time to preserve an
adequate record, by photography and other means, of the phenomena displayed in
this classical section.

i

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 883

9. On some Dinosaurian Remains from the Oxford Clay
of Northampton. By C. W. ANDREWS.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1, Restoration by Charles Knight of the Eatinct Vertebrates Bronto-
saurus, Phenacodus, Coryphodon, Teleoceras. By Professor H. F,
OsBoRN.

2. The Work of Encrusting Organisms in the Formation of
Limestone. By E. WETHERED.

3, The Action of Waves and Tides on the Movement of Material on the
Sea Coast. By W. H. Wuueer, UM Inst.C.2., Boston, Linc.

The object of this paper is to show the relative effect of waves due to wind and
tidal action on littoral drift.

It is pointed out that all cliffs that border the sea coast are doomed to erosion,
and the material derived from their destruction, after being sorted and prepared by
waves and tidal action, is conveyed to the depths of the sea.

The function of wind waves is to break down the cliffs, to sort the material
displaced, and to reduce the larger rock fragments into sizes sufficiently small to
be acted on by the tides, and to disperse material that has been collected in large
masses by tidal action.

The function of the tides consists in raising the water of the ocean sufficiently
high to enable the waves to attack the cliffs, in assisting in the grinding up of the
reduced rock fragments by their perpetual oscillating motion until sufficiently
reduced in size, and then in transporting them to the bed of the sea, the latter
operation being effected either in solution, suspension, or rolling along the bottom.

It is shown that all material eroded from the cliffs is ultimately carried
seaward, and that the sea yields nothing to the land. The only agents capable of
transporting material of greater specific gravity than the water are the waves, and
their action, until they break on the shore, is merely one of undulation; and
therefore it is only the stones, shingle, or sand which lie shorewards of the point
where the wave breaks that can be carried forward on to the beach. On the other
hand, the slope of the beach being seawards, all material has a natural tendency to
work downwards under the action of gravity, this downward action being aided
by the undertow of the retiring shore waves.

Material eroded from the cliffs consists of rock fragments, boulders, sand, and
alluvium. The alluvium, consisting of particles of sufficient minuteness to remain
in suspension for a considerable time, is diffused by the waves over a very
considerable distance, and is finally deposited in the deep part of the ocean; the
sand is gradually worked down the beach by the action of the waves and tides,
and is also spread over the sea bed, but nearer to the shore; the rock fragments
are reduced to shingle small enough to be acted on by the tides, and in this
condition are rolled up and down the beach and drifted along the coast until
ground into particles sufficiently fine to be transported to the sea. Shingle is
generally accumulated in banks in the zone lying between low water of neap
tides and high water of spring tides, and travels along the coast in one given
direction. The heaping up and travel of the shingle is due to tidal action. The
effect of wind waves due to gales is principally destructive to shingle banks,

3L2

884 REPORT—1898.

cutting out and dispersing the material, the banks being restored by tidal action
in calm weather and during off-shore winds. The action of waves due to wind is
intermittent, variable in direction, and irregular. The travel of shingle, except
when acted on by gales, is continuous, regular, and constant in direction. It is
shown by a number of examples that the travel of shingle is not coincident either
with the prevailing or predominant winds, but on a tidal coast the predomi-
nant drift is invariably in the same direction as that of the flood tide. The action of
the tides in heaping up and drifting material is due to wave action. The rise and
fall of the tide on the coast does not consist of a mere vertical rise and fall of the
water, but of a continual oscillation. The crest of the tidal wave in the open sea,
being in advance of that near the shore, results in an oblique lateral movement
along the beach, and the advance of the water being checked by the shallow bed
with which it comes in contact is reflected back, resulting in a series of small
oscillations or waves which break when they reach the low-water line. These
oscillations are ever present on the margin of the shore, even when the sea is
calmest, and are never absent except when absorbed by larger waves due to gales.
These tidal wavelets vary in height from 6 inches to 2 feet, and break on the shore
at the rate of from ten to twenty a minute according to the rise of the tide and
the slope of the beach. These wavelets, aided by the flood current, lift up and
carry forward any coarse sand, loose stones, or other material with which they
come in contact, and leave some portion of it stranded at the highest point to
which the tide of the day reaches. The wavelets, besides lifting and transporting
the shingle, brush upward the whole of the face of the bank, and gradually raise
it above the line of high water. It is shown that, though these waves are small,
they by their weight and velocity develop sufficient force to move a large quantity
of pebbles. A wave having a height of only a foot from trough to crest, giving a
head of 6 inches, and containing a volume of water equal to a weight of :142 ton,
has sufficient kinetic energy to raise 165 Ibs. of pebbles a foot high. Allowing the
weight of pebbles in water to be 100 lbs. to the cubic foot, each wave, if the whole
of its energy be applied to the movement of the material, is capable of raising
660 pebbles 2 inches in diameter a foot; or, with fifteen waves to the minute,
9,900 pebbles a minute and 2,376,000 in a single tide, or a total weight of stone
of 266'4 tons a foot high. This, however, is beyond the work actually done, as a
portion of the energy of the wave is absorbed in friction. The above rough
approximation of the power of the wavelets is sufficient to show the enormous
power that is developed by tidal action day by day on the coast, and the capability
of the wavelets due to the tides for building up shingle banks and drifting the
pebbles along the beach.

4, Further Exploration of the Ty Newydd Cave, Tremeirchion, North
Wales. By Rev. G. C. H. Pouten, S.S., F.G.S.

In a paper read before the Geological Society on December 15, 1897,} the
author gave the results of the exploration of 60 feet from the old quarry. The
work has now been extended to 150 feet in this direction. In the upper portion
a stalagmite floor has been found im situ, completely sealing up the local gravels.
Over this were found 5 feet of clay with broken limestone, which is all that is left
to represent the strata which previously formed the roof of the cave. The
whole is now overlaid with boulder clay, containing many specimens of northern
and western drift, with striated stones of more local origin. No trace of erratics
or of glaciated stones have been found in the lower cave materials.

The cave has also been traced for 55 feet across the floor of the quarry where
it re-enters the rock, running in the direction of the gully which separates it from
the Ffynnon Beuno and Cae Gwyn Oaves. In the lowest gravel of this part a
water-worn fragment of the molar of Equus was found. The following succession
seems to be established for the contents of the cave :—

) QJ.G.S., February, 1898, pp. 119-134, pl. viii.

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 885

A. Cave nearly filled by torrents with local gravel containing water-worn
fragments of mammalian teeth.

B. Formation of stalagmite fluor.

c. Last few yards of floor broken up and re~deposited further down the cave
by floods, which completely filled lower portion with sand and clay.

D. Denudation of rock above, destroying roof of upper portion and depositing
limestone débris on floor in a matrix of clay.

E. Introduction of striated stones and northern and western erratics, which are
deposited as one bed over the hill-side.

5. Lurther Exploration of the Fermanagh Caves.'
By Tuomas PuunKkert, Enniskillen.

The original report above referred to having been drawn up and read by me at
Dublin in 1878, and in which I stated that ‘ the explorations were suspended after
the exploration of F cave, as the probability is that none of the caves in this
district will yield bones of extinct mammalia.’

I spent three summers exploring the caverns which penetrate the Carboniferous
Limestone hills in Fermanagh, in which I found flint implements, bone, bronze, and
iron pins, a large cinerary urn inverted over burnt human bones, human skulls,
ancient hearths, &c., also quantities of the bones of the wild horse, red deer, long-
snouted pig, ox and remains of other animals not extinct. Having explored a
number of caves in this county previous to my reading the report referred to above,
I came to the conclusion that remains of extinct mammalia were not likely to be
found in this locality. Now, on the contrary, I am glad to be in a position to
report that I have been fortunate in finding an entire cranium of what I believe is
the great cave bear (Ursus speleus) in one of the Knockmore caverns which pene-
trates a cliff not far from the caverns I formerly explored, and is a narrow cleft
with vertical sides. The height of the cave is about 40 feet, and length 90 feet.
When standing at the extreme end of this cleft-cavern one may observe at the top
of one of the sides an opening which is evidently the end of a horizontal cave’
which runs at right angles into the top of the cave in question; a good deal of
débris has been during heavy rains washed out of the higher cave down into the
lower one ; in this débris, the cave bear’s head was found, and I have no doubt but,
when explored, the higher cave will yield more remains of the skeleton of the bear
and possibly other extinct animals.

I have commenced excavations on the top of the rock, and hope to find the
upper or horizontal cavern (which cannot be reached from the narrow cave below)

which formerly must have had an opening out to the surface of the ground, and

probably has been filled up level with the surface for the protection of cattle.

I thought it well to have this find in Fermanagh recorded in the proceedings of
the British Association, and I shall be happy to report to the Association next year
the results of the cave digging which I am carrying on here at present.

6. Report on Remains of the Irish Elk in the Isle of Man.
See Reports, p. 548.

7. Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—See Reports, p. 552.

8. Report on Seismological Investigation.—See Reports, p. 179.

' See Report, 1878, pp. 183-185.

886 REPORT—1898,
9. Report on the Fawna of Caves near Singapore.—See Reports, p. 571.

10. Report on the Structure of a Coral Reef.—See Reports, p. 556.

1l. Final Report on the Eurypterids of the Pentlands.
f See Reports, p. 557.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 887

Section D.—ZOOLOGY (INCLUDING ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY).

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—W. F. R. Wetpon, M.A., F.R.S., Professor
of Comparative Anatomy and Zoology, University College, London.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The President-delivered the following Address :—

In attempting to choose the subject of the address with which custom obliges your
President to trouble you, I felt that I should have the best hope of interesting you
if I decided to speak to you on the subject most interesting to myself. I therefore
propose to discuss, as well as I can, the principal objections which are urged against
the theory of Natural Selection, and to describe the way in which I think these
objections may be met.

The theory of Natural Selection is a theory of the importance of differences
between individual animals. In the form in which Darwin stated it, the theory
asserts that the smallest observable variation may affect an animal’s chance of
survival, and it further asserts that the magnitude of such variations, and the
frequency with which they occur, is governed by the law of chance.

Three principal objections are constantly brought forward against this theory.
The first is that the species of animals which we know fall into orderly series, and
that purely fortuitous variations cannot be supposed to afford opportunity for the
selection of such orderly series; so that many persons feel that if the existing
animals are the result of selection among the variable offspring of ancestral
creatures, the variations on which the process of Natural Selection had to act must
have been produced by something which was not chance.

The second objection is that minute structural variations cannotin fact be sup-
posed to affect the death-rate so much as the theory requires that they should.
And it is especially urged that many of the characters by which species are dis-
tinguished appear to us so small and useless that they cannot be supposed to affect
the chance of survival at all,

The third objection is that the process of evolution by Natural Selection is so
slow that the time required for its operation is longer than the extreme limit of
time given by estimates of the age of the earth.

Now the first of these three objections, the objection to fortuitous variation as
the source of the material on which Natural Selection can act, is very largely due
to a misunderstanding of the meaning of words. The meaning of the word Chance
is so thoroughly misunderstood by a number of writers on evolution that I make
no apology for asking you to consider what it does mean. F

Consider a case of an event which happens by chance. Suppose I toss a penny,
and let it fall on the table. You will agree that the face of the penny which looks
upwards is determined by chance, and that with a symmetrical penny it is an even
chance whether the ‘ head’ face or the ‘ tail’ face lies uppermost. For the moment,
that is all one can say about the result. Now compare this with the statements we
can make about other moving bodies. You will find it stated, in any almanae,
that there will be a total eclipse of the moon on December 27, and that the eclipse

888 REPORT—1898.

will become total at Greenwich at 10.57 p.m. ; and I imagine you will all feel sure,
on reading that statement, that when December 27 comes the eclipse will occur ;
and it will become total at 10.57 p.m. It will not become total at 10.50 p.m., and
it will not wait until 11.0 p.m. You will say, therefore, that eclipses of the moon
do not occur by chance.

What is the difference between these two events, of which we say that one
happens by chance, and the other does not ? The difference is simply a difference of
degree in our knowledge of the conditions. The laws of motion are as true of moving
pence as they are of moving planets; but it happens that we know so much about
the sun, and the earth, and the moon, that we know the circumstances which

‘affect their relative positions very accurately indeed, so that we can predict within
less than a minute the time at which the shadow of the earth will next fall upon
the moon.

But the result of tossing a penny depends upon a very large number of things
which we do not know. It depends on the shape and mass of the penny, its
velocity and direction when it leaves one’s hand, its rate of rotation, the distance
of one’s hand from the table, and so on. If we knew all these things before toss-
ing the penny, we should be able to predict in each case what the result would be,
and we should cease to regard pitch and toss as a game of chance.

As it is, all we know about these complicated conditions is that if we toss a
penny for a number of times, the conditions which give ‘ heads’ will occur about
as often as the conditions which give ‘ tails.’

If you examine any event which occurs by chance, you will find that the
fortuitous character of its occurrence always depends upon our ignorance concern-
ing it.

"if we know so little about a group of events that we cannot predict the result
of a single observation, although we can predict the result of a long series of ob-
servations, we say that these events occur by chance. And this statement seems
to me to contain the best definition of chance that can be offered.

If we use the word chance in this sense, we see at once that our knowledge of
animal variations is precisely knowledge of the kind referred to in our definition
of chance. We know with some certainty the average characters of many species
of animals; but we do not know exactly the character of the next individual of
these species we may happen to look at. So that in the present state of our know-
ledge it is @ priort certain that the great majority of animal variations should
occur by chance, in the sense in which we have used the phrase; and I will show
you in a moment illustrations of the fact that they do so occur.

But before doing so, I would point out the difference between the sense in which
we have used the word chance, and the sense in which it is used by many objectors
to the theory of Natural Selection. Such epithets as Sind, lawless, and the like,
are constantly applied to chance; and a kind of antithesis is established between
events which happen by chance, and those which happen in obedience to natural
laws. In many Geritas writings, especially, this antithesis between Zufalligkeit
and Gesetzmdssigkeit is strongly insisted upon, whenever organic variation is dis-
cussed.

This view of chance is not supported by experience ; and indeed, if it could be
shown that anything in human experience were absolutely lawless, if it could be
shown that in any department of Nature similar conditions did not produce similar
effects, the whole fabric of human knowledge would crumble into chaos, and all
intellectual effort would be a profitless waste of time. There is not the slightest
reason to believe that any such absolutely lawless phenomena do exist in Nature;
so that we need pay no further attention to the writers who assume that chance
is a lawless thing.

But if chance is a perfectly orderly and regular phenomenon, then the question,
whether animal variations occur by chance or not, can be settled by direct observa-
tion. I will now show you one or two examples of events which undoubtedly
occur by chance, and then compare these with one or two cases of organi
variation.

As events which occur by chance, I have taken the results of tossing twelve

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 889

dice. My wife has spent some time during the last two months in tossing dice for
you, and I will ask you to look at the results.

Her first record gives the number of dice showing more than three points in
each of 4,096 throws of twelve dice. There are, of course, six numbers on each of
the dice; so that if all the dice were perfectly symmetrical and similar, the average
number of dice with more than three points should be six in each throw of twelve.
But dice are not symmetrical and similar. The points on the dice used were
marked by little holes, scooped out of their faces; and the face with six such holes
scooped out of it was opposite to the face with only one such hole: so that the
face with one point was heavier than the face with six points; and therefore six
was rather more likely to be uppermost than one. In the same way, two was
opposite five; so that the five face was a little more likely to fall uppermost than
the face with two points. Therefore, it is a little more likely that you will throw
mca five, or six, in throwing dice, than it is that you will throw one, two, or
three.

Accordingly, the average number of dice, in these 4,096 throws, which had
more than three points, was not six, but 6°135. :

To show you that this excess of high points was due to some permanent pro-
perty of the dice, she threw these twelve dice another 4,096 times; and the average
number of dice with more than three points was 6139. A third series of trials
gave an average of 6:104, and a fourth gave an average of 6:116.

You see that the difference between the highest and the lowest of these deter-
minations is only about one-half per cent., so that the mean result of such a series
of fortuitous events can be determined with great accuracy.

And just as the mean of the whole series can be determined, so we can know
with considerable accuracy how often any possible deviation from the average
result will occur. The degree of accuracy with which we can know this may be
judged from Table I.

TaBLE I.—Frequency with which Dice showing more than three points were thrown
in each of Four Series of Trials, the number of throws in each Series being
2 = 4,096.

Number of |Most Probable Observed Frequencies
Dice with Frequency
more than 8 |for Symmetri- |
Points cal Dice I. II. Ir. IV.
12 1 0) i 0 1
11 12 11 13 8 14
10 66 71 86 61 66
9 220 257 246 241 241
8 495 536 540 513 586
7 792 847 836 856 861
6 924 948 913 948 866
5 792 731 750 802 728
4 495 430 446 420 474
3 220 198 198 182 204
2 66 60 55 51 67
if 12 7 12 13 6
0 1 0 0 1 0

You see that the results of the experiments agree fairly well with one another,
and differ from the results most probable with symmetrical dice, in the way which
the structure of the actual dice would lead one to expect. Throws which give
seven, eight, or nine dice with more than three points occur too often, throws in
which only two, three, or four dice have more than three points do not occur often
enough. You see then that each of these results is orderly and regular, and that
the four results agree very fairly among themselves, not only in the mean value of
each of them, but in the magnitude and frequency of departures from the mean.

890 REPORT—1898,

That they differ from the results which would probably be obtained with symme-
trical and similar dice is only to be expected, because the dice used are neither
symmetrical nor similar.

You notice that this table is very nearly symmetrical; the most frequent
result is that which lies in the middle of the series of possible results; and the
other frequencies would, with perfect dice, be distributed symmetrically on each
side of it; so that with perfect dice one would be as likely to throw five dice out
of twelve with more than three points as one would be to throw seven, and so on.

This symmetry in the distribution of the results is only found when the chance
of the event occurring in one trial is even. The next table shows the result of
4,096 throws of twelve dice, in which sixes only were counted. The chance against
throwing six with any one of the dice is of course five to one; so that in throwing
twelve dice you are more likely to throw two sixes than to throw any other
number. But you see that the chance of throwing only one six is very much
greater than the chance of throwing three ; the chance of throwing none is greater
than the chance of throwing four, and while there is a chance of throwing five, six,
or more, of course it is impossible to throw less than none at all; so that the dia-
gram is all askew. You see that this time, as before, the frequency with which
any number of sixes did actually occur was as near to the result most probably with
perfect dice as the asymmetry of the actual dice allows one to expect.’

TaBLe Il.—Frequency of Sizes in 4,096 throws of Twelve Dice.

Most Probable Number with

Number of Sixes Symmetrical Dice

Number Observed

058 1

8

7 4-66 7
6 27-18 24
5 116-43 115
4 363°84 380
3 808'53 796
2 1211-44 1,181
1 1102-56 1,145
0 459-52 447

These results will be enough to show you how absurd is the attitude which so
many writers have taken up towards chance when discussing animal variation.
The assertion that organic variation occurs by chance is simply the assertion that
it obeys a law of the same kind as that which expresses the orderly series of re-
sults we have just looked at.?

That is a matter which can be settled by direct observation. But in order to
express the law of chance in such a way that we can apply it to animal variation,
we must make use of a trick which mathematicians have invented for that purpose.

It is a well-known proposition in probability that the frequency with which one
throws a given number of sixes in a series of trials with twelve dice is proportional
to the proper term in the expansion of (4+). The most probable numbers
in this table were calculated by expanding this expression. But if I had
wanted to show you the most probable result of experiments with 100 dice, I
should not willingly have expanded (2+ %)'°. The labour would be too enormous.

‘ It is unfortunate that I chose dice as instruments in these experiments. Dice
are not only sensibly asymmetrical, but any ordinary dice are sensibly dissimilar; so
that the result most probable with any actual dice is not given by a simple binomial
expansion. ‘The result theoretically most probable for the actual dice used could
not be determined without very careful measurement of the dice themselves; and I
was unable to attempt measures of the requisite accuracy. All that the records
show, as they stand, is the amount of agreement between four successive observa-
tions of a fortuitous event.

? The law is not, however, identical in the two cases ; see infra.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 891

Then, again, suppose we are given a number of results, and are not told how many
dice were used, how are we to find out the power to which we must raise (2 + §),
since this depends on the number of dice ?

Before applying the law of chance to variations in which we cannot directly
measure the number of contributory causes (the analogue of the number of dice),
we must find some way out of these difficulties.

The way is shown by the diagram (fig. 1).

The rectangles in this diagram are proportional to the various terms of
(4+4)"; and they represent the most probable result of counting the number of

Fie. 1.

Diagram showing results of experiments with dice.

dice with more than three points in a series of trials with twelve dice. The heights
of these rectangles were determined by expanding (++4)!*; but you notice the
dotted curve which is drawn through the tops of them. The general slope of this
curve is, you see, the same as the general slope of the series of rectangles ; and the
area of any strip of the curve which is bounded by the sides of a rectangle is very
nearly indeed the same as that of the rectangle itself.

The constants upon which the shape of this curve depends are easily and
quickly obtained from any series of observations; so that you can easily and
quickly see whether a set of observed phenomena obeys the symmetrical law of
chance or not.

892 REPORT—1898.

A good many characters of animals do vary in this symmetrical way; and I
show you one, which will always*be historically interesting, because it was one of
the principal characters used to illustrate Mr. Galton’s invaluable applications of
the law of chance to biological problems. That is the case of human stature.
The diagram (fig. 2) shows the stature of 25,878 American recruits; and you see
that the frequency with which each stature occurs is very close indeed to that indi-
cated by the curve. So that variations in human stature do occur by chance, and
they occur in such a way that variation in either direction is equally probable.

In cases where a variation in either direction is equally likely to occur, this
symmetrical curve can be used to express the law of distribution of variations.
And the great difficulty in applying the law of chance to the treatment of other
cases was, until quite lately, that the way of expressing asymmetrical distribu-
tions by a similar curve was unknown; so that there was no obvious way of
determining whether these asymmetrical distributions obeyed the law of chance
or not,

The form of the curve, related to an asymmetrical distribution of chances, as
the curve before you is related to symmetrical distributions, was first investigated
by my friend and colleague Professor Karl Pearson. In 1895 Professor Pearson
published an account of asymmetrical curves of this kind, and he showed the way
in which these curves might be applied to practical statistics. He illustrated his
remarkable memoir by showirg that several cases of organic variation could be
easily formulated by the method he described ; and in this way he made it possible
to apply the theory of chance to an enormous mass of material, which no one had
previously been able to reduce to an orderly and intelligible form.

In this same memoir Professor Pearson dealt with another problem in the
theory of chance, which has special importance in relation to biological statistics.
It has doubtless occurred to many of you that the analogy between the com-
plexity of the results obtained by tossing dice, and the complexity of events which
determine the character of an animal body, is false in an important respect. For
the events which determine the result, when we throw a dozen dice on the table,
affect each of the dice separately ; so that if we know that one of the dice shows
six points, we have no more reason to suppose that another will show six points
than we had before looking at the first.1 But the events which determine the
size or shape of an organ in an animal are probably not independent in this way.
Probably when one event has happened, tending to increase the size of an arm or
a leg in an embryo, it is more likely than it was before that other events will
happen leading to increased size of this arm or leg. So that the chances of varia-
tion in the size of a limb would be represented by a law similar to that which
expresses the result of throwing dice, but different from it. They would more
nearly resemble the result of drawing cards out of a pack. Suppose you draw a
card out of a pack. It is an even chance whether you draw a red card or a black
one. Suppose you draw a red card, and keep it. The chance that your second
card will be red is not so great as the chance that it will be black; because there
are only twenty-five red cards and twenty-six black cards left in the pack.

Now Professor Pearson has shown how to deal with cases of this kind also;
and how to determine, from the results of statistical observation, whether one is
dealing with such cases or not.

I am no mathematician, and I do not dare even to praise the mathematical
process by which this result was achieved. I will only say that it is experimen-
tally justified by the fact that most statistics relating to organic variation are most
accurately represented by the curve of frequency which Professor Pearson deduces
for the case where the contributory causes are mutually inter-dependent.”

1 That is to say, if we know beforehand that the dice are symmetrical. ss)

? Even the distribution of human stature, which has been so successfully treated
by the older, so-called ‘normal’ curve, is more accurately represented by a curve of
Professor Pearson’s type ; but in this case the difference between the two is so slight
as to be inappreciable for all practical purposes; so that Mr. Galton’s practice and
Professor Pearson’s theory are alike justified.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 893

The first case of an metrical distribution in animals which I ask you to
look at is the frequency ariations in the size of part of the carapace of shore

Hire. 2.

30 a4 BS

52

51

Diagram showing the height (in inches) of each of 25,878 American recruits.

crabs. The crabs measured were 999 females from the Bay of Naples. In this

894 REPORT—1898.

case the distribution of variations (see fig. 3) is very nearly symmetrical, and in
an account of these crabs which I wrote before Professor Pearson’s memoir was
published I treated them as symmetrical. The curve actually drawn on the
diagram is one constructed by Professor Pearson himself from the data given by
my measurements of the crabs, and it fits the observations very sensibly better
than the symmetrical curve. So that this dimension of a crab’s carapace does
vary by chance, but the chance of a given deviation from the mean length is not
quite the same in both directions.

Now, admitting for the moment that these differences in the length of a part
of the crab’s carapace can affect the crab’s chances of survival, you see that natural
selection has abundant material on which to work. The production of this regular
series of deviations from the mean length of the antero-lateral margin is as
definite a character of the crabs as the mean itself; and in every generation a

Fie. 3.

150 150

100

100

5) | ea

———= >
720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800

Diagram showing the magnitude of the antero-lateral margin (in terms of carapace-
length) in 999 female shore-crabs from Naples.

series of deviations from the mean is regularly produced, according to a law which
we can learn if we choose to learn it,

Now suppose it became advantageous to the crabs, from some change in them-
selves or in their surroundings, that this part of their carapace should be as long
as possible. ‘Suppose the crabs in which it was shorter had a smaller chance’ of
living, and of reproducing, than the crabs in which it was longer.

Suppose that crabs in which this dimension is longest were as much more pro-
ductive than those in which it was shortest, as the most prolific marriages are more
fertile than the least prolific marriages among ourselves. Professor Pearson has
pointed out that half the children born in England are the offspring of a quarter
of the marriages. If we suppose the productiveness among crabs to vary as much
as it does among ourselves, only that in crabs the productiveness is greater, the
greater the length of this bit of the carapace, then half of the next generation of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 895

crabs will be produced by that quarter of the present generation in which the
antero-lateral margin is longest. And as the offspring will inherit a large per-
centage of the parental character, the mean of the race may be sensibly raised
in a single generation.

This view of the possible effect of selection seems to have escaped the notice of
those who consider that favourable variations are of necessity rare, and likely to
be swamped by intercrossing when they do occur. You see that in this case there
are a few individuals considerably different from the mean in either direction, and
a very large number which differ from the mean a@ Jittle in either direction. If
such deviation be associated with some advantage to the crabs, so that crabs

Fig. 4,

Diagram showing the number of Miiller’s glands in each of 2,000 female swine.

which possess such abnormality are more fertile than those which do not, itis a
certainty that the mean character of the next generation will change, if only a
little, in the direction advantageous to the race; and the opportunity for selective
modification of this kind to occur in either direction is very nearly the same.

In the next case, this is not true.

The diagram (fig. 4) represents the number of female swine, out of a batch of
two thousand examined in Chicago, which have a given number of Miillerian
glands in the right fore-leg. The distribution is much more skew than in the case
of the crabs, and you see again the very beautiful way in which Professor
Pearson’s curve expresses it, You see that the range of variation is much greater

400

300

106

896 : REPORT—1898.

on one side of the mean than on the other; and the selective destruction necessary
in order to raise the mean number of glands by one would be very different from
the amount of destruction necessary in order to lower the mean by one. Further
the mean number of glands in these pigs is 3} ; the number which occurs oftenest,
the ‘modal’ number as Professor Pearson calls it,’ is three. Now it is impossible £0
lower this number till it is less than 0, so that it can only be diminished by three;
but it is conceivable that it should be increased by more than three. So that the
amount of selective destruction required in order to change either the mean or the
modal character of these pigs in one direction would be greater than the amount
required in order to produce a change of equal magnitude in the opposite direction,
and the amount of possible change is greater in one direction than in the other.

Now let us pass on to another example.

Yable III. shows the variation in the number of petals in a race of buttercups
studied by Professor de Vries. You see that the most frequent number of petals
is five, and that no buttercups whatever have less than five petals, though a con-
siderable number have more than five ; and here again you see the way in which
Professor Pearson’s formula fits the observations.

Taste ILl.—Professor Pearson’s expression for the variation in the race of
Buttercups described by Professor de Vries. ‘

pres ee aba 8 | 7 h | 9 Tor |< di
Observed Frequency : . | 133 55 23 | 7 2 2 0
Pearson’s Theory . ‘ | 136°9 | 48:5 | 22°6 | 9°6 3-4 0:8 0-2

You see that if this table (which is based on very few specimens) really
represents the law of variability in these buttercups, no amount of natural or other
selection can produce a race with less than five petals out of them. While it is
conceivable that selection might quickly raise the normal number of petals, it
could not diminish it, unless the variability of the race should first change.”

These examples, which are typical of others, must suffice to show the way in
which the theory of Chance, as developed by Professor Pearson, can express the
facts of organic variation.

I think you will agree that they also show the importance of investigating
these facts. For of the four characters we have examined, we have seen that two—
namely, human stature and the antero-lateral carapace-length of Carcinus menas—
vary so as to afford nearly equal material for selective modification in either
direction; one character, the number of Miiller’s glands in swine, offers distinctly
greater facility for selective modification in one direction than in the opposite
direction; and the last character, the number of petals in a race of buttercups,
appears to offer scope for modification in one direction only, at least by selection in
one generation.

Knowledge of this kind is of fundamental importance to the theory of Natural
Selection. You have seen that the new method given to us by Professor Pearson
affords a means of expressing such knowledge in a simple and intelligible form ;
and I, at least, feel very strongly that it is the duty of students of animal evolution
to use the new and powerful engine which Professor Pearson has provided, and to
accumulate this kind of knowledge in a large number of cases.

I know that there are people who regard the mode of treatment which I have
tried to describe as merely a way of saying, with a pompous parade of arithmetic,
something one knew before. This criticism of Professor Pearson’s work was
actually made to me the other day by an eminent biologist, whose name I will not

1 All attempts to confine the word ‘average’ to the most frequently occurring
magnitude, and the word ‘mean’ to the arithmetic mean of the series, have failed to
secure support. Therefore Professor Pearson's proposal to call the value which
occurs oftenest the ‘mode’ is very useful.

2 Of course we know that selection does change the variability of a race.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 897

repeat. If there be any here who hold such an opinion, I would ask them to read
Mr. Francis Galton’s Essays on Heredity ; where a simple and quite unexpected
relation between parents and offspring is shown to be a direct consequence of the
fact that they vary by chance. his is the first and the most striking deduction
from the mathematical theory of organic variation, but it is not the only one. It
is enough, however, to show that the new method is not only a simple means of
describing the facts of variation, which facts very few people knew before, but it,
is a powerful instrument of research, which ought to be quickly and generally
adopted by those who care for the problems of animal evolution.

I think I have said enough to convince you how entirely Professor Pearson’s:
method promises to confirm the assertion that organic variation obeys the law of.
chance.

The other objections to Darwin’s theory are not so easily answered. It is said
that small variations cannot be supposed to affect an animal’s chance of life or:
death; but few persons have taken any pains to find out in any given case whether
the death-rate is in fact affected by small variations or not. It is said that the
process of Natural Selection is so slow that the age of the earth does not give time
for it to operate, but I know of few cases in which any attempt has been made to-
find out by actual observation how fast a species is really changing.

I can only attempt to discuss the importance of small variations, and the rate
of organic change, in the one case which I happen to know. The particular case’
I have myself studied is the variation in the frontal breadth of Carcinus menas.’ |

During the last six years my friend, Mr. Herbert Thompson, and I have studied |
in some detail the state of this character in the small shore-crabs which swarm on
the beach below the laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth.

I will show you that in those crabs small changes in the size of the frontal
breadth do, under certain circumstances, affect the death-rate, and that the mean
frontal breadth among this race of crabs is, in fact, changing at a rate sufficiently:
rapid for all the requirements of a theory of evolution.

In Table IV. you see three determinations of the mean frontal breadth of these
crabs, expressed in terms of the carapace-length taken as 1000. You see that the
mean breadth varies very rapidly with the length of the crab, so that it was neces-
sary to determine it separately in small groups of crabs, such that the length of
no two crabs in a group differed by more than a fifth of a millimetre. The first
column of the table shows you the mean frontal breadth of twenty-five such groups,
between 10 and 15 millimetres long, collected in 1893. These crabs were measured
by Mr. Thompson. The second column shows you the mean frontal breadth in
twenty-five similar groups of crabs, collected in 1895, and also measured by Mr.
Thompson. You see that in every case the mean breadth in a group of crabs
collected in 1895 is less than it was in crabs of the same size collected in 1893. The
third column contains the result, so far as it is yet obtained, of my own measure-
ment of crabs collected this year. It is very incomplete, because the 1895 crabs
were collected in August and September, and I was anxious to compare them with
erabs collected this year at the same season, so that there has not yet been time
to measure the whole series. The measurements are sufficient, however, to show
that the same kind of change has taken place during the last three years as that
observed by Mr. Thompson in the interval between 1893 and 1895. Making every
allowance for the smallness of the numbers so far measured this year, there is no
doubt whatever that the mean frontal breadth of crabs from this piece of shore is
considerably less now than it was in 1895 among crabs of the same size.”

1 In 1894 I gave an account of the variation of this dimension in female speci-
mens of various sizes (Roy. Soc. Proc., vol. lvii.), and I put forward an hypothesis
of the amount of selective destruction due to variation in this character. That
hypothesis neglected’ several important facts which I now know, and was open
to other objections. I desire to replace it by the results of the observations here
recorded.

2 T shall of course consider it my duty to justify this statement by more extensive
measurement as soon as possible. In the meantime, I may say that I have measured
other small groups of crabs, male and female, from the same place, at different
— of the years 1896-1898, and the results agree with those recorded in the
able.

1898. 3M

898 REPORT—1898.

TasieE IV.—The Mean Frontal Breadth Ratio of Male Carcinus meenas from a
particular patch of beach in Plymouth, in the years 1893, 1895, and 1898.

| . Mean Frontal Breadth in terms of Carapace-length = 1000
:

Length of Bee
Carapace 1893 1895 1898 Crala ins th
(Thompson) (Thompson) (Weldon) 1898 Group
10:1 816-17 | 809-08 | = =
10°3 812-06 804-82 -— —
10°5 807°37 803:27 — =
107 808-96 801-69 — _
10°9 805-07 799-27 — —
111 802-50 79412 784:25 4
11:3 798-18 792°38 787°36 11
115 797-19 788°83 784-00 9
11:7 794:28 785°29 78244 16
11:9 791°45 786-53 780°09 11
12°1 788°38 780°61 7T75°25 16
12°3 78398 779:50 773°42 12
12°5 78399 776-50 767-00 11
12-7 78355 773-43 772-43 ; 14
12°9 T1738 77363 76467 15
13:1 T76°63 77161 76013 16
13:3 77460 766°21 761-29 7
13°5 76691 763°96 759°56 16
13°7 76763 762:00 757-00 16
13:9 763°73 759°40 756°10 10
14-1 758°94 ' 757-00 742-00 13
14:3 75690 75577 74786 7
14:5 762-60 754-45 744-44 9
14:7 75300 74984 739°22 8
14:9 75132 74803 742°83 6

These results all relate to male crabs. The change in female crabs during this
time has been less than the change in male crabs, but it is, so far as my
measurements at present permit me to speak, going on in the same direction as the
change in male crabs.

I think there can be no doubt, therefore, that the frontal breadth of these crabs
is diminishing year by year at a rate which is very rapid, compared with the rate
at which animal evolution is commonly supposed to progress.

1 will ask your patience for a little while longer, that I may tell you why I feel
confident that this change is due to a selective destruction, caused by certain
rapidly changing conditions of Plymouth Sound.

If you look at the chart, you will see that Plymouth Sound is largely blocked
up, and its communication with the sea is narrowed by a huge artificial break-
water, about a mile long, so that the tidal currents enter it and leave it only by
two openings. This huge modern barrier has largely changed the physical
conditions of the Sound.

On either side of Plymouth itself a considerable estuary opens into the Sound,
and each of these estuaries brings down water from the high granite moorlands,
where there are rich deposits of china clay. Those of you who know Dartmoor
will remember that in rainy weather a great deal of china clay is washed into the
brooks and rivers, so that the water frequently looks white and opaque, like milk.
Much of this finely divided china clay is carried down to the sea; and one effect of
the breakwater has been to increase the quantity of this fine silt which settles in
the Sound itself, instead of being swept out by the scour of the tide and the waves
of severe storms.

So that the quantity of fine mud on the shores and on the bottom of the Sound
is greater than it used to be, and is constantly increasing.

|

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 899

But this is not all. During the forty or fifty years which have gone by since
the breakwater was completed, the towns on the shores have largely increased
their population; the great dockyard at Devonport has increased in size and in
activity ; and the ships which visit the Sound are larger and more numerous than
they were. Now the sewage and other refuse from these great and growing towns
and dockyards, and from all these ships, is thrown into the Sound; so that while
it is more difficult than it used to be for fine silt to be washed out of the Sound,
the quantity thrown into it is much greater than it was, and is becoming greater
every day.

It is well known that these changes in the physical conditions of the Sound
have been accompanied by the disappearance of animals which used to live in it,
but which are now found only outside the area affected by the breakwater.

These considerations induced me to try the experiment of keeping crabs in
water containing fine mud in suspension, in order to see whether a selective
destruction occurred under these circumstances or not. For this purpose, crabs
were collected and placed in a large vessel of sea-water, in which a considerable
quantity of very fine china clay was suspended. The clay was prevented from
settling by a slowly moving automatic agitator; and the crabs were kept under
these conditions for various periods of time. At the end of each experiment the
dead were separated from the living, and both were measured.

pee ae ae wore

=F 40s TSAO) HE! M10 0 +10 +20 +30 +40

Diagram showing the effect of china clay upon 248 male crabs. The upper curve
shows the distribution of frontal breadths in all these crabs; the dotted curve the
distribution of frontal breadths in the survivors. The dotted line s shows the
mean of the survivors; the line D the mean of the dead.

In every case in which this experiment was performed with china clay as fine
as that brought down by the rivers, or nearly so, the crabs which died were on the
whole distinctly broader than the crabs which lived through the experiment, so
that a crab’s chance of survival could be measured by its frontal breadth.

‘When the experiment was performed with coarser clay than this, the death-
rate was smaller, and was not selective.

I will rapidly show you the results of one or two experiments. The diagram
(fig. 5) shows the distribution of frontal breadths, about the average proper to
their length, in 248 male crabs treated in one experiment. Of these crabs, 154
died during the experiment, and 94 survived. The distribution of frontal breadths
in the survivors is shown by the lower curve in the diagram, and you see that the
mean of the survivors is clearly below the mean of the original series, the mean of
the dead being above the original mean.

Two other cases, which are only examples of a series in my possession, show
precisely the same thing.

These experiments seemed to me to show that very finely divided china clay

1 It is impossible in this place to give a full account of the experiments referred
to, and a multiplication of mere small-scale diagrams seems useless, so that only one
of those exhibited when the address was delivered is here reproduced.

3M 2

900 REPORT—1898.

does kill. crabs in such a way that those in which the frontal breadth is greatest
die first, those in which it is less live longer. The destruction is selective, and
tends to lower the mean frontal breadth of the crabs subjected to its action. It
seemed to me that the finer the particles used in the experiments, that is to say,
the more nearly they approached the fineness of the actual silt on the beach, the
more selective their action was.

I therefore went down to the beach, where the crabs live, and looked at the
silt there, This beach is made of moderately small pieces of mountain limestone,
which are angular and little worn by water. The pieces of limestone are covered
at low tide with a thin layer of very fine mud, which is much finer than the china
clay I had used in my experiments, and remains suspended in still water for some
time. Under these stones the crabs live, and the least disturbance of these stones
raises a cloud of very fine mud in the pools of water under them. By washing the
stones of the beach in a bucket of sea water, I collected a quantity of this very
fine mud, and used it in a fresh series of experiments, precisely as I had before
used china clay, and I obtained the same result. The mean frontal breadth of the
survivors was always smaller than the mean frontal breadth of the dead.

I think, therefore, that Mr. Thompson’s work, and my own, have demonstrated
two facts about these crabs; the first is that their mean frontal breadth is diminish-
ing year by year at a measurable rate, which is more rapid in males than in females ;
the second is that this diminution in the frontal breadth occurs in the presence of a
material, namely, fine mud, which is increasing in amount, and which can be shown
experimentally to destroy broad-fronted crabs at a greater rate than crabs with
narrower frontal margins.

T see no shadow of reason for refusing to believe that the action of mud upon
the beach is the same as that in an experimental aquarium ; and if we believe this,
I see no escape from the conclusion that we have here a case of Natural Selection
acting with great rapidity because of the rapidity with which the conditions of life
are changing.

Now, if we suppose that mud on the beach has the same effect upon crabs as
mud in an aquarium has, we must suppose that every time this mud is stirred up
by the water a selective destruction of crabs occurs, the broad-fronted crabs being
killed in greater proportion than the narrow-fronted crabs.

Therefore, if we could take a number of young crabs, and protect them through
a certain period of their growth from the action of this selective mud, the broad-
fronted crabs ought to have as good a chance of life as the rest ; and in consequence
the protected crabs should contain a larger percentage of broad individuals than wild
crabs of the same age ; and the mean frontal breadth of such a protected popula-
tion ought to be greater, after a little time, than the mean frontal breadth of wild
crabs, in which the broad individuals are being constantly destroyed.

It is difficult to perform this experiment, because one cannot know the age of
a crab caught on the shore. But so far as one can judge the age of a crab by its
length, I can show you that the thing which ought to happen, on the hypothesis
that such selective destruction is going on, does actually happen. FS

I established an apparatus consisting of some hundreds of numbered glass
bottles, each bottle being provided with a constant supply of clean sea-water by
means of a system of glass syphons. Into each of these bottles I placed a crab
from the beach. After a considerable number of deaths had occurred, a series of
crabs was finally established, each crab living in a numbered bottle, until it had
cast its shell. The process of moulting involves no distortion of the carapace,
which could affect the measurements concerned, and therefore each cast shell was
carefully measured. The measurements of these shells were carefully compared
with measurements of wild crabs of the same size, and the mean frontal breadth
of these shells was a little Jess than the mean breadth in wild crabs of corresponding
length.!

After each crab had moulted, it was left in its bottle until it had grown and

1 This was probably due to the death-rate during acclimatisation being selective.
It was very difficult to keep the apparatus clean; and the deaths which occurred

Site

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 901

had hardened a new shell. It was then killed and measured, and the measure-
ments obtained were compared with measurements of wild crabs of corresponding
size. This time the captive crabs were unmistakably broader than wild crabs of
their own size, and there were a few of the protected crabs which were very
remarkably broad. The distribution of abnormalities before and after moulting is
shown in fig. 6.

Fig. 6.

—60 —50 —40 —30 —20 —10 0 +10 +20 +30 +40 +50

Distribution of abnormality of frontal breadth ratios in 527 female crabs before and
after moulting in captivity. ‘The continuous line shows the distribution before,
the dotted line after moulting.

This is precisely the result which we ought to have obtained if the hypothesis
suggested by the study of mud were true. By protecting crabs through a period
of their growth, we ought to raise the mean frontal breadth, and to obtain a
greater percentage of abnormally broad crabs, and that is what we have seen to
occur.

Of course, this experiment by itself is open to many objections. The estimate
of age by size isa dangerous proceeding, and it is difficult to exclude the possibility
that confinement in a bottle may directly modify a crab during the critical period
of moulting, and so on. All these points would have to be discussed at greater
length than your patience would bear, before we could accept this experiment by
itself as a proof that some selective agent exists on the shore which is absent from
the bottles, At the same time, the result of this experiment is exactly what we
should expect to find if such a selective agent did exist, and so it is in complete
harmony with the evidence already put before you.

Of course, if the observed change in frontal breadths is really the result of selec-
tion, we ought to try to show the process by which this selection is effected.

This process seems to be largely associated with the way in which crabs filter
the water entering their gill-chambers. The gills of a crab which has died during
an experiment with china clay are covered with fine white mud, which is not found
in the gills of the survivors. In at least ninety per cent. of the cases; this differ-
ence is very striking; and the same difference is found between the dead and the
survivors in experiments with mud.

I think it can be shown that a narrow frontal breadth renders one part of the
ee of filtration of water more efficient than it is in crabs of greater frontal
breadth.

It would take too long to go into that matter now, and I shall not attempt to
do so. I will only now ask you to consider one or two conclusions which seem to
me to follow from what I have said.

were in most cases due to the presence of putrescent bits of food, which had not
been removed.

A subsequent experiment was made with the same apparatus, in which crabs were
kept in putrid water until a large percentage had died ; and the mean frontal breadth
- ee ae was found to be distinctly less than the mean frontal breadth of
the dead.

902 REPORT—1898.

I hope [ have convinced you that the law of chance enables one to express easily
and simply the frequency of variations among animals; and I hope I have con-
vineed you that the action of Natural Selection upon such fortuitous variations can
be experimentally measured, at least in the only case in which anyone has attempted
to measure it. 1 hope I have convinced you that the process of evolution is some-
times so rapid that it can be observed in the space of a very few years.

I would urge upon you in conclusion the necessity of extending as widely as
possible this kind of numerical study. The whole difficulty of the theory of
Natural Selection is a quantitative difficulty. It is the difficulty of believing that
in any given case a small deviation from the mean character will be sufficiently
useful or sufficiently harmful to matter. That isa difficulty which can only be got rid
of by determining in a number of cases how much a given variation does matter ;
and I hope I have shown you that such determination is possible, and, if it be
possible, it is our duty to make it.

We ought to know numerically, in a large number of cases, how much varia-
tion is occurring now in animals; we ought to know numerically how much effect
that variation has upon the death-rate; and we ought to know numerically how
much of such variation is inherited from generation to generation. The labours of
Mr. Galton and of Professor Pearson have given us the means of obtaining this
knowledge, and I would urge upon you the necessity of obtaining it. For
numerical knowledge of this kind is the only ultimate test of the theory of Natural
Selection, or of any other theory of any natural process whatever.

The Biological Exhibition at the Zoological Gardens was opened by the Right
Hon. Sir John Lubbock, M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S,

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. The Proof obtained by Guy A. K. Marshall that Precis octavia-nata-
censis and P. sesamus are seasonal forms of the same species. By
Professor E. B. Poutton, J/.A., F.R.S.

2. Photographic Records of Pedigree Stock.
Sy Francis Garton, W.A., F.R.S.—-See Reports, p. 597.

3. Preliminary Note on the Races and Migrations of the Mackerel (Scomber
scomber). By Warrer Garstane, I.A., Naturalist in charge of

Fishery Investigations under the Marine Biological Association ; late
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford.

The present note contains the principal results of an attempt to determine
whether there are any racial peculiarities in groups of mackerel taken in different
localities. Such peculiarities have not hitherto been recognised, even as between
American and British representatives of the species; but it is clear that the
establishment of such peculiarities would affect to a considerable degree our ideas
concerning the migrations of this fish.

During the past year I have determined the peculiarities of more than 1,600
mackerel in regard to 10 chosen characters. Of these fish, 100 were obtained
at Newport, R.I., U.S.A., and were forwarded to me through the friendly agency

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 903

of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries. The remainder, 1,529 in all,
have been taken at various points round the British Isles—400 in the North Sea
(off Lowestoft and Ramsgate), 300 near Plymouth, 74 off the Scilly Isles, 100 near
Brest, and 655 off the S.W. coast of Ireland (Kinsale and co, Kerry). The
Trish fish are further divisible into 310 autumn fish and 3465 spring fish.

The chief characters chosen for examination were :—

A.—The number of black transverse bars or stripes on one side (the left) of
the fish.

B.—The number of transverse bars on one side (the left) which cross or meet
the lateral line.

C.—The presence or absence of round black spots (‘intermediate spots’)
between the bars of series A. The variation of this character is tabulated under
two heads :—(1) The number of fish per centum which possess one or more of
these intermediate spots, and (2) the total number of such spots per hundred fish
(the left side only of each fish being considered).

D.—The number of rays in the first dorsal fin.

E.—The number of rays in the second dorsal fin, including any incipient fin-
lets which are still partially connected with the fin by a low web or ridge, or
which are merely closely approximated to the fin and erectile with it,

F.—The number of dorsal finlets, including all incipient finlets described

under E,

The accompanying table shows the results of this examination. The mean
values of each character for the total number of fish from each locality are
expressed in terms of the general mean, as + or — deviations from the value of
that mean. The general mean value of each character is the arithmetic mean of
all the observed values of that character, the American data alone excepted. The
American mean values for several of the characters, especially A, B, C, and F,
differ to such an extent from the British means, that there can be no further doubt
as to the existence of racial peculiarities which distinguish American from British
specimens of the mackerel. As compared with the British mackerel, the American
fish possesses the following racial characteristics—(1) A higher number of trans-
‘verse bars, (2) much greater spottiness, (3) a smaller number of fin-rays in the
second dorsal fin, and (4) a greater number of dorsal finlets. These characteristics,
it must be borne in mind, are average distinctions, and do not suffice to dis-
tinguish every individual. But, I may add, they are so marked in the present
‘case, that on examining a sample of a dozen fish at Toronto during the last
meeting of this Association, I became there and then convinced of the existence
of racial peculiarities in this species.

With regard to the British fish, the range of variation is very limited, espe-
cially in the case of the second dorsal fin, the greatest deviation from the general
mean value of which does not amount to jy of a fin-ray in any sample of 100
fish, The total number of fish from the various localities is seen to be insufficient
in this case to afford a basis for the establishment of racial differences. In the
case of the first dorsal fin the variation is greater, but. here the difficulty of
accurately determining in all instances the exact number of fin-rays present
(owing to the extreme minuteness of the posterior rays) has also provided an
obstacle to very definite results. Nevertheless the characters A, B, C, and F, the
variation of which has been seen to be so marked in the American fish, also pro-
wide sufficient data for separating the British fish into at least two groups of
different racial tendency. These groups are—(1) fish from the North Sea and
English Channel, and (2) Irish fish, both autumn and spring forms. The table
shows that fish from the North Sea and Plymouth agree in the following points—
(1) the mean number of transverse bars A and B is below the general average,
‘and (2) the mean. number of spotty fish and of intermediate spots is above the
general average. Moreover, the mean number of dorsal finlets was below the
average in the case of 300 fish from Lowestoft and 300 from Plymouth, although
remarkably above the average in the case of 100 fish from Ramsgate.

On the other hand, the autumn and spring forms of Irish fish agree in the

904 REPORT—1898.

possession of characteristics which are just the reverse of those which distinguish
the North Sea and Channel fish.

It would appear from these results that we have two races of mackerel on the
English coasts—an Irish or Atlantic race, and a race which frequents the English
Channel and the North Sea,

The fish taken off Scilly and Brest offer characteristics which are in several
respects intermediate between the two principal races here distinguished, but
the numbers examined up to the present time are not sufficient to enable me to
decide upon their relationships in a definite manner.

If these results be accepted or confirmed, the problems of the migrations of the
mackerel and of its winter home are considerably simplified. The Irish fish in
winter must remain off their own coasts, or they would lose their peculiarities by
mixture with other races. The North Sea and Channel fish probably have the
same winter haunts off the mouth of the English Channel—not too far to the west-
ward, or they would mix with the Irish fish. That the North Sea fish migrate
into the Channel in winter is rendered probable by the enormous concentration of
mackerel in the southern part of the North Sea in autumn, and by the prolonga-
tion of the mackerel fishery far into the winter off the Devon and Cornish coasts
of the Channel, long after the fish have disappeared from the North Sea and the
Trish coasts alike.

A complete account of this investigation, with tables showing the variation of
each character, will appear in the forthcoming number of the ‘ Journal of the
Marine Biological Association.’

Summary showing Deviations from the General Mean in respect of all

Characters.
| Cc
No. | <4 O D.—ist |E.—2nd}| F.—
oe of pa a PR | as Dorsal | Dorsal | Dorsal
Fish | om |} oa | 68 | Fin Fin | Finlets
2.2 99
ny | a &
General Mean. .| — | 26°967/18°370) 19 31 12-086 11-940 5:024
Lowestoft . . .| 300 |—0:22)—0:14/) —1 — 4] +003 | +0:003 | —0:004
Ramsgate . . .| 100 |—005|)+0:06; +9 +26 | —0:05 | +0:030 | + 0-026
Plymouth . . . | 300 |—0717|/—016| +2 +10} +0:09 | +0:000 | —0:007
Scilly. . . . .| 74 |—015|)+0:26) —1 + 1] +041 | +0:073 | —0:010
Brest. . . . .| 100 |—0712/+0:28| +7 + 1] —009 | —0:040 | —0:014
Kinsale . . . .| 410 |+018]+0°09] +0* | — 2*) —0-15 | —0:013 | +0-005
Co, Kerry . . , | 245 |+0°30/+0:00) —9 —16 | +002 | +0:003 | +0°004
North Sea . . . {| 400 |—0:19|—0:09| +2 + 3 | +0°01 | +0°010 | +0:003
Plymouth . . .| 300 |—017/—016| +2 +10 | +0:09 | +0:000 | — 0:007
Scilly and Brest . | 174 |—0:13/+0:27| +3 + 1 | +013 | +0:008 | --0:012
Trish, Autumn... | 310 |+0°26/+0°10| +1* | — 1*| —6-21 | +0008 | +0°011
» Spring .. . | 345 |4+0:20)+0-01| —7 —12 | +004 | —0-021 | —0001 ;

North Sea and
Channel . . .{| 700 |—0:718|}—0°12| +2 + 6 40:045| +0:006 | —0-001
Scilly and Brest . | 174 |—0°13/+0:27| +3 + 1) +013 | +0:008 | —0:012
Trish Fish . . . | 655 |+0°23/+0:°05' —4* | — 8*, —0081]| --0:007 | +0-005
Newport, U.S.A. . | 100 |+0°41/+0°51) +47 | + 184 —0:066 | —0:090 | +0°166

* These Means were derived from a total number of fish less by 99 than the
number stated in .the first column in each case.

-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 905

4. On a Proposed Biological and Physical Investigation of the English
Channel. By WatterR Garstane and H. N. Dickson.

5. On the Phylogeny of the Arthropod Amnion.
By Artuur WIiteEy, D.Sc. Lond., Hon. M.A. Cantab.

Until recently the formation of the amnion of the higher vertebrates was
wont to be explained on mechanical grounds, the embryo sinking by its own weight
into the yolk in the case of the Sauropsida and into the blastodermic vesicle in the
case of the Mammalia. In 1894 Professor Hubrecht entered a welcome protest
against the mechanical theory of the vertebrate amnion, replacing it by a remark-
able theory as to the phyletic origin of the amnion.1

Owing to lack of data no analogous theory has hitherto been possible with
regard to the amnion of insects. If it were found that a common principle
governs the theories applied to the explanation of these similar but not homolo-
gous structures, the one theory would be an important complement of the other.
The embryos of a new species of Pertpatus which I found a year ago in New
Britain, and have recently described,” seem to me to supply the material necessary
for coping successfully with this problem.

These embryos, for a full account of which my memoir should be consulted,
possess a large trophic organ, the ectoderm of which consists of glandular absorbent
cells adapted for the intra-uterine nutrition of the embryo. This ectodermic layer
may be called the trophoblast.

The theory, whichI shall develop fully in a forthcoming paper,? seeks to prove
that the glandular trophoblast arose in adaptation to a viviparous habit acquired
by a terrestrial descendant of an aquatic ancestor, and that this became transformed
into the non-glandular protective envelope, known as the serosa, in correlation
with the secondary deposition of yolk-laden eggs.

As the amnion of the insect egg is subsidiary to the serosa, and the latter,
being a direct derivative of the blastoderm, is the older structure, the theory which
will adequately account for the serosa will, in its general terms, account equally
for the amnion.

6. On the Micro-chemistry of Cells. By Professor A. B. Macatium.
7. A Case of Protective Resemblance in Mice. By Dr. H. L. Jamzson.

8. Final Report on the Life Conditions of the Oyster, Normal and
Abnormal.—See Reports, p. 559.

9. Interim Report on Zoological Bibliography and Publication.
See Reports, p. 558.

10. Remarks on the Report of the International Zoological Congress |
on Nomenclature. By Rev. T. R. R. Srepsine, F.R.S.

1 A. A. W. Hubrecht, ‘ Die Phylogenese des Amnions und die Bedeutung des
Trophoblastes,’ Verh. Kon. Akad. van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, 1894.

2 A. Willey, ‘The Anatomy and Development of Peripatus nove-britannia, in
Zoological Results, kc., Cambridge University Press, 1898.

* To be published in the Quart. Journ. of Microscopical Science.

906 REPORT—1898.

11. Report on the Index Animaliwm.—See Reports, p. 570.
12. Report on the Canadian Biological Station.—See Reports, p. 582.

13. Report on the Investigations made at the Marine Biological
Laboratory, Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 583.

14. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at
Naples.——_See Reports, p. 587.

15. Interim Report on Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.
See Reports, p. 569.

16. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—See Reports, p. 558.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Papers were read :—

1. An Experimental Inquiry into the Struggle for Existence in Certain
Common Insects. By Epwarp B. Pourton, IA. F.R.S., Hope
Professor of Zoology, Oxford, and Cora B. SANDERS.

Many Lepidoptera have been proved to possess the power of adjusting the
larval or pupal colours to those of the immediate surroundings. This power can
only be exercised once in the case of the pupa (viz. at the end of larval life), and
rarely, if ever, more than once or twice in the case of the larva. Many naturalists
consider that the power is protective, and has been produced by the operation of
natural selection. Others have doubted this conclusion, and W. Bateson! has
attempted to cut away the foundation of such an interpretation as regards the
pupa of Vanessa urtice by arguing that there is no struggle for existence during
this brief stage. This argument was opposed, and the lines of an experimental
inquiry were suggested in the same year by one of us.” In the discussion which
followed a paper on mimicry, read before the Linnean Society on March 17, 1898,3
it was strongly urged, especially by Professor Weldon, that such an experimental
inquiry should be conducted. Our present work is the outcome of that discussion,
and we desire to express our thanks to the Government Grant Committee of the
Royal Society for assistance in carrying on the investigation.

1 Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1892, pp. 212, 213.

? Poulton, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1892, pp. 471-477.

3 Poulton, Natural Selection the Cause of Mimetic Resemblance and Common
Warning Colours. Not yet published,

el ee re en ea ay a ey Cn a

—————Eo

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 907

We determined to concentrate our attention on the pupe of certain butterflies,
this stage being especially suitable because the chrysalis is motionless, and, there-
fore, remains in any position in which it has been fixed until it is seized by an
enemy or emerges as an imago. Our object was to decide:—(1) whether there is
a struggle for existence during the pupal stage; (2) whether the struggle, if it
takes place, is decided by the conspicuousness of the pupa.

The inquiry was almost confined to the pupa of Vanessa urtice, which ranges
from a brilliant golden appearance through increasingly dark varieties up to black.
Seven degrees of colour variation were distinguished, as in the researches into the
sensitiveness of this pupa to its environment.’ Captured larvae were placed in
boxes lined with gilt, black, and yellow paper, &c.,so as to produce pupe with
different degrees of colour, the aim being to obtain the most contrasted results,
The pupz were then fixed to the surfaces upon which they are known to occur
in Nature, and others upon which they may be supposed to occur—viz. the food
plant (nettle), tree trunks, fences, stone walls, and rocks—while a few were placed
on the ground, They were attached by small nails driven through the silken web, in
which the caudal hooks were entangled, or (in the case of the food plant) by sewing
the web on to the leaves or stem with green silk; in other cases the hooks were
entangled in the outer part of a little plug of cotton wool, which was forced into a
crack in bark, wood, or stone. Careful notes were taken of the degree of colour,
method, and height of attachment, character of surface, and the date of all visits
until the pupa either disappeared, emerged, or died. With very few exceptions,
visits were made every twenty-four hours, and in many cases at much shorter
intervals. Over 600 pupe of this species were thus fixed, and of these about
550 disappeared or emerged. The experiments were conducted in three different
localities—Oxford, Switzerland, and the Isle of Wight—with very divergent
results, as will be seen from the following table :—

Oxford Miirren Visp ET ee :
Surfaces to which - j = =
Pupe were fixed June 25—-July 23 |July 11-July17|\July 21-July 25} Aug. 2-Sept. 3
Taken | Emerged! Taken | Left |Taken| Left Taken , Emerged
es Sees | _|
Bark : ’ 1 (29. 0 — = 5 16 135 84
Fences . F F 4 0 0 18 — — 90 8
Rock i 3 ‘ — — 4 31 7 25 — —_—
Walls _ ; : zt 0 — — 1 5 14 12
Nettle .. : 7 4 — — — — 20 15
Ground . - 11 0 —_— — — — — —
Totals . . .| 5 4 | 4 | 49 | 13 | 36 | 259 | 119

It should be noted that the Swiss pupz which were not taken are marked
‘left’ because many of them did not emerge, but were removed at the close of the
visit and used over again. The results thus tabulated leave no doubt about the
existence of an immense amount of extermination at Oxford, and, although much

_ less, a large amount in the Isle of Wight, while there was comparative immunity

in the two Swiss localities. This strong contrast is probably to be explained by
the scarcity of small birds in the latter, and their abundance in England, and
especially in Oxford, together with the fact that the Oxford experiments were con-
ducted earlier in the year. Other considerations point to the same conclusion—
viz, that birds are the enemies in question; the inaccessible position of the pupz,
which were nearly always fixed at a height of about four feet from the ground ;
the fact that the hard caudal extremity was frequently left attached after the pupa

1 Poulton, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. clxxviii. (1887), B. p. 320; and Trans. Ent.

Soc. Lond. 1892, p. 362.

908 REPORT—1898.

itself had been taken ; the excessive variation in mortality in neighbouring locali-
ties, corresponding to well-known facts in the distribution of birds. A watch was
kept in localities where the pupz were known to disappear rapidly, and, in a single
instance, a great tit was seen to creep over the bark of a tree, from which the
pupa was then found to have gone.

So far as the observations extended, we inferred that the comparative freedom
of the Swiss pup from the attacks of Vertebrate enemies is compensated by the
far greater destruction of the larve by insect parasites. It is probable that the
birds which attack the English pup benefit the larve by keeping down the
number of parasites,

In the course of the inquiry the possibility was suggested that perhaps the
birds actually see the pups being suspended, and afterwards search the spot.
A large number of pupz were, therefore, fixed at night by the light of a lantern,
but, so far as we can judge from general impressions (the analysis of the results
being unfinished), no difference was caused. It was also thought that, when
several pupze were suspended in close proximity, the birds, after finding one or
more, might search the neighbourhood with especial keenness, so that the chances
of successful concealment would be smaller than those of isolated pupw. In order
to test this suggestion, a number of pups were scattered over a large area, succes-
sive individuals being separated by a distance of about 100 yards or more. Here,
too, our present impression is that little, if any, difference was produced. Both
these modifications of the usual conditions of experiment were made in the Isle of
Wight.

The question whether there is a struggle for existence during the pupal period
of Vanessa urtice is answered with certainty in the affirmative as regards those
localities where small birds are abundant. In such places it is now proved that
there is a tremendous struggle with an immense mortality, in spite of the brevity of
the pupal stage (from ten days to three weeks in length).

The attempt was also made to answer the second question whether the struggle
is decided by the conspicuousness of the pupa. First, as to conspicuousness in
form, pup were fixed to surfaces which unequally concealed them ; thus the rough
surfaces of stone and bark (rough-barked trees being almost invariably selected),
and the shelter afforded by overhanging leaves of nettle, concealed their rough
angular forms far more than the comparatively smooth surface of fences. Looking
at the table on page 907, it 1s seen that at Oxford butterflies only emerged from
pup fixed to nettles, while in the Isle of Wight the mortality on fences
(90 taken to 8 emerged), was enormously greater than on bark (135 to 84), walls
(14 to 12), and nettle (20 to 15). When therefore the pupa is suspended from a
surface against which it stands out conspicuously, it is in far greater danger than
when it is fixed to one upon which it is concealed. This result is inexplicable,
except on the theory that the sense of sight is important to enemies in the dis-
covery of the pupe.

Secondly, as to conspicuousness in colour. In Nature the golden forms of the
pupa of this species are produced upon nettle, the darker forms on walls, rocks,
fences, and probably bark ; furthermore the darkest varieties are produced on the
darkest surfaces. In fixing the pups, part were distributed as they are in Nature,
while part were given a reverse arrangement—dark forms being fixed to nettle, and
golden forms to black fences and dark surfaces of bark, &c. Some of the experi-
ments gave extremely positive results, in that the mortality among the latter pups
was far higher than among the former; other experiments were negative. Until
the whole of the experiments have been analysed in far more detail than has as yet
been possible, we cannot make any statement as to the general bearing of the
inquiry upon the danger or otherwise of conspicuousness in colour, although the
danger of conspicuousness of form has been shown to be conclusively proved. __

It may be supposed that the experiments were vitiated by the accidental loss
of the pupz. Many considerations, however, indicate that no serious error hag
been introduced in this way. In the absence of enemies, in Switzerland, the pupz
remained suspended until they emerged or until we removed them, and this was
also the case in the places of small mortality in the Isle of Wight; in many places

-

eer any poh ape

————

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 909

the ground was bare, and a fallen pupa (always searched for) would have been
_ easily seen; the hard caudal extremity was frequently left fixed to the supporting

surface; the different results obtained on fences and on bark, &c., are manifestly in-

explicable on this ground, the means of fixation being the same. The act of

emergence was obviously a much severer test of our method of suspension than
that supplied by the motionless pupa; and yet in a large proportion of cases the
empty pupal shell was found hanging to the support, and thus remained for days,
in spite of the fact that its lightness enabled each breath of wind to blow it about.

In future inquiries we trust that a pupa with a wider colour variation than
V. urtice may be available. All attempts to obtain the larva of Vanessa io were
unsuccessful, but next year we hope to get it and test the bright green and dark
forms which its pupa assumes. Other excellent examples would be the bright
green, bone-coloured, and dark forms of the pupx of Pers napi aud P. rape,
which have the further advantage of being available for experiment during the

winter. Through the kindness of Mr. F. Merrifield we shall be able to carry on

the inquiry with these latter and some other species during the winter of 1898-9,
when we hope again to appeal to the kindness of the President and Fellows of
Magdalen College for the opportunity of continuing the investigation begun during

' the past summer in the College grounds.

We also desire to acknowledge the kind assistance we have received from Miss
Drummond and Miss Sidgwick in taking notes of the Oxford pupe during our
absence in Switzerland, and from Miss Notley for much kind help in the Isle of
Wight. Professor H., F. Osborn, Professor F, O. Bower, and Mr. Arthur J.
Evans also witnessed the experiments in the Isle of Wight, and offered valuable
suggestions and criticisms,

The investigation, of which this is a brief epitome, was manifestly a preliminary
inquiry: it has nevertheless yielded far more definite results than we ventured to
hope for when we undertook: it.

2. Animal Intelligence as an Experimental Study.
By Professor C. Luoyp Moraan.

It was urged that intelligence in animals is an important factor in zoological
evolution; that the day of collected anecdotes had passed; and that experimental
work was much needed. Mr. Thorndike’s recent experiments on cats were de-
scribed, and both the apparatus employed and the curves expressing some of his
results were illustrated on the screen. The experiments supported the contention
that the method of animal intelligence was that of trial and error, the profiting by
chance success. Mr. Thorndike’s method was criticised in a friendly spirit ; and
recent observations on a fox terrier leading to similar conclusions were briefly
described. It was urged that the experimental method gave better opportunities

of exact record and a clearer insight into the nature of the association process

involved than merely casual observation could possibly do.

3. On the Families of Sawropodous Dinosauria. By Professor O. C. Marsu.

The sub-class Dinosauria as known to-day the author divided into three
orders: the Theropoda, or carnivorous forms; the Sauropoda, or herbivorous
quadrupedal forms; and the Predentata, also herbivorous, and including several
sub-orders—viz., the Steyosawria and Ceratopsia, both quadrupedal, and the
Ornithopoda, containing bipedal bird-like reptiles,!

The principal characters of the order Sawropoda here discussed may he briefly

stated as follows :—

‘ The Dinosaurs of North America, Sixteenth Annual Report U.S. Geological
Survey. 84 plates. Washington, 1896.

910 REPORT—1898.

Order SAUROPODA.

External nares at top of skull; premaxillary bones with teeth; crowns of
teeth rugose and more or less spoon-shaped; large antorbital openings; no pineal
foramen ; alisphenoid bones; brain-case ossified; no collumelle; postoccipital
bones; no predentary bone; dentary without coronoid process. Cervical ribs
co-ossified with vertebre; anterior vertebr opisthocclian, with neural spines
bifid; posterior trunk vertebree united by diplosphenal articulation ; presacral ver-
tebree hollow ; each sacral vertebra supports its own sacral rib, or transverse pro-
cess; no diapophyses on sacral vertebre ; neural canal much expanded in sacrum ;
first caudal vertebra bi-convex ; anterior caudals procelian. Sternal bones parial;
sternal ribs ossified. Ilium expanded in front of acetabulum ; pubes projecting in
front and united distally by cartilage; no postpubis. Limb bones solid; fore and
hind limbs nearly equal; metacarpals longer than metatarsals; femur longer than
tibia; astragalus and caleaneum not fitted to end of tibia; feet plantigrade, un-
gulate; five digits in manus and pes; second row of carpal and tarsal bones un-
ossified ; locomotion quadrupedal.

(1) Family Atlantosauride. A pituitary canal; large fossa for nasal gland.
Distal end of scapula not expanded; coracoid quadrilateral. Sacrum hollow; ischia
directed downward, with expanded extremities meeting on median line. Anterior
caudal vertebre with lateral cavities; remaining caudals solid ; chevrons single.

Genera Atlantosaurus, Apatosaurus, Brontosaurus. Include the largest known
land animals. Jurassic, North America.

(2) Family Diplodocide. External nares at apex of skull; no depression for
nasal gland ; two antorbital openings; large pituitary fossa; dentition weak, and
in front of jaws only; brain inclined backward; dentary bone narrow in front.
Scapula with shaft somewhat enlarged at summit. Ischia with shaft expanded
distally, directed downward and backward, with sides meeting on median lines.
Sacrum hollow, with three co-ossified vertebree. Anterior caudal vertebre pro-
ceelian, with sides deeply excavated, and chevrons single; median caudals exca-
vated below, with chevrons double, having both anterior and posterior branches ;
distal caudals elongate, with rod-like chevrons.

Genera Diplodocus and Barosaurus. Jurassic, North America.

(3) Family Morosauride, External nares anterior; large fossa for nasal gland ;
small pituitary fossa; dentary bone massive in front; teeth very large. Shaft of
scapula expanded at distal end; coracoid suboval. Sacral vertebree four in number,
and nearly solid; ischia slender, with twisted shaft directed backward, and sides
meeting on median line. Anterior caudals solid; chevrons single.

Genera Morosaurus, Camarasaurus (?) (Amphiccelias). Jurassic, North
America and Europe.

(4) Family Pleurocelide. Dentary bone constricted medially; teeth with
crowns like those of Diplodocus. Cervical vertebree elongate; centra hollow, with
large lateral openings; sacral vertebre solid, with lateral depressions in centra;
caudal vertebree solid ; anterior caudals with flat articular faces, and transversely
compressed neural spines; median caudal vertebre with neural arch on front half
of centrum. Ischia with compressed distal ends, and sides meeting on median
line,

Genera Pleurocelus, Astrodon (?). Jurassic, North America and Europe.
Include the smallest known Sauwropoda.

(5) Family Cardiodontide. Teeth of moderate size. Upper end of scapula
expanded; humerus elongate; fore limbs nearly equalling hind limbs in length.
Sacrum solid; ischia with wide distal ends and sides meeting on median line.
Caudal vertebree biconcave ; median caudals with double chevrons.

Genera Cardiodon (Cetiosaurus), Bothriospondylus, Ornithopsis, and Peloro-
saurus. European, and probably all Jurassic.

> Mie de

(6) Family Titanosauride. Fore limbs elongate; coracoid quadrilateral. .—

Presacral vertebre opisthoccelian; first caudal vertebre biconvex; remaining
caudals proccelian ; chevrons open above.

Genera Titanosaurus and Argyrosaurus. Cretaceous (?), India and Patagonia. z

Ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 911

4, A New Theory of Retrogression. By G. A. Ret.

5. On the so-called Fascination of Snakes. By Dr. A. J. Harrison.

The author stated that from observations he had made in the Zoological
Gardens, Clifton, during many years, with regard to the fascination of snakes over
their victims, he had come to the conclusion that such power did not exist. He
based his remarks chiefly upon investigations he had himself made upon snakes in
the Gardens, mostly the python and the boa constrictor. These researches were
divided into three groups: (1) general, extending over many years; (2) more
particular ones, personal, and in the presence of friends, or not; and (3) those of
other and distinct observers,

The very names the ancients gave to the larger snakes, the history of the
basilisk, the direful properties and extraordinary magnitudes which they attached
to them, all worked upon the imagination, and prepared the mind for marvels;
these strange ideas are for all time crystallised, so to speak, in that magnificent
work of art Laocéon and his sons being destroyed by enormous serpents.

With regard to the first set of observations, the author related instances where
rabbits, ducks, fowls, or rats have been placed in snakes’ cages when the animals
were inclined to feed, and yet the victims evinced no fear; sometimes they even
attacked the snakes. Under the second heading more minute observations were
given, which were often made in the presence of other persons. The description
of a python when ‘on his feed’ was given, his increased activity and brightness of
his stony and lidless eyes, slight rise of temperature, the opening and gaping
mouth; and when these conditions were well fulfilled, the victims, when
placed in the cage, did not seem to evince any alarm, and certainly were not over-
come by the fascinating spell. On the other hand, if the prey was not at once seized,
as not unfrequently happened, the duck, or the rat, or the fowl, or the rabbit
might even attack the snake, and for a time almost reverse the position of victim and
victimiser. When the snake did attack the onslaught was surprisingly sudden
and very subtle.

The author then quoted the experiences of other observers, Mr. C. T. Buckland,
Miss Catherine Hopley, Dr. Clement Stead, the brothers Hagenbeck, of Hamburg,
Jamrach, a large London dealer, and several others. The evidence of all these was
opposed to any theory of fascination.

In conclusion he related some recent observations which he had made on
twenty-two young boas born in the Gardens.

6. On the Scientific Experiments to Test the Effects of the Closure of
Certain Areas in Scottish Seas. By W.C. McInvosu, F.R.S.

Tn this paper the subject is dealt with under three heads, viz.— (1) The Results
of the Investigations in St. Andrew’s Bay ; (2) those in the Firth of Forth ; and
(8) those in the Moray Firth.

In order to ensure uniformity of treatment, and to make every source of
information available, the statistical tables were prepared on the same lines as
those for the Trawling Commission under Lord Dalhousie (1883-85).

Tn glancing at the averages for the period in St. Andrew’s Bay the closure is
shown to have produced no increase of the food-fishes. On the contrary, the
report of the Fishery Board, under whom the experiments in the ‘Garland ” were
carried out, labours to prove that a diminution has taken place, and therefore a
further closure, in extra-territorial waters, is called for. This opinion is based on
@ contrast of the first five years of the decade with the last five years. But, if a
map is made of the months during which the hauls took place in the first period
(1886-1890), it will be found that they are thickly dotted in the months of
August and October, and have a preponderance in September, On the other hand,

912 REPORT—1898.

the second quinquennial period is handicapped by frequent examinations in the
colder months, which, while increasing the hauls, seriously affect the averages.
The so-called diminution is shown to be due not to a diminution of fishes in the
period, but to the less successful capture in the colder months. The conditions of
the two quinquennial periods were wholly divergent, for in the first there was a
balance of 38 in favour of the hauls in the warmer months, and in the second one of
23 in favour of those in the colder months.

In the case of the Firth of Forth the proportions of the hauls in the warmer
and in the colder months quite differ from that of St. Andrew’s Bay in the respective
quinquennial periods. In the first there were no less than 50 in favour of the six warm
months, and only five in favour of the colder months in the second period—that is
to say, out of 269 hauls in the first period 159 occurred during the warmer months
(May to October) and 110 in the colder months, whilst in the second 214 occurred
in the warmer and 219 in the colder months. Here likewise no sign of substantial
increase followed the closure, though the food-fishes maintained their ground.
One instance will suffice, and it is of a form which is stated by many to be ‘ swept
out’ of the Forth—viz. the haddock. Moreover, it shows (the complex nature of
such an inquiry. During the last year of the ‘Garland’s’ work in the Forth
7,033 haddocks, or 93 per haul, were captured, which, contrasted with 1887,
showed a reduction of 86 per haul, and therefore ostensibly forms a basis for
demanding further closures, so as to control the ‘spawning grounds’ of the parent
fishes, which are devastated by trawlers and general free fishing in the open waters.
But the work in 1887 was carried out only in the months of June, August, and
September, all productive months, whereas in 1895 the work ranged over ten
months, five being warmer and five being colder, a very different condition. Ifwe
take the captures of the haddock during the colder months of this period—viz. 435,
and contrast them with those of the warmer— viz., 6,598, the force of this criticism
is apparent. There were actually more per haul—viz. 157—in these five warmer
months than in the very favourable three months in 1887—viz. 129. Hesitation
is, therefore, felt in approving of a method of controlling the important subject of
the fisheries of the country which does not appreciate the available sources of

information.
; On the whole, the food-fishes of the Forth remained at the end of the experi-
ments very much as they were at the beginning, just as happened in the case of
St. Andrew’s Bay.

Comparatively few trawlers worked in the Moray Firth in 1884. At that time
three hauls of a commercial trawl on Smith Bank and off Caithness, in April,
gave a total of 2,711 saleable fishes, or 903 per haul, a very moderate number in
contrast with some of those off the Forth the same season, each of which produced
from 1,500 to 2,744 saleable fishes. The average size of the haddocks in the
Moray Firth was noteworthy, for few of the kind termed small were procured.
The average number per haul was 604, or next to the Forth in this respect. The
avidity with which trawlers sought the region subsequently, the captures by the
liners up to a recent date, and the work of the ‘ Garland’ sufficiently deal with the
groundless views about the Moray Firth being ‘swept out.’ Moreover, on
April 7 and 8 of this year (1898) six hauls in,a commercial trawler were made
outside the limits of the protected area, resulting in a total of 5,286 fishes, or 881
per haul, a contrast to the indifferent work of the ‘Garland’ within it. The chief
fish, as in the former case, was the haddock, and it was satisfactory to find that in the
midst of an area worked by 12 to 20 trawlers the average of this important fish
was 695, or 91 over the average within the protected area in 1884. Without going
into further detail at present it may be remarked in passing that the distribution
of this species is so wide, and its numbers so great, that a survey of the whole
subject leaves little room for doubt as to the wisdom of removing all unnecessary
restrictions from fair fishing. Further, no trace of any effect of the closures on
this fish is apparent, either here or in any of the other areas. Such a gigantic step
as the closing of the whole Moray Firth is at variance with the principles which
in 1884 caused the recommendation for the closure of the Forth, St. Andrew’s
Bay, and Aberdeen Bay for experimental purposes to be made. Step by step every

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 913

available argument has been examined, and no scientific basis remains on which
to uphold such a proposal.
The conclusions, therefore, briefly are :—

1. That the haste for additional closures (to the original areas of the Forth,
St. Andrew’s Bay, and Aberdeen Bay), after a year or two’s work, and before any
definite scientific result could be obtained, was unnecessary.

2. That no increase of the food-fishes has followed the closure, the high and
low numbers succeeding each other in such a way as can only be explained by the
irregularities and uncertainties invariably attendant on fishing operations.

3. That, because the first five years of the decade had a higher average than
the second, it therefore followed that diminution of the fishes had occurred, and
called for further closures beyond the three-mile limit to remedy it, is shown to
rest on insecure data.

4, That the closure of the Moray Firth cannot be supported on scientific
grounds.

5. That the closure of the three-mile limit, or even the thirteen-mile limit, can
have little effect on a plan so gigantic as the distribution of invertebrates and fishes
in the ocean.

_ 6, That the interference of man—specially by closure on the one hand—is
powerless to increase the food-fishes of the sea, or, on the other hand, by eager
fishing, to reduce them to vanishing point.

7. Ona Circulatory Apparatus for Use in Researches on Colour Physiology
and other Investigations. By F. W. Keesre, M.A., and F. W.
GamBLE, M.Sc., Demonstrators in Owens College, Manchester.

In a research on the colour physiology of certain marine crustaceans (Virbius
varians, &c.) we have found it necessary to devise an apparatus which shall allow
of the passage of a constant current of sea water through a number of observation
dishes so arranged in series that any one may be disconnected without interrupting
the flow through the others.

The constancy of flow is effected by fitting the aspirator bottle, the water
reservoir; with a pressure tube and an exit tube beginning with a very fine point.
The water is siphoned through the observation chambers and escapes at a point indi-
cated in the diagram which was exhibited to the Section. At the outset we find
our attention directed to the question as to whether change in the aération of the
water or change of the water itself is the more efficacious in maintaining the animals
ina healthy condition. For this purpose we connect with our main apparatus
another set of observation dishes, also arranged in series, and through which air
is drawn by the aspirator, the content of which is such as to allow the current to
run uninterruptedly at a fair rate for twelve hours or more.

By using a series of observation dishes in each case we are able to compare the
effects of diffuse light, darkness, and monochromatic light on the colour, and on the
chromatophores of the animals submitted to the experiment.

Monochromatic light is obtained by the use of colour-filters which we have
constructed somewhat on the model of Landolt’s ‘ Strahlenfilter,’ and which fit
closely on our observation dishes, the sides of which are darkened.

The ‘colour-filters’ are made of two- or three-chambered vessels containing
appropriate fluids in exactly requisite thicknesses.

For the further examination of the immediate effects of light, darkness, and
monochromatic light we employ a horizontal microscope fitted with a ‘live box’
which can be connected to the water circulation and below the stage with a
colour-filter.

On the conclusion of the light experiments referred to, we intend to examine
the effects of gases and of anesthetics, &c.,on the nervous system and the chroma-
tophores.

This apparatus, though devised for the research on colour physiology, is one

1898. 3.N

914 REPORT—1898.

which, we venture to think, is likely to prove of some value in cognate researches,
some of which we hope subsequently to undertake.

The experiments have entailed some considerable expense, and to continue the
work a duplicate apparatus is necessary. We therefore venture to apply to the
General Committee of the British Association for a grant of 15/, in aid of this
research.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On Musical Organs in Spiders. By R. I. Pocock.

2. On the Origin of the Vertebrate Notochord and Pharyngeal Clefts.
By A. T. Mastermay, B.A., D.Sc.

The three leading anatomical features of the Chordata are usually represented
to be the dorsal nervous system, the notochord, and the pharyngeal clefts. Of
these the first does not stand out so distinctly as do the others, because in the great
majority of the invertebrate phyla there is found a certain important portion of
the nervous system, z.e, the supra-cesophageal ganglion, which has a dorsal position
relative to the gut.

The other features are not in any way characteristic of other phyla, and are
conspicuous alike in their morphological and ontogenetic features.

Morphologically the notochord and the pharyngeal clefts have little in common.
Both are absent in the adult Ammniota, and both take a more prominent part in
the constitution of the lower vertebrates than that of the higher.

Ontogenetically they both arise from the same layer, z.e. the hypoblast, and
first appear as local hypertrophies of the alimentary canal, taking the form of
diverticular outgrowths, which differ in that whilst the notochord, in the higher
forms, becomes completely separated from the parent layer, the pharyngeal pouches
come into contact with the epiblast, and eventually (in most) acquire an opening
to the exterior. The inference from these morphological characters is that both
the notochord and pharyngeal clefts have in the early history of the vertebrate
animals played a far more prominent part in their structure than at present.

In the case of the notochord, those of the true Chordata, in which it does not
disappear in the adult, seem to make use of this organ as an elastic -axile support
intimately connected with the myomeric muscles and the mode of locomotion
adopted by the aquatic chordates. :

At the same time a little consideration will lead us to believe that the assump-
tion that this is the primary function of the notochord will in no way explain the
facts either of morphology or of ontogeny.

In the ontogeny of the notochord it is clearly derived, as already stated, from
the hypoblast, and only secondarily in the process of development does it move
away from its parent layer and take up a median axial position for the supporting
function. No theory yet suggested takes sufficient account of this peculiar origin,
which is unique for organs of support.

The legitimate inference is that the primary function of the notochord was
directly connected with the endoderm and, in all probability, with the function of
alimentation.

The morphology of Amphiovus and that of the Tunicata sheds no further light
on the question, but there are certain forms which, mainly for the reasons here
referred to, may be placed together in one group, Archi-chorda, which present in
their adult anatomy various conditions of the notochord which correspond to the
ontogenetic stages of the same organ in the higher Chordata.

Thus in Balanoglossus, Cephalodiscus, and laryal Phoronis certain parts of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 915

alimentary system are formed into diverticula, the cells of which are metamor-
phosed into chordoid tissue closely resembling that of the notochord. These
structures, occurring as they do in forms which reveal more and more intimate
resemblances to the higher Chordata with the progress of research, have the same
relationship throughout life to the alimentary canal (pharynx) that the vertebrate
notochord has to the same organ in the young stages of the higher Chordata.

For this reason they are accepted by some morphologists as organs homologous
to the notochord, but exemplifying a more primitive condition of the same. To
those who will not accept this conclusion their resemblance to the vertebrate
notochord must appear as a most remarkable instance of convergent evolution
occurring in animals which in many other respects show close genetic relationship.
ff, however, we accept this view we are led to ask the question, Does the study
of these chordoid structures throw any further light upon the primary origin and
function of the notochord ?

In Balanoglossus the function of the so-called notochord is usually assumed to
be that of support to the proboscis and its muscles, so that it appears to have
already acquired that secondary function of support to the mesodermic tissues
which, in the higher Chordata, leads to its eventual loss of connection with its
parent tissue.

In Cephalodiscus, however, the two pleurochords run as dorso-lateral chordoid
grooves throughout the length of the pharynx. Posteriorly they arise at the com-
mencement of the cesophagus, and anteriorly they curve round to left and right to
open to the exterior by two apertures, one on each side of the mouth. These
apertures have been identified as pharyngeal clefts, and will be referred to again
later. The actual function of the pleurochords in Cephalodiscus is, by the nature
of the case, incapable of demonstration, but the further structure of the pharynx gives
a clear indication of their use.

In Ammocetes, in Amphiorus, and in the Tunicata a system of glands and
ciliated grooves, comprising in its full development a subneural gland, an endostyle,
a peri-pharyngeal band and hypobranchial groove, has been demonstrated. ‘This
system varies in its lesser details in the types mentioned, but its constant occur-
rence indicates clearly that the gnathostomatous condition of the Vertebrata was
preceded by a method of feeding which depended on the ingestion of microscopic
food suspended in water currents and the subsequent separation of the former from
the latter. A similar system can be demonstrated in Cephalodiscus, the organ for-
merly described as a notochord being the subneural gland, connected by a well-
defined peripharyngeal groove with the ventral alimentary portion of the gut, which
itself can, through Balanoglossus, be homologised with the endostyle. The whole
structure of the pharynx pcints to the conclusion that, whilst these organs serve to
collect the food particles and carry them through the cesophagus to the stomach,
the pleurochords serve to conduct the water current forwards and eventually out-
wards by the pharyngeal clefts. In other words, the notochord of the vertebrates
has arisen from the endoderm, as a certain specialised area of the alimentary canal,
which, becoming stiffened by a chordoid metamorphosis, serves as an organ for the
removal of the water current involved in the ciliary ingestive processes.

According to this hypothesis the hypoblastic origin of the notochord, no longer
a difficulty, becomes a phyletic repetition of the same nature as the epiblastic origin
of the nervous system.

In the case of the pharyngeal clefts Dr. Harmer has already pointed out that
in Cephalodiscus they serve, in all probability, for the discharge of ‘ atrial’ water,
and it has been shown above that they are morphologically merely the openings of
the pleurochords to the exterior. In this species there is no indication that they
function for respiration. They are kept open, by chordoid walls, and have the
same relation to the pleurochords as has the anus to the alimentary canal. The
hypoblastic origin of a gill slit is thus explained in the same way as that of the
notochord, and the primary origin of the two has a similarity almost amounting to
identity. The pharyngeal cleft, like the notochord, later on in the history of the
Chordata, loses its primary atrial function and becomes a branchial gill slit. Just

3N2

916 REPORT—1898.

as the notochord is eventually replaced by mesoblastic supporting tissue, so the
chordoid walls of the pharyngeal cleft give place to mesoblastic branchial arches.

The Echinodermata are a group which have long been under suspicion as con-
nected with the genealogy of the Vertebrata. A large proportion of them have
free-swimming pelagic larve, which feed by ciliary ingestion. If the processes of
ingestion be followed by feeding early Bipinnaria in the laboratory, the food
particles may be seen to pass down the ventral part of the so-called cesophagus and
to accumulate at its inner end. They are then periodically injected through the
small aperture into the ‘stomach.’ The ventral groove has already been compared
by Mr. Garstang to the endostyle of Tornaria and to that of the other Chordata.

On the other hand, the water current, after passing down the gullet, returns
along the dorsal part and is discharged to the exterior by a pair of lateral grooves
which become very marked in later larvae. This dorsal part is kept open by the
arched roof of the gullet, the cells of which exhibit a histological structure closely
approximating to that of the typical chordoid tissue. Bearing in mind the other
features in which the Echinodermata are acknowledged to resemble the Chordata,
there seems ground for homologising this dorsal chordoid element of the larval
gullet with the notochord of the latter group, and the two lateral grooves with the
pharyngeal clefts. They apparently represent an even more primitive stage of these
organs than is found in Cephalodiscus, in which the chordoid organ has apparently
diverged into two and the atrial grooves have become definite clefts.

Briefly, then, the phyletic history of the vertebrate notochord and gill slits may
be summed up as follows. In the pelagic ancestor of the Chordata the gut was
undifferentiated, and the food and water were alike washed through its course.
An early constriction between pharynx and stomach resulted in the exclusion of
the water current from access to the latter, and the consequent return of the same
along the dorsal part of the former. In relation to this the cilia became confined
to the ventral part, eventually giving rise to the endostyle, whilst the dorsal part,
supplied with ‘atrial’ water alone, became modified into the notochord. Under
conditions of insufficient nutrition the constituent cells of this area lost their cilia,
and, undergoing a retrogressive metamorphosis, they became a mass of vacuoles and
cells with little, if any, residual protoplasm; between the two portions of the gullet
so formed there appeared the lateral ‘ atrial’ grooves. Such a condition is exhibited
in echinoderm larve.

In such a form as Cephalodiscus, where the original functions persist, the noto-
chord, retaining its connection with the ‘ atrial’ apertures, divides into two, but in
the direct line of chordate descent it remains single.

Further differentiation leads eventually to the separation of the notochord
dorsally, and that of the endostyle (or thyroid) ventrally, from the pharynx, whilst,
at the same time, the atrial grooves become transformed into pharyngeal clefts (or

ill slits).
® Such a hypothesis, in attempting to account for the origin of notochord and of
gill slits, agrees fairly with the facts of morphology and ontogeny, although it can
in no way be regarded as entirely conclusive.

3. Le Développement du Ceur chez les T'uniciers: Quelques Considéra-
tions sur la Phylogénié des Ascidies simples. Par Professeur Cu. JULIN.

4, Demonstration of Dr. Field’s Card-catalogue of Zoological Literature.
By W. E. Hoyts.

5. A Phylogenetic Classification of the Pelmatozoa.
By ¥. A. Batusr, J4A., F.GS.
The classification is an epitome of that adopted in a forthcoming text-book of

zoology edited by Professor Ray Lankester. The standpoint is phylogenetic, and
is based on the following beliefs.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 917

The Pelmatozoa represent a grade of structure passed through by the ancestors
of all echinoderms in their passage from the bilaterally symmetrical Dipleurula
stage to the radiate stage. The essential feature was fixation by the primitive oral
(anterior) end, followed by the upward passage of the mouth. The foregut in
that passage involved other organs of the primitive left side, especially the left
anterior ccelom and its offshoot the left hydroccel. The primitive pelmatozoon
had not acquired radiate symmetry. This was induced by the extension from the
central upwardly directed mouth of ciliated food-grooves (subvective system of
Heeckel). The presence of anus and hydropore on the oral surface forbade absolute
symmetry of extension; hence the primitive number of grooves was three—one
anterior away from the anus, one right, and one left. Bifurcation of the right and
left grooves produced the number five, as now we see it. It was after the pelma-
tozoan type of structure had been attained that some forms avain relinquished the
attached mode of life, and assumed a position with the mouth anterior, as Holo-
thurians, or with it downwards, as Stelleroidea and Echinoidea. In the torsion of
their internal organs, in the pentamerous symmetry, and in other details, all these
forms bear the mark of their pelmatozoan ancestry. This need not mean that they
were descended from any pelmatozoan genera with which we are acquainted,
although the Edrioasteroidea certainly do present features in the structure of the
subvective grooves which enable them to be compared with the primitive Echinoidea
and Asteroidea. These features cause the separation of the Edrioasteroidea as a
distinct Class, a step already taken by Billings, Huxley, Chapman, Worthen,
Steinmann, Jeekel, and others. The Holothurians, Stelleroids, and Echinoids may
be grouped together as Eleutherozoa, without implying any genetic connection
between them further than that due to their independent descent, at different
periods, from pelmatozoan ancestors. Between the latter, however, the connection
is so evident that it should be recognised by the retention of them in a sub-phylum
Pelmatozoa.

The mutual relations of the Classes are thus conceived, the older being placed
at the top :—

Cyshiclea: . 5 5s Sh Edrioasteroidea
Pelmatozoa4 Blastoidea z Holothurioidea
Crinoidea

| (Eleutherozoa)
|_ Echinoidea
\— Stelleroidea
i}

The starting-point of the Cystidea is a simple, many-plated, sac-like form, the
skeleton of which presents no trace of radial subvective or ambulacral systems ;
the porous structure of the stereom is indefinite, and no stem is differentiated.
Heeckel’s Order Amphoridea is adapted to include this and such modifications of it
as did not attain radiate symmetry. Further modifications of this type depend on
the mode of extension of the subyective system. In one group these extensions
pass over the thecal plates (epithecal), while still further extensions arise from the
grooves on ‘exothecal’ processes (brachioles). In the other group exothecal
brachioles spring at once close to the mouth. These two types are in the main
correlated with two gradual differentiations of stereom structure. In the former
the simple or irregular haplopores become connected in pairs (diplopores). In the
latter the pore-canals come to lie parallel to the surface of the test and at right
angles to the sutures between the plates (pore-rhombs). These canals really
represent stroma-strands, and sometimes, perhaps, hemal lacunz; there were no
true pores. Enlargement of the thecal plates emphasised this rhomb-structure,
since it added strength to the plates. Diminution in size of the thecal cavity and
pressure of the coiled gut against its walls concentrated these structures in definite
areas, while the need for compensating this restriction of the assumed respiratory
area led to the specialisation of the remaining pore-rhombs as ‘ pectini-rhombs.’
These facts justify the Orders Diploporita and Rhombifera, and leave only a few
Cystidea in the provisional Order Aporita. In none of these forms has the radial

918 REPORT—1898.

symmetry of subvective and ambulacral systems induced completely correlated
symmetry in the theca. The Diploporita, however, tend gradually and clearly in
this direction, and lead imperceptibly to the Blastoidea. Hither the Blastoidea,
as hitherto understood, must be placed with Cystidea, or their limits must be
enlarged to include such Diploporita as have this definite correlation and plates
that can be called ‘ radials.’ The latter course enables us to define the Cystidea with
greater precision, and is therefore adopted.

The Blastoidea, therefore, have to be divided into two grades—Protoblastoidea
and Eublastoidea. The classification of the latter into Regulares and Irregulares
is no statement of genetic affinity. Moreover, Ntheridge and Carpenter's families
of the Regulares are based almost entirely on the relations of the hydrospire-
canals to the deltoids, relations which may vary considerably even in an indi-
vidual. Renewed study of the relations of the hydrospires to the ambulacra, of
persistent peculiarities of ornament, and the affinities of individual genera, suggests
that there were three lines of development arising from Codaster, T'roostocrinus,
and Nucleocrinus respectively. Stages in the evolution of these lines determine
the establishment of families.

MONOCYCLICA. DICYCLICA.
INADUNATA. INADUNATA.

Cambrian, 4 (LARVIFORMIA).

NN CAMERATA

Ordovician.
Silurian. ADUNATA. “ a |
Devonian. IMPINNATA
. (DISTINCT A)
Carboniferous, :
Permian. <
=

7S. plata,
Trias.
STuxssaic (ARTICULATA).*
Cretaceous,
Tertiary.
Recent.

Supposed Relations of the Orders and Sub-Orders of Crinoidea.

From forms that had acquired pentamerism of the theca, and that, apparently,
ossessed hydrospires, the Crinoidea were differentiated by the evolution of true
rachia. These in their origin are not exothecal, but actually thecal, and bear

along with them epithecal branches of the subvective system, but not brachioles.
Such a form is Hybocystis, Wetherby non Benson, The many-branched and pin-
nulate arms, the simple and definite calycal system, or the compound and indefi-
nite cup, the plateless or the vaulted tegmen, can all be traced back to such a
simple ancestor through actual known genera. The sole gap that cannot be
bridged within the limits of the Crinoid class is that between the monocyclic and
dicyclic base. The history of these two divisions is shown in the annexed diagram,
from which, if it be a true presentment, it appears that the Orders previously
accepted are polyphyletic, and are statements of convergent structure, not of
affinity. It is, however, well to accept existing terms so far as possible.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 919

Dividing all Crinoidea into Monocyclica and Dicyclica, we trace in each Order
a gradual and, to some extent, parallel modification, here and there diverging in
somewhat similar directions. Thus the simplest forms in each Order are Inadu-
nata, with free distinct arms, and pass from a Larviform stage, with simple
tegmen, to a Fistulate stage, with more complex anal tube and tegmen. At an
early period (? Cambrian) in the history of the Monocyclica, the Camerate modifi-
cation—viz., rigid incorporation of brachials in cup and ambulacrals in tegmen—
affected a few forms, and thus arose Monocyclica Camerata. At a later period
(Silurian) was a repetition of this modification, but one atiecting the cup to a far
less extent, and resulting chiefly in a solid tegmen and biserial arms; thus arose
the Monocychca Adunata (or Platycrinoidea), which even Wachsmuth and
Springer find a difficulty in placing with the Camerata. These two highly
specialised branches died out before the close of the Paleozoic epoch, the Adunata
outliving the Camerata; but the simpler Inadunate forms continued, and reached
a high degree of specialisation in their Jurassic descendants, to which the living
Hyocrinus is. closely related. The Dicyclica Inadunata similarly gave off the
Dicyclica Camerata, which persisted only a little less long than their monocyclic
convergents. The dicyclic Crotalocrinidz of the Silurian are curiously parallel to
the Monocyclica Adunata, but it is not worth while to separate them from the
typical Inadunata. About the same time arose among the dicyclic Inadunata the
modification that resulted in the Flexibilia, with brachials loosely incorporated in
dorsal cup. The dicyclic Inadunata came to their acme in Carboniferous times:
their arms were then ‘distinct,’ and only those forms persisted to Neozoic and
Recent periods which assumed an Articulate modification—viz., a loose lateral
union of proximal brachials, as seen in Pentacrinide, which are convergents of the
Neozoic Flexibilia. The latter Sub-Order was represented during Paleozoic times
by the Ichthyocrinoidea (Impinnata). Between them and the Neozoic Apiocrinide,
Bourgueticrinide, &c. (Pinnata), the links are missing, but may yet be found
among Permian and Triassic crinoids (vide supra). At any rate, the Neozoic
Flexibilia, when they assumed the free-swimming habit, took a new lease of life
and have their acme in our own day. H

On the foregoing principles and beliefs, along with many others related in the
book itself, is based the following classification of Pelmatozoa :—

SUB-PHYLUM PELMATOZOA.—Theea calcified and plated; oral surface
uppermost, usually attached temporarily or permanently by aboral surface. Food
brought to mouth by ciliated grooves, which may be endothecal (‘.e., between the
plates), epithecal, exothecal, or, in part and secondarily, hypothecal. Anus
usually in upper half of theca, never aboral. An aboral nerve-centre co-ordinates
the movements of the whole skeleton. Hydrocircus communicates indirectly
with exterior ; podia, when present, respiratory, not locomotor.

Class I. CYSTIDEA.—Radial polymeric symmetry of theca developed either
not at all, or not in complete correlation with radial symmetry of ambulacral
and subvective systems. The latter is exothecal or epithecal, not endothecal.

Order 1. AmpnorrpEA.—Radial symmetry has affected neither food-grooves
nor thecal plates, nor, probably, nerves, ambulacral vessels, nor gonads.

Fam. Aristocystide. No extension of food-grooves on theca or skeletal pro-
cesses; thecal plates irregular, unspecialised; no stem. Dendrocystide. Single oral
skeletal process ; thecal plates irregular, merging gradually into stem. Anomalo-
cystide. Theca compressed in plane of thecal apertures; the plates of the two
sides inclosed by a common frame of marginals; food-grooves conveyed on spines,
one at each upper angle of theca ; no pores.

Order 2, Ruomprrera.—Radial symmetry affects food-grooves, and (in more
advanced families) thecal plates; probably also nerves and ambulacral vessels, but
not gonads, Food-grooves exothecal, the brachioles being either close to mouth,
or removed from it on a series of subambulacrals not derived immediately from
thecal plates, or separated from it by hypothecal passages. Stereom and stroma
become arranged in folds and strands at right angles to sutures.

Fam. Echinospheride. Thecal plates numerous, indefinite, with pore-rhombs.
Brachioles circumoral, unbranched. Columnals not uniserial. Comarocystide.

920 REPORT—1898,

Thecal plates numerous, indefinite, with strong radial structure of stereom, but no

ore-rhombs. Brachioles branched; columnals uniserial. Macrocystellide.
Thecal plates in three or four circlets, subject to somewhat regular pentamerism,
with radiately folded stereom, but no pores. Brachioles borne by upper circlet.
Tiaracrinide. Plates forming sides of theca are in not more than two circlets;
with strong transverse pore-rhombs in each circlet. Malocystide. Thecal plates
numerous, indefinite, radiately folded, no rhombs, Food-grooves on exothecal
processes pass over theca and bear brachioles. Glyptocystide. Theca of five
circlets of alternating plates, typically five in each circlet; but in aboral circlet
r. post. and r. ant. plates are always fused. Anus between second and third
circlets in r. post. interradius. Hydropore in adoral circlet, opposite unpaired
food-groove, defines post. IR. Pectini-rhombs present, one always uniting 1. post.
plate of first aboral row with |. ant. plate of second row. Food-grooves, bordered
by plates derived from proliferation of adoral circlet, pass over theca and bear
biserial brachioles. (Sub-famm. Echinoencrinine, Callocystine, Glyptocystine.)
Caryocrinde. Thecal plates primitively in four circlets, dominated by trimerous
symmetry, and united by pore-rhombs. Food-grooves in adoral region are
hypothecal, then for a short space epithecal, and distally exothecal and brachio-
liferous.

Order 3. Avortra.—Pentamerism affects food-grooves and thecal plates,
probably also nerves and ambulacral vessels, but not gonads. Food-grooves
exothecal and cireumoral. No folds, pores, or rhombs.

Fam. Cryptocrinide. Thecal plates in four circlets.

Order 4. DrpLoporttA.—Radial symmetry affects food-grooves, and by degrees
the thecal plates connected therewith, but not interradial plates ; probably also nerves
and ambulacral vessels, but not gonads. Food-grooves epithecal (without interme-
diary of subambulacrals), also prolonged on exothecal brachioles, which line the epi-
thecal grooves. Stereom may be folded, but pore-rhombs not developed ; diplopores
always present in mesostereom, but restricted in distribution in higher forms,

Fam. Spheronide. Food-grooves do not extend beyond adoral circlet.
Diplopores diffuse. Glyptospheride. Food-grooves extend beyond adoral circlet,
and irregularly transgress sutures between thecal plates. Diplopores diffuse.
Protocrinide. Food-grooves extend almost to aboral pole, and are regularly
bordered by alternating thecal plates (adambulacrals), which bear brachioles.
Diplopores diffuse or confined to adambulacrals, from which they are never absent.
Mesocystide, Food-grooves extend almost to aboral pole, bordered by alternating
brachioliferous adambulacrals raised above interambulacrals. Diplopores confined
to interambulacrals. Five interradial deltoids (A) surround peristome. Gompho-
cystide. Food-grooves curve around theca; no brachioles.

Class II. BLASTOIDEA.—Five (by atrophy four) epithecal food-grooves,
lying ona lancet-plate (? always), pass between five A, and are bordered by alternat-
ing, brachioliferous adambulacrals. Peristome and all grooves have covering plates.
No extensions from gonads and ecelom alorg rays into brachioles; but, apparently,
nerves from aboral centre met in circumoral ring, whence branches passed beneath
food-groove and supplied brachioles. Basals (B) and radials (R) always defined ;
sutures of thecal plates never cross the subvective areas.

Grade 1, PRorosLastorpea.—Thecal plates indefinite in number; no hydro-
spires. Fam, Asteroblastide (Asteroblastus, Steganoblastus |?], Blastoidocrinus).

Grade 2. Eusiastorppa.—tThecal plates definite, in three circlets, viz.,3 BB,
5 RR, 5 4. Stereom of RR and A, on either side subvective areas, thrown into
folds running across radio-deltoid suture (hydrospires).

Series Codonoblastida.—lam. Codasteride (Eth. and Carp.). Hydrospire-
folds distinctly portions of the thecal plates, coming to the surface of the radial
sinus. No distinct hydrospire-canal or pores; spiracles developed imperfectly or
not at all. (Codaster, Phenoschisma, Cryptoschisma, Orophocrinus.) Pentre-
mitide (Eth. and Carp. restr.). Hydrospire-folds, usually numerous, concentrated
at the lowest part of the radial sinus, and partly or wholly pendent. Hydrospire-
canal opens through spiracles bounded distally by side-plates. Base convex.
Ambulacra rather broad. (Pentremitidea, Pentremites.)

—— a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 921

Series Troostoblastida—Fam. Troostocrinide (Eth. and Carp.). Elongate
forms with linear ambulacra descending sharply outwards from the much restricted
peristome. Hydrospire-folds only slightly concentrated, but communicate with
exterior through pores, and through spiracles bounded by A and lancet-plates.
(Troostocrinus, Metablastus, Tricelocrinus.) Eleutherocrinide. Elongate, stem-
less, asymmetrical, with four narrow ambulacra, accompanied by unconcentrated
hydrospires. Fifth ambulacrum shortened and widened. A minute. (Eleuthero-
erinus).

Series Granatoblastida.— Fam. Nucleocrinide. Interambulacra show
traces of a primitive three plates. Ambulacra linear, and stretching far down the
theca, which is ovoid. Hydrospire-folds few and pendent. Spiracles double.
Mouth roofed by large plates firmly united into a tegmen. (Nucleocrinus, Schizo-
blastus.) Equals Nucleoblastide (EK. and C.) minus Cryptoblastus and Acentro-
tremites. Orbitremitide. Theca globular with concave or flattened base.
Ambulacra linear, stretching down to concavity of base. Hydrospire-folds few
and pendent; a hydrospire plate always present (unknown in Heterobdlastus).
Hydrospire-folds rarely penetrate A, but long canals pass onward, through, beside,
or under them, except in Acentrotremites. (Orbitremites, Cryptoblastus, Hetero-
blastus, Mesoblastus, Acentrotremites). Corresponds to Granatoblastide (E. and C.)
plus Cryptoblastus, Mesoblastus, and Acentrotremites. Pentephyllide. Theca
subpentagonal, stemless; RR asymmetrical. Ambulacra linear, stretching down
to base. One shorter than the rest. (Pentephyllum.) Zygocrinide. Theca
depressed, stemless, asymmetrical, quadrilobate. Four ambulacra between the
lobes, accompanied by a single hydrospire on either side. Fifth ambulacrum
shortened and widened. A large. (Zygocrinus.)

Class III. CRINOIDEA.—Kpithecal extensions of the food-grooves, ambula-
erals, superficial oral nervous system, blood-vascular and water-vascular systems,
ccelom, and genital system are continued exothecally upon jointed outgrowths of
the abactinal thecal plates (brachia), carrying with them extensions of ihe
abactinal nerve system. Brachia, primitively and normally five, always rise from
an equal number of thecal plates, ‘radials’ (RR). Below these is always a circlet,
or traces of a circlet, of interradial plates, called ‘basals’ (BB). A circlet of
radially situate ‘ infrabasals’ (1BB) may also be present.

Sub-Class A, Monocycrica.—Base consists of BB only ; aboral prolongations
of chambered organ interradial ; new columnals introduced at extreme proximal
end of stem.

Order 1. InapuUNATA.—Dorsal cup is confined to the patina and occasional
intercalated anals ; such Amb or iAmb as enter the tegmen remain supra-tegminal,
and not rigidly united.

Famm, Hybocrinide (incl. Hybocystis, Wetherby) , Stephanocrinide, Heterocrinide
(incl. Herpetocr.), Calceocrinide, Pisocrinide, Catillocrinide, Zophocrinide, Haplo-
crinide, Allagecrinide, Symbathocrinide (incl. Phimocr., Stortingocr.), Belemno-
crinide (incl. Missouricr.), Plicatocrinide, Hyocrinide, Saccocomde.

Order 2. Apunata.—Dorsal cup primitively confined to the patina and an
occasional single anal; tegmen solid; portions of the proximal Br and their Amb
send to be rigidly incorporated in the theca. Arms fork once to thrice, and bear
pinnules on each or onevery other Br. BB fused to three, two, or one. (Eucladver.
and Acrocrinide offer peculiar exceptions to this diagnosis).

Group A. Fam. Platycrinide: Sub-famm. Coccocrinine (incl. Hapalocr.,
Cordylocr.), Cypellocrine (Cypellocr.= Marsupiocr. Phill. non Blainv.), Platy -
crinine.

Group B. Fam. Hevacrinide, Acrocrinide.

Order 3. CamERata.—IBr, two in each ray (exc. Stereocr., Hadrocr., Allopros-
allocr.), and often succeeding orders of Br are incorporated by iBr in the dorsal
cup, while the corresponding Amb are either incorporated in, or pressed below, the
tegmen by iAmb; all thecal plates united by suture, somewhat loose in the

earliest forms, but speedily becoming close, and producing a rigid theca; mouth

and tegminal food-grooves closed ; arms pinnulate.
Sub-Order Melocrinoidea.—RR in contact all round; IBr, quadrangular.

922 REPOL 1898.

Famm. Glyptocrinide, Melocrinide, Patelliocrinide (incl, Steliodiocr., Macrostylocr.,
Allocr., Briarocr., Centriocr, [nom, mut. pro Centrocr. W. and Sp. non Austin nec
Worthen]), Clonocrinide (incl. Clonocr. Quenst. [ = Corymbocr, Ang.], Tryblicer.,
Technocr.), Eucalyptocrinide, Dolatocrinide.

Sub-Order Batocrinoidea.—RR in lateral contact, except in post. IR.
Proximal anal heptagonal; IBr, quadrangular, exc. in Periechocrinide. Famm.
Tanaocrinide, Xenocrinide (incl. Compsocr., Abacocr.), Carpocrinide (incl. Acacocr.
Desmidocr., Macaroer.), Barrandeocrinide, Celocrinide (incl. Celocr, [ = Aorocr.,
W. and Sp.], Doryer., Agaricocr.j, Batocrinide (incl. Hyperocr., M. and W.
[s. Uperocr.| = Lobocr., W. and Sp.), Periechocrinide.

Sub-Order Actinocrinoidea.—RR in lateral contact except in post. IR;
proximal anal hexagonal ; IBr, usually hexagonal; BB 3, equal, forming a hexagon.
Famm, Actinocrinide (as in Wachsm. and §pr., exc. Amphoracr. which forms —)
Amphoracrinide.

Sub-Class B. Drcycr1ca.—Base consists of BB and IBB, the latter being liable
to atrophy or fusion with the proximale, but the aboral prolongations of the cham-
bered organ are always radial; new columnals may or may not be introduced at
the proximal end of the stem.

Order 1, InapunatTa.—Dorsal cup primitively confined to the patina and occa-
sional intercalated anals, no other plates ever occur between RR (Grade—Dis-
tincta) ; Br may be incorporated in the cup, with or without iBr, but never rigidly,
and their corresponding Amb remain suprategminal (Grade—Articulata) ; new
columnals introduced at extreme proximal end of the stem.

Sub-Order 1. Cyathocrinoidea have a fairly stout tegmen, in which five
orals (A, sub-ambulacrals, interradials, consolidating apparatus, of authors) are
usually conspicuous, helping to stiffen the tegmen, supporting the ambulacra on
their adjacent edges, and inclosing but not covering the peristome; post.O
frequently a madreporite ; radial facet usually narrow, and arms distinct from
dorsal cup, unbranched or simply dichotomous; none are known to attain the
pinnulate stage, but the presence of pinnules would not in itself remove a genus
from the Cyathocrinoidea. Famm. Carabocrinide, Paleocrinide (incl. Porocr.,
Bactrocr.), Euspirocrinide, Spherocrinide (incl. Parisocr.), Cyathocrinide (incl.
Gissocr., Lecythocr.), Petalocrinide, Crotalocrinide, Codiacrinide (incl. Lecythiocr.),
Cupressocrinda, Gasterocomide (incl. Scolocr., Achradocr., Hypocr.).

Sub-Order 2, Dendrocrinoidea have a thin flexible tegmen, or the ventral
surface almost entirely occupied by a large anal tube or ventral sack; orals incon-
spicuous or entirely atrophied in the adult; no madreporite; radial facet often
wide, so that the distinctness of arms from dorsal cup is not maintained; arms
dichotomous, the dichotomy often irregular, leading up to a pinnulate stage.
Famm. Dendrocrinide (incl. Merocr., Ottawacr., Homocr., Thenaroer.), Botryocrinide
(incl. Gothoer., Mastigocr., Gastrocr., Rhadinocr., Goniocr., Atelestocr., Streptocr.),
Lophocrinide, Scaphiocrinide (incl. Poteriocr., Woodocr., Zeacr., Coeliocr., Bursacr.),
Scytalecrinide (incl. Decadocr.), Graphiocrinide (incl. A@sioer., Delocr. = Ceriocr.
White non Desor), Cromyocrinide (incl. Eupachycr., Agassizocr., Tribrachiocr.,
Phualocr., Ulocr.), Encrinide (incl. Stemmatocr., Erisocr.), Pentacrinide (incl.
Dadocr., Holocr., and Sub-fam. Pentacrinine), Uintacrinide, Marsupitide, Bathy-
erinde? (only Bathycr.). .

Order 2. FLExrBit1a.—Proximal Br incorporated in dorsal cup, either by
their own sides, or by iBr, or by a finely plated skin, but never rigidly ; plates may
occur between RR, Tegmen flexible, with distinct Amb and numerous small —
iAmb; mouth and food-grooves remain suprategminal and open. Top columnal
a persistent proximale, often fusing with IBB, which are frequently atrophied in
the adult. Arms non-pinnulate (Grade Impinnata), or pinnulate (Grade Pinnata),
but always uniserial.

Grade Impinnata.—All plates of the crown united by loose suture or
muscular articulation. IBB three, the primitive right posterior remaining as the
small unfused IB. Br united by waving sutures, often with patelloid plates,
Arms isotomous, or rami may bear ramules on one or both sides, but no pinnules.
Ventral groove wide and shallow; axial canal separated from it in proximal
region. Five O, between which food-grooves pass to the mouth.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 923

Famm. Ichthyocrinide (incl. Pycnosaccus, Lecanocr., Cyrtidocr., Clidochirus,
Mespilocr.), Idiocrinide, Taxocrinide (incl. Gnorimocr. [genotype Taxocr. expansus,
Ang.], Ansocr. Homalocr.), Dactylocrinide (incl. Calpiocr., Lithocr. [genotype
Forbesiocr. divaricatus, Ang.], Synerocr., Euryocr., Onychocr.), Sagenocrinide (incl.
‘ Forbesiocr.’ Agassizi). Impinnata incertz sedis: Edriocr., Cleiocr., Rhopalocr.

‘Grade Pinnata.—BB and RR united by close suture, RR and proximal
Br by muscular articulation or syzygy; pseudomonocyclic; arms pinnulate and
either simple or isotomous ; axial canal separate from ventral groove throughout ;
Tax is generally [Br,, rarely IBr,; five O present in early stages and sometimes in
adult, but usually atrophy; anals do not form part of the dorsal cup in the adult.

Famm. Apiocrinide (incl. Calamoer.), Bourgueticrinide (incl. Mesoer. Rhizocr.),
Antedonide (incl. Thiolliericr., Eudiocr., Promachocr.), Atelecrinide, Actino-
metride, Thaumatocrinide, Eugeniacrinide, Holopodide, Eudesicrinide.

Order 3, Camerata,—aAll IBr and usually I1Br incorporated in the dorsal cup
by iBr, at first loosely, but afterwards by close suture. IBB always the primitive
5. Arms pinnulate. A plate always between right and left posterior RR, resting
on posterior B, and followed by others leading up to the anus. Mouth and
ambulacra subtegminal.

Famm, Reteocrinide (only Reteocr.), Dimerocrinide (incl. Ptychocr., Orthocr.,
Hyptiocr.), Lampterocrinde (incl. Siphonocr.), Rhodocrinide.

Class IV. EpRroastrERompEA.—Theca composed of an indefinite number or
irregular plates, some of which are variously differentiated in different genera ; no
skeletal appendages; central mouth, from which there radiate through the theca
five unbranched ambulacra, composed of a double series of alternating plates,
sometimes supported by an outer series of larger alternating plates. Pores between
(not through) the ambulacral elements, or between them and the thecal plates,
permitted the passage of extensions from the perradial water-vessels. Anus in
posterior interradius, on oral surface, closed by valvular pyramid. Hydropore (?)
between mouth and anus.

Fam. Agelacrinide. Theca composed mostly of thin plates, flexible, attached
temporarily or permanently by the greater part of the aboral surface; ambulacra
confined to oral surface. (Stromatocystis, Cystaster, Hemicystis, Agelacr., Strept-
aster, Lepidodiscus, Haplocystis, Discocystis. Perhaps incl. Cyclocystoides).
Cyathocystide. Theca composed on oral surface of five deltoids surrounded by
marginals, but below of a fused solid mass of stereom, which forms a permanent
incrusting root. Edricasteride. Flexible theca of thin plates; loosely attached
by excavate aboral surface; ambulacra pass on to aboral surface. (Ldrioaster,
Dinocystis).

6. On the Detection of Phosphorus in Tissues.
By Professor A. B. Macatium, Ph.D.

7. Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when
introduced into the Circulation.—See Reports, p. 720.

8. Report on Caves in the Malay Peninsula.—See Reports, p. 571.

9. Report on Nerve-cells—See Reports, p. 714.

’

924 REPORT—1898.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Con. G. EARL CHURCH.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Argentine Geography and the Ancient Pampean Sea.

InstEap of addressing you upon geography as a science, or summarizing the
triumphs of explorers during the past year, I shall invite you to accompany me to
southern South America—a step towards the Antarctic regions—and let me try to
add to your knowledge of Argentine geography and the ancient Pampean Sea.

The matchless voyage of Magellan gave rise to one, in 1526, for the discovery
of ‘the Islands of Tharsis, Ophir, and Kastern Cathay,’ the command of which
was given by Charles V. of Spain to Sebastian Cabot, the son of John, Sebastian,
en route, lured by silver-tongued fable, diverted the expedition, sailed for and
ascended the Plata estuary and river Parana, and attempted the conquest of the
Plata Valley. Disaster attended him, and with a single ship he returned to
Spain. That valley is now being developed into a prosperous state by the applica-
tion of 200,000,0002. sterling of European capital—three-fourths of which is
British—and is already the home of tive millions of thriving, intelligent, and
energetic people.

Sebastian Cabot having been brought up as a boy in this city of Bristol, I
have thought it not inappropriate to this occasion to give you some idea of the
land which he tried to conquer, and how Nature has there marshalled her forces.
She has, within easy reach, all the elements she requires for action upon the most —
imposing scale ; and it must be admitted that she has brought them lavishly into
play. The present drainage area of the Plata basin is, according to Dr. Bludau,
1,198,000 square miles, being over two and one-half times that of the entire
Pacific slope of the Andes. The minimum water discharge into the Plata estuary
would, every twenty-four hours, make a lake one mile square and 1,650 feet deep.
About 74 per cent. of it would represent the flow of the Parana, and 26 per cent.
that of the Uruguay River. In my subject, the latter plays only a secondary
part; the majestic Parandé and its branches assume the primary réle. These
interlace with the affluents of the Amazon along a line ot 14 degrees of longi-
tude. Even on the ocean I have been unable to realise vastness, as regards
quantity of water, to the extent which I have while standing on the bluff over-
looking the Parana at Rosario, and also on the bank of the Amazon at Obydos.
Dark, profound, and mysterious, the rivers ceaselessly roll past, ever in the same
direction, never to return; and, awe-struck, one reflects that, for eons of ages,
they have never halted in their stately march, and asks where and what is the
power that gathers and lets loose these mighty floods ?

Are. oe

an”

—E—e——e

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 925

Extent of the Plata Basin in Ancient Times—I shall try to show that the
Plata drainage area was, in a recent geological period, much more extensive than
it is to-day ; that its most northern limit was in 10° 44’ south latitude, and that
nearly the entire waters which now unite to form the Madeira River, the main
affluent of the Amazon, once flowed southward into a Pampean sea, which pene-
trated north, over the plains of the present Argentine Republic, to about 19°
south latitude.

To elucidate this proposition, I must call attention to the topography of that
great Bolivian basin across which the whole northern and eastern slope of the
Bolivian Andes and the western slope of Brazilian Matto Grosso send their
abundant drainage to the falls of the Madeira. The present elevation of the upper
fall has been found by instrumental survey to be 547 feet above sea-level. The
distingnished engineer, Julio Pinkas, who made the survey, estimated the drainage
area of the Bolivian basin at 400,000 square miles. This is somewhat in excess of,
but perhaps more accurate than, my own estimate, made when I descended the
Mamoré River and the Amazon, in 1871. Elsewhere, I have shown that the
Bolivian rivers lie upon a great plateau, high above the river Purtis, as well as
above the lower Madeira. The Andes form the south-western and western rim of
this plateau, and, between the Mayu-tata and Purts, push low hills north-east
towards the falls of the Madeira. On the eastern side are the Matto Grosso high-
lands, and, south-east, the low Chiquitos sierras of San Juan, the Sunsas, San
Lorenzo, Ipias, Chochis and Santiago, some of them overlooking the Argentine
Gran Chaco, and having a southern drainage into the river Paraguay. The grand
rim of the Bolivian basin has two breaks; one leads to the Amazon Valley, by the
falls of the Madeira, and the other, in longitude 62° west from Greenwich, and
latitude 18° south, opens into what is now known as the Plata Basin. Further on,
I will attempt to show how a dam was gradually thrown across this southern gap,
until its elevation, once much inferior, became superior to that of the ancient lip
of the falls over which the Bolivian rivers now plunge.

The mean flow of the Madeira River, at the moment of receiving its united
Bolivian tributaries, is, according to Keller, 8,654 cubic métres per second, equal
to 805,616 cubic feet. Pinkas makes it 6,874 cubic métres, These must be rough
calculations ; for the mean flow of a river of such variable conditions could only
be accurately measured by a series of observations extending over several years.
I believe it is equal to that of the Parand and Uruguay at their junction.

Outline of the Basin.—The Matto Grosso highlands, overlooking the Bolivian
basin, are composed almost wholly of red sandstone, overlying argillaceous schists ;
but, near the head waters of the Guaporé river, which skirts their western base,
are found rose-coloured gneiss, tale schists, and sandstones, on which frequently
rest large areas of a recent alluvium, locally called canga.

The Chiquitos sierras rise, on an average, from 1,400 to 2,000 feet above the
sea, (Minchin mentions a peak 3,600 feet high.) I agree with Dr. J. W. Evans
that, as described by D’Orbigny, they present evidences of belonging to the earlier
Brazilian highlands, rather than the younger elevation of the Andes. The western
section is a wall of friable, ferruginous sandstone, sometimes flat-topped, while the
extension, towards the Paraguay River, is a compact sandstone overlying talc
schist, which, towards the north-east, rests on gneiss in decomposition. The San
Juan and Sunsas sierras are the most northern of the Chiquitos group. The former
is mostly of gneissic formation, but the latter is of sandstone resting on tale schist.

The Bolivian Andes, which face the Amazon and the Gran Chaco, are almost
entirely composed of feldspathic sandstones, micaceous and blue slates, clay and
sandy shales, at times showing a thickness of from 10,000 to 15,000 feet. In
riding from Cochabamba to Santa Cruz de la Sierra, I have especially noticed them
exposed upon a gigantic scale.

The upper fall of the Madeira, called Guajaré-mirim, runs over the ferruginous,
conglomerate rock called canga, This rests on argillaceous sandstone, which
crumbles easily by the action of running water. The canga gradually becomes
undermined, and, breaking in pieces, is moved by the currents into deep water :
thus the elevation of the fall is gradually lowered. Keller gives a notable example

926 REPORT—1898.

of such erosion, ata point called Matucaré, on the lower Madeira River. All the
other barriers which form the falls are varieties of granitic and metamorphic
rocks.

About eighteen miles above the mouth of the Beni branch of the Madeira, and
below that of the Mayu-tata, is the fall of Esperanza, having a drop of 20 feet in a
length of 1,000. According to M. V. Ballivian, the rock is of canga, the same as
that of Guajara-mirim.

Pinkas found that, on the right bank of the upper Madeira River, several places
are still visible where the erosive action of the waters has stripped the primitive
rocks, anciently covered by a bed of ferruginous sandstone. I also saw evidences
of the erosive action of the river, near the upper falls, and am disposed to believe
that, in the lapse of centuries, one or two rapids, higher up the river, have
disappeared; not, however, entirely, for a reef of ferruginous conglomerate still
partly crosses the Mamoré River, between the mouth of the Guaporé and
the town of Exaltacion. It is probable that the western Matto Grosso hills
once extended westward to the Beni fall of Esperanza, where they met the
Andean foot-hills, and added to the height of the barrier which prevented the
river system of Bolivia from breaking through to the north-east. How high that
barrier may have been it is difficult to determine, owing to the country being
densely forested; but in the fork of the Beni and Mamoré I found hills perhaps
150 feet elevation above the river; and Keller mentions some on the left bank of
the Beni near its mouth. The rocks of Matto Grosso are so soft as to offer but
slight obstacle to the erosive power of the mighty flood of the Madeira; and, if we
admit that the lip of its upper fall, when the river began to flow over it, was only
100 feet higher than now, it will be but a small allowance in comparison to the
depths which even insignificant streams haye excavated over the immense area of
Matto Grosso. The falls of the Madeira appear to have completely cleared off and
exposed the granitic and metamorphic rocks upon which the Matto Grosso shales
and sandstones once rested.

Immense quantities of detritus have found their way down the Andes. The
volume carried by the little river La Paz, the remotest branch of the Beni, is
astounding. I once descended it to ride round the base of Mount Illimani. The
river is so hemmed in between the material of the Titicaca basin and that monarch
of the Andes that I had to ford it 108 times in one day. It has cut a profound
gorge through the inland range perhaps 50 feet wide and 600 feet deep. The over-
hanging precipices looked not over 40 feet wide at the top. Through this dark
rent, which I had to penetrate or turn back, the river swept me, horse and all, as
if I had been launched from a catapult.

The bed of detritus and alluvium which the river skirts for about 50 miles
is one of the most remarkable in the world. Forbes gives it a total thickness of
2,000 to 2,500 feet ‘of alternating beds of grey, bluish and fawn-coloured clays,
grayel and shingle beds, with boulders of clay slate, greywacké and granite, tre-
quently of enormous size and well rounded, as if by the action of water’ In my
ride down the valley I saw Nature at work tearing into this deposit, and sending
it on its way to the great basin of the Beniand Mojos. During certain months,
generally from November to March, a prolonged and violent local storm may
arise in some lateral valley of the river. The waters then sweep impetuously
down, taking with them hundreds of thousands of cubic yards of material, which
they pile across the La Paz River. The mass of clay and boulders rapidly becomes
cemented and compacted, and holds its place until the La Paz in turn, swollen by
some storm from Illimani, bursts the huge dam and hurls its contents down the
valley. I noticed boulders of many tons weight, at least 300 feet above the bed of
the river, sticking, like half-exposed marbles, in the side of the perpendicular wall
of detritus which towered even high above them.

Similar denudation is going on along the entire Andean slope. ‘The great Rio
Grande carries a prodigious mass of alluvium into the gap which lies between the
extreme eastern counterfort of the Andes and the Chiquitos sierras. Even its little
branch, the Piray, which I descended, desolates the country far and wide, in periods
of flood, with trees, sand, and mud. The Rio Grande and the Parapiti must have

~

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 927

transported to the plain, to the east of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, millions on millions
of cubic yards of material, and have filled it to a depth of several hundred feet.
The examples I have given from personal observation can, however, but faintly
convey an idea of the grand scale upon which Nature is at work tearing down the
Atlantic slope of the Bolivian Andes. So far, she has succeeded in only outlining
the task she has assumed, for she appears to have finished nothing. The finer
touches cannot be put on with such riotous vigour.

Later, I shall show how the closing of the southern gap caused the formation
of a lake in the Bolivian Mojos basin, the lacustrine character of which is not yet
eliminated ; for, during a period of about four months of the year, some 35,000
square miles of its surface are covered with the surplus water which cannot find
exit over the falls of the Madeira, they not yet having been worn down enough to
give complete drainage to the basin; or else this is not yet sufficiently silted up to
keep it out of water. Castlenau says that, ‘Due to their horizontality, all the
plains, from the mouth of the Mamoré to the Pilcomayo, are inundated from
October to March, and present the aspect of a great ocean dotted with green
islands ;’ and, speaking of the great southern gap, says: ‘ Across the Monte Grande,
a simply overturned tree would change the course of the waters.’ D’Orbigny is
eloquent in his descriptions of the ‘ smooth surface’ and ‘ unlimited horizon’ of the
vast plains of Mojos and the Beni.

Between Santa Cruz de la Sierra and the northern frontier of the Argentine
Republic, the Pileomayo River gathers its waters amidst masses of red sandstone
and argillaceous schists. Further southward, the Andes are broken into a number
of secondary ridges of paleeozoic composition, among which are the sources of the
Bermejo and Salado. In the most southern extension of these ridges we find
limestones and compact sandstones, mica schist, gneiss, and granite. From about
latitude 30° south the Andes lose their great width, and thence confine themselves
to the Pacific coast ridge, as far south as the Straits of Magellan. According to
De Moussy, ‘the lower sierras, which lie to the east, present a great variety of
stratified, crystalline rocks, saccharoids, slate schists, bituminous sandstone,
basalts, obsidian, trachites, pumice, crystallised and amorphous quartz.’

The Sierra de Cordova, extending north and south for nearly 300 miles, and
having a summit about 7,500 feet above ocean-level, was probably an ancient group
of islands in the Pampean Sea. It consists of several parallel chains, composed
principally of quartz, gneiss, and limestones of various colours. De Moussy found
trachitic rocks on their northern extension, and evidences of volcanic action.
South-west, and separated from the Sierra de Cordova, is the low San Luis range
of gneiss and mica schist, and sometimes crystallised quartz. Wast masses of
rounded shingle, covered by a thin cap of argillaceous earth and coarse granitic
sand, border the valleys. The Alto Penasco sierra, forty miles west of the San Luis
range, is also composed of crystalline rocks. The Cordon de Paramillos, near
Mendoza, is of porphyry, sandstone, schists, and limestone. Here also, ‘immense
quantities of rounded and rolled shingle cover the base of all the chains and
interior valleys. The torrents cut the accumulated débris to a profound depth, and
expose its enormous thickness. The bottoms of the valleys are entirely composed
of it.’

Penetrating north of Mendoza, we find white sandstone, and mountains of red
sandstone and argillaceous conglomerate in full process of decomposition. These
abound, above all, in the provinces of La Rioja and Catamarea.

Southern Extremity of the Basin.—From Cape Corrientes inland, ranges of hills,
irregularly massed in line, extend north-west about 150 miles. They are known
_ asthe Sierra de Tandil, and are widest at Tandil. Their greatest elevation above
the sea is 1,476 feet. My old friends Heusser and Claraz say the range is ‘ com-
posed of sandstone caps resting on gneissic-granite, showing the Pampean forma-
tion in the valleys and on their slopes.’ Sometimes the gneissic-granite shows
bare, and at others elevated into sierras with slopes covered with Pampean
formation. :

Further south-west, and lying between the Tandil and Bahia Blanca, are the
metamorphic sierras Pillahuinco, Ventana, and Curamalal, extending west and

928 REPORT—1898.

north-west, a total length of about 100 miles, nearly to Puan. In 18591 spent a
turbulent period of several months among these mountains, as a member of a
commission charged to explore the south-western frontier of Buenos Ayres, which
was then being raided by the Patagonian, Araucanian, and Pampa tribes of
savages. Referring to my old field-book, I find evidences that some of my notes
were made in a hurry.

The greatest bulk of the Ventana range appears to be gathered near the highest
peak of the Curamalal section, the elevation of which, by trigonometric measure-
ment, I found to be 3,363 feet above sea-level, and the Ventana peak 3,563 feet.
The inclination of their strata is from 60° to 85°, dipping, with little variation,
to the north-east. On their south-west slopes, so far as we explored them, these
mountains are composed of extremely hard quartz rock, white, pink, and other
colours. In many places it was cut into large rhomboidal-shaped solids.

The highly calcareous, argillaceous rock-cap of the plain which lies between
the Ventana and Bahia Blanca slopes west-south-west, its elevation at the
southern foot of the Ventana range being about 500 feet, and at Nueva Roma
about 230 feet, above sea-level.

Scattered over the surface of this plateau are many hollows, which in some
instances are 100 feet below the general level. At their bottoms small lagoons
are frequently found.

On the zorthern slope of the culminating- peak of the Ventana I found a con-
glomerate of rounded quartz pebbles, cemented by sandy, ferruginous matter. T
have seen specimens of similar conglomerate from the north-west slope of the
Curamalal range. I do not know the elevation of the bed which I found, but, for
several reasons, believe it to be about 1,200 feet above sea-level. It was, in
great part, cemented to the quartz rock of the mountain, although masses of it,
cubic yards in volume, had broken down or become displaced. Darwin states that
from 300 to 400 feet above the plain on the south side of the Ventana (‘estimated
at 840 feet elevation by some Spanish officers’) he ‘found a few small patches of
conglomerate and breccia, firmly cemented by ferruginous matter to the abrupt and
battered face of the quartz, traces being thus exhibited of ancient sea action.’ He
thus estimates the height of that which he found on the south side of the
mountain at, approximately, the same as that which I found on the north side.

Explorers differ as to the character and structure of the great belt of dunes
which stretches along the coast from Cape San Antonio to Bahia Blanca. I am
familiar with them for a distance of only seventy miles east of the latter place,
along which extension they are massed to their greatest breadth and height. Per-
haps an unpublished leaf from my note-book of 1859 will enable you to realise
what they are as I saw them :—‘ We proceeded to explore the course of the river
Mostazas among the dunes. For seven miles we forced our horses over sand hills
and through marshes and lagoons, although they sank to their knees at every step,
and frequently floundered to their breasts in the burrows of the Tuco-tuco, the
Ctenomys magellanica, about the size of a small rat. At last they lay down com-
pletely exhausted. Far to the east, we could still distinguish lagoons, but not a
break in the coast line gave indication of the outlet of the river, while, all around
us, the bare sand-hills reflected the sun with painful brilliancy. The exhausted
condition of our horses obliged us to return dismounted. The dunes near the coast
are composed of pure quartz sand of every colour, nearly all of it translucent. As
they extend towards the interior, they have a slight mixture of earth, until their
inland line is found to containa preponderance of light, pulverised soil. Gradually
a scanty vegetation appears, until, bordering the fertile lands, they are covered
with coarse grass and a few stunted shrubs. Viewed from the north, they have an
abrupt descent towards the west. Their coast line is about 110 feet high on
an average, but inland they are of every elevation from 5 to 100 feet. The
south-west gales violently agitate them, and cloud the air with their materials.
Frequently, bowl-shaped excavations are found near their summits, which appear
like works of art, so regularly are they scooped out by the wind, which must have
been of terrific force. One of these, a detached hill of sand and dust, on the Sauce
Grande River, about twelve miles from the coast, has had at least 5,000 cubic yards

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 929

of material thus taken out near its top. At the bottom of the excavation I found
several fragments of quartz rock, like that on the southern slopes of the Sierra
Ventana. In all the dunes composed of pure sand I found, by digging four
inches below their surface, on their sides or summits, that the sand was quite wet.
Such was the case during our stay, although a very dry season. Numberless
little lagoons, from 50 to 150 feet in diameter, with bottoms of soft mud, are
scattered among them, around the margins of which grow rushes, weeds, and
bunches of the exquisitely beautiful pampa-grass, the Gynertwm argentium.
Often, when the ponds were nearly dry, the soft, silky flowers of the pampa-grass
had covered their muddy bottoms with a white mantle. Numerous aquatic birds
are to be seen swimming in the shallow water of the open ones. Sporting with
each other are nwtrias (the South American otter, the Myapotamus Coypus), ducks,
geese, black-necked swans, water-hens, and rose-coloured spoonbills, all so tame
that I could sit on horseback within 20 feet of them without disturbing the
amusements. I have counted fourteen otters ina small lagoon; and, from the
apparent familiarity with which they rubbed noses with the ducks, they were as
much a part of the family as any of the feathered tribe. I never molest them.
It would be a pity to break in upon their Arcadia.’

I have lingered among the Ventana Mountains and in their vicinity, as they
were once lofty islands which played an important réle in arresting and protecting
the Pampean mud.

Eastern Boundary of the Basin —Cuyabi, at the head of the Paraguay River, is,
according to numerous observations of Clauss, only 660 feet above sea-level. The
valleys around it are bounded by vertical cliffs of red sandstone overlying argilla-
ceous shales, which easily disintegrate. The Matto Grosso highlands, south of
Cuyabi, as far as Paraguay, are practically unexplored; but I have no doubt they
are of the same formation of sandstone and shales resting on metamorphic rock.

The Apa River, which is the northern boundary of Paraguay, drains a limestone
district. Bourgade says ‘the main framework of Paraguay is a dark-red sand-
stone, but basaltic formations may be seen in many parts. Immense areas are
covered to a considerable depth by « fertile red earth representing the decomposi-
tion of the sandstone hills.’

From Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, south-east to the Apipé rapids of the
river Parana, the Cordillera of Caa-guazu throws off a range of hills which over-
look a great triangular space at the south-west corner of Paraguay, slightly
elevated above the sea, and consisting of low, sandy ground and morasses, at times
flooded by the Paraguay River. This district, united to that of the Ybara lagoon,
in Northern Corrientes, was probably the delta of the Parana when it emptied into
the ancient Pampean sea. The river is charged with but little silt in comparison
to its much smaller affluent, the Paraguay ; but, in flood, it carries a volume of
water, said to be ten times that of the latter stream, and its width, along the
northern sandstone border of Corrientes, is from three to nine miles. The alluvium,
from the immense area of Brazil which it drains, is arrested by the rapids, reefs
and falls of its middle course, where it violently tears a deep channel through huge
beds of red sandstone, to afterwards unite its yellowish waters with those of the
muddy Paraguay.

Lying between the rivers Paranda and Uruguay is the Argentine Mesopotamia,
the provinces of Corrientes and Entre Rios, covered with modern alluvium. The
former is gently undulating, and is half drowned in lagoons, the largest being the
famous Ybaré. The south and south-western part of Entre Rios is composed
extensively of argillaceous earth, and the whole State is traversed by ridges of low
hills running nearly north and south, the main ones never exceeding an altitude
of 650 feet above sea-level. The framework of the province is of sandstone,
covered in some places by shell limestone, and sometimes by granular limestone. The
north-eastern part is sandy, with numerous hillocks of siliceous gravel. The exposed
sandstone, on the river Gualecuay, extends north almost to the Ybara lagoon. On
the left bank of the river Parana, just south of its junction with the Paraguay,
is the town of Corrientes, built on a red sandstone bluff. The same stone shows
for thirty miles down stream, where it disappears, and thence for 240 miles the

1898. 30

930 REPORT—1898.

banks, sometimes rising to a height of 80 feet, and then at Goya descending almost
to the river-level, are composed of sandy clay; but near Bella Vista are masses of
rolled pebbles. Near the boundary line of Corrientes and Entre Rios the banks
of the Parana are very low on both sides of the river, and continue so for nearly
100 miles; but thence, southward, for 150 miles, the left bank is margined as far
as Diamante bya range of hills from 125 to 160 feet high, at times boldly escarped
and presenting a fine geological section. From Diamante the hills trend inland
south-east about fifty miles, as far as Victoria, and they probably formed the
border of an ancient channel of the river Parana.

From Santa Fé to the head of the Plata estuary, the right bank of the Parana
shows a precipitous bluff of reddish clay, varying from 25 to 65 feet above mean-
river level. It is being gradually undermined, and tumbles in great blocks into the
river to add to its volume of silt.

The Uruguay River flows, almost throughout its course, over a rocky bed,
mostly of red sandstone, at times very coarse, and then again of extremely fine
composition ; but below La Cruz, in Corrientes, there is much limestone, albeit
the sandstone still predominates. The Uruguay is, except in flood, a clear-water
stream, and, even at its highest level, carries comparatively but little silt.

I have ridden over much of the Banda Oriental del Uruguay. The southern
and western half lies from 150 to 300 feet above sea-level. Darwin is correct in
saying: ‘It has a gently undulatory surface with a basis of primary rocks, and is in
most parts covered up with an unstratified mass, of no great thickness, of reddish
Pampean mud.’

Secondary Rivers.—I refer again to the very important rivers Grande and
Parapiti. Minchin says of them: ‘The Rio Grande drains a considerable part of
South-eastern Bolivia. It has its sources among the ranges bordering the table-
land, and flows for some 400 miles through a deep, narrow gorge, and reaches the
plains in latitude 18° 55’. Bending north, it then describes a semicircle, and
finally runs north-west to join the Mamoré. In its course across the plains, and
as far north as latitude 17° 30’, the river flows through a wide sandy bed, bounded
by banks from 16 to 25 feet high. The Parapiti rises at an elevation of 2,030 feet
in latitude 19° 59’ 18”, longitude 63° 4’, At the close of the dry season it flows
65 cubic yards per second, and is then absorbed by the sandy region of the plain.
In the wet season it runs through a well-defined bed as far as latitude 19° 6’,
longitude 62° 22’, and then spreads through the swampy, forest-covered plain, Its
waters, again uniting, cut through the south range of Chiquitos at Qumome Pass
and form Lake Concepcion.’

Between 20° and 30° south latitude the arid Andean slopes collect and send
south-eastward, across the Gran Chaco, the waters of the three great rivers
Pilcomayo, Bermejo, and Salado or Juramento, They are almost without an
affluent once they leave the foot of the mountains, where they have their greatest
volume, Sometimes they split into several channels, making narrow and enormous
islands in the plain. They are all very crooked, and have uncertain beds, at times
changing an old course for a new one miles distant. Thus they erode and tear
away great quantities of soft Pampean material, dissolve it into silt, and pour it
into the Paraguay and Parana. Pelleschi, in his admirable work on the Gran
Chaco, estimates that ‘the soil annually subtracted from the territory of the Chaco
by the Bermejo alone equa!s 6,400,000 cubic yards.’

The rivers Saladillo, Primero, and Segundo provide the water to meet the
evaporation from the great inland lake of Porongos. The Tercero and Cuarto
unite, and enter the Parana near Rosario, with a considerable volume of water.
The Quinto, with other small rivers, draining the southern spurs of the Cordova
range, are absorbed by the thirsty Pampean swamp, La Amarga.

Some of these rivers carry a large quantity of lime, and many of their westerly
affluents carry so much as to have a white colour, thus accounting for the con-
siderable number of them called ‘ Rio Blanco.’

A large river system, having many ramifications in the provinces of La Rioja,
Mendoza, and San Luis, gathers into lagoons and main channels to find its way
to Lake Urre Lauquen, and, in floods, to the Colorado. Physical and climatic

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 931

changes, of which I shall treat, have profoundly modified this section of the
Argentine Republic, and reduced the volume of its waters.

I am indebted to several of the Argentine railway companies for sections of
their lines, made from instrumental surveys. From these, and from other sources,
including a carefully prepared table of altitudes by the Argentine engineer,
A. Schneidewind, I have had plotted the sections which accompany this Address.

Sections of the Country.—Section 1 shows a part of the coast line of the
Southern Railway. It is practically a cross section of the east coast of the
province of Buenos Ayres from north to south, where the lowest part of
the Pampean beds slope into the ocean. It passes also near the head of Sam-
borombon Bay, which was once a great muddy estuary extending far inland, and
the home of countless myriads of small crabs. The land slope of this bay so
gradually merges into the ocean that, at a little distance, it is difficult to tell
where the shore line meets the water. Century by century, it now slowly
advances seaward.

Section 2, from Buenos Ayres to Rosario and Tucuman, shows with what
regularity the country rises, from south-east to north-west, up to the outlying
foothills of the Andes.

Section 3 is the first 350 kilométres of the Neuquen extension of the Southern
Railway, and shows in part the relation of the Colorado to the Rio Negro.

Section 4 is the Buenos Ayres and Pacific Railway to Villa Mercedes, and
thence to Mendoza by the Argentine Great Western. Here we have a line almost
on a parallel of latitude nearly to the frontier of Chile. Again we note the
regular slope of the Pampa westward, until the country begins to swell into the
Cordova sierra. Thence to Mendoza it is broken.

Section 5 shows the Bahia Blanca and North-Western Railway, as far as Toay,
and thence its proposed extension to Villa Mercedes. It traverses a district
the southern half of which has apparently been much troubled in former times by
water, wind, and sand. From Victoria to Villa Mercedes the country assumes
a more uniform slope, but beyond that, to the north, it rapidly rises into the
barren mountainous districts of San Luis and Western Cordova,

Section 6 is the Central Argentine Railway, Rosario to Cordova. This is of
interest as showing how far the uplifting of the Cordova range extended east,
and nearly divided the Pampean Sea into a great northern and southern section.
In fact, this railway is the southern border of a belt of rounded-up country,
tig from the Cordova sierra to within thirty to forty miles of the river

arana.

Section 7 is from Bahia Blanca north to Villa Maria (say 482 miles), thence
to Cordova by the Central Argentine line, thence to Tucuman by the Central
Northern section of the Cordova Central Railway, and thence to Jujuy by the
Government Railway—a total length, nearly south to north, of, say, 1,127 miles.
This section presents some notable features: between Bahia Blanca and Carhué it
crosses the extreme western slope of the Curamalal sierra; thence to Villa Maria
it shows an almost level stretch of Pampa, the lowest part of which, near Trenque
Lauquen, is only about 300 feet above sea-level. This depression is on the parallel
of Samborombon Bay, down to which it gradually slopes in a distance of 300
miles. From Villa Maria to Dean Funes the line ascends the Cordova Mountains,
a marked feature of which is their bold western escarpment, overlooking the pro-
found hollow which separates them from the south-eastern spur of the Catamarca
sierras. In this depression lies the Salina Grande. From Tucuman to Jujuy,
near the Bolivian frontier, the country rises rapidly towards that mountain bastion
which is thrown so far east from the Pacific Ocean, and which is the true heart of
the Andes. During a ride from Jujuy to PotosiI could not avoid being impressed
with this mighty swelling up of the continent; and on several occasions, espe-
pelle looking eastward, I was convinced that I could see the curvature of our
globe.

Section 8 is the Buenos Ayres Western Railway. It stretches south-west
across the heart of the true Pampean plain. The regularity of its gentle slope is
remarkable.

302

932 REPORT—1898.

Section 9 shows one of the lines of the Southern Railway, from Buenos Ayres
to Bahia Blanca, and the gradual rise of the country south-westward, up the
slope of the Curamalal Mountains.

Section 10. This is of great interest. It starts at the Atlantic coast, and is
roughly parallel to and south-west and west of the Plata estuary and Parana
River, and from 70 to 100 miles distant from them, until reaching a point
about 100 miles above the mouth of the river Pileomayo ; thence to the great gap,
between the Bolivian Andes and the Chiquitos sierras, and thence to the lip of
the first fall of the river Madeira—a total length of about 1,770 geographical miles
(about 3,300 kilométres). This line, from the great gap to the Atlantic coast, was
approximately that of least resistance to the flow of the Pampean mud. I have
called attention to the very gradual north-eastern swell due to the Cordova sierra.
This section clearly shows it, and indicates, moreover, that the Salado, or Jura-
mento, River flows along its lowest margin, and serves as the boundary of the
most southern part of the Gran Chaco. In fact, the Salado occupies the south-
west side of a very level depression, 300 miles across, and only 240 feet above the
sea, along the north-eastern edge of which runs the Bermejo. The northern
undefined limit of the Gran Chaco is probably the Chiquitos sierras. From the
Bermejo, northward, the section shows the slope of this Chaco district. It is the
natural incline which the waters gave it as the sand was poured in from the
north.

I have been obliged to estimate the heicht of the present water-divide between
the Plata Valley and the Mojos Basin. For the first 240 miles north of the divide
I allow a slope of 9 inches to the geographical mile, and thence down the Mamoré
River to the present lip of the Madeira Falls, a descent of about 4 inches to the
mile. Like Keller, I found the Mamoré to be a very sluggish stream, ‘the in-
clination very small.’ Barometric measurements I could not take, owing to the
failure of some instruments and the loss of others, The height of the upper fall of
the Madeira is shown to be 547 feet above the sea. It has served as my starting-
point in estimating the summit of the water-divide at 817 feet. Minchin gives a
few widely separated barometric measurements on his map of the neighbouring
country to the east, and I judge that he makes the divide perhaps 100 feet higher
than I do. J should be glad if so able an engineer would give us further in-
formation about it.

Formation of the Bed of the Pampean Sea,—A vast area of the Plata Valley
is covered, to a depth of from 20 to 100 feet, by a bed of reddish-yellow, semi-
plastic, argillaceous earth, varying in colour, hardness, and constituent parts. It
is mixed with a little sand, and has traces of titanic iron and olivine. . Due
probably to underground percolation from the lime-carrying rivers, it frequently
merges into a marly rock full of calcareous nodules. This rock is found over
immense areas of the country, and is at times apparently stratified. Great
numbers of the Calomys Biscacha burrow in families under the rocky caps which
are near the surface, and thus expose them to view. ‘For this reason,’ according
to Heusser and Claraz, ‘the Pampa Indians call the hard material “ trui-cura,”
or Biscacha stone (truz, Biscacha ; and cura, stone); but the country people have
given it the name of tosea, of which the literal translation is tufa, whether it be
the bed itself or the calcareous nodules contained in the clay. The Pampas are
entirely without stones or pebbles. In general the Pampa clay becomes more
and more sandy as one goes west. It is the same towards the south, starting
from the Quejen Salado. There is much gypsum and carbonate of lime in the
deposits, and much fine déb7’s of a volcanic nature.’

In 1859, in a small cave excavated under a tosca cap at Nueva Roma, north-
west of Bahia Blanca, I found stalactites from 6 to 12 inches long. Pelleschi
tells me that at Puan, where a small stream has cut out a bowl-shaped depression
(785 feet elevation above the sea by instrumental survey), there is a cap of tosca
covering the district which is well filled with shells, closely cemented, but he does
not know the species, and that on an island in a neighbouring lagoon excellent
lime is made from a limestone rock found there.

A broad saddle of Pampean formation lies at an elevation of over 600 feet

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 933

between the Ventana and Tandil Ranges. The tosca rock is almost everywhere
en évidence in the sloping plain which surrounds the Ventana and Curamalal
Ranges, and it is extensively exposed in the banks, and at the rapids and falls in
all the little streams. I have noticed that, where these run over tosca, it bas a
hardened surface for a depth of perhaps half an inch. This is due to the
hydraulic properties of the rock, which have in places been found so marked,
notably at Rosario, in Santa Fé, that a few years ago, Carrasco states, the beds
were worked for the manufacture of hydraulic cement.

D’Orbigny, Darwin, Bravard, Sir Woodbine Parish, Weddell, Heusser and
Claraz, and others, disagree as to the origin of the ‘Pampean mud.’ Darwin
wisely said ‘it poured down from the north;’ but the then paucity of geographical
knowledge regarding the interior of South America did not enable him to fix its
exact source and method of conveyance. Imbedded in the Pampean formation,
over widely extended areas, have been found the fossil remains of the mastodon,
megatherium, mylodon, and other gigantic animals, those from Rosario to the
south being mixed with shells of species still living in the neighbouring seas.
After the Pampean beds were formed, and their southern and eastern margin
began to emerge from the waters, the ocean along the shallow coast rolled up on
the gently-inclined plain quantities of shells, banks of which, miles in length, may
be seen to-day far inland, giving evidences by their curvature and general appear-
ance of having been piled up along an ancient coast line.

Not far from Bahia Blanca I have ridden for miles along the top of one of
these embankments, about 20 feet high and 100 feet wide at the base. Most of
the shells had been broken by wave action, and were mixed with abundance of
rounded pumice, which probably floated down the Colorado and Negro from some
volcanic centre of the distant Andes.

But a portion of the Pampean formation is still submerged, for tosea rock may
be found throughout the length of the Plata estuary forming the bottom of its
southern half. Thence it extends its eastern and southern margin, under water,
along the coast of Buenos Ayres, at least as far as Bahia Blanca.

The savants whom I have named have presented us with abundant evidences
that the whole Pampean formation was once submerged. What appears to have
confused them is the finding of similar beds in widely-separated localities, and at
elevations varying by thousands of feet. One may believe that, wherever in the
immense drainage area of the ancient Plata basin the conditions of rivers, lakes,
and inland seas were favourable to the distribution of silt from the mud-producing
rocks which margin the entire basin in such prodigious quantities, there the ‘mud’
should be found ; and it is conceivable that even to-day, if Nature were to form a
lake by throwing a permanent dam across the entrance to an extensive valley
leading into that basin, the streams entering it would there deposit Pampean
mud. * If this be true, there is no reason why such mud should not be found
resting immediately on crystalline rocks in places. The extent of any continuous
bed would alone be limited by the drainage area receiving the silt. The origin
and age of a deposit wherever found, be it at sea-level or 12,000 feet above, or be
it a square mile in area or 100,000 square miles, should be treated upon its indi-
vidual merits. Darwin alone appears to have entertained doubts as to tke con-
temporaneous origin of all materials similar to the Pampean beds, attributing
their uniformity more to ‘ the similarity of the rocky framework of the continent.’

The Pampean Sea connected with the Atlantic Ocean between Uruguay and
the Tandil Sierra. It was probably about 1,400 miles in length, with an average
width of above 400 miles. Roughly estimated, its area must have been about 600,000
square miles—say about two-thirds the size of the Mediterranean Sea. The area
of the ancient Mojos Lake was about 115,000 square miles, being seven-tenths that
of the Black Sea, and exceeding that of the five ‘Great Lakes’ of North America,
which is 93,581 square miles. The relation of the Pampean Sea to the Mojos Lake
was similar to that of the Mediterranean to the Black Sea. Traces of it are still
observable, notably the great, low, flooded morass of Xarayas on the Upper Para-
guay River, and the ancient delta of the Parana, including the Ybarélagoon. The
Salina Grande was also an arm of it—a great inland fiord. The sea, moreover,

934 REPORT—1898.

must have covered large areas of Paraguay, Corrientes, Entre Rios, and Uruguay,
and, before the uplifting of the country, it extended south-west to the rivers
Chadi-Leofu and the Colorado, lapping round the southern slope of the Ventana
Range until the curved rim, concave to the north-east, which connects this with
the Sierra de Cordova, was sufficiently elevated to completely cut off its south-
western extension. This rim, for the first fifty miles, starting at the Ventana, is
about 700 to 750 feet above the sea, and shows much tosca rock near the surface.
It afterwards rises rapidly towards the Cordova sierra.

The Uplifting of the Pampean Beds.—_The Pampean beds were apparently
laid down in shallow water. Their present irregularity and elevation may be
attributed to pronounced local uplifting, followed by an extremely slow general
upheaval of the Andes from west to east, which was communicated to the whole
bed of the Pampean Sea, raising it ultimately to its present level. Gradually, as
the Ventana, Tandil, and Cordova sierras were lifted, the mud settled upon their
slopes until they ceased to exist as lofty islands, and with their connecting-rim of
high ground formed a vast breakwater against any inroad of the ocean from the
south or south-west. South of latitude 30° the force which raised the Andes has
not shown the same vigour which it has to the north of that parallel, where it
appears to have been greater in proportion to the broadening and swelling up of
the mountain masses. As a resultant of this and its slope to the eastward, the
northern section seems to be upheaved from the north-west, while, southward of
latitude 30°, the real west to east action is apparent. Here the great distance of
the Atlantic coast from the Andes has caused the eastern part of the province of
Buenos Ayres to he raised but little, not sufficiently to lift the Pampean beds en-
tirely out of the sea. In the north the gradually decreasing distance between the
Cordillera and the Brazilian highlands confined the force and gave the plain its
maximum lift at the great gap, at about 18° latitude, where the leverage of the
Andes must then have ceased, due to the fact that at this point they take a sharp
turn to the north-west, leaving the basin of the Beni and Mojos undisturbed.

This local and general upheaval determined the course of the Paraguay, the
Lower Parana, and the Plata Rivers, which were naturally pushed over against the
more ancient Brazilian formation. It also, as the Pampean Sea retired, caused the
Pilcomayo and Bermejo to take their south-east course across the Gran Chaco and
find their present outlet.

The Cordova Range has lifted the Pampean mud to an elevation of about
1,300 feet above sea-level.

The Tandil Range has brought up, to a height of 900 feet, beds identical with
the tertiary deposits 100 feet below the surface at Buenos Ayres. This indi-
cates an upheaval of 1,000 feet since tertiary times.

Lying between the Bermejo River and the Salado, say the southern third of the
Gran Chaco, we appear to have an almost undisturbed part of the bottom of the
ancient sea—the present boundary belt between northern and southern climatic
influences.

Age of the Pampean Formation.—The United States engineers, Humphreys
and Abbot, estimate the amount of silt discharged yearly by the Mississippi River
to be one cubic mile in twenty-two years. Although it carries, per cubic foot of
water, much more silt than the Plata, I doubt if it exceeds that of the river
Madeira, which now drains the Mojos basin, and is a very turbid stream.

The mean flow of the Mississippi at New Orleans is 675,000 cubic feet per
second, but its maximum at flood is about 1,000,000. The minimum flow of the
Plata, past Buenos Ayres, is 534,000, the maximum 2,145,000. It may, therefore,
be fairly assumed that the yearly flow of the great North-American river is not
superior, and may be inferior, to that of the Plata; and if it be admitted, as I
believe, that the Madeira branch of the Amazon, at the falls, annually carries an
amount of water equal to that passing Buenos Ayres, it will be evident that the
total cubic volume of the streams which poured into the Pampean Sea must have
been equal to twice that which the modern Mississippi contributes to the Gulf of
Mexico.

Estimating the Pampean mud to cover an area of 400,000 square miles, with

— -

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 935

/

an ayerage thickness of 5U feet, it would represent about 4,000 cubic miles of silt.
The Andean and Brazilian shales and sandstones were probably disintegrated and
dissolved with great rapidity when the rivers which tore them down tlowed into
the Pampean Sea. These streams must then have carried, one with another, a
quantity of silt which, compared to that carried to-day by the Plata and Madeira
Rivers, may safely be estimated at three-fourths the amount per cubic foot of water
now carried by the Mississippi River. Allowing for partial loss of silt in the
ocean, and from other causes, this would give the Pampean formation an age of
about 70,000 years.

How the Ancient Mojos Lake was Formed.—tI find the divortiwm aquarun
between the Mojos and Plata basin to be only about 170 feet higher than the
ancient lip of Guajari-mirim. It is easy to understand that the Rio Grande and
the Parapiti have deposited there a quantity of alluvium far exceeding 170 feet in
depth. ‘The divide, prior to this and to the general uplifting movement described,
eould not have been more than 200 to 300 feet above sea-level, and thus much
lower than even the present lip of the upper fall of the Madeira. Therefore,
through this southern gap the combined streams which now form the principal
affluent of the river Amazon found their way. Slowly the highly-charged,
yellowish-brown waters sifted out and spread their heavier material over the sandy
Slope at the head of the Pampean Sea, leaving the tine silt in suspension to be
precipitated over the submerged plains. The waters from the north were aug-
mented in turn by the Paraguay and Parana, the Pilcomayo, Bermejo, and Salado.
From east and west numerous rivers pushed into the sea, stirring up its waters,
and thus keeping the greater part of the silt in suspension to be carried far south-
ward and deposited principally, and in maximum thickness, over the Pampean
region south of latitude 30°.

The Grande and the Parapiti entered the plain with a northern trend to
contest with the great river of the north the possession of the gap. They struck
it almost at a right angle, and slowly pushed their rival eastward over against the
Chaco base of the Chiquitos sierras. Here the final conflict must have taken place,
as the Grande and Parapiti threw their dam across the outlet of the Mojos River,
thus cutting off its exit into the ancient sea. No doubt the giant stream waged fierce
war for thousands of years to keep its channel open, alternately sweeping away the
barrier and again yielding to the ceaseless volume of sand and clay which, visible
to-day, confirms the victory of the Grande and Parapiti. The dam having finally
become permanent, the formation of the ancient Mojos Lake was assured (see
physical map). When it reached the level of the lip of Guajara-mirim, its waters
commenced to tumble over it and carve their way to the Amazon. Since then
huge volumes of alluvium have poured down the northern slopes of the Bolivian
Andes; the ancient lake is now almost loaded with material, but is not yet
entirely obliterated. The muddy silt which covers the surface of the basin is so
fine that, when an Indian goes up stream to the mountains, his friends ask him to
bring back a stone that they may see what it is like.

Since forming the dam, the Rio Grande has slowly been returning westward
down the counterslope which its own alluvium creates.

Slight Tidal Action of the Pampean Sea.—Off the mouth of the Rio de la Plata,
the tides which flow south along the Brazilian coast meet those making north from
the coast of Patagonia, counterbalance each other, and maintain the liquid mass
at nearly the same level, so that the average tide at Montevideo is only about
three feet. Thus the Plata River is able to pile its silt ina direct line further seaward
than either the Orinoco or the Amazon. I have shown that the Ventana Range
acted as a massive breakwater to the Pampean Sea, and that the Cordova sierra
almost divided this into a northern and southern half. Hence the prevailing
conditions appear to have permitted but little tidal action in the great basm, Had
it been otherwise, as, @ priori, one might suppose, the fierce contests which the
tides would have waged when meeting the large rivers would have ripped up the
Pampean beds and washed them into the ocean, and, in their place, we should now
find nothing but a clayey, sandy, and shingle-covered waste.

In 1860 I located the Northern Railway from Buenos Ayres to San Fernando.

936 REFORT—1898.

An extremely violent ‘Santa Rosa gale’ swept up the Plata estuary, Finding by
actual measurement that when its waters drove against the outflow of the Parana
River they tore 17 feet in one day into the high tosca bluff of San Isidro, I carried
the definitive location over the hill instead of round the point at river-level.

The Inter-Andean Region.—The eastern inland Cordillera of the Andes which
overlooks the Gran Chaco is separated from the Pacific coast range by a desert,
bare and almost waterless belt of mountainous lands, from 250 to 300 miles wide,
through the heart of which I have ridden. An extraordinary parallelism exists
between the numerous lines of sierras, mostly running north and south, which fill
the space. Between them are deep, scooped-out depressions, sometimes containing
salt lagoons. In the rare occasions of violent storms, these receive torrential
streams from channels which ordinarily carry but little water, and many of which
are dry for most of the year. The whole district appears to be a southern prolonga-
tion of the Titicaca Basin, and possibly may have been so before the Andes reached
their present elevation. As it extends southward it grows lower and less broken,
and the salinas occupy a larger area until, to the west and north-west of the Sierra
de Cordova, they are of enormous extent; but as latitude 30° is passed the eastern
slope of the now narrow Andean chain begins to receive a sufficiently increased
rainfall to supply the waters for the western system of Argentine rivers which try
to find their way southward to the river Colorado, but which they only reach at
rare intervals, when some exceptionally heavy storm aids their effort to satiate the
sandy, thirsty desert which they traverse. This area of about 250,000 square miles
(not a very comfortable country to march an army across) frequently presents
evidences of marine action on a grand scale. D’Orbigny, Darwin, De Moussy, and
Burmeister allude to the accumulations of rolled shingle found in the valleys and
at the base of the mountains. Darwin speaks of the ocean as having ‘long acted
at the foot of the eastern Cordillera at nearly the same level as on the basin plains
of Chile, and that the origin and transportal of these vast beds of pebbles is an
interesting problem.’ Perhaps a thorough study may show that the Patagonian
gravel beds—76,000 square miles in area and 50 feet average thickness—were, like
the Pampean deposits, in great part derived from the north. For reasons which I
shall explain, I believe that all of this terribly eroded, inter-Andean district once
had an abundant rainfall, and that, after the heavy material from the mountains
had been sorted out, the rivers carried to the plains, to the west of the present
province of Buenos Ayres, immense quantities of sand and clay derived from the
masses of gneiss, schists, sandstone, and calcareous rock through which they
flowed. For this reason, to the west of the curved boundary line of the Pampean
beds, between the Ventana and Cordova sierras, the lands are dry, sandy, and
uninyiting,

The contour lines of the country around the Lower Colorado appear to indi-
cate that this river once emptied into a broad, shallow estuary, which penetrated
inland from the present coast line about 116 miles. Over its bottom the
Colorado dropped its silt, similar to the Pampean mud, but more siliceous. On
what was once its northern shore, it is not surprising that Darwin should find
“an accumulation of high sand dunes, ranging westward from the coast twenty
miles distant,’ and which he believed ‘were formed on the shores of an estuary.’
It probably included the present Bahia Blanca and its coast line as far as Mount
Hermoso, to the east of Punta Alta, where Darwin found so many fossil remains
of gigantic mammifers. May we not suppose that these came from the north, were
floated down the Colorado, and taken to this point by the northern currents which
sweep along the Patagonian coast ?

Climatic Influences—It must be admitted that an ancient sea two-thirds the
size of the Mediterranean, and a lake much larger than the total area of the
‘Great Lakes’ of North America, must have profoundly affected the climatic con-
ditions of the adjoining regions. Perhaps no part of the world presented an
example where the forces of Nature had an opportunity to display their power in
equal magnitude, over suck a continuous area, and with such uninterrupted
simplicity. To the west, the Andes served as a lofty condenser, which, for a dis-
tance of over 2,500 miles, guided the cold polar currents towards the equator and

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'VRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 937

safeguarded their vigour. Similarly, the Brazilian highlands largely confined them
to the great valley as they swept northward to do battle, in the heart of South
America, with the warm vapours generated from the Pampean Sea and ancient
lake, and the steaming, tropical basin of the Amazon, The extension of the vapour
belt southward towards the Atlantic Ocean carried the equatorial currents nearer to
the polar ones, thus inviting frequent atmospheric disturbance and resultant storm
action. As the hot vapour-laden winds, fertile in elements of force, met the
southern cold ones, a prodigious amount of heat was set free by condensation. Into
the vacuum thus created the opposing currents rushed with ever-increasing rivalry,
enlarging the area of mechanical action, condensation, and vacuum, andavgmenting
the violence of the storm-waters, which, sweeping along the mountain slopes, must
have rapidly disintegrated and eroded them, and have acted as a potent agent to
transport to their hase much of the material from which the Pampean beds were
sifted. The rainfall over the inter-Andean region must have produced many large
lakes similar to Lake Titicaca, and a great river system, which, tributary to the
Colorado, swelled it into a stream of the first rank, pouring into it the sand and
silt which have completely filled the enormous estuary, the outline of which is still
traceable.

One may believe that an increased rainfall gave a luxuriant vegetation, where
herds of gigantic mammalia found feeding ground; from which, from time to time,
they were swept, by storm or swollen river, into the Pampean Sea, where also they
may have lost their lives in other ways, their remains being distributed over it by
the currents.

To a minor degree the ancient sea and lake must have affected the inter-Andean
climate, from Cuzco to the south, throughout the lacustrine basin of Titicaca,
giving it greater rainfall and fertility than it now has. Geological examinations
show that Titicaca was once one of the large lakes of the world, and that it has
slowly been drying up. Does its gradual diminution date from the disappearance
of the Pampean Sea and Mojos Lake ?

Savage man may have lived in South America on the mountain slopes round
the ancient sea. If so, he possibly hunted the mastodon, the megatherium, and
numerous other of the gigantic fauna which probably were co-existent with him.
His only highway, between the eastern and western halves of the continent, must
have crossed the elevated region at the head of the Pampean Sea, lying between
17° and 19° south latitude, which is still the only route in use for communication
by land between Bolivia and Matto Grosso.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On Waves.' By Vaucuan Cornisu, I/.Sc., F.R.GS., FCS.

The author is engaged upon an investigation of the phenomena of waves as
far as they come within the scope of physical geography, and he exhibited to
the Section a series of lantern slides illustrating various branches of the subject,
including ocean waves, breakers, the tidal bore, ship waves, waves of rivers, the
rippling of sand by wind, sand dunes, ripple mark and ripple drift, wave clouds,
and rock waves.

2. Report on the Climate of Tropical Africa.
See Reports, p. 603.

3. The Temperature and Salinity of the Surface Waters of the North
Atlantic during the years 1895-96. By H. N. Dickson, F.R.S.L.

The author described the first results of a discussion of observations of surface
temperature made in the North Atlantic during the two complete years 1895 and

} The Paper will be published in the Geographical Journal.

938 REPORT—1898.

1896 by the captains and officers of merchant ships. At the request of the author
the captains of a number of the vessels also collected daily samples of surface water,
and the densities of these, numbering about 5,000 in all, have been determined by
eblorine titration. The material has been found sufficient to allow of the construc-
tion of charts showing the distribution of temperature and salinity over a large
part of the area during each of the twenty-four consecutive months. The series,
which is the first of its kind, shows the progressive changes in the manner of
synoptic charts, and provides the data necessary for extending the work recently
done in and around the North Sea, in connection with sea-fisheries and long-period
weather forecasting. Specimens of the maps were shown on the screen.

4. The Oceanographical Results of the Austro-Hungarian Deep-sea
Expeditions 1890-96.! By Dr. K. Narrerer.

The chemical investigations carried out by the author on board the vessels of
the Austro-Hungarian deep-sea expeditions in the Eastern Mediterranean, Black
Sea, and Red Sea took account of the dissolved oxygen, the chemical composition
of the sea water, and the character of the deep-sea deposits, In places such as the
neighbourhood of the Nile Delta, where the low salinity of the sea water keeps
the same layer on the surface for a great length of time, and where diatoms are
very abundant, the amount of dissolved oxygen was found to be greater than could
have been absorbed from the air. Hence such portions of the sea replenish the
oxygen supply of the atmosphere by the action of light on the marine vegetable
organisms.

The nature of the deep-sea deposits was found to be largely dependent on the
precipitation of carbonates and silicates, which are obtained by the solution of terri-
genous deposits. Through the ammonia and carbonic acid produced by the slow
oxidation of organic matter in the deep-sea ooze this precipitate often forms a
continuous stony crust on the surface of the sea-bed, where its formation is not
retarded by falling particles or remains of surface organisms.

In the Sea of Marmora solution, not sedimentation, is the rule, and this sea
has peculiarly steep walls, subject to earthquakes, after one of which, in 1894, the
depth was found to have been distinctly increased.

The author’s study of the Red Seaand its bordering deserts leads him to believe
that a very important part is played in rainless regions by the capillary ascent of
sea water in the rocks bordering the sea, and that owing to the evaporation of the
water thus drawn up are formed many of the salt and gypsum deposits found in the
deserts.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

The following Papers were read :-—

1. Theories on the Distribution of the Oceans and Continents.
By J. W. Grecory, D.Sc.

The main object of geomorphology is to explain the existing distribution of
land and water on the globe. A remarkable series of coincidences in the form and
arrangement of the land masses suggests that the distribution has been determined
by some general principle and not by local accidents. The three most striking
features that require explanation are the antipodal position of oceans and continents,
the triangular shape of the geographical units, and the excess of water in the
southern hemisphere. Attempts to explain this arrangement have been made
deductively from general physical considerations, as by Elie de Beaumont, Lowthian
Green, and G. H. Darwin; and directly from the evidence of stratigraphical

1 The full Paper is published in the Scottish Geographical Magazine.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 939

geolozy, as by Suess, Lapworth, and Michel-Levy. Thus Elie de Beaumont re-
garded the form of the continents as determined by the mountain chains, which he
correlated into a regular geometrical network; while Lapworth regarded the dis-
tribution of land and water as due to a series of great earth-folds, the arches
forming the continents, and the troughs forming the ocean basins. Suess has
treated the subject synthetically ; he has shown that the structure of the globe
can be explained by subsidences in the crust when subterranean support is removed
by the shrinkage of the internal nucleus, and by the movements of elevation which
produce the chains of fold-mountains. Suess’s view explains the structure of the
continents and ocean basins, but not their arrangement. To settle this problem
fuller knowledge is needed as to the distribution of land and water in past times.
Neumayr’s attempt to settle this question for the Jurassic was premature, and his
conclusionsare untenable. We are thus still dependent upon the deductive systems
for suggestions as to the most profitable lines of research. Elie de Beaumont’s
famous scheme attached undue importance to linear symmetry and was too artificial.
It led, however, to the tetrahedral theory of Lowthian Green, which regards the
world, not as shaped like a simple tetrahedron, but as a spheroid slightly flattened
on four faces. Such flattenings occur on hollow, spherical shells, when they are
deformed by uniformly distributed external pressure. The oceans would occupy
the four depressions thus produced, and the land masses occur at the angles and
along the edges, The existing geographical arrangement is in general agreement
with this scheme ; for as the tetrahedron is hemihedral the assumption that the
lithosphere is tetrahedral explains the antipodal position of land and water, the
excess of water in the southern hemisphere, and the southward tapering of the
land masses. The main lines of the existing system of fold-mountains have a
general agreement with the arrangement of tlie edges of a tetrahedron. Some
striking deviations occur, but are explicable by the variations in the composition
of the lithosphere, and the existence of impassive blocks of old strata which have
moulded the latter movements. The lines of the old fold-mountains of the Hercy-
nian system may have been tetrahedrally arranged, with the axes occupying
different positions from those of the great Cainozoic mountain system. So far,
however, there is no completely satisfactory theory of geomorphology, for which
wwe must wait for further information as to the distribution of land and water in
successive epochs of the world’s history. For the historical method promises more
reliable results than the deductive method.

2. The Great Indian Earthquake of June 12, 1897. By R. D. OLDHAM.

The earthquake of June 12, 1897, in India was the largest and, with a few
possible exceptions, the most violent of which there is any record. The area over
which the shock was sensible was not less than 1,750,000 square miles, while the
focus occupied an area of 200 miles in length and 50 miles in width.

Landslips on an unprecedented scale were produced in the Garo and Khasia
Hills, and in the Himalayas north of Lower Assam, A number of lakes have been
produced by changes of level due to the earth-movements by which the earthquake
was caused, and the mountain peaks have been moved both vertically and hori-
zontally. Monuments of solid stone and forest trees have been broken across by
the violence of the shaking they have received. Communications of all kinds were
interrupted; bridges were overthrown, displaced, and in some cases thrust bodily
upwards to a height of as much as 20 feet, while the rails on the railways were
twisted and bent. Larth fissures were formed over an area larger than the United
Kingdom, and sand rents, from which sand and water were forced in solid streams
to a height of 3 to 5 feet above the ground, were opened in incalculable numbers.

The loss of life was comparatively small, owing to the time of day at which
the earthquake occurred—five o'clock in the afternoon—and the damage done
was reduced by the fact that there are no large cities within the area of
maximum violence ; but in extent and capacity of destruction, as distinguished from

.

94.0 REPORT—1 898.

destruction actually accomplished, this earthquake surpasses any of which there is
historical record, not even excepting the great earthquake of Lisbon in 1755.

3. On Earthquake Study. By Professor J. Mitne, /.2.S.

The author described the methods of seismological research now in use, and
the progress that has been made in the establishment of seismometers in different
parts of the world. The utility of these researches has been recognised by sub-
marine cable companies as supplying a means of ascertaining the exact date of the
fracture of cables by earthquakes, and in avoiding regions subject to earthquake
disturbance when laying cables. The researches haye also been of value to
engineers in designing houses, bridges, and other structures to resist earthquake
shocks.

4. The Valley of the Yangtze. By Mrs. Isapetzta L. Bisnop, F.R.G.S.

The author recently travelled for eight months in the Yangtze Valley, making
a journey of 1,200 miles by land in the Province of Sze-chuan, and nearly 2,000
by water, from Cheng-tu to Shanghai, during the land journey travelling up the
smaller and western branch of the Min to its source at an altitude of nearly 1,100
feet, near the Tsu-kuh-shan Pass. In the opening of the paper she briefly traced
the course of the Yangtze from the sea near Shanghai to its source on the confines
of the Tibetan Steppes, pointing out the magnitude and utility of the affluents which
it receives after its entrance into Sze-chuan, and the access given by these water-
ways into the very centre of the interior. Taking the Yangtze Valley in its full
geographical sense, the region watered by the Great River and its affluents, as
extending westwards for about 3,000 miles, and into the very heart of Asia, Mrs.
Bishop pointed out that this region must be taken as including the Provinces of
Kiavgsu, Anhui, Hupeh, Honan, Hunan, Kwei-chow, Kiangsi, Ganhuy, Sze-chuan,
Chekiang, and parts of Yunnan, Kansuh, and Shensi, making altogether the most
accessible, the richest, and the most productive portion of the Empire, with an in-
dustrious and thrifty population of from 150,000,000 to 180,000,000. After briefly
alluding to the treaty ports and the great cities of the Lower Yangtze, she entered
more into detail regarding the country above Ichang, the head of steam navigation,
and specially as to Sze-chuan, which, in virtue of its area, population, and resources,
she considers the Empire Province of China. She described briefly the industries
of the province, its superb climate, its vast wealth in coal and iron, its elaborately
organised civilisation and modes of communication, the increase in the growth
and export of opium, and in the import of Indian yarn for home weaving, and
expressed the opinion that the increasing scarcity of cash, the fall in the purchasing
power of silver, the /ikin, and the neglect of our manufacturers to study the needs
of the Chinese as to the width, weight, texture, and patterns of cotton cloth, limit
and hamper trade far more than the lack of steam communication on the Upper
Yangtze. She noticed the genius for combination which exists among the Chinese,
and stated that in Sze-chuan, with its population estimated at from fifty to seventy
millions, every occupation has its guild, except trackers and water-carriers.
While recognising the fact that this province is over-populated, she considers that
it has an enormous amount of weulth and prosperity, and gave, among other indi-
cations of the former, the numerous fine country mansions of a leisured class, the
size and architecture of the farm-houses, the handsome bridges and fine roads pre-
sented by rich men to their localities, the splendid halls erected by the guilds, the
new temples, and the magnificent charities which are liberally supported in every
city. Ignorance and superstition prevail, but she believes that the hostility
shown to foreigners, who from having been ‘Sons of the Ocean’ a few years ago,
are now ‘ Foreign Devils,’ ‘ Child Eaters,’ and worse, is instigated and fomented by
the official class for easily guessed purposes of their own. She gave her own
impressions of the Chinese peasantry of the Yangtze Valley, and concluded by
reminding the audience that this ‘sphere of influence’ or ‘interest’ extends over
a third of China.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 941

5. Across the Sierra Madre from Mazatlan to Durango.
By O. H. Howarru.

The journey now to be described was undertaken in April of the present year,
over a trail which, so far as the author is aware, has not previously been described
by any European. It crosses the main range of Western Mexico on a line about
120 miles south of that followed by him in 1892, and referred to in a paper com-
municated to the Geographical Society in 1893. The recent erection of a direct
telegraph line connecting the port of Mazatlan with the city of Durango led to the
exploration of this new trail, it having been otherwise impracticable for any pur-
pose except the casual mule traffic of the natives. The line runs in a north-
easterly direction from the Pacific coast between the 23rd and 24th parallels
N. lat., traversing an exceedingly wild and rugged district of the main range for a
distance of 130 miles in a direct line, but nearer 200 miles following the precipitous
contour of the mountains. There is probably no route through the great western
range of North America exhibiting such vast alternations of elevation and depres-
sion within so comparatively limited an area. From Mazatlan the route followed
was by a waggon road to the village of Presidio or Villa Union (alt. 120-feet),
and thence to Concordia (alt. 380 feet), Piedra Blanca (610 feet), and the little
mining town of Copala (1,750 feet), which was reached on the evening of Easter
Sunday. Up to this point the ascent is generally an even gradient amongst the
foothills for the first 30 miles or thereabouts; but for some 70 to 80 miles further
the range is constantly broken by enormous chasms which the trail traverses by
repeated zigzag ascents and descents, frequently of 1,500 to 2,000 feet within a
horizontal distance of 2 or 3 miles. Between the ranche of Ocotes and the canon
of the Rio Valuarte a descent of 1,750 feet was made in a couple of hours; and on
the afternoon of the same day the party camped at a point 4,600 feet above this,
on the first ‘Cumbre’ or dividing ridge. arly the next morning the pass of Los
Monos was entered at an elevation of 6,850 feet; and after descending again
2,000 feet to the Llanito (little plain) of Chavarria, another ridge of the Cumbre
was crossed the same day at 9,600 feet altitude. Throughout this region, remark-
able for the grandeur of its scenery, the main ridge of the western anticline,
averaging 10,000 to 11,000 feet, seems to be split up into three or four parallel
ranges with the above-mentioned deep gorges separating them. Beyond these
commences a gradual descent from one to another of the curious mountain plateaus
or ‘Llanos,’ including those of Las Juntas, Florida, Rusia, Mesa de Madrofio,
Coyotes, and Llano Grande, at altitudes from 9,100 down to 8,400 feet. These
are usually open levels free from forest growth, and are utilised as grazing ground
for cattle. Occasionally, on the higher of them, where a water parting occurs,
may be seen a continuous stream course intersecting a plain not over a mile or so
in length, at the ends of which the water is flowing in opposite directions, Beyond
the Llano Grande extends a vast ‘mesa’ or tableland covered with scattered pine
and other trees for a distance of some 30 to 40 miles at an altitude of 8,000 feet.
A\s this approaches the last hill range overlooking the great plain of Durango the
ground becomes open and clear of timber, forming to all appearance an uninter-
rupted sweep towards the brow of the range. Yet within a mile of this last
descent the traveller finds himself suddenly on the brink of the tremendous gorge
of the Rio Chico—a winding rift across the level which has to be descended to a
depth of nearly 2,000 feet. Its geological structure is of great interest, exposing
about half-way down a massive stream of pale grey vitreous lava, which has been
covered to a depth of several hundred feet by other formations and sedimentary
detritus. On reascending the opposite face and proceeding to the edge of the
range the plain of Durango comes in view, with the city a few miles from the foot
of the last descent. This was reached on the evening of the seventhday from
Mazatlan. The observations as to physical structure, temperatures, vegetation, and
especially the human and animal occupants of these remote mountain fastnesses
were of more than ordinary interest, presenting several features distinct from
those noticed in other parts of the Western Sierras.

94.2 REPORT—1898.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
This Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Political Geography. By J. Scorr Kextiz, LL.D., Sec. B.GS.

Geography, like most other departments of science, is capable of practical
applications to human affairs, and the application of the data of physical geography
and anthropogeography to Communities, States, or Nations is Political Geography.

Physical conditions, such as position on the Earth’s surface, determining seasons
and climate, the surface characteristics of a region, such as its orography and
hydrography, and the dimensions of the territory, all have direct bearings on the
State. The question of boundaries and their definition is of vital importance in
this respect, the natural limit of a neutral zone of desert, or at least waste land
between two nations, gave way to the defined frontier, as often as not an arbitrary
line not coincident with any natural feature, and of a validity depending on the
general acceptation of the treaties by which it is defined.

The utilisation of natural resources and the amelioration of routes by land or
water do much to develop a country, and bring out the real relation between land
and people, which is the direct subject of political geography. The internal
conditions of a country are to some extent responsible even for the forms of its
government and its relations with other States. These are expressed peacefully
mainly by international commerce, which takes place in spite of barriers both
natural—such as seas, deserts, mountains—and artificial—such as Customs tariffs.

Internal development Jeads in certain circumstances to colonial expansion, and
the relations of colonies to the mother country varies in accordance with the
character of land and people. The rapid acquisition of foreign territory in recent
years has given rise to certain new features of political geography—the sphere of
influence, the leased territory, and the military occupation being the more
important of these.

2. The Prospects of Antarctic Research. By Hucu Roxzert MILL,
D.Se., ERS EL.

The problem of Antarctic exploration has varied in the course of the centuries
from the purely theoretical discussion of the possibility of antipodes, to the search
for a vast Austral continent of value to colonists and commerce. Since the
voyage of Cook confined the limits of Antarctica to the south frigid zone, and the
efforts of the few whalers and sealers of the early part of the present century
proved that it could not rival the Arctic regions as a hunting-ground, the problem
has become purely a scientific one.

As a field for scientific research the Antarctic has been kept before the public
by Dr. Neumayer, of Hamburg, for thirty years, and in recent years Sir John
Murray and Sir Clements Markham have been indefatigable in pressing upon suc-
cessive Governments the claims of this region fora national expedition. The Royal
Society, the Royal Geographical Society, and the British Association have given
their powerful interest to the movement, but in vain.

The immediate prospects of research are more favourable than the action of
Government might imply. A small Belgian expedition with a band of scientific
enthusiasts is now in the field, and Sir George Newnes has sent out the Southern
Cross with Mr. Borchgrevink to make an attempt to traverse the ice-cap from
Cape Adare. The results of this expedition may be valuable, but they can only
be viewed as preliminary. A German Committee has completed arrangements

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 943

for sending out a finely-equipped expedition under Dr. Erich von Drygalski in
1900, and the Royal Geographical Society has headed a subscription list for a
British expedition with 5,000/. Itis urgently important that the great expeditions
now being organised should not be in any sense rival projects; but that they should
work in harmony, so as to make the greatest possible number of simultaneous and
comparable observations on such important and little-known phenomena as the
meteorology and magnetic conditions of the south polar area. The preliminary
results of the expeditions already at work will probably arrive in time to enable
the plans of the larger enterprises to be laid with greater certainty than our present
knowledge of the region will allow.

3. The National Photographic Record. By Sir Bensamin Stone, IP.

4, Sokotra. By Mrs. THEoDoRE BeEnv.

The name of the Island of Sokotra is probably a remnant of its old name, Diu
Sukutera, corrupted by the Greeks into Dioscorides. It may, as Marriette Bey
suggested, represent To Nuter of the Egyptian monuments.

Though geographically African, it is politically Arabian, having from far back
ages been under the rule of the Mahri Sultan, as it is now.

The principal language spoken is called Sokoterioti. Mahri, or Mehri, and
Ayvabic are also spoken, and many words of these languages are mingled in Soko-
terioti, chiefly the former. The language is very polysyllabic.

The chief mountain range is Haghier, a high-shouldered, many-peaked mass.
The highest point is Jebel Bit Molek, at 4,900 feet. All but the highest needles
are densely covered with vegetation, where the civet cat is the largest wild beast,
unless the wild ass may be considered such.

The north of the island has many khors, or inlets, where the sea runs in a mile
or more, and also many lagoons fringed with palms and mangrove, separated by
sandy bars from the sea.

The rivers on the north reach the lagoons, those on the south lose themselves
in the sandy plain of Noget. In many places the mountains run out to the sea.
There are many streams in the mountains, but little water in the E., W., and
particularly S.W. parts of the island.

Inland large flocks and herds are tended by Bedouin living in little oval

houses or mountain caves, according to the season. Pasture is very plentiful. The

coast villages are inhabited by mongrel races, who export ghee and sharks’ fins,
but little of the myrrhs, gums, aloes, or dragon’s blood once so famous. There is
little cultivation of gourds, jowari, and tobacco, but tea and coffee might possibly
ow.

e Natural vegetation assumes strange forms, as adeniums and cucumber trees,
with swollen trunk, dragon’s blood trees, euphorbias, &c. There were an enor-
mous variety of non-marine molluscs. The inhabitants are peaceable and honest.
We saw no traces of Christianity but a few inscribed crosses, none whatever of
Greek occupation, and little of Portuguese.

5. The Upper Nile. By Sir Cuartes W. Witson, #.Z., K.C.B., FBS.

6. Twenty-eight Years in Central Australia. By Louis pp RouGEmont.

94.4 REPORT—1898.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Zirah. By Coronet Sir Tuomas Hoxpicn, &.£.!

How the kingdom of Afghanistan came into existence. Its unstable nature
and want of national vitality. The mixed elements of which it is composed. Its
position as a buffer State, and the new creation of a buffer province between
Afghanistan and India.

The demarcation of the boundaries of this province and the results. The
reason for the late risings on the frontier as given by the people themselves.
Geographical results. Up till the year 1897 we had a better knowledge of
Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Persia than we had of our own border.

The province of Roh and the Rohillas. Its position as a natural barrier to
North-western India. The gateways through it, by which invasions have been
conducted and the conquest of India from time to time effected. Position of Tirah
in this new province of Roh, Geographical description. Nature of the roads
leading into Tirah and reason for adopting the shortest line. Difficulty of passes.
Description of Chagru Pass and Khanki Valley ; of Sanpagha Pass and Mashura
Valley ; of Arhanga Pass and Maidan. The richness of its soil and formation of
the cultivated slopes. Terraces and houses. Population and probable fighting
strength of the tribe. Conclusion——future possibilities.

2. Christmas Island. By C. W. ANDREWS.

The author gave a short account of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, where he
stayed the greater part of a year. It is a raised coral atoll, which during its
elevation has been surrounded by a series of reefs, so that now it presents the
appearance of a flat-topped island, the coast of which is formed by a succession of
step-like cliffs. The whole is covered by dense forest and jungle, which renders
exploration difficult. The fauna and flora are specially interesting, on account of
the isolation of the place. The most conspicuous animals are rats, land crabs, and
frigate birds, the two latter forming the chief articles of food. There is also a wild
sago palm, which is valuable for the same purpose.

3. Notes on a Visit to North-Eastern Kamchatka.
By Captain G. E. H. Barrerr-Haminton. 4

The north-east of Kamchatka is as yet only imperfectly surveyed, much of the
coast-line being still represented by a dotted line on the Admiralty charts. It is
very rarely visited ; hence the observations made and the photographs taken during
the cruise of H.M.S. Linnet off the coast, in August, 1897, possess some interest.
They chiefly concern the island of Karaginski, situated in 59° N. and 164° E., about
twenty miles off shore, and the neighbouring village of Karaga on the mainland.
The mountains of this region do not probably exceed 4,000 feet in height, and in
August still showed patches of snow. The village of Karaga contains seventeen
balagans, or wooden huts, raised on piles to a height of about 10 feet from the
ground, and six yurts, or wooden huts covered over with turf. The population of
the village probably does not exceed thirty. The people were found to be very
friendly, remarkably polite, and able to converse in Russian. Mosquitoes were a
plague, and the natives wear skin gloves as a protection. Dug-out canoes are in
use on the mainland, but only skin boats on the island. The islanders appeared
to be very few in number, and exceedingly primitive and quaint in their ways.
They dressed almost exclusively in home-made skin clothing; the nether garments,

» The Paper will appear in the Scottish Geographical Magazine.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 945

as on the mainland, were boots and breeches in one, They keep reindeer and
sledge-dogs.

The paper was illustrated by a series of lantern-slides from photographs taken
during the visit.

4. The Impending Economic Revolution in China. By G. G. CHISHOLM.

5. On a Proposed Great Globe. By Professor Exishe Recwuvs.!

The author advocated the construction of a terrestrial globe on the scale of
1 : 500000—i.e. about 84 feet in diameter, the surface of which should show the
relief of the Earth’s surface on the same scale. He dwelt upon the educational
and scientific value of a globe constructed in this way.

6. The Edinburgh Outlook Tower. By Professor Parrick GEDDES.

The intellectual tradition of Edinburgh is not only one of education but of
publication, and this not only of abstract philosophy, but also very largely of con-
erete encyclopedias,” and notably also of atlases, maps, and gazetteers. An ancient
metropolis of national life and government, it remains a centre of historic interest
and tourist resort. Unusually rich and complete in all the elements of a Regional
Survey, it is also interested in world survey ;* and if politically less important
in the practical world than of old, it has become more widely connected with the
world than ever—witness the proverbially wide dispersion of Scotsmen through
England and the Empire, through America, and indeed through the whole world.
Its great names are thus truly representative—Scott or Stevenson of the historic
and romantic interest of their geographic microcosm; Adam Smith and his canny
following of the economic shrewdness and foresight of a race disciplined by
northern winters. These characteristic special interests and practical activities are
thus really, alike in region and race, in unison; and the problem of the Outlook
Tower is to express these, to give them objective expression, as the many sides of
a single regional and racial development, in short as a geographic unity. This
Regional Outlook Tower is thus itself a regional product; although its principle is
easily adaptable to every region, as that of an encyclopedia may be used anywhere.

I. The Tower, therefore, in the first place, has arisen from the attempt again to
prepare an encyclopedia, but now in rational order, exhibiting things in their
mutual relations. Things are not mainly in printed, but in graphic form, and
in rational order—z.e. with all subjects shown as far as possible in their mutual
relations. Its basement rooms are thus planned first for an outline classification of
the arts and sciences; of course not losing the traditions from Aristotle or Bacon
to Comte and Spencer, but attempting a simple restatement of these. So far,
however, its appeal is primarily to students of the special arts and sciences on the
one hand; to the professed scientific philosopher on the other. To a more con-
crete treatment, however, and now one of direct appeal to the geographer, all the
remaining storeys are devoted; the familiar rival methods of approach—(a) the
narrowing from World through Europe, Empire to Scotland, City and actual
Prospect and Neighbourhood ; and (4) the starting with the most intimate detail of
these and widening outwards to the World—heing reconciled and equally utilised by
the simple device of devoting one storey of the Tower to each of these areas.
Thus the exhibition of the ground-floor centres round a globe with an outline
survey of the main concepts of World-geography—e.g. an incipient collection of
maps and illustrative landscapes, an outline of the progress of geographical dis-
covery and of map-making, &c. The first floor is devoted to the geography and
history of Europe in correspondingly fuller treatment; the second is set apart for

The Paper will appear in the Scottish Geographical Magazine.
Eg. Encyc. Brit., Chambers’s Encye., &c.
Cf. the Royal Scottish Geographical Society or the Challenger Expedition.

898. 3P

mt od we

946 REPORT—1898.

an outline geography and history of the English-speaking world, the United States
having a room on the same level as the British Empire. On the third storey is
preparing a corresponding survey of Scotland, viewed at once as an historic and
social entity and as an element of greater nationality; while the fourth storey,
naturally as yet in the most advanced state of preparation, is a museum of Edin-
burgh, though again not without comparison with Scottish and other cities. The
flat roof of Prospect bears a turret of culminating outlook with a Camera Obscura,
an old-fashioned instrument, but of great educational future, geographic and
artistic alike.

Descending from the roof to the uppermost storey, this succession and unity of
the physical, organic, and social conditions is better understood. Thus the relief
model of the site of Edinburgh brings indispensable light on the interpretation of
the antique and the modern city, its military history or its industrial present, its
medical eminence or its picturesque interest.

Similarly for the storeys of Empire and Language, Europe, or World. On
each level the view of Nature as determining man is complemented by that of
man as more or less re-determining Nature.

The educational uses, whether to passing tourist or professed teacher, of such a
Geographical School and Exhibition have already been proved in the Regional
Studies which have for many years characterised the Edinburgh Summer Meeting.
To the Great Globe projected by M. Elisée Reclus, wherever erected, such a
Regional Tower is the necessary complement, its regional relief maps on greater
scale, &c., furnishing, as it were, the corresponding regional microscope, bringing
out the portions of the globe most interesting at that particular centre with
clearer light and fuller detail.

II. Finally, the Tower has not only a scientific but a practical aspect ; it is not
only a Geographic Exhibition, but a Geotechnic Laboratory. On the level of the
City are thus to be found not only the photographic survey of Edinburgh, but the
plans and business detail of that repair or renewal of large portions of the historic
city which has now been for many years in progress. The interests alike of
archeology and public health, of esthetics and finance, of the housing of the
people, and of the collegiate beginnings for the academic community are here, so
far as may be, reconciled in actual practice.

Similarly on the level of Scotland, the practical interests and requirements of
forestry or fisheries, of agriculture or manufactures, are being set forth, and
notably, for instance, the rival projects of the great Forth and Clyde Ship Canal,
which so many circumstances, alike commercial and naval, are again combining to
bring forward.

The practical economics of the Empire and Europe, even some outline of the
Geotechnic possibilities of the world, are similarly being sketched. or the illustra-
tion of associated practical and experimental beginnings analogous to those of
Edinburgh have been selected some aspects of the practical economics of Cyprus
—chosen as a geographical and historic, racial and social microcosm; and as a
unique region which, while practically a portion of the Colonial Empire, at once
unites many of the most characteristic developments and problems of the Old
World, since still, as of old, linking Europe with Asia, and both, through Egypt,
even with Africa.

In such ways the methods of the Outlook Tower come to unite scientific and
educational aims with practical and public interest. It seeks not only to draft
and outline, but even graphically visualise, a synthesis, an encyclopedia of ordered
Imowledge, and similarly to outline a correspondingly detailed Synergy of orderly
actions. Regional Survey thus passes into Regional Activity, Regional Develop-
ment. Hence the geographer, whose maps have so long recorded and prepared
the (Regional) game of war, may here increasingly look forward to no less
concrete and detailed regional organisation of the productive energies and possi-
bilities of peace. And it is only in some such concrete way as that here proposed
that the present widely discussed aspirations towards checking the spread of
mi'itarism can be effectively realised, or even concretely discussed.

|

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 947

III. In Bristol at this moment are.all the elements of a thorough Regional
Survey, and this not only with map and guide-book. The observer of artistic
temperament may start from the Clifton Camera, with its outlook of colour and
stone, the very ideal of impressionist art, while the more strictly geographic outlook
is that of the Cabot Tower, with its admirable orientation brasses, pointing not
only to the city and the remoter prospect, but to the British Isles and the world
of imagination and discovery. Among the papers read to the Sections of the
British Association are a notable (and yearly increasing) proportion which take up
each its part of a definite survey of this or that region, magnetic or meteorological,
geological or biological, anthropological or industrial. economic or photographic ;
and these now need co-ordination in a Regional Survey of Britain. The excursions
of the Association are thus not only the needful recreative and social elements of
the scientific gathering, but also (with all respect to presidential addresses) the
most synthetic ones. Each excursion is thus a double lesson: first in investigation
in many separate sciences, but next in reuniting the results of these into the living
unity of Geography, which thus rises from the accurate specialisms of the carto-
grapher and relief-maker to the survey and interpretation of the whole living
world of Nature and of man.

The bearing of this principle of Regional Survey and the use of practical
centres, such as the Outlook Tower affords, is thus a great and increasing one.
The past generation has been occupied with the foundation or development of
innumerable schools and colleges, of scientific and technical institutions of all kinds.
But the incompleteness of such contributions to intellectual or practical progress,
as also the rivalry of our methods of education, here ‘ classical,’ there ‘ scientific,’
there ‘technical,’ alike tend to disappear as they become Regional.

Starting, then, from our own doors with an extending Regional Survey, and
with corresponding practical activities of home and school, our education becomes
once more, and that literally and concretely, the leading out of not only the
passive but also of the active powers. The varied educational resources of each
region or city, however extensive, thus require for their unity and completeness
the establishment of institutions corresponding to the Outlook Towers of Edin-
burgh and Bristol, and, like them, accessible both to child and citizen.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

1. The Orthography, Location, and Selection of Names for the National
Maps. By Henry T. Croox, Memb.Inst.C.£.

The method of determining correctly the location or orthography and relative
importance of place names for the national maps is a branch of cartographical
science which has scarcely received the attention its importance merits. With the
greater number of names which must appear there is no difficulty. It is with the

names of smaller places, detached houses, farms, and ground features of the re-
moter districts that the difficulties arise, yet the correctness of these is often of equal
importance topographically to those of populous towns and well-known places.

The Ordnance Survey system of obtaining the opinion of three persons in the
locality as authorities seems rather haphazard, for no qualification is required in
the authorities, nor does the ultimate selection in case of difference of opinion
appear to be anything better than empirical.

The Committee of Inquiry into the Ordnance Survey in 1892-93 paid little
attention to the subject except in the case of Welsh names, in which they consider
the system had not been altogether a success, The errors in other parts of the
kingdom largely arise from analogous causes to those investigated—namely, from
misunderstanding the local dialect or pronunciation. Wales and Scotland only
present the difficulties in a more acute form. :

The errors in names in the first map of Scotland led to the adoption of a method
for that country which is a step in the right direction—namely, seeking the

3P2

94:8 REPORT—1898.

assistance of local sccieties, in this case the Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
This principle carried out still further by the reference of doubtful names to more
strictly local societies, or a body constituted from them, is desirable. But if local
knowledge is desirable in the case of the orthography of place names, it is not only
desirable, but essential to success, in selecting the names for the smaller scale
maps. The present method is a failure, as witness the new one-inch maps in
Lancashire, where not only are the names of important places omitted or wrongly
placed, but the selection of names which do appear is generally unsatisfactory.
This arises from the modern method of producing the smaller scale maps—viz., the
mechanical reduction from the larger scale. It is stated that the names on the
smaller scale maps are gone over on the ground, but the revision seems perfunc-
tory. It does not prevent serious error. The revision of the survey generally
should have been carried out from local centres, where local knowledge and ex-
perience would have had their due weight. ‘

2. On the Employment of Balloons for Geographical Research.
By Capt. B. BapEN-PowE Lu, Scots Guards.

Many difficulties beset explorers in wild countries. Much time has to be
devoted to the journey, transport of supplies, hostility of natives, progress through
jungles, marshes, and rivers. Hot and unhealthy climates, or extreme cold, all
present great difficulties. There is, however, one high road which leads un-
obstructed to all parts—the air. An aéronaut, seated in the car of a balloon,
floats along above all impediments and obstructions, travelling day and night at
the speed of the wind, and with an extensive view of all the country below. But
there are two practical difficulties to be overcome. First, the balloon travels
wherever the wind chooses to take it; secondly, no free balloon has as yet ever
remained up longer than a day or two. Various methods have been suggested to
overcome these—propelling the balloon, utilising variable air currents, and sailing
with a guide-rope have been tried for directing, while for keeping a balloon at
given elevation vertical screws, compressing pumps, and guide-ropes have been
devised, the latter being the most practical solution. Actual leakage of gas is not
a serious matter with a good balloon, as sufficient ballast can be carried to com-
pensate for it. Man-lifting kites might be used instead of a balloon, but the trail-
rope would probably have to be of such a weight as to prohibit its practical use,
Before deciding on the details of a balloon outfit for such a journey, the locality
must be named. Egypt presents many most desirable qualifications: steady winds
prevail up the Nile, the deserts on either side are most favourable ground for
trailing over, Cairo forms a well-supplied base to start from, and the longer the
journey is continued the more interesting does the country become. The most
suitable equipment for such a country would consist of several balloons supporting
one car, an awning spread over the top, a lightning-conductor, a large sail, and a
long and heavy guide-rope; the car boat-shaped and waterproofed. The total
capacity of the balloons should be about 100,000 cubic feet, capable of lifting
nearly 7,000 lbs., which weight allows for four men, provisions and water to last
thirty days, and instruments, arms, &c. The leakage is estimated to necessitate
the discharge of about 140 bs. daily, and the consumption of provisions and dis-
charge of the ballast taken would enable the balloon to remain in the air, if
necessary, for over three weeks, during which time it might be expected to travel
some 6,000 miles,

3. The Use of Electric Balloon Signalling in Arctic and Antarctic
Expeditions, By Eric Stuart Bruce, M.A. Oxon., F.R.Met.Soe.

The absence of means of intercommunication is one of the most distressing
deprivations which befails the Arctic and Antarctic explorer. In Dr. Nansen’s
recent expedition, the want of some bond of communication between the drifting
ship and a party leaving the vessel for only short excursions was severely felt,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 94.9

and greatly restricted the researches of the expedition. A means of communica-
tion would be afforded by the system of electric balloon signalling invented by
the author, adopted for war signalling purposes by the British, Belgian, and
Italian Governments, and lately adapted to the wants of Arctic and Antarctic
exploration. Signalling with flag or lantern from the car of an ordinary captive
balloon, worked from the deck of a ship, is possible, but such a method necessitates
a large balloon with its cumbersome accessories, and is therefore impracticable in
Arctic expeditions. In electric balloon signalling, the signaller and most of the
apparatus remain on the ground or deck of ship. Since the weight of the car,
signaller, and apparatus is abolished, the balloon can be of such a moderate size
as to be practical. The apparatus consists of a balloon made of a translucent
material and filled with hydrogen or coal gas. In the balloon are placed several
incandescent electric lamps in metallic circuit with a source of electricity on the
ground or deck of ship. In the circuit on the deck is an apparatus for making
and breaking contact rapidly. By varying the duration of the flashes of light
in the balloon, it is possible to signal according to the Morse code. In the
signalling key there are carbon contacts, renewable when worn away by sparking.
The key is placed on a switch board, which is provided with a means of turning
the current on to the lamps in the balloon, either through the key or directly for:
continuous illumination. ‘The speed of signalling depends entirely upon the
thickness of the carbon filaments in the lamps.

The material selected for making electric balloons that are designed for Arctic
work is goldbeaters’ skin, which is light, strong, and retentive of hydrogen. The
smallest size goldbeaters’ skin balloon that would lift the lamps, and a suflicient
quantity of cable to be useful, is seven feet in diameter, and having a capacity of
150 cubic feet. It takes little over one tube to fill it.

The electric incandescent lamps inside the balloon are supported one above the
other on a holder made like a ladder. This form of ladder is convenient for
admission into the narrow neck of the balloon.

The electric cable combines lightness, flexibility, and current capacity, being
made of strands of copper, both leads being enclosed in one waterproofed outer
insulation. The source of electric power for lighting the lamps in the balloon
would probably be the dynamo, with which every future exploring vessel will
probably be provided, and which can be efficiently worked with wind or hand-
power. Ifa balloon and accessories is taken from the ship by an excursion
party, light and portable storage cells can be used. The gas for filling the
balloons can be compressed in steel cylinders, or a portable apparatus can he
used for making the hydrogen on the spot.

This system of signalling makes the signallers fairly independent of the con-
figuration of the country. An electric balloon ascending from the deck of the
exploring vessel would not only act as a beacon guide to exploring parties,
but would flash signals relating to the drift of the ship or any other desirable
communication. If an exploring party could take another balloon with them,
complete intercourse could be established. If the ‘Fram’ had had an electric
balloon afloat, it would have been probably seen by Dr. Nansen when he was
returning from his journey north, and possibly a long and perilous march might
have been avoided. An electric balloon would have been an important addi-
tion to an Arctic station such as Elmwood.

The electric balloon has been successfully manipulated, not only in calm and
fair weather, but in half a gale, a snowstorm and mist; signals have been read and
answered in spite of these adverse atmospherical conditions. Arctic records, how-
ever, include a large proportion of still and clear weather.

Continuously illuminated, and sent up a short distance from the ship, the
balloon would also be serviceable as a light for working parties, because of the
diffusion of light from the large surface.

Regarding the distance to which signals may be transmitted, it is reasonable
to expect that, given a sufficient altitude, a high candle power, and a clear atmo-
sphere, through a telescope the flashes would be visible some 80 or even 100
miles,

950 REPORT—1898.

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—James Bonar, M.A., LL.D., F.S.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Old Lights and New in Economic Study.

For many years after the founding of the British Asscciation sixty-seven years
ago, it furnished to serious and mature students of various branches of science
their chief, if not their only, opportunity of meeting one another in large numbers
to compare notes and discuss suggestions. The press and the railway were not
then what they are now; and it may be thought that the purposes which the
Association was formed to fulfil are now fulfilled equally well in other ways.
One advantage, indeed, remains unimpaired; devotees of one special study are
reminded that there are other studies than their own; they are in presence of a
federation of sciences more or less dependent on one another. Apart from this,
an itinerant association may be of particular service to economic students.
They enlarge their vision by changing their place of sojourn, They realise better
that the life of the English nation is in many respects more active in the provinces
than in the metropolis. Students of other subjects may be, as it were, detached
from locality and have the whole world, or at least no particular part of it, for
their hunting-ground. But there is a sense in which the economist or statistician
lives by the localities. They present him with experiments ready made on his
own chosen field, whether sad or glad, whether showing the dubious, if not dis-
heartening, effects of foreign bounties, or the encouraging results of wise municipal
enterprise. The visitors and the visited ought both to learn from one another, if
such meetings are not to be wasted. Economic students at Bristol will have them-
selves to blame if they do not discover that students from other quarters would
be in league with them, and desire both to get encouragement and to give it.
Bristol is the city not only of the Cabots, Canynges,Colston and Draper, Chatter-
ton, Hannah More and Southey, but of John Cary, Josiah Tucker, and Edmund
Burke. It has twice before this year been the meeting-place of the British
Association—in 1836 and in 1875. On the last occasion the Economic Section
was under the presidency of the distinguished statistician, Mr. James Heywood,
but lately gone from us. It held some important discussions. Professor Jevons
repeated his appeals, first made in 1865, on the subject of the Supply of Coal,
and read his paper on the Influence of the Period of Sun Spots on the Price of
Corn. The reasonings of the second paper are not now regarded as conclusive ;
economic periods are not to be strictly determined by physical alone. But the
warning of Jeyons, that we must expect to be straitened in our supplies of coal
before many score years, is still sounding in the ears of our public men, and, when
they have any leisure to think of remote evils, they nervously anticipate a time
when British progress will be slackened through the abridgment, or, at least, the

i i

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 951

inadequate expansion, of British resources. The one tangible effect of the warning
has been a somewhat speedier reduction of the National Debt.! The lessened
growth of population makes that reduction less marked, but it gives us at least a
slightly better prospect of moderating our own inroads on our coal and iron, while
the United States, our principal rivals, will soon need all the warnings that our
national candour kas so freely bestowed on ourselves. It is not a year (Dec. 14,
1897) since Mr. Leonard Courtney directed the thoughts of the Statistical Society
to the prophecies of Jevons. He considered them to have been fully justified by
the events of the last thirty years. Even so, he did not recommend any great
self-denying ordinance, any curtailment of consumption on a great scale for the
sake of future generations. We may by-and-by come to hold that the stationary
state is better than the progressive ; but every generation believes that for itself
the progressive is the better, and we may be sure every generation will use its
materials when they are there. It will probably be long before we are all con-
vinced that a State Coal Department is as needful here as a Department of Woods
and Forests in India. Nothing but the logic of compulsion will persuade large
bodies of men to suffer the hardships of a scarcity ; they are very unlikely to
deny themselves, when the rewards of the sacrifice are not for them, it may be
not for theirs, not quite certain, and quite certainly remote.

Seventy years before Jevons first wrote on the scarcity of coal, Edmund
Burke wrote on a scarcity which, at least till the present year, may have seemed
to us past and not future—a scarcity of corn. We have been reminded in the
earlier months of this year (1898) that such a scarcity is not entirely laid behind
us yet, and we may aptly, in Bristol in 1898, call to memory Burke’s ‘ Thoughts
and Details on Scarcity, originally presented to the Right Honourable William
Pitt in the month of November, 1795,’ near the close of Burke’s life.* Burke repre-
sented Bristol for six years (1774-80), suffered for Bristol because of America,
and suffered at Bristol because of Ireland. In this pamphlet Burke boldly stated
a new economic policy, or at least an economic policy which gained quite a new
importance when announced, as it was, by a statesman of the first rank addressing
another of as nearly equal rank as a man of great talent can be to a man of genius.
It is rare for economists to exercise a direct influence on politics. In our own
time we have witnessed this phenomenon, perhaps, only in Holland and in Austria.
In our own country few of our economists (Jevons being one of the few) have
had even as much power over the House of Commons as Bagehot over the Money
Market. But Burke, in this pamphlet, was economist and statesman in one.

The result is curious. Neither Adam Smith, nor Malthus, nor Ricardo ever
set down so roundly what is sometimes called the dogmatism of the older
economists as Burke has set it down in this pamphlet. Burke was a great part
of the political life of his time, and, like Gladstone and Bismarck, he remained so
even when he seemed to have quitted the field of action. The popular idea of the
dogmatism of the older economists may have been shaped to a large extent by the
words of those of their followers who were statesmen, and of these Burke was
the chief.

Burke is writing against the proposal to regulate wages by law and adapt them
to the price of food. He opposes all interference with farmers and corn-dealers.
He is against public granaries. He rises finely above prejudice when, after
saying that the poor are only poor because they are numerous, he adds that
the rich are dependent on them, rather than they on the rich. ‘The rich,’ he
says, ‘are trustees for those who labour, and the hoards of the rich are the
banking-houses of the poor.’ We agree less when he goes on to tell us that,
since ‘labour is a commodity, an article of trade,’ the interest of the buyer and the
seller thereof is, as in other contracts, one and the same so soon as the contract is
concluded, every contract being necessarily a compromise in which both parties
sacrifice and both gain. Thus the interest of the farmer and the labourer is not
only one by the special nature of the case; it is one and the same by the laws of

1 See Letters and Journals of Jevons, 1886, p. 224, &c.
2 Reprinted by the Charity Organisation Society, July, 1893.

952 REPORT—-1898.

commerce, which are ‘the laws of Nature,’ and therefore ‘the laws of God, and
Government must not interfere in the matter. But, alas! he sees Government is
too likely to interfere more and more, instead of less and less; and, as France has
had its evil day, there is a time coming for England too—its day of distress and
judgment.

When we hear these words we feel that; we are dealing with a man whose
‘thoughts’ are not ours, though his ‘details’ show us how little the world has
changed. The thoughts, however full of exaggeration, are those of the older
economists ; and political economy has passed through a severe ordeal since it
seemed to triumph under these leaders. In 1846, in the repeal of the Corn Laws
and the general abandonment of Protectivn, it won a great political victory only
to suffer political eclipse; it lost its attractiveness for statesmen. It could
no longer pose as the giver of plenty to a hungry people. It remained in a
position of respectability without power. Like a party in opposition, it was
probably none the worse for its obscurity. Work and discipline went on more
steadily ; honour and emoluments are not always the best inducements to the study
of truth. About the fact of the effacement there is no doubt, and as little doubt
that it came partly from the general impression that economists clung to obsolete
theories of bygone generations, such theories, for example, as were contained in
Burke’s pamphlet.

Ever since we gave up (if we ever held) the belief in the infallibility of the
older economists we have heen trying to make up our minds about the value of
their achievements. To call these men ‘classical’ is perhaps to beg the question.
‘ Classical’ suggests that they are a model for all time, especially in manner of
writing, and it suggests that they rule our thought as Plato and Aristotle still
govern the thinking of philosophers. Perhaps the second idea has truth in it, though
it must not lead us tc accept those economists, any more than these philosophers,
uncritically and with the halo of the unknown surrounding them. We are, after
all, nearer to the old economists than we are to Plato and Aristotle. Deference
to them, or even reference to them, is often set down to the illusions of antiqua-
rians. But the strata of human thought are as worthy of study as the strata of the
earth; and if, like the geological, they contain fossils, the fossils are relics of our
own past life, which we should surely recover if we could.

Some ‘earnest students,’ especially among our more cautious and prudent
philanthropists, lament that they cannot feel at home with the older economists,
while nevertheless they think they owe more to the older than to the new. They
have certainly one experience in common with the older. For the most part. the
opponents of the older in regard to the relief of the poor made more use of senti-
ment than of logic. Now, when a man is trying to work out his own view
logically, even from imperfect premises, he is not willing to be stopped by appeals
to feeling; such appeals are more likely to make him sure he is right than to sus-
pect he may be wrong. The emotional person may prove in the end to have had a
good case ; some facts that the man of intellect has missed may have been dimly
present to the man of feeling. But it has been a dim presentiment ; and too often
the perceptions, and especially the conceptions, have been clouded by the emotion.
The appeals of the man of feeling are not, as in real eloquence, logic rounded off
with emotion, but emotion rounded off with an appearance of logic. Economists
need to entertain him with caution. Men who are trying to make their studies
scientific cannot put confidence in feelings; emotion may be itself an object of
study, a factor to be taken into account in investigation, but it is no instru-
ment of study. The older economists were among the first to see this, as
well as to recognise that the phenomena of society, more particularly of poverty
and wealth, ought to be studied with the thoroughness and seriousness of science.
The repulsiveness of their writings for many of our philanthropists has been largely
due to this severe and stoical virtue. Men of strong feelings are unwilling to
depend on reasoning and observation, facts, figures, and arguments alone. They
count it all dry. In the Baconian sense, economic study can never be too dry;
with all our efforts we can never make it dry enough, for the dryness means

a,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 953

absence of prejudice, the endeavour to see cause and effect, reason and consequence,
as they really are.

Our prudent philanthropists have this endeavour after a dry light in common
with the older economists. But, even so, the latter seem to live in a different
world; their thoughts are not our thoughts. How is this?

It is partly because we live in a world that has been much altered since they
left it. ‘This is a phenomenon we can observe in our own half of the century. At.
the end of their half of it, John Mill, who was almost one of them, spoke of
Ricardo and the rest as ‘ old ;’1 and now John Millis old to ourselves. Nay, we say
to ourselves in reading Jevons or Bagehot that a good deal has happened since they
wrote; and if, instead of taking up the books of men who died in their prime, or
before it, we read the early works of men who outlived their reputation or lived
oblivious to the world’s changes, and wrote in 1890 as if they were still in 1850,
we understand that an economist does not need to have died in order to have
become antiquated. Toa growing man his own thoughts of twenty years ago
seem already old, but they are the thoughts out of which the later have sprung,
and they are not outgrown in the sense of cut away and discarded. Neither can
we cut away and discard the thoughts of the older economists, which we may
think, perhaps rightly, that we have outgrown. Ours are but the newest branches
of their tree of knowledge. Our thoughts are not their thoughts, but our thoughts
have grown out of their thoughts. If we had lived for 100 years and been as good
men as they the whole time, we should have begun with their thoughts and ended
with our own, and we should not have felt the last to be alien to the first; and,
even as it is, the growth has been continuous, though it be less easy here to dis-
cover all the stages than it is im the case of a single mind in a single man.

It is true that a great deal more than mere lepse of time creates a feeling of
separation and distance. If the writings, even of a great author, happen to come
immediately before years of rapid changes, the intervention of the changes—say
the French Revolution or the introduction of railways—cuts us off from our author
more effectually than if the years between us and him had been the long, slow, and
blissful years of unbroken political and intellectual peace. We find it harder to
judge whether our want of sympathy with him is due to our bias or his, and how
much of it is due to the changes in the world he lived in which make it not quite
the same world as ours.

Then the imperfection of all human records cannot fail to make the judgment
of the past somewhat more fallible than of the present. Presumably a man puts
his best thoughts into his books; but he does not always tell us there how he
arrived at them, and unless he is a living author he cannot be cross-examined.
We are often unable to see what led him to start where he did and stop where he
did, or what terminus he was keeping in view. In the case of an old book we often
find it hard to know how much was, in its day, taken for granted by every writer
as an article of ordinary faith and common-sense. What Hooker says of the Bible
applies to all writing whatever, even if it is comparatively near our own day; we
must make allowance for all that was assumed as the usual mental furniture of
writers and readers at the time of writing. Investigation, owing to the shortness
of human life, cannot extend with equal thoroughness to all subjects at once, even
of one class; and we need to know what were the subjects which our writers had
tacitly agreed to let alone. This is precisely where the older economists perplex
us a little. Many of their articles of common-sense have come nowadays to be
regarded as prejudices, They seemed, for example, to count it part of the nature of
things that one large section of society should lie at the mercy of another ; it hardly
struck them as a surprising phenomenon demanding inquiry. The philosophical
maxim that men should never be means to an end, but should always be ends in
themselves, has more credit now than it had a century ago; and the assumption of
the older economists that men are and must be instruments in each other's hands
gives to ordinary people the notion that these economists were of like passions with
the politicians who supposed all men to be merely pieces in their game. The old
economists were quite aware of the instinctive dislike of every man to be the tool

1 Pol, Ezon. iv., vi., § 2, p. 8308 (1848). Cf. Autobiography, p. 230.

954 REPORT—1898.

of another. They made concessions to it in the matter of slavery and forced
labour of all kinds. Their armoury had weapons against the pressgang and the
corvée. When there was no physical compulsion their misgivings slept. But, at
present, most of us feel that such a test is too rough and ready. One man may be
the tool of another under an oppression and compulsion that are not less severe
because not exercised by brute force; for example, there is the reluctant service
under a hard taskmaster, only rendered because penury and starvation are the
alternatives. To the older economists all kinds of subjection except that arising
from the legal property of one man in another were worthy to be tolerated, and
were in most cases regarded as inevitable. They had sympathy with the poor
according to their knowledge, but our sympathy is probably greater because we have
better knowledge of the condition of the poor. Reluctant subjection of one man to
another, though a fact of everyday life now as then, does not now leave us indifferent.
Willing subjection is also a familiar fact. It does not seem hard to us to acknow-
ledge our leaders and bid them take us and use us as their instruments. But,
between the extremes of (a) free subjection to a leader and (4) the submission of a
slave who has no choice in the matter, there are in our society various grades of
subjection to others, subjection for their ends chiefly, for our ends partly; and
they cannot be split into two simple groups by a physical test. Industry especially
gives plenty of instances of the temporary subjection of one man to another for
definite ends and over fixed periods of time. We can hardly cope with Nature suc-
cessfully at all without combining against her under leaders. It is certainly an
essential feature of our present industrial system. As a man commits his goods to
be used by another for him, so he commits his person to be so used, for another’s
benefit, but also for his own.

Now that slavery is gone, it has become as hard to prove a complete ‘expro-

priation and explottation’ of the labourer in industry as it is hard to prove plagi-
arism in literature. The degree of the ‘ eaploitation’ must always be considered.
Were the relations of employer and employed those of Prospero and Caliban, or
of Prospero and Ariel, or- only of Oberon and Puck? There are many degrees,
and it is a long way from the top to the bottom of the ladder. In an army the
leader is not using the led for his own purposes ; thouch he has soldiers under him,
he himself is a man under authority; and he is using them for a common cause,
which both have at heart. Such service is not servitude if the cause is really at
heart on both sides. So it might be, and is sometimes, in industry ; but we have at
present, perhaps, more of the worse degrees than of the better. There is little
liberty and much servitude when the workmen have no interest but their wages;
they are used directly for another’s ends and only indirectly and accidentally for
their own. ‘The leaders and the led can justly say of each other: they are nothing
to us but means to our ends, our profits, or our wages.
_ The old economists took little note of such distinctions. It seemed enough to
them that there was a legal contract. Even Burke, who spoke in his first
pamphlet (on ‘ Natural Society in 1756”) of the ‘slavery and burdens of the poor,’
and of nine out of ten of the human race as passing their life in miserable
drudgery, speaks in this last pamphlet (in 1795) as if there was no cause for
misgivings in this connection ; a contract once made could not be a hardship to
either party, for a contract is a compromise, both giving and both taking what
seems the best possible equivalent at the time.

Yet in almost all contracts there ‘is what Professor Pantaleoni! called lately
‘economic strength’ on the one side; and there is ‘economic weakness’ on the
other. It is where the weakness is great that the contract galls even if it has been
the less of two evils; and there appears to be as much servitude as liberty. The
weaker is made the tool of the stronger, the tenant of the landlord, the workman
of the employer, the clerk of the merchant. Professor Pantaleoni, with his inge-
nious casuistry, would persuade us that we can seldom pronounce on which side the
economic weakness lies, especially if we look to the future as well as the present.
He gives us many instances where the tables can be~easily turned. Like the
Platonic Socrates arguing in the ‘Republic’ against any sure definition of the

1 Eoonomic Journal, June, 1898.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 955

interest of the stronger, he hints that the antithesis can hardly be used with
confidence at all. ;

But a broad distinction is not unlawful or useless because there are border
cases that elude it. The vegetable world may be broadly distinguished from the
animal or from the inanimate, although there are equivocal creatures on the border
lines. So here in the industrial world we can make broad distinctions and pre-
serve them with a little care till we come to the border. If we interpret economic
strength to mean independence, we find that in most contracts the strength is
ascertainably greater on one side or the other; and it might be argued that con-
tracts are healthiest in proportion as the parties are nearest to equal independence.
It is desirable that they should be independent, not indeed of all authority, but of
the power of one another, so that neither shall be master, though the one may be
leader and the other may agree to follow. A large number of men, perhaps the
majority in civilised countries, are without this independence. It belongs, indeed,
not only to those of large possessions, but to all of great talents sure of their
market. It belongs, in a less degree, to ordinary skilled labour. But it does not
belong to the man possessed of an unmarketable talent and no second-rate powers
that are marketable. It belongs hardly at all to the day labourer, especially if he
has given hostages to fortune; his dependence is such as practically to fix his
fate inthe world. ‘A porter or day labourer,’ says Adam Smith, ‘ must continue
poor for ever.’ His dependence perpetuates itself.

Some modern economists have been so impressed with this overpowering
influence on the poor of their poverty that they have been tempted to make it the
chief factor of all history. Where there is no land to be had for the asking, they
say, or where there is no common ownership of the means of production, there is
necessarily weakness or dependence on the side of the employed. The causes of
this dependence are the causes that have made civilised nations what they are,
with all their institutions, political and social ; economic causes are the supreme
controlling, and even originating, causes of history.

If this were so, political economy, which began, like all other studies, by being
nobody in the world and after much toil was recognised indeed but only as ‘slight,
unmeritable, meet to be sent on errands,’ rather as a phase of wisdom than as a
branch of science, would end by being the only authority of any consequence.
This position, very trying to its natural modesty, is one which it should not be
flattered into hastily accepting. We must not carry into science the methods of
social revolt and say with the disinherited, ‘Since you grant me nothing, I shall
claim everything.’

It is no question whether economic conditions are one cause, but whether they
are the only real cause. That they are one cause is so evident that the earliest
theorists have paid regard to them. They have been ignored only in countries
where Nature has made livelihood easy, and man can with an easy mind take no
thought for the morrow, or for food, raiment, and dwelling. Elsewhere the struggle
for existence has never passed without notice. Wherever there is a marked dis-
tinction between rich and poor, the economic factor in human life is sure to acquire
great importance; and thoughtful men who are preoccupied with the discomforts
of the poor are ready to count the economic factor the most important, the leaven
that leavens the whole lump. This preoccupation is at the bottom of nearly all
Utopias, even the Greek of Phaleas and Plato. Once arrange the production and
distribution of wealth, and all other blessings will be added unto you; that is the
tone of them all. Sir Thomas More, whom we might call the Archon Eponymus
of modern socialists, would as a devout Christian have disclaimed such materialism ;
but in his own Utopia the chief peculiarities are the economic. The exaggeration
is one into which we easily slip if we gaze only on the truth that circumstances and
surroundings greatly influence human life; we become astonished that kings and
governments have so often neglected this truth, as if it were the only truth that
they have neglected. It was in this way that Robert Owen was led to over-
strain the facts; and socialists as a body have taken no special pains to avoid

1 Lectures, p. 223.

956 REPORT—1898.

exaggerations which could add a rhetorical force to their claim for a radical
change. But it has been left for very recent writers not almost but altogether to
ignore the influence of the spiritual environment, and to declare the material sur-
roundings to be not merely a great part but the whole, wherever the institutions
of society are concerned. This was first done by Marx and Engels. It has been
done lately by Professor Loria, and Professor Patten betrays an inclination to
follow the same course, though with more caution.

If our friends by their new ‘economic interpretation of history’ had meant no
more than the late Thorold Rogers by his, we should have little ground of quarrel.
The past generation has seen the historical and the theoretical economists reconciled.
We all acknowledge now that too little weight was attached to changing
historical conditions by the older economists; and, on the other hand, a new light
has been thrown on history by a closer attention to economic conditions. It was
shed by Adam Smith in his account, for example, of the decay of feudalism.
Buckle, too, cast a glimmer of it. It must of course be remembered that what we
read between the lines of history is not itself necessarily history. But we must
leave it to historians to punish the shortcomings of historians; and we must for
our part confess the failings of the economists. The older economists sometimes
mistook the peculiarities of their own epoch and country for invariable attributes
of humanity. The task of their successors has very largely been to decide which
of their ‘ categories’ are really historical and which permanent. This is in great
part the meaning, for example, of the restatement of their doctrines by Professor
Marshall and Professor Nicholson. It involves a historical interpretation of
economics, to be set side by side with the economic interpretation of history by
Professor Cunningham and Professor Ashley.

But the newest economic interpretation of history goes far beyond such modest
rendering to Cesar of the things that are Czsar’s. It is a substitution of
economics for history, as history has been hitherto understood. Formerly we used
to be told that all economics was relative to history; now we are to believe that
all history is relative to economics, men having been made what they are by
economical causes. Both dogmas seem not so much obviously untrue as obviously
beyond testing, for if all is tainted with relativity these dogmas themselves will
be so tainted, and we could not have formulated either of them without unclothing
ourselves of our epoch and rising above time and circumstance. It may be the
case that we do so rise and so unclothe ourselves; but there is no provision for the
privilege in the premises of our theorists, and it must therefore be denied to their
conclusions.

We need not have introduced this philosophical argument if there had not
been a claim of universality advanced by the economists in question. Most
economists are content with less than universality ; they are working out a limited
field with full consciousness of its limitations. The new thinkers are less humble.
Their method may almost be likened to the abstract method of the older econo-
mists with a denial that there is any need for the abstraction, a denial at least
that the field of economics has any boundaries.

What impressed the German socialists—Marx, Lassalle, Engels, Kautsky—was
the demonstrably economic character of many political changes of the last 300
years. In the course of industrial changes the medizval landowners gave up
their power to the capitalists, and the capitalists to the employers of labour.
Therefore, said the German socialists, all is due to a change in the prevailing
form of production. Where agriculture prevails, we have a territorial aristocracy,
a certain political system, and certain social institutions and laws; where commerce
prevails we have another system; where manufacture, a third. This explains the
vise of the middle classes into political power, but also the advance of the
working classes as a power that will displace them and be (as we are told it ought
to be) all in all. As in the economic theory of Marx and Engels all value is from
labour, so on the great scale of politics all power is to be with the labouring class.
Economic progress is thus the only real progress; the essence of all history is
economics ; the essence of all economics is labour. The steps of the progress (we
hear with mingled feelings) will be for the whole world what they have been for

os

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 957

England, the harbour of the exiles; and the steps will be taken without deliberate
human contrivance. We may look forward to the changed order as better than
the present, but we cannot either hasten or retard it; it will come of itself. We
cannot by taking thought add a cubit, or even an inch, to our stature.

The German socialists haye not had the gracelessness to live up to this
comfortable doctrine ; they have agitated like other people, preparing the way for
a change while declaring that it cannot possibly be hastened. Not agreeing with
them in the least in their doctrine of helplessness, most of us will welcome and
commend their inconsistent efforts to make the world better than it is; and they
have fairly earned exemption from the title of mere theorists.

The Italian form of the materialistic view of history has been expounded with
great ingenuity and learning by Professor Loria. It has excited interest chiefly in
academic circles, but need not be disparaged on that account. His theory is that
all progress is economic, and all economic change is due to the land and the growth
of population thereon. Though he contrives to differ from Malthus, they have
much in common ; and we cannot discuss the theory of our contemporary without
remembering that it is exactly 100 years since Malthus wrote his essay. Malthus
lived to be present with the British Association in Cambridge in June 1833,! dying
at St. Catherine’s, Bath, at the end of the following year. But he first made his
mark in 1798, when he grafted on economics his theory of population. Professor
Loria may be said to magnify that theory even when disputing it. He thinks
that, so long as there is free land, or abundance of room as well as food, men will
themselves be free. No one will be economically weak if he has always the option
of working as profitably for himself as for another. This is true, and we have had
recent instances. Jhama was afraid to sell hisland lest he and his should become
mere hewers of wood and drawers of water to the white men.” The same notion
seems to have prompted the recent resistance to the hut tax in Sierra Leone. Pro-
fessor Marshall, in his address to this Section in 1890 at Leeds, recalled to us the
difficulty felt in the United States fifty years ago by employers who imported
English workmen for their Eastern factories; the workmen moved west to become
free settlers. But Professor Loria tells us, besides, how the land ceases to play
this part. The growth of population leads to the disappearance of free land, and
therewith of the independence that went with it. The growth of population even
now leads to the pressure felt both in cities and in country districts. It affects
the higher, or protected or propertied classes ; they need to fence themselves about
with ‘connective institutions’ that support their rights of property. It leads
gradually to a less and less profitable production from the soil, and therefore to a
less and less profitable investment of capital. These effects, in their turn, lead to a
greater power of combined labourers against the employer. Professor Loria
expects in the end the victory of the combined labourers, since happily the men of
property are divided among themselves—agriculturists against manufacturers and
traders, for example—and there is a division of the revenue. In the end there will
prevail a form of co-operative labour. The labourer’s option will be restored to him
(though hardly, we may presume, in the form of free land), and dependence in the
obnoxious sense of economic weakness over against economic strength will vanish.
The Professor agrees with the Germans that we cannot work out this salvation, or
even hasten it. We can only stand at a distance and behold the Promised Land.

That some such consummation is devoutly to be wished, and even perhaps
hopefully to be expected, is probably the conviction of many who do not encumber
their belief with a materialistic view of history. Instead of the material changes
bringing the moral transformation, we may think that the moral and intellectual
changes are a condition of the material reform. It seems to us to have been so
with ourselves in past times; we never work better than when we believe that our
future depends on ourselves, and we have not simply to wait for it. Marx and
Loria allow that the automatic establishment of better conditions of life is slow
and irregular. They say that the laws and governments of all civilised countries

1 See Signatures of Members, p. 36 (Cambridge, 1833).
2 Despatch of Mr. Moffat to Colonial Office, 1894.

958 REPORT—1898.

are obsolete, and yet persist in being. Surely, then, we might argue, there is there
a strong force acting against the overpowering economic causes? Are we to wait
till these old-fashioned fortifications fall down to the sound of our trumpets? Of
all reformers the most irritating are those who tell us to do nothing lest we should
make a mistake; but next should come those who tell us that even our mistakes
can have no effect whatever. If it should appear that there is more in the way
than obsolete laws, and that the laws persist bas: the manners and customs of
the people are set fast in the same groove as the laws, then no inarticulate and
spasmodic shouting should content us; we shall need the help of patient and
intelligent teaching. Transformation of manners and customs can be accomplished
slowly but surely by means of ideas, by the spoken word and example of life and
instruction of manners. Such means have been found needful to give a people its
first organisation, and will be needed, even in practical England, to organise them
for the final reform, if it be the final.

We are probably too hasty, even the oldest of us, in talking of final reforms and
final stages in development. We know little of development, and nothing of
finality. Our experience is that every stage in civilisation, or even in economic
theory, is temporary as a superstructure, though permanent as a foundation. Per-
haps it is the most certain fact of the future that our best economic writings of to-day
will then be dismissed as antiquated, and their diction slighted as careless English
of the nineteenth century. It needs no great gift of prophecy to foresee that a
hundred years hence our industrial conditions will have been much altered. The
resident domestic servant, much talked of in Bristol in 1875, will probably be no
longer resident. Production will be more democratic; it will be almost entirely of
articles used by the masses, and hardly at all of luxuries for the rich, high wages in
this way becoming really high. Working men and employers will meet on more
equal terms. Whereas even now we use the term ‘ master’ with timidity, it will
by-and-by be as wrong scientifically as ‘ the sun’s rising,’ though both may remain
current in the poetry of popular language. Our posterity may be living under a
system of low interest, small profits, high wages, and great companies. Possibly the
great companies will pass into the co-operative societies of Professor Loria’s vision.
It is to be feared that the advent of these, to supplant other forms of industry,
is not very near. Professor Pantaleoni considers that their present counter-
parts have nothing in principle and method to distinguish them from ordinary
ways of money-making.’ Their triumph, however, would mean a very desirable
shifting of the balance of industrial power. So far as can be seen, and we have
cases in point very close at hand, a long discipline and much instruction, and many
unsuccessful trials, will be needed before working men will follow leaders of theirown
choosing as obediently on the whole as they now submit to the direction of their
employers in their industrial work. But it is an acute remark of De Tocqueville,
repeated by M. Tarde,” that, when the ‘lower’ classes begin to imitate the ‘ higher’
the distance between them must have become short, and equality must be coming
near. This imitation has actually begun to take place in business as well as else-
where. Book-keeping and knowledge of the markets are no longer the secret
of the middle classes, as knowledge of the law was once the secret of the upper.
Working men have shown already, in some few instances, that they can carry on
a manufacture as well as a trade; and if the tyranny of great companies became
intolerable we might expect that an attempt would be made all along the line to
replace them by some scheme or schemes of co-operation. If such schemes were
established forcibly, which is not probable in this country, we might look for a
tyranny of the majority followed by a reaction, for the rule of the best leaders has
its abuses like that of the best masters, and human passions seem to be more
permanent than any industrial system. If such schemes were established gradually
and from beneath, they might last till a better system came into view. The voice
of reason and public spirit will not be fainter then than now, and will prevail even
against the ruling passions of the ruling class.

1 Giornale degli Economisti, vol. xvi. 1898.
* L’ Imitation, 2nd ed. 1895, pp. 243, 244.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 959

We cannot be definite in a forecast of the distant future. But it is surely not
irrational to look for a larger diffusion of independence, in the sense of really
mutual dependence, with a wider distribution of wealth. When dependence is
mutual its sting is gone. In the future the really dependent men will probably
be the incapable men, or else the men that have high capacities that are not at the
moment wanted, while they have no secondary or second-rate powers on which to
fall back. These two classes will give the future two problems to solve in place of
some that now trouble us, but are ready to vanish away. The solution may be the
public support of both classes of dependents—of the first because they are too bad,
and of the second because they are too good, to work on exactly the same footing
as their neighbours.

But if some such changes may be anticipated, they are to be anticipated on the
terms of our present experience and of our past history ; and we do not find in either
that the ‘economic factor’ has been independent of the other factors, or has always
overruled the rest. We do not find this true in our own lives as individual men.
Men, as we know them, are not made by their economic conditions alone. No
man is independent of these, it may be freely granted. If we do not earn our
bread by the sweat of our brow we depend on the labour of another man, the
wealthier, including Government itself, being, as Burke said, the pensioners of the
poorer. But this material basis of all reform is not the sole constituent of the re-
form itself, any more than material interest is the only motive to human conduct.
Both in the nation and in the man self-preservation comes first in order of time,
the preservation of the material means of living. Till a man has enough to eat,
he cannot work for much else; till the nation is strong for defence, it cannot think
of much else. But material means of self-preservation are only the clay out of
which the statue is modelled, or the stone out of which it is hewn; and the statue
cannot be rightly described as a mere hypocritical disguise of the rude mineral. We
cannot measure the value of a highly developed living being or group of living beings
by levelling down to the component cells or atoms, on the ground that they contain
the ‘promise and potency’ of all that followed after. Even speculative biology
makes allowance for the originality and initiative of living creatures, were it only
for some little peculiarity that enables each fortunate survivor to conquer a rival ;
it starts with two facts, the living creature and its surroundings, not with one
only. So in considering the effects of economic causes we have before us not only
the land but the people, not only the production but the producer. Economic
causes are relative not only to outward Nature, but to the men who are confronted
with it. - Certain philosophers have refused because of this relativity to consider
economic matters as subjects of a separate study at all, and the position has
been upheld from the chair of this Section.1 It was even common at one time to
trace economic institutions to law, politics, and religion ; there was no thought of
counting every institution economic. Readers of Cobden will remember a passage ®
where that statesman explains the economic condition of some Wuropean countries
by their religion, though Cobden can hardly be said to have any prejudice against
economics. Economists have probably been right in considering that it is, on the
whole, more easy to discover uniformity in human action proceeding from econo-
mic motives, whether to make a living or a fortune, than to trace it elsewhere ; but
this is a long way from the assertion that it does not exist elsewhere, or that the
economic motives are over all persons and in all causes supreme. We may hold
with Adam Smith that desire of wealth is more likely to be victorious over the
whole field than any other motive taken singly or, if it be conceivable, all the rest
taken together. Passion, sentiment, lust of power, and aspirations of better kinds
are, however, there; and they often precede, supersede, and control economie
motives, sometimes for good, sometimes for ill. Even economic selfishness is not
the only selfishness, and there is a stronger motive than any selfishness, which may
bind the strong one and spoil his goods. We can allow the potency of economic
motives, but not their omnipotence.

We may be told that the complexity of the conditions of modern life acts asa veil
to the real facts,and that what seems independent is really economical in disguise,

1 By Professor Ingram at Dublin, 1878.
2 England, Ireland, and America, Part II.

960 REPORT—1898.

and that in this way not only our obviously economic institutions, such as employ-
ment for wages, letting of land for rent, giving out of money for interest, but our
political, and even our ecclesiastical and educational institutions, and all our
prejudices and habits of thought about them, are all indirect effects of the external
economic environment. It is undeniable that there are indirect effects of this
cause, just as there are of religion, patriotism, family pride, or personal ambition.
There are prejudices, for example, due to the character and bias given by particular
occupations. Division of labour, as Comte said, is unfavourable to a ‘ view of the
whole” A man acquires the defects as well as the virtues of his calling. Born
for the universe, he narrows his mind to the making of pin-points, and, as it were,
thinks in pin-points; or, being a tanner, he thinks there is nothing like leather ;
or, being a doctor, he may speak as if, for his patients at least, physical health was
the main object in life. The mathematician speaks as if all science were mathe-
matics. The rights of nations and of kings sink into questions of economics if
economists discuss them. But surely this reflection should rather restrain than
encourage any inclination to deduce all our social institutions from economic
conditions. Even if they were first modelled in clay they are a precious work of
art now. We are told they are simply buttresses of established property, and
therefore all the work of mere hypocrisy. This would mean that justice and single-
ness of heart could only be the rare products of delusion and deception ; but, we
know, as a matter of fact, good men are to be found, and of the same type, in all
ranks, among those who have little or no property, and among those who have
_ great possessions, among those who have great learning, and those who have none
at all. There is not only some disinterestedness in science, art, and religion, a
disinterestedness exemplified by the very theorists we are criticising, but on the
whole it is growing at the expense of the selfishness. There are signs that, in-
stead of buttresses of property, our science, art, and religion, and even our political
and municipal institutions, are becoming better aids towards levelling; we never
allow them to become the tools of a class without being ashamed of ourselves ;
and this proper shame isas active, we think, among economists as among any others
who are trying to study a subject scientifically. It may not be true that all
government is plutocracy, but it is our part to see that ours is not. If our insti-
tutions were or were not ever on the side of a single class, it is our part to see
that they are not so now. The old notion that these institutions proceeded from
‘a common but unknown root,’ that they were distinct and mutually dependent
powers, and could be neutral, adverse, or friendly, jointly or severally, in a social
war, seems to suit the complicated nature of man and the complicated facts of the
present day better than the idea that they are all instruments of the wealthy, and
therefore rooted and grounded in self-interest and prejudice.

These venerable truisms cannot have escaped our theorists, who would
probably answer as follows: That the idea of an unseen economic foundation of
society is large enough to be a very concrete general principle; it includes much
more than the bare struggle for bare existence; after self-preservation comes self-
advancement in material wealth, the progress of the few at the expense of the
greater number; the passions and ambitions of the few demand every growing
material resource to minister to them; everywhere wealth is power, and it is not
by accident that the most powerful nations are the most wealthy.

There is truth in this, but hardly the whole truth. Wealth does not always
give power, and the power, as with Mohammedanism and Christianity, sometimes
comes before the wealth. Wealth is rather the controlled than the controlling
element in a healthy national polity; and the programme of nations is not drawn
up with a single eye to material aggrandisement. We ourselves hold Egypt and
even India not from avarice, but from love of governing; and we love governing
because we think we can govern well. Our own Colonies are not bound to
us by a nexus of cash payments, and our present treatment of our Colonies is not
more, but distinctly less, greedy than it was before we lost the best of them nearly
four generations ago. The civilised nations of the world (and not, as Adam Smith
and Gibbon seemed to think, of Europe only) tend more and more to be a kind of
commonwealth. The bond that unites them has in it a commercial element, of
which we allow the importance. If we have learned nothing else from the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 961
Manchester School, we have discovered the importance of commercial motives as
rivals to motives of political ambition. We should allow that the interests of nations
in trade are a far stronger political force now than the interests of any dynasty.
We should even grant that in some new colonies, like South Africa, commercial
advantage may be the ruling consideration of politics. But nations have not
meaner motives than their citizens, not meaner, for example, than the motives of
ordinary professional men. The ordinary doctor depends on his profession for his
livelihood, and yet is anxious to help his fellow-men by relieving their suffering,
and he is also concerned to serve the cause of science. If he is the best of his kind
he is still influenced by all three motives. The ‘economic element’ is not the only
or the most important in his case; in the first connection it is an end or aim, in the
two others it is a mere instrument. This union of high and low interests, sublime
and commonplace motives, will be found also in nations and in the history of nations.
Their best achievements are not accomplished very easily without wealth, but the
wealth is a mere instrument, and it may be lavishly sacrificed to accomplish their
great ends. To all the better minds the charm of wealth is the power it gives to
carry out a great and good work, even if it be simply the work of governing well
an estate or a province. To suchaman and to sucha nation wealth is the material
out of which the political, educational, scientific, artistic, and religious ends of life
are shaped. Wealth has not created and does not control them; they and not it
are the sovereign element in civilisation.

The contentions of the theorists will have had a bracing effect if they bring
these old truths home to us; and we may lay to heart another lesson, that is none of
their teaching. It is a well-worn saying that to straighten a bow we must bend it
the other way. There is perhaps a better simile at hand. When you have heard
counsel on one side you should hear counsel on the other ; but you must yourself try
to be judge rather than counsel in the affairs of economic study. In the time of
the older economists counsel was heard for the most part on the side of the-
wealthier classes. The strongest economic writing at the beginning of this century
was on their side—as if economists in their economics should have taken a side at
all. Since then, perhaps, the opposite is true. But economists seem to have
nearly learned the lesson which their intercourse here with the students of other
sciences ought to teach them, that they are not to take a side in their economics ;:
they are not to be advocates, even of the oppressed. The pleader’s attitude of
mind is of necessity ex parte and not judicial.

To preserve our judicial attitude we must have perfect freedom of criticism.
We must not allow our ‘institutions, whether in art, science, or religion, to fall
into the hands of one class of society, lowest or highest. We must not study our
subject with a constant fear of what this rich man or even that poor man will say:
to what we find there. If deference to the opinions of the rich is subserviency,
the more generous deference may easily slide into a love of popularity, and it is.
hard to say which of the two temptations is the more likely to bias the views of
an economist at the present moment. Both temptations are dangerously strong,
and examples will readily occur to the memory. There is danger, for instance, in
endowments, unless they are made, as they happily often are, by founders who
have a genuine scientific interest. Whether the wealthy founders make it the
temporal interest of our professors to hold by the old views, or to adopt certain:
new views, the process of corruption is the same. A kind of restraint and
constraint is introduced which may of course create only martyrs, but may
unobservedly and insidiously have created apostates. In science, honesty is not
the best policy merely; it is the only policy; without honesty there is no science.
We should have no right or title to be a Section of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science if we were not prepared to accept any conclusion to
which the facts might lead us, in scorn of consequence ; and we cannot be grateful
to those who tempt us to do otherwise. Only, like our brethren in the senior
branches of this Association, we must make sure of our conclusions before we
proclaim them proved, and we must not cling to a theory simply because it is our
own.

1898, 3 Q

962 REPORT—1898.
The following Papers were read :—

1. A Plea for the Study of Economic History.
By W. Cunnineuam, LL.D., D.D., D.Sc.

Though economic history proves attractive to the general reader, it has
received comparatively little recognition in academic and scientific circles. But,
when treated, not merely as the history of particular arts and institutions, but as
the study of the material side of the life of a people, it offers a training of
very great importance—

1. To the historian. Economic conditions have done much to determine the
course of political history ; but a mind which has been trained by the study of
economic phenomena in the present is needed to detect, and to trace the influence
of, economic phenomena in the past. Such training is a safeguard against false
analogy.

2. No the economist. Economics is an abstract science, which assumes the
conditions of modern society. Economic history gives the means of bringing the
principles of economic science to bear on periods and areas, to which, as usually
stated, they do not obviously apply. It thus enlarges the scope of the science, and
gives its principles the real truth of observed fact, as well as the formal truth of
hypothetical principles.

3. To the man of affairs. Since Englishmen are brought in contact, both as
traders and administrators, with primitive and half-civilised peoples, it isimportant
that they should understand the economic point of view of those with whomthey
have to deal. It may sometimes be advisable for those who are legislating for
England to fall back on medieval experience, but this must be much more fre-
quently instructive to those who are concerned in the administration of India or
Egypt.

2. A Defence of Poor Law Schools. By W. CHANCE.

Attention is first of all called to the small number of children in Poor Law
Schools comparatively to the total number of children who are classed as paupers
in the official statistics of pauperism. Thus, out of 225,652 children receiving
relief at the cost of the Poor Rate, less than 23,500 were in Poor Law Schools,
and nearly half of the 23,500 in London Poor Law Schools. The question to be
considered is whether these children are being brought up so as to fit them to be
independent and self-supporting in after-life. The argument assumes that the
care and control of these children must remain in the hands of the existing
authorities, although it would be quite possible, and desirable, to transfer the
inspection of their education to the inspectors of the Education Department. The
various methods in use at the present time for bringing up indoor pauper children are
then described—viz., the two kinds of Workhouse School, the District School, the
Separate School, the Sheffield system of detached houses with references to
boarding-out, and Certified Schools for special classes of children. Next, attention
is drawn to the kind of children which the Poor Law has to deal with, and to the
special difficulties under which the managers of Poor Law Schools labour, arising
from the short time which so many of the children remain in the schools; and
the experience of the Swinton Schools is instanced. It would be quite impossible
to ‘board out’ ail the children in village homes, and therefore it is difficult to see
how the Poor Law School can be replaced. The best method seems to be to
arrange the school on the ‘Cottage Homes’ plan, or on what is known as the
‘Block System,’ as in the existing Girls’ School at Sutton. But if the various
systems are to be judged by results, the much-condemned ‘ Barrack’ Schools seem
to have done wonders, as the statistics, and, in regard to girls, those supplied by
the Metropolitan Association for Befriending Young Servants, show. But
‘Barrack’ Schools should not be too large. It is mainly their size which has
brought them into disrepute. If limited to hold not more than 500 children there
is plenty of scope afforded for individualisation. The objections to pauper schools

lo =| ee ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 963

are then stated and answered, such as the ‘pauper taint’ which is said to attach
to the children in them, their tendency to favour outbreaks of infectious disease,
and the impossibility of individualising the children, Next, the many advantages
which the schools possess are enumerated, and the curious fact referred to that
large institutions supported by voluntary subscriptions which are open to similar
objections appear to have escaped criticism altogether. The impossibility is then
pointed out of having any one cut-and-dried system for dealing with the children,
and the proposals of the Bristol Board of Guardians are referred to with approval.
It is suggested that the idea of District Schools for country Unions is by no means

layed out, and that a small ‘Cottage Home’ community, such as is to be seen
in the Eltham Union, Kent, would be a possible means of removing ali children of
school age from workhouses. The question of ‘after-care’ is dealt with, and the
importance of it pointed out. It would not be true to say that al/ Poor Law
Schools are perfect, but it would surely be better to bring all of them up to the
standard of the best than to abolish the whole system. The whole question is one
of Reform v. Revolution.

3. Poor Law Administration. By Doucuas Dent.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Industrial Conciliation. By L, L. Price,

Referring to a Paper read on the same subject when the Association met at
Bath in 1888, the present Paper reviewed the progress of industrial conciliation
during the intervening ten years. At first sight such a retrospect might seem dis-
couraging, for scarcely a year had passed without some conspicuous industrial
quarrel ; but, on the other hand, public attention had been drawn to the subject,
expert ability had been applied to the criticism and discovery of remedies, and
experimental knowledge had been gained. Influences prejudicial to industrial peace
had unquestionably been recently at work. A tendency on the part of the men to
deny plenipotentiary authority of negotiation to their representatives had accom-
panied, and partly neutralised, an increasing willingness on the part of employers
to receive and negotiate with such representatives. This was, perhaps, the fact
of most evil omen for the future, and it was connected with deeper phenomena,
A spirit of unrest had been abroad in the labour world, both among the new and
the older unions. Socialistic aspirations had encouraged large ambitions; and the
advocacy, for example, of a ‘living wage,’ if interpreted comprehensively, was
opposed to some pacific modes of settling industrial quarrels. A reversion to older
methods of policy and a resistance to improved machinery and processes of manu-
facture, especially at a time when foreign competition was becoming more severe,
and making more dangerous that tendency to take the business of life more easily,
which seemed to be characteristic of the times, was a phenomenon which could
hardly be ignored; and it might even be doubted whether public opinion, which
was becoming a more potent force in industrial disputes, did not exercise some
influence prejudicial to lasting peace. For this public opinion was sometimes
ill-informed and oftenimpatient. It was liable to be carried away by such phrases
as those of ‘a living wage’ and of ‘collective bargaining,’ which required careful
discrimination. Public opinion impatiently asked for State intervention, but, in
view of some recent circumstances, that demand required very careful considera-
tion ; and the experience of New Zealand was not applicable to England, except
with large allowances for difference of conditions. Mediation rather than arbitra-
tion seemed still the appropriate réle of the State; and the progress of voluntary
conciliation and arbitration, though sometimes unnoticed, was not inconsiderable.

3Q2

964. REPORT—1898.

Two important features in the recent history of voluntary methods deserved
notice: the first being the position and prospects of the sliding scale, which had been
declining in favour, and the second, the growth in prominence and utility of media-
tion as contrasted with arbitration.

2. Some Economic Aspects of the Imperial Idea.
By Erue. R. Farapay, M.A. (Victoria).

The imperial idea includes not only the general notion of sovereignty native
to the word empire, but the conception of international union, a meaning which
the word acquired in the course of Roman and German history. The empire is
therefore the political counterpart of the economic system of to-day, which is the
result of a struggle between cosmopolitan and nationalist policy ; the popularity
of the imperial idea is a natural effect of modern economic conditions, just as the
mercantile system was the natural accompaniment of the new monarchy. For a
colonial empire, including communities in different stages of progress, the ideal
of imperial administration is the practical expression of the economic theories of
relativity and development, and of the historical method generally. With regard
to the British Empire in particular, the economic aspects of the imperial idea are
at present more important than its political aspects; partly because all the prac-
ticable means of consolidation—improvement of communication, organisation of
defence, and Customs union—are directly or indirectly economic in character,
partly because the empire as it exists is the work of economic conditions and not
of political ideals. The solution of all problems affecting the prosperity of
Great Britain and her colonies depends on the existence of an intelligent imperial
patriotism, which it must be the work of English economists to establish. The
poetical theory,-according to which the imperial idea rests on the sympathies
arising from community of race, history, and language, is insufficient in basis :
unless the empire is to exclude some of its most loyal adherents, it must be based
on sympathies transcending these. The political theory of empire advocates
economic union as the preface to some undefined form of closer political union ;
but it is conceivable that all imperial necessities might be satisfied by economic
union on the existing political foundation of allegiance to a common sovereign.
In any case the fate of the imperial idea, for the present, depends chiefly upon the
economist; not only because the contemporary problems of imperial organisa—
tion are mainly economic in their importance, but also because among the working
classes of Great Britain the influence of the politician is diminishing, while that
of the economist is increasing.

3. Banking in Canada. By B. E. WALKER.

The history of currency and banking in Canada may be conveniently divided
into the six following periods, of which only the last is dealt with in this
abstract.

A. 1608-1760. New France. Card money and other paper issues—1685-1719,
1729-1760.

B. 1760-1791. British Occupation. Country without paper money. Coins of
several countries a legal tender.

C. 1791-1812. Representative government established in 1791, but attempts
to obtain charters for banks of issue unsuccessful.

D. 1812-1817. Paper money issued by Army-bill Office.

E. 1817-1867. Joint-stock banks under provincial charters.

F. 1867-1890. Dominion of Canada. Charters issued by the Federal instead
of by Provincial Governments.

(For information regarding the first five periods, consult ‘ Banking in Canada,’
by the Author, Vol. 3, ‘ History of Banking in all the Leading Nations, 1896.
Effingham Wilson and John Jones, London.)

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 965

Banking under the Present Act.

Term of Charter.—Charters of all banks run concurrently. Renewed every
ten years, when principles and conditions of banking are fully discussed, and
changes thought necessary in Bank Act are made.

Incorporation.—Terms under which new banks may be incorporated now care-
fully guarded. Minimum subscribed capital, 500,000 dollars. Minimum paid in,
260,000 dollars, This deposited temporarily, in cash, with Finance Department,
before permission is granted to do business.

Working Regulations.—Provisions regarding rights of shareholders, powers of
directors, dealing with capital stock, holding of meetings, declaring dividends, &c.,
are what would be expected in a well-regulated system, except in one interesting
particular :—No dividend or bonus, or both combined, exceeding 8 p.c. p.a. may be
paid unless net reserved profits exceed 30 p.c. of capital. No cash reserves required
by law. Of any reserves held, 40 p.c. must be in legal tender notes of Dominion.

Business and Powers of a Bank.—Tendency has been to assume all powers
connected with banking unless expressly prohibited. There are three main prohi-
bitions. First two date from the earliest charter in Canada. 1. Must not engage
in any other business. 2. Must not lend on real estate. 3. Must not lend on its
own shares. But bankers have powers of lending on pledges of material not
enjoyed by private lenders. Twenty-one sections of Act are devoted to the
subject.

isidtements to Government.—Elaborate monthly returns to Government. Pub-
lished widely and freely criticised. Banks few in number. Weakness quickly
detected. Minister of Finance may ask for special returns. List of shareholders
and of unclaimed balances published annually in Blue Books.

Insolvency.—Eight sections of Act devoted to subject, but the main feature is
the liability of shareholders to pay whatever calls are necessary to enable liqui-
dator to meet all liabilities, provided such calls do not exceed the face-value of the
shares held. Generally styled ‘double liability.’ Working of this liability in
the past.

PenaliiesThe Act describes many offences, and fixes penalties by fine and
imprisonment.

Note Isswes.—Power to issue expressed as follows: ‘The bank may issue and
reissue notes payable to bearer on demand and intended for circulation.’ This
power is subject to the following qualifications: No note may be smaller than
five dollars. (Dominion Government provides smaller issues.) Larger notes must
be multiples of five dollars. Total issue must not exceed paid-up and unimpaired
capital. Enormous fines for breaches of this provision, whether intentional or not.

Security for Note-issues.—Notes are a prior lien upon entire estate of bank.
To avoid discount for geographical reasons every issuing bank must have redemp-
tion ayents in named cities of commercial importance. To avoid discount when
failure occurs, all banks must maintain 5 p.c. on their average circulation in a
guarantee fund held by the Government. Provisions as to how rapidly banks may
be called on to replenish should drafts on fund occur. Notes of insolvent banks
bear interest until liquidator announces readiness to redeem. If cannot redeem
after short period, recourse may be had to guarantee fund. How has system
worked ? Has it provided an absolutely safe currency to the holder, and a currency
bearing satisfactory relations in volume to the requirements of trade ?

The Depositor.—His status as a creditor. Record of failures of banks. Pro-
portions of capital and double liability to deposits. Growth of deposits. Govern-
ment as competitors. Method of gathering deposits. Effect on development of a
new country.

The Borrower and the Branch System.—Effect on the borrowing public of
machinery for accumulating deposits. Moderate rates of interest. Little variation
in rates over large geographical areas. Comparison with the non-branch system
in the United States. Support to business public in times of stress.

Competition.—Nature of service to public. Too many banks.

E Principles.—Statement of principles which underlie the Canadian Banking
ystem,

966 REPORT—1 898.
4. The Question of the Ratio. By F. J. Farapay.

As an ideal monetary system, bimetallism now holds the field amongst scien-
tific economists, as recent significant adhesions have proved. The principles of
free competition and reflex action, on which the theory rests, are not assailed by
any of its opponents. The arguments brought in opposition to its adoption are
mainly empirical and political, and a misconception of Gresham’s Law. Jevons’s
admissions and final objection examined. Farrer’s plan of ‘ limping’ bimetallism—
with paper—demands the retention of silver as currency, and, through illicit
coinage implied in the system, tends to full bimetallism. Giffen’s plan—or inde-
pendent standards of gold and silver—also retains both metals as money. Both
systems, equally with bimetallism, look to an ultimate steady relation of value
between the two precious metals, and contemplate their distribution in accordance
with the special monetary requirements of different countries. If the ultimate
objects to be attained are identical, Farrerists, Giffenists, and Bimetallists may be
equally satisfied by an arrangement which secures those objects. The attainment
of such objects by the Farrerist method demands the circulation of the token
coins throughout the British Empire as illustrated by the case of the Dutch
solonies, and that implies a common coinage ratio. Lord Liverpool’s foresight.
The Giffenists contemplate the attainment of a ‘ natural’ ratio as the condition of
a permanently steady exchange with free mintage of each metal in different
countries. The bimetallists demand an international legislative ratio with free
coinage. In each case there is a question of ratio. If a ratio can be found which
will be in accordance with the practical and theoretic bases and requirements of
all three systems, agreement: may be arrived at. The discussion of the ratio from
the bimetallist standpoint affords the best. method of making clear the scientific
foundations of the system, and of demonstrating that bimetallism may be adapted
to fulfil the requirements alike of Farrerists and Giffenists. Objections to the
existing coinage ratios examined. The ‘stimulus’ of a low-valued silver ratio, and
the apprehended commercial ‘ upheaval’ with a high-valued silver ratio. The
effects on the production of silver and on Indian exports and imports. Objections
to a low-valued silver ratio, Conclusion: That, whether considered theoretically,
statistically, geologically, or economically, retrospectively or prospectively, a legis-
lative ratio of 153 to 1 would be most likely to fulfil the aspirations of Farrerists,
Giffenists, and bimetallists, and that under an international agreement for the free
coinage of both metals at that ratio, gold rather than silver would accumulate in
banks as metallic reserves.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Municipalities as Traders. By Guorce PEarson.

The writer of this paper points out the necessity of the performance of several
duties formerly considered private concerns now being performed by municipalities.
He then calls attention to the great growth of municipal trading as shown by the
great growth of municipal indebtedness, and points out the amount of municipai
indebtedness now represented by trading concerns in the hands of municipalities.
He points out that municipal trading should be confined to the provision of those
necessities of civilisation which are so large as to be beyond the power of indi-
vidual effort to supply, and which do not form part of any Imperial Government

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 967

department. He discusses the advantages and disadvantages of private, of com-
pany, and of municipal trading, and points out causes which may drive munici-
palities to trade to a greater extent than they are now doing. He discusses the
disadvantage of trading involving the employment of a large number of workmen,
having regard to the fact of the employer being popularly elected. He discusses
the recent report of the Telephone Committee, particularly having regard to the
suggestion that municipalities should not trade for a profit.

2. Ought Municipal Enterprises to Yield a Profit in Aid of Rates ?
By Evwin Cannan, M.A.

Municipalities have been likened to joint-stock companies, the ratepayers
being the shareholders. If the parallel were exact, there could scarcely be any
question about the propriety of municipal enterprises yielding a profit, since to
make a profit is the object of the existence of a joint-stock company. How far,
then, does a municipality resemble a joint-stock company ?

In form the two bodies are very much alike, the management of both being
committed to an elected council or directorate, and the ordinary members only
interfering on rare occasions directly, though the citizens or burgesses exercise far
more influence on the decisions of their representatives than the shareholders.
But the basis of membership is very different. In the company it is ownership of
a fraction of the homogeneous capital of the company, each fraction being exactly
the same as every other fraction of the same magnitude. In the municipality it is
connection with particular objects which have for the most part an individuality
of their own, which are not in the possession of the municipality, but only sub-
ject to its claims for rates, and which are revalued from time to time so that they
need not continue to bear the same proportion to the whole of the rateable
property. The business of both the company and the municipality is economic
work for the benefit of their members, but the company performs services for out-
siders and distributes profits in money dividends to its shareholders, while in
performing its ordinary functions the municipality provides commodities or ser-
vices for its members directly, and consequently has no opportunity of making
profits to be divided among them in money dividends.

As far as municipal enterprises are concerned, however, the position of the
municipality resembles that of the company much more nearly. Municipal enter-
prise is distinguished from ordinary municipal work by the fact that the com-
modities or services which it provides are supposed not to accrue to the citizens
approximately in proportion to the rateable value of the property with which they
are connected, so that it is considered necessary to charge for them by methods
and standards different from those which regulate the levying of rates. By
hypothesis, then, the business is no longer a merely ‘ mutual’ one, in which each
member receives direct benefit in proportion to his share, but a business like that
of an ordinary company. The municipality ought to be allowed to make a profit
for the same reasons as a company is allowed—(a) in order that it may have some
inducement to undertake the enterprise, which it will not have if it must take all
risk of loss and no chance of gain; (8) in order to secure efficient management; .
and (y) in order that the economic proportion in the production of different
commodities may not be disturbed. The arguments against profit-making in
municipal enterprise seem to be founded on an antiquated socialism or on a false
analogy, either from co-operative institutions or from ordinary municipal work.

That there may be cases in which it is not economically desirable that the
highest possible profit should be made is probable; but these cases are far less
frequent than is supposed, and since when they occur the damage must be much
greater to the locality than to the country in general, and also be tolerably obvious,
there seems no need to restrict the freedom of the locality.

968 _ REPORT—1898.
3. Rectification of Municipal Frontiers. By W. M. Acworrtu.

Title, of course, used metaphorically to refer to boundary between municipal
socialism and private enterprise. Probable readjustment in near future, conse-
quent on new developments of science. Gas-light less and less a necessity; gas
exposed to competition of petroleum, electric light, &c. On the other hand, gas
becoming more and more important as source of power, even on a large scale.
Water-supply practically in public hands already; question of frontier is rather
between the conflicting claims of rival public authorities. Telephones: suggestion
of Parliamentary Committee that municipalities should be allowed to compete
with United Telephone Company, and proposals of Edinburgh and Glasgow to do
so. Electric lighting: municipalities beginning to compete with companies in
possession, and companies in return proposing to compete with municipalities.
Electricity for power: proposed distribution on vast scale from central station over
great distances. Position of local authorities in reference to such undertakings,
and right to compulsory purchase. Tramways: stunted development under muni-
cipal despotism. Electric traction, through lines between adjacent towns. What
public authority can work such lines? Conclusion: readjustment of frontier
inevitable, and probably will be in direction of widening rather than further con-
tracting area of private enterprise.

4. Heonomic and Social Influences of Electric Traction.
By Professor 8. P. Tuomeson, F.2.8.

5. Shipping Rings and the Manchester Cotton Trade.
Sy Joun R. Gattoway.

Hostility against shipping rings having been aroused, what justification is
there for this feeling? Our cotton trade should furnish evidence if these combina-
tions have caused serious injury.

Dealing only in this paper with our exports to Eastern and far Eastern
markets, it is not surprising that the volume and regularity of the traffic has called
into existence first-class lines of steamships. Keen competition by outside steam-
ships caused the established companies to form themselves into conferences for the
regulation of rates and other matters. The introduction of the rebate system has
enabled the various Rings to obtain control of the traffic to such an extent that
shippers are no longer able to take advantage of cheap freights or routes which
may be offered. This is a serious matter now that England has so many foreign
competitors, and, unless she has free and ample opportunity for natural expansion
and development, the very industries which are the mainstay and support of our
mercantile marine may be irretrievably injured.

Taking our exports to India, the Straits, China and Japan, we examine for
each market or group :— ;

(a) The figures of export from the Board of Trade Returns,

-(6) Estimate as nearly as possible the cubic tonnage per annum,

(c) Calculate the rates of freight charged to shippers,

(7) Compare them with freights to other markets, and finally,

(e) Ascertain what rates are charged on cotton goods of foreign origin which
enter into competition with our productions.

Bombay is the only market where combination on the part of importers has
enabled them to control shipowners. Rates, which in 1881 were from 40s. to 60s.
per ton, have been reduced, and for some years past have stood at 20s. 6d. per
ton. The figures show that the combination has saved fully 28,0007. per annum
for the last seventeen years. No foreign country is able to do better for their
exporters.

Caleutta, Madras, and Rangoon.—Shippers to these markets are entirely

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 969

under the control of Rings or Conferences. Compared with Bombay, the rate is
proportionately 7s. 8d. per ton higher than it should be.

Straits Markets—Shipping from Manchester costs 48s. per ton; from Ham-
burg, 22s. 6d. per ton; paid extra by Manchester shippers, 25s. 6d. per ton.

China and Japan.—Rates to these markets have gradually become dearer in
consequence of the powerful Conference controlling them. Manchester shippers
are at a serious disadvantage as compared with producers of cotton goods on the
Continent and the United States :—Freight from Liverpool, 52s. 3d. per ton;
from Hamburg, 25s. per ton; from New York, 25s. per ton.

Taking the tonnage to China and Japan, the figures show that Manchester
pays 117,000/. more per annum for freight than would be required if the goods
were shipped either from Hamburg or New York.

The question is of paramount importance to manufacturers, for high freights
touch them more closely than any other party to the transaction.

Subsidies.—An examination of the circumstances in connection with the obliga-
tions imposed on steamship companies who receive subsidies for carrying mails
shows that they can have little influence on the question: of freights.

In view of all the facts, it is strange that the agitation against shipping rings
is neither widespread nor well organised.

The chief difficulties may be stated under three heads :—

Ist. Shippers are under the thraldom of the rebate system, and sums amounting
to hundreds and thousands of pounds would have to be sacrificed if they failed to
comply with the terms laid down by the Conference lines,

2nd. Many shipping firms, and especially the larger ones, represent the different
steamship companies in foreign ports, and are quiescent from interested motives.

3rd. The greatest difficulty is to be found in the objection which shippers
generally haye to take common or united action on any matter affecting their
interest. This, in turn, is explained by the almost fierce spirit of independence
which has always characterised Manchester shippers as a body, and which in the
past has produced satisfactory results. It has already been described by the word
‘individualism,’ and is sometimes mistaken for jealousy by those not conversant
with the facts.

It is folly to adhere any longer to individualism as a working principle. Com-
binations are the order of the day, and it is futile to attack shipping rings unless
similar methods are adopted. A Shippers’ Federation is suggested, to receive on
behalf of the members all rebates and returns. This may appear a small matter,
but it is difficult to find an object on which shippers can unite. The expense of
such an organisation should not be great. Manchester has spent 15,000,000/. on
her Ship Canal, and the fruits of that enormous sacrifice are practically wasted,
except as regards Bombay, by the action of shipping rings in preventing steamers
trom making use of the water-way.

Bombay natives succeeded in defeating shipowners’ combinations in 1881, and
similar tactics could be adopted in other markets if shippers would unite. The
danger to Manchester shippers is that importers on the other side may take the
matter out of their hands. A saving of 2Us. per ton appeals to the intelligence of
the humblest trader everywhere. Once show him how it can be accomplished,
and unity of action makes it possible.

6. The Effect of Sugar Bounties. By Gro. E. Davins.

(a) On British Sugar-Refining.—1. Position up to 1884. 2. Fall in prices.
3. Comparison between 1884 and 1896. 4. Decrease in output. 5. Increase in
German refining. 6. And its effect upon prices. 7. German bounties.
8. Bounties and British refiners. 9. The advantage to Germany. 10. Closing
of some British refineries. 11. Advantages of superior methods. 12. Inferiority
of partial turnout. 13. Some British refiners fail. 14. While others succeed.
15. Improvements caused by competition. 16. Official returns misleading.
17. French and German bounties.

(6) On the Confectionery Trade.—1. Development of the trade. 2. Capital

970 REPORT—1898,

employed. 3. Output and employment. 4. Position in 1884. 5. Effect on trade.
6. Not limited to amount of bounties. 7. Regularity of quality. 8. General
advantages accruing.

(c) On British Conswmers.—l. The consumption in Britain. 2. Advantages of
best markets. 3. Beet sugar an advantage. 4. Cost of production. 5. Its effect
on prices.

(d) On the West Indies,—1. The effect on the Islands. 2. Value of the West
India Commission. 3. Cane and beet sugar production. 4. Old-fashioned
methods. 5. Waste of material. 6. Introduction of modern machinery. 7. And
reduced cost of production. 8. Further improvements necessary. 9. The yield
of the sugar canes. 10. System of importation. 11. West Indian requirements.
12. Grants to West Indies. 13. Preferable to abolition of bounties.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Comparison of the Changes in Wages in France, the United States, and
the United Kingdom from 1840 to 1891. By A. L. Bowney, IA.

The object of this paper is to compare the results of the recent inquiry in
France as to wages and their changes ‘ Salaires et Durée du Travail’ (Office du
Travail, 1897), and of the United States Senate Report on ‘ Wholesale Prices,
‘Wages and Transportation ’ (Washington, 1893), with wages in the United King-
dom. A paper considering the American report, and comparing the changes of
wages since 1860, there shown, with the changes in the United Kingdom, was
read to this Section at Ipswich ;! the results obtained there, and in a paper relating
to English wages since 1860 read to the Statistical Society in 1895, are freely used
in the present estimate. The new work in this paper consists chiefly in carrying
back English wages from 1860 to 1840, and in tabulating the figures in the foreign
reports for comparison.

Stress is laid on the fact that none of the results obtained in the foreign reports
or in the English calculations can pretend to minute accuracy. The probable
accuracy diminishes as the dates become remote ; as a rough guide it may be said
that the index figures relating to nominal wages may be five in error, whether in
the number sixty-one for 1840 or ninety for 1886, and those relating to real wages
twice as far from the fact. This is unfortunate as far as theories dealing with the
laws of wages are concerned, but for a general view and comparison such a margin
of error is of less account. Throughout the calculations it has been recognised
that the result must be rough, and fine instruments have not been used. Thus,
simple instead of weighted averages have been taken; figures have not been calcu-
lated beyond the first decimal place, and slight differences of date ignored. Similar
principles had been followed by the compilers of the French report, and the
American figures are insufficient for very accurate deductions; hence for this
comparison it is useless to labour the English figures to their greatest possible
accuracy.

The general method adopted has been to form an index-number for wages, and
all the theorems relating to the use and accuracy of index-numbers for prices may
be adopted. In the actual work it has been found that the numbers obtained by
successive approximations are such as the theory of error would lead one to
expect.

Phe English Figures.—The sources of information for these are official reports
on wages, reports of Commissions and of Factory Inspectors, reports on Trades
Unions, and general or special estimates published at various times by private
individuals, The information is heterogeneous and from very miscellaneous sources,

1 Vide Brit. Assoc. Rep., p. 775, and Economie Journal, 1895.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 971

but is sufficient for the present purpose. For each trade in question all the
available data have been tabulated, and the rates of change indicated by each
authority for series of dates considered. From these have been deduced series of
index-numbers relating to the various trades, harmonising as far as possible all
the information. In the case of Agriculture, Building, Printing, and Mining,
authorities are in close agreement ; for the Cotton, Woollen, and Iron industries it
is more difficult to make good estimates. A table is given showing these figures.
The principal results are that average nominal or money wages in 1840 expressed
as percentages of those in 1891 were Cotton, 50; Wool, 74; Building, 66;
Mining, 61 ; Iron, 77; Sailors, 61 ; Compositors, 79; Agriculture, 75, A second
table is given weighting these averages for the general comparison, and the
course of average nominal wages in this group of trades is found to be as given in
the first table below. The English figures would be practically unaffected if
agriculture were excluded.

It having been found in the previous work that the American figures give
nearly the same result on whatever principle the averages are taken, the corre-
sponding line for the United States is filled in with little further discussion.

'The French figures require more explanation. The data appear insufficient,
but are shown to be consistent with each other and capable of giving sufficiently
accurate results. For many years figures are interpolated, since the French dates
—viz. 1840-5 and 1860-5—and the English dates do not quite correspond, and the
result is given in the following table :—

A. Average Nominal Wages, as Percentages of those in 1891.

Years i1840 11850 1860 |1866 1870 1874 1877 lisso [1883 1886 1891

UNITED KINGDOM . . | 61 | 61 | 73 | 81 | 83 | 97 | 94 | 89 | 92 | 90 | 100

| FRANCE . . 7 . | 52 | 52 | 65 | 70 | 75 | 80 | 83 | 86 | 91 | 90 | 100
UNITED STATES : . | 49 | 54 | 59 | 66 | 81 | 87 | 80 | 85 | 95 | 92 | 100

The attempt to estimate real wages by correcting for the changes in purchasing
power cannot be satisfactorily carried out for France ; but the following tentative
results are obtained, as being those indicated by the data so far found :—

B. Average Real and Nominal Wages as Percentages of those in 1891.

Years 1840/1850 |1860 1866 |1870 1874 1877 1880 {1883 11886 1891

UnitED Kinepom—Real . | 43 | 55 | 53 | 57 | 62 | 68 | 72 | 73 | 81 | 94 | 100
UNITED STATES—Real_ . | 47 | 57 | 56 | 46 | 64 | 70 | 71 | 77 | 84 | 93 | 100
Years 1844-58| 1854-63 | 1864-78 | 1874-88 | 1884-93 /1891

UNITED KiIngDoM—WNominal : 61 73 82 93 95 100
“3 * Real . ¢ 53 51 59 82 97 |100
FRANCE—Wominal . 5 ; ‘ 52 65 73 86 95 100
= Real : : ; ; 55 61 67 78 94 | 100
UNITED STATES—Nominal . : 53 58 72 86 95 100
” e Real . ; : 54 53 57 76 95 | 100

These results are all subject to correction, especially those relating to real
French wages; but it is unlikely that further information can greatly affect the
startling similarity of the course of 7eal wages in the three countries. The con-
clusion may be stated roughly as follows :—-Reckoning from 1891, rea/ wages had
doubled in all these countries in less than fifty years, and increased by one-half in
less than twenty years. The question of the distribution of the wages of indi-
viduals about the average at different dates is not discussed.

972 REPORT—1898.

2. Saving and Spending : a Criticism of Recent Theories,'
by A, W. Fiox.

At various times recently an old doctrine has been revived, namely, that the
cause of industrial depression is to be found in under-consumption—in excessive
saving. The advocates of this view maintain that the volume of current con-
sumption strictly determines the extent of useful employment for the instruments
of production ; that saving beyond this limit leads, not to an increase of real
capital, but merely to a multiplication of forms of capital; to a struggle between
individuals for the ownership of the limited amount of really useful capital; that
one man’s saving tends to annul that of some other man. In view of the spread of
these beliefs some portions of well-known teachings not destroyed by the contentions
referred to, but which conflict directly with them, are again presented.

The doctrine that the connection between capital and consumption is such that
the latter determines the extent of real use of the former is specious but untrue.
The extension of consumption is a result of the increased power of production of
modern times. The mutual connection between the two is not such as to say that
one is an independent determining cause of the other.

The act of saving appears to be viewed by the writers to whom allusion is
made as one which aims at creating forms of wealth of indefinite persistence.
This is surely a strained view. Indefinite increase of saving is not dependent on
the possibility of storing the saving in forms practically imperishable. The diffi-
culty of foreseeing what forms of capital will be useful to distant generations is not
only not insuperable, it does not at all prevent increase of really useful capital.
The perpetuation of productive instruments is not unaccompanied by change in
the instruments themselves.

It might be admitted that the amount of savings which could be invested so as
to yield a return of not less than, say, 2} per cent. net is quite capable of being
surpassed. It is surely notorious that enormous fields for investment exist which
might be utilised were capital available at a rate of return considerably below
current rates, still more if it were available freely. Some part of what appears to
be waste of capital may be incidental to the introduction of more efficient methods
and more capable management.

A point urged in favour of spending rather than saving is that, whatever
individuals may do, a community can never ‘spend too much.’ This is so clearly
inaccurate as to throw doubt on any proposition logically connected with it.

It may betrue that real wisdom might dictate the investment of savings, not in
Consols or in shares of industrial companies or the like, but in the fuller develop-
ment of the capacities of human beings—-in the better preparation of children for
the battle of life, for example.

That investors make mistakes in selecting their investments hardly justifies a
crusade against saving and the recommendation of the contrary policy of spending
as a means of curing industrial evils. A proper subordination of the desires of the
present to the practically certain needs of the future is far from being attained at
the present time, and the practical outcome of the doctrines criticised is to reecom-
mend aiming at present gratification rather than future benefit. For the
community as well as for individuals it remains as true as ever that ‘ you cannot
both eat your cake and have it.’

1 Will be printed in ewtenso in the Economic Revien, January 1899.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 973

3. On Partnership of Capital and Labour as a Solution of the Conflict
between them. By Henry VIVIAN.

What is meant by Partnership. Industrial progress and the position of
Labour.

Unions of Employers and Employed. Political machinery not the best for all
partes. ‘

Narrow motives not conducive to success of Partnerships. Early failures.
Present position of the Movement towards Partnership. Examples of producers’
associations organised by working men; working-class employers applying the
principle; private firms applying the principle.

Difficulties in the way of progress.

Helpful agencies.

4. The Expenditure of Middle-Class Working Women.
By Miss C. E. Couer.

Tasty I.—Details of Expenditure for One Year of Six Middle-class Working
Women: (1) a Journalist, Joint Occupier of House ; (2) a Clerk, renting Un-
Surnished Lodgings; (3) a High School Mistress in Furnished Lodgings ; and
(4), (5), and (6) High School Mistresses boarding in Private Houses.

PERCENTAGE OF INCOME SPENT ON

—= (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Lodging, Light, Heat and

Service ; ; ; 13:5 19°8 13°5 at k ‘
Food, Housekeeping, Fur- 366 39'4 41:0

niture, kc. . ; Bal 20°7 29°9

Included
Washing . ‘ : inHouse- 2-0 26 2:2 2-2 —(a)|
keeping
Dress : : : -| 124 18:1 12: 9°9 155 10°5
Books, Newspapers, &c. . 4-9 ISS a ibakeZaell 2°8 3°6 4
Travelling 4 H x 4:0 ‘ Z : {4:6 39
idliday’ ee a4 \ SBN 2ad Wom deel hs) AsGn kt (OB
Amusements : ; 15 9 27 a) role -(a),
Subscriptions, Donations,

&e. : 9-1 si 15 53 —(a)| —(a)
Presents é : 56 55 4:5 7-0 —(a)} —(a@)
Postage and Stationery 9 —(a)| 37 1:2 —(a)} —(a@)
Miscellaneous . ‘ 16 84(c)} 12 27 78 70
Doctor and Medicine Nil ate 8 31 oy 2:0
Insurance and Savings 21:0 17°6 16:0 17:1 20°5 25°7

iat |: wihtyext tle 100 100 100 100 | 100
Total Income . : . | £338 (d)| £227 £130 £138 | £103-4 | £100

(a) Included in ‘ Miscellaneous.’

(b) Daily travelling included under ‘ Miscellaneous ;’ holiday mainly at friends.
expense.

(c) Includes ‘ petty cash.’

(d) This total Zxpenditure; income tax and balance not stated; savings only
include money actually removed from current account to ‘a place of safety.’

974 REPORT—1898,

Tante Il.—Evpenditure on different Articles of Dress by (1) a Journalist :
(2) and (7) Clerks ; and (3) a High School Mistress.

AMOUNT SPENT ON

fis (1) (2) (7) (3)
eats 0, | eb! 8. £ 5. d. Les Nd.
Dresses . 5 F ° LORS 1610 0 23 211 316 1
Coats, Cloaks, Umbrellas,

&e. . : 4 ~ Pa a 0) 810 0 216 0 2 711
Millinery . 5 4 : SLL i, 410 0 5 5 9 Laid
Underclothing and Hand-

kerchiefs 3 E js 617 8 6 0 0 5 2 1 3 911
Boots 6 5 8 3.0 0 3.4 2 215 112
Gloves z 2 0 0 115 0 113 6 015 8
Ties, Collars, &c. OFS" 9 | 40°15 6 1 6 5 0 15 112
Miscellaneous . 1 3 02 — (a) — (bd) 0 811

Total : a - 42 3 52 41 0 0 421010} 16 1 6

(a) Included in ‘ petty cash,’ and not separable from other items,

(6) Number 7, who lived with her parents, has not included anything in her dress
account which does not come under the preceding head. Sponges, toilet soaps,
brushes, &c., should be included.

5. The Wakefield Land System, and the Developments from it in the
Colonies. By W. P. REEVEs.

Wakefield’s services to the Empire have scarcely been fully recognised. He
took an important share in—(1) the successful arrangement of Canada; (2) the
abolition of the transportation of convicts ; (3) the granting of self-government to
the White Colonies. He saved New Zealand from falling to France, and was the
virtual founder both of that Colony and South Australia. His main work,
however, was the revival of the spirit of colonisation within the Empire. He
endeavoured to elevate colonising into an art. He found it a by-word; he left ita
branch of statesmanship. He believed that the occupation of desert countries
should be undertaken, not haphazard by roving pioneers and squatters, but by
organised communities comprising all classes of English society. He opposed the
shovelling of paupers and convicts into the empty corners of the Empire. He
believed that an ample supply of wage-labourers ought to be provided for his
young colonies, as only on that assurance would capitalists be induced to emigrate
thither.

The first condition of his colonising system was to be a fixed ‘sufficient’ price
for the waste lands of his settlements. These were no longer to be given away in
large land-grants to squatters or the favoured friends of officials, but to be sold
openly in the simplest, fairest way to applicants in order of priority. The revenue thus
provided was used to form an immigration fund to provide the settlement with
labour; the second, to find money for the development of the country by roads
and bridges. Until the lands were sold, pastoral tenants were to have grazing
rights over them, which were, however, never to interfere with free selection by
purchasers at the sufficient price. Wakefield set himself to stop free land grants,
and in the main succeeded. By doing so he has effected the disposition of about
120,000,000 acres of land already alienated and 650,000,000 acres leased in Aus-
tralasia alone. The revenue obtained from land sales during the last sixty years
has been in the main well spent, and it has been of the greatest value to colonisation.
The settlement of South Australia and New Zealand by Wakefield’s Associations
was marked by mistakes at the outset which had no necessary connection with
Wakefield’s land theory, though they helped to discredit it. They were blunders

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 975

of administration. Ultimately, however, both settlements were brilliantly success-
ful, and are indebted to Wakefield for the fine stamp of their early colonists.

A land boom in South Australia showed at the outset the difficulty of fixing a
sufficient uniform price which should be low enough in normal times not to check
genuine settlement and yet high enough to be an obstacle to land speculation in
periods of inflation. This difficulty no fixed price could fully meet. Asa rule,
the price was fixed too low rather than too high.

Other drawbacks to the system were the frauds, blackmailing, and class
hatreds bred by the ‘ free selection’ on pastoralruns. The best example of this was
found in the working of the Robertson Free Selection Act in New South Wales.
The land laws of the seven Colonies are a long series of expedients to prevent—(1)
speculative purchase for re-sale; (2) the locking-up of lands in great pastoral
estates. Up to 1875 the amount of success they had was small ; since then it has
been much greater. In Australia the laws chiefly endeavour to gain these ends,
limiting the area any one man can buy by insisting on bond-fide occupation by the
purchaser of each piece and on his working at the improvement thereof or other-
wise forfeiting it,

New Zealand goes a step further, and retains the fee simple of the land, leasing
it out on a perpetual lease at a quit rent subject to conditions as to area, residence,
and transfer.

The democratic party in the Colonies have been taught to condemn Wakefield.
But in pe cpmion they have done him great injustice. As between reckless land
grants or unlimited purchasing at low prices and his system of a sufficient price
the choice must be in his favour. The history of the Colonies is largely a story
of economic mischief, wrought, not because land was too dear, but because it was
too cheap. Superior as some of the systems now slowly evolved are to Wakefield’s,
the Imowledge which has built them up has been dearly purchased.

In 1891, in New South Wales, 679 persons held about half the land alienated.

In New Zealand 584 persons held more than half.

In South Australia 1,283 persons owned half the alienated soil.

In the three Colonies 1,255 persons held 35,000,000 acres.

Thus the agrarian question in Australasia is, and is likely to remain, the source
of acute class feeling.

976 REPORT—1898.

Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—Sir Jonn Wo.re-Barry, K.C.B., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The President delivered the following Address :—

I wisx at the commencement of the proceedings this morning to refer to the loss.
which the world of science has sustained in the untimely and lamentable death otf
my friend, Dr. John Hopkinson. This tragedy was one of a most unusual kind,
and I think I am not saying too much if I say it has touched the hearts of every-
body in Great Britain, When we recognise that the father, son, and two daughters
were suddenly swept into eternity by this dreadful accident, I am sure that our
hearts go out in respectful sympathy and heartfelt condolence to Mrs. Hopkinson
and the remainder of Dr. Hopkinson’s family. To us in the scientific world the
loss is certainly irreparable. Dr, John Hopkinson was a man of most unusual
attainments. He was Senior Wrangler at the University of Cambridge, and Smith’s
Prizeman, and he had the highest gifts not only of intellectual power, but they
were combined with great practical knowledge, and at the time of his death with
most ripe experience. He was admired throughout the whole of his own country
and the whole of the scientific world of Great Britain. But I think I am not
going too far when I say he was an ornament to the world of science, whether it
be European or American, and that his name was respected in every part where
men of science are qualified to form an opinion upon an individual’s merits. I can
speak of my departed friend with perhaps stronger feelings. I have come under
the magic of his personal charm; I have been able to realise his charming modesty,
combined with his great attainments and his many social gifts. He was a member
of the Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers, on which I had the honour of
serving with him for many years, and he was a member also of the Council of the
British Association. He was a personal friend of many of those who hear me,
and I am sure they will agree that I have not said a word too much in bringing
before this section the great loss which has been®sustained by the death of John
Hopkinson. I am sure I shall have my own sentiments endorsed when I offer this
small tribute of affectionate admiration to a man of science who has been one of
the brightest ornaments of the century.

Apart from all the other considerations which so favourably affect this Congress,
I think, so far as Section G is concerned, that we are fortunate in meeting in this
ancient city, which has so much of special interest for engineers and for others
interested in applied science.

(I.) I propose, therefore, to say a few introductory words about Bristol and its
neighbourhood from the point of view of this section of the Association, but it is far

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 977

from my intention to either criticise the past work of the Corporation in relation to
their dock enterprises or to volunteer advice to them with respect to possible works
of improvement.

Bristol is, at this moment, of great commercial importance, as indicated by the
value of its imports and exports, and occupied an even more important relative
position among British ports at a time when the ports of Liverpool, Glasgow,
Cardiff, or Southampton were almost or altogether undeveloped. So far as
Customs revenue is concerned, Bristol now stands third, and in regard to the
gross value of her sea-borne trade she is thirteenth among ports of the United
KXingdom.

It is unnecessary, and it would be foreign to the objects of Section G, for
me to attempt either to trace the economic reasons which have caused the long-
continued importance of Bristol, or to account for the rapid growth of other
ports more or less competitive with her. All such causes are to be found, at
least to a great extent, in considerations apart from the merely physical charac-
teristics of the sea, river, or land at the various sites, as, for example, in propin-
quity to markets or centres of production, in situation relatively to population or
to means of distribution, in individual or collective enterprise, in enlightened or
unenlightened administration.

These circumstances have, in truth, at Jeast as much if not more influenca in
determining the history and prosperity of ports than what are termed natural
advantages of respective sites, by which I mean such matters as protection from
winds and currents, depth of water in the port itself and in its approaches from the
sea, the possession of soil adapted to the foundations of docks or quays, and ready
access to suitable materials for cheap and efficient construction.

While recognising to the full the great advantages of such physical endowments
in the development of a great port, one cannot but remember that they form only
part of the problem, and that the business of engineers is to modify and direct
the great forces and characteristics of Nature for the use and convenience of
mankind. We have, in fact, to make the best of a locality which may or may not
be promising in the first instance, and history shows us that there are few places
which are hopeless for our purposes. Thus while, on the one hand, we see many
harbours in this country which inherit from Nature every feature to be desired for
the establishment of a port, but which remain useless for that object, so, on the
other hand, we find many of the great centres of trade established in situaticns
which possessed no such advantages, and where almost everything has had to be
supplied by painful exertion and great expenditure.

As examples of these facts, I may point to the remarkable progress of
many commercial ports situated in localities which were originally the reverse
of promising from an engineering point of view—to Glasgow, where twenty-
six millions sterling in value of exports and imports are annually dealt with
in ships of the largest draught, though it is placed on a river which only fifty
years ago was nearly dry at low water, for a distance of ten miles below the present
docks; to Newcastle, with a present trade of 134 millions sterling, which within
the memory of this generation was approached by a shallow river, entering a mucb-
exposed part of the North Sea over a dangerous sand bar. Sixty years ago the
Tyne could only receive (and that only at high water) a small class of coasting
vessels, whereas it is now navigable for deep-draughted vessels for a distance of
thirteen miles from the sea. The breakwaters also at ‘Tynemouth, which have
been constructed under great difficulties, on a coast without a single natural
encouraging characteristic, not only make a valuable harbour of refuge, but have,
practically speaking, removed the external bar.

In a similar way, as evidence of the truth of my proposition, I might point to a
multitude of other instances—to the great docks of Buenos Ayres, which city, when
I knew it twenty years ago, could not be approached within seven or eight miles by
sea-going ships of 15 or 16 feet draught ; to Calcutta, dependent on the dangerous
navigation of the Hooghly, including the dreaded James and Mary shoals; to the
creation of the port of Manchester, forty-five miles from the sea, approached by a
tide-locked canal which has cost thirteen or fourteen millions of money in its

1898. 3R

978 REPORT—1898.

construction ; to the great recent developments of Rouen, Dunkirk, Antwerp, and
Amsterdam ; to the improvements of the Danube and the Mississippi. In all of
these cases the natural characteristics of the localities were quite unsuited to
the requirements of an advancing trade in modern vessels, but the inexorable
demands of commercial shipping have created the supply, at the hands of engineers,
of improvements and modifications of Nature, which are so large and important
that, to an unprofessional eye, they might now almost appear, at least in some of
the cases which I have mentioned, to be physical characteristics of the locality.

I think that we may safely say that trade will produce the required accom-
modation, and that accommodation in itself will not create or attract trade.

Bristol is a case in point, and it is interesting to us at this meeting to note,
however briefly, some of the important works which have altered and are
altering its capacity as a port. At the end of last century Bristol and its capabilities
were, as they have been almost ever since, the battlefield of civil engineers, and we
know that reports and projects were made by most of the men who were then
recognised as authorities. ‘Che diversion of the river Avon and the construction of
the floating harbour of Bristol, which were carried out under the advice of William
Jessop in the years from 1804 to 1809, were boldly conceived and ably executed.
‘Lhe result of the diversion of the Avon by means of what is still known as the new
cut enabled the old course of the river to be made into a floating harbour of about
71 acres, of which 57 acres are available for vessels of considerable size. The
total cost seems to have been about 600,000/. Though the greatest’ draught of
water in the floating harbour (some 20 feet) and the dimensions of the original
locks (150 feet long and 36 feet wide) may appear to us at the close of the nine-
teenth century somewhat insignificant, they were, no doubt, up to the estimated
. requirements of that day, and I think we can recognise in Jessop’s work the im-

press of a great mind,

The Cumberland Basin was deepened and improved, and the lock accommoda-
tion was increased by Brunel in 1850 by the construction of a lock 350 feet long
and 62 feet wide, and again by Howard in 1871, who made another lock 350 feet
long, 62 feet wide, with 23 feet of water at high water of neap tides. This is the
present limitation of the access of shipping to the town docks, and, though we
realise its insufficiency for modern vessels, we can appreciate the energy of those
who have gone before us, and who found the funds for or designed works which
have for so many years well fulfilled their purpose.

The approach to Bristol from the sea—that is to say, from King Road in the
Bristol Channel—is certainly unpromising for large ships, and indeed, when con-
templated at low water, appears not a little forbidding. Something has been done,
and further works are in progress, towards straightening, deepening, buoying, and
lighting the tortuous course of the Avon below Bristol. More, no doubt, would
have been undertaken in former years, if the great rise of tide in the river had not
provided, at spring tides, a depth and width for navigation which were sufficient for
practical purposes, until the size of modern ships imperatively demanded increased
facilities of approach. I think it is a remarkable thing that vessels of 3,000 tons
burden, 320 feet in length, and drawing 26 feet of water, succeed in reaching
Bristol, and that the trade in the heart of the city continues to increase.

Those acquainted with the strong tides of the Avon, or with its bends, which
do not exceed in places a radius of 800 feet, and, lastly, with what might be the
consequences of a long vessel grounding in a channel which has only a bottom
width of 100 feet, cannot but recognise the skill and nerve of pilots in the navigating
large vessels from King Road to Bristol. This is done by night as well as by day,
and so successfully that the rate of insurance for Bristol is no more than it is for
Avonmouth or Portishead, the entrances of which are in the Severn, or than for
many ports situated on the open sea.

We have similar examples of what can be done by the systematic develop-

-ment of pilotage skill in the Hooghly, the River Plate, in the Yangtse Kiang,
the Mississippi, and other rivers where special men have been evolved, as it
were, by the demand, and navigate with safety and success channels which are

' so full of dangers that they might well appear impracticable. Jixperience, indeed,

ea

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 979

shows us that, given a trade and a depth of water rendering access possible, ships
will make their way to ports through all kinds of difficulties and with a wonder-
fully small margin of water under their keels, reminding one of the boast of the
Mississippi captain that he could take his steamer wherever the channel was a,
little damp. as

. To return, however, to Bristol and the Avon. In spite of all efforts to keep
pace with trading requirements, the time arrived, in 1868, for providing improved
dock accommodation, which Would avoid the navigation of the Avon, and at the
same time afford deeper locks and more spacious quays than could be given in Bristol
itself. The Avonmouth and Portishead docks accordingly were built between
1868 and 1878, and acquired. by the Corporation in 1884, Both are tine works
for their period; but even in their case the rapid development of modern ship-
ping has occasioned a demand for enlargements of the facilities which they afford.
Accordingly, a matter which is again agitating Bristol is still further dock aecom-
modation, and there has been a sharp contention whether this should be effected
by what is implied in the sothewhat barbarous word ‘dockising’ the Avon, or by
new docks at Kirg Road. Dockising implies the construction of a weir and locks
at: Avonmouth, so that the Avon would be impounded and make one sheet of water
nearly six miles long. to Bristol, the natural discharge of the river being provided
for by outfall sluices, while the alternative of dockising the Avon is to be found
in great additions to the docks either.at Avonmouth or Portishead.

In the peaceful atmosphere of Section G, I will not enter upon the various
aspects of these antagonistic proposals, and will merely say that I have no doubt
that in some way Bristol will keep ahead of what is wanted, and that I wish the
city and the engineer who may carry out any of the ideas which may be eventually
adopted every success and satisfaction in such important undertakings.

(II.) Leaving, then, for the present all local considerations, and seeing that a
large part of my own work has lain in the construction of new docks and in the
alteration of old docks, I propose now to say a few words on what appear te me
to be at present the salient points on these subjects in relation to the growth and
the requirements of our merchant navy.

‘In the first place, one cannot but be struck with the great demands which have
come with some suddenness on the present generation for increased dock and quay
accommodation. The British people are the chief carriers of the world, and are
indeed those ‘that go down to the sea in ships, and occupy their business in great
waters.’ This can be appreciated when we consider that annually our over-sea

_import registered tonnage is thirty-four millions, and our export registered

tonnage is thirty-eight millions. Our coastwise traflic amounts to sixty-three mil-
‘Tion tons per annum, making together a tonnage to be dealt with of one hundred and
thirty-five million tons. If we add to these figures the tonnage of vessels in
ballast and the number of calls of those vessels in the coasting trade which touch
at several ports in the course of one voyage, we must add a further fifty-five millions
of tonnage, making a total of one hundred and ninety millions of tonnage using
our: ports yearly ; and if we divide these figures by, say, three hundred days,.to
‘provide against more or less idle days, bad weather, and the like, we have the
‘result of six hundred and thirty-three thousand tons per diem entering and leaving
‘our ports. If we assume an average ship of three hundred registered tons, which

‘is probably not far wrong, we have about two thousand one hundred trading vessels

‘entering or leaving our ports daily—a flotilla of startling numbers.
In truth, the magnitude of our mercantile navy, as compared with that of other

‘countries, is astonishing. We have ten and a half millions of tons, against a total

of thirteen millions of tons belonging to all the other nations of the world, in which
are included three millions of tous of steam vessels engaged in the lake and river
traffic of the United States. Descending to particulars, our merchant fleet is eleven
‘and a half times that of France, seven times that of Germany, eighteen times that
of Russia (in Europe), two and three-quarter times that of the United States (in-
clusive of the craft on the great lakes), six and three-quarter times that of Norway,
‘fourteen times that of Italy, and fourteen times that of Spain. Out of our total
‘tonnage of ten and a half millions, six and three-quarter millions are steam vessels,

3R2

980 REPORT—1898.

and the proportions in relation to the steam tonnage of the other countries above
referred 10 are approximately the same.

Again, it is instructive to note how small a proportion of the trade of other
countries, even including their coasting traffic, is carried in ships belonging to
the country in question. Thus, whereas we as a nation convey in steamships 76
per cent. of the aggregate tonnage of our own ports, only the following propor-
tions of the total trade of other nations are carried by the shipping of each country
in question :—

France * . i 3 - . . about 30 per cent.
Italy : : F = j ~- 19 a
Germany. : - 3 : A 43 =
Russia (in Europe) . - . : i rf -
Norway . 3 3 : 2 2 5 56 *
Sweden . s 5 A - ‘ ¥ 29 Be
Holland . . : ‘ . 4 3 26 nye
United States (over-sea) . : 3 EA 15 a

Further, it is a recognised fact that a very large part of the balance of the
above proportions is conveyed in British ships frequenting the various foreign
ports, and acting, as I have said, as the ocean carriers of the world.

Thus, in the best returns available I find that British shipping conveys the
following proportions of the oversea commerce of other countries :—

Italy . : : ; : , . 44 per cent.
Germany . : : 2 é 3 dened a
liussia 3 . - E 2 ° - 57 ”
Norway. 3 : E : : . 18 ~
Sweden. : : - : He fk i
Holland . f é é : : . 54 5
United States . * A _ : .. 60 “
France. : - : : : . (not given)

The experience of the Suez Canal again tells the same tale, for of the total
tonnage passing through that international waterway 66 per cent. is British,
This is nearly seven times that of the shipping of the next largest contributor,
which is Germany, and nine times that of France.

This vast amount of carrying trade is in British hands, because we can do it
cheaply as well as efficiently. I believe that the whole of our commercial fleet is
worked at a very narrow margin of average profit, though in the aggregate it forms
ene of the most important factors in our country’s position among the nations of
the world.

We are often reminded of how greatly the value of our imports exceeds that
of our exports; but we should not forget that the profit on the transport of both
goes chiefly to the British nation as shipowners, in addition to the profit which is
earned by them in the carriage of merchandise from one foreign port to another.

What an important thing it thus is to the prosperity of this country, not merely
that our own ports should be convenient and adequate to all demands, but that our
shipbuilders should be able to keep pace with the demands of this huge transport
traffic! We find in this connection that we add about half a million of tons of
shipping annually to our register, and that we lose about 250,000 tons annually
by wreck and by vessels becoming old or obsolete, so that, as a matter of fact, the
average annual increment of our mercantile navy for the past twelve years is about
a quarter of a million of tons.

The remarkable development within recent years in the cheapness of steam
navigation, the improved methods in the building and rigging of sailing ships, and
various economic causes, have resulted:in a large increase in the average size of ship
engaged in oversea voyages with a comparative diminution in the number of the
crews of each description of vessel. Greater draught of water is consequently
demande}, and, as a better knowledge of shipbuilding has indicated that the beam
of ships can be considerably increased without inyolving greater resistances, we

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 981

may expect to see ships to increase not only in length and depth, but also in
width.

The largest steamer twenty years ago (excepting of course the ‘ Great Kastern,’
which was a mugnificent conception, though in advance of her time and its
requirements) was, I believe, the ‘City of Berlin, of 5,500 tons burden. Her
length was 488 feet, and her draught and beam were 25 feet and 44 feet respec-
tively. At the present time the ‘ Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse’ is 625 feet long ;
her beam is 66 feet and her draught is 27 feet,and we know that these dimensions
will soon be exceeded.

A modern liner now being built will have a length of 704 feet (or 24 feet
longer than the ‘ Great Eastern’) with a beam of 68 feet and a draught of 284
feet. The great steamers for the transport of cattle are 585 feet long, 64 feet
beam, and 30 feet draught and upwards, carrying 14,000 tons of cargo. Some of the
large sailing vessels carry over 6,000 tons dead weight and draw 25} feet. Ships of
war, though not so long as liners, have a beam of 75 feet with adraught of 31 feet,
and though in the commercial marine we need not perhaps anticipate any great
further increase of draught of water, the demand for which is largely governed
by what is available in foreign ports or rivers and in the Suez Canal, the fact that
men-of-war can, with due regard to economy of propulsion, be built with great
width of beam in proportion to length, seems to indicate that we must be prepared
in the future for a considerable increase of beam for cargo-carryiny vessels.

We have further to note that, owing, no doubt, to the vast improvements of
marine steam-engines and boilers realising unlooked-for economy in the com-
bustion of coal, steam vessels are supplanting all but the largest class of sailing
vessels as carriers of commerce, almost as rapidly as they did forty or fifty years
ago in the conveyance of passengers and as ships of war,

In 1897, out of a total shipping trade (cargoes and ballast) dealt with in ships
of all nations at the ports of the United Kingdom, amounting to ninety millions
of tons, eighty-one millions of tons, or 90 per cent., were conveyed by steam vessels;
whereas, in 1885, out of a total of sixty-four millions of tons, fifty millions of tons,
or 78 per cent., were in steamers. If we take, however, the tonnage of cargoes
and ballast conveyed to and from her own ports by British ships only, we find that
in 1897, out of a total of sixty-four millions of tons, sixty-one millions of tons, or
95 per cent., were in steam vessels; whereas, in 1885, but 85 per cent. of the total
tonnage conveyed by British vessels was in steamships.

Of the tonnage of vessels built in the United Kingdom in 1885, 50 per cent.
were steamers, but in 1897 the proportion was 86 per cent.; and, to sum up, we
find that in the commercial fleet of the United Kingdom and British Possessions,
as between 1887 and 1897, sailing ships have decreased 16 per cent. in number and
have, in spite of the building of a certain number of exceptionally large vessels,
decreased {) per cent. in average size; while steamers have increased 23 per cent. in
number and 16 per cent. in average size. The total sailing tonnage has decreased in
the same period by 24 per ceut., and the steam tonnage has increased by 36 per cent.

The problems thus confronting us, as results of the increased size of all descrip-
tions of oversea steamships, require much consideration from an engineering point of
view, and are further puzzling, and will continue to puzzle, our financial authorities,
without whose aid the engineer can do but little.

We ask, Where is all this expansion of requirements to stop, and how far are
we justified in extending our view of the wants of the future from the contem-
plation of the conditions of the present and of what has occurred in the past?
This is undoubtedly a difficult question, and he would be a bold man who thought
that we had reached finality in the size cf ships. Bound up with this consideration
are not merely matters of first cost of the accommodation to be provided, but
also of the annual expenses in working and maintenance, not only of the docks
themselves, but in what is perhaps of more importance—viz. in the preservation
of sufficiently deep and wide approaches to them.

Apart from length, depth, and beam, the midsuip cross-section of modern cargo
ships has altered completely of late years, and is now nearly as rectangular in shape
as a packing-case, excepting only that at the bilzes the sides and floor are joined

982 REPORT-——1898.

by a curve of small radius. The keel has almost disappeared, and bilge keels
are often added. The result of these alterations of shape in the ordinary hulls of
trading ships is that the sills and sides of many locks and entrances are now
unsuited to the new form of hulls, and consequently their original power of
accommodating vessels is most seriously diminished.

Until lately it was generally considered that locks 600 feet long, 80 feet wide,
and 26 feet deep were sufficiently capacious, with some margin for future wants ;
but I think we must now go further in length and depth, and not improbably
to.some extent in width. We find that at Liverpool the Dock Board have ordered
vestibule basins to act as locks 1,150 feet long and 520 feet wide, with entrances
100 feet wide and 32 feet deep; and somewhat similar dimensions were talked of
for the entrance lock of the recently proposed Windsor Dock at Penarth, which
was interded to be 1,000 feet long, 100 feet wide, and 34 feet deep at neap tides.

Again, apart from the question of locks and entrances, the older docks them-~
selves are beginning to be found too shallow and too narrow for modern vessels. In

docks which are deep enough at spring tides and too shallow at neap tides, and

which are opened to the ‘tide of the day,’ much may be done to improve
the depth by systematic pumping, so as to keep the surface always at the level
of high water of spring tides. By this expedient, large areas of old docks may be
to that extent modernised at the expense, perhaps, of new entrance locks and the

‘annual cost of pumping. This latter yearly outgoing is not an important matter.

At Liverpool and Birkenhead 280 acres of nearly obsolete docks have been thus
improved at a capital cost of about 96,000/. for pumping machinery and an
annual expenditure of 6,000/. I am executing a similar improvement by pumping
in one of the smaller docks on the Thames, and contemplate it on a larger
scale at an important dock there, and also at Hull.

The conditions of commerce now require also, in order to realise the necessary

‘economy of transport, the greatest despatch, for demurrage on the large and expen-

sive modern steam vessels is a most serious question. ‘Thus there must now be no
waiting for spring tides, or, if possible, for rise of tide on the day of arrival.
Every steamer expects to discharge her cargo on to the quay without waiting

for much stacking, still less for trucks; and under modern conditions dock

work must be got through in one-third of the time which was considered proper
ten or twelve years ago. rom these reasons larger quays and warehouses,
better railway approaches, improved sidings, and better machinery are all neces-
sities, as well as deeper water and better approaches.

These demands have come on us, as I have said, not so much gradually as
more or less suddenly, and the call for improved docks is general, and, in my
opinion, it will be continuing.

Liverpool last year undertook to spend nearly five millions on such works,
and we know of very many important projects at other places. Taking the
expenditure within the past decade, and adding to it the authorised expenditure at
Liverpool, at the great ports on the Bristol Channel, on the Thames, at Southamp-
ton, Hull, Middlesbrough, Hartlepool, Sunderland, the Tyne and its neighbour-
hood, at Grangemouth, the Fife Ports, at Glasgow, the Ayrshire Ports, the
Cumberland and Lancashire Ports, and so round the British coasts to Preston
and the docks at Manchester, and apart from the canal, I roughly estimate an

. expenditure, either made during the past ten years or contemplated, of from 35

to 40 millions.
These are large figures, and we ask from whence will an adequate revenue come ?

for it is a more or less accepted fact that docks by themselves do not produce
‘more than a very moderate return on their cost, though, of course, there may be
exceptions to every, rule. Apart from the expenditure which has been under-

taken, much remains to be done, ard the source of supply of the capital required
is a highly important consideration. I venture to think on this point that we
should learn to realise that under modern conditions docks should be considered

largely in the light of being railway stations for goods and minerals and, in many

cases, for passenger traffic. Docks and quays, together with improved approaches
from the sea, are, in fact, the means of bringing traffic to the railways (and, to a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 983

less degree, to the canals) of a country, and should be looked upon as links in the
chain of transport and intercommunication.

They are certainly as necessary adjuncts of a railway, at least in our country
and in respect of goods and minerals, as large stations and depéts are in all
important towns.

The older view of our Parliament was that docks and railways should be in
different hands; but I much question whether this idea should now commend
itself, It is difficult, as 1 have said, for a dock enterprise standing alone to make
any considerable return on its cost, and, though it is true that capital can be
found under guarantees of an already developed trade by some of the great Dock
Trusts, such as at Liverpool or Glasgow, the return is but a modest one, and not
such as is likely to tempt capitalists to new ventures in constructing or enlarging
many of the docks which stand in need of improvements.

On the other hand, a railway company which gets a fairly long lead for the
goods to and from a dock can afford to look at the matter of expenditure on
docks with some liberality. We have conspicuous examples of great public
benefit being afforded at Southampton and at Hull, where the docks have lately
passed from the hands of financially weak companies, dependent only on dock dues,
to the ownership of powerful railway companies. Similarly, several of the North-
eastern ports besides Hull—the large docks at Grangemouth, Barry, Penarth,
Garston, Fleetwood, and elsewhere—are further examples amongst others in which
the revenue of railway companies has been spent on dock improvements with a
spirit which would be otherwise unattainable. A dock also must necessarily be
nowadays almost wholly dependent for its efficient working on the best understand-
ing being maintained with the railway companies for the prompt and adequate
provision of land transport, so that in that point of view also the two interests
are one and should be recognised as such.

In the consideration of the advisability for concentration of ownership, there
remain only the questions of safeguards against unfair treatment of competitive
modes of transport, such as canal and road traffic, and provision against any
improper results of monopoly of railway access. These, I think, can be provided
by Parliamentary enactment, either by insisting on adequate access under proper
conditions for all within reach, or, in any case of inadequate facilities being
accorded, by authorising the construction of other docks in the hands of competing
railway companies or of other aggrieved parties, with in such cases railway privi-
jeges, With these safeguards the public could be efficiently protected, and, if this
be so, I cannot but think that, ceteris paribus, the trading community will be better
served by docks directly connected with railway companies than’ by separate exist-
ences and management. On the one hand, I hope that those who administer the
great railway undertakings will realise this community of interest, and, on
the other, that Parliament will favour intimate financial relations between
docks and railways, instead of more or less systematically discouraging such
connection. This question is one which is peculiarly interesting here at Bristol,
where the docks are in the hands of the Corporation, and where the railway com-
panies carry the traffic, which, but for the docks, would be largely non-existent.

(III.) Leaving now the question of modern docks and shipping, as to which, as I
have said, Bristol is interesting to engineers, there are one or two other matters
of history which appeal to Section G in this locality. In the first place, Bristol
was the birthplace of the Great. Western Railway. I. K. Brunel, its engineer, had
previously, by public competition, been selected to span the gorge at Clifton by a
suspension bridge of the then almost unrivalled span of 702 feet. Again, under
the influence of Brunel, Bristol became the home of the pioneers of Transatlantic
steamships, and the story of the initiation of the enterprise is thus told in the memoirs
of his life. In 1835, at a small convivial meeting of some of the promoters of the
Great Western Railway, some one said, ‘ Our railway to Bristol will be one of the
longest in England, and Brunel exclaimed, ‘ Why not make it the longest line
_of communication in the world by connecting it with New York by a line of
steamers?’ Out of this grew the ‘Great Western’ steamship, and the history of the

enterprise and of its success is too well known, at least here, to require any

?

984 REPORT—1898.

allusion to the steps by which it was brought about. Suffice it to say that, in spite
of much discouragement, the ‘Great Western —of the then unexampled size of
two thousand three hundred gross tons, and with engines of unparalleled power—
was launched at Bristol in 1837, and ran successful and regular voyages till 1857,
when she was broken up.

In Section G there are many who can appreciate the difficulties of such a new
departure as the ‘Great Western’ steamship, even if they had been confined to the
design and study of a vessel and engines of unprecedented size; but it is not
easy to realise the anxiety and trouble caused by the dictum of a scientist so
universally admired as Dr. Lardner, at the meeting of the British Association in
this city in 1836, that the whole idea of ocean navigation on voyages as long as
from Bristol to New York was at that epoch an abstract impossibility.

In these days of criticism of the past, often involving the rehabilitation of
individuals, it is interesting to note that Dr. Lardner’s part in condemning before-
hand the construction of the ‘Great Western’ steamship and the ideas on which
she was designed has been of late years unduly minimised. It has been said
that all Dr. Lardner meant was to express a pious doubt as to the commercial
prospects of ocean navigation. I have carefully read the ‘Proceedings’ of the
time, and I am brought to the conclusion that his words and writings will
admit of no such interpretation. Dr. Lardner’s views, arrived at after calculation
and reasoning, were precisely expressed and boldly and honestly enunciated by
him. The words of the discussion here appear not to have been preserved ; but in
the elaborate article in a Quarterly Review in 1837, which is, I believe, admitted
as having been written by Dr. Lardner, and as expressing his matured views,
he said ‘that in proportion as the capacity of a vessel is increased, in the
same ratio, or nearly so, must the mechanical power of the engines be enlarged
and the consumption of coal augmented.’ He based his views that success was
impossible on principles which he supposed to be sound, but which were, in fact,
assumptions—viz, that the resistance to the progress of a ship varied directly with
her capacity, that a certain number of tons of coal were required in 1836 per
horse-power for the voyage across the Atlantic, and that, this being so, enough
fuel could not be carried in a ship, however large she might be made.

Brunel, on the other hand, contended that Dr. Lardner’s views were funda-
mentally erroneous ; for that, whereas the capacity of aship increased in the ratio of
the cube of her dimensions, the resistance to her progress varied more nearly as
the square. Thus, by adopting a proper length, beam, and draught, a ship would
not only carry coal for the journey to New York, but be commercially successful
in respect of cargo and passengers.

It is interesting to note that 9 lbs. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour
(as compared with our present ]} to 2 lbs.) was the approximate coal consump-
tion which was more or less accepted by both sides in the controversies of 1836
and 1837.

We know now that the resistances encountered by a ship are not merely
dependent on her dimensions, but comprise wave-making at various speeds,
bringing form and proportion of dimensions largely into the necessary calcu-
lations; but I want to point out that the line of divergence of the different
views of Lardner and Brunel was sufficiently precise and quite crucial. It is true
that Dr. Lardner, in later criticisms of 1837, retreated somewhat from his position
of 1836, introducing more of the commercial aspect of the case and stating that no
steam vessel could make profitable voyages across the Atlantic, at least until
marine engines were immensely improved; but, even so, it seems clear that
toe fundamental matter at issue in 1836 and 1837, the period of Dr. Lardner’s
active criticism, was the question of the resistances increasing in the same
ratio as the capacity. The results of these ex cathedrd statements by Dr.
Lardner about the ‘Great Western,’ then in process of being built, must have
caused great anxiety to the promoters and much preliminary distrust of the ship
on the part of the public. They were, unquestionably, honestly arrived at, how-
ever much they were due to reasoning on unascertained premises, and this latter is
the reason for my venturing now to refer once more to them. Asa matter of fact,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 985

the ship started from Bristol in 1838, and arrived at New York in fourteen days
with 200 tons of coal in her bunkers,

Let me remind you of another somewhat similar instance of the way in which
the anxieties of engineers have been unnecessarily increased and public alarm
gratuitously, though honestly, aroused. When the designs of the Forth Bridge—of
which the nation, and indeed the world, is proud—had been adopted both by the
railway companies who were to find the capital and by Parliament, a most dis-
tinguished man of science—the then Astronomer Royal—came to the conclusion that
the engineers had neglected certain laws which he enunciated respecting the resist-
ing power of long struts to buckling, and that the bridge ought not to be constructed,
as he considered that, to use his own words, ‘we may reasonably expect the
destruction of the Forth Bridge in a lighter gale than that which destroyed the Tay
Bridge.’ All this was stated, no doubt, from a strong view of public duty, in a
letter to a public newspaper, though subsequently and frankly withdrawn. If
the bases of his calculations were right, the conclusion might have been correct ;
but the fact was that there was no foundation worthy of the name for the
reasoning. Again, another distinguished mathematician publicly criticised the
Forth Bridge with equal vigour, basing his views that it was fundamentally
incorrect on another set of equally erroneous assumptions, maintaining again that
it should not be permitted, because he proved by reasoning on those assumptions
that it must be absolutely unsafe.

Once more, in shipbuilding: until Mr, William Froude, some years prior to 1875,
made his experiments by means of models on the highly difficult and otherwise
almost insoluble causes of the retardation of ships and their behaviour in waves,
beginning at the beginning, taking nothing for granted, and eliminating all ele-
ments of possible errors, little or nothing was known of the laws governing these
questions. Laws had been laid down by high authorities as to the causes of retarda~
tion of ships, many of which, in fact, were not true, while some of the assigned
causes were non-existent and some real causes were unrecognised, Mr, Froude
was told that little or no information could be learnt from experiments on models
which would be applicable to full-sized ships, and that ships must continue to be
designed and engines built on data which, scientifically spealine, were assump-
tions. The outcome has been that Mr. Froude’s @ priori depreciated experi-
ments with models have solved most of the questions relating to that branch of
naval architecture; and at the present time every ship in the Royal Navy,
and not a few in the merchant service, are designed in accordance with the data
so gained.

Another example of hasty generalisation occurs to me, and that is on the
important question of wind pressure. Tredgold, who undoubtedly was one of the
soundest of engineers, laid down in 1840 that a pressure of 40 lbs. per square
foot should be provided for ; reasoning, no doubt, from the fact that such a pressure
had in this country been registered on a wind gauge of a square foot or less in area.
As a consequence, he assumed that the same force could be exerted by the wind on
areas of any dimensions. Thus, roofs and bridges, wherever any calculations of wind
pressure were, in fact, made, were designed fora pressure of 40 lbs. per square foot
of the whole exposed surface ; and under the alarm caused by the fall of the Tay
Bridge in 1879, the piers of which were not, probably, strong enough to resist a
horizontal pressure of one-fifth of such an amount, a further general assumption
was made, and railway bridges throughout the kingdom were ordered by the Board
of Trade in 1880, acting no doubt on expert advice, to be in future designed, and
are designed to this day, to resist 56 lbs. of horizontal wind pressure on the whole
exposed area with the ordinary factors of safety for the materials employed, as if
such horizontal strain were a working load.

It had, for a long time previously to this order of Government being issued, been
suspected that these small-gauge experiments were untrustworthy, and subsequent
experiments at the Forth Bridge on two wind gauges of 300 square feet and of
1} square feet respectively indicated that with an increase of area the unit of
pressure fell off in a very marked degree. Under the same conditions of wind
and exposure the larger gauge registered a pressure 38°7 per cent. less per square

986 - REPOoRT—1898.

foot than the smaller gauge. I have been able to carry experiments further at the
Tower Bridge by observing the pressure on the surface of the bascules of the bridge
as evidenced by the power exerted by the actuating engines. In this case we have
a wind gauge of some 5,000 feet in area, and it has been shown that, while small
anemometers placed on the fixed parts of the bridge adjoining the bascules register
from 6 to 9 Ibs. per square foot, the wind pressure on the bascules is only from 1
to 13 lb. per square foot.

It is difficult to imagine the amount of money which has been expended in
provision against wind strains of 56 lbs. per square foot on large areas in conse-
quence of hurried generalisation from insufficient data. I know something of
what this provision for wind cost at the Tower Bridge, and I do not wish to
mention it; but if the public had been told that the dictum of experts, arrived at
however hastily in 1880, was to be set aside in the construction of that bridge, all
confidence would have been beforehand destroyed in it, and I suppose no Com-
mittee of Parliament would have passed the Act.

I have mentioned these matters, which could be added to by many similar
‘instances in other branches of applied science, not for the sake of reviving old con-
troversies or of throwing a stone at highly distinguished men, honoured in their
lifetime and honoured in their memory, nor for the sake of criticising more
modern scientists or a Government Department. Still less do I wish to question
the necessity and value of mathematical calculations as applied to the daily work
of engineering science, but I recall the circumstances for the purpose of once more
‘pointing out the extreme value of experimental research and of bespeaking
the utmost caution against our being tempted to lay down laws based on un-
ascertained data. We know the tendency there has been at all times to gene-
ralise and to seek refuge in formule, and we cannot but know that it is not at
anend now. We ought to recognise and remember how few physical questions
had been exhaustively examined sixty years ago, and may I say how compara-
tively few have even now been fundamentally dealt with by experiment under true
scientific conditions? The investigation of physical facts under all the various
conditions which confront an engineer requires much care, intelligence, time,
and last, not least, not a little money. In urging the vital necessity of
investigations, I am sure that I shall not be understood as decrying the
value of the exact analysis of mathematics, but we must be quite sure that the
premises are right before we set to work to reason upon them. We should, then,
exert all our influence against rules or calculations based merely on hypothesis, and
not be content with assumptions when facts can be ascertained, even if such
ascertainment be laborious and costly. In a word, let us follow sound in-
ductive science, as distinguished from generalisations; for ‘Great is truth and
mighty above all things.’

In connection with this subject, I may congratulate the Association generally,
and this Section in particular, that there is now more hope for experimental
science and some endowment of research in this country than at any former time.
The vital necessity of further work in these directions has long been recognised
by men of science, and was notably urged by Professor Oliver Lodge.
Last year, in no small degree owing to the exertions of Sir Douglas Galton,
K.C.B., who presided over the British Association in 1895, and brought the
question very prominently forward in his inaugural address on that occasion, a
highly influential deputation waited on the Premier to urge that England
should have a Public Physical Laboratory, at which facts could be arrived at,
constants determined, and instruments standardised. The importance of the
questions which could be determined at such an institution in their influence
on the trade and prosperity of the country, independently of the advancement
of purely scientific knowledge, cannot well be exaggerated.

Our Government, while somewhat limiting the scope of the inquiry, appointed
a small Committee to examine and report on this highly important subject. It is
no breach of confidence to say that the Committee, after taking much evidence,
‘visiting a similar and highly successful institution on the Continent, and studying
the question in all its bearings, were convinced of the great public’ benefits which

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 987

may be expected from such an institution, and have unanimously reported in
favour of its establishment.

I feel sure that we shall all earnestly hope that Government will carry out the
views of the Committee, and I venture to suggest that each of us should use what
influence he may have to induce the Chancellor of the Exchequer to find adequate
funds for an institution which may be of the greatest benefit not merely to
scientific research, but to the commerce of these islands, threatened as it is on all
sides by foreign competition of the most vigorous description—a competition which
is supported by every weapon which the science of other lands can forge for use
in the struggle. It being acknowledged that our own work in life is to deal with
physical facts and apply them for the use of our fellow-men, we may have good
hopes that ‘at such an institution as I have indicated, directed, as it no doubt
will be, by the highest scientific superintendence, we shall be able, at least far
better than at present, to have a sound knowledge of many facts which are
obscure, and to deal with the many new conditions under which the applied
science of the future will have to be carried on.

Those who know most of the problems of Nature feel the more strongly how
much remains which is unknown, and realise how completely those who teach
require throughout their lives to be always learners. Let each of us, then, in our
special walk of life, seeking for further enlightenment on the various problems
of our work and in the application of that science which we love, humbly
recognise that

‘ All Nature is but art, unknown to thee ;
All Chance, direction which thou canst not see ;
All Discord, harmony not understood.’

The following Papers were read :—

1. New Works at Barry Docks. By R. C. H. Davison.

2. Conditions necessary for the Successful Treatment of Sewage
' by Bacteria. By W. J. Disvin.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Description of an old Newcomen Engine at Long Ashton, near Bristol.
By W.H. Pearson, M.Jnst.C.£.

2. Factitious Airs. By Sir FrepERIcK BramweE.t, Bart., FR.S.

3. The Mechanical and Economic Problems of the Coal Question.
By T. Forster Brown, M!.Jnst.C.#.—See Reports, p. 611.

4, The Hydraulic System of Jointing of Tubes on Tubular Bodies.
By Craupe Jounson, MInst.C.H#., UM Inst.#.E.

The practical utility of this system has only been demonstrated during this
ear. The inventor of the process, Mr. C. T. Crowden, constructed apparatus in
1896, which, being actuated by hand power, was experimental only. In 1897
the funds were obtained for the construction of steam machinery from the author's

988 REPORT—1898.

design; and in January of this year a machine, which is known as a hydro-
compressor, was completed and was found to work successfully.

In making cycle frames it was found that every joint in a frame (usually about
ten in number) could easily be made in seven or eight minutes—this time included
the assembling of all the tubes, lugs, &c., which constitute a cycle frame, in the
machine and the taking out of the completed frame—after the operation of apply-
ing the water pressure. The hydraulic pressures applied to the forming of the
joints varied from three to nine tons per square inch. All the joints in a cycle
frame are made at the same moment, and, as no heat is employed, the frame when
removed from the jig or mould is perfectly true and requires no setting. All the
laborious cleaning off, sand-blasting, and the consequent weakening of the tubes
by filing of the metal are entirely avoided, so also is the loss of strength in the tubes
due to the tempering of the metal.

In the brazing process the tubes are first connected to the iron sockets or lugs,
which form the connecting pieces at all the angles of the frame, by means of small
screws inserted at the sides of the lugs. The frame is then placed on a hearth of
red-hot coke, is heated to a bright-red heat by the application of a ‘ Bunsen’ gas
jet, and the brass solder is rup into all the joints in turn, a suitable flux being
employed to effect the union of the metals. When the frame has passed through
this ordeal the brazing material has spread over the external surface of the tubes
and lugs, and has to be subjected to various ‘cleaning-off’ processes—viz., sand-
blasting, filing, &c. The former is very injurious to the health of the workmen,
and the latter is necessarily very weakening to the tubes. The frame is also very
much twisted by the heat, and the steel tubes themselves are much weakened,
especially at that part where most strength is needed—i.c., at their junction with
the lugs, this portion being practically brought to the condition of cast metal,
and the mechanical hardness due to drawing the tubes is entirely lost. The
scale, too, which is so difficult to clean off, it must be remembered, is formed by
oxidisation, at the expense of the tube.

With the hydraulic process the time occupied in making a frame is entirely
dependent upon the rapidity with which frames can be placed in and withdrawn
from the jig. This device, it must be explained, is a heavy cast-iron mould in
two parts, in which the tubes of the cycle frame and the lugs are placed. After
these parts are closed, water, under a pressure of from five to seven tons per square
inch, is applied to the interior of the cycle frame, and by this means the tubes,
where they lie within the lugs, are so expanded as to become indissolubly united to
them, The interior surface of the lugs is spirally grooved in reverse directions,
so that the tubes when expanded are locked therein, and cannot be moved in the
direction of their axes or be unscrewed. The closing of the mould or jig which,
contains the frame is effected by the action of the piston of a steam cylinder, which,
through the medium of a system of toggle joints, exercises the necessary pressure ;
the mould is then automatically locked. A second stroke of the piston actuates
the plunger of a hydraulic intensifier which gives the pressure required for
making all the joints instantaneously. The press is then opened, and the cycle
frame, completely jointed, perfectly true to shape, and without twist or weakness
of any kind, is removed.

Drawings and samples of the work performed by this machine were exhibited.

5. Description of an Instrument for Measuring small Torsional Strains
By KE. G. Coxer.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The Section did not meet.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 989

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Electric Power in Workshops. By A. Stemens, U.Inst.C.£.

2. The Application of the Electric Motor to small Industrial Purposes and
its Effects on Trade and on the Community Generally. By ALFRED
H. Grssines, W1.L.L., President of the Municipal Electrical Associa-
tion ; City Electrical Engineer, Bradford.

The electric motor has paramount advantages over any other method of
utilising potential energy, but its use is restricted at present to a few large special
trades and manufactures. Gradually, however, these advantages are becoming
known and appreciated by smaller tradesmen and handicraftsmen.

It is in limited use, for instance, among such divers trades as aérated bread
makers, bag makers, bookbinders, carpenters, cutlers, engineering workshops, fans
for ventilating and other purposes, lifts, lithographers, presses, printers, saw
mills, &c.

The advantages of driving electrically in some of these cases are of a very
distinctive character. Boiler makers can drill rivet holes more accurately and
economically. In letterpress and lithographic printing the extremely steady and
even motion consequent on the rotary action of the electric motor is an important
feature. Speaking generally, great advantages for all industries are secured by the
possibility of placing the motor close up to its work, and thus dispensing with long
lines of shafting and countershafting, which in one actual test were found to
absorb 56 per cent. of the actual power generated. The motor can be instanta-
neously switched ‘ on’ and ‘ off,’ which, of course, effects great economy inuse. Also
the resultant in horse-power hours or Board of Trade units taken on the average of
the varying loads is an important characteristic of the electric motor due to its
high efficiency, but it is a most difficult thing to get power users to seeit. A
great hindrance to a more extensive use of the electric motor among small
tradesmen is the want of capital to buy motors, and the want of confidence. The
owners of electrical supply undertakings should therefore make it a part of their
business to purchase good reliable motors and let them out on hire. This scheme
was inaugurated in Bradford at the end of 1896, and has had most successful
results. In the two months of 1896 seven were hired, in 1897 thirty-nine, in
1898 (six months only) thirty-one. The number of Board of Trade units sold
in 1897 was 117,176, in 1898 it is likely to be 180,000, or an increase of 53 per
cent, Other cities and towns do not yet make equally satisfactory returns. The
value of the electric motor as a factor in reducing the working costs of any
electrical supply works is well known.

The electric motor as a machine is so adaptable and economical as applied to
small trades and industries that it may well help them to compete with larger
firms ; it may lead to the revival of some industries and the return of others which
have gone abroad, such as toy making. Hygienically considered, it gives off no
deleterious gases, and displaces the boiler and smoky chimney.

3. Electric Power and its Application on the Three-phase System to the Bristol
Waggon and Carriage Works. By W. Geiret, MInst.0.£.

Hitherto power has been transmitted either by long steam-pipes to scattered
engines, or from one large engine by gearing and shafting.

On the former system are driven shipyards, rolling mills, engineers’ works, &c.,
where the total consumption of steam may be as much as ten times thut of
an economical engine. The latter system is used in such places as weaving and

990 F REPORT—1898.

spinning mills, where the engine may be highly economical and yet as little as
1 per cent. of its power applied to the fabric or cotton itself.

Electric power is advantageous in both, but more particularly in the former
class of works. The importance of this subject is emphasised, seeing that one
firm may use as much energy as lights an average provincial town.

An‘instance’of'the wastefulness of driving by scattered engines is the old plant,
now replaced by electric power, at Messrs. T. Richardson, Son, & Co.’s, of West
Hartlepool. Here there were 31 engines of 94 horse-power downwards, using an
average of 51 lbs, of steam per I.H.P. hour, generated in 8: main and 23 auxiliary
boilers. Now there are two main boilers and two steam alternators, with one
‘stand by.’ Again, at the Bristol Waggon Works, 5 Lancashire boilers, and 5
engines are being replaced by 1 Lancaster boiler, and 1 engine.

Referring to the different sources of loss in the use of scattered engines, a
serious one is that due to condensation in long steam pipes. This loss is the
equivalent of one half-ton of coal for every square foot of bare pipe continually
under steam per annum, and for lagged pipe it may be one-fourth to one-sixth of a
fon. At Messrs. Richardson’s there was 1,200 feet of steam pipe; at the Bristol
Waggon Works 760 feet of pipe is being replaced by 30 feet.

The present system is wasteful, not only in fuel, but in water and stores, and
in labour in firing boilers and attending engines.

The loss in shafting and gearing was 25 per cent. to 70 per cent.—average 43
per cent.—at Messrs. Richardson’s ; about 50 per cent. at Messrs. Furness, West-

arth, & Co.’s, of Middlesborough ; and from 37 per cent. to 75 per cent.—average
50 per cent.—at the Bristol Waggon Works.

The loss in electric transmission, including dynamo, conductors, and motors,
need not exceed 24 per cent. But the loss in conductors and motors occurs only
during use, and not when the motors are standing ; on the other hand, the loss in
the shafting is continuous whether the machines are standing or not. This fact
seriously adds to the comparative inefficiency of transmission by shafting.

Small engines are generally badly governed or overloaded, both of which facts
give rise to variations in the speed of the tools and a consequent reduction of out-
put. Electric motors run at a constant speed, even with a considerable excess of
the full load, and effect an increased output, At the Bristol Waggon Works one of
the engines is pulled up to one-half its normal speed when a large tool is thrown
on. Electric power gives greater flexibility in providing for extension—an addi-
tional motor is so easily added—while with separate engines there is a difficulty,

The Old Steam Plant at the Bristol Waggon Works.

There are 5 horizontal engines, 8 being antiquated and having slow-speed
throttle-governors, the valves being set to cut otf as Jate as 83 per cent. of the
stroke, so that hardly any expansion is obtained. Two of the engines are modern,
though using low-pressure steam with long steam pipes. Steam is generated in
5 Lancashire boilers.

The steam consumption, calculated from the diagrams, varied from 96 lbs. to
32 Ibs. per I.H.P. hour. This excluded loss in cylinders and pipe condensation
and leakage past the piston. One engine is very inefficient, and there was found
to be excessive leakage on removing the cylinder cover. Probably 25 per cent.
would be a small allowance for this and cylinder condensation, which, together
with the calculated loss in 158 feet of steam pipe, shows the actual consumption
to be nearly 150 lbs. of steam per I.H.P. hour in this case.

The loss of steam pressure between boiler and cylinder was sometimes 40 per

-cent., and the annual loss by condensation in steam pipes was 2,575,000 lbs., the
equivalent of 154 tons of fuel.

The total fuel consumption is about 2,500 tons per annum. The average load
on all engines is 254 I.H.P., the working hours per annum about 2,800, and the
totalenergy about 710,0001.H.P. hours perannum. The total steam consumption,
allowing 10 per cent. for leakage and cylinder condensation and the above loss in
pipes, is 41,625,000 Ibs., and the evaporation about 7°5 Ibs. of water per Ib. of fuel.
The average consumption of fuel is 7-9 Ibs, per I.H.P. hour.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 99}

~ The diagrams obtained show the maximum load to be 354 I.H.P., the normal
load 254 1.H.P., and light load 207 I.H.P. Of this there is lost in engine friction
45 H.P. and in shafting 88 H.P.=1383 H.P, The average power used by the tcals
is 121 H.P.—that is, 48 per cent. of the normal power of the engines, In the case
of two of the engines the tools used only 25 per cent., 75 per cent. being lost.

Power Required for Electric Driving.

Ten motors will be used, ranging from 65 to 2 H.P., driving the shafting near
to where the work is taken off. Considerable shafting will be discarded, and the
total power developed by the motors will be 76 H.P. less than the present engine
1.H.P.

The new boiler will evaporate 9 lbs. of water per Ib, of fuel, while the engine
will use 16 Ibs. of steam per I.H.P. hour. Allowing for contingencies, the fuel
per I.H.P. hour will be 1:9 to 2 lbs., just one-fourth of that used at present.

The efficiency of the electric system, taking the ratio of the power at the motor
pully to the I.H,P. of the generating engine, is 69 per cent., and 258 I.H.P. will
be required as an average. The I.H.P. is practically the same as before, but the
saving by the use of an economical engine close to its boiler represents, for reasons
as before stated, 1,000/. per annum.

The three-phase system was adopted after full consideration, because of its
superior mechanical merits and the absence of commutators and brushes, which are
troublesome adjuncts of the direct-current system.

_ The new plant will consist of one Lancashire boiler, with Bennis automatic
stoker and damper regulator, a 96-tube Green’s economiser, a 400 I.H.P. hori-
zontal compound surface-condensing engine, an Edward’s air’ pump, a 6-inch
centrifugal circulating pump, and a Klein cooling tower for the condensing water.

There will be one 275 B.H.P. Brown-Boveri three-phase generator and 10
motors from 65 H.P. downwards, all supplied by Messrs. T. Richardson & Sons, of
Hartlepool. For lighting the works there will be 750 glow and 22 arc lamps
grouped on the three phases and run at 110 volts. The motors will be arranged
for 190 volts effective. The lower lighting voltage enables the use of more efficient
lamps. The wiring will be protected by hard wood casing throughout, and the
whole of the work is being carried out by the firm with which the author is
associated.

4. The Electric Lighting System at Bristol, with Special Reference to
Auxiliary Plant. By H. Farapay Proctor.

5. Electric Traction by Surface Contacts. ‘
By Professor Sitvanus P. Tuompson, 7.2.8. and Mites WALKER.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Schemes for the Improvement of the Waterway between the Bristol
Channel and the Birmingham District. By E. D. Marten, I.A.,
M.Inst.C.L.

| The trunk waterway consists of the tidal Severn estuary for 20 miles from
Bristol Avon to Sharpness Docks, thence of the Gloucester and Berkeley-
‘Ship Canal for 16 miles to Gloucester, and of the canalised river Severn for
‘42 miles from Gloucester to Stourport.

It is connected with the Birmingham district by the Worcester and Birming-

992 REPORT—1898.

ham Canal and the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal. The former leaves
the Severn at Worcester, 30 miles above Gloucester; is 30 miles long, has a rise of
418 feet, and serves the southern portion of the district. The latter leaves the
Severn at Stourport, and thence it is 27 miles with a rise of 419 feet to
Wolverhampton, at the northern end of the district.

Both canals are connected with the Birmingham Canal Navigation, which
intersects every part of the district. All three canals are narrow-boat canals
accommodating horse-hauled vessels 70 feet long and 7 feet in beam and carrying
25 to 36 tons.

On the Severn a system of steam tugs is maintained, and vessels carrying 150
tons navigate it; but it is capable of accommodating much larger craft.

Vessels engaged in the Continental trade use the docks at Gloucester and
Sharpness, and Atlantic liners those at Bristol and other Channel ports, and
goods intended for the latter require transhipment at some point after leaving the
narrow canal and before passing into the estuary.

The following improvement schemes have been proposed from time to time :—

Mr. G. W. Keeling, Consulting Engineer to the Sharpness Docks Company,
proposed to improve the Worcester and Birmingham Canal, increasing its width
from 30 feet to 66 feet and its depth from 44 feet to 9 feet, and with locks large
enough to pass two vessels, each 100 feet long and 18 feet in beam, with a carrying
capacity of from 200 to 800 tons.

A group of 36 locks, with an aggregate rise of 255 feet, was to be replaced by
an incline upon the Monkland principle.

His estimate of the cost of the work was 600,000/., 200,0002. of which was for
altering tunnels.

The author's scheme was for an improvement of the Staffordshire and
Worcestershire Canal: this he proposed to widen to 60 feet and deepen to 7 feet,
mainly by raising the level of the waterway, and the means by which this could
be done were explained.

By substituting inclines for groups of locks the number of pounds was to be
reduced from 31 to 11.

For the incline a modification of the Monkland principle was proposed, its
leading feature being that the caisson carrying the vessel would travel up the incline
sideways instead of longitudinally, thus getting rid of oscillation, The improved
canal would accommodate the same class of vessel, which could with slight altera-
tion to some of the Severn locks at present navigate to Stourport, and the carrying
eapacity of which varies from 25 tons for a mere barge to 150 tons for a fully
equipped coasting steamer.

The estimated cost of the scheme was 360,0002.

The depth of water at Sharpness at nap tides is limited to 16 feet, and Mr.
Keeling prepared a scheme to make a new entrance at Sheperdine, 5$ miles lower
down the estuary, where 8 feet more water could be obtained. This entrance
was to be connected with Sharpness Docks by a ship canal, so that liners might
enter the docks at every tide.

These works, combined with improvements to the canals, would »reatly cheapen
transport, as goods could be taken in steam-tugged trains of canal boats without
transhipment between manufacturer’s wharf and the side of the liner.

There would be four distinct elements of economy—namely, the steam-tugged
train, the non-transhipment, the saving in time resulting from the substitution of
inclines for locks, and the fact that the liner would be brought 20 miles nearer the
Birmingham district. :

The estimated cost of the Sheperdine scheme is a little over 300,000/.

Vessels of 800 (and in some cases 1,200) tons register trade between Gloucester
a Continental ports vé¢ the Ship Canal, which has a nayigable depth of about
15 feet.

The Severn for 30 miles from Gloucester to Worcester has a minimum depth
of 10 feet ; and the problem of increasing this to 15 feet, and so making Worcester
a port of equal importance with Gloucester, has always been attractive, particularly
as there are only two changes of level.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 993

It would involve the dredging and disposal of 1,500,000 cubic yards
of material, new locks at Gloucester and Tewkesbury, a subsidiary entrance
at Gloucester, and a transhipping basin at Worcester; whilst the channel at
Gloucester would require to be widened and straightened and three bridges con-
verted into opening bridges.

The author estimated that the cost would be considerably under 500,0002.

A more modest scheme is to convert the Westgate Bridge at Gloucester into
an opening bridge, and so allow of ordinary 300-ton coasting vessels trading to
Worcester. The estimate for this and certain subsidiary works was 20,0001.

In conclusion, the author expressed belief that the improvements would render
possible a great reduction in cost of transport, but considered that there was no
prospect of their being carried out unless the local authorities interested would
undertake them.

2. On the Welsh Methods of Shipping Coal. By Professor J. Ryan.

The author described the arrangements for loading coal adopted at the
Alexandra Dock, Newport, at the Bute and Roath Docks, Cardiff, at Penarth,
and at Barry.

The chief methods discussed were :—

The Newport low-level system, in which the full waggons are received at quay-
level, raised by hydraulic elevators to the discharging height, and finally dismissed
as ‘empties’ along an upper stage or viaduct. This method has been followed ai
the Alexandra Dock, Hull, and elsewhere.

The Cardiff low-level system adopted at certain tips at Barry, Roath, &c.,
where the waggons are received and dismissed at the quay-level, being elevated for
discharge by an hydraulic hoist.

The Barry high-level system, where the waggons are received and dismissed
along different lines on the same elevated staging or viaduct, the waggons being
manipulated for discharge by the hydraulic machinery of the tip.

The Penarth system, similar to the above, except in the details of the arrange-
ment of the railway lines.

The Roath Dock system of loading by Lewis-Hunter cranes, by which each
waggon-load of coal is separately lifted in a box and deposited in the hold of a
steamer, with a minimum of breakage.

These systems were discussed on the score of economy, of efficiency, and of
despatch.

Modifications of these and certain other systems that have been used elsewhere
were referred to, and compared with the foregoing.

In the matter of speed in loading, the chief systems are all capable of tipping
coal much faster than it can be trimmed in the hold, so that it is only a ‘ self-
trimming’ steamer which can tax the capabilities of the tip or crane.

Some instances of rapid despatch were quoted, amongst others :—

The s.s, ‘ Algoa,’ which was loaded in the Alexandra Dock at Newport in 1896,
when 11,671} tons were shipped in 863 working hours; that is, at an average
rate of 317 tons per working hour, and this maintained for so many hours.

The s.s. ‘Samoa,’ which was loaded at Roath Dock in“1893, by Lewis-Hunter
cranes, receiving 9,234 tons in 28 working hours, this being at the rate of nearly
320 tons per working hour. Higher rates have of course been attained in shorter

eriods,
At Barry Dock over 490 tons was delivered to the s.s. ‘ Harbury’ in one hour at
a single hoist. In 1896 the s.s. ‘Ocean, having been loaded at Barry with 1,900
tons of coal, left on the same tide she entered with. In October last the ss. ‘Har-
bury’ took in 2,467 tons 8 cwt. of coal at Barry between 2.40 p.m. and 7.55 Pat.
on the one day, the average rate of loading being therefore in this case nearly 470
tons per hour.

1898, 38

994 REPORT—1898.

3. A New Instrument for Drawing Envelopes, and its Application to the
Teeth of Wheels and for other Purposes. By Professor H, 8. Hete-
Suaw, LL.D., M.Inst.C.2.—See Reports, p. 619.

4, Hydraulic Power Transmission by Compressed Air.
By Wittiam Grorce Waker, A.U1.C.2., MILE.

The air is compressed by the direct action of the falling water without the
aid of moving machinery.

The compressor consists essentially of a head tank, a vertical down-flow pipe,
and a separating tank placed at the base of the down-flow pipe. The water may be
conveyed to the head tank by means of an open flume or pipe ; water entering the
down-flow pipe passes the ends of a number of small air pipes, from which air is
drawn in the form of small uniform globules, which, becoming entangled in the
descending water, are carried down to the air tank, where separation takes place,
the air rising to the top of the tank, and the water flowing out at the bottom and
up again outside the down-flow pipe to the tail race; the difference in height of the
tail race and pipe to head tank gives the available head of water. The globules of
air are uniformly compressed at constant temperature during their downward
path, the temperature of the water remaining practically constant. The amount
of compression of the air depends solely on the length of the down-pipe being
independent of available water-fall.

A machine hes been erected at Magog, Quebec, a short distance from Montreal,
to drive the printing machinery of the Dominion Cotton Mills Company. It has
now been in operation over twelye months, running continuously night and day,
delivering dry compressed air, with an invariable pressure of 52 lbs. per square
inch. It provides power for six printing machines, each of which is driven by a
pair of engines with 8-inch by 12-inch cylinders. The cotton mill proper uses
water-power, while the printing machines were formerly driven by steam, as
printing operations necessitate a very steady power and great variations in
speed, the engines varying from 20 to 800 revolutions per minute. Each has its
own engine, and in this case the air simply replaced steam, the same engines being
used without any modifications.

The depth of the shaft is 128 feet, its size 6 feet by 10 feet, the down-flow pipe
is 3 feet 8 inches in diameter, the inverted tank at the bottom of the shaft is 17
feet by 18 feet. The penstock or in-flow pipe is 5 feet 6 inches in diameter, and in
the head-piece there are 30 air pipes, each 2 inches in diameter, and each having
32 air inlets at their base, making a total of 960 air inlets. Through these the air
mixes with the down-flowing water, thus subdividing the air into an innumerable
number of small bubbles. The available working waterhead is 21 feet. By a
series of actual tests made by Professor McLeod, of McGill University, it was
shown that this plant gave an efficiency of 62 per cent. of the actual horse-power
of the water in dry cold air.

This efficiency is secured notwithstanding that 20 per cent. of the air is lost by
insufficient separation, owing to the separating tank being a little too small, a
feature which may obviously be guarded against in future, so that an efficiency of
75 per cent. is considered as easily obtainable. The actual cost of installation of
such a plant is about 10/. per horse-power, although much depends on local con-
ditions, the price of labour, material, &c. The cost of sinking the shaft is the
principal item, so that larger plants can be installed at a much lower rate per
horse-power than small ones.

5. Combined Electric Lighting and Power Plant for Docks and Harbours.
By J. G. W. ALDRIDGE.

The introduction and development of hydraulic machinery by Armstrong
resulted in the equipment of almost every dock and harbour in the world with

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 995

hydraulic plant, and this system has been applied to almost every conceivable
machine. Until recently, however, the lighting of such places was entirely done
by gas, and whilst the hydraulic plant has become more efficient, especially for
regular work, gas lighting has proved totally inadequate, and, therefore, electric
lighting is now superseding the gas. This, however, necessitates the putting down
of two separate sets of machinery, one for hydraulic, the other for electric work,
and it is obvious that there must be a certain amount of spare power for each set
of machinery, and, moreover, for at least some portion of the twenty-four hours
each plant must be at a standstill. The time has now arrived when electric
machinery has so far developed that one generating station may be used for all
purposes, the most notable instance being that of Copenhagen, Denmark.

The author gives particulars of this installation, and also those at Rotterdam and
Southampton Docks and Harbour, with which he is associated, and indicates the
direction in which dock and harbour authorities will find the greater economy for
combined light and power plant.

The paper was illustrated by diagrams and also lantern slides,

6. Electric Canal Haulage. By A. H. Auuen, A.Jnst.£.£.

Practically the whole of the goods traffic in this country, even up to the year
1825, was carried on canals, of which nearly 3,000 miles had been constructed, and at
an immense cost. In this year, 1825—which may be considered the zenith of the pro-
sperity of the canal traffic industry—the Birmingham Canal yielded a revenue of
cent. per cent., and one of the Manchester canals paid in dividends every second
year a sum equal to the total original outlay.

Since then our once splendid canals—the heritage of the seventeenth century—
have, in a great measure, become useless by neglect, and constitute, in comparison
with the superb canal systems of Germany, France, and Belgium, a picture far from
creditable to ourselves,

Unfortunately, the methods of haulage on our canals in use a hundred years
ago are still common; horse traction is still relied upon. On some of our canals
steam tug-boats have been adopted with some measure of success, but there are
many objections to this innovation; one is the cost of energy in effecting a given
tonnage haulage.

The author maintains that by the use of electricity canal traction can be effected
in a way that will elevate the method of goods transport to the level of electric
railway traction.

An attempt is now made to provide an economic and efficient canal haulage
method that can be applied without interfering with existing horse traction, or in
such a way that the displacement of the horse system (if desired) can be ettected
gradually.

The system, which is shortly to be tested on one of our great Northern canals,
has been submitted to the critical examination of our most eminent canal experts,
and it is admitted that it shows promise of satisfying the numerous and difficult
conditions of canal traction.

In the new system, which it is estimated will reduce the freight traffic on
canals by 60 per cent., there will not be any loss of the power which will be
generated in gas power electric energy generating stations, beyond the trivial one
involved in electric transmission. Screw propulsion involves a loss by slip effect
of 50 to 60 per cent., but the haulage system involves no loss.

The following is a concise summary of the advantages that are claimed to be
possessed by the Canal Electric Haulage System, a scale model of which demon-
strates its application to a difficult section of a canal :—

It is proposed to employ the Teslaic alternating system of electric power.
The system will also provide an electric capstan, and light electrically the path,
as well as the boats.

382

996 REPORT-—1898.

The new system claims to possess, and is unique in this respect, the following
all important advantages :—

1. It will not interfere with the present horse haulage system.

2. The present boats will not be required to be altered.

3. Smaller boats with less draught can be employed, so that increased speeds
can be obtained without producing an excessive and objectionable flush of water.

4. It will be applicable to canals traversing tunnels.

5. No more liability to break down than with ordinary haulage on railways.

G. Suitable for the passage of vessels through the locks as in the present
system.

7. Is controllable from the boat, and does not absolutely require the driver

associated with horse haulage.

8. The same electric transmission conductors can provide crane and other power
for the warehouses and locks and electric light all along the canal.

9. It is much less costly to work than the present horse haulage system.

10. By placing the motors in tandem, or in series, several boats can be hauled
along together.

11. ‘the system can be worked with great advantage both by day and by

night,

7. On the Pacific Cable. By Cuartes Bricut, /.R.S.L., AM Lnst.C.£.

The author endeavoured to show that there were no insurmountable engineering
or electrical difficulties to prevent the realisation of a Pacific cable. He pointed
out that the maximum depth to be contended with was but little in excess of that
of existing cables, and that our present knowledge of the bottom of the ocean was
sufficient for deciding in favour of a particular route. The portion which requires
further survey is that between the Fiji Islands and Australia and New Zealand.

The question of the most suitable type of cable was then considered. It must
be easy to lay, durable, and capable of being picked up. The author recommends
a close-sheathed cable, with the iron wires more or less firmly butting against one
another. Each wire should be separately coated with preservative compound and
covered with a thin cotton tape.

The strength, pliability, &c., of cables was then discussed. The author has
previously suggested that a flexible riband sheathing of aluminium bronze might
with advantage be adopted instead of iron wires, thereby enormously reducing the
weight, and imparting freedom from corrosion. The riband form is preferred on
account of the increased flexibility thereby ensured in a large cable. It is on these
grounds, moreover, that the metal tape is not allowed to overlap, or even to meet.
Again, such a taping could, under no circumstances, damage the core under tension
or pressure.

For paying out the cable efficiently in the deepest water special attention
would have to be given to the character of the brake apparatus; and if the
ordinary friction brakes now in vogue can be supplanted by something more free
from the chances of undue heating, an advance will have been made. Such am
innovation would be especially valuable in this connection, on account of the
length of one of the sections—that between Vancouver and Fanning Island—being
substantially greater than anything previously dealt with. This section, with a
proper allowance for slack, &c., would run into some 3,500 nautical miles or
more, as against 2,717 for the Brest-St. Pierre cable of 1869, the new French
Atlantic line just laid being again materially longer.

It has been stated that if a cable were ever laid on the suggested route it could
not be subsequently recovered. In reply to this, it may be pointed out that cables
have already been picked up in depths of over 2,000 fathoms and repaired in the
open sea.

Again, objections have been raised as to the length of time taken in the
recovery of a cable in such depths. It must, however, be borne in mind that

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 997

eables have been picked up and repaired in upwards of 2,000 fathoms within the
course of two or three days.

The maximum speed of working obtainable on the long section (say
5,500 N.M.) with a large core would be low as compared with that attained
on the Atlantic cables. Nevertheless, with a core of the same proportions as that
adopted in the ‘ Anglo-American ’ Company's last cable—G50lbs. copper to 400lbs.
gutta-percha—under ordinary conditions a speed (in five letter words) could be
attained up to the minimum required by the Canadian Government in 1894,

This would be by ordinary manual transmission, wheréas all the latest
improvements in machine transmission with curbing arrangements (as well as
condensers) would naturally be applied with something like a 35 per cent. increase
in the speed. The adoption of Muirhead’s Duplex system would nearly double
the working capacity of the cable.

As a first venture the above cable would probably be sufficient to meet the
ends in view. It is conceivable that a larger core would be out of the question on
the ground of cost. Moreover, increases in the dimensions made beyond this
would have the effect of still further increasing the mechanical difficulties as
regards a suitable type of sheathing.

Experiments have, it is believed, already been made on two Atlantic cables
looped together to test the possibility of working through a considerably greater
length than that to be dealt with here, with satisfactory results.

In the construction of the first cable to India (vid the Persian Gulf) Messrs.
Bright & Clark, as engineers to the Government, adopted a conductor in which
four ordinary wires were drawn down so as to form the four quadrants of a true
circle with a ring outside to embrace the whole.

By this means—with a given weight of copper—they reduced the electro-
static (inductive) capacity of the core without increasing the conductor resistance,
the result being a very material increase in the attainable speed of signalling,
whilst sufficiently maintaining the mechanical requirements as regards pliability,
&e.

Messrs. Siemens Brothers have since, to a great extent, approached a similar
end in their compromise between the single solid wire and the ordinary strand
conductor, and this has proved a great success on a number of Atlantic cables.

It would seem as though a plan of drawing the wires down to a smaller total
area might in this undertaking be advantageously adopted. In the case of the
Persian Gulf cable, an economical method of securing any particular speed was
not of the same vital importance. Moreover, in that instance the length not being
of an abnormal character, the extra cost of the above type of conductor was
probably scarcely made good by increased working value. Here, however, the
author is of opinion that this plan would be found to more than repay the increase
in initial cost—especially as it would also materially reduce the quantity of gutta-
percha required to obtain the same minimum thickness throughout for fulfilling
mechanical as well as electrical qualifications, this being the béte noire in the cost
of an ocean cable, as also in its design.

By way of improving the present means of signalling upon cables, Mr. Oliver
Heaviside, F.R.S., has advocated the introduction of ‘leak’ circuits and self-induc-
tion into cable lines; and electrical engineers—including Mr. Preece, Dr. Thomp-
son, and others —have devised new forms for the insulated conductor accompanied
by devices which to a certain extent realised these theoretical advantages. The ap-
plication of leaks on the ordinary cable, when suitably disposed along the line, would
obyiate the choking effect of retardation, and secure increased definition for the
signals, though not sufficiently to permit of any substantial increase in the working
speed, even with the battery power raised within reason.

A number of other proposals have been made, but, so far as concerns any
further material increase in the speed attainable for submarine telegraphy under
given conditions, it seems probab‘e that if this is to be effected it will be by an
entire revolution in the form of conductor, dielectric, and completed cable, rather
than in the signalling apparatus. The latter has probably reached its limits of

998 REPORT-—-1898.

sensitiveness. Any further increased sensibility of the instruments is likely to
be at the expense of steadiness, and would tend to bring them within the range of
influence of other surrounding forces. It is even now quite beyond that required or
justified by the cable itself under present conditions.

To the political, strategic, and commercial importance of this line the author has
already drawn attention in the ‘ Fortnightly Review ’ for September, 1898.

-

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEctTIoN.—E. B. Brasrooxr, C.B., F.S.A.

The President delivered the following Address on Friday, September 9 :—

‘I am very sensible of the honour of being President of this Section at a Bristol
meeting. Bristol, from its association with the memory of J. C. Prichard, may
be regarded as the very birthplace of British Anthropology.
In submitting to the Section some observations on the past progress and the
‘present position of the Anthropological Sciences, I use the plural term, which
is generally adopted by our French colleagues, in order to remind you that
Anthfopology is in fact a group of sciences. There is what in France is called
pure anthropology or anthropology proper, but which we prefer to call physical
-anthropology—the science of the physical characters of man, including authropo-
metry and craniology, and mainly based upon anatomy and physiology. There
is comparative anthropology, which deals with the zoological position of mankind.
There is prehistoric archeology, which covers a wide range of inquiry into man’s
early works, and has to seek the aid of the geologist and the metallurgist. There
‘is psychology, which comprehends the whole operations of his mental faculties.
There is linguistics, which traces the history of human language. There is folk-
lore, which investigates man’s traditions, customs, and beliefs. There are ethno-
graphy, which describes the races of mankind, and ethnology, which differentiates
between them, both closely connected with geographical science. There is
sociology, which applies the learning accumulated in all the other branches of
anthropology to man’s relation to his fellows, and requires the co-operation of the
statistician and the economist. How can any single person master in its entirety a
group of sciences which covers so wide a field, and requires in its students such
various faculties and qualifications? Here, if anywhere, we must be content to
.divide our labours. Thegrandeur and comprehensiveness of the subject are among
its attractions. The old saying, ‘I am a man, and therefore I think nothing
- human to be foreign to me,’ expresses the ground upon which the antbropo-
- logical sciences claim from us a special attention.
I may illustrate what I have said as to the varied endowments of anthro-
pologists by a reference to the names of four distinguished men who have occupied
in previous years the place which it falls to my lot to fill to-day—most unworthily,
as I cannot but acknowledge, when I think of their pre-eminent qualifications.
When the Association last met at Bristol, in 1875, Anthropology was not a Section,

1000 x REPORT—1898.

but only a Department, and it was presided over by Nolleston. There may be
some here who recollect the address he then delivered, informed from beginning to
end with that happy and playful wit which was characteristic of him; but all will
imow how great he was in anatomy, what a wide range of classical and other
learning he possessed, and how he delighted to bring it to bear on every anthro-
pological subject that was presented to his notice. In i878 Huxley was the
Chairman of this Department. It is only necessary to mention the name of that
illustrious biologist to recall to your memory how much anthropology owes to him.
Hight years before, he had been President of the Association itself, and seven
years before that had published his ‘ Nvidence as to Man’s Place in Nature.’
Brilliant as his successes were in other branches of scientific investization, I cannot
but think that anthropology was with him a favourite pursuit. His writings upon
that subject possess a wonderful charm of style. In 1883 the Chairman was
Pengelly, who for many years rendered service to anthropology by his explora-
tion of Kent’s Cavern and other caves, and who happily illustrated the close rela-
tion that exists between geology and anthropology. His biography, recently
published, must have reminded many of us of the amiable qualities which adorned
his character. Finally, in 1886, two years after anthropology had become a Sec-
tion, its President was Sir George Campbell, a practical ethnologist, a traveller,
an administrator, a legislator, a geographer, who passed through a long career of
public lite with honour and distinction. All my other predecessors are, I am glad
to say, still living, and I make no mention of them. The few names I have cited
—selected by the accidental circumstance that they are no longer with us—are
sufficient to show what varied gifts and pursuits are combined in the study of
anthropology.

There is another side to the question. Great as is the diversity of the anthro-
pological sciences, their unity is still more remarkable. The student of man must
study the whole man. No true knowledge of any human group, any more than of
a human individual, is obtained by observaticn of physical characters alone. Modes
of thought, language, arts, and history must also be investigated. This simultaneous
investigation involves in each case the same logical methods and processes. It
will in general be attended with the same results. If it be true that the order of
the Universe is expressed in continuity and not in cataclysm, we shall find the
same slow but sure progress evident in each branch of the inquiry. We shall
find that nothing is lost, that no race is absolutely destroyed, that everything that
has been still exists in a modified form, and contributes some of its elements to that
which is. We shall find that this, which no one doubts in regard to physical
matters, is equally true of modes of thought. We may trace these to their germs
in the small brain of the palzeolithic flint-worker; or, if we care to do so, still
farther back. This principle has, as [ understand, been fully accepted in geology
and biology, and throughout the domain of physical science—what should hinder
its application to anthropology? It supplies a formula of universal validity, and
cannot but add force and sublimity to our imagination of the wisdom of the Creator.
It is little more than has been expressed in the familiar words of Tennyson :—

‘Yet I doubt not thro’ the ages cne increasing purpose runs,
And the thoughts of men are widen’d with the process of the suns;’

and supports his claim to be ‘the heir of all the ages, in the foremost files of
time.’

I propose, in briefly drawing your attention to some recent contributions to our
knowledge, to use this as a convenient theory and as pointing out the directions in
which further investigation may be rewarded by even fuller light.

Applying it, first of all, to the department of physical anthropology, we are
called upon to consider the discovery by Dr. Dubois at Trinil, in Java, of the re-
mains of an animal called by him Pithecanthropus erectus, and considered by some
authorities to be one of the missing links in the chain of animal existence which
terminates in man. In his Presidential Address to this Association last year,
Sir John Evans said: ‘Even the Pithecanthropus erectus of Dr. Eugene Dubois
from Jaya meets with some incredulous objectors from both the physiological and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1001

the geological sides. From the point of view of the latter the difficulty lies in
determining the exact age of what are apparently alluvial: beds in the bottom of a
river valley.’ In regard to these objections, it should be remembered that, though
the skull and femur in question are the only remains resembling humanity discovered
in the site, it yielded a vast number of fossil bones of other animals, and that any
difficulty in settling the geological age must apply to the whole results of the ex-
ploration. The physiological difficulties arise in two points—Do the skull and
femur belong to the same individual? Are they or either of them human, or simian,
or intermediate? As tu the first, it is true that the two bones were separated by
a distance of about fifty feet, but as they were found precisely on the same level,
accompanied by no other bones resembling human bones, but by a great number
of animal remains, apparently deposited at the same moment, the theory that they
belonged to different individuals would only add to the difficulty of the problem.
With regard to the skull, a projection of its outline on a diagram comparing it
with others of low type belonging to the Stone Age shows it to be essentially inferior
to any of them. With regard to the thigh, you will recollect that at the Liverpool
meeting of this Section Dr. Hepburn displayed a remarkable collection of femora
from the anatomical museum of Edinburgh University, exhibiting pathological and
other conditions similar to those in the femur of Trinil. Though this evidence
tends to show that the bone is human, it is not inconsistent with, but, on the con-
trary, goes to support the conclusion that it belongs te an exceedingly low and
ancient type of humanity. Whether, therefore, we call the remains Pithecanthro-
pus erectus with their discoverer, or Homo pithecanthropus with Dr, Manouvrier,
or Homo Javanensis primigenius with Dr. Houzé, we are in presence of a valuable
document in the early evolution of mankind.

One element of special interest in this discovery is that it brings us nearer than
we have ever been brought before to the time when man or his predecessor acquired
the erect position. I believe that it is acknowledged by all that the femur be-
longed to an individual who stood upright, and I presume that the capacity of the
skull, being greater than that of any known anthropoid, is consistent with the same
inference. The significance of that has been most clearly set forth by my prede-
cessor, Dr. Munro, in his address to this Section at Nottingham in 1893. Heshowed
that a direct consequence of the upright position was a complete division of labour
as regards the functions of the limbs—the hands being reserved for manipulation
and the feet for locomotion ; that this necessitated great changes in the general
structure of the body, including the pelvis and the spinal column; that the hand
became the most complete and effective mechanical organ Nature has produced ;
and that this perfect piece of mechanism, at the extremity of a freely moving arm,
gives man a superiority in attack and defence over other animals. Further, he
showed that, from the first moment that man recognised the advantage of using a
club or a stone in attack or defence, the direct incentive to a higher brain develop-
ment came into existence. The man who first used a spear tipped with a sharp
flint became possessed of an irresistible power. In his expeditions for hunting,
fishing, gathering fruit, &c., primitive man’s acquaintance with the mechanical
powers of Nature would be gradually extended ; and thus from this vantage point
of the possession of a hand, language, thought, reasoning, abstract ideas would
gradually be acquired, and the functions of the hand and the brain be developed in
a corresponding manner. I do injustice to Dr. Munro’s masterly argument by
stating it thus crudely and briefly. It amounts to this—once the erect position is
obtained, the actions of man being controlled by a progressive brain, everything
follows in due course.

The next stage which we are yet able to mark with certainty is the palxo-
lithic, but there must have been a great many intermediate stages. Before man
began to make any implements at all, there must have been a stage of more or less
length, during which he used any stick or stone that came to his hands without
attempting to fashion the one or the other. Before he acquired the art of fashion-
ing so elaborate an implement as the ordinary paleolithic axe or hammer, there
must have been other stages in which he would have been content with such an
improvement on the natural block of flint as a single fracture would produce, and

1002 REPORT—1898.

would proceed to two or three or more fractures by degrees. It must have been
long before he could have acquired the eye for symmetry and the sense of design,
of adaptation of means to ends, which are expressed in the fashioning of a complete
paleolithic implement. It is probable that such rude implements as he would
construct in this interval would be in general hardly distinguishable from flints
naturally fractured. Hence the uncertainty that attaches to such discoveries of
the kind as have hitherto been made public. Professor McKenny Hughes, who
speaks with very high authority, concludes a masterly paper in the ‘ Archzological
Journal’ with the statement that he has ‘never yet seen any evidence which
would justify the inference that any implements older than palzolithic have yet
been found.’ The name‘ paleotalith’ which had been suggested for pre-palzeolithic
implements seems to him unnecessary at present, as there is nothing to which
it can be applied, and, as it will be long before it can be asserted that we have
discovered the very earliest traces of man, he thinks it will probably be long before
the word is wanted. An elaborate work on the ruder forms of implement, just
published by M. A. Thieullen, of Paris, who has for many years been engaged in
collecting these objects, adds materially to our knowledge of the subject.

Another line of argument bearing strongly in the same direction is afforded by
the discovery in various places of works of art fabricated by early man. The
statuettes from Brassempouy, the sculptures representing animals from the
Bruniquel, the well-known figure of the mammoth engraved on a piece of ivory
from Périgord, and many other specimens of early art, attest a facility that it is not
possible to associate with the dawn of human intelligence. M. Salomon Reinach
tells an amusing story. A statuette in steatite of a woman, resembling in some
respects those of Brassempouy, was discovered in one of the caverns of Mentone
as far back as 1884, but when the discoverer showed it to a personage in the
locality that authority advised him not to let it be seen, lest it should take away
from the belief in the antiquity of the caves, it being then thought too artistic to
be consistent with early man. The finder acted on this advice, in ignorance of the
real interest of the statuette, until April 1896, when he showed it to M. Reinach
and M. Villenoisy, who promptly interviewed the sage adviser in question, and
obtained a confirmation of the statement. Some interesting additions to our
gallery of prehistoric art have been recently made by M. Emile Riviére and
M. Berthoumeyrou, at Cro-Magnon, in the Dordogne. These are a drawing of a
bison and another of a human female in profile, which M. Riviére has kindly allowed
me to reproduce. Among the other objects found in the same place were some
flint implements brought to a fine point, suitable for engraving on bone or horn.

The idea of making in any form a graphic representation of anything seen has
never, so far as I know, occurred to any lower animal; and it could hardly have
been among the first ideas formed in the gradually developing human brain.
When that idea is found carried out with remarkable artistic skill, by means of
implements well adapted for the purpose, we may surely assume that the result
was not obtained till after a long interval of time, and was approached by gfadual
steps marked by progress in other faculties, as well as in the artistic faculty. It
may be that some day all uncertainty on this head will be removed by decisive
discoveries.

The interval between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods rests in the like
condition of incertitude. That by some means, and somewhere on the face of the
globe, the one period gradually passed into the other, we cannot but believe. That
the transition between them may have involved innumerable degrees is also highly
probable. Where and when, and how each step was taken, we do not know at

present, and possibly never shall know. The problem is not satisfactorily solved —

by the production of palezolithic implements resembling neolithic forms or neolithic
implements resembling paleolithic forms ; inasmuch as between the one period and
the other an interval of time involving geological and other changes has to be
accounted for,

In this respect, also, our best authorities are the most cautious and conserva-
tive. In the excellent address which Professor Boyd Dawkins delivered to the
Royal Archeological Institute at the Dorchester meeting last year, on. the present

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1003

phase of prehistoric archeology, he contrasted the few primitive arts, such as
sewing, and the manufacture of personal ornaments and rude implements of the
chase, possessed by the paleolithic hunters—apart from their great proficiency in
the delineation of animals—with the variety of arts, such as husbandry, gardening,
spinning, weaving, carpentry, boat-building, mining, and pottery-making, possessed
by the neolithic herdsmen, and held that between the two there is a great gulf
fixed. Somewhere that gulf must be bridged over. Professor Boyd Dawkins says
that the bridge is not to be found in the caverns of the South of France. It is
difficult to meet his argument that the presence of grains of barley and stones of
the cultivated plum at Mas d’Azil are evidences of neolithic civilisation. His
objections to other discoveries are not so strong as this, but are strong enough to
make us pause. The tall, long-headed people, whose remains were found at Cro-

Magnon, he holds to be early neolithic and not paleolithic, to stand on the near
side and not on the far side of the great gulf.

These considerations lend importance to the discoveries which have been laid
before this Association at previous meetings by Mr. Seton-Kerr, and which have
also been commented upon by Professor Flinders Petrie and Sir John Evans. If
we are compelled to admit a breach of continuity in Europe, is it.in Africa that
we shall find the missing links? That is another of the great problems yet un-
solved. The evidence we want relates to events which took place at so great a dis-
tance of time that we may well wait patiently for it, assured that somewhere or
other these missing links in the chain of continuity must have existed and probably
are still to be found.

The next stage, which comprises the interval between the neolithic and the
historic periods, was so ably dealt with by Mr. Arthur J. Evans in his address to
this Section at the Liverpool meeting that it does not call for any observations

1004 REPORT—1898,

from me. Two Committees appointed by the Association in connection with this
Section touch upon this interval—the Committee for investigating the lake dwel-
lings at Glastonbury, and the Committee for co-operating with the explorers of
Silchester in their well-conducted and fruitful investigation of the influence of
Roman civilisation on a poor provincial population. I pass on to consider the very
great progress that has been made of late years in some of the branches of anthro-
pology other than physical and prehistoric, and especially in that of folk-lore. I
do this the more readily because I do not recollect that folk-lore has ever before
been prominently referred to in an Address to this Section. It is beginning to
assert itself here, and will in time acquire the conspicuous position to which it is
becoming entitled, for the British Association is sensitive to every scientific
movement, and responds readily to the demands of a novel investigation. Already,
for three or four years, a day has been given at our meetings to folk-lore papers ;
and at the Liverpool meeting an exceedingly philosophic, and at the same time
practical, paper was read by Mr. Gomme, and is printed in eaten:o in the Pro-
ceedings as an Appendix to the Report of the Ethnographic Survey Committee.
The term ‘ folk-lore’ itself is not without a certain charm. It is refreshing to find
a science described by two English syllables instead of by some compound Greek
word. The late Mr. W. J. Thoms had a happy inspiration when he invented the
name. It is just twenty years since the Folk-lore Society was established under
his direction. It has accumulated a vast amount of material, and published a
considerable literature; it is now rightly passing from the stage of collection to
that of systematisation, and the works of Mr. J. G. Frazer, Mr. E. Sidney
Hartland, and others, are pointing the way towards researches of the most absorbing
interest and the greatest practical importance.

A generalisation for which we are fast accumulating material in folk-lore is
that of the tendency of mankind to develop the like fancies and ideas at the like
stage of intellectual infancy. This is akin to the generalisation that the stages of
the life of an individual man present a marked analogy to the corresponding stages
in the history of mankind at large ;,and to the generalisation that existing savage
races present in their intellectual development a marked analogy to the condition
of the earlier races of mankind. The fancies and ideas of the child resemble closely
the fancies and ideas of the savage and the fancies and ideas of primitive man.

An extensive study of children’s games, which had been entered into and pur-
sued by Mrs. Gomme, has been rewarded by the discovery of many facts bearing
upon these views. A great number of these games consist of dramatic representa-
tions of marriage by capture and marriage by purchase—the idea of exogamy is
distinctly embodied in them, You will see a body of children separate themselves
into two hostile tribes, establish a boundary line between them, demand the one
from the other a selected maiden, and then engage in conflict to determine whether
oe Sees can carry her across the boundary or the defenders retain her
within it.

There can be little doubt that these games go back to a high antiquity, and
there is much probability that they are founded upon customs actually existing,
or just passing away at the time they were first played. Games of this kind pass
down with little change from age to age. Each successive generation of child-
hood is short :—the child who this year is a novice in agame becomes next yeara
proficient, and the year after an expert, capable of teaching others, and proud of
the ability to do so. Even the adult recollects the games of childhood and
watches over the purity of the tradition. The child is ever a strong conservative.

Upon the same principle, next to children’s games, children’s stories claim our
attention. Miss Roalfe Cox has collected, abstracted, and tabulated not fewer than
345 variants of Cinderella, Catskin, and Cap o’ Rushes. These come from all four
quarters of the globe, and some of them are recorded as early as the middle of the
sixteenth century. These elaborate stories are still being handed down from
generation to generation of children, as they have been for countless generations in
the past. Full of detail as they are, they may be reduced to a few primitive ideas.
if we view them in their wealth of detail, we shall deem it impossible that they
could have been disseminated over the world as they are otherwise than by actual

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1005

contact of the several peoples with each other. If we view them in their sim-
plicity of idea, we shall be more disposed to think that the mind of man naturally
produces the same result in the like circumstances, and that it is not necessary to
postulate any communication between the peoples to account for the identity. It
does not surprise us that the same complicated physical operations should be per-
formed by far-distant peoples without any communication with each other: why
should it be more surprising that mental operations, not nearly so complex, should
be produced in the same order by different peoples without any such communica~-
tion P Where communication is proved or probable, it may be accepted as a
sufficient explanation ; where it is not provable, there is no need that we should
assume its existence.

The simple ideas which are traceable in so many places and so far back are
largely in relation with that branch of mythology which personities the operations
of Nature. Far be it from me to attempt to define the particular phase of it which
is embodied in the figure of Cinderella as she sits among the ashes by the hearth,
or to join in the chase after the solar myth in popular tradition. The form of
legend which represents some of the forces of Nature under the image of a real or
fictitious hero capable of working wonders appears to be widely distributed. Of
such, I take it, are the traditions relating to Glooscap, which the late Dr. 8S. T.
Rand collected in the course of his forty years’ labours as a missionary among the
Micmac Indians of Nova Scotia, where, Mr. Webster says, Glooscap formerly
resided, The Indians suppose that he is still in existence, although they do not
know exactly where. He looked and lived like other men; ate, drank, smoked,
slept, and danced along with them ; but never died, never was sick, never grew old.
Cape Blomidon was his home, the Basin of Minas his beaver-pond. He had
everything on a large scale. At Cape Split he cut open the beaver dam, as the
Indian name of the cape implies, and to this we owe it that ships can pass there.
Spencer's Island was his kettle. His dogs, when he went away, were transformed
into two rocks close by. When he returns he will restore them to life. He could
do anything and everything. The elements were entirely under his control. You
do not often meet with a mischievous exercise of his power. It is a curious part
of the tradition, possibly a late addition to it, that it was the encroachments and
treachery of the whites which drove him away.

The early inhabitants of the island of Tahiti appear to have had a whole
pantheon of gods and heroes representing the various operations of Nature. Even
the Papuans have a legend in which the morning star is personified acting as a
thief. But it is needless to multiply instances. Lord Bacon—who says ‘The
earliest antiquity lies buried in silence and oblivion.... This silence was
succeeded by poetical fables, and these at length by the writings we now enjoy ; so
that the concealed and secret learning of the ancients seems separated from the
history and knowledge of the following ages by a veil or partition wall of fables
interposing between the things that are lost and those that remain ’—has shown in
his ‘ Wisdom of the Ancients’ that classical mythology was in truth a vast system of
Nature-worship, and in so doing has done more than even he knew, for he has
affiliated it to those ideas which have been so commonly formed among rude and
primitive peoples. It is true, he says, fables in general, are composed of ductile
matter, that may be drawn into great variety by a w tt; talent or an inventive
genius, and be delivered of plausible meanings which they never contained. But
the argument of most weight with him, he continues, ‘is that many of these fables
by no means appear to have been invented by the persons who relate and divulge
them, whether Homer, Hesiod, or others; but whoever attentively considers the
thing will find that these fables are delivered down and related by those writers,
not as matters then first invented and proposed, but as things received and
embraced in earlier ages. The relators drew from the common stock of ancient
tradition, and varied but in point of embellishment, which is their own. This
principally raises my esteem of these fables, which I receive, not as the product
of the age or invention of the poets, but as sacred relics, gentle whispers, and the
breath of better times, that from the traditions of more ancient nations came, at
length, into the flutes and trumpets of the Greeks,’

1006 REPORT—1898.

Except that he supposes them to be a relic of better times, the poet's dream of
a golden age no doubt still ringing in his ears, Bacon had, in this as in many other
matters, a clear insight into the meaning of things.

Another idea that appears among very early and primitive peoples, and has
had in all time a powerful influence on mankind, is that of a separable spirit.
The aborigines of North-West Central Queensland, who have lately been studied
to such excellent purpose by Dr. Walter Roth, the brother of a much-esteemed past
officer of this Section, are in many respects low in the scale of humanity; yet they
possess this idea. They believe that the ghost, or shade, or spirit of some one
departed can so initiate an individual into the mysteries of the craft of doctor or
medicine-man as to enable him, by the use of a death-bone apparatus, to produce
sickness and death in another. ‘This apparatus is supposed to extract blood from
the victim against whom it is pointed without actual contact, and to insert in him
some foreign substance. They will not go alone to the grave of a relative for fear
of seeing his ghost. It appears that they have the fancy that Europeans are
ghosts. The Tasmanians also,as Mr. Ling Roth himself tells us, had the same
fancy as to the Europeans, and believed that the dead could act upon the living.
The Pawnee Indians, we are assured by Mr. Grinnell, believe that the spirits of
the dead live after their bodies are dust. They imagine that the little whirlwinds
often seen in summer are ghosts. The Blackfeet think the shadow of a person is
his soul, and that while the souls of the good are allowed to go to the sand-hills,
those of the bad remain as ghosts near the place where they died. The Shillooks
of Central Africa are said to believe that the ghostly spectres of the dead are always
invisibly present with the living, and accompany them wherever they go. The
aborigines of Samoa believed in a land of ghosts, to which the spirits of the
deceased were carried immediately after death. The religious system of the
Amazulu, as described by Bishop Callaway, rests largely on the foundation of
belief in the continued activity of the disembodied spirits of deceased ancestors.

Mr. Bryce, in his ‘Impressions of South Africa, says that at Lezapi, in
Mashonaland, are three huts, one of which is roofed, and is the grave of a famous
chief, whose official name was Makoni. ‘On the grave there stands a large
earthenware pot, which used to be recularly filled with native beer when, once a
year, about the anniversary of his death, his sons and other descendants came to
venerate and propitiate his ghost Five years ago, when the white men came into
the country, the ceremony was disused, and the poor ghost is now left without
honour and nutriment. The pot is broken, and another pot, which stood in an
adjoining hut, and was used by the worshippers, has disappeared. The place, how-
ever, retains its awesome character, and a native boy who was with us would not
enter it. The sight brought vividly to mind the similar spirit worship which went
on among the Romans, and which goes on to-day in China; but I could not
ascertain for how many generations back an ancestral ghost receives these atten-
tions—a point which has remained obscure in the case of Roman ghosts also.’

The aborigines of New Britain are said to believe that the ghosts of their
deceased ancestors exercise a paramount influence on human affairs, for good or
for evil. They have the poetical idea that the stars are lamps held out by the
ghosts to light the path of those who are to follow in their footsteps. On the
other hand, they think these ancestral ghosts are most malicious during full moon.
Not to multiply instances, we may say with Mr. Staniland Wake, it is much to
be doubted whether there is any race of uncivilised men who are not firm believers
in the existence of spirits or ghosts. If this is so, and the idea of a separable
spirit, capable of feeling and of action apart from the body, is found to be practi-
cally universal among mankind, and to have been excogitated by some of the least
advanced among peoples; and if we observe how large a share that idea has in
forming the dogmas of the more specialised religions of the present day, we shall
not see anything inherently unreasonable in the generalisation that the group of
theories and practices which constitute the great province of man’s emotions and
mental operations expressed in the term ‘religion’ has passed through the same
stages and produced itself in the same way from these early rude beginnings of
the religious sentiment as every other mental exertion. We shall see in religion as

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1007

real a part of man’s organisation as any physical member or mental faculty. We
shall have no reason to think that it is an exception to any general law of progress
and of continuity which is found to prevail in any other part of man’s nature.

The same inference may be drawn from many other considerations. Take, for
instance, the belief in witchcraft, which is so characteristic of uncivilised man that
it is hardly necessary to cite examples of it. The Rey. Mr. Coillard, a distin-
guished missionary of the Evangelical Society of Paris, in a delightful record,
which has just been published, of his twenty years’ labours as a missionary pioneer
among the Banyai and Barotzi of the Upper Zambesi, ‘on the threshold of Central
Africa,’ says: ‘In the prison of the Barotzi, toiling at earthworks, is a woman —
young, bright, and intelligent. She told me her story. A man of remarkably
gentle character had married her. The king’s sister, Katoka, having got rid of one
of her husbands, cast her eyes on this man and took him. He had to forsake his
young wife—quite an easy matter. Unfortunately, a little later on, a dead mouse
was found in the princess's house. There was a great commotion, and the ery of
witchcraft was raised. The bones did not fail to designate the young woman, and
she was made aconvict. A few years ago she would have been burnt alive. Ah,
my friends, paganism is an odious and a cruel thing!’ Ah, Mr. Coillard, is it
many years ago that she would have been burnt alive or drowned in Christian
England or Christian America? Surely the odiousness and the cruelty are not
special to paganism any more than to Christianity. The one and the other are due
to ignorance and superstition, and these are more hateful in a Matthew Hale or a
Patrick Henry than in a Barotzi princess in the proportion that they ought to have
been more enlightened and intelligent than she. It is only 122 years since John
Wesley wrote: ‘I cannot give up to all the Deists in Great Britain the existence
of witchcraft ;” and I believe that to this day the Order of Exorcists is a recog-
nised order in the Catholic Church.

The same line of argument—which, of course, I am only indicating here—
might be pursued, I am persuaded, in numberless other directions. Mr. Frazer, in
his work on the Golden Bough, has most learnedly applied it to a remarkable
group of ‘beliefs and observances. Mr, Hartland has followed up that research
with a singularly luminous study of several other groups of ideas in the three
volumes of his ‘ Legend of Perseus.’ More recently, Mr. Andrew Lang has sought
to show that the idea of a Supreme Being occurs at an earlier stage in the
development of savage thought than we had hitherto supposed. Striking as these
various collocations of facts and the conclusions drawn from them may appear, I
am convinced there is much more for the Folk-lorist to do in the same direction.

The principle that underlies it all seems to be this: man can destroy nothing,
man can create nothing, man cannot of his own mere volition even permanently
modify anything. A higher power restrains his operations, and often reverses his
work. You think you have exterminated a race: you have put to the sword every
male you can find, and you have starved and poisoned all the survivors of the
community. In the meanwhile, their blood has been mingled with yours, and for
generations to come your bones and those of your descendants will preserve a
record of that lost race. You think you have exterminated a religion: you have
burned to death all of its teachers you can find, and converted forcibly or by
persuasion the rest of the community. But you cannot control men’s thoughts,
and the old beliefs and habits will spring up again and again, and insensibly
modify your own religion, pure as you may suppose it to be.

Huxley, in his address to the department of Anthropology twenty years ago,
said, with the force and candour that were characteristic of him: ‘ Anthropology
has nothing to do with the truth or falsehood of religion—it holds itself absolutely
and entirely aloof from such questions—but the natural history of religion, and the
origin and the growth of the religions entertained by the different kinds of the
human race, are within its proper and legitimate province.’ I do not presume to
question that as an absolutely accurate definition of the position—it could not
be otherwise ; but if there be any here to whom what I have been suggesting is in
any sense novel or startling, I should be glad to be allowed to say one word of
reassurance to them. When my friend Mr. Clodd shocked some of the members

1008 REPORT—1898.

of the Folk-lore Society by his frank statement of conclusions at which he had
arrived, following the paths I have indicated, it was said we must fall back on the
evidences of Christianity. What more cogent evidence of Christianity can you
have than its existence? It stands to-day as the religion which, in most civilised
countries, represents that which has been found by the operation of natural laws
to be best suited for the present circumstances of mankind. You are a Christian
because you cannot help it. Turn Mohammedan to-morrow—will you stop the
spread of Christianity ? Your individual renunciation of Christianity will be but
a ripple on a wave. Civilised mankind holds to Christianity, and cannot but do so
till it can find something better. This, it seems to me, is a stronger evidence of
Christianity than any of the loose-jointed arguments I find in evidential literature.

Upon this thorny subject I will say no more. I would not have said so much,
but that I wish to show that these considerations are not inconsistent with the
respect I entertain, and desire now as always to express, for those feelings and
sentiments which are esteemed to be precious by the great majority of mankind,
which solace them under the adversities of life and nerve them for the approach of
death, and which stimulate them to works of self-sacrifice and of charity that
have conferred untold blessings on humanity. I reverence the divine Founder of
Christianity all the more when I think of Him as one who so well ‘knew what
was in man’ as to build upon ideas and yearnings that had grown in man’s mind
from the earliest infancy of the race.

To return. If continuity be the key that unlocks the receptacle where lie the
secrets of man’s history—physical, industrial, mental, and moral; if in each of
these respects the like processes are going on—it follows, as I have already said,
that the only satisfactory study of man is a study of the whole man. It is for
this reason that I ask you to take especial interest in the proceedings of one of the
Committees of this Section, which has adopted such a comprehensive study as the
guiding principle of its work—I mean the Ethnographical Survey Committee. I
have so often addressed this Section and the Conference of Corresponding Societies
on the matter, since the Committee was first appointed at the Edinburgh meeting,
on the suggestion of my friend Professor Haddon, that I can hardly now refer to
it without repeating what has been already said or forestalling what will be said
when its report is presented to you, but its programme so fully realises that which
has been in my mind in all that I have endeavoured to say that I must make one
more effort to enlist your active interest in its work.

The scheme of the Committee includes the simultaneous recording in various
districts of the physical characters, by measurement and by photography, the cur-
rent traditions and beliefs, the peculiarities of dialect, the monuments and other
remains of ancient culture, and the external history of the people. The places in
the United Kingdom where this can be done with advantage are such only as have
remained unaffected by the great movements of population that have occurred,
especially of late years. It might have been thought that such places would be
very few ; but the preliminary inquiries of the Committee resulted in the formation
of a list of between 300 and 400. So far, therefore, as the testimony of the
very competent persons whose advice was sought by them is to be relied on, it is
evident that there is ample scope for their work. At the same time, the process
of migration from country to town is going on so rapidly, that every year dimi-
nishes the number of such places. One thinks with regret how much easier the
work would have been one or two or three generations ago; but that consideration
should only induce us to put it off no longer. The work done by the lamented
Dr. Walter Gregor for this Committee in Dumfriesshire and other parts of Scot-
land is an excellent type of the way in which such work should be done. His
collections of physical measurements and of folk-lore have been published in the
fourth and fifth reports of the Committee. There can be no doubt that few men
possess the faculty he had of drawing forth the confidence of the villagers and
vetting them to tell him their superstitions and their old customs. He succeeded
in 1ecording from their lips not fewer than 733 items of follk-lore. They not merely
form exceedingly pleasant reading, such as is perhaps not often met with in a
British Association Report, but they also will be found to throw considerable light

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1009

on the views which I have ventured to lay before you. It is much to be wished
that others who have the like faculty, if even in a Jesser degree, could be induced
to take up similar work in other districts, now that Dr. Gregor has so well shown
the way in which it ought to be done.

The work done by the Committee for the Ethnographical Survey of Canada;
the completion of the Ethnographical Survey of the North-Western tribes which
has been ably conducted for many years; and the progress made in the Ethno-
graphical Survey of India will also be brought under your notice, the latter in a
paper by Mr. Crooke, who has worked with Mr. Risley upon it.

Another movement, which was originated by this Section at the Liverpool
meeting, and was referred to in the report of the Council of the Association last
year, has made some progress since that report was presented. Upon the recom-
mendation of this Section, the General Committee passed the following resolution
and referred it to the Council for consideration and action :—

‘That it is of urgent importance to press upon the Government the necessity of
establishing a Bureau of Ethnology for Greater Britain, which, by collecting
information with regard to the native races within and on the borders of the
Empire, will prove of immense value to science and to the Government itself.’

The Council appointed a Committee, consisting of the President and General
Officers, with Sir John Evans, Sir John Lubbock, Professor Tylor, and your
esteemed Vice-President, Mr. Read, the mover of the resolution. Their report is
printed at length in last year’s Report of Council, and shows clearly how useful
and how easily practicable the establishment of such a Bureau would be. The
Council resolved that the Trustees of the British Museum be requested to consider
whether they could allow the proposed Bureau to be established in connection with
the Museum. I understand that those Trustees have returned a favourable answer ;
and I cannot doubt that the joint representations which they and this Association
will make to Her Majesty’s Government will result in the adoption of a scheme
calculated to realise all the advantages which we in this Section have so long looked
for from it. In the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the Chancellor of the
Exchequer we have statesmen who cannot fail to appreciate the benefits the com-
munity must derive from acquiring accurate and scientific knowledge of the
multifarious races which compose the Empire.

Those of us who visited the United States last year had the opportunity of
observing the excellent work which is done by the Bureau of Ethnology at
Washington, and those who stayed at home are probably familiar with the valu-
able publications of that department. An Act of Congress twenty years ago
appropriated 4,000/. a year to the Smithsonian Institution for the continuance of
researches in North American anthropology. The control of the Bureau was
entrusted to the able hands of Major Powell, who gathered round him a band of
skilled workers, many of whom had been previously engaged on ethnographic
research under the direction of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the
Rocky Mountain region. In field work and in office work, to use Major Powell’s
convenient distinction, ample return has ever since been rendered to the United
States Government for the money thus appropriated, which has since been increased
to 8,0007. a year. Our own Bureau of Ethnology would have a wider sphere of
operations, and be concerned with a greater number of races. It would tend to
remove from us the reproach that has in too many cases not been without founda-
tion—that we have been content to govern races by the strong hand without caring
to understand them, and have thus been the cause of injustice and oppression from
ignorance rather than from malevolence. If that were only a record of the past,
we might be content with mere unavailing regret ; but the colonial empire is still
expanding, and we and our competitors in that field are still absorbing new dis-
tricts—a practice which will probably continue as long as any spot of ground
remains on the face of the globe occupied by an uncivilised race.

Would it not be worth while at this juncture to extend to the peoples of Africa,
for instance, the principles and methods of the Ethnographic Survey—to study
thoroughly all their physical characters, and at the same time to get an insight

1898. 3T

1010 REPORT—1898.

into the working of their minds, the sentiments and ideas that affect them most
closely, their convictions of right and wrong, their systems of law, the traditions
of the past that they cherish, and the rude accomplishments they possess? If for
such a service investigators like Dr. Roth, who began his researches in Queensland
by so close a study of the languages and dialects of the people that he thoroughly
won their confidence, could be found, the public would soon learn the practical
value of anthropological research. If the considerations which I have endeavoured
to urge upon you should lead not only the scientific student but the community
at large to look upon that which is strange in the habits and ways of thinking
of uncivilised peoples as representing with more or less accuracy a stage in that
long continuity of mental progress without which civilised peoples would not be
what and where they are, it could not but favourably affect the principles and
practice of colonisation. Tout comprendre c'est tout pardonner. The more intimate
our acquaintance with the races we have to deal with and to subjugate, the more
we shall find what it means to stand with them on the same platform of common
humanity. If the object of government be, as it ought to be, the good of the
governed, it is for the governing race to fit itself for the task by laying to heart the
lessons and adopting the processes of practical anthropology.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Mental and Physical Deviations in Children.
See Reports, p. 691.

2. On Human Life at Extreme Altitudes. By O. H. Howarru.

The observations recorded by the author were made—(a) throughout the great
mountain ranges of North America from Oregon to the south of Mexico, chiefly
within the last ten years, and (b) in the Great Andes, and in European ranges, at
earlier dates.

The author emphasises the importance of the collection of evidence of human
settlement at very high altitudes in early times, due allowance being made for
subsequent geological changes of altitude. Stone carvings, for example, of the
earliest Central American types are found on the slopes of Popocatepetl, in Mexico,
at altitudes between 8,000 feet and 10,000 feet.

The primary causes which have induced human settlement at extreme altitudes
have been—(1) the pursuit of some local art or industry, which could not be fol-
lowed elsewhere; (2) seclusion for religious purposes. Instances of both are not
infrequent in the great ranges of the West, from California to Guatemala, and in
the Cordillera of South America; and several instances of the latter occur in
Mexico and Central America.

Conditions favourable to the persistence of human life among natives of high
altitudes are—(1) immunity from certain diseases, especially of the respiratory
organs, phthisis and diphtheria being apparently unknown above 6,000 feet;
(2) the sedative effects of an attenuated atmosphere upon those who have been
habituated to it from birth; (8) the preference for simple forms of nourishment
and an active life, which follows from the surrounding conditions ; (4) the pecu-
liarly transient effects of alcoholic and all other artificial stimulants ; (5) the sense
of intensified vitality due to more rapid respiration and heart-action, though this
may be at the expense of the duration of life.

Against these advantages must be set—(1) a diminution of brain development,
which is transmittible and becomes very marked within three or four generations ;
(2) the effects of isolation frequently accompanying such a life (these have been
noted in many parts of the American ranges, as well as in the Alps, and the
Great Atlas of North Africa); (8) certain modified forms of disease, which seem
to be incidental to extreme altitudes.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1011

Numerous specialised forms of superstition and traditional belief arise out of
the circumstances of high altitudes, especially some connected with sun worship,
mining, the forms or habits of mountain fauna, and the reappearance of dis-
embodied spirits.

3. On the Human Ear as a Means of Identification. By Miss M. A. Extis.

1. For purposes of identification the heli, or outer rim of the ear, and the
general shape of the pinna, or whole outer ear, are the most useful features. Ears
do not change shape after childhood, although they enlarge slightly after middle life.

2. It is possible to catalogue the great varieties of shape that are found to
occur by marking off the Aelia into five divisions—viz. (1) from the neck of the
ear to the top, (2) the top, (3) the turn, (4) the slope half way to the lobe, (5) the
rest of the slope to the lobe. These are the natural divisions in well-formed ears,
though seldom more than two or three of them are seen distinctly formed in the
same ear.

3. From the varieties of sixty-four pairs of ears—many belonging to individuals
noted in art, science, or literature—printed from life by the writer, it has been
found that the right and left of each pair of ears usually vary in shape. Generally
the most distinctive features are found in the upper half of the left ear and the
lower half of the right ear. The educated upper classes exhibit the greater
variety, and can be more easily identified than the ‘ masses.’

4, On Tabu in Japan in Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Times.
By K. Minaxkata,

The author described the tabu observances of Japan in three successive periods.

In the first, from the earliest times to 710 A.D., an indigenous and elaborate
system of tabu prevailed respecting the person and name of the Emperor, the
Imperial family, the nobles, chiefs, priests and priestesses, the temples with their
properties and servants, certain trees and animals, sick persons, dead bodies, pre-
parations for warfare, certain totems, days, times, directions, and unclean objects
such as garlic and venison. The system was extended to the nether land of dark-
ness, wherein this world’s vegetation was tabu to those souls who would partake
of food cooked on an infernal hearth.

In the second period, from 710 A.D. to the Restoration of 1867 .D., this
indigenous system was largely overlaid and, on the whole, relaxed by beliefs
introduced together with the Chinese and Indian cultures, some socially per-
nicious ¢abus being prohibited strictly by law. But at the same time numerous
fresh restrictions, appropriate to Tanist and Mantranist magic, came into vogue;
and the Buddhist theory of universal metempsychosis gravely impressed upon
the popular mind an abhorrence of many kinds of food.

In the third period, from 1867 A.D. onward, this heterogeneous and compli-
eated tabu system was officially abolished; but a number of primitive tadws,
mostly connected with the Shintoist ritual, were at the same time restored,
though the only tabu which remains of social importance is that which relates
to the death of close relatives.

The author ascribes in great part to the tabu system thus outlined the loyalty,
probity, and courtesy of the Japanese, and their close observance of the forms of
natural objects and historic scenes evinced by their art and literature.

5. On Stone Implements from South Africa, By Grorce Letra.

The author narrated the results of his investigation in cave shelters, in remote
parts of the Stormberg, described the situation and characteristics of the bushmen’s
haunts, and told how, in some of them, were found implements and other signs of
occupation, just as they had been left years ago. He remarked upon the various

372

1012 REPORT—1898.

types of stone implements, such as the grinding stones, pounding stones, flakem
hammers, arrow points, scrapers, &c., as being found both in the cave deposit and
in the talus in front of the cave. The bushmen with these poisoned arrows were
a dangerous enemy to the Boers, even when the latter were equipped with
firearms.

The prevalent type of instrument was the scraper, Imnife-shaped and axe-shaped
specimens being comparatively rare. Lighthouse Cave, at Cape St. Blaise,
referred to by Sir John Barrow in his travels, was described. Investigations of
this cave led to the discovery of many very fine specimens of skinning knives,
scrapers, work in flaked implements, and seemed to show that it had been a place
for the manufacture of these implements for many ages. He described the dis-
covery of three Hottentots living in a cave, in prehistoric condition, occupied in
digging out cave deposit which was used by the farms in the neighbourhood as
manure. In the recess of the cave large quantities of bone were found, evidently
having been stored away.

The author has discovered in various beds of gravel at various altitudes large
numbers of palzolithic stone implements of very remarkable size and shape. These
he classified according to their position into neolithic or modern, palxolithic or
ancient, and eolithic, the latter being rude blocks of stone, whose acute angles
showed undoubted evidences of having been notched by hand. The evidence of
these gravels proved without doubt, in the opinion of the author, that South
Africa was the home of man at a very remote period of history. A remarkable
fact was that seoliths found there corresponded exactly with the plateau imple-
ments found on the Kentish Weald by Mr. Harrison, and recently the subject of
much controversy.

6. On some Roman Symbolic Hands. By F. T. E:worruy.

After a reference to his paper on Dischi Sacri (‘ Proc. Soc. Antiq.,’ vol. xvii.
series il. p. 59), and to symbolic hand-gestures elsewhere, the author contends that
these hands are not votive offerings, as Gori inferred from a single inscribed
specimen (No. 17), but objects of household worship, The following examples:
were illustrated and described :—

1. Berlin Museum: published by Caussens, ‘Thes. Rom. Antiq.’ vol. xii.
pp. 963; copied by Montfaucon (French ed.), vol. ii. p. 880 ; Boettiger, ‘ Opuscula,”
Taf. ii.; Jahn, ‘Ber. d. k. Ges. d. Wiss. z. Leipzig,’ 1855, Taf. iv.

2-3. Naples Museum, No. 5505: two hands unpublished.

4, Naples Museum, No. 5506: ‘ Bronze d’Ercolano,’ vol. vii. p. 37; § Anti-
chita d’Ercolano,’ vol. i. Tay. v.
595
384

6. Naples Museum: unpublished.

7. Rome, Museo Kircheriano: found on the Isola Farnese, Rome ; Montfaucon,,
vol. ii. Pl. 187; Jahn, 2. c. p. 101,

8. Rome, Museo Kircheriano: unpublished.

9. Paris, Louvre: unpublished.

10, Zurich Museum: found at Avenches; Meyer, ‘Mitth. d. Antiq. Ges. z.
Zurich,’ vol. xi. heft 12.

11. Zurich Museum: found at Zion ; unpublished.

12. Brescia Museum: found recently ; unpublished.

13, Brescia Museum: found recently ; unpublished.

14, Leyden Museum: unpublished ; cf. Meyer, dc.

15, British Museum: Payne Knight Collection; Elworthy, ‘Evil Eye,

5. Naples Museum, No. : found at Pompeii, 1894; unpublished.

p. 518.
16. ?- : found at Tournay ; Montfaucon, vol. ii. Pl. 137.
Zee: : Gori, ‘Inser. Antiq.’ (Florence, 1643), vol. iii, Pl. 5.

18, ?—-—_; ‘ Diss. della P. Acad, d, Arch.’ (Rome, 1836), vol. viii., p. 427.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1013

12 bee : the only known /eft hand; Caylus, ‘Tubiéres, Recueil,’ vol. v.,

7. On the Boat-building of Siam.
By H. Warineton Suytu, /.4., FRG.

The author describes the river craft in use among the Siamese, showing how
admirably adapted is each type of boat to the waters it is used to navigate—the
teak-built rua pet and rice boat to the lower reaches, and the long rua nua or
northland boat of thingan wood used on the upper waters of the Me Nam.

The construction of the ‘dug-out’ Me Kawng boats is then explained, with the
bamboo fittings along the gunwale which render them uncapsizable and unsinkable
in the worst rapids of that wild torrent.

In describing the sea-going craft met with on the coasts of Siam, the
primitive Malay lugger of the Peninsula, the rwa pet of the Gulf, with her spoon-
shaped bow, her wood fastenings, and high-peaked lug sails, the ra chalom of the
native Chinese traders, with her peculiar double rudders, and the Chinese junk
itself are all touched upon, and the advantages of their various peculiarities in
build and rig pointed out.

8. On the Reed Organ of the Lao Shans.
By H. Warineton Smytu, J.4., LB.GS.

A brief description is given of the simple fourteen-reed instrument in use among
the Lao of the Me Kawng Valley, and an example of the characteristic and mono
tonous music which rises and falls on moonlight nights in every jungle village
mhabited by these people is added by the author.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The President’s Address was delivered (see p. 999).

‘The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Medieval Population of Bristol.
By Joun Beppor, M.D., £.R.S.

The author based his conclusions on two series of skulls, the one medieval, the
other probably of the eighteenth century, disinterred on the occasion of the
removal of St. Werburgh’s Church, and on certain lists of surnames of various
dates. He found the medieval skulls very generally small, short, and broad
(kephalic index 80:0), while the later ones exhibited the same long types that
characterise the present population of Bristol and the surrounding districts
(index 766), He ascribed the medizeval brachykephalism to the larger propor-
tion of people of French descent which is indicated by that of French surnames,
these latter having gradually declined in number ever since the fourteenth
century.

2. Note on the Origin of Stone-worship. By Professor H. A. Mrzrs.

It is pointed out that among the various sources to which stone-worship is
ascribed in anthropological works mention is rarely, if ever, made of the worship
of meteorites ; it is urged that when meteorites fell in early times—and there is no
reason to believe that they fell less frequently than now—they must have
provoked religious awe. Several instances are quoted among recorded falls in

1014 REPORT—1898.,

which this was certainly the case, and some in which the meteorite became an
object of worship. The author suggests that the occasional possibility of such an
origin of stone-worship should always be kept in view.

3. On the Prehistoric Antiquities of the Neighbourhood of Bristol.
Ly Professor C. Liuoyp Morean.

The author gave a short account, illustrated by lantern slides, of the camps and
megalithic remains to be visited during the meeting in connection with excursions.
The chief point of novelty and interest was the exposure of some of the ‘dry wall-
ing’ of the Stekeleigh Camp on the Somerset side of the Avon just across the
Clifton Suspension Bridge. Excavations had been made which showed that the
main rampart was crowned by a wall, footed on the heaped-up mass of Carboni-
ferous limestone fragments, the base protected by large and massive stones. This
‘dry walling’ differs somewhat from that described by W.C. W. Dymond at
Warlebury. There is no mortar; and the work may be regarded as undoubtedly
pre-Roman.

4, On the Circles of Stanton Drew.
By A. L. Lewis, 2.C.A., Treas. Anthr. Inst.

The author showed that the diameters of the circles, and the distances between
them and the other stones forming this group of monuments were in carefully
measured proportions, after allowing for a smaller error of workmanship than is
usually found in early British remains. The significant numbers 5, 7, 9, and 19
are particularly prominent in the proportions. The different members of the group
were also arranged in lines with each other in a manner which could not have been
the result of mere accident. The author preferred not to hinder the reception of
these facts by attempting to discuss their meaning, though he could offer explana-
tions of some of them which were satisfactory to himself. He regards the ‘ Cove’

as the remains not of a tomb, but of a shrine, such as stood in the circles at Abury
and Arborlowe.

5. On the Survival of Paleolithic Conditions in Tasmania and Australia,
with Especial Reference to the Modern Use of Unground Stone
Implements in West Australia. By Professor E. B. Tytor, /.2.S.

The stone implements from Tasmania, the making and use of which by the
natives came under the observation of the colonists during the first half of this
century, have a character which may be called quasi-palwolithic. They were
fragments or flakes of stone, in no case ground, but edged by chipping on one face
only, and trimmed so as to afford a grasp to the hand, no haft of any kind being
used. These instruments correspond to some extent with scrapers, &c., belonging
to the Drift and Cave periods in Europe, but their general rudeness, and the
absence among them of symmetrical double-edged and pointed implements like the
flint picks of Old World palzolithic times, place the modern Tasmanians at a
distinctly lower stage than the Europeans of the mammoth period. The stone
implements found in Tasmania, of which some good collections have now been
made, indicate a state of the Stone Age in past times not essentially different from’
that found in actual existence before the disappearance of the native population.
It is necessary to consider these quasi-paleolithic implements, old or new, apart
from the few cases of ground stone hatchet-blades fixed in handles, which are
now admitted to have been introduced in modern times by Australian natives.

The purpose of the present paper is to offer evidence making it likely that
the early Stone Age condition characterising Tasmania extended within no distant
period over the whole Australian continent. A native Australian hatchet hafted
with gum on a stick-handle was exhibited, lent by Mr. W. Ayshford Sanford, of

‘TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H,. 1015

Nynehead Court, Somerset, who brought it half a century ago from the Perth
district of West Australia. The blade of this instrument, with its unsymmetrical
edge formed by chipping along one side of the original flake, is simply indis-
tinguishable from the ordinary Tasmanian form placed beside it. Professor Tylor
stated that, unwilling to judge hastily from a single specimen, he had for years
been in correspondence with anthropologists in Australia as to the presence there
of such implements, and had lately, through communications from the Bishop of
Tasmania and Mr. Alexander Morton, of the Hobart Museum, received intelligence
that the latter, than whom no one better understands the Tasmanian implement
question, has on a late journey to the little-known Murchison district in West
Australia, while not meeting with ground stone axes, found the natives using
chipped stones quite similar to those used by the Tasmanian aborigines, as shown by
photographs sent for comparison. These quasi-paleolithic implements not having
yet been dispossessed in this district by the ground stone hatchets, which apparently
were introduced from the Torres Straits region, it would seem that this neolithic
invasion was of no remote date, and that the vast area including Australia as well
as Tasmania may have been till then peopled by tribes surviving at a level of the
Stone Age which had not yet risen to that of the remotely ancient European tribes
of the Drift gravels and limestone caves. The writer of the paper, while dis-
claiming any hasty inference, called attention from this point of view to the
importance of, and the similarities between, the modern Australioid skulls and the
prehistoric skulls of Neanderthal, Spy, Padbaba, Xe.

6. On the Natives of North-West Australia,
By Louis DE Roucemont.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

1. Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,
See Reports, p. 628. *

2. On the Tarahumare People of Mexico. By A. Krauss.

The Tarahumare people occupy an oblong strip of country in the Sierra Madre
range, lying approximately between 26° and 29° N. latitude, chiefly on the
Western side of the ‘Continental Divide, and at an average altitude of 7,000—
8,000 feet. They wander but little from their mountain-gorges, but have been for
a century or more in occasional contact with civilised people.

They are short in stature, with rerular features, and long, straight, black hair,
which is worn long, tied or plaited round the head; hair on the face is rare,
Their powers of endurance are remarkable.

They are essentially an agricultural people, growing maize, from which they
prepare the crushed and parched meal called pinoli, and keeping large herds of
goats and black sheep. Cattle are only used for ploughing; but animals which
die are occasionally eaten. A fermented liquor, called teshuin, is prepared from
maize, with pine needles and wild oats.

The men’s dress consists of a simple loin cloth secured by a sash, with sandals
and a head-cloth; a blanket is carried in cold weather and on journeys, The
women wear a woollen skirt.

Hand-made pottery is used for cooking, with occasional utensils of wood, and
in agriculture a simple plough, a pointed stick for planting, and a simple hoe.
Their only weapons are hows and arrows, of which the points are of hard wood or
of agate, and occasionally of old iron, No metal-working is practised, though
mineral ores exist in the country,

1016 REPORT—1898.

Their dwellings are of stone and timber, with a well-built storehouse, but in
remote districts cave shelters are in use.

The author further described the religious beliefs and social customs of the
tribes, and exhibited skulls from a burial cave near the Huajochic River.

3. On some Rock-Drawings from British Columbia. By C. Hw1-Tovt.

4, On the Myths and Customs of the Musquakie Indians.
By Mary A. Owen.

The author discussed the alleged origin and migrations of Musquakies (Red-
earth Men); the organisation of their tribe, clans, and families ; their courtship
and marriage ; the social position of the son and the daughter ; their training, ideas
of ownership, and other rights; initiations and ceremonials, secret societies,
magic, &e.

5. Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada.—See Reports, p. 696.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

1. On a Buddhist Image found in an Irish Bog. By Miss A. G. WED.

This image is of an early Cinghalese type, and was found in 1886 by a labourer
at some depth in a bog on the estate of Baltrasna, 15 miles from Kells. It repre-
sents the Buddha erect, in the ‘ preaching’ or ‘ benedictory’ attitude.

bs

. The Hill Tribes of the Central Indian Hills—their Ethnology, Customs,
and Sociolcgy. By Wiiu1am Crooks, B.A., late Bengal Civil Service,
Director Ethnographical Survey, North-Western Provinces and Oudh.

The author discusses —

(a) The ethnological affinities of the Dravidian races, with (1) races exterior
to India; (2) the existing population of Northern India.

(6) The evidence from anthropometry collected by Mr. Risley, and by the
author in his book lately published on ‘The Tribes and Castes of the North-
Western Provinces and Oudh.’

(c) The current theories of the Aryan influence on the existing races; which
seems to have been more of a social than of an ethnical character. The paper
attempts to controvert the belief that the existing Dravidian tribes are relics of
a race driven into the hill tract by the advancing Aryan invaders.

(d) The author then considers from a special personal study of these races, the
evidence for—(1) the matriarchate and descent through the female; (2) influence
of totemism on marriage; (3) group marriage; (4) tree marriage; (5) rules of
exogamy; (6) burial rites and the customs of burial in the earth, water burial,
cremation.

(e) The present social condition and industries of these races are described.

3, Interim Report on the Anthropology and Natural History of the
Torres Straits—See Reports, p. 688.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1017

4, On the Tribes inhabiting the Vicinity of the Mouth of the Wanigela
(Kemp Witch) River, New Guinea, By R, E. Guise.

The author describes the tribes of Bulda, Kamali, Babaka, and Kalo, detailing
their account of their own origin, their laws and customs of birth, marriage,
divorce, widowhood, death, and inheritance; their architecture; warfare and
weapons (specimens of which were exhibited), hunting, fishing, feasts, planting,
foods, diseases and cures, religious beliefs, Kc.

5. Lhe Montzu of Western Sxe-chuan. By Mrs. IsaABeLLa BisHoP.

The author first described her journey, starting from Wei-chau, at the con-
fluence of two branches of the Min, and tracing the Siao-ho, or lesser branch, up
to its sources at an altitude of about 11,000 feet on the Isu Kuh Shan range. At
Isa Kuh Lao, the last official post of China in that direction, she entered upon
the territory of the Issu-su of Somo and lived for some weeks among the Montzu,
being lodged either in their houses or on their roofs. She then described the
aspect of their villages and their dwellings, their devotion to Lamaistic Buddhism,
the power of the Lamas, the ceaseless invocations in family temples, and the
numerous external signs of religion, including prayer cylinders made to revolve by
water power. She gave an account of their system of government and their
marriage and burial customs. Their most noted characteristic was the position
accorded to women, who were as unfettered as in England and America, and on
an absolute equality with men, possessing legal rights in respect of property, and
sharing occupations and amusements with men. She mentioned the freedom of
the people from epidemics and many diseases, and the remarkable prevalence of
goitre. Mrs. Bishop described minutely the dress and ornaments of both sexes,
and pointed out certain resemblances to the Lolos of Yun-nan as described by
Mr. Colborne Babir. The people had their own language, but it was written in
Tibetan characters. The height, size, and stability of their stone dwellings were
then touched upon, especially the lofty four-sided stone towers of extreme
antiquity which are a feature of all the villages, while the Castle of Somo, the
residence of the Ju-ssu, was indicated as of extreme stateliness and grandeur.
Mrs. Bishop summed up her detailed account of the Montzu by noting that the
characteristic of their physiognomy was that it was European in expression as
well as in feature, and recalled the Latin races. The paper was illustrated by
lantern slides from photographs taken by the author.

6. The Swati and Afridi. By Col. Sir Tuomas Hoxpicu, K.C.L£.

Our recent campaigns in India have been directed against tribes-people who
occupy a district which we have lately cut off from Afghanistan, and which was
once known as the province of Roh.

The dominant tribes are Afghans, who have adopted the general designation of
Pathan, in common with these Rohillas, who were always Pathans. Afghans now
speak the Pathan, or Pushtu, language, and recognise the Pathan civil code; but
they recognise no kinship, and claim to be true Ben-i-Israel.

These Afghans objected to being cut off from the rest of Afghanistan by the
demarcation of a boundary, and believed that they were to be annexed to India.
Hence the recent risings against: us.

Explanation of the connection between the Afghans of Swat and the Darani
Afghans of Kabul and Kandahar, and short account of the history of the Swatis.
Their character, customs, and the manner in which they commenced hostilities
against us.

Description of the Afridi—his Rajput origin and independence. The scattered
nature of the Afridi clans and want of a recognised head. Afridi customs and
blood feuds. Their recognition of the necessity of loyalty to the cause they serve

1018 REPORT—1898.

and curious disregard of domestic ties. Their value as soldiers and general
intelligence.

Necessity for a study of the frontier people, and their history, in order to draw
correct conclusions as to their future status. :

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Law and Nature of Property among the Peoples of the
True Negro Stock, By Miss Mary H. Kinestey.

The geographical distribution of the true Negro stock is a subject worthy of
the attention of ethnographers for several reasons. One is that among these
peoples we have the most highly developed form of native African culture ;
another is that in the matters of physical characteristics and mental characteristics
the true Negro differs greatly from the better known Bantu stock. A high per-
centage of error has at present been attained by the failure to recognise these
differences, and thereby the work of Sir A. B. Ellis on the true Negro or Bastian
on the true Bantu has not yet been given its full scientific value.

The distribution of the true Negro stock is masked in its fringe-regions by the
ability of the peoples of this stock to acquire alien languages and culture. In the
northern fringe-regions of its distribution it is suffused with Berber culture and
Muhamedanism ; in its south-eastern and south by Bantu language and culture,
with a varying percentage of European adulteration along the sea coast from just
south of the River Gambia down to the Rio du Rey and Cameroon. But we have
fairly certain tests for the true Negro that are not masked by alien culture and
religion.

They are—(a) the true Negro does not keep slaves in separate villages from
their owners ; (4) he leaves sanitary public affairs in the hands of Providence ;
(c) he has a regular military organisation with a separate war chief and peace
chief; (d) among the true Negro the cult of the Law God is far more developed
than among the Bantu; (e) the true Negro does not have a female God as main
ruler of mundane affairs as the Bantu does.

The best region to study the institutions of the true Negro is the region of the
Oil Rivers, where he has suffered least from alien adulterations.

Property in West African culture exists in three kinds—(1) ancestral property
of the tribe, that connected with the office of the headmanship, called among the true
Negroes the Stool, among the Bantu the Fjort; (2) family property, in which
every member of the family has a certain share, to which every member of the
family has to contribute, and on which every member has a claim; (3) private
property, that which is acquired or made by a man or woman by their personal’
exertion over and above that made by them in co-operation with other members
of their family, which is family property, and that gained by gifts and that made in
trade by the exertion of superior trading ability.

Each of these kinds of property is equally sacred in the eye of Native
Law. The only kind that can become another kind of property is the private.
This constantly merges into family property on the death of its individual owner,
Stool property and family property remain of their kind for ever and cannot be
alienated, though liable with ali three kinds to meet debt.

Wealth is divisible into—(a) the means by which property can be acquired
and developed; to this division belong wives and slaves; (2) property in power
over market rights, utensils, canoes, arms, furniture, trade goods, &c. It is in the
capacity to command these things that the wealth of a true Negro—man or
woman—consists, and it is by slaves and by relationship with influential people
that he can attain to it.

Property is guarded by and exists under the law which is in the hearts of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1019

people themselves. This is represented by the cult of the Law God—the so-called

secret society of the district—Oru, Purroh, Eghbo, Belli, &c., and by the influence
of religion. For details of the manner in which these powers conjointly act in
preserving property, see a lecture by the author on ‘ African Religion and Law’
given for the Hibbert Trustees and published in the ‘ National Review’ for

_ September, 1897.

2. The Native Secret Societies of the West Coast of Africa.
by H. P. FirzGeratrp Marriorv.

Spread throughout West Africa from the Gambia to the Kongo are various
native secret societies, some well known by name, others very secret and power-
ful, and known of but by few white men, which must not be confused with fetich
customs and priests. These societies contain the religious and social principles of
the people, and administer justice according to native law and custom, The
kings, princes, chiefs, and great men belong to these organisations, and by their
means sustain their own power. Some of them are merely temporary, such as
the lesser Purroh of certain parts of Sierra Leone, of which white men speak ;
others again are ancient tribal institutions, such as the secret religious or state
Purroh with its grand council, of which most people are unaware. A man may
live forty years on the coast and never hear of Kofong, that powerful, mystic

~ society which controls the Limba nation, as was not long ago evinced to the

:

author by a gentleman who, knowing the coast well, called on him in town and
brought with him a native of another Sierra Leone district. The white man
denied its existence, but after a few moments the author extracted from the native
that there was such a society as Kofé, and that in another part it was called
Kofcoi, and in Mendi he thought that it was Jéosoi; the author said that it was
the same, and at the same time made certain Kofong signs, which he understood
(as was evident from his expression), and he acknowledged that he belonged to it,
but had not taken its highest forms; all of which rather put the white friend
out of countenance. But even this native knew little of the true inner Kofong,
or of any other societies elsewhere, such as on the Gold Coast, and others like the

_ Egbo in the Niger. Nearly all these societies oblige their initiates to undergo cir-

cumcision, if this rite has not been previously performed in youth or childhood;
the female societies are almost solely for that purpose, amongst them the Bondo of
Sierra Leone is perhaps the best known by name.

The science of life and death is taught in the highest of these societies, and

even hinted at in the inferior. Mohammedan influence is seen not only by the

personal association of the latter, but by the knots that are used as charms
(conf. Koran 113 stra), both by some of these societies, as well as by individuals.

_ Fetichism must not be confused with these societies. Spirit worship perhaps may

be associated with them; but a mystic religion and belief in one God, a Creator,

from whom springs all life, and to whom death is but in some sort a return, is, I

believe, the very inner secret of secrets; more they do not teach; they dabble in’

a low form of magic, or devil-worship (black magic in more than one sense),

and they uphold the ancient usages of the country, and the balance of the
powers that be. The names and varieties of these societies are numerous. Those
nearest to each other are generally on good terms, though distinct; and all could
be more or less connected, as is proved by the safety with which a Mohammedan
may advance near a religious Purroh procession, or even Purroh bush in safety ;
with regard to Purroh and the Mohammedan, this may be on account of the
rite of circumcision. In various instances the Government could employ these
societies to carry out its ends, and by means of methods to which the natives are
accustomed could gradually habituate them to British law and order.

3, On the Natives of the Niger Delta. By M. le Comte Cuan.es DE CarRDI,

The Paper gives some account of the early navigators who visited Western
Africa; of a theory of the origin of the Benin people, and of many of their

1020 REPORT—1898.

customs ; of Ju-Jwism in the Delta, with some account of devil huts; of the long
Ju-Ju of the Delta, its uses and abuses; of defilement and purification, human
sacrifices and ‘ father-making,’ ordeals, poisoners, and methods of poisoning; and
concludes with an estimate of the capabilities and future of the West African, ‘

4. Ancient Works of Art from Benin City. By C. H. Reap, F.S.A.

Benin is an inland city, situated about 70 miles up the river of the same name
in the Niger district. Its position near this great waterway has brought it into
contact with influences from the north by means of the great trade routes which
diverge towards the north from such trading centres as, e.g., Timbuktu. It was
thus possible that in Benin might be found some relics of the ancient civilisations
of the Mediterranean ; an opinion held by the late Sir Richard Burton. Relations
with Abyssinia are founded on the journey of a Franciscan friar from the neigh-
bourhood of Benin to Christian Ethiopia in the fourteenth century, and some
corroboration is found in the Benin tradition that the king was subject to a
powerful prince far to the east.

In the hope of finding evidence of these traditions in the loot that came from
Benin Mr. Read had made representations to the Government, with the result
that a large collection of ancient examples of Benin art had been secured for the
British Museum, though it could scarcely be said that they had any direct bearing —
on the relations of Benin with either the extreme north of Africa or the east.

A document of great interest: bearing on their origin was a report of Sir Ralph
Moor, giving the account of a palaver with seven natives—the Court historian,
three Ju-ju men, the master smith, master wood carver, and the master ivory
carver. After giving the list of the kings of Benin, twenty-three in all, these
authorities recited the great events that had taken place in each reign. ‘From this —
account it appears that the white men first came in the time of King Esige, the —
tenth in the list, and one of them, named Ahammangiwa, made the plaques and —
brasswork for the king. Assuming an average reign of twenty to twenty-five —
years for each of the kings, this would bring the time of Esige to about 300
years ago—a date that would correspond very well with the date of the European
costumes shown in the plaques. It was somewhat difficult to obtain the average
duration of the reign of an African potentate, but taking the reigns of Chinese and
Japanese emperors for 300 years, the average duration of these was twenty-seven
and twenty years respectively. Following these lines, it would seem that the
Benin tradition as given in Sir Ralph Moor’s report was very likely to be accurate.

5. On the Languages of Kavirondo. By C. W. Hostxy, F.R.G.S.

The paper introduced a number of vocabularies collected by the author, reference
copies of which have been deposited in the library of the Anthropological Institute
until circumstances permit of their publication in full.

6. On Egypt under the First Three Dynasties, in the Light of Recent
Discoveries. By Professor W. M. Fuinpers Perri,

T. On the Folk-lore of the Outer Hebrides. By Miss A. Goopricu-FREER.

The folk-lore of the Outer Hebrides has a degree of interest which justifies
the labour and inconvenience attendant on the conditions under which alone its
collection is possible. The islanders, among whom the author has spent man
months and gathered stories in the strangest surroundings, are courteous always,
but reticent, proud, and suspicious, as well they may be, of English or even o
Scot; and yet with an almost childlike friendliness for those who come among

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1021

_ them, speaking their own tongue, and of like blood and passions with themselves.
But kind and friendly as the islanders have always been, the author’s attempts
would have had comparatively small results but for help received from the Rev.
Allan Macdonald, priest of Eriskay, whose lifelong knowledge of the islanders is.
unrivalled.

Contact with modern civilisation and the consequent decay of native industries
and modes of life have proved here, as elsewhere, fatal to folk-lore ; and even the
very language in which the older life is crystallised is neglected by the School
_ Board and despised by the rising generation.

Yet in the old days every act of life seems to have had its associated tradi-
tion: the lighting of the fire, the milking of the cows, the driving them home, the
roosting of the poultry, the watching of the cattle, the realisation of the changing
seasons, the baking of bread, the catching of fish, every detail of weaving and
dyeing and fulling, all had their special rhyme, or song, or story. In the long
winter evenings the time was passed in weaving heather ropes or making nets,
while stories were told by recognised sca/ds, the literary descendants of the ballad-
makers of the Vikings who occupied these islands. Some of these stories are of
great length, and must have occupied many evenings in narration. Some are of
Ossianic origin. Here, as elsewhere, stories such as ‘ Cinderella’ and ‘The Sleep-
ing Beauty’ are related in terms appropriate to the locality. Many of the songs
have their special tunes, some of which the author has secured.

Every member of the scant fauna, and every phase of the culture of the land
or of the sea, has its legend and its song. The undertone of half the legends is the
friendship and the kindliness of the sea—all are safe in the boat, be it but a few
yards from shore.

Besides the innumerable and often unique superstitions—midsummer fires,
salutations to the sun, and Hallowe’en divinations—the author attaches a peculiar
value to the ancient hymns, the quaint apocryphal stories, the prayers for all sorts
of occasions, the old catechisms and rosaries, the legends of St. Columba and his
followers, of St. Patrick and St. Bridget, the charms, spells, and divinations, with
their odd mixture of Paganism and Christianity, as these, perhaps more certainly
than the rest, are becoming every day more difficult to recover.

The author illustrated various archaic agricultural and domestic implements
and the methods of using them, and exhibited specimens of home-made cloth, of
the vegetable dyes used, of articles made of heather and ‘ bent,’ and of charms and
cures for disease. }

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury.See Reports, p. 694.

2. On the Place of the Lake Village of Glastonbury in British Archeology.
Sy Artuur J. Evans, £.S.A.

3. On Traces of Terramare Settlements in Modern Italian Towns.
By Professor W. M. Frinpers Perris, D.C.L.

4, On the Megalithic Monuments of Dartmoor. By P. F. 8. Amery,

5. Report on the Silchester Excavations.—See Reports, p 689.

1022 . REPORT—1898.
6. On Walled-up Skeletons. By Miss Nina Layarp.

7. Report on the Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.
See Reports, p. 712

8. On Traces of Barly Kentish Migrations. By T. W. Snore, £.G.8,

The author first draws attention to the various names by which the Jutes of
Kent were known to early chroniclers and writers, and to authorities which show _
that the Jutes were closely allied to, or identical with, the Northern Goths. From —
the evidence of early place names, such as Goda (for a Goth), and Geats or
Geatas (for Jutes), frequently used as descriptive names of early Kentish settlers,
in addition to purely Kentish names compounded of the names Kent, or Ken, and —
trom the circumstance that Kent, unlike the other chief Anglo-Saxon States, had
no Hinterland, he infers that the migrations of Kentish people must have led them ~
to settle in unoccupied land of the other kingdoms, and identifies such early
Kentish colonies by such place names, under their present or amore ancient form;
by survival of customs of land tenure, &c., analogous to those of Kent; by other
place names derived from the Jutish hero Hengest, which formerly existed in
the same localities, and still survive in some instances in a modified form; and by
survivals of gavelkind and kindred customs in many similar places, and refers to
the possession of land in Herefordshire and Yorkshire by the early Archbishops
of Canterbury, and by the first Archbishop of York, who also came from
Kent.

The causes which led to migrations of Kentish people he considers to be the
pressure of population at home, the openings for colonisation which arose from
the marriages of Kentish princesses with sovereigns and princes of other States,
the necessity for military colonists on the frontiers of the expanding States, and
zeal for Christian missionary work, of which Kent was the centre.

The author collected evidence of Kentish colonies in (1) the Isle of Wight |

and in S, Hampshire,! probably the earliest migration from Kent, which is indi-
cated by the similarity of place names. This settlement probably extended into
Dorset, where gavelkind long prevailed at Wareham.

(2) S. W. Herefordshire (Archenfield district): Jutish and Kentish place names,
such as Kentchurch ; gavelkind of the Kentish type (as distinct from the Welsh
type) ;* and a number of other Kentish customs (which survived until the sixteenth
century). :

(8) Yorkshire: gavelkind existed on the lands which formed the Fee of
St. Peter’s, York, eg. Knaresborough; in the honour of Richmond, where the
inferior tenants enjoyed some of the same privileges asin Kent. Place names in
Richmondshire, e.g. the Swale River. The alternative name of Gillingshire for
this district arose from the monastery of Gilling, founded by the grand-daughter
of the first Christian King of Kent.

(4) Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire: Kentish and Jutish place names, also —
gavelkind. The earliest form of the name of Leicestershire, viz. Lethecester-scir,
which occurs in A.D. 679, before the earliest Danish invasion, may point to the
division of the county into daths, as in Kent; the present Hundred names of the
county were probably ancient Lath names. These hundreds were divided.*

(5) Westmoreland: Kentish names like Kentdale, Kendal, and Kentmere, and
the survival among the Kendal tenants of some of the special privileges of gavel-

17. W. Shore, Antiguary, March 1890.

? Glanville (Temp. Henry IT.) says that gavelhind tenure was only recognised in
the Law Courts of the twelfth century in those places where it could be proved, as
in Kent, that the lands always had been divided.

3 J. H. Round, Feudal England.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1023

kind tenants in Kent, especially the rare one of freedom from the common law
of distress.

(6) Devon: The name Kenn and others (written in Domesday Book, like Kent
itself, as Chent), near Exeter, and partible inheritance of the Kentish kind in the
City of Exeter.

(7) Somerset: Kentish and Jutish names along the coast, especially the
Hengest place names.

(8) Worcestershire, Gloucestershire and Shropshire: Hengest place names in
the valley of the Severn, groups of other Kentish and Jutish place names.

(9) The Thames Valley, as a channel for migration from Kent. Kentish gavel-
kind among the old manors, which bounded ancient London on the north, and
the survival of Borough English, which was closely allied to it, in most of the
manors which bounded London on the south and west; the Hundred names of
(Kintbury, in) the Kennet Valley ; names such as Kentish Town, and Gatenesheale
(for Vauxhall), Kennington, Kensington, Twicanham (Twickenham), Kent Town
near Molesey, Kenton (Kempton); Hinksey, near Abingdon, the Hengestsie of
Saxon charters, and two other Hengest names with Gode, Ken and Geat, or Yeat;
names occur near the river above Oxford, the highest being Kempsford, the Chene-
meresford of Domesday Book; partible inheritance (in Domesday) at Hochenarton,
a place with a Kentish name (Hook Norton) in Oxfordshire.

9. On the Folk-lore of Guernsey. By the late Mrs. Murray AYNSLEY.

The prevalent belief in witchcraft and demoniacal possession was illustrated by
the stories of Belier Boeuf and the Roussels; of the resuscitation of one Jean
Robin, and of another case of exorcism by D’Orlean; and a local legend of
St. George and St. Patrick was given.

10. On some Myths and Fancies of Insect Life.
By 8. CLEMENT SoutTuam.

The author discussed and illustrated the traditions and cults attaching to
bees as messengers of the gods, spiders in folklore and folk medicine, ants, crickets,
ladybirds, and beetles.

11. On the Exploration of Two Caves at Uphill, Weston-super-Mare, con-
taining Remains of Pleistocene Mammalia. By the late EDwarD WILSON,
F.G.S. See p. 867.

[Communicated by HERBERT BOLTON, F.R.8.E.]

1024. 4 REPORT—1898.

SECTION K.—BOTANY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTIoN.—F. O. Bower, D.Sc., F.R.S., Regius Professor
of Botany in the University of Glasgow.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The PReEsIDENT delivered the following Address :—

SHoRTLY before we met last year in the hospitable Dominion of Canada, two
biologists, whose work relates to the questions I propose to discuss to-day, passed
away. In both cases their services to science had received honourable recognition
in this country. Johannes Japetus Smith Steenstrup, who had been for more than
thirty years a foreign member of the Royal Society, died June 20, 1897, at the
advanced age of eighty-four; Julius von Sachs, also a foreign member of the
Royal Society, died May 29, 1897, aged sixty-five.

The former of these, a zoologist, was probably best known in this country for
his work on ‘ Alternation of Generations,’ a translation of which was published by
the Ray Society in 1845. The title-page describes the phenomenon as ‘a peculiar
form of fostering the young in the lower classes of animals.’ Botanists should
remember that this term ‘alternation,’ which they often use in a sense peculiarly
their own, was originally applied to the course of development in certain animals
by Chamisso in 1819. The first general statement of the subject from the zoologicat
side was by Steenstrup in the work already named; even there no mention is
made of such phenomena in plants, until the concluding paragraph, where there is
an allusion in very general terms to the course of events in the life of seed-bearing
plants. But when we remember that it was only in 1848 that Suminski dis-
covered the antheridia and archegonia borne upon the prothallus of a Fern, we see
plainly that Steenstrup could not have used the term ‘alternation’ in the sense in
which it is now generally applied to plants. The interest for us as botanists will
therefore be that Steenstrup suggested in his work on alternation in animals how
in the life of plants successive phases exist, and that these are comparable to those
which he described in many animals.

The work of Sachs, on the other hand, has influenced every one of us. Some,
including myself, have had the great advantage of his direct personal guidance ;
all must have derived pleasure as well as profit from his writings. I shall not here
attempt any general summary of the achievements of this great man, for that has
been done efficiently by the scientific press at large. I shall merely allude to one
feature of his work—viz. the style of its presentment to the reader. He was always
clear, usually concise. He was, in addition to his power as an investigator, a
master with the pencil, as well as with the pen. It was this combination of qualities
which made him the great text-book writer of his time. Never perhaps has a
volume more fairly reflected the position of a science at the moment of its publica-
tion than did that of Sachs. It resembles the work of a snap-shot camera, and,

——

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1025

like any instantaneous photograph of life in motion, it has fixed and perpetuated
awkward positions. The morphological system of the time was stiff and unpro-
mising ; the text-book accurately depicted this, but it did not suggest or anticipate
future developments; it did not bear the softened image of a longer exposure ; it
presents to us the angular attitude of a moment.

The powers of Sachs as a writer found their best scope in his ‘ History of
Botany,’ a work which will always retain its value as a masterly exposition of the
results of very wide reading, arranged with a literary skill which is unfortunately
rare among scientific men. I lay stress upon this power of Sachs as a writer, apart
from his record as an investigator, because he was strong where so many of us are
weak. The truth is that little effort is made by men of science to use a concise
and transparent style; for the most part we write by the aid of such instincts as
Nature has given us; few cultivate composition. But it should, I think, be
impressed upon the young aspirant that, when he writes, it is one of his first duties
to consider his readers’ convenience ; he must use all endeavours to convey forcibly
the result of his inquiry, but to make the least possible demand upon the patience of
his readers. I should like to see certain papers selected as models of construction,
to be studied as such by all candidates for our higher degrees; we should naturally
include in the list those of the best masters of style in foreign languages, and
among them would rank the late Julius von Sachs.

THREE PHASES OF MorPHOLOGICAL StupyY.

It will be in your memory that the Address of last year’s Sectional President
was largely devoted to branches of our science which touch the material and
economic interests of man. It was pointed out to us how certain fungal diseases
diminish agricultural profits to an extent which may be estimated in millions of
pounds yearly. Beneficent microbes were also mentioned, such as those which
govern the aroma and maturing of butter and cheese; these and many others, the
study of which lies properly within the province of botany, affect not only the
health, but, at the most varied points, the comfort and prosperity of mankind.

It is unnecessary for me to dwell further upon these points, or to urge again
the utilitarian argument for the proper support of botany. I propose, on the other
hand, to invite your attention this morning to the Morphology of Plants. This is
a department of science pure and simple. The results which it brings have not,
and cannot be expected to have, any money value in the markets of the world.
The present time is one of unusual bustle and change in morphology, consequent upon
the discovery of new facts and the introduction of new methods. The development
of the study may be divided into three periods, we ourselves standing upon the
threshold of the third. The earliest phase was that of description and delineation of
what might be observed of the mature form of plants; this includes the work of the
herbalists and of the earlier systematists, who thus furnished the basis for classi-
fication. It is true that the mere description was enriched at times by comparisons
made, but these often took a capricious form, as is shown by the many curious
allusions which still survive in the nomenclature. Erasmus Darwin satirised
the imaginative comparisons indulged in by early writers in his ‘ Loves of the
Plants ;’ an instance of this is seen in his lines referring to the legendary organism,
eal animal, half plant, suggested by the peculiar form of Dicksonia (Cibotium)

arometz :—

‘ Cradled in snow and fann’d by arctic air
Shines, gentle Barometz, thy golden hair.
Rooted in earth each cloven hoof descends,
And round and round her flexile neck she bends ;
Crops the gray coral moss, and hoary thyme,
Or laps with rosy tongue the melting rime.
Kyes with mute tenderness her distant dam,
Or seems to bleat, a Vegetable Lamb.’

The tendency to comparison thus already perceptible asserted itself strongly in
1898. 3U

1026 REPORT—1898.

the next phase of our study, to which it gave its character. And now the need
arose for observing development; this was initiated by Schleiden, and carried to a
triumphant climax by Hofmeister. Passing from the hands of these pre-Darwinian
to those of post-Darwinian writers, the comparisons, while remaining virtually the
same, received a new significance. Observers now pushed their inquiries into the
details of anatomical structure and development, and in many cases attached an
importance beyond what is justifiable to minute similarities or differences of cell-
cleavage. Thus what might be called ‘ cellular morphology’ became a feature of
the period. It has, however, been in a measure discredited by the excessive zeal
of some of its votaries, who drew large conclusions from slight facts; a salient
example of this is furnished by studies concerning segmentation of the ovum.
But we must not assume that because it has been pursued indiscreetly the study
of segmentation is effete; there is still scope for valuable observation, which will
bear a reasonable burden of argument ; though conclusions from such a source must
be compared with those derived from other data, and a due estimate of them must
be made accordingly.

Morphology has lately passed to a third stage—that of experiment—with a
view to ascertaining the effect of external agencies in determining form, and the
limits of variability under varied circumstances. Development of itself shows
only how a part originates ; it does not demonstrate what it is, nor what it may
become under special conditions. This new and growing phase of experimental
morphology, together with comparison from the point of view of descent, now
tends to supersede the formal morphology of the second period, which in many
minds implied or assumed ideal types or creative plans. It has become a general
view that the facts of morphology are but the stereotyped facts of physiology,
form being determined by function, but under the check of heredity. This
third experimental phase of the study of plant-form is directed, as it were, to
the very setting of the types, before the stereotype plate is cast. We watch
Nature’s compositor at work, but we also ascertain that the plate itself, after it is
cast, is much more plastic than some of us had thought.

These three phases of morphological inquiry have naturally overlapped one
another; we recognise, however, that first description, then formal comparison,
and now experiment, have been the leading features in morphological investigation
during these successive periods.

Homo.oey.

The ideal aimed at in the study of the morphology of plants is to trace their
real relationships and mode of origin, on the basis of the widest observation—in
short, to reconstruct the evolutionary tree. In order to make comparison possible,
or at least manageable, a terminology is necessary, and this not only of the plants
themselves, but also of their parts. We may for the moment leave on one side
that Summing up of morphological opinion represented by the systematic arrange-
ment of plants in a taxonomic system. I propose to-day to discuss not the classifi-
cation of plants, but the classification of the parts of plants, their grouping accord-
ing to their homology. And here I use a word which is probably explained to
every class of elementary students; it is one of those terms a meaning of which is
indeed revealed to the babes of the science, while those who teach are not at one
as to its definition. We need not enter now into the various opinions which have
been held on this point, nor need we make any antiquarian research into the
introduction or early use of the word homology ; it will suffice to state that it was
already firmly established in the science before views as to descent gave it any
intelligible meaning. We speak of the homologies recognised by Hofmeister, but
it should be remembered that their great discoverer did not put an evolutionary
interpretation upon them. Sachs points out in his history how ‘the theory of
descent had only to accept what genetic morphology had already brought to view.’
Nevertheless, much remained ingrained in the very texture of the science which
was incompatible with evolutionary thought. This was so even in the text-book |
of Sachs itself. The categories of root, stem, leaf, and hair are there laid down, and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1027

the parts classed under these several heads were held to be homologous. In their
definition all those characters which refer to function were put aside, the definitions
relating to origin and relative position; the reproductive organs were grouped
with the rest, with the result that these parts were described as bearing a varying
morphological value. But this purely formal morphology is now dead; it long
survived a mere passive belief in evolutionary views, but their active practice has
strangled it. ‘The first step towards emancipation was the recognition of sporangia
as parts sw generis. Eichler, agreeing with Braun and Strasburger, found it
‘highly probable according to the theory of descent’ that such a structure as the
ovule has universally the same morphological dignity. It remained for Goebel to
make the general statement that sporangia stand in a category by themselves, and
are probably not the result of modification of any vegetative part. It was in this
way that the phylogenetic factor was first asserted as bearing on a question of
importance in the morphology of plants. Adherents of descent no longer passively
accepted the direct results of investigation ; they began actively to check and control
the interpretation of them ; but this position was not attained till more than twenty
years after the publication of Darwin’s ‘ Origin of Species.’ Since then, however,
views as to descent have taken an increasingly important place in the province of
morphology, till at the present moment a far-reaching comparison of allied forms,
assisted by experiment, is the most potent instrument in the hands of the morpho-
logist.

But various writers admit in varying degree this factor of comparison as con-
trolling other considerations. There is indeed a wide range of difference on this
point. I will cite only two extreme views. On the one hand is the view of
Strasburger, which he enunciated so early as 1872. The enthusiasm for evolution
in the Jena school found its botanical expression in the aphorism, ‘ The highest
problem of morphology is to explain the form of plants, but this problem can only
be solved genealogically.’ This statement is repeated in a more definite form in
Strasburger’s text-book : ‘ Phylogeny is thus the only real basis for morphology.’

At the other extreme is the method of physiological organography put forward
by Sachs in his Lectures. I am aware that he subsequently modified his views; I
merely quote the system which he propounded in 1882, as being the antithesis to
that of Strasburger. For in the physiological organography descent is hardly
taken into account at all; parts which are plainly of distinct origin by descent are
classed together. This organography of Sachs, though introduced with all its
author’s charm of style, never convinced the botanical world, for it treated plants
too much as the creatures of present circumstance. It may be taken as illustraung
the extreme reactionary swing of the pendulum from the non-physiological attitude
of the formal morphologists; a protest against the exclusion of function from the
morphological arena. The protest was salutary, but its form was extravagant.

Let us now consider whither ‘ phylogeny, as the only real basis of morphology,’
may lead us. Let us take as our provisional view that homology in the strictest
sense implies repetition of individual parts, in successive generations, just as the
hand of the child repeats in position and qualities the hand of the mother. Though
among seed-bearing plants, for instance, this repetition may apply for the plant-
body as a whole, it will be at once apparent that such repetition as regards the
individual is found in comparatively few cases in plants. The continued embryo-
logy of all the higher forms, the indefinite number of the parts successively
produced, and the variety in detail of their arrangement show that in the strictest

‘sense repetition of individual parts cannot be traced. In a pan of seedlings of
the Sunflower, raised from seed of the same parent, the cotyledons in all cases
may be regarded as homologous in the strictest sense, as they correspond in origin,
number, position, and form to like parts in the parent. In a similar way the first
root of the seedling appears to be individually identical with the first root of the
parent, or of any other seedling of the batch. In those plants in which a foot or
suspensor is present occupying a constant position with regard to the parts of the
embryo, it will not be doubted that within near lines of affinity the foot in any

_ one specimen corresponds to that of any other. The exact repetition which is thus

found to exist may be regarded as the most complete type of homology.

3U2

1028 REPORT—1898.

Starting from this repetition of individual parts in plants nearly related, there is
a divergence by gradual steps in two directions: Firstly, in the individual plant,
where the later formed parts may assume forms and positions which may even raise
a question of their essential correspondence. Thus in the batch of Sunflower
seedlings there may be a varying number of leaves, with varying transition from
the decussate to the alternate arrangement, intervening between the cotyledons
and the capitulum. As they vary in number and position these cannot in the
strictest sense be accepted as individually comparable, each to each by descent—the
lineal representatives of like individual parts in the parent. The lateral roots also,
though all essentially similar, do not correspond each to each, either in number
or in position.

Again, to go a step further, a Fern prothallus produces antheridia and arche-
gonia ; their number and position are not uniform ; by conditions of culture we have
them under control, and can induce antheridia only, or we can induce a formation
of archegonia upon the upper surface, where they are usually absent. Plainly
these cannot be held severally as the exact representatives of like individual parts
in a previous generation. Another exceptional but most interesting case is that
of Aspidium anomalum, Hk. and Arn., which Sir William Hooker remarks is
possibly an abnormal form of Aspidium (Polyst.) aculeatum,Sw. In this Fern the
sori, instead of being all on the lower surface, as in allied Ferns, are often upon the
upper surface of the leaf. There is no sign of tortion to explain the anomaly,
while the sori themselves present no structural peculiarity except that they are
sometimes quite destitute of indusium. There has doubtless been a transfer of
developmental capability from the usual position of the sori to the anomalous one.
In case of such transfers as these we do not doubt that the parts in question are
to be ranked as comparable to those in the normal position; we contemplate here,
as in the case of the Sunflower leaves, an essential correspondence, but not an
individual repetition of the parts, and we learn that parts thus essentially corre-
sponding to one another may be transferred to unusual positions.

Secondly, in plants more or less nearly related, those which are less akin may
show so slight a similarity in detail that again questions of the essential correspon-
dence of the parts may arise. Within nearer circles of affinity these questions will
affect only the appendages of minor importance, which show less constancy of oceur-
rence and arrangement, such as emergences and hairs; but in case of plants less
nearly akin the degree of correspondence of the larger members may become a matter
of debate. Take, for instance, the three great phyla of living Pteridophytes, the
Ferns, Equiseta, and Lycopods. While the sporophyte as a whole in each of these
may be accepted as homologous by descent with that of the others, the question
as to the true correspondence by descent of the leaves must still be open for dis-
cussion. It isa tenable view that the three phyla arose separately from a non-
foliar ancestry, and that the assumption of a foliar development, having in each
case a different habit, and a different relation to the sporangia, led to the dis-
tinctiveness of the three stocks. Opinion on the point of homology by descent of
the leaves of these Pteridophyta must at present remain in suspense; but the case
is different with the leaf of Pteridophytes as compared with the leaf of Bryo-
phytes: unless the whole morphological system of the time be in error, we shall
be right in maintaining that these foliar developments have been distinct in origin
from the first.

Now all the foliar parts above quoted would in a system of merely formal
morphology fall into the category of ‘leaves.’ But if phylogeny be accepted as
the only real basis of morphology, we must be prepared to split up the category
based on mere time, place, and mode of origin, and to recognise in some cases
repetition of individual parts; in others essential correspondence, but not individual
repetition, owing sometimes to transfer of developmental capability ; in other cases
again, a possibility of distinct origin by descent not actually proved; and lastly a
reasonable certainty of distinct origin. The practical question for the morpho-
logist is, having recognised these facts for himself, how is the matter to be best
made intelligible to others ?

A reconsideration of the term ‘homology’ will thus be necessary: is it to be

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1029

applied equally to such parts as are connected by lineal descent, and also to those
which we, have good reason to believe have resulted from parallel development
in quite distinct phyla? Or, to puta finer point upon our inquiry, are we to
distinguish in any way the cases of ‘ individual repetition ’ from those of ‘ essential
correspondence?’ In the latter case I think no good end would be served at pre-
sent by accentuating this distinction by terms: the steps of divergence are so
slight and gradual. None the less should it be clearly borne in mind that compari-
sons of parts commonly ranked as homologous in the plant body are based on a less
complete individual correspondence than that of parts usually compared in the
animal body.

But the case is different in dealing with parallel developments, and some doubt
arises whether parts which probably, or it may be certainly, have arisen by
separate evolutionary sequence in distinct phyla are to be classed as homologous
in the same sense as those directly related by descent. This question was long ago
taken up on the zoological side by Professor Ray Lankester, and it was shown
that the old word ‘homology’ covered two things recognised as distinct from the
point of view of descent. He defined as homogenous ‘structures which are
genetically related, in so far as they have a single representative in a common
ancestor.’ On the other hand, ‘ when identical or nearly similar forces or environ-
ments act on two or more parts of an organism which are exactly or nearly alike:
further, if, instead of similar parts in the same organism, we suppose the same
forces to act on parts in two organisms, which parts are exactly or nearly alike,
and sometimes homogenetic, the resulting correspondences called forth in the
several parts in the two organisms will be nearly or exactly alike. . . . I propose
to call this kind of agreement homdéplasis or homoplasy.’ Now this distinction of
terms requires also to be observed in plant-morphology, and I am surprised that
it has never yet been adopted by botanists, though we have long recognised cases
of parallel development. I do not propose now to spend time in assigning these
terms to familiar cases: but to take the examples already cited, the leaf of a Fern
would be homoplastic, though not homogenetic with the leaf of a Moss ; or, taking
examples from plants more nearly akin, it would appear possible that the leaves of
the three distinct phyla of living Pteridophytes show merely homoplasy, not a true
homogeny.

The successive foliage leaves of most plants are assumed in the individual to
be the result of a mere repetition of development. But it is quite a possible view
that in the plant-body (as is contemplated in the animal in those cases of ‘serial
homology ’ which Lankester recognises as homoplastic) homoplasy may have had
a place. We must inquire whether all those structures which we designate
‘leaves’ have actually been the result of a development identical, or at least:
essentially similar as regards their origin in the race. The problem is, given a
plant with numerous leaves of various form and function, to unravel the real story
of their evolution. Two distinct factors may be contemplated as possibly occurring
even in the individual, viz. :

1. Homogeny of genetically related parts, with or without repetition of the
parts formed.

2. Homoplasy, an origin of two or more distinct categories of parts, not
genetically related, on the same organism.

Working upon either of these, and thus complicating the problem by oblitera-
ting such distinctions as may have existed at first, may be the phenomenon of
metamorphosis. This has lately received its evolutionary definition at the hands of
Professor Goebel, as restricted to those cases where there has been an obvious
change of function. We see how change of function accounts for various forms
of leaf in certain cases; but it does not follow that all leaf-forms on the same
plant were so produced, by metamorphosis of a single original type.

The Lycopodinez are particularly interesting in illustration of this point. It
appears probable that Phylloglossum is a more primitive type than other living
Lycopods; it has two kinds of leaf, the protophylls borne in irregular number and
arrangement on the protocorm, and the sporophylls of different form from these,
and arranged regularly on the strobilus: commonly there are no intermediate

1030 REPORT—1898.

steps between them. This condition in a plant, which on general grounds of com-
parison we believe to be primitive, is certainly interesting, and we shall ask
whether the two types of leaf have not arisen by distinct evolutionary sequence ?
In the genus Lycopodium there are certain species, such as ZL. Selago, which show
alternately sterile and fertile zones ; examining the limits of the sterile zones, we
find at the base of each leaf an atrophied sporangium, similar in position to that
borne by asporophyll, When we compare this condition with that of Phylloglossum
it appears probable that the successive zones are the result of a metamorphosis of
a strobilus, which had a continuous apical growth, and unlimited repetition of
sporophylls, but that some of these suffered atrophy of their sporangia, with the
correlative effect of a larger vegetative development. A differentiation of the
strobilus thus results in the plant as we see it, a production of foliage leaves by
sterilisation of sporophylls. Recognising this, some may suggest that the proto-
phylls originated in the same way. It is possible that they did; but it is equally
possible, and, in view of the peculiar case of Phylloglossum, I think more probable,
that in these plants we have an example of homoplastic development of parts dis~
tinct as to descent, while the limits of the two still evident in Phylloglossum
became obliterated in the more complex case of Lycopodium. The proof of the point
will be difficult or even impossible, but the eyes of botanists should certainly be
open to recognise such individual homoplasy, should it occur, and to inquire
whether it has really had a place in plant-development.

Returning now to homoplastic development in distinct groups of plants, the
morphology of the foot provides interesting material for comparison, and especially
so since there is no question of repetition here; for the comparison is between
parts of which only one appears on each individual plant.

The term foot has been applied to that part of the embryo in Pteridophyta
which serves to connect it physiologically with the prothallus; the term has also
been used for the base of the seta in Bryophytes. Parts performing a similar
function, but not referable as in other Phanerogams to the metamorphosis of
cotyledons, are also found in Gnetwm and Welwitschia,

In the Bryophyta what is usually called the foot is no definitely specialised
structure; it is merely the absorbent base of the seta. It would appear probable
that in the Bryophyta a true homogeny holds in all cases, as the requirement for it
will have been uniform ; and its basal position is also uniform, though some differ-
ence of detail does appear in the relation of this absorbing body to the first segmen-
tations of the embryo.

In the Pteridophyta it is exceedingly difficult to be sure of the correspondence by
descent of the foot in distinct types, and indeed it should not be assumed that a
specialised absorbent organ was always present, though general surface-absorption
will naturally have taken place in all archegoniate embryos ; indeed, the condition
of some upright embryos is such that a foot would never have been described,
were it not for comparison with other types. In Eguisetwm, Isoétes, Botrychium
—all forms without a suspensor, and with an upright growing embryo—the hypo-
basal half of the embryo, with or without a root, is absorbent as in the Bryo-
phyta, and is described as a foot ; it is quite possible to see in them the continuation
of a primitive absorbent organ. This may also be the case in the Marattiacez,
and it is specially noted by Campbell that ‘in Marattia all the superficial cells of
the central region become enlarged and act as absorbent cells for the nourishment
of the embryo.’ From such types we may imagine the more specialised foot of the
Leptosporangiate Ferns to have been derived by a localisation of the absorbent
function on one side only, which would be a natural consequence of the embryo
taking the prone, in place of the vertical position.

A. different course of events probably occurred in the Lycopodinew. I am
disposed to think that here the suspensor represents nothing more than a specialised
part of the primitive absorbent organ ; this seems to be indicated by the details as
shown in Treub’s figures of Z. cernwum and L. Phlegmaria, in which the suspensor
is continuous with the foot. But what is, then, the ‘foot’ of Selaginella, which is
quite apart from the suspensor, the root intervening? On this point I think we
obtain light from Welwitschia and Gnetum, for in these we see an absorptive

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 10381

organ formed at a comparatively late period; and it corresponds in position and
function, though not in time of origin or details of structure, with that of Sedagin-
ella. I conclude that the ‘foot’ of Selaginella is probably a later formation, not
comparable as regards descent either with the foot of Lycopodium or with the
‘feeder’ of Welwitschia or Gnetum. The latter are plainly of recent independent
origin as comparison shows, and their actual position is defined according to the
position of the seed in germination. Probably, then, there is homoplasy in such
cases, not true homogeny.

Similarly with such structures as the pinne, stipules, indusium, corona, and
still more so with such inconstant bodies as emergences and hairs; when we speak
of the ‘ homologies’ of these parts it is rarely the homogeny, or identity by descent,
which we mean to express; usually it is only homoplasy, a comparison of parts
similar it may be in form and position, or even in development and function,
though not shown to be comparable by descent.

ALTERNATION.

But the questions above discussed are mere matters of detail, compared with
that great enigma of the alternation of generations in green plants, or of alterna-
tion at large. This is, after all, a question of degree of homology, not now of the
parts only, but of the whole plant or ‘ generation.’ How this greatest of all adapta-
tions was really initiated, we cannot expect to bring to the point of demonstra-
tion; at best we can only venture opinions of probability. Still, this discussion
commands at present more widespread interest among botanists than any other in
the sphere of plant morphology.

There was a time when the attempt was made to reduce all plants to one
scheme as regards their life-cycle, 2 method which not only prevented elasticity of
theory, but was responsible for some unfortunate comparisons. It was character-
istic of the period when the text-book of Sachs reigned supreme ; we find it there
definitely laid down that ‘ the doctrine of alternation has the object of reducing to
one scheme the main phases of the life of all plants which bear sexual organs.’
But the controversy between Pringsheim and Celakovsky had, as one of its
results, the recognition of various types of life-history, not of one scheme only.
The tendency at present is towards the opposite extreme; the frequency of the
parallel developments now recognised has led some to accept a comprehensive
polyphyletic view as regards alternation, and, wherever difficulties of comparison
arise, to take refuge in the plausible suggestion that the organisms compared
represent altogether distinct lines of descent. But the view which should be
confidently upheld is that even where this may actually be the case useful com-
parisons may yet be made; and that the method of progress within one phylum
may illustrate the probable mode of progress in another. The green Alge may
thus throw light upon the probable origin of the sporogonium in the Bryophytes,
though they may in no sense be in the line of their descent; the Bryophytes may
suggest valuable ideas for the comparative study of the Pteridophytes, though
they may not represent their actual ancestry.

It is the alternation as seen in these green plants that I propose to discuss.
Writers have distinguished various types of alternation, including under the term
divers modes of ‘alternation of shoots;’ and it should be remembered that this
was the original sense of the word alternation as applied by Steenstrup. But
gradually the issue in the case of green plants has been simplitied, and the ques-
tion now centres round that alternation of phases which some of us describe as
‘ antithetic,’ while others believe the phases to be really ‘ homologous’ as regards
their origin. ’

Brietly put, the question is, How was the first start made? Has the neutral
generation or sporophyte been the result of change of any other part of the sexual
generation than the zygote itself? Ifso, the alternation is of homologous genera-
tions; if not, then the alternation is what is styled antithetic. The whole discus-
sion is like a purely historical inquiry, but with the minimum of documentary
evidence; for on this point the fossils give scanty help. In the absence of more

1032 REPORT—1898.

direct evidence we are thrown back on other arguments, such as those based om
comparison of normal specimens, and secondly upon the study of abnormalities. I
shall not attempt to treat the matter exhaustively ; it will, however, be necessary
for me to deal with certain points in the discussion which were raised in the able
address of Professor Scott at Liverpool. He there restated Pringsheim’s view of
homologous alternation as against the antithetic. I propose now to consider three
matters which I think are most material to the discussion—viz. (1) the bearing of
the Algz and certain Fungi on the question ; (2) the comparison from the Bryo-
phyta; and (3) the argument from abnormalities.

I. Alge and Fungi.

At first sight those Algee and Phycomycetous Fungi which show a subdivision
of the zygote appear to offer the key to the enigma of the first start of antithetic
alternation, and such rudimentary fruit-bodies as those of Gidogonium and Coleo=
chete are frequently quoted as prototypes of sporogonia. My own position has
been that they may be ‘ accepted as suggestive of similar progress in the course of
evolution of Vascular Plants.’ On the assumption that the zygote is equivalent in
all cases—and this is itself a pure assumption—the fruit-body of such Algz or
Fungi would be comparable to the sporophyte in higher forms; but it must be:
clearly remembered that it is not even then proved to be homogenetic. Dr. Scott
has based a strong line of criticism of antithetic views upon these cases. He
remarks: ‘ The sudden appearance of something completely new in the life-history,
as required by the antithetic theory, has, to my mind, a certain improbability.
Ex nthilo nihil fit. We are not accustomed in natural history to see brand new
structures appearing, like morphological Melchisedeks, without father or mother.
Nature is conservative, and when a new organ is to be formed it is, as every one
knows, almost always fashioned out of some pre-existing organ. Hence I teel &
certain difficulty in accepting the doctrine of the appearance of an intercalated!
sporophyte by a kind of special creation.’

In answer to this, I state that to me the zygote, from which our hypothesis.
starts, is not ‘ nothing ;’ it is a cell with all the powers and possibilities of a com-
plete cell. Vochting, in his ‘ Organbildung,’ has fairly concluded that ‘a living
vegetative cell which is capable of growth has not a specific and unalterable
function.’ I have myself demonstrated that cells typically sporogenous may
develop as vegetative tissue, and conversely that tissues normally vegetative may
on occasions become sporogenous. We may, therefore, say generally, as recards
the sporophyte, that ‘a living cell which is capable of growth has not a specific
and unalterable function.’ This I conceive to have been the condition of the
zygote, and of its early products.

I think that the words ‘intercalation’ or ‘interpolation,’ as used by writers or
antithetic alternation, have been quite misunderstood. I have contemplated no
sudden development—indeed, on the first page of my ‘Studies’ I have spoken of
the sporophyte as ‘gradually’ interpolated. Nor is the suggested development
something ‘completely new,’ for I specially speak of elaboration of the zygote.
This is the parent of these ‘ morphological Melchisedeks ;’ and unless segmentation
be held to be synonymous with ‘ special creation,’ I confess I do not see where the
initial difficulty arises. I agree that Nature is conservative ; what we contemplate
is the fashioning of the sporophyte by a process of which the first step is segmen-
tation, out of a pre-existing organ—the zygote. Such simple segmentation is seen
in the case of certain Algze and Fungi, and these may be taken as suggesting how
the sporophyte of the Archegoniatze may have come to be initiated. But I am not
aware of having ever suggested that these segmented zygotes of Alge are the
homogenetic prototypes of the more elaborate sporophytes.

Dr. Scott further states that ‘the reproductive cells produced by the ordinary
plant of an Gdogoniwm are identical in development, structure, behaviour, and
germination with those produced by the oospore.’ Professor Marshall Ward, also
speaking of Gidogonium, remarks ‘ the attempt to get over this by terming asexual
spores borne by the gametophyte gonidia, and reserving the term spore for bodies:
indistinguishable from these gonidia by any morphological or physiological

i i

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 10383

character whatsoever, beyond their origin from a so-called sporophyte, carries its
own refutation.’ Now, as a matter of fact, Pringsheim’s description and figures of
Cdogonium give scanty details; in most of the germinating zygotes the nuclei
themselves are not clearly shown; much less the details of behaviour of those nuclei
on germination. Klebahn has described the fusion of the sexual nuclei in Gido-
gonium, but I am not aware that he, or anyone else, has yet made detailed obser-
vations on the nuclear condition of the zoospores, or the changes which take place
in the germinating egg. Till this is done I submit that it is premature and unde-
sirable to make such assertions as those of Dr. Scott and Professor Ward. We
now know that important nuclear changes do take place on the germination of the
zygotes of certain Algz and Fungi. These changes are connected with a division
of the nuclei into four, which is the number of the zoospores usually produced
on germination in Gdogonium; the details may differ, but in the zygotes of Clos-
tertunt and Cosmarium, and in the formation of the auxospores of Rhopalodia,
Klebahn has demonstrated this division into four; also Chmielewsky has described
a similar production of four nuclei in the germinating zygotes of Spirogyra.
When it is further stated that in some of these cases there is good reason to think
that a reduction of chromosomes is connected with the division into four, just as.
a reduction is now known to accompany the tetrad division in Archegoniate and
Phanerogamic plants, it is plain that such cases as that of Gidogonium ought not
to be assumed to support an homologous view without any fresh observation of
the facts.

With the whole question of alternation, the nuclear details and differences in
number of the chromosomes on division are now intimately bound up. Though
the observations are still few, so far as they go they are consistent with the
generalisation first stated by Overton, and elaborated by Strasburger as regards the
Archegoniate and Phanerogamic plants. It has now been seen in cases drawn
from various groups that the cells of the gametophyte show a certain number (7)
of chromosomes, while those of the sporophyte show on nuclear division double that
number (2n) of chromosomes. Since Section K has had the advantage of a state-
ment on this subject from Professor Strasburger himself at Oxford, and as Dr.
Scott also discussed the matter at Liverpool, I need not enlarge. I shall only
remind you that Strasburger took up the position that the number of chromosomes
which appears in each sexual nucleus is that original number which the ancestors
possessed in a pre-sexual period ; while the reduction of the double number which
results from sexual fusion is, in his opinion, to be regarded as an atavistic process.
As far as investigation has yet gone, I see nothing to prevent the acceptance of
this as a provisional theory.

It is now well known, however, from the observations of Farmer and of
Strasburger, that the nuclear conditions of Fucus are peculiar; that the reduction
only takes place on the formation of the sexual organs themselves, and that the
Fucus plant, like a sporophyte in the Archegoniate series, has the double number
of chromosomes. At first sight this might appear to be a fatal difficulty, arid
Dr. Scott, attributing to the adherents of the antithetic theory views from which
I personally dissent, has landed them in a seeming reductio ad absurdum. He
himself does ‘not think we are as yet in a position to draw any morphological con-
clusions from these minute differences, interesting as they are.’ But we need not
accept either of these extreme positions, if only a certain elasticity of theory be
maintained, which should come naturally to adherents of polyphyletic develop-
ment. I think the difficulty will chiefly be felt by those who, like some of the
earlier writers on alternation, attempt to reduce all plants which show sexuality
to one stiff scheme; this has been found to fail in the case of alternation, and a
healthy recognition of various types of alternation has been the consequence. So
in the matter of chromosomes, and of the position which the event of reduction
holds in the life-cycle; difficulties such as this in Fucus may be anticipated, if we
assume that all plants will conform to one plan. But Strasburger has not con-
sidered it necessary to cast aside the nuclear details as a basis for morphological
conclusions, because all plants investigated do not fall in with a preconceived
scheme. On grounds of comparison of behaviour of the nuclei before and after

1034 REPORT—1898.

conjugation in Closterzum, Cosmarium, Spirogyra, in certain Diatoms, and finally in
Actinophrys, he has arrived at the conclusion ‘that a shifting (Verschiebung) of
the time of division into four, together with reduction, is possible in the history
of development of organisms.’ It will doubtless be necessary later to put a precise
meaning upon the word ‘ Verschiebung,’ and to define how far in given cases it is
to be understood as an actual shifting of the event within one line of descent, how
far it merely expresses an initial difference maintained, or it may be, extended,
in different lines. Meanwhile, those who accept Professor Strasburger’s position
will see that while in various evolutionary sequences the reduction may take place
at different points in the cycle, still it may have settled down to a fixed and
constant position in any one sequence; that I conceive to have been the case for
the Archegoniate series. The validity of this conclusion does not seem to me to
be affected by the diverse state of things seen in so far removed a sequence as that
of the brown Alge.

Here a brief reference must be made to the very beautiful results of Wager
on the changes in the zygote of Cystopus candidus, which have been verified and
extended by Berlese. Wager states that in this fungus the process of fertilisation
does not differ in any essential particular from the process as it takes place in
Angiosperms. On the division of the fusion-nucleus of the zygote the number of
the chromosomes present before division appears to be considerably in excess of
the number observed in the nuclei of the oogonium. ‘ By counting as carefully as
possible 20 to 24 or even more appear to be present, and the impression is pro-
duced that the number is certainly much larger than that observed in the
oogonium.’ Divisions of the nucleus then follow to form 4, 8, 16, and finally 32,
in which condition a period of rest ensues; and, finally, it appears that a division
of each into four follows, to form the nuclei of four spores. Wager believes the
reduction to take place at this last division, and Berlese has established a strong
probability that such a reduction actually does take place. Plainly these obser-
vations are not final or conclusive, and, even if they were, the strict homogeny of
this fruit-body with a rudimentary sporophyte of a green plant would not be
proved. It must, however, rank at least as an important parallel case, illustrating
how the reduction may be effected in a distinct line of descent.

We see, then, that in green Algw such as Cidogonium, Spheroplea, and
Coleochete certain divisions follow fertilisation, but we are not yet in possession
of the nuclear details. I prefer, therefore, to suspend judgment as to the nature
of those divisions; but in view of the peculiar behaviour already seen in other
zygotes it may be distinctly anticipated that some form of reduction will be
demonstrated at that stage. If that be shown then we shall be right in recognis-
ing in these small cell-bodies the rudimentary correlative of a sporophyte—the sort
of beginning from which a neutral generation may have sprung in Jand-living
plants. We cannot go farther than this as regards the green Algz until we are
in possession of the facts. There is no greater desideratum in morphology at
the present moment than a detailed knowledge of the germination of zygotes such
as that of Gidogonium.

Here I may remark that the admirable observations of Professor Klebs, whom
the Section will welcome as a distinguished guest, do not appear to me to touch
this question. His very varied and convincing experiments show in a number of
Algee and Fungi that, as regards the succession of vegetative and sexual modes of
propagation, the experimenter has a very complete control. I do not find, how-
ever, any observations of his which touch the behaviour of germinating zygotes of
green Algee as regards details of segmentation. 1 do not mention this as in the
least impairing the brilliancy of Professor Klebs’s work, but because Professor
Ward has brought Klebs’s results to bear upon the discussion on antithetic alterna-
tion in a manner which I do not think that the facts will support.

Il. Bryophyta.
Turning now to the Bryophytes, these plants stand at the moment in a4 some-

what discredited position. We have been warned by Dr. Scott that ‘ there is no
reason to believe that the Bryophyta, as we know them, were the precursors of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1035

the Vascular Cryptogams at all,’ and that ‘there is no appreciable resemblance
between the fruit of any of the Bryophyta and the plant of any Vascular Crypto-
gam,’ and the suggestion has been thrown out afresh that they may really be
‘degenerate descendants of higher forms.’

In view of statements such as these it may be well to examine the Bryophyta
quite separately, without reference to Vascular Plants at all, and see what are their
main bearings on theories of alternation. And if the Bryophytes were the only
Archegoniate Plants in the world, I think the case for their origin by a progressive
antithetic alternation would be an uncommonly strong one; the points which are
especially noteworthy are: (1) The readiness with which they may be arranged in
natural sequences which illustrate increasing vegetative complexity of the sporo-
phyte as a consequence of progressive sterilisation ; (2) the nuclear details, which
are as yet known, however, in only few cases; (3) the constancy of the two
alternating phases, the relations of which are very seldom disturbed by apospory,
and never, to my knowledge, by apogamy.

The first of these matters has been dealt with at length in my ‘Studies.’ It is,
of course, possible for any one to read such sequences as are there mentioned in
reverse order, and to uphold a theory of simplification; but this must be shown
to be in accordance with probability. Now it appears to me that the general
probability in the case of the Bryophytes is against simplification, for the larger the
number of spores which can be matured the greater the probability of survival ;
even in cases where, as in Burbaumia and Diphyscium, there is an exiguous, and
probably reduced Moss-plant, the sporogonium is not of a reduced type, but, on
the contrary, unusually large. It seems to my mind much more probable that the
Bryophytes as a whole illustrate a course of progressive complexity. A comparison
of anatomical details frequently suggests a progressive sterilisation, a process which
we see demonstrated both in Pteridophytes and Phanerogams, where actual con-
version of potentially sporogenous tissue into temporary or permanent vegetative
tissue does occur. When it is added that the nuclear evidence, scanty though it
still is, shows the sporophyte with a double number of chromosomes, and the
reduction taking place on the tetrad division of the spores, the comparison with
the segmented zygotes of Alezw and Fungi above mentioned seems inevitable. The
position of those who hoid views of antithetic alternation will, therefore, be that
the simple sporogonium was produced as a post-sexual growth, The starting-point
was probably some such multicellular body as we see nowadays in certain Algee and
Fungi resulting from division of the zygote, but not necessarily homogenetic with
any such body that we know now living. The land-habit imposed a restriction on
fertilisation, and an alternative method of increase in numbers was an advantage.
The multicellular body resulting from division of the zygote provided the means
for this; the cells developed separately as dry, dusty spores. As the number of
divisions increased, the powers of the plant to nourish, protect, and disseminate the
spores became the measure of the number produced. Hence followed the elabora-
tion of the nourishing and disseminating mechanism, which has involved a divert-
ing of some cells from their first office of spore-production, the start being, perhaps,
made in a manner similar to the formation of the peridium in the Uredinew. To
my mind—taking the Bryophyta alone—there is an inherent probability in all
this which far counterbalances any of the obstacles which have been raised
against it.

The greatest obstacle is the fact of apospory in Mosses, This departure from
the usual alternation will be more generally discussed in relation to the Ferns, where
it is more frequent. Besides its being artificially induced in Mosses by special
treatment, it appears also to have been noted by Ugo Brizi in Nature, in the case
of atrophied capsules of Funaria, which had buried themselves in the soil. The
essential point is the production of the sexual generation by direct vegetative
growth from the neutral. This would appear to involve a reduction of chromo-
somes, but Pringsheim’s drawings show nothing analogous to the usual process of
tetrad division to form the spores; the reduction, if it occurs, must be effected in
some other way.

A theoretical suggestion on this point will be made later. Meanwhile let us

1036 REPORT—1898.

estimate its probable importance as regards the Bryophyta. It cannot fail to
strike the observer how uniform is the alternation in these plants; there are, I
believe, no recorded cases of deviation from the normal alternation in Liverworts.
I know of only a single case of apospory among Mosses taken in the open, and
then in atrophied capsules; apospory, when induced, follows such extreme
treatment as chopping the sporogonium into pieces. And it is not as if the
Mosses and Liverworts had escaped detailed observation; hardly any group of
plants has been more carefully examined by competent observers. Deviations
from strict alternation then are rare, and appear under physiological stress.
This great group, which includes the simplest sporophytes among Archegoniate
plants, is also singularly constant in its alternation. I think this is to be
connected with the permanently dependent condition of the sporophyte; its
equable physiological condition, nursed and protected by the Moss plant, finds its
morphological expression in its comparative uniformity. Conversely, the inde-
pendent position of the sporophyte in Ferns, and its exposure to varied conditions,
may have elicited more freely in them unusual developments.

Til. Abnormalities.

And now I may pass to my third point, and discuss more generally the argu-
ment from abnormalities. I have no wish to prejudge the question by the use of
this term as applied to apogamy and apospory, or in any way to detract from their
morphological importance—I merely intend to express that they are departures
from that order of events which is the most frequent in Archegoniate plants at
large, and I particularly wish to point out that while such irregular developments
are now shown to be frequent in Ferns, they are exceedingly rare in Bryophytes,
and are not, I believe, hitherto recorded for Lycopodinez or Equisetinee.

While direct vegetative transitions from one generation to the other may appear
asa primd facie support of an homologous origin of the two generations, I must
protest against their being used, as they have been, as evidence against an anti-
thetic view. It has been said that the facility with which these transitions
from one generation to another in Ferns take place ‘shows that there is no
such hard and fast distinction between the generations as the antithetic theory
would appear to demand.’ Why should it demand a hard and fast distinction P
For my own part, I had already described apogamy and apospory as occurring in the
same individual before I wrote on alternation. The presumption seems to be
that a distinct course of evolution must have imposed ‘hard and fast’ limits upon
the potentialities of the parts evolved. But we ought to remember how the root,
whether in Phanerogams or Ferns, has doubtless had a long course of evolution
as a member distinct from the shoot ; and yet we see it bearing adventitious buds
upon it, as in the Rosaceze, Poplar or Elm; or even transformed at its apex into
a shoot, as in Platycertum or Anthurium. Such cases as these, though not exact
parallels, should suffice to show that hard and fast lines are not to be anticipated
as a consequence of a distinct course of evolution.

There is another kindred, though almost converse, proposition which has been
advanced by Pringsheim. He made his experiments on Moss fruits, ‘in the hope
that he would succeed in producing protonema from the subdivided seta of the
Mosses, and thus prove the morphological agreement of seta and Moss-stem.’ The
point here appears to be that parts which are capable of producing similar growths
are in ‘morphological agreement.’ I cannot assent to this proposition. In the
case of the roots above quoted, the production of buds upon them, or the conver-
sion of their apices into shoots, does not prove their ‘morphological agreement”
with shoots upon which such developments are common.

By those who use such arguments it is to be borne in mind that the two
generations, however distinct in their evolution, are still merely stages in the life-
history of one and the same organism. The hereditary qualities of the race as a
whole must be transmitted through the successive generations. It may be @
question how far, and under what’ conditions, its various potentialities come into
evidence, as, for instance, in the formation of an apogamous sporophyte, or of an

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1037

aposporous protonema: but that some such potentialities are there is in no way
inconsistent with the antithetic theory.

I have above pointed out how morphology has recently passed to an experi-
mental stage, and I am glad to say that by means of the cultures of Dr. Lang and
others we are beginning to gain an insight into the circumstances which lead to
these phenomena. In certain Ferns direct apogamy occurs; that is, ‘the imme-
diate production of vegetative buds by prothalli which are usually incapable of
being fertilised ;’ the origin of this is still obscure. But. apogamy may also be
induced in various other species. Dr. Lang states that ‘the causes which appeared
to induce apogamy in these prothalli were, the prevention of contact with fluid
water, which rendered fertilisation impossible, and the exposure to direct sunlight.
Possibly the temperature had some effect.’ It is further to be noted that in every
case of induced apogamy ‘normal embryos were produced when conditions per-
mitted fertilisation.’ Now the conditions of prevention of fertilisation, exposure
to light, and possibly also a high temperature, all lead to a plethoric state, which
we may thus recognise as a precursor of induced apogamy, possibly also of apogamy
at large.

On the other hand, the circumstances which precede or accompany apospory
are commoniy those of deficient nutrition. In the case of Ugo Brizi’s Funaria, it
is mentioned that the capsules were atrophied and buried in the soil, where they
could not obtain nourishment by their own assimilation. In the induced apospory
of Stahl and Pringsheim the growths appear upon parts of the chopped-up
seta, isolated from their usual sources of supply. Among Ferns, the conditions
of nutrition which precede apospory have not been noted in all cases; but the
following facts are interesting. Athyrium Filix-foemina vay. clarissima is a pale
chlorotic Fern with exiguous leafage, while the more or less complete arrest of the
sporangia is a concomitant of apospory. In Polystichum Angulare var. pulcherri-
mum there is no obvious disturbance of the vegetative organs, but I have specially
noted the sporal arrest, which, in the specimens examined by me, appeared to be
complete. This is, then, a concomitant of apospory, though it may be uncertain
how far there is a causal connection. In the case of apospory in Pteris aquilina,
reported by Farlow, there is.an irregular diminution of leaf-area in the pinnules
which show apospory; this is accompanied by various stages of abortion of the
sporangia, though some fully-matured spores were found. Here, as also in
Polystichum angulare, the tips are specially affected. Farlow remarks, ‘the
sporangia became more and more irregular the nearer they were to the tip.’ In
the case of Scolopendrium vulgare, the plants which showed apospory at so
peculiarly early a stage had been raised by Mr. Lowe from prothalli which had
been repeatedly divided, a process calculated to affect the physiological condition.
The aposporous plants of Zrichomanes alatum, pyxidiferum, and Kaulfussit, were
all cultivated under artificial conditions, and are characteristically shade-loving
plants, a habit which must affect their nutrition. Perhaps the most interesting
case, however, is that described by Atkinson in Onoclea. In plants from which,
by removal of the foliage leaves, the sporophylls had been induced to change their
character and develop as foliage leaves, the sori were arrested. ‘ When the leaf
has lost so much of its reproductive function that the sporangia are becoming rare
or rudimentary in the sorus, apospory frequently occurs, and the placenta develops
among the rudimentary sporangia prothalloid growths.’ Here is, again, a case of
deficient nutrition ; the assimilating leaves, after formation, but before they could
have carried their functions far, were removed. The plant makes an effort to
supply their place at the expense of spore-production ; arrest of sori and sporangia
is the result, accompanied by cases of the direct vegetative transition to the
prothallus. From these examples we see that deficient, or, at least, disturbed
nutrition is frequently, perhaps always, a concomitant of apospory. Thus there is
some countenance for the view that apospory and apogamy follow on converse
conditions of nutrition.

We may next inquire how these converse conditions may lead to the changes
in question ; and especially the state of the nuclei ought to be considered. Owing
to practical difficulties of observation the behaviour of the nuclei in apogamy

1038 REPORT—1898,

and apospory hes not been directly followed. But if the nuclear difference
between the two generations be as it is believed, nuclear changes will be closely
connected with these vegetative transitions. What could appear more natural
than that apogamy, which presumably involves a doubling of the chromosomes,
should follow a condition of plethora, and that apospory, which presumably
involves a halving of the chromosomes, should follow deficient nutrition P

One further fact in either case appears to me to be specially noteworthy, that
the changes are not confined to a single cell. The directly apogamous bud of
Nephrodium Filix mas may perhaps be referable to a single cell, but Dr. Lang
shows by numerous examples that the transition from characteristic tissue of the
gametophyte to that of the sporophyte may arise at various points, and involve
considerable tracts of tissue. Similarly, I have shown in the case of apospory
that the change may affect not one cell only, but cell-groups at various and dis-
tinct points on the same individual. It would seem that there is a widespread
disposition of the tissues to undergo the change.

For my own part, I think the usual attitude on the chromosome question has
been too absolute and arithmetical. Evidence is accumulating from various sources
that the usual numbers are not strictly maintained ; it is known that in vegetative
cells there are often considerable differences of the number of chromosomes
from those in the sexual cells of the same plant, while observers have noted
the irregularities in the divisions of the pollen-mother-cells in such plants as
Hemerocallis and Tradescantia. If there be any causal connection between the
number of chromosomes and the morphological character of the sporophyte and
gametophyte, irregularities such as these at least countenance the idea of nuclear
instability being possible ; it will be a question for special treatment and investi-
gation how far nuclear instability is connected with disturbed nutrition. But
into the mechanism of the presumable nuclear change, and the question whether
it be sudden or gradual, we cannot enter with any more than a speculative
interest, in the absence of direct observations. Whatever the nuclear details may
be, I regard it as a matter of very great importance to recognise that special condi-
tions of nutrition commonly accompany, if indeed they do not actually determine,
those changes which we term apospory and apogamy. But the story of the past
is not simply a matter of conditions of nutrition, as we see them now influencing
Archegoniate plants in their present highly specialised state. ‘The real question is
a purely historical one, How did the present state of things come about ?

The following considerations influence me in forming an opinion as to the real
place of apospory and apogamy in the history of the alternating generations :—

I. The Bryophytes show remarkable uniformity of alternation: irregularities
are few; apogamy is not recorded; apospory appears rarely, as a physiological
refuge for the destitute plant. This uniformity goes along with the protected and
dependent condition of the sporophyte. All Pteridophytes have their embryos
protected while young, and this seems to have been their primitive condition,
The true lesson of the Bryophyta, which include the simplest living Archegoniates,
seems thus to be that uniformity of alternation goes with a simple structure, and
a protected or dependent condition of the sporophyte; and this we have reason to
believe was the condition of the simpler Archegoniate fruits.

II. The distribution of apogamy and apospory among Archegoniates at large is
very irrecular; the Leptosporangiate Ferns are the head-quarters; but they are a
peculiarly specialised phylum, with free sporophyte, exposed when mature, though
protected while young. They are adapted to special conditions and show a
ereater plasticity of development than any other Pteridophytes. The Ferns are
subject to other abnormalities than apospory and apogamy. The root may de-
velop directly into a shoot, or the apex of the leaf into a bud. I think it has been
too readily held that the Ferns occupy a special place as a key to the morpho-
logical problem. ‘We should bear in mind how really isolated they are; they are
essentially an extreme, even an extravagant type; they show the largest sporo-
phylls in the whole vegetable kingdom, with the largest numerical output of
spores from each. Many are specialised in accordance with extreme conditions of
shade and moisture. These considerations should temper our view of them, not
only as material for normal comparison, but also as exponents of abnormality.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1039

III. The fact that in cases of induced apogamy in Ferns archegonia are first
produced clearly shows that in these cases the first intention of the plant is
towards a normal production of embryos, while apogamy takes its place as a sub-
stitutionary growth. It may remain an open question how far direct apogamy
will bear a similar interpretation.

IV. The character of the aposporous and apogamous growths is very anomalous ;
their position is not definite ; aposporous growths may arise from the sorus and
sporangia, or from the most varied points on the margin or surface of the leaf.
With regard to apogamy in Ferns, it appears, as the result of a large number of
observations, that though there is an average normal of position, still any one part
of the sporophyte—stem, leaf, ramentum, root, sporangium, or even tracheid—may
arise, independently of others, from the prothallus. Single sporangia, or groups
of them, may appear without vegetative organs of the sporophyte; leaves without
other parts; in one case, I believe, as many as ten roots have been seen without
any other members of the sporophyte! The close similarity of the parts thus
irregularly placed to those formed in regular sequence in the normal plant should
be a warning of their abnormality. I cannot see in them any suggestion of a
primitive state. Dr. Lang tells me that these exceptional developments form only
a small proportion of the individuals in any one culture ; still they are there, and
those who hold that apogamous developments are a suitable basis for morphological
argument must not pick and choose those cases which suit their views, but must
take even the most extravagant into careful estimation. My own view is that
these anomalous growths are not a safe guide to past history. But looked upon
as the result of a recently acquired transition from one generation already estab-
lished to the other, following nuclear changes, in the one case of reduction after
insufficient nutrition, in the other of doubling of the chromosomes following on
plethora, apospory and apogamy are at least intelligible. We shall understand
how the transition may take place at one point or at many, while the irregularity
of the parts produced offers no morphological difficulty ; it is rather what might
have been anticipated if the transition were a ready consequence of the conditions
we have noted.

Lastly, a word on Dr. Scott’s utilitarian argument. He remarks: ‘ A mode of
growth which affords a perfectly efficient means of abundant propagation cannot,
I think, be dismissed as merely teratological.’ We must be clear that utility is no
certain evidence of antiquity. As refuges for the physiologically destitute,
apogamy and apospory may play an important part mow, and in so far are not to
be dismissed as mere freaks of Nature. But in my view they would rank, as
regards utility pure and simple, with the formation of adventitious buds on the
root-system of a Poplar that has been felled; or with the bulbils which replace
the flowers in so many mountain species; neither these, nor, I think, aposporous
or apogamous growths, throw any direct light upon the story of descent.

To sum up, then, not only do I find that the facts in our possession, including
the wildest anomalies, are consistent with an antithetic theory, but a comparison
of normal forms seems to me to support the opinion that the sporophyte has
appeared as the result of gradual elaboration from the zygote, a fresh phase having
been thus gradually intercalated in the course of evolution. This idea, first clearly
stated by Celakovsky in 1868, was developed by him in subsequent writings. I
endeayoured to place it on a footing of adaptation to external conditions in 1890;
and in 1897 we find Strasburger restating the position in terms almost identical with
my own, but upon a basis of nuclear detail which had not been dreamed of when the
view was first propounded. Dr. Scott has enthusiastically appreciated the double
verification of the forecasts of Professor Pringsheim ; I think that the way in which
the antithetic theory is found to work in with the nuclear details recently discovered
appeals quite as strongly to my mind.

In the course of this discussion I have not been anxious to point out such
difficulties as beset the homologous view; all I have attempted here has been
to set aside some of the difficulties which haye been suggested in opposition to
= antithetic view, and to show that the latter theory will adequately cover the

acts.

Returning now to our general inquiry on homology, we see that on” the

1040 REPORT—1898.

antithetic view the two generations are not homogenetic; but they may be in a
high degree homoplastic, and this homoplasy may be impressed upon the two
generations, even in the same species, as in some Lycopods. I have never felt the
cogency of the fact that the gametophyte of Z. cernwum is somewhat similar in
outline to the young sporophyte. Both generations are exposed to similar circum-
stances, and may be reasonably expected to have reacted alike. Moreover, the
similarity of form of the ‘leaves’ of prothallus and plant is but slight, and is not
maintained in allied species. Their arrangement is variable. Between them also lies
the essential structural difference, so widespread among Archegoniate plants, that in
the sporophyte stomata and intercellular spaces are present, in the gametophyte
they are absent. These are just such differences as point to homoplastic develop-
ment. More commonly, however, the homoplastic development is only seen in
distinct organisms, and in this sense we shall rank the leaf of the Moss as the
homoplast, but not the homogene, of the leaf of a Lycopod or of a Fern.

THEORY OF THE STROBILUS.

Some years ago I submitted to the Section a theory of the strobilus in
Archegoniate plants. Comparisons were drawn between Pteridophytes and
Bryophytes, and it was suggested that the origin of the strobilus of the former
was ‘from a body of the nature of a sporogonial head’ I specially pointed
out at the time that my object was not a mere hunt after homologies, but to
obtain some reasonable view of the methods of advance in Archegoniate plants.
I wish to lay special stress upon this, for some appear to think that by denying an
homology which I have not been at pains to maintain, they invalidate this search
after the methods of advance. The Bryophytes as we now see them are our best
guides in the search after these methods, even though they may not have been in
the direct line of descent of Vascular Plants. As regards the comparison of the
strobilus with a sporogonial head, I wish to make it clear that a Moss sporogonium
is not specially indicated. The expression used has been ‘the origin of the
strobilus from a body of the nature of a sporogonial head ’—that is simply a part
of the sporophyte which bears spores internally as distinct from a lower vegetative
region. We see in more than one sequence of Bryophytes how in a sporogonial
head, as thus defined, the spore-production becomes restricted in extent, and
relegated towards a superficial position by the formation of a central sterile mass.
I am ready to join Dr. Scott in his confession of inability to find anything like
an intermediate form between the spore-bearing plant of the Pteridophyta and
the spore-bearing fruit of the Bryophyta, and to agree that at the best there is
nothing more than a remote parallelism not suggestive of affinity ; but none the
less I think we should continue to search among the Bryophyta for suggestions as
to the methods of advance, and to have confidence in trausferring these ideas across
the gulf, for I believe this to be both a reasonable and a promising method of study.

DoRrsIVENTRALITY.

Interesting questions arise in connection with dorsiventral structure. In
the Equisetineze, and almost all Lycopodinez, the strobilus is of the radiate type,
therein corresponding to the radial structure of typical sporogonia, While
certain Ferns are of the radiate type, others are conspicuously dorsiventral, even
from their earliest embryonic state. Dorsiventral structure also appears in the
vegetative region, and sometimes, though rarely, in the strobilus of Selaginella.
Professor Goebel, in a chapter of his ‘Organographie,’ the publication of which may
be recognised as the leading event in the morphological studies of the year, discusses
the origin of the dorsiventral state in a number of examples, and his results have
a most interesting bearing on our theory of the strobilus.

He shows in the case of Vaccinium Myrtillus how the first shoot of the seedling
is orthotropic and radial; the lateral shoots, formed after the apical growth of this
is arrested, are also orthotropic, but the lateral shoots of higher order become
plagiotropic with leaves in two lateral rows, He points out the intermediate steps

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION kK, ’ 1041

from one condition to the other, and how finally the growing point itself is influ-
enced by the external agency (apparently light), which leads to a change of the
leaf-arrangement. ‘This seems to be the case in many other Phanerogamic plants.

A particularly interesting account is also given of similar changes in Selaginedla.
Some eight species are orthotropic, radial, and isophyllous. 8. sanguinolenta shows
a direct response to external conditions, being upright and isophyllous in bright
and dry situations, plagiotropic and anisophyllous in damp and shady situations.
The bulk of the genus are, however, either plagiotropic and anisophyllous through-
out, or some may have an early orthotropic stage. But he concludes that even in
‘habitually ’ anisophyllous Selaginedlas we have to do with an adaptive character,
induced probably by light.

We see then good evidence that in certain cases the dorsiventral shoot is a
result of adaptation, and the radial probably the primitive. Was this always so?
We need not discuss the case of the gametophyte, as the problem there is even
more varied and difficult, and does not at the moment engage our attention.
But the question whether in the sporophyte the radial was in all cases the primi-
tive type is clearly related to our theory of the strobilus. The sporogonia of
Bryophytes are, with few exceptions, orthotropic, and almost uniformly radial;
exceptions such as Diphyscium and Buxbaumia have been shown to have an inter-
esting relation to the incidence of light, and are readily recognised as derivative.
The distinctively strobiloid Pteridophytes mostly maintain this radial structure ;
this may be so both in strobilus and vegetative organs, as in Eguisetum, Isoetes,
in most species of Lycopodium, and in some Selaginellas; or the vegetative
region may be dorsiventral, and the strobilus return to the radial type, as in
some species of Lycopodium and most Selaginellas ; but in some Selaginellas even
the strobilus may be dorsiventral.

In the Ferns the case is less obvious; the large size of the leaves, combined
often with a dorsiventral structure of the shoot, makes a comparison with a radial
strobilus less easy. Goebel has pointed out that in many dorsiventral Ferns
the dorsiventrality is already defined in the punctum vegetationis, and does not de-
pend upon a subsequent shifting of the parts. But it should be remembered how
many Ferns are orthotropic and radial; that almost all the large genera include
species with simple unbranched leaves, Further, the series of the Ophioglossacez,
possibly a distinct phylum from the true Ferns, may be held to illustrate a progres-
sive elaboration of the leaf, from smaller-leaved forms which are orthotropic and
radial, to larger-leaved forms, which are sometimes orthotropic and radial (Botry-
chium), sometimes plagiotropic, and dorsiventral (Helminthostachys). It is not, I
think, improbable that these, and also the true Ferns, are referable in origin to an
orthotropic strobiloid type, with radial structure. This opinion was in substance
suggested in 1894 at Oxford ; these recent observations of Goebel on the deriva-
tive nature of dorsiventral shoots strengthen the position then taken up, while
they supply us with fresh examples of homoplastic development.

CoNncLUSION.

This discussion was entered on with a view to finding whither phylogeny as a
basis of morphology would lead us. However unprepared we may be to pursue it
with certainty into detail, or to apply a terminology to the sequences which we re-
cognise, we must, I think, accept phylogeny as the natural basis for morphology. I
do not think that any middle course between this and an artificial system is possible
orreasonable. But here we launch ourselves upon a sea of uncertainties on which
we must keep our course with care. Following it, we think we espy certain great
movements in Nature. We may recognise what we believe to be a true evolutionary
sequence, but who is to say whether it is a progressive or a retrograde sequence ?
It may even be one divergent from some middle point. Our best friend may read the
Sequence in opposite order to ourselves and arrive at a diametrically opposite con~
clusion. There is no finality to this judging of probabilities, a fact which should
be alwavs before the mind, especially in the warmer moments of discussion.

It is interesting to trace the parallel between the progress of classification of

1898. 3x

1042 REPORT—1898.

plants as a whole, and that of the classification of their parts. In each case the
earlier systems were artificial, We may compare the Linnean system of taxonomy
with the Hofmeisterian organography: in both the rigid application of a precon-
ceived method placed incongruous things in juxtaposition, in each case a widening
of the basis of the classification has resulted in a redistribution on more natural
lines. The present ideal of taxonomy is the same as that of the phylogenetic
organography, viz. to group according to descent. The limitations are alike:
systematists and morphologists both find their greatest difficulty in the incom-
pleteness of the record, and the frequent isolation of the things to be classified.

But without following the obvious parallel further, we may now briefly review
our position as regards organography, and the following categories are to be
recognised, though they graduate almost imperceptibly into one another :—

Homogeny.—(a) Repetition of the individual part in successive generations,
with the same number and position. This is exemplified by the cotyledons, the
foot, and first root.

(b) Essential correspondence of parts varying in number and position, but
corresponding in character and development, produced in a regular sequence ; e.g.
most cases of continued embryology.

(c) Transferred position of parts, similar in origin and structure to those pro-
duced in regular sequence ; e.g. roots, adventitious buds, sori of Aspidiwm anomalum,
aposporous and apogamous growths, many monstrosities; these we may believe
to result from a transfer of inherited developmental capability.

Homoplasy.—This may be recognised with varying degrees of probability ;
starting from cases where the question of community of descent is open (as with
nearer circles of affinity), and proceeding to those in which distinct evolution is
virtually certain. It remains for future investigation to clear up doubtful points.
Meanwhile, taking the case of leaves for the purpose of illustration, we may con-
template the following possibilities :

(a) A possible origin of two homoplastic series of leaves in the same plant,
and the same generation (Phylloglossum). ;

(6) Two homoplastic series in the same plant, but in different generations
(Lycopodium cernuum).

(c) A possible distinct origin of homoplastic leaves in distinct phyla, but in
the same generation (sporophyte of Ferns, Lycopods, Kquiseta).

(d) A distinct origin of homoplastic leaves in distinct phyla, and distinct
generations (e.g. leaves of Bryophyta and of Pteridophyta).

Now Homology has been used in an extended sense as including many, or even
all, of these categories. It seems plain to me that this collective use of the term
homology carries no distinct evolutionary idea with it; it indicates little more
than a vague similarity ; the word will have to be either more strictly defined or
dropped. The old categories of parts based upon the place and mode of their
origin are apt to be split up if the system be checked by views as to descent.
Comparison, aided by experiment, supersedes all other methods, and the results
which follow raise the question of terminology of parts which have arisen by
parallel development.

In parts which are of secondary importance, such as stipules, pinne, the
indusium, hairs, glands, the inconstancy of their occurrence points to independent
origin by parallel development in a high degree; in parts of greater importance,
such as leaves, a parallel development may also be recognised, though in a less high
degree ; in the case of sporangia their acceptance as a category sui generis dis-
pelled the old view of their various origin from vegetative parts; but we must
remember that this does not by any means exclude a parallel development also in
them, by enlargement and septation from some simpler spore-producing body,
though this is not yet a matter of demonstration. Finally, the sexual organs
are probably homogenetic in all Archegoniate plants, but we have no proof that
sexuality arose once for all in the lower plants; the probability is rather the con-
trary. Thus we may contemplate as very general a polyphyletic origin of similar
ee by evolution along distinct lines, but resulting, it may be, in forms essentially
simuar,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1043

There are two extreme courses open to thoss who wish to convey clearly to
others such matters as these; the one is to use a separate term for each category of
parts, which can be followed as maintaining its individual or essential identity
throughout a recognised line of descent—-in fact, to make a polynomic termi-
nology of members run parallel with a polyphyletic development. The other
course is to make it clear always in the use of terms applied to parts, that they
do not convey any evolutionary meaning, and to use them only in a descriptive
sense. Perhaps the former is the ideal method, and it may be a desirable thing,
as polyphyletic origins of parts become more established, that the terminology
should be brought to reflect at least the more important conclusions arrived at.
How this may be done we leave for the future to decide, though I have indicated
a first step in the case of the leaves of Mosses and Ferns.

But, for the present, the whole matter is still so tentative that it is well to
ke content with something which falls short of the ideal, and to maintain the
usual terms, such as stem, leaf, root, hair, sporangium, &c., as simply descrip-
tive of parts which correspond as regards general features of origin, position, and
nature ; but with no reference either, on the one hand, to conformity to any ideal
plan, or, on the other, to any community by descent—in fact, we shall preserve the
original pre-Darwinian sense of these words, which was purely descriptive, and
avoid any attempt to read into them any accessory meaning.

A special interest attends those cases of transfer of inherited developmental
¢apability where a part appears with its normal characters, but in a position which
is not usual, such as the transfer of the sori of Aspidium anomalum; comparable
with these transfers on the one hand are those apogamous growths where roots,
leaves, ramenta, sporangia may arise independently out of the usual succession.
These may be compared, on the other hand, with those interpolations of extra
parts, such as the accessory stipules in the stellate Rubiacee, the extra stamens
in Rosacee, &c. We are unable as yet to say what it is which determines the
position and mode of origin of parts; I donot myself think that Sachs’s hypothesis
of ‘Stoff und Form,’ involving ideas of material differences which have not been
demonstrated, will advance the question so much as a careful following of the
details in the origin of the parts, say in some of these apogamous growths.
Here we see the plant body in a sense analysed before us; any one part may be
produced separately from any other. An elucidation of how any one of these is
initiated and determined should lead to a knowledge of the influences which act
= in the normal sequence, and determine the origin of parts in the plant body at
arge.

_ I have attempted to touch upon some of those questions in the Morphology of
Plants which specially interest us at present, and I dare say in doing so have
revealed to you some of the special weaknesses of this branch of the science. The
want of finality in this unravelling of history without documents, the ample lati-
tude for difference of opinion, according to the relative weight attached by one or
another to the same facts: these are difficulties inherent in the very nature of our
study, while to many minds they increase rather than diminish its attractions.
Nevertheless the progress of morphology in late decades has plainly been towards
a truer appreciation of how divers forms have originated, and so towards a better
recognition of affinities. Seeing that: this is clearly the main trend, we may take
heart as to the advancement of morphological knowledge. We shall not allow
ourselves to be deterred by reason of the want of finality or the deficiency of
evidence, however strongly we may feel the weight of these difficulties. We shall
rather try to make the best of such evidence as we possess, with the full confidence
that, however insoluble the problem of descent may really be, inquiry along
scientific lines will at least lead us nearer to the goal.

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1, Report on Fertilisation in Pheophycex.—See Reports, p. 729.

3x2

1044 REPORT—1898.

2. On the Form of the Protoplasmic Body in certain Floridee.
By Reeinatp W. Puiuips, J/.A., Bangor.

In Ceramium rubrum and other species a strong strand of protoplasm runs
along the axial cells from pit to pit. In this strand the nucleus is occasionally
suspended ; more often it lies over the pit at the base of the strand.

In Dasya coccinea, the branches of limited growth run out into pointed
uncorticated filaments, the cells of which are large. Across the vacuole of these
cells running from pit to pit occurs a thread of protoplasm much more delicate
than the corresponding structure in Ceramium.

In Callithamnion byssoides, threads of protoplasm radiate from a cushion lying
over the pit and end blindly on the vacuole. These threads are in incessant move-
ment, swinging over, bending on themselves, and extending or retracting. All these
phenomena point to the great physiological importance of the pit-communication
between cell and cell.

3. On Reproduction in Dictyota dichotoma. By J. Liuoyp WI .tams,
Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Botany, North Wales Univer-
sity College, Bangor.

1. Dictyota isan annual. In this country it germinates during the summer,
remains small during the winter, grows very rapidly in June, and begins to form
its reproductive cells in July.

2. The tetraspores are produced throughout the season, and all stages may be
found together on the same plant. The sexual cells, however, show a remarkable
periodicity. The formation, maturation and liberation of each crop occupies a
fortnight, the interval between two spring tides. The sori are formed during neap-
tides, and the cells are liberated during, or immediately after the highest spring-
tides.

3. When liberated the oospheres are not invested with walls. In this condition
they strongly attract the antherozoids, become fertilized, and at once start germi-
nating. The plantlets are similar to those figured by Thuret as resulting from the
germination of the tetraspores.

4. If not fertilized the eggs lose the power of attracting antherozoids, they form
walls, and, as already described by Thuret and Bornet, they germinate partheno-
genetically. After one, or a few divisions, sometimes accompanied by formation
of rhizoid rudiment, the process stops and the plantlets die.

5. ‘Towards the close of the season some sori fail to mature within the usual
period, and the crops become less regular; the same effect is brought about during
very cloudy and cold summers,

6. The same conditions bring about sterilization of certain of the sexual cells.
Thus, patches of cells within the antheridie sori fail to divide. Cells at the margins
of female sori remain barren, so that the usually borderless sori acquire partial, or
even complete borders.

7. There are strong reasons for concluding that the factor which determines the
maturation and liberation of the sexual cells, and the fertilization of the oospheres,
is the amount of the illumination to which the plants are subjected.

vi The cytology of the reproductive cells will be described as far as it has been
made out.

4. On the Origin of Railway-bank Vegetation. By 8S. T. Dunn.

The surface of embankments and cuttings on English railways becomes covered,
after some years, with the same vegetation as can be found on any grassy slope in
their neighbourhood. Mixed with this, however, may usually be seen a certain
number of species of distant origin. The bare earth of the new embankment gets
sown with wind-blown seeds, both cuttings and embankments being likely to
arrest their flight and to afford a footing to even those which cannot compete suc-
cessfully with the native species. Seeds, also, which were in the earth used for

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1045

making the embankments give rise to garden, corn-field, and meadow plants
characteristic of the ground broken in making the cuttings.

After traffic has been established on the line, a new source of weeds is opened.
By the continual packing, unpacking, and carriage of merchandise, station sidings
become the homes of certain weeds which are found in such places and transported
by the same means over most of the temperate world. Their seeds spread along
the line from these centres, drawn by the natural draught along the slopes in some
cases, carried on the trains in others.

From the beginning there has also been a third agency at work, the natural
encroachment of the surrounding vegetation.

On the average railway bank we iind a large proportion of native species, a few
visitors either established or constantly reinforced by traffic, and lastly an occa-
sional strageler resulting from the original composition of the bank.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

The following Papers were read :—

1. A Method of obtaining Material for Illustrating Smut in Barley.
By W.G. P. Exus, JLA., Bot. Laboratory, Cambridge.

By sowing soaked, skinned barley that had been plentifully covered with Ustilago
spores a supply of smutted barley may be ensured, and in such material it is easy
to trace out the spore formation.

Hand section of the ear when about 2 inch long showed the mycelium at the
growing points of the flower shoots, and in such sections the mycelium, at first
intercellular, could readily be found becoming intracellular and of much greater
diameter. Branches became very numerous, and in the hyphe and branches spores
were formed. Towards the central parts spore clusters were too dense for exami-
nation, but nearer the epidermis the branching and arrangement of the sporogenous
hyphz could more easily be made out ; and the teasing of the lateral flowers of
each notch of the rachis was often more successful than if the central—and only
flower of the ordinary ear—were taken. Sections were mounted in water, and
some in 1 per cent. KOH, and it is but fair to say that such treatment has failed
to show any septation of the hypha as a preliminary tospore formation. Material
for microtome sections was prepared as follows :—The leaves of a barley shoot
were stripped down soas to expose the apparently highest node, and the part an inch
or two above this was cut off; then by a series of successively lower horizontal
cuts the youngest leaves were removed until in the space they enclosed the tips of
the awns or ear were seen; then a cut was made through the node and the re-
moved ear was placed in Flemming’s or Rath’s solution for fixing, the ear thus
being a very few seconds only between plant and reagent.

If a smutted ear be removed and kept floating on water, its spores continue to
develop, and in several cases they matured first in the awn. It was by no means
uncommon, on teasing out young fruits from such an ear, to find that the spore had
germinated.

I have not yet made similar observations for Tilletia, as my bunted wheat was
less forward than my smutted barley, but I am satisfied that by this method of
working, class material for illustrating Bunt and Smut may easily be obtained.

. On a new Medullosa, from the Lower Coal-Measures of Lancashire.
By D. H. Scort, IA., Ph.D., F.RS., Hon. Keeper of the Jodrell
Laboratory, Royal Gardens, Kew.

bo

Our knowledge of the remarkable fossil stems referred to the genus Medullosa
of Cotta has hitherto been based entirely on Continental specimens, chiefly derived

1046 REPORT—1898.

from the Permian Formation, The author describes English specimens of Medut-
losa from the Lower Coal-measures at Hough Hill, in Lancashire, found by Mr.
Lomax and Mr. Wild. The specimens are thus from an horizon considerably
lower than those previously recorded. The stem is somewhat simpler in structure
than that of other Medullose, and shows very clearly that its organisation is
essentially that of a polystelic Hetcrangium. The Myelozylon petioles are found
in connection with the stem, thus affording new confirmation of the views of
Schenk, Solms-Laubach, and others as to the relation between the two supposed
enera,

: The triarch adventitious roots belonging to the Medullosa stem are also
described. The new species illustrates with great clearness the remarkable com-
bination of Filicinean and Cycadaceous characters which the Medullose present.

3. On the Alcohol-Producing Enzyme in Yeast.
By Professor J. R. Green, LAS. -

At the meeting of the Botanical Section at Toronto last year the author gaye
an account of some experiments which he had made during 1897 with a view to
confirming the work of Dr. Buchner on this subject. These experiments only
yielded a negative result. During the present year he has carried them further,
giving attention particularly to the condition of the yeast at the time of the
preparation of the extract. He finds that at the time of very active fermentation
the enzyme can be procured as Buchner has stated. The author cultivated about
2 lbs. of a very pure yeast in an incubator, and, when the growth of the yeast was
at its maximum, he rapidly dried and ground it as Buchner recommends. The
expressed liquid immediately set up evolution of CO, in a solution of cane sugar,
maintaining for several days a free pressure in a manometer affixed to the flask in
which the operation was carried out. The liquid lost weight at the same time,
and there was a coincident formation of alcohol. The gas was proved to be CO,
by leading it into baryta-water. When in a separate experiment it was absorbed
by potash the gain of weight by the latter corresponded to the loss of weight by
the fermenting liquid.

The operation was conducted in the presence of excess of chloroform to secure
the absence of bacteria and to check the development of yeast cells should a few of
them have obtained admittance to the liquid.

The enzyme agrees in an important respect with other enzymes. It is carried
down to a very considerable extent, if not completely, by the formation of an inert
precipitate in the liquid.

4. A Potato Disease. By H. Marsuatt Warp, D.Sc., F.R.S.,
Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge.

I have for some time past had occasion to recognise here and there, in various”
parts of England, a potato disease which is not due to Phytophthora, and which
has often been ascribed to bacteria. During the past two vears my attention has —
been especially directed to testing its bacterial origin, and I am convinced it is —
not due to bacteria, but to a true hyphomycetous fungus.

Without going so far as to say there is no bacterial disease of the potato, I
wish to express the conviction that the alleged cases of such lately published are
not convincing, and that a tendency exists to draw conclusions from imperfect,
evidence.

I shall show that the way into the tuber is prepared for bacteria by fungus
hyphez, and the open passages of destroyed vascular bundles afford them ample
space. The disease I have studied has appeared in a more or less epidemic form
at least twice in my experience: it was very common two years ago, and this year
has been abundant in various parts of England. In a subsequent publication I
shall show that it is common and wide-spread, and even known in some countries,
though not adequately recognised.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1047

Symptons.—The shoots turn yellow and die prematurely during the summer,
and before the tubers are anything like full. The disease starts from elow and
not from the leaves. The roots are few and poor, and soon rot away. ‘The tubers
are few, do not mature, and often rot in the ground. The leaves turn yellow and
wither on the stems, with the symptoms of premature wilting, and often remain
long hanging on the yellowing, glassy-looking, but still living stems.

In very mild cases these symptoms are not obvious, and supervene slowly, and
the case may be complicated by the co-existence of Phytophthora. In very severe
cases, on the other hand, especially in wet situations, the stems and roots may be
all rotten by the end of July, and casual observation may ascribe the damage to
Phytophthora entirely. In ordinary cases, again, it is easy to suppose the damage
due to some insect attack, or to drought.

In advanced stages of the disease the stems either dry up to brown sticks, or
putrefy on the wet ground ; very often bacteria have gained access to the tissues
at a comparatively early stage.

Microscopie Appearances.—Sections across the lower parts of the attacked stems
show one, two, or more of the vascular bundles yellowish-brown—visible even
without a lens—and the principal vessels of these contain branched, septate hyphe.
In several cases I have traced these hyphe through every internode of the stem,
into the petioles of the still hanging leaves, into the young lateral shoots, through-
out the roots and subterranean rhizomes, and up to and even just into the tubers.
In two cases I have done this in one and the same potato-plant, and so have no
longer any hesitation in ascribing the disease to this fungus, the morphological
features of which will be described in a subsequent paper. In advanced cases the
brown vessels are stopped with a yellowish gum-like substance. Tyloses are
common in the vessels of the root. Those tubers which are not attacked while
still very young, but which have already begun to fill with starch, may offer con-
siderable resistance to the invasion of the fungus; but eventually the vascular
strands diverging from the point of attachment to the rhizome exhibit the tell-
tale foxy-red or yellowish-brown colour, and in many cases the ripened tubers
are to all appearance sound, except for microscopic reddish spots just at the points
of entry of these bundles.

During the winter the stored potatoes, with the fungus thus just lurking in
them at the morphological base (the so-called heel) of the tuber, may undergo
little change to all appearance if gathered aud stored dry.

Butif wet, various kinds of rot may supervene, owing to the subsequent invasion
of various micrococci, bacteria, fungi, &c. following the lines of weakness opened
up by the fungus in question, and living as saprophytes on the stored reserves.

In some cases even apparently dry tubers may undergo a curious rot—dry-rot
—owing to the ravages of a particular bacterium or mould, perhaps more than
one, which finds sufficient moisture for its purposes.

The principal point is that the fungus Pee especially studied leads the way
for these purely saprophytic anaérobic and aérobic forms into the tuber: once in
the mature tuber, its progress is necessarily slow until the reserves move in the
spring.

During the past winter I gave to Miss Dawson, who is working at such sub-
jects in my laboratory, some of the tubers saved from plants attacked with this

_ disease, to investigate the various fungal forms lurking in the diseased tubers.
Her investigations are not yet completed, but enough has been accomplished to
convince us that after the fungus in question has opened up the way into the
tuber, all sorts of bacteria and fungi can make their way down the destroyed
vascular strands, and reappear in spring, when the tubers are replanted.

But this is not all. The evidence shows that the fungus in question, once in
the tuber, leads a dormant life during the early part of the winter, but gradually
invades the new sprouts as they slowly appear in the early spring, and that the
parasite is actually replanted by the farmer or gardener, when restocking the
ground, in his nev ‘ sets.’

If we reflect that the tuber is really a bud, there is nothing especially strange
in this phenomenon; the fungus enters the base of the bud in autumn, and takes

1048 REPORT—1898.

some months to traverse its dormant tissues during the winter and spring. A
spotted tuber may give rise to some healthy and some diseased sprouts, according
to the tracks of the fungus.

A curious phenomenon was observed in some potato-plants very badly attacked
by this disease this summer. In some of the badly diseased young shoots
quantities of beautifully developed cubical proteid crystals (crystalloids) were
observed in the parenchyma of the pith and cortex. It is due to Mr. W. G. P.
Ellis to point out that he was the first to see these in some sections he was kindly
cutting for me of this batch of specimens. On going further into the matter I find
such crystalloids have been seen by Heinricher in the shoots of a diseased potato,!
but he did not give any account of the disease itself.

I find these crystals are not uncommon in the still green bases of the petioles of
the withered leaves hanging on the diseased shoots, though they do not always
occur,

ascribe their formation to the accumulation of proteids in the leaves, while
still living and active, from which the passages of transference at the nodes of the
stem have been cut off by the fungus; just as the eventual withering of the leaves
is due to the blocking of their water-conduits when all the vessels are stopped up.

At the same time, the attempts I have made to induce the formation of these
crystalloids artificially have fuiled so far.

Neither ringing, nor ringing combined with destruction of the pith with a hot
skewer—to destroy the internal phloém—has given satisfactory results as yet,
though the leaves of healthy plants withstand this drastic procedure much better
than might be supposed.

Here again I must reserve further particulars for the fuller paper.

In conclusion, it is evident that the efforts of the potato-grower must be directed
to the selection of sound sets, and to the careful preparation of hisground. I hope
to show later that it is a fatal procedure, even with sound sprouts, to allow the
young shoots to lie in contact with raw manures, as it is dé wounds and small
rotting spots at and nearthe collar that new infections occur. Thesame arguments
apply to wet soils and situations, and the disease is particularly apt to increase
when wet and cold weather supervenes on the early growths.

5. Penicillium as a Wood-destroying Fungus.
By H. Marswatt Warp, D.Sc., 7.R.S., Professor of Botany in the
University of Cambridge.

Spores from pure cultures of penicilliwm were sown on sterilised blocks of
spruce-wood, cut in March, and were found to grow freely and develop large
crops of spores on normal conidiophores. Sections of the infected wood showed
that the hyphe of the mould entered the starch-bearing cells of the medullary
rays of the sap-wood and consumed the whole of the starch. The resin was
untouched. In culture three months old the hyphz were to be seen deep in the
substance of the wood passing from tracheide to tracheide vd the bordered pits.
Control sections, not infected and kept side by side with the above, contained
abundance of starch, and no trace of hyphe could be detected in them.

The observation appears of interest in several connections. Penicillium is one
of our commonest moulds, and undoubtedly plays a part in the reduction of planié
débris to soil-constituents ; how far it can itself initiate the destruction of true
wood, or how far it merely follows on the ravages of other fungi, bacteria, &c., is
unknown. There are strong grounds for believing that it destroys the oak of
casks, &c., but since these are impregnated with food-materials this is not very
surprising. Trabut*? has shown that penicillium will grow in solutions containing
2-9'5 per cent. of CuSO,, and other evidence exists showing how remarkably
resistant this mould is, and how little organic matter it needs for life.

1 Ber. d. deutsch. bot. Ges. 1891.
2 Bull. de la Soc. Bot. de Fr., xiii., 1895, 1.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1049

Dubois! showed that penicildium, or a closely-allied form, not only lives in
strong solutions of copper, neutralised with ammonia, but will erode metallic
copper and bronze if transplanted thereon.

Ténssen* found penicillivm living in one-tenth normal sulphuric acid solution,
and gives some interesting facts regarding the sulphur-containing oil-drops in its
protoplasm, and other statements concerning oil in this fungus occur in the works
of De Bary, Brefeld, Pfeffer, &c.

Gerard ® gives proof that pentcillium can liberate butyric acid from mono-
butyrine, and evidence that this is due to its power of forming a lipase or fat-
splitting enzyme.

Lesage* gives striking instances of the resistance to external influences shown
by the spores on germination. Not only will they germinate and live for some
time in water, and under almost anzrobic conditions, but he found them germi-
nating in 26'5 per cent. solutions of common salt ; 30 per cent. solutions were too
much for them, however. He states also that the vapour of cedar-oil, iodoform,
napthalin, camphor, and patchouli do not prevent germination; though that of
clove-oil, ether, alcohol, chloroform, and acetic acid prevent it. The maximum
for alcohol was somewhere between 4:2 and 6:2 percent. In acetic acid they
germinated in twenty-four days in solutions of 1 : 256, but failed to do so in
solutions of 1 : 64, whereas in HCl they germinated in two days in 1 : 4 solutions.

As regards temperatures, it is well known how resistant the spores are; a
striking instance of the hardships the mycelium can undergo is given by Woronin.*
He found penicillium vegetating on the melting snow, where the temperature at
night tell below 0° C.

Bourqueot ° found Invertase, Maltase, Trehalase, Emulsin, Inulase, Diastase,
and Trypsin in the allied aspergllus, and pointed out how suggestive this is in
explaining the ubiquity of this mould. Probably penicillium is equally rich in
capacity for enzyme-production.

Miyoshi’ showed that penicillivm can bore through cellulose membranes, and
no doubt similar chemotactic phenomena are concerned in the piercing of wood-
elements by the hyphe.

It certainly looks as if penicillium may be a much more active organism in
initiating and carrying on the destruction of wood than has hitherto been sup-
posed, and that it is not merely a hanger-on or follower of more powerful wood-
destroying fungi. It is also, doubtless, very independent of antiseptics.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The following Papers were read :—

1.On a Fine Specimen of the Halonial branch of a Lepidodendron allied
to L. fuliginosum (Will.). By D. H. Scorr, M.A., Ph.D., F.RS.

This specimen (of which a photograph is exhibited) was recently discovered by
Mr. Lomax at the Hough Hill Colliery. It is of large size, with the structure
perfectly preserved, and bears two series of Halonial tubercles. The main stem
resembles that of Lepidodendron fuliginosum, though not absolutely identical.
Each tubercle has its own vascular cylinder, surrounded by leaf-trace bundles,
and evidently represents a branch, which probably constituted the peduncle of a
strobilus.

1 Comp. Rend., 1890, cxi., p. 655.

2 Bot. Centr., xxxvii., 1889, p. 201.

3 Bull. de la Soe. Mycol. de Fr., xiii., 1897, p. 182.
4 Ann. des Se. Nat., Ser. 8, T. 1, 1895, p. 309.

5 Arb, d. St. Petersh. Naturf. Ver., B. xx., p. 31.

§ Bull. Soe. Mycol., 1893, p. 231.

7 Bot. Zeit., 1894, H. 1.

1050 REPORT—1898.

2, On an English Botryopteris. By D. H. Scorr, M.A., Ph.D., PRS.

Specimens are described, showing that Rachiopteris tridentata (Will. in litt.)
is the petiole of Rachiopteris hirsuta (Will.), a simple monostelic Fern-stem. It
is further shown that the plant agrees closely in structure with the peculiar group
of fossil Ferns described by M. Renault under the name of Botryopteris, and that
it should be placed in that genus.

3. On the Structure of Zygopteris. By D. H. Scorr, IZA., Ph.D., F.RS.

Undescribed specimens, from the Williamson collection, of the Fern Rachi-
opteris Grayit (Will.), which is no doubt a Zygopteris, show the anatomical strue-
ture more perfectly than any previously investigated. The stem has a very
complex organisation, though of the monostelic type; the leaves have a 2/5 phyllo-
taxis; the vascular strand of the axillary shoot is given off from the foliar bundle
a short distance above its base.

4. A Rare Fern, Matonia pectinata (R. Br.) By A. C. Sewarp, #.A.S.

An account was given of the external character, internal structure, and geological
history of Matonia pectinata (R. Br.). The material was received through the
kindness of Mr. Shelford, of the Sarawak Museum, Borneo. The structure of the
stem was described in detail and recognised as distinct from that of any known
fern. The genera Matonidium and Laccopteris were briefly described, their fronds,
sori, and distribution being compared with the external characters and geographical
range of the recent species. Mr. Seward pointed out the advisability of placing
the two living species of Matonia in a special group on account of their isolated
position among existing ferns,

5. The Prothallus of Lycopodium clavatum (Z.). By Witi1amM H. Lane,
M.B., BSc., Lecturer in Botany at Queen Margaret College, Glasgow
University.

A few prothalli of Lycopodium clavatum were found wholly imbedded in the
peaty soil underlying a patch of moss; three of them bore young plants and a
number of slightly older plants, the prothalli of which had disappeared, were
found in the same spot. The prothalli, which present a general resemblance
to those of Lycopodium annotinum,' are of considerable size, completely devoid of
chlorophyll, and fairly well provided with rhizoids, especially round the edge.
Their form is that of a thick fleshy cake, which soon becomes thrown into folds by
the unequal growth of the margin. The upper surface is concave, owing to the sides
becoming turned up at an early stage. The sexual organs are borne on the upper
surface; both antheridia and archegonia may be present at the same time. These
resemble the sexual organs of other Lycopods. Even after the young plants have
attained a length of several inches the large, almost spherical, foot can be dis-
tinguished. They are similar to those of Lycopodium annotinum; no trace of any
organ corresponding to the embryonic tubercle of Lycopodium cernuum? is visible,
and the leaves exhibit a gradual transition from simple scales to the form charac-
teristic of the species. A broad layer of tissue separated from the under surface
of the prothallus by one or two layers of cells contains an endophyte fungus, the
mode of occurrence of which suggests that it is of the nature of a mycorhiza.

1 Fankhauser, Bot. Zit. 1873, p. 1.
2 Treub, Ann. d. Jord. Buitenzorg, 4, p. 131.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1051

6. Note on the Anatomy of the Stem of Species of Lycopodium.
By C. E. Jonrs, University College, Liverpool.

Ten species of Lycopodium have been examined; among these two types may
be distinguished.

1. Type of Z. elavatum (L.). The oval stelic arrangement is marked by a con-
siderable amount of xylem, broken up into patches by bands of phloem. Centrally
these bands are strap-shaped, but at the ends of the long axes the areas of phloem
are external, and occur as curved and flattened wedges. Large cells without con-
tents, sieve-tubes, appear in the centre of the strap-shaped bands. Protophloems
and protoxylems are external, forming a continuous ring, as figured by Hofmeister;
so that, using De Bary’s terminology, the arrangement of the bundles is radial.
Pericyclar and the so-called endodermal cells occur in concentric zones, 1-3 cells
broad. The former swell up, especially in glycerine or glycerine jelly ; the latter are
generally considerably lignified. The cells of the cortex lying just external to the
endodermal cells are thickened and lignified, forming a third concentric zone
several cells deep. To this type conform ZL. alpinum (L.), L. phlegmaria (L.),
L. dendroides (?), and L, cernuwm (L.).

2. Type of L. squarrosum. The type which contrasts most markedly with the
former is found in ZL. sqguarrosum (Forst), L. dichotomum (Jacq), and L. num-
mularifolium (Blume). ‘The phloems occur as islands in the sea of xylem, or as
inserted peninsulas, The phloems are centrally built uv, with the apparent sieve-
tubes in the centre. Protoxylems are well marked, and lie externally, but proto-
phloems are not to be distinguished. Endodermal cells and pericycle are found as
in the previous type. The sclerenchymatous sheath is wanting, or very slightly
developed.

The two remaining species, L. Dalhousicanum (Spring), and L. selago (1) are,
to some degree, intermediate types. The phloem in L. Dalhousieanum shows hoth
types, strap-shaped and centric. In the branches the structure becomes simpler.
There are two narrow strips of xylem, with an intermediate strip of phloem, so
that a prominent row of sieve-tubes occupies the very centre of the stelic cylinder.
L. selago in its structure is modified on that of Z. clavatum. An interesting
feature of ZL. selago and L. squarrosum is the occurrence of root-structures running
through the stem. These consist of steles containing a crescent-shaped mass of
xylem, with protoxylems towards each tip, while the concave portion is filled up
with phloem. A characteristic sclerenchymatous sheath surrounds the stele. In
L. selago these root-structures are found even above the point where the stem
branches, but in L. sguarroswn they have fused with the central cylinder before
branching occurs.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

1. A discussion on the Alternation of Generations in Plants was
introduced by the reading of the following Papers by Mr. Lang, Professor
Klebs, and Mr. Wager.

(a) Alternation of Generations in the Archegoniate. By Wituiam H.
Lane, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer in Botany at Queen Margaret College,
Glasgow University.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

One of the most important facts in the morphology of all plants higher
than Thallophytes is the occurrence in their life history of two alternating stages,
which differ widely from each other both in structure and reproduction. Of recent
years advances in our knowledge in several distinct departments of botanicab

1052 REPORT—1898.

investigation have raised anew the question of the nature of this Alternation of
Generations. The subject has been discussed from two very different standpoints in
the Presidential Addresses to this Section of the British Association this year and at
the Liverpool meeting. These expressions of opinion by Dr. Scott and Professor
Bower render an introductory paper to this discussion in one sense superfluous,
While, however, repetition of much that has been already said is unavoidable, the
existence of such diverse views suggests a slightly different treatment of the ques-
tion, which may be useful for the purposes of the discussion. Instead of advoca-
ting either the theory of antithetic or of homologous alternation, I shall try to
present a dissection of the subject; with this object the main facts known as to
alternation of generations will be briefly discussed, and the possible interpretations
of them considered. The facts will as far as possible be kept apart from the
theoretical views to which they have given rise, and the points on which our know-
ledge is deficient will be emphasised rather than minimised.

The general facts regarding alternation of generations in archegoniate plants
can be dismissed very briefly. In all the main groups a definite alternation of
a sexual with an asexual generation is found. The latter is normally developed
from the fertilised ovum, the former from the spore. The Bryophyta and Pterido-
phyta are, however, opposed to one another in the relative complexity attained by
the two generations. The sporophyte in the Bryophyta remains dependent on the
Moss or Liverwort plant, and has as its main function the production of the spores.
It may, however, attain very considerable complexity of structure and possess a well
developed assimilation tissue. In both Hepaticee and Muscinez very simple sporo-
gonia lead on to complex ones in which the sterile tissue of the wall, foot, seta, &c.
forms a considerable proportion of the whole structure. The gametophyte, on the
other hand, is always independent, and often shows a complicated external form
with clearly differentiated stem and leaves. In the Vascular Cryptogams also the
gametophyte is always independent, but is of relatively simple form and structure.
The sporophyte, which develops from the fertilised ovum, very soon produces roots,
and attains independence by the death of the prothallus. It shows a distinction
of stem and leaf, is highly organised, and does not develop spores until after a
period of vegetative growth. While these points of difference which indicate the
great gap between the Bryophyta and Pteridophyta are borne in mind, due weight
must be given to the points of agreement. Of these, the similar structure of the
sexual organs, the fact that in both the sporophyte is at first dependent on the
gametophyte, the presence of stomata and intercellular spaces in the sporophyte,
and the similarity in the spore production may be mentioned. A consideration of
these facts by themselves indicates no view as to the mode of origin of the two
generations. At no stage do the two generations in any Archegoniate closely
resemble one another, except in the case of the young plant and the prothallus of
Lycopodium cernuum. The deviations from the normal life history, which will be
considered later, may somewhat modify this statement.

We are justified in assuming that the Bryophyta and Pteridophyta arose from
ancient Thallophytes ; the study of the life histories of the Alge and Fungi, which
exist at present, may accordingly be expected to aid in arriving at probable con-
clusions as to the origin of the alternation in archegoniate plants. It is naturally
among the green Algz that indications of this sort might be expected, nor are
they wanting, though the precise weight to be attached to them is a matter of
uncertainty. The higher Fungi and the Red and Brown Alge may for the sake of
simplicity be left on one side with the remark that in Ascomycetes and Florideze
we see a development which presents analogies with the alternation in Archegoniates.
Confining ourselves to the green Algze and the simpler Fungi we find among them
two sorts of phenomena which have been termed alternation of generations. Most
of these organisms reproduce both sexually and asexually, and sexual and asexual
individuals, resembling one another in their vegetative structure, are often found.
The same individual may, however, bear both kinds of reproductive organs, and

1 The existence of these recent statements of the problem renders reference
to the literature of the subject unnecessary.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1043

Professor Klebs has shown in a number of cases that the mode of reproduction is
largely determined by the external conditions, and can be brought under experi-
mental control. There is thus no doubt that these sexual and asexual individuals
are homologous in the full sense of the term. But there are a number of Thallo-
phytes in which another stage in the life history is found, which, by its regular
recurrence and the position it occupies in the life cycle, suggests a comparison with
the sporophyte of the simpler archegoniate plants. While in many Thallophytes
the fertilised ovum or the zygospore develops directly into an independent plant
resembling the parent, in these it first divides into a number of cells, which are
usually motile spores, but may form a small mass of tissue from the cells of which
swarm spores arise. It is sufficient to mention Gidogonium Cystopus and Coleochete
as organisms which show this clearly. In the life history of Spheroplea only
sexual individuals and the group of swarm spores, which results from division of
the oospore, alternate, independent asexual individuals not being found.

If we now consider how this second form of alternation in Thallophytes might
have come about, without for the moment extending our view to archegoniate
plants, the essential distinction of the antithetic and homologous theories will
become plain. Further, we shall here be dealing with a problem with regard to
which the work of Professor Klebs justifies the anticipation that direct evidence
will sooner or later be obtained. The main question at issue is, In what relation
does the group of spores in Gidogonium, or the small mass of tissue resulting from
the division of the fertilised ovum in Coleochete, stand to the asexual individuals
of the same species? There is some evidence that in this stage we see the repre-
sentative of an asexual individual, the vegetative body of which has become more
or less completely reduced. Thus occasionally in Gdogonium a vegetative indivi-
dual develops from the zygote; in Uothrix the zygospore develops a rhizoid, but
the contents of what appears to be a rudimentary plant are wholly devoted to the
formation of motile spores. On this view the cell mass in Coleochete would be
regarded as a reduced thallus, all the cells of which form spores asexually. The
reduced generation which proceeds from the zygote would genealogically corre-
spond to an independent asexual individual ; and just as the latter is homologous
with a sexual individual, so would the four spores in Gdogonium or the cell mass
in Coleochete be. This would be homologous alternation of generations.

But the same facts can be viewed in another light. In all these cases the
advantage to the plant in producing almost at once a number of individuals instead
of one as the result of the sexual act is obvious. The division of the ovum may
have originated as a special adaptation to this end, and not represent a reduced
first neutral generation at all. In the life history of these plants there would
then be a stage not represented in the majority of the Thallophytes, which may in
this sense be spoken of as interpolated. The cell mass of Coleochete upon this
view would not represent a less reduced neutral generation, but a more complicated
development of the interpolated stage, which is seen in its simplest form in @ido-
gonium. This stage would not correspond to, or be homologous with, the inde-
pendent asexual individuals, and leaving these out of account, only one individual,
and the result of elaboration of its zygote would be represented in the life history.
The alternation would not be homologous but antithetic.

If we now proceed to apply these two points of view to the facts of alternation
in the Archegoniate: the problem in its most general form is this: Is the sporo-
phyte in the Bryophytes and the Vascular Cryptogams to be ultimately traced
back to modification of a genealogical individual homologous with the gameto-
phyte, or is it the result of still further elaboration of an interpolated stage more
or less like that seen in Coleochete? On the antithetic theory the sporophyte is
traced increasing in complexity through a series of forms illustrated by (&dogonium,
Coleochecte, Riccia, Marchantia, Anthoceros ; and the simplest sporophytes of the
Vascular Cryptogams are regarded as having been derived from a sporogonium,
which already possessed a considerable amount of sterile tissue. If, on the other
hand, we apply the homologous theory, several alternatives present themselves.
The first, which is not widely different from the antithetic theory, is that in the
course of its descent the sporophyte of the Vascular Cryptogams has passed through

$054 REPORT—1898.

a stage resembling the Bryophyte sporogonium, but that the origin of this second
generation in the ancestral Algse was homologous. But the homologous theory
does not necessarily assume the existence of the sporogonial stage. The sporo-
phyte of the Vascular Cryptogams may have had an independent origin from that
of the Bryophyta, and have resulted from the modification of individuals, which
were never reduced to the condition of a fruit body.

As to the circumstances which led to alternation of generations, the two theories
are in essential agreement. We owe to Professor Bower the general statement,
which must serve as the starting point of any explanation, that the origin of the
alternation may be correlated with a change of habit from aquatic to sub-aerial
life. This holds whether the second generation is considered to be homologous
with the first, or to be the result of interpolation. On the latter view, which is
that elaborated by Professor Bower, the imvortance of the drier conditions of life
is sought in the prevention of repeated acts of fertilisation. It would thus have
been an advantage to the organism to produce many individuals as the result of
one sexual act, and this is seen to be effected with increasing perfection as we pass
from the simpler to the more complex Bryophyte sporogonia, and from these to the
Pteridophyta. The same change of environment may, however, have initiated the
modification of individuals, which were originally potential sexual plants, into
spore-bearing forms. We shall return to this when discussing apogamy.

We have seen that the facts of morphology do not of themselves indicate
decisively which theory is the correct one. The reasons which render one or the
other view the more probable are bound up with the more general question of the
course of descent in the vegetable kingdom. The question of the relationship
between the main groups of plants isa very complex one. All that we need do
here, however, is to recognise the existence of several alternative views, and the
bearing of these on the two theories of alternation, ‘The indications of alternation
in the Thallophytes may be first referred to. These seem closely comparable to
the simplest Liverwort sporogonia, but it has not been suggested that any direct
yelationship exists in any case. The existence of these rudimentary sporophytes
in various Green Algz, in Cystopus, and in an analogous, though distinct form in
Ascomycetes and Florideze, is indeed strongly suggestive of their independent
origin in the Thallophytes of the present day, and justifies us in considering it
probable that similar developments may have occurred in the ancestral Algal forms
from which the Archegoniates arose. But the further recognition of the possibility
that the origin of the Archegoniatee may have been polyphyletic, and in particular
that the Vascular Cryptogams may have had a line of descent from Thallophytes
perfectly distinct from that of the Bryophyta, has a much more important bearing
on the nature of alternation. The gap between Bryophytes and Pteridophytes is
wide, and on this view would be an essentially natural one ; any attempt to bridge
it would involve misleading conclusions. I do not wish to enter into the question
of the polyphyletic origin of archegoniate plants further than to show that its
possibility must be borne in mind in considering the nature of alternation. It maybe
pointed out, however, that such a view would appear to follow naturally from thesup-
position that the origin of the sporophyte was correlated with the spread of aquatic
organisms to the land. It may be considered probable that a number of organisms
in different places would have undergone more or less similar modifications. The
homologies which exist between the spore-bearing generations of Mosses and Ferns
are no less possible results of homoplastic developments than others in favour of
which direct evidence exists. Ifthe origin of the Pteridophyta has not been from
the Bryophyta, the comparison between the sporogonia of the latter and the simpler
sporophytes of the Vascular Cryptogams would lose much of its weight, since the
two may have proceeded, as Goebel suggested, on distinct lines from the beginning.
It is therefore advisable to ascertain if any evidence exists which may indicate how
the Vascular Cryptogams could have been derived directly from Algal forms.
Something of the kind, as we shall see, may possibly be afforded by the facts of
apogamy.

So far we have seen no reason to regard the nature of alternation and the views
on descent which underlie it as anything but open questions, There are, however,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1055

two important classes of facts, which have been regarded as affording more direct
evidence in favour of the antithetic and homologous theories respectively. These
are the cytological differences between the two generations, and the deviations from
the normal life history known as apospory and apogamy.

The first of these will only be mentioned. The existence of the double number
of chromosomes, which results from the sexual fusion, in the nuclei of the sporo-
phyte, throughout Bryophyta, Ferns, and the higher plants, certainly appears to
lend support to the view that the sporophyte is an interpolated stage in the
life history. From the cytological point of view the intercalation is between the
doubling of the number of chromosomes by the sexual fusion and the reduction in
number in the spore mother cells. Facts are wanting as to the nuclear changes in
Thallophytes, and also in apogamy and apospory.

These latter phenomena are the last element in the problem that can be referred
to at length. We saw that in the case of the alternation of clearly homologous
generations in the Thallophyta it had been shown that the assumption of the sexual
or asexual form depends on the external conditions, ‘his experimental study
needs to be extended to the rudimentary sporophytes of the Green Alga, but with
regard to these it is already known that in Gidogonium the fertilised ovum may
grow out directly into a vegetative plant, instead of dividing into spores. In the
Archegoniate this complete substitution of one generation for another is not known
to occur ; no variations in the external conditions are known to inducea Fern spore
to developinto a Fern plant, or the fertilised ovum to give rise directly to a prothallus.
But the facts as to the direct development of the one generation from the tissues of
the other, and the existence of structures which may fairly be described as inter-
mediate between gametophyte and sporophyte are sufficiently striking.

The main facts with regard to apospory, the vegetative origin of the gametophyte
from the tissues of the sporophyte, are briefly these. In Mosses cut portions ot the
seta or capsule have been induced to give rise to protonemal filaments; in one
case this is known to have occurred in nature while the capsule was still attached
to the Moss plant. In a number of Ferns the production of prothalli from the
sporangia, the placenta, the surface of the leaf or the leaf margin, takes place. In
Scolopendrium vulgare and Nephrodium Filix-mas varieties are known in which
the first leaves of the young sporophyte exhibit this capability of producing prothalli.
The causation of this phenomenon is still obscure. In a number of cases sporal
arrest has been shown with probability to be of importance, notably in the case of
Onoelea, in which apospory occurred on fertile leaves which had been experimentally
induced to assume the vegetative form. Further, the fact that conditions of life
favourable to the gametophyte, such as laying the fronds on damp soil, determine
the growth of prothalli from the tissues of some aposporous Ferns may he
mentioned. As to the weight to be attached to apospory it must be bornein mind
that the phenomenon is little more wonderful than the fact of the spore, a cell
isolated from the sporophyte, producing a prothallus. Here, as in the case of
apogamy, the investigation of the cytological details is urgently needed.

he deviations from the normal life history, which are classed as apogamy,
may be considered to possess more importance as suggesting the homology of the
two generations in the Ferns. Though as yet only known in this group of plants,
apogamy has been found in more than twenty species. In some the young Fern-
plant arises on the under surface of the prothallus, which in these cases often
bears few or no sexual organs. But in cases in which apogamy has been induced
the characters of the two generations may be much more intimately blended.
Thus tracheides may vecur in a prothallus more or less modified in external form.
This may grow on as a bud, or may bear isolated members of the sporophyte,
leaves, roots, ramenta, or sporangia. The characters of the two generations are
here united in the same individual in a way that at least suggests a gradual
transition from gametophyte to sporophyte.

It is to be hoped that the further study of these deviations from the normal
development will lead to their causation being made clear. This may minimise
the importance to be attached to them, especially should they be found to depend
on a nuclear change. The facts regarding the cytology of these new growths are

1056 REPORT—1898.

still unknown; it is not even certain that the cells of the aposporously produced
prothalli possess the half number of chromosomes, and those of the apogamously
produced sporophytes the double number, though this may be assumed to be
probable. Apospory at least might be readily explainable by such a nuclear
change.

With regard to apogamy, however, some general conclusions may fairly be
drawn even in the absence of observations on the nuclei. For whatever change
may take place in the latter, it is certain that the transition from prothallus to
sporophyte, or from prothalloid to sporophyte tissue, takes place without relation
to the sexual fusion, and is so far comparable to an ordinary variation. Further,
it is to be noted that the change takes place, so far as the conditions are known,
when, by preventing the access of fluid water, fertilisation is delayed, and when
in other ways the conditions approach those favourable to the sporophyte rather
than the gametophyte. These modifications of the conditions are of the kind to
which aquatic organisms would be exposed on assuming a terrestrial habit. It is,
therefore, possible to view the changes which take place in prothalli under these
circumstances, not as reversions, but as indications of the capability of the gameto-
phyte to assume the characters of the sporophyte under suitable conditions. If there
is any truth in this way of regarding the facts of apogamy, they become of value
in enabling us to picture the steps by which the Fern sporophyte may have arisen
by changes in individuals homologous with the original sexual form. The pro-
thallus, especially in the Ferns, must have departed much less widely from the
ancestral Algal form than the sporophyte; this may be connected partly with the
conditions to which it remains adapted, and partly with the fact of its growth
being in nature cut short by the early formation of the embryo upon it. The
various cases of apogamy which have been observed form an almost complete
series of transitions between prothallus and sporophyte, and have been used to
frame a provisional hypothesis of how the alternation in the Ferns might have
arisen, if it did not come about in the way suggested by the antithetic theory.

All such use of the facts of apogamy anc apospory is liable to the criticism that
they are teratological in their nature, and are not a safe guide in a morphological
question of this sort. There are many facts which go far to justify such a view,
but we should, I venture to think, be unwise to leave the consideration of these
phenomena altogether on one side. Not only can no sharp line be drawn between
variations (the use of which in evolutionary questions none will deny) and mon-
strosities, but, apart from the particular organic forms which result, we appear to
be dealing with a capability of many—perhaps all—Fern prothalli to assume
characters of the sporophyte ; a general property of the gametophyte of this kind
cannot be disregarded. A fuller knowledge than we possess of the causes of apo-
gamy is, however, necessary before the bearing of the phenomenon on the nature of
alternation can be properly estimated; such knowledge may lead to an explana-
tion more in accordance with the antithetic theory than any which has yet been

iven,

Whether the homologous or the antithetic theory is to be considered the more
probable has an obvious bearing on morphology. But there is a wide difference
between considering the two generations homologous with one another in the sense
that the spore-bearing generation is ultimately to be traced back to modification of
the sexual, and the view that any special structure of the sporophyte is strictly
homologous by descent with any structure in the gametophyte. Special evidence
would be necessary before such a conclusion could be drawn, and, so far as I am
aware, no such case has been shown to exist. Not only, then, does the question of
the nature of alternation of generations in the Archegoniates appear to be an
open one, but there seems no reason to apprehend confusion in comparative mor-
phology, whichever of the two theories be adopted as a working hypothesis.

In concluding this account of some of the main factors in the problem which is
the subject of this discussion, three subsidiary questions may be suggested—the
probable line of descent in archegoniate plants, the bearing of the cytological facts
on the question, and the significance to be attached to apospory and apogamy.
None of these questions, any more than the general one of the nature of alternation,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1057

may admit of a decided answer. It can, however, hardly fail to be produc-
tive of good if this discussion enables us to see our way more clearly to the
directions in which the answers to these problems must be sought.

(6) On Alternation of Generations in the Thallophytes.
By Professor Greora Kuess.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

Since the pioneering investigations of Hofmeister it has been generally recognised
in Botany that the Archegoniate are characterised by a definite form of alterna-
tion of generations. It consists in the regular alternation of a part which bears
the sexual organs—the gametophyte—and of a non-sexual part which produces
the spores—the sporophyte. An essential difference separates the two divisions of
the Archegoniate. In the Pteridophyta the gametophyte is a delicate, short-
lived, thalloid structure, the sporophyte is a well-developed, leafy plant. In the
Bryophyta, however, the gametophyte appears as a leafy plant, while the sporo-
phyte is represented by a leafless stalked capsule, which lives as it were parasitically
on the gametophyte.

In sharp contrast to the harmonious unanimity which has hitherto been the rule
in Botany as regards this alternation of generations in the Archegoniate is the
lively contest of contradictory views as to the alternation of generations in the
lower plants. With regard to these the question arises, first, whether a regular
alternation of definitely characterised generations is to be observed, and secondly,
what in that case is the connection between this alternation, should it turn out to
be a fact, with that of the Archegoniate. I shall not deal exhaustively here with
the many different opinions on this question; I shall briefly touch upon those
views only which are important in point of principle.

The first clear carrying out of the idea of a regular alternation of generations
in the Thallophytes is in the Text-book of Sachs (1876), who there endeavoured to
make the course of development of Algze and Fungi fit with that which holds in
the Mosses. The life of Vaucheria, Mucor, an Ascomycete, or one of the Floridee,
is divided according to Sachs into two sharply separated parts, of which one is
characterised by the appearance of sexual organs, the other by the spore-bearing
tissue which springs from the fertilised ovum, Thus the mycelium of a Mucor
which bears the sexual organs, the thallus of Vaucheria, or of the Floridez, repre-
sents what we now term the gametophyte; the fruit body of Ascomycetes, or of
Floridez, the zygospore of Mucor, the oospore of Vaucheria, represent the second
non-sexual generation—the sporophyte. The alternation of generations of the
Thallophytes is therefore according to Sachs essentially similar to that in the
Archegoniatee. The propagation by zoospores, conidia, etc., corresponds to the
propagation by buds in the Mosses and Ferns, and is not taken into account as
regards the actual alternation of generations.

Pringsheim takes up a quite opposite point of view (1876, 1878). According
to his opinion the fruit of the Ascomycetes and Floridez has not the value of a
special generation, but is only to be regarded as a part of the mother-plant
sexually influenced. The true alternation of generations of the Thallophytes con-
sists, according to Pringsheim, in the regular succession of independent so-called
neutral generations, having non-sexual propagation, and a single sexual generation.
Thus, zoospore-forming generations of Vaucheria, or dogonium, alternate with a
generation which bears the sexual organs. Both kinds of generations are of
essentially similar structure; they are distinguished by the form of their propa-
gation. Only the first generation, which springs from the fertilised ovum, has often
properties which differ from those which follow, e.g.in Coleochete. Inthe Mosses
this first non-sexual generation is much more sharply characterised; it is de-
veloped as the sporogonium, and is the only neutral generation ; it differs from the
sexual generation only by the scanty development of the vegetative part.

While the views of Sachs on the one hand, and of Pringsheim on the other,
were showing some tendency to spread, other views appeared in opposition now to

1898, 3x

1058 REPORT—1898.

one, and now to the other. Vines (1877) held that most of the Thallophytes have no
alternation of generations at all, since their mode of propagation, whether sexual or
non-sexual, is directly dependent upon external conditions; that a definite alter-
nation of generations, comparable to that of the Mosses, is only found in Coleochete
and Chara. Celakovsky (1877), however, was more in accordance with Pringsheim
in his conception of the Thallophytes, for like him he accepts an alternation of
neutral and sexual generations. Celakovsky designates this alternation of genera-
tions as homologous, since the successive generations are equivalent to one
another. Celakovsky opposes Pringsheim in his conception of the alternation of
generations in the Archegoniatie, which he designates as the antithetic. Here the
two alternating generations are not homologous, but essentialiy different ; the
non-sexual generation has also phylogenetically nothing to do with the neutral
generations of the Thallophytes. This conception of Celakovsky was at first
neglected, but was taken up again by Bower (1890), and put on a footing of
detail. Bower holds that the antithetic alternation came about by the interca-
lation of the non-sexual generation, the sporophyte, as a quite new development
between two gametophytes. This interpolation of a special sporophyte probably
took place in the alga-like ancestors of the Archegoniatz, as they passed from a
life in water to a life upon the land. In the series of the Thallophytes there are,
in addition to the homologous alternation of generations, more or less advanced
beginnings of an antithetic alternation, as for instance in Coleoghete, the Ascomy-
cetes, and Florides.

All the various conceptions of alternation of generations in the Thallophytes
rest on morphological comparison of the hitherto known facts of the life history,
while still very little was known of the behaviour of these organisms in open
nature, or in long continued cultures. Yet by such observations only is it possible
to decide whether an alternation of generations can be proved at all, and how the
influence of the outer world, so often assumed, really affects the course of life of the
Thallophytes. These questions were the point of departure for my investigations
on the conditions of propagation in the Thallophytes. The investigation had to be
extended in two directions: in the first place, it was necessary to decide whether
there is a regular alternation of free and independent generations; secondly,
whether a non-sexual generation characterised by special qualities arises of inner
necessity from the fertilised ovum.

The first question receives its answer, according to the results of my investi-
gations, that no regular alternation of neutral and sexual generations exists in any
of the Thallophytes which have been tested. They possess two or several kinds of
propagation, each of which is directly dependent upon quite definite external con-
ditions. If we take any vegetative stage we please, a filament of a Vaucheria, an
CEdogonium, a piece of mycelium of a Sporodinia or Ascoidea, there are then
present in each part the specific potentialities of sexual and non-sexual propa-
gation. In open nature the fortuitous conditions determine which of the poten-
tialities is developed, and how the modes of propagation follow one another,
whether upon the same individual, or on different individuals. An exact know-
ledge of the conditions gives the experimenter the secure control over the organism,
which can at will be forced into any desired mode of propagation within the limits
of its species. The problem becomes more complex if other additional modes of
propagation appear, as they do in many Fungi. In Saprolegnia we can distinguish
four kinds of propagation: (1) by simple mycelial growth, that is, by breaking of
the mycelium into pieces; (2) by zoospores; (3) by oospores; (4) by gemme.
The conditions for each of these four kinds of propagation are somewhat different,
and it is thus possible, as my later investigations prove, to force the fungus at will
into one or other of the four modes of propagation.

The potentialities for the several kinds of propagation in the Thallophytes,
such as Vaucheria, Edogonium, Chlamydomonas, Sporodinia, Saprolegnia, Eurotium,
&c., are quite equivalent, z.c. there is no cause in the inner nature of the cell, or in
the special organisation of the potentiality, for one of these of its own initiative
being developed earlier or later ; nevertheless, according to the species, the special
conditions which dominate the kinds of propagation may be more or less readily

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K 1059

realised in open nature, as well as in the laboratory. In particular, the sexual
propagation is often dependent upon more complex conditions than the non-sexual.
While both can be induced without difficulty in Sporodinia, in other Mucorini it
is most difficult to see the zygospores at all. I have not succeeded in my attempts
to induce the formation of zygospores in the common and easily cultivated Mucor
racemosus, though such formation doubtless exists.

In the works of Brefeld the idea is often expressed and tested, of bringing, a
Fungus by culture through the most numerous successive conidium-forming genera~
tions toits higher fruit-form. This idea is connected with Brefeld’s idea that
inner causes are more important than external causes for the appearance of the
fruit-form, The result of the serial-cultures of Brefeld, whether positive or nega-
tive, was under all circumstances accidental. The experiments would prove the
view of Brefeld only if the external conditions had really been always the same
in all the numerous serial cultures. Since Brefeld, to judge from the meagre
statements of his methods of culture, has not paid any attention to this constancy
of the conditions, it will also have been a matter of chance whether they remained
the same, or varied in such a way that another form of fruit took the place of that
which preceded it. In any case, I may assert that if in Fungi such as Sporodinia,
Saprolegnia, Ascoidea, Eurotium, those external conditions are maintained con-
stantly which are characteristic for one of the forms of propagation, that same
form only is produced. Hitherto a vegetative growth of whatever duration, or a
continued propagation in one form, has never of inner necessity led to the appear-
ance of another.

We can now say that the majority of Algz and Fungi will behave like the
species which have thus far been tested; in which behaviour the relation of
dependence of the propagation, on each occasion, upon the outer world will vary
extremely according to the species. If one recognises thus far as operative factors,
light, temperature, moisture, oxygen, chemical composition of the nutritive medium,
here is already at hand a great wealth of most various combinations of external
stimuli, which set the formative processes in motion. Further investigation will
teach what a wealth of unexpected relations is here to be discovered between the
outer world and organic life.

Despite all this the possibility remains that in certain species a regular alterna-
tion of neutral and sexual generations does appear. That might be possible for
the Floridez, in which the tetraspores and carpospores are often formed on special
individuals. This simple fact proves nothing as yet, since it is faced by the other
fact, that both kinds of propagation also appear from the like individual. The
question remains open whether the tetraspores do not make their appearance at
times, and seemingly on individuals other than do the carpospores, for the simple
reason that the external conditions for the two of them are very dissimilar. The
question cannot be decided till longer-continued cultures of the Floridez have been
arranged. The answer wiil presumably not turn out differently from that in the
case of other Algz. At the first glance an alternation of generations in Prings-
heim’s sense comes to much clearer expression in certain parasitic Fungi, especially
in the Uredinee. If we leave aside the undecided question as to the occurrence of
a sexual act, the observations and experiments teach that the life of a Fungus such
as Puceinia graminis necessarily takes the course of the alternation of two inde-
pendent generations living upon different host plants, the one bearing teleutospores,
the other forming ecidia. In addition there are still the subsidiary fruit forma-
tions of the uredospores and of the spermogonia. In fact we have here a regular
alternation of generations, such as appears in analogous form in the case of several
of the lower animals ; there is no obvious reason for avoiding the expression in this
case, if one takes into account the actual circumstances of the case. But still it
would be wrong to apprehend this alternation of generations as if we had here an
essentially new process, as against those other sorts of Fungi which are dimorphic
or polymorphic. There are nearly allied Uredinew in which all the spore forms
appear one after another upon the same mycelium. In my view the condition for
the different kinds of propagation will also be unlike, and the regular alternation
of the fruit forms would be explained by the fact that by the development of the

3x2

1060 REPORT—1898.

host-plant itself, as by its dependence upon the seasons, changes in it necessarily go
forward, which will serve as direct occasion for the growth of the different spore
formations of the parasite.

In Uromyces Polygoni, for instance, the secidia appear only on the young plant,
the uredospores and teleutospores on the older. In the heterzcismal Uredinee,
the special conditions for the individual fruit formations are much more strongly
distinguished still, so that other host-plants are necessary to bring the Fungus to
the formation of ecidiospores or teleutospores. The time will probably come
when these conditions may be more accurately recognised, and the Uredinee be
cultivated on artificial substrata. Then it will appear whether these parasites do
not behave just like the other Fungi, and cannot also be compelled to produce the
different fruit formations upon the same mycelium. A great obstacle to the culti-
vation of the Uredine lies in our ignorance of the chemical composition of the
host-plants. We are quite ignorant of the substances characteristic for the species,
which, besides the usual food-stutts, sugar, proteid, &c., are at any rate of decided
importance for the development of the parasite.

In all the cases now mentioned we have to do with the alternation of several
generations, each of which is characterised by special propagation. In the uni-
cellular Thallophytes the non-sexual propagation coincides with the vegetative
division. The propagation of the Desmidiaceze and Diatomez by division corre-
sponds to the propagation of Chlamydomonas by means of motile cells. In all of
them the sexual process ensues after a series of divisions. Naegeli includes these
processes under his conception of alternation of generations, and even extends it to
the Bacteria in which, after a series of generations by division, the cycle is closed
by the formation of endospores. But if the term alternation of generations be
limited to organisms with dimorphic propagation an alternation of shoots might
be spoken of in this case.

Under all circumstances, whatever name the thing may bear, we must ask our-
selves the same question as regards these phenomena as in the dimorphic Thallo-
phytes ; we must inquire whether a more or less definite number of cell-generations
must be passed through before the fruit generation can follow. In the bacillus of
anthrax (Bacillus anthracis), Buchner (1890) has already proved that it can be
propagated as long as you please by division, and that at any moment the forma-
tion of spores can be induced by direct influence of the outer world. Schreiber
(1896), who has closely investigated the conditions of spore-formation in several
Bacteria, has been able to prove still more definitely that the spore-formation
always begins as a direct consequence only of external conditions. Starting from
the germinating spore, it was possible, after the third division, to induce spore
formation again. In Chlamydomonas, I was able to prove with certainty that the
cells, through innumerable generations, propagated in an exclusively vegetative
manner, but that at any time the formation of sexual swarm spores can be attained
with ease and certainty. Most probably the same holds for the Desmidiacez, in
which certain species may be propagated for many weeks together by division, but
from the first were capable of sexual propagation when exposed to the conditions
characteristic for it.

On the other hand, the Diatomes seem to have a necessary alternation of
generations, just as, according to the investigations of Maupas, the Ciliatze among

the Infusoria. According to the theory founded by Pfitzer, the cells of the ©

Diatomes, whose silicified cell-wall consists of two parts fitted one within the
other, do not grow in the direction which is usually styled longitudinal. The
consequence of this is that on each division one of the daughter-cells maintains
the length of the mother-cell, the other will necessarily be smaller by the thick-
ness of the membrane. Thus by continued divisions the cells become smaller and
smaller till, on reaching a certain minimum size, the process of auxospore forma-
tion appears, by which the original maximum length is again attained. This
generally acknowledged theory has been supported by the investigations of Miguel.
He cultivated a number of diatoms in artificial nutritive media, and noted in the
successive generations a gradual lessening of the cells, till finally the formation of
auxospores followed very freely. Thus, according to the statements of Pfitzer,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1061

Miguel, and others, the view might appear to be sufficiently established, that in
the Diatomee the formation of auxospores follows only as a consequence of that
organisation of the cell which has been described after a number of divisions which
may be almost mathematically defined, while the external conditions play no
definite part in the process. But, meanwhile, we ought not to forget that this
theory is in much need of further confirmation. The main point in the whole
question is whether the cell-wall of both cells after division really does undergo
no increase by growth in length to even a very small degree. Pfitzer himself has
noted that such growth does occur in certain species, though this would be of no
account for making up the loss of size which accompanies division. It ought to
be distinctly proved, by direct and exact measurements, whether a growth in
length takes place or not; above all, we ought to know precisely what influence
the various external conditions exert upon the life of the Diatomez. It may

ssibly be that under certain circumstances growth takes place, under others not.
‘The fact, brought forward by Miguel and others, that it is by no means always the
smallest cells which form auxospores, but also those of middle size, deserves con-
sideration. Still more important are the statements made by Karsten, that
Melosira nummuloides can be brought to the formation of auxospores simply by
change of water, that in Achnanthes longipes the impending conjugation does not
take place, but is replaced by vegetative growth when the cells are exposed to a
cool temperature. If we assume that definite external conditions induce growth
in length during division, others encourage auxospore formation, the earlier obser-
vations on the smallness of the cells which form auxospores may thus be explained.
In many Thallophytes the rule hoids that in the stage of preparation for the higher
fruit-form growth diminishes, or ceases, but division is still continued, so that, for
instance, in the Desmidiacee, Spirogyra, and Chlamydomonas, it is always the
smallest cells which conjugate. ‘This may also be the case on the formation of the
auxospores of the Diatomez, and the smallness of the cells would then be less the
cause of the auxospore formation than the result of those external conditions
which occasion this process. I bring this possibility forward in order to draw
attention to the pressing need for accurately defining the conditions of the events
in the life of the Diatomez by the help of pure cultures, and by the use of physio-
logical methods. Whichever way the decision may fall, the life-history of the
Diatomez gives no explanation of the wholly different alteration of generations
of the Archegoniate, any more than does that of the other Thallophytes which
have been mentioned.

But now the question arises whether there is not in many Thallophytes another
form of alternation of generations, which presents nearer relations to the phe-
nomena in the Archegoniate. The fertilised ovum develops according to the
statements of investigators in a definite way in certain species: thus, for instance,
the zygospore of one of the Mucorinez, the oospore of Vaucheria, and Saprolegnia
usually germinates by formation of a short tube, which directly bears a sporangium.
Pringsheim speaks, in such a case, of the first neutral generation: we might
regard this as the actual spore-forming generation, corresponding to the sporophyte
of the Mosses. Closer investigation shows that an oospore of Vaucheria shows no
tendency in any way fixed by heredity to form a sporangium. It produces first a
short germinal tube, which may either continue its vegetative growth, or may at
once form zoospores, or sometimes sexual organs. That would depend alone on
external conditions. De Bary and I myself have lately proved the same for the
oospores of Saprolegnia, and Van Tieghem for the zygospores of the Mucorini.
There is no true meaning in speaking of an alternation of generations in these
cases, since the formation of the sporangia is not a peculiarity of germination, but
follows the same conditions as it does subsequently. These plants do not behave
differently in principle from the Fucacez, or Conjugate, in which the fertilised
aaa passes more or less directly into the thallus, since no other propagation exists
at all.

But there are perhaps other species in which the mode of germiuation of the
oospores has become more definite. The zygotes of Hydrodictyon show, according
to Pringsheim, a characteristic mode of germination, but it is not yet known

1062 REPORT—1898.

exactly how far it is a constant process. In Gidogoniwm the germinating oospore
forms four zoospores—a process which does not occur again in its later life. The
manner of germination is not absolutely indispensable, since the oospore also passes
over directly into a filament, though it appears to be the commoner case. Still
more peculiar is the germination of Coleochete as described by Pringsheim, in which
the fertilised ovum divides and forms a tissue, from the celis of which zoospores
arise, which then grow on into the typical thallus. There are no exact investi-
gations whether this kind of germination is a constant phenomenon, since the
germination has only been observed by Pringsheim, under conditions which were
apparently not very favourable. The formation of these bodies, which are like the
zoospores formed elsewhere, from the tissue of the oospore, is perhaps a quite
fortuitous circumstance, which differs in no way from the usual propagation. But
the chief reason for comparison with the Mosses, and for the assumption of an
alternation of generations, lies in the production of specially formed propagative
cells from the oospore. It might be quite possible that the cells of the oospore in
Coleochete scutata should pass over directly in to the thallus, but in C. pulvinata
perhaps only after a change in the mode of growth. The essentially regular germi-
nation by help of a pro-embryo, as in Chara, will not be accepted as a formation of
a special non-sexual generation. It is true that Vines has advanced such a con-
ception, and compares the pro-embryo of Chara with the whole sporogonium of the
Mosses. His view has not been taken up, since as a matter of fact in Chara a
comparison seems permissible only with the protonema of the Mosses, or with the
pro-embryo of Batrachospermum.

Next to Coleochete it is the Ascomycetes and Floridex, the life history of
which has since the time of Sachs been compared with the alternation of genera-
tions in the Mosses, for in both the fertilised ovum has often a complicated develop-
ment of its own; the last object of this is the formation of spores, which are
clearly different from the usual propagative cells. As described by Schmitz, and
according to the latest observations of Oltmanns (1898), the nature and method
whereby the formation of the fruit depends on an intimate union of the fertilised
egg-cell with definite auxiliary cells of the mother-plant is extremely peculiar.
In the higher differentiated forms, e.g. Callithamnion, according to Oltmanns, a
cell-derivative from the fertilised egg-cell—a cell-nucleus with some protoplasm—
is united with a large auxiliary cell, and coalesces with it into a new cell-unit,
whereupon the nucleus of the auxiliary cell is pushed aside as apparently function-
less, This new cell, of which the wall and of which the plasma belong for the
most part to the mother-plant, is stimulated by the ‘eeg-energid’ to form the
spores. In still more highly developed forms the mother-plant provides also for
the enveloping of the spore-producing cells. Oltmanns compares the relation of
egg-cell and mother-plant with that of a parasite and its host-plant, and sees therein
a confirmation of the view that the fruit of the Floridez corresponds to the sporo-
gonium of the Mosses. But one may also designate the state of the facts with this
expression: that the fruit of the higher Florides is a product of the mother-plant
that is stimulated by the fertilised egg-cell. Pringsheim, at least, might, in the
far-reaching dependence of the fruit formation upon the mother-plant, find a sub-
stantial support for his view, that the fruit of the Floridez has not the value of a
special non-sexual generation. Finally we have to consider subjective interpreta-
tions. I myself should hold the comparison of the Floridean fruit with the sporo-
phytes of the Mosses as quite-justified. But one essential point in this matter
ought not to be forgotten. One may compare the fruit of the simple Florides
with that of the simple Liverworts, and apprehend both as in some degree analo-
gous structures. But a very important and interesting difference discloses itself,
if one follows up the line of development in the two series. In the Mosses the
effort is distinctly marked in the ascending series of forms to differentiate more
highly the sporogonium as an immediate product of the fertilised ovum, and to
make it more independent of the mother-plant in its nourishment. In the series
of the Floridez the opposite tendency shows itself to make the development of the
fertilised ovum constantly more strongly dependent on the mother-plant, and to
attain the higher differentiation of the fruit by means of essential co-operation of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 10638

the mother-plant. Beyond this no one will wish to assert a nearer relation of
kinship between Mosses and Floride.

It is still more difficult in the Ascomycetes to decide the question of the alter-
nation of generations than in the Florideze. Notwithstanding the remarkable ~
differences which are to be observed in them up to the origin of the ascus fruit,
we must still, with De Bary, regard the whole group as a single and united one.
But we ought not to connect the Ascomycetes with the Phycomycetes, either with
the Peronosporee after De Bary, or with the Mucorinee after Brefeld; but we
should recognise in them a group which, with its simplest forms, sends out its
roots into the lowest division, the Archimycetes, to which the Chytridee and
other Fungi belong. In quite simple Ascomycetes, e.g. Ascordea, Dipodascus,
Endomyces, there appears a striking difference in the mode of origin of the asci.
In Ascoidea and Endomyces, according to Brefeld, each ascus arises directly from
a mother-cell of the mycelium. In the nearly related Dipodascus, according to
Lagerheim, two cells coalesce, and it is the product which grows on into the
ascus. In the one case—apparently the more common one—the ascus is a direct
product of the mother-plant; in the other forms we may speak of the beginning of
a non-sexual generation, If we pass on to the fruit-bearing forms in some still
relatively simple species we find the asci as products of a fertilised ovum, e.g. in
Spherotheca according to Harper, or the Laboulbeniacez according to Thaxter.
Tn others we may regard a structure homologous with the ovum, but not actually
capable of fertilisation, as the starting-point for the formation of asci, while other
constituent parts of the fruit, such as the wall, and commonly the stalk, &c., are
supplied by the mother-plant. In the highest forms the most complicated Pyreno-
mycetes, and the Cladonias among the Lichens, &c., the fruit is, according to our
present knowledge, exclusively a product of the mother mycelium, just as is the
case according to Brefeld in the Basidiomycetes. It is only in case of the simpler
forms that we can compare the ascus fruit with the sporogonium of the Mosses,
and, as Oltmanns has done, place it in relation to the processes in the Florideze.
In the Ascomycetes it is still more clearly to be recognised than in these plants
that the antithetic alternation of generations has stood still at the first attempts,
and in the higher forms has been replaced by direct development of the fruit from
the Mycelium. As regards the solution of the question how the alternation of
generations in the Archegoniate came into existence the Ascomycetes can contri-
bute far less than the Floridez.

Taking a general view of the department of the Thallophytes thus traversed,
the following cases may be distinguished as relating to the question of the appear-
ance of an alternation of generations :—

1. The majority of the Algee and Fungi have two or more kinds of propa-
gation, each of which necessarily depends upon definite external conditions
characteristic for it. According to the conditions, occurring fortuitously in open
nature or in cultivation, the kinds of propagation may appear on the same or on
different individuals, independently or in any succession. The fertilised ovum in
sexual forms does not differ essentially on germination from another propagative
cell. In none of these cases is there any reason for speaking of an alternation of
generations.

2. In certain hetersecismal parasites, e.g., many Uredinez, the life-history of
the species takes the course of a regular succession of different individuals with
special modes of propagation; we may here speak of an alternation of several
generations characterised by different propagation. There would be in this case
an alternation of homologous generations in the sense of Oelakovsky and Bower.
Here, also, we have essentially to deal only with Fungi which have dimorphic or
polymorphic propagation, with the limitation that the external conditions for some
of the forms of propagation are so different that, so far as experience yet goes
these are only developed upon separate host-plants.

3. In the unicellular Diatoms there is, according to the theory of the cause of
auxospore formation hitherto current, an alternation of generations in the sense
that, after a definite number of cell-generations derived by division, the formation

1064 REPORT—1898.

of auxospores follows by internal necessity. But it needs still more exact investi-
gation, for it is quite possible that the formation of auxospores, like the formation
of zygotes of the Desmidiacez, is essentially dependent upon external conditions.
In that case there would be no definite alternation of generations in the Diatomee.

4. In a number of Thallophytes, some few Chlorophycez, above all, in the
Florideze and Ascomycetes, a fruit arises from the fertilised ovum, or a body
homologous with it, which produces, in a manner peculiar to it, non-sexual cells,
the spores. This spore-bearing fruit may be compared with the sporogonium of
the Mosses, and the alternation of the sexual plant with the spore-fruit may be
regarded as an antithetic alternation. But this comparison does not extend further
than the establishment of a certain analogy.

In the two series of the Floridew and Ascomycetes, in contrast to the series of
the Mosses, it appears that the fruit in the higher forms becomes constantly more
dependent upon the mother-plant, and that the duty of higher differentiation of
the fruit falls essentially upon the latter. The fruit there appears not as a special
generation, but as a product of the mother-plant.

What, then, remains from which to derive the alternation of generations of the
Mosses and Ferns? Only Coleochete, which, since Pringsheim’s celebrated in-
vestigation, has been quoted as a connecting link between Algee and Archegoniate.
But it has never been proved that the zoospores of the germinating oospore are to
be regarded as a characteristic product of the fruit, and, accordingly, as a form of
propagation homologous with the Moss-spores. But, on the other hand, it makes
no great demand on our imagination to figure to ourselves how, in the Coleochete-
like ancestors of the Mosses, this step was taken, that then the second step con-
sisted in the formation of stationary spores arising by a tetrad division. With
such assumptions, the transition to the simple Liverworts—e.g., Riccia, does not
appear very great, and, starting from this form, the different series included in the
Bryophyta may be derived. Though we have thus gained certain connecting
points for the phylogeny of the Mosses, the question as regards the Ferns, in
which the fertilised ovum develops into the leafy plant, is in quite another
position. It has been recognised on many sides how great a contrast there is
between Mosses and Ferns. The common peculiarity in the structure of the
Archegonium might be a purely parallel development without its necessarily
indicating any phylogenetic connection. It is not my purpose to enter now upon
these difficult questions, the less so since they will be dealt with here from an
official quarter. They deal with the most interesting, but also the most obscure,
points in the phylogeny of the vegetable kingdom. For the spot where the first
indication of a Fern-sporophyte appeared was the birthplace of the vastly-
developed series of the Phanerogams. The Thallophytes hitherto known do not
give the least clue to the discovery of that spot.

(c) The Formation of the Zygospore in Polyphagus Euglene.
By HaroLtp WaGER.

1, This rare organism is found as a parasite on Euglena viridis. The material
for this investigation was found with Euglene on a filter bed at Keiyhley in
Yorkshire, and cultivations were made in which the methods of spore formation
and zygospore formation were observed from the beginning to the end.

2. The vegetative cell contains a single nucleus of large size and somewhat
peculiar structure.

3. In the process of zygospore formation a rhizoid from the receptive cell comes
into contact with the discharging vell. ‘The latter is nearly always larger than the
former, and contains a larger nucleus.

4, The end of the rhizoid in contact with the discharging cell swells up and
becomes the zygospore. The small nucleus from the receptive cell passes into it
first of all together with the protoplasm, and then the large nucleus of the
discharging cell makes its way through the opening between the cells into the
zygospore also.

5. The two nuclei come into close contact with one another, but do not fuse.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1065

They separate from one another again, and the smaller nucleus then increases in
size until it attains the same proportions as the larger nucleus.

6. At a very late stage in the development of the zygospore two nuclei can still
be observed, but there are indications that these two nuclei fuse together at a still
later stage.

The following Papers were also read :—

2. On the Peltation of Leaves. By Professor C. DE CANDOLLE,

The object of the present paper is a comparative study of peltate leaves, with
special reference to the number of species possessing such organs, their distribution
amongst the various natural orders, and their respective mode of growth.

Pitcher-shaped leaves—that is to say, natural ascidia—are here considered as
being homologous with ordinary peltate leaves, a view long ago sustained by
Baillon and based on the organogeny of both sorts of leaves. Accordingly, by the
general expression of peltation of leaves, the author includes peltate leaves proper
and ascidia.

As the result of bibliographical researches the author has succeeded in
cataloguing 308 phanerogams having peltate leaves proper and 49 having ascidia-
shaped or ascidia-bearing leaves. A general survey of all these cases of peltation
has led him to the following results :—

1. The peltation of leaves is very rare, the species in which it has as yet been
observed being an insignificant minority in the total number of actually known
phanerogams, estimated at about 110,000 species.

2. The peltation of the leaflets of compound leaves is still more exceptional,
only two such cases having so far been recorded—namely, in the genus Thalictrwm.

3. Peltate leaves proper and ascidia-shaped leaves are unknown amongst
verticillate and extremely rare amongst opposite leaves.

4. Sarraceniaceze and Nepenthacez being placed on one side, the peltation of
leaves is always an exceptional character in each order or genus in which it occurs.
Cases of peltation appear, so to say, at random in various natural orders, between
which they are very unequally distributed. Consequently there is no correlation
between the peltation of leaves and the floral characters of plants.

5. While there is an evident functional adaptation of ascidia-shaped leaves to
the biology of the plants which produce them, peltate leaves proper on the contrary
do not seem to possess any such adaptation, so that they must, for the present, be
looked upon merely as an indication of an excess of development not as yet
accounted for.

6. The great scarcity of peltate or ascidia-shaped leaves amongst actual
phanerogams is difficult to reconcile with the fact that teratological ascidia are of
rather frequent occurrence.

7. The peltation of leaves is in no correlation with the geographical distribution
of plants. However, phanerogamic species in general being immensely more
numerous in the inter-tropical than in the extra-tropical regions, peltate-leaved
plants are necessarily also much more numerous in the former than in the latter
zones,

3. Changes in the Sex of Willows.
By I. H. Burkitt, 1.A4., Royal Gardens, Kew.

In the genus Salix flowers of both sexes are occasionally present in the same
catkin, and one sometimes finds that the sexual organs are intermediate in struc-
ture between stamens and carpels. By using the published records and by
availing myself of the large accumulation of material for study in the Herbaria
at Kew, Cambridge, in the British Museum, and at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris,
I have gathered together a number of facts which may be of interest.

Firstly, it is obvious that these abnormalities, though widely distributed in the
species of Salix, are much more common in some sections than in others. The

1066 REPORT -1898.

§ Capree yields by far the greatest number; and second to it comes the
§ Fragiles. In dwarf willows they seem to be very rare, and in § Glaciales I
have only found one abnormal catkin.

Secondly, we notice that, though the two-staminal willows yield most freely
these abnormalities, those in which the male flowers possess more than two
stamens sometimes show them. I can instance S. pentandra and S. humboldtiana,

That the male organs or the female organs are produced from the same rudi-
ments is extremely probable; and in the normal Salix we have an unisexual
flower, which cannot, as in most Phanerogams, be shown to have had an origin from
a hermaphrodite flower by abortion of one sex. In these abnormal willows, while
we readily follow the change of the two stamens of one of the Capree or
Purpuree into the two carpels, it is not so easy to say what happens when five or
more stamens have to be replaced by two carpels.

Lastly, of the several theories thus far proposed to account for the occurrence
of the abnormalities, none is capable of wide application.

Sometimes the abnormalities reappear year after year; sometimes they prove
incoenstant. Had we a fuller knowledge, some explanation, partial or complete,
might be forthcoming ; for frequently, both in their distribution in the catkin and
on the branch, the changes in sex show a tendency to arrangement. At times the
male is above the female; at times the reverse is the case. Rarely there are three
or four belts of flowers on one catkin, male succeeding female, and female male, ir
definite order.

4, Apogeotropic Roots of Bowenia spectabilis (Hk. f.),
Ly H. H. W. Psarson, B£.A., Cambridge.

Apogeotropic roots arise from the upper part of the main root of Bowenia
spectabilis, and appear just above the surface of the soil. These roots are very
numerous on the old plants. Each root develops endogenously and branches above
in an exogenousmanner. The internal structure of the root is, in the main, the same
as that of an ordinary lateral root. The external layer is composed of radially
elongated cells, with their free ends not in contact, thus giving to the root a villous
appearance, which can be detected by the naked eye. This ‘piliferous’ layer soon
becomes cut off by a layer of cork.

Colonies of alge are found inhabiting a ring of intercellular spaces in the mid-
cortex. The alga is confined to a very definite zone. The portion of the cortex in
which it appears is in no way specialised, the cells which are crushed by its growth
being of the same size and form as those of the remainder of the cortex.

LUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Preliminary Note on Changes in the Gland Cells of Drosera produced
by Various Food Materials. By Lity H. Hutz.

(Communicated by GUSTAV MANN).

The work is an extension of that previously undertaken by the authoress, an
account of which has already appeared in ‘Quart. Micro. Journ.,’ vol. xxxix.

In the experiments now described leaves were fed with Egg-albumin, Globulin,
Peptone, Fibrin, Milk, Nuclein, Nucleic acid, and Calcium phosphate, the histo-
logical changes in the gland cells being noted in each case.

The results to be described were obtained with fixing fluids, widely differing
in their chemical constitution.

£99-albumin: The basophil cytoplasm becomes pink, and is reduced in twenty
to thirty hours to a mere vestige. After two days it commences to recuperate,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1067

and ultimately becomes again basophil. The changes in the nucleus comprise—
(1) those of the nuclear chromosomes, (2) those of the nuclear plasm, and (3)
those of the nucleoli. In the resting cell the nuclear chromatin is scanty, but
immediately after feeding it commences to increase, till in twenty to thirty hours
large segments are formed asin mitosis. During recuperation the segments again
diminish. The eosinophil nucleoli are large in the resting cell; they diminish after
feeding in direct proportion to the increase of the basophil chromatin, and finally
enlarge when the chromatin segments diminish.

Peptone is absorbed much more rapidly than egg-albumin, and produces in one
hour changes similar to those ettected by egg-albumin in twenty to thirty hours.

Globulin also produces changes in twenty-four hours, but to a less marked
degree than egg-albumin. Food passes into the tentacle between the lateral walls
of the cells, and secretory products pass through the apical walls, thus producing
an appearance of striz in the food which is in contact with the tentacles.

Fibrin is digested slowly, and changes similar to but generally less pronounced
than in ege-albumin are seen.

Milk is absorbed rapidly and completely. The morphological changes are less
marked than with any of the above-mentioned foods. The cell plasm remains
basophil throughout.

Nuclein produces almost no effect; the tentacles do not bend in, and do not
secrete more copiously than before. No cytological changes are produced except
very slight vacuolation of the cell plasm. All the colour reactions are the same
as those of controls.

Nucleic acid produced rapid bending in of the tentacles, and extremely copious
secretion. The leaves reopen in one to three days, and although the quantity of
nucleic acid given is not perceptibly diminished, there are great histological
changes, consisting in an almost complete disappearance of the cytoplasm (which
remains basophil throughout), and of the nucleoplasm. The basophil chromatin
segments remain unaltered.

Calcium phosphate produces appearances very similar to those after feeding
with egg-albumin, but the cytoplasm remains basophil.

Control leaves, after the application of all the above substances, reopened in a
perfectly healthy condition, as determined by their naked-eye appearances while
living, and their microscopic structure after fixing by different methods.

2. Theoretical Calculation of an Osmotic Optimum.
By Professor Dr. L. Errera (Brussels).

Recent researches made by Dr. F. Van Rysselberghe in the Botanical Institute
of Brussels have shown that vegetable cells generally answer an osmotic stimulus
by an appropriate osmotic reaction, and that the relation between stimulus and
reaction follows, within wide limits, the ‘law of Weber.’ Hence results the possi-
bility of predicting the existence and value of an osmotic optimum.

Let 2 be the normal osmotic pressure in a given cell ;

x the osmotic pressure of an external solution applied as stimulus ;
R the reaction, z.e. the change in the osmotic pressure of the cell in response
to this stimulus. Then one has, according to Weber's law:

Ei=c log a (¢ and s being constants).

The total value of the osmotic pressure in the cell is of course R+~%, and its
excess over the pressure of the surrounding solution is,
y=Rin-a,
x
or y=c log — +u—«z.
8

It is easy to find by differentiation that this excess has 2 maximum value wher
«=c log e (e being the basis of the Naperian logarithms =2,7182818 .. . ).

1068 REPORT—1898.

Experiments made with Tvradescantia, Symphoricarpus, Allium, FElodea,
Spirogyra, agree most satisfactorily with these theoretical results.

Additional interest arises from the fact that these values of 2 really correspond
to optimal solutions, in which the cells live longer than in any other.

3. On the Unit to be adopted for Osmotic Measurements.
By Professor Dr. L. ERrera.

The investigations alluded to in the preceding note have proved that de Vries’
constant zsotonic coefficients, excellent as they are for a first approximation, are
not sufficiently exact for more minute experiments. Here it is advisable to use,
instead of them, the coefficients of electric conductivity, which vary slightly with
the concentration of the solution.

Thus, osmotic pressures are not strictly proportional to the concentration of the
plasmolysing solutions, and these pressures ought no more to be expressed in mole-
cule-grams of KNO,, as is now generally done. The use of an atmosphere as
unit, though better, is also objectionable, as it varies from one place to another.

I would therefore suggest to adopt the C.G.S. unit of pressure, viz. 1 dyne
per sq. cm., or rather (to avoid useless decimals) 1 myriadyne per sq. cm., 2.e. the
pressure of 10,000 dynes per sq. cm., the dyne being the force which gives the mass
of 1 gram in 1 second an acceleration of 1 cm. per second.

This unit is roughly equal to 74,5 atmosphere; it is found to be very con-
venient for all sorts of osmotic calculations.

4, The Knight-Darwin Law. By Francis Darwin, /.R.S.

The Knight-Darwin law in its briefest form is a positive statement that no plant
self-fertilises itself for perpetuity. It was shown that in this form it cannot be
found in Knight, and that Darwin adopted the more general statement that
Nature abhors perpetual self-fertilisation. Modern writers are inclined to condense
Darwin’s contribution to Floral Biology to serve such aphorism, or, rather, to
accept such aphorism, as a condensation of his contributions, and when exceptions
to it occur, or when it does not explain everything, to attempt to construct new
foundations for their science. It was shown that the foundations on which it rests
are not in need of such an underpinning process, and Darwin's generalisations still
suffice. The true interest of the Knight-Darwin law is in relation to wider
questions of sex, and not simply as a basis for the study of floral mechanism.

5. Structure of the Yeast-cell. By Professor Dr. L. ERRERA.

A study of the cells of Saccharomyces Cerevisie has led me to the following
conclusions, part of which merely confirm former researches: 1. A relatively large
nuclear body exists in each adult cell. 2. Young cells contain no such body; a
little later the old nuclear body divides, and one of its two daughters wanders
through the narrow connecting-channel into the young cell. 3, Aiter the division
is complete, the twe cells are still kept together by a mucilaginous neck-shaped
pedicel, which appears not to have been noticed hitherto. It may persist or not,
thus explaining the occurrence of cell-chains or of isolated cells in different races
of Yeast. 4. Carbohydrates are stored up in Yeast in the form of glycogen, which
accumulates or disappears from the vacuoles very rapidly, according to conditions
of nutrition and growth. The colour given bya known quantity of iodine-solution
to a known amount of Yeast-culture shows these variations most sharply. The
change of tint by heat after iodine-action, and the destruction of the intracellular
glycogen by saliva, also give very clear results.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 1069

6. The Structure of the Yeast Plant. By Harotp WaGER.

1. The yeast cell possesses a spherical, deeply-stained body which has been by
many observers regarded as a nucleus. This body is present in all cells except
young cells in process of formation.

2. In close contact with this nuclear body is a vacuole which contains granules
and a network-like structure capable of staining in nuclear stains. The vacuole is
often surrounded by granules which stain in the same manner.

3. These two—the nuclear body and the vacuole—are in close contact with
one another, and in the process of division a portion of each passes into the
daughter cell.

4, The granules of Hieronymus occur, under the conditions des¢ribed by him,
in large numbers ; and such cells are always found to contain granules which are
stainable in alkanin. It is very likely, therefore, that some or all of the granules
Si by him are of an oily nature, although they do not easily dissolve in
ether.

7. Observations on the Cytology of Achlya Americana (Humphrey) var. nov.
By A. H. Trow.

1. The nucleus in Achlya Americana has a structure which agrees in many
respects with that of the higher plants. Nuclei have been observed to undergo
indirect division in the odgonia and antheridia ; spirem monaster and diaster stages
have been observed.

2. Most of the odgonial nuclei undergo degeneration, and the eggs even in the
earliest stages of their development are uni-nucleate.

3. Fertilisation takes place as in Saprolegnia diclina and S. mixta; the fer-
tilising tube possesses a single nucleus.

4, The fusion of the gamete nuclei is generally delayed for two or three
days, but the fusion apparently always takes place a day or two before the odspore
becomes fully ripe.

5. Fertilisation has thus been proved to take place in Saprolegnia diclina,
S. mixta, and in the variety of Achlya Americana which the author proposes to
call yar. Cambrica.

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INDEX.

References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.
An Asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.
The mark + indicates the same, but a reference is given to the Journal or Newspaper

where the paper is published in extenso.

BJECTS and rules of the Association,
Xxix.

List of Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and
Local Secretaries, 1831-1898, xl.

List of Trustees and General Officers,

1831-1899, lii.

List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, liii.

List of evening lectures from 1842, 1xxi.

Lectures to the Operative Classes, Ixxiv.

Officers of Sections present at Bristol,
Ixxyv.

Officers and Council for 1898_99, Ixxvii.

Treasurer’s account, Ixxviii.

Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, lxxx.
Report of the Council to the General

Committee at Bristol, lxxxii.

Resolutions passed by the General
Committee at Bristol :

(1) Committees receiving grants of
money, Ixxxvi.

(2) Committees not receiving grants
of money, xcivi.

(8) Papers ordered to be printed in
extenso, XCVi.

(4) Resolutions referred to the Coun-
cil for consideration, and ac-
tion if desirable, xcvi.

(5) Change of days of meeting of
the General Committee and
the Committee of Recommen-
dations, xcvi.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes in 1898, xcviii.
Places of meeting in 1899, 1900, and 1901,

xclx.

General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, c.

General meetings, exvi.

Address by the President, Sir William
Crookes, F.R.S., 3.

ABNnry (Capt. W. de W.) on the action
of light upon dyed colours, 285.

, on mave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 313.

*Acetelyne flame, effect of varying pro-
portions of carbon dioxide on the,
Prof. J. E. Reynolds on the, 845.

Achlya Americana, the cytology of, A.
H. Trow on, 1069.

AcworTtTH (W.M.) on rectification of
municipal frontiers, 968.

ADAMS (Prof. F.) on the meteorological
observatory at Montreal, 79.

—— (Prof. F. 0.) on photographs of geo-
logical interest in Canada, 546.

—— (Prof. W. G.) on the comparison and
reduction of magnetic observations, 80.

—— on the determination of the Gauss-
tan magnetic constants by J. C.
Adams, 109.

on practical electrical standards,

145.

on seismological investigation, 179.

ADDISON (W. L.) onthe comparative di-
mensions of some atoms, 874.

Africa, the climatology of, Seventh report
on, 603.

——,58., stone implements from, G. Leith
on, 1011.

——, West coast of, the secret societies
of the, H. P, FitzGerald Marriott on
the, 1019.

Afridi and Swati, Sir T. Holdich on the,
1017.

Aggregate deposits and their relations
to zones, Rev. J. F. Blake on, 872.

Agriculture, the promotion of, Interim
Report on, 312.

ALDRIDGE (J. G. W.) on combined elec-
tric lightiug and power plant for docks
and harbours, 994.

Algological work at the Plymouth Labora
tory, G. Brebner on, 583.

ALLEN (A. H.) on electric canal haulage,
995.

1072

ALLEN (J. Romilly) on an ethnographi-
cal survey of the United Kingdom,
712

Alloys, heat of combination of metals
in the formation of, A. Galt on,
787.

Alternation of generations in the Arche-
goniate, W. H. Lang on, 1051.

in the Thallophytes, Prof. G. Klebs
on, 1057.

*AmERY (P. F. S.) on the megalithic
monuments at Dartmoor, 1021.

Ami (Dr. H.) on Canadian Pleistocene
jlora and fauna, 522

Amidines, diamidated aromatic, Prof. E.
Noelting on, 843.

Analysis, quantitative, the electrolytic
methods of, Report on, 294.

ANDERSON (H. K.) on the myelination
of nerve fibres, 717.

— (Dr. Joseph) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 712.

(Dr. Tempest) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom, 530.

* ANDREWS (C. W.) on some Dinosaurian
remains frcm the Oxford clay of
Northampton, 883.

——— on Christmas Island, 944.

Antarctic research, the prospects of, Dr.
H. R. Mill on, 942.

Anthropology, Address by E. W. Bra-
brook to the Section of, 999.

ARCHIBALD (Douglas) on the classifica-
tion of polydiurnal weather types in
relation to the prolongation of the
daily forecasts in Western Europe,
798.

Arenig shales, occurrence of, beneath the
Carboniferous rocks at the Menai
Bridge, E. Greenly on the, 874.

*Argon, helium, krypton, &c., in the
periodic classification of the elements,
the position of, Prof. J. E. Reynolds
on, 830.

——— and neon, extraction from air of
the companions of, Prof. W. Ramsay
and M. W. Travers on the, 828.

ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on the investi-
gation of isomeric naphthalene deriva-
tives, 311.

on the promotion of agriculture,
312.

—— on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 433.

x on juvenile research, 840.

Arthropod amnion, the phylogeny of the,
A, Willey on, 905.

*Ascidians, the phylogeny of, Prof. Ch.
Julin on, 916.

Atlantic, North, sub-oceanic physical
features, Prof. E. Hull on the, 879.
——.,, eastern margin of the, W. H.

Hudleston on the, 881.

REPORT—1898.

Atlantic, temperature and salinity in
1895-96 of the surface waters of the,
H. N. Dickson on the, 937.

Atoms, the comparative dimensions of
some, W. L. Addison on, 874.

ATWATER (W. O.) and E. B. Rosa on
the conservation of energy in the
human body, 778.

*Australia, Central, L. de Rougemont on,
943.

* , the natives of North-West, L. de
Rougemont on, 1015.

Austro-Hungarian deep-sea expeditions
1890-96, oceanographical results, Dr.
K. Natterer on the, 938.

AYNSLEY (the late Mrs. Murray) on the
folk-lore of Guernsey, 1023.

AYRTON (Prof. W. E.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 145.

—, Address to the Section of Mathe-
eae and Physical Science by,
767.

—— and Prof. J. V. JONES on an ampere
balance, 157.

—— (Mrs.) on the drop of potential at
the carbons of the electric arc, 805.

Bacteria, action of, on the photographic
plate, Prof. Percy Frankland on the,
835.

BADEN-POWELL (Capt. B.) on the use of
balloons and kites in exploration, 948.

BADGER (A. B.) and E. GREENLY on
the glacial sections at Moel Trifaen,
882.

Balloons and kites, use in exploration of,
Capt. B. Baden-Powell on the, 948.

—— for electric signalling in Arctic
expeditions, E. Stuart Bruce on, 948.

Banking in Canada, B. E. Walker on,
964.

BARKER (W. R.) on the ancient standard

weights and measures of the city of -

Bristol, 810.

*BARRETT (Prof. W. F.), W. Brown,
and R. A. HADFIELD on the electric
conductivity and magnetic perme-
ability of a series of new alloys of
iron, 805.

BARRETT-HAMILTON (Capt. G. E. H.)
ona visit to North-Eastern Kamchatka,
944.

BARRINGTON (R. M.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 569.

*Barry docks, new works at, R. C. H.
Davison on, 987.

BATHER (F. A.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 529.

on zoological bibliography and publi-
cation, 558.

—— on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 510.

INDEX.

BATHER (F. A.) a phylogenetic classifica-
tion of the Pelmatozoa, 916.

*BEATTIE (Dr. J.C,) and Mr. MORRISON
on magnetic observatories in Cape
Colony, 750.

BEAUCHEMIN (Dr. Merée) on an ethno-
logical survey of Canada, 696.

BEDDOE (Dr. John) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 712.

on the medixval population of
Bristol, 1013.

BEDFORD (J. E.) on the collection of
photographs of geological. interest in
the United Kingdom, 530.

BELL (C. N.) on an ethnological survey of
Canada, 696.

(the late Dugald) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 552.

BEMMELEN (Dr. W. van) and Dr. van
RIJCKEVORSEL on the influence of alti-
tude above the sea on the elements of
terrestrial magnetism, 760.

Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on,
Report on, 277.

Benin City, ancient works of art from,
C. H. Read on, 1020.

BENT (Mrs. Theodore) on Sokotra, 943.

BERKELEY (Earl of) on the more exact
determination of the densities of
erystals, 837.

BEVAN (Rev. J. O.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 41.

BEZOLD (Prof. von) on the disturbance
of magnetic observatories by electric
railways, 758.

and General RYKATCHEFF on the
establishment of temporary magnetic
observatories in certain localities, es-
pecially in Tropical countries, 743.

Bibliography of spectroscopy, Report on
the, 439.

zoological, and publication, Report
on, 558.

BINNIE (Sir A. R.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 556.

Biological Association at Plymouth, the
Marine, Report on investigations made
at the laboratory of, 583.

Report on algological work, by G.
Brebner, 583.

Report on nerves of Arenicola, Ner-
eis, Sc., by F. W. Gamble, 584.
Report on Mr. J. H Wadsworth’s

collection of material for the study
of embryology of Alcyonium, by
’ Prof. S. J. Hickson, 585.

Biological station in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, Report on the, 582.

Bird migration in Great Britain and
Ireland, Interim report on, 569.

BisHoP (Mrs. Isabella L.) on the Valley
of the Yangtze, 940.

—— on the Montzu of Western Sze-
chuan, 1017.

1073

BLAKE (Rev. J. F.) on aggregate de-
posits and their relations to zones, 872,

BLANFORD (Dr. W. T.) on the structure
of w coral reef, 556.

un the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 558.

Blood, Report on the physiological effects
of peptone when introduced into the
circulating, 720.

—— pressure, the effects upon, produced
by the intravenous injection of fluids
containing choline, neurine, and allied
substances, Dr. F. W. Mott and Prof,
W. D. Halliburton on, 717,

Boat-building of Siam, H. Warington
Smyth on the, 1013.

BonABz (Dr. J.) Address to the Section
e Economic Science and Statistics by,

50.

Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 41.

— on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 530.

on the erratic blocks of the British

Isles, 552.

on the structure of a coral reef,
556.

Botany, Address by Prof. F. O. Bower to
the Section of, 1024.

BOTHAMLEY (C. H.) on the action of
certain substances on the undeveloped
photographic image, 850.

Botryopteris, an English, Dr. D. H. Scott
on, 1050.

BortoMLEy (J. T.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 145.

—— on seismological investigation, 179.

Boulders, an uplift of, at Llandegfan,
Menai Straits, E. Greenly on, 874

BouRinot (Sir J. G.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 696.

BouRNE (G@ C.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 556.

on the life conditions of the oyster,

559, 569.

on investigations made at the
Marine Biological Association labora-
tory at Plymouth, 583.

Bower (Prof. F. 0.) on fertilisation in
Pheophycee, 72%.

——, Address to the Section of Botany
by, 1024.

Bow ey (A. L.) on the change in wages
in France, the United States, and the
United Kingdom from 1840 to 1891,
970.

Boycr (Prof. Rubert W.) on the life
conditions of the oyster, 559.

on the physiological effects of
peptone and its precursors when intro-
duced into the circulation, 720.

BOYLE (David) on the North-Western
tribes of Canada, 628.

3 Z

1074

BOYLE (David) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 696.

Boys (C. Vernon) on seismological in-
vestigation, 179.

BRABROOK (HE. W.) on the Silchester
excavation, 689.

on the physical and mental defects of

children in schools, 691.

on an ethnological survey of Canada,

696.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 712.

——, Address to the Section of Anthro-
pology by, 999.

BRAMWELL (Sir F. J.) on seismological
investigation, 179.

on the B. A. screw gauge, 627.

* on factitious airs, 987.

BREBNER (G.) on algological work at the
Plymouth Laboratory, 583.

Brieut (Charles) on the Pacific cable,
996.

Bristol, ancient standard weights and
measures of, W. R. Barker on the, 810.

~—— District, the geology of the, Prof.
C. Lloyd Morgan on, 862.

*_____ electric lighting system at, H.
F. Proctor on the, 991,

electric power used at, Waggon and

Carriage Works, W. Geipel on, 989.

, the medieval population of, J.
Beddoe on, 1013.

—, the prehistoric antiquities of the
neighbourhood of, Prof. C. Lloyd
Morgan on, 1014.

Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on meteoro-
logical observations on Ben Nevis, 277.

(Horace T.) on the work of the
Corresponding Socicties Committee, 41.

—— (M. Walton) on seismological in-
vestigation, 179.

(T. Forster) on the mechanical and

economical problems of the coal question,

611.

*____ (W.), Prof. W. F. BARRETT, and
R. A. HADFIELD on the electric con-
ductivity and magnetic permeability
of a series of new alloys of iron, 805.

BRucE (EH. Stuart) on electric balloon
signalling in Arctic and Antarctic
expeditions, 948.

Bryce (Rt. Hon. J.) on the promotion of
agriculture, 312.

BucHaAn (Dr. A.) on meteorological ebser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 277.

BucknEy (1T.) on the B. A. screw gauge
627. ipa

Buddhist image found in an Irish bog,
Miss A. G. Weld ona, 1016.

BULLKID (A.) on the lake village of
Glastonbury, 694.

Burcw (G. J.) and Prof. F. Gorcx on
excitatory electrical changes in nerve,
716.

REPORT—1898.

BURKE (J.) on the luminosity produced
by striking sugar, 810.

BURKILL (I. H.) on changes in the sex
of willows, 1065.

BURTON (F. M.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 552.

CAHEN (A. A.) and J. M. DonaLpson
on a comparison between charging a
secondary cell at constant potential
and at constant current, 779.

CALLENDAR (Prof. H. L.) on the Meteor-
ological Observatory at Montreal, 79.

—— ona platinum voltmeter, 788.

on a quantitative bolometric sun-
shine recorder, 796.

Canada, banking in, B. E. Walker on,
964,

, ethnological survey of,

report on an, 606.

, North-Western tribes of the Do-
minion of, Trelfth report on the, 628.
Canadian Pleistocene flora and fauna,

Report on, 522.

Appendix. Pleistocene flora of the Don
Valley, by Prof. D. P. Penhallon, 525.
biological station in the Gulf of St.

Lanrence, Report on the, 582.

Canals, electric haulage for, A, H. Allen
on, 995. ‘

CANNAN (Edwin) on profit from muni-
cipal enterprises in aid of rates, 967.
CAPELLO (J. B.) on the movement of
the N. pole of a bar magnet sus-
pended from its centre of gravity,

750.

Capital and labour, the relations of, H.
Vivian on, 973.

Second

| Carbohydrates of cereal straws, Third

report on the, 293.

, action of hydrogen peroxide on, in
the presence of iron salts, R. 8. Mor-
rell and J. M. Crofts on the, 845.

Carboniferous Limestone, arborescent,
from near Bristol, H. B. Woodward
on, 869.

— Limestone rocks,
Wethered on the, 862.

rocks, Report on life-zones in the
British, 529.

*Card-catalogue of zoological literature,
demonstration by W. E. Hoyle of Dr.
Field’s, 916.

Cave at Ty Newydd, exploration of the,
Rev. G. C. H. Pollen on the, 884.

Caves, Fermanagh, further exploration of
the, T. Plunkett on the, 885.

——, the Selangor, Report on, 571.

—— at Uphill containing remains of
Pleistocene mammalia explored by the
late E. Wilson, 867, *1023.

*Cells, the microchemistry of, Prof. A.
B. Macallum on, 905.

Clifton, E. B.

INDEX.

CHANCE (W), a defence of Poor Law |
schools by, 962.

CHATTOCK (Prof. A. P.) on the velocity
of the electricity in the electric wind,
801.

— and §. R. MILNER on the thermal
conductivity of water, 808.
Chemistry, address by Prof.
JAPP to the Section of, 813.
Children in schools, the physical and

mental defects of, Report on, 691.

*China, the impending economic revolu-
tion in, G. G. Chisholm on, 945.

*CHISHOLM (G. G.) on the impending
economic revolution in China, 945,

CHREE (Dr. C.) on the comparison and
reduction of magnetic observations, 80.

CHRISTIF (W. H. M., Astronomer Royal)
on the comparison and reduction of
magnetic observation, 80.

Christmas Island, C. W. Andrews on, 944,

CHRYSTAL (Prof. G.) on the comparison
and reduction of magnetic observa-
tions, 80.

on practical electrical standards,
145.

CHURCH (Col. G. Earl), Address to the
Section of Geography by, 914.

Circulation, the physiological effects of
peptone and its precursors when intro-
duced inte the, Second interim report
on, 720.

Classification of the Pelmatozoa (Echi-
nodermata, &c.), F. A. Bather on the,
916.

CLAYDEN (A. W.) on the application of
photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 283.

Clifton rocks, the building of, E. B.
Wethered on, 862.

Climatic evolution, the laws of, Marsden
Manson on, 878.

Climatology of Africa, Seventh report on
the, 603.

Closure of certain areas in Scottish seas,
the effects of the, Prof. W.C. McIntosh

F. R.

on, 911.

CLowEs (Prof. F.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 294.
——- on the equivalent replacement of

metals, 838.

*Coalfield, Franco-Belgian, relation and
extension of the, to that of Kent and
Somerset. R. Etheridge on the, 878.

Coal question, the mechanical and econo-
mic problems of the, T. Forster Brown
on, 611.

—-, the Welsh methods of shipping,

Prof. J. Ryan on, 993.

—— Measures of Lancashire, the Lower,
anew Meduliosa from the. Dr. D. H.
Scott on, 1045.

CoATEs (H.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 530.

1075

Cobaltic compounds, green, R. G. Dur-
rant on, 840.

*COKER (E. G.) on an instrument for
measuring small torsional strains, 988.

COLEMAN (Prof. A. P.) on Canadian
Pleistocene flora and fauna, 522.

—— on photographs of geological interest
in Canada, 546.

COLLET (Miss C. E.) on the expenditure
of middle-class working women, 973.
Colonies, developments of the Wakefield
land system in the, W. P. Reeves on,

974.

Colour physiology, a circulatory appa-
ratus for use in researches on, F. W.
Keeble and F. W. Gamble on, 913.

Colours, new, diamidated aromatic ami-
dines, Prof. E. Noelting on, 843.

Conductivities of rocks, thermal, the
effect of pressure on, Dr. C. H. Lees
on the, 807.

Conductivity of water, thermal, Prof.
A. P. Chattock and 8. R. Milner on
the, 808.

Consonants, spirate fricative, R. J. Lloyd
on the, 777.

Continents and oceans, theories on the
distribution of the, Dr. J. W. Gregory
on, 938.

Cook (E. H.) on the action of electricity
on plants, 809.

* on the brush discharge, 810.

Cooky (C. W.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
627.

COPELAND (Prof. R.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 277.

Coral reef, Report on the investigation of
the structure of a, 556.

COoRDEAUX (J.)on making a digest of the ob-
servations on the migration of birds, 569.

CORNISH (Vaughan) on waves, 937. «

Corresponding Societies Committee :

Report, £1.

Conference at Bristol 42.

List of Corresponding Societies, 51.

Papers published by Local Societies,
54.

Cosmical physics, the application of ter-
restrial magnetism to the solution of
some problems of, Prof. A. Schuster
on, 745.

Cotton trade and shipping rings, J. R.
Galloway on, 968.

CREAK (Capt. E. W.) on the comparison
and reduction of magnetic observa-
tions, 80.

*____ on magnetic observations at Funa-
futi, 755.

Crick (G. C.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 529.

Crorts (J. M.) and R. §. MORRELL on
the action of hydrogen peroxide on
carbohydrates in the presence of iron
salts, 845.

322

1076

Crompton (R. E.) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 627.

Crook (C. V.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 530.

—— (H. T.) on the orthography, loca-
tion, and selection of names for the
national maps, 947.

CROOKE (W.) onthe Hill tribes of the
Central Indian Hills, their ethnology,
customs, and sociology, 1016.

CROOKES (Sir William) Presidential Ad-
dress by, 3.

Cross (C. F.) on the carbohydrates of
cereal straws, 293.

Crystals, the more exact determination
of the densities of, Earl of Berkeley
on, 837.

——~, reflection on the surface of, the
electromagnetic theory of, Dr. C. E.
Curry on, 811.

CUNNINGHAM (Lt.-Col. Allan) on tables
of certain mathematical functions, 145.

(Prof. D. J.) on an ethnographical

survey of the United Kingdom, 712.

(Dr. W.) on a plea for the study of
economic history, 962.

Cuo0Q (Abbé) on an ethnological survey of
Canada, 696.

Curry (Dr. C. HE.) on the electromagnetic
theory of reflection on the surface of
crystals, 811.

Curves, cycloidal and other,a new method
of describing, Prof. H. 8. Hele-Shaw
on, 792,

DAKyNS (J. R.) on the probable source
of the upper felsitic lava of Snowdon,
874.

Dalton’s law, W. N. Shaw on, 801.

Dartmoor, granite of, age and origin, A.
Somervail on the, 877.

* , the megalithic monuments of,
P. F. S. Amery on, 1021.

DARWIN (Francis) on the structure of a
coral reef, 556.

on the Knight- Darwin law, 1068.

— (Prof. G. H.) on the comparison and
reduction of magnetic observations,
80.

on seismological investigation, 179.
on the structure of a coral reef,
556.

(Horace) on seismological investi-

gation, 179.

(Maj. L.) on seismological investiga-
tion, 179.

Darwinian theory; the struggle for ex-
istence in certain insects, Prof. E. B.
Poulton and Cora B. Sanders on, 906.

DAviss (Geo. E.) on the effect of sugar
bounties, 969.

DAVISON (Dr. C.) on seismological inves-
tigation, 179.

REPORT—1898.

*DAVISON (R. C. H.) on new works at
Barry Docks, 987.

DAWKINS (Prof. Boyd) on Irish elk re-
mains in the Isle of Man, 548. ,

on the structure of a coral reef,

556.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 712.

—-— on the lake village of Glastonbury,
694.

Dawson (Dr. G. M.) on the North-
Western tribes of Canada, 628.

— on an ethnological survey of Canada,
696.

—— (Sir J. W.) on Canadian Pleistocene
Jlora and fauna, 522.

DEACON (G. F.) on seismological investi-
gation, 179.

Dr CANDOLLE (Prof. C.) on the peltation
of leaves, 1065.

Dre Carpr (M. le Compte C.) on the
natives of the Niger Delta, 1019.

Deep-sea expeditions, 1890-96, results
of the Austro-Hungarian, Dr. Natterer
on the, 938.

Densities of crystals, the more exact de-
termination of the, Earl of Berkeley
on, 837.

*DentT (Douglas) on Poor Law admini-
stration, 963.

Dr RANCE (C. E.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 552.

*DE RovuGEMONT (L.) on Central Aus-
tralia, 943.

*___ on the natives of North-West
Australia, 1015.

DEwak (Prof. J.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 313.

*DIBDIN (W. J.) on conditions necessary
for the successful treatment of sewage
by bacteria, 987. :

Dickson (H. N.) on the application of
photography to the elucidation of me-
teorological phenomena, 283.

on the climatology of Africa, 603.

—— on the temperature and salinity of
the surface waters of the North At-
lantic, 1895-96, 937.

*____and W. GARSTANG on a biological
and physical investigation of the
English Channel, 905.

Dictyota dichotoma, reproduction
J. Li. Williams on, 1044.

in,

Dielectric of a condenser, dissipation of ©

energy in the, E. B. Rosa and A. W.
Smith on the, 790.

Dinosauria, Sauropedous, families of,
Prof. O. C. Marsh on the, 909.

*Dinosaurian remains from the Oxford
Clay of Northampton, C. W. Andrews
on, 883.

Discussion on monthly magnetic means,
749,

INDEX.

Discussion on the publication of the
differences between the hourly and
monthly magnetic means, 749.

—— on the magnetic and electrolytic
effects of electric railways, 758.

* on the results of the recent Solar
Eclipse Expeditions, 801, 840.

on the alternation of generations in
plants, 1051.

Dispersion, the dynamical theory of,
Lord Kelvin on, 782.

DONALDSON (J. M.) and A. A. CAHEN on
a comparison between charging a
secondary cell at constant potential
and at constant pressure, 779.

Dorsetshire soils, analyses of, C. M. Lux-
moore on, 841.

Drosera, changes in the gland cells of,
produced by various food materials,
Lily H. Huie on, 1066. ;

Drying tube, aconvenient form of, A.G.V.
Harcourt on, 846.

DuNN (8. T.) on the origin of railway
vegetation, 1044.

DuNSTAN (Prof. W. R.) on the teach-
ing of science in elementary schools,
433.

DURRANT (R. G.) on green cobaltic
compounds, 840.

Dyed colours, the action of light upon,
Report on, 285.

Ear, the human, as a means of identifi-
cation, Miss M. A. Ellis on, 1011.

Earthquake in India, June 12, 1897, the
great, R. D. Oldham on, *882, 939.

— study, Prof. J. Milne on, 490.

EASTERFIELD (T. H.), T. B. Woop, and
W. T. N. SPIvEy, on the constitution
of oxycannabin, 849.

Echinodermata, classification.
matozoa.’

*Eclipse, solar, Discussion on the ob-
servations of the recent, 801, 840.

Economic aspects of the Imperial idea,
Ethel R. Faraday on, 964.

history, A plea for the study of,
by Dr. W. Cunningham, 962.

—— Science and Statistics, Address by
Dr. J. Bonar to the Section of, 950.
EDGEWORTH (Prof. F. Y.) on the mathe-

maticalrepresentation of statistics, 791.
Edinburgh outlook tower, Prof. J. Geddes
on the, 945.
*Egypt under the first three Dynasties,
Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie on, 1020.
Electric arc, drop of potential at the
carbons of the, Mrs. Ayrton on the, 805.

— balloon signalling in Arctic Ex-
peditions, E. Stuart Bruce on, 948.

+. brush discharge, E. H. Cook on
the, 810.

— canal haulage, A. H. Allen on, 995.

See ‘ Pel-

1077

Electric cell of Jacques, carbon-consum-
ing, 8S. Skinner on the, 804.

secondary cell, comparison between

charging an, at constant potential and

at constant volume, A. A. Cahen and

J. W. Donaldson on, 779.

earth-current observations, the in-

terpretation of, Prof. A. Schuster on,

756.

lighting and power plant combined
for docks and harbours, J. G. W. Ald-
ridge on, 994.

— system at Bristol, with special
reference to auxiliary plant, H. F.
Proctor on the, 991.

motor, application of the, to small

industrial purposes, and its effects on

trade, &c., A. H. Gibbings on the,
989.

* power in workshops, A. Siemens
on, 989.

—— —— and its application on the
three-phase system to the Bristol
Waggon and Carriage Works, W.
Geipel on, 989.

railways, magnetic and electrolytic

action of, Discussion on the, 758.

magnetic effects at Berlin of,

Dr. Eschenhagen on the, 759.

, the disturbance of magnetic
observatories by, Dr. W. von Bezold on,
758.

—— resistances, standard high, F. B.
Fawcett on, 805.

traction, economic and social in-
fluences of, Prof. 8. P. Thompson on,
968.

*____._____ by surface contacts, Prof. 8.
P. Thompson and Miles Walker on, 991.

— —- voltmeter, platinum, Prof. H. L.
Callendar on a, 788.

—— wind, velocity of the electricity in
the, Prof, A. P. Chattock on the, 801.
Electrical changes in nerve, excitatory,

Prof. F. Gotch and G. J. Burch on,’

716.

——- measurements, experiments for im-
proving the construction of practical
standards for, Report on, 145.

Appendix :

I. Comparison of the standard coils
used by Profs. J. V. Jones and W.
LE. Ayrton in determining the abso-
lute resistance of mercury, with the
standards of the Association, by R.
T. Glazebrook, 147.

II. On the temperature coefficient of the
10-ohm coils used in the 1897 deter-
mination of the ohm, by M. Solomon,
151.

Ill. An ampere balance, by Prof. W.
E. Ayrton and Prof. J. V. Jones, 157.

*_____ resistance, measurement of small
differences in, E. H. Griffiths on, 782.

1078

Electricity, the influence of, on plants,
S. Lemstrém, 808»

——., E. H. Cook on, 809.

Electrolysis and electro-chemistry, Me-
port on, 158. .

Electrolytes, state of ionisation in aque-
ous solutions containing two, Prof. J.
G. MacGregor on the, 803.

Electrolytic methods of quantitative ana-
lysis, Report on the, 294.

The determination of zinc, by Prof. W.
Carleton Williams, 295.

The determination of nickel and cobalt
(Part I.), by Hugh Marshall, 300.

analysis, a new form of stand for,
Dr. H. Marshall on, 830.
* effects of electric railways, Dis-

cussion on the, 758.

Electro-magnetic theory of reflection on
the surface of crystals, Dr. C. E. Curry
on, 811.

*Hlements, periodic classification of the,
position of helinm, argon, krypton, &c.,
in the, Prof. J. E. Reynolds on, 830.

Elk remains, Trish, in the Isle of Man,
Report on the, 548.

ELLIs (Miss M. A.) on the human ear as
a means of identification, 1011.

(W.) on the comparison and reduc-

tion of magnetic observations, 80.

magnetic results at Greenwich and
Kew discussed and compared, 1889-96,
80.

—— (W.G. P.) on a method of obtain-
ing material for illustrating smut in
barley, 1045.

ELPHINSTONE (G. K. B.) on the B. A. |

serem gauge, 627.

ELWortTHY (F. T.) on some Roman
symbolic hands, 1012.

Embryology of Alcyonium, Prof. S. J.
Hickson on the, 585.

Energy, conservation of, in the human
body, E. B. Rosa and W. O. Atwater
on the, 778.

——,, dissipation of, in the dielectric of
a condenser, E. B. Rosa and A. W.
Smith on the, 790.

*English Channel, a_ biological and
physical investigation of the, W. Gar-
stang and H. N. Dickson on, 905.

Finvelopes, a new instrument for drawing,
Prof. H. 8. Hele-Shaw on, 619.

Equivalent replacement of metals, Prof.
F. Clowes on the, 838.

Erratic blocks of the British Isles, Report
on the, 552.

ERRERA (Prof. Dr. L.) on theoretical cal-
culations of an osmotic optimum,
1067.

—— on the unit to be adopted for
osmotic measurements, 1068.

1068.

on the structure of the yeast-cell, |

REPORT—1898.

ESCHENHAGEN (Dr.) on simultaneous
magnetic observations, 748.

on the magnetic effects of electric
railways at Berlin, 759.

*ETHERIDGE (R.) on the relation and
extension of the Franco-Belgian Coal-
field to that of Kent and Somerset,
878.

Ethnographical survey of the United King-
dom, Sixth report on an, 712.

Ethnological Survey of Canada, Second
report on an, 696.

Etna, magnetic elements near, L. Palazzo
on the, 759.

Eurypterid-bearing rocks of the Pentland
Hills, Final report on the, 557.

EVANS(A. J.) on the Silchester excavation,
689.

on the lake village of Glastonbury,

694.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 712.

z on the place of the lake village of
Glastonbury in British Archzology,
1021.

|\_— (Sir J.) on the work of the Corre-

sponding Societies Committee, 41.

—— on the promotion of agriculture,
312.

—— onthe lake village of Glastonbury,
694.

EVERETT (Prof. J. D.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 145.

EWING (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigation, 179.

Expenditure of middle-class working
women, Miss C. E. Collet on the, 973.

Exploration, the use of balloons and
kites in, Capt. B. Baden-Powell on,
948.

*Factitious air, Sir F. J. Bramwell on,
987.

FARADAY (Ethel R.) on some economic
aspects of the Imperial idea, 964.

—- (F. J.) on the question of the ratio,
966.

FARMER (Prof. J.B.) on fertilisation in
Pheophycee, 729.

Fatty acids, the cooling curves of, Dr. A.
P. Lawrie and E. H. Strange on, 836.
FAWCETT (F. B.) on standard high re-

sistances, 805.

FENTON (H. J. H.) and H, JACKSON on
the oxidation of glycerol in presence of
ferrous iron, 844.

Fermanach caves, further exploration of
the, T. Plunkett cn the, 885.

Fern, a rare, Matonia pectinata, A. C.
Seward on, 1050.

Fertilisation of plants, the Knight-
Darwin law on the, F. Darwin on,
1068.

INDEX.

Fish in Scottish seas, effects of the
closure of certain areas on, Prof. W. C.
McIntosh on the, 911.

FITZGERALD (Prof. G. F.) on practical
electrical standards, 145.

FITZGERALD MARRIOTT (H. P.) on the
native secret societies of the west coast
of Africa, 1019.

FITZPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on practical
electrical standards, 145.

on electrolysis and electro-chemistry,
158.

FLEMING (Dr. J. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 145.

FLETCHER (A. E.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis,
294.

Flints, worked, from Glacial deposits of
Cheshire and the Isle of Man, J. Lomas
on, 882.

Floridez, the form of the protoplasmic
body in certain, R. W. Phillips on,
1044.

FLOWER (Sir W. H.) on zoological biblio-
graphy and publication, 558.

— on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 570.

on the Selangor caves, Singapore,
571.

Fluid, stream-line motion of a viscous,
Prof. H. 8. Hele-Shaw and Sir G. G4.
Stokes on the, 136, 143.

Fluids, thermal properties of, Prof. G.
Young on, 831.

FiLux (Prof. A. W.) on recent theories as
to saving and spending, 972.

Foorp (A. H.) on life zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 529.
FORBES (G.) on practical

standards, 145.

—— (H. 0.) on the structure of a coral
reef, 556.

on the migration of birds in Great
Britain and Ireland, 569.

Fossils, comparative value of different
kinds of, in determining geological age,
Prof. O. C. Marsh on the, 869.

Foster (A. Le Neve) on the B. A. screw
gauge, 627.

— (Dr. C. Le Neve) on the structure
of a coral reef, 556.

(Prof. G. C.) on practical electrical

standards, 145.

(Prof. Michael) on the promotion of

agriculture, 312.

on the functional activity of nerve
cells, 714.

Fox (H.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 529.

FRANKLAND (Prof. Percy) on the elec-
trolytic methods of quantitative
analysis, 294.

—w— on the action of Bacteria on the
photographic plate, 835.

electrical

1079

Functions, analytical, recent advances
in the theory of, E. T. Whittaker on,
793.

Fungus, a potato disease due to a, Prof.
Marshall Ward on, 1046.

Penicillium as a wood-destroying,

Prof. Marshall Ward on, 1048.

GALLOWAY (John R.) on shipping rings
and the Manchester cotton trade, 968.

GALT (Alex.) on heat of combination of
metals in the formation of alloys,
787.

GALTON (Sir Douglas) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
41.

on the physical and mental defects

of children in schools, 691.

(Francis) on the mork of the

Corresponding Societies Committee, 41.

on photographic records of pedigree

stock, 567.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 712.

GAMBLE (FI. W.) on the nerves of Areni-
cola, Nereis, &c., 584.

——. and F’. W. KEEBLE on a circulatory
apparatus for use in researches on
colour physiology, &c., 912.

GARSON (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 41.

on the physical and mental defects

of children in schools, 691.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 712.

GARSTANG (Walter) on the races and
migrations of the Mackerel, 902.

*____ and H. N. DICKSON on a biological
and physical investigation of the Eng-
lish Channel, 905.

GARWOOD (E. J.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 529.

—— on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 530.

GASKELL (Dr. W. H.) on the functional
activity of nerve cells, 714.

Gauge for small screws, the British
Association, 627.

Gaussian Constants, Prof. W. G. Adams
on the determination by J. C. Adams of
the, 109.

GEDDES (Prof. P.) on the Edinburgh out-
look tower, 945.

GEIKIE (Sir Archibald) on the structure
of a coral reef, 556.

(Prof. J.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 530.

GEIPEL (W.) on electric power and its
application in the three-phase system
to the Bristol Waggon and Carriage
Works, 989.

1080

GEMMILL (J. F.) on the pseudobranch
and intestinal canal of teleosteans,
588.

Geography, Address by Col. G. Karl
Church to the Section of, 914.

political, Dr. J. Scott Keltie on,
942.

Geological age, comparative value of
different kinds of fossils in determin-
ing, Prof. O. C. Marsh on the, 869.

photographs of interest, United King-

dom, 530; Canada, 546.

Survey, revision of South Wales and
Monmouthshire by the, A. Strahan on
the, 863.

Geology, Address by W. H. Hudleston
to the Section of, 852.

—of the Bristol District, Prof. C.
Lloyd Morgan on the, 862.

Geomorphological theories, Dr. J. W.
Gregory on, 988.

GIBBINGS (A. H.) on the application of
the electric motor to small industrial
purposes, and its effects on trade, and
on the community generally, 989.

GIBBS (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 313.

GIBSON (Prof. Harvey) on fertilisation in
Pheophycee, 729.

GIFFORD (J. W.) on lenses not of glass,
777.

GILBERT (Sir J. H.) on the promotion of
agriculture, 312.

GILL (Deemster) on Trish Elk remains
in the Isle of Man, 548.

Glacial deposits of Cheshire and the Isie
of Man, worked flints from, J. Lomas
on, 882.

sections at Moel Trifaen, E. Greenly
and A. B. Badger on the, 882.

GLADSTONE (G.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 433.

(Dr. J. H.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 433.

~—~- and W. HIBBERT on the absorption
of the Réntgen rays by chemical com-
pounds, 835.

GLAISHER (Dr. J. W. L.) on tables of
certain mathematical functions, 145.

Glastonbury, the Lake Village of, Report
on the, 694.

*

Archxology of the, A. J. Evans on,
1021.

GLAZEBROOK (R. T.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 145.

— on @& comparison of the standard
coils used by Profs. J. V. Jones and W.
EL. Ayrton in determining the absolute
resistance of mercury with the standards
of the Association, 147.

Globe, a proposed great, Prof. &. Reclus
on, 945.

Lake Village, the place in British |”

REPORT—1898.

Glycerol, oxidation of, in presence of fer-
rous iron, H. J. H. Fenton and H.
Jackson on, 844.

GOODCHILD (J. G.) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 530.

GOODRICH-FREER (Miss A.) on the folk-
lore of the Outer Hebrides, 1020.

Gotcn (Prof. F.) on the functional
activity of nerve cells, 714.

and G. J. BURCH on excitatory
changes in electrical nerve, 716.

Granite of Dartmoor, age and origin of
the, and its relations to the adjoining
strata, A. Somervail on the, 877.

GRAY (W.) on the collection of photographs
of geological interest in the United.
Kingdom, 530.

Green (Prof. J. R.) on the alcohol-pro-
ducing enzyme in yeast, 1046.

GREENHILL (Prof. A. G.) on tables of
certain mathematical functions, 145

GREENLY (Edward) on the occurrence of
Arenig shales beneath the Carboni-
ferous rocks at the Menai Bridge, 874.

on an uplift of boulders at Llan-
degfan, Menai Straits, 874.

—-—- and A. B. BADGER on the Glacial
sections at Moel Trifaen, 882.

GREGORY (J. W.) on the structure of w
coral reef, 556.

on theories on the distribution of
the oceans and continents, 938.

GRIFFITHS (EK. H.) on practical electrical.
standards, 145.

on electrolysis and electro-chemistry,,

158.

*____ on the measurement of small dif-
ferences in resistance, 782.
*____ on dilute solutions, 801.

Groom (Theodore) on the geologicat
structure of the Malvern and Abberley
Ranges, 872.

-—— on the age of the Malvern and
Abberley Ranges, 873.

Guernsey, the folk-lore of, the late Mrs.
M. Aynsley on, 1023.

GUISE (R. E.) on the tribes inhabiting
the vicinity of the mouth of the
Wanigela (Kemp Witch) River, New
Guinea, 1017.

Gun-cotton, the action of ammonia on,.
W. R. Hodgkinson and Capt. Owen on,
847.

Guppy (H.B.) on the structure of a corat
reef, 556.

HADDON (Prof. A. C.) on the structure
of a coral reef, 556.

—— on the Yorres Straits expedition,
688.

on an ethnological survey ef Canada,

696.

INDEX.

HApDpDON (Prof. A. C.) on an ethnographi-
cal survey of the. United Kingdom, 712.
*HADFIELD (R.A.), Prof.W. F, BARRETT,
and W. BRowN on the electric conduc-
tivity of a series of new alloys of iron
and magnetic permeability, 805.
HALIBURTON (R. G.) on the North-
Western tribes of Canada, 628.
HALLIBURTON (Prof. W. D.) on the
Sunetional activity of nerve cells, 714.
and Dr. F. W. Morr on the effects
upon blood pressure produced by the
intravenous injection of fluids contain-
ing choline, neurine, and allied sub-
stances, 717.
Hands, Roman symbolic, F. T. Elworthy
on some, 1012.
HANITSCH (Dr. R.) on the Selangor caves,
Singapore, 571.
Harcourt (A. G. Vernon) ona 10-candle
lamp to be used as a standard of light,
845.
— on a convenient form of drying
tube, 846.
HARRISON (Dr. A. J.) on the so-called
fascination of snakes, 911.
—— (Rev. 8. N.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 552.
HARTLAND (EK. Sidney) on an ethno-
logical survey of Canada, 696.
onan ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 712.
HARTLEY (Prof. W. N.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 313.
HARVIE-BROWN (J. A.) on making a
digest of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 569.
HAWKSHAW (J. C.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 556.
HAYcRAFT (Prof. J. B.) on the fune-
tional activity of nerve cells, 714.
Hebrides, the Outer, the folk-lore of the,
Miss A. Goodrich-Freer on, 1020.
HELE-SHAW (Prof. H. 8.) on the motion
of a thin film of viscous fluid investi-
gated experimentally, 136.
on a new instrument for drawing
envelopes, and its application to the
teeth of wheels and for other purposes,
619.

-—— on a new method of describing
eycloidal and other curves, 792.

HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on zoological
bibliography and publication, 558.

— on the life conditions of the oyster,
559.

on the occupation of a table at the
Zoological Station at Naples, 587.

Hewitt (C. J.) on the B. A. screw gauge,
627.

HIBBERT (Walter) and Dr. J. H. GLAD-
STONE on the absorption of the Rént-
gen rays by chemical compounds, 835.

1082

Hicks (Dr. H.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 556.

-—— (Prof. W. M.) on tables of certain
mathematical functions, 145.

Hickson (Prof. 8. J.) on the structure
of a coral reef, 556.

on the occupation of a. table at the

Zoological Station at Naples, 587.

on the present state of our know-
ledge of the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 558.

—— on the embryology of Alcyonium,
585.

Hinu-TourT (C.) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 696.

*___ on some rock-drawings from
British Columbia, 1016.

HILTON-PRICE (F. G.) on an _ ethno-
graphical survey of the United King-
dom, 712.

HIND (Dr, Wheelton) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 529.

HINDE (Dr. G. J.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 529.

Histology of nerve cells, Gustav Mann on.
the, 719.4

HOBLEY (C. W.) on the languages of
Kavirondo, 1020.

HODGKINSON (W. R.) and A. H. Cootr
on alkaline chlorates and sulphates of
heavy metals, 839.

—— and Capt. OWEN on the action of
ammonia on gun-cotton, 847.

HOLpDICH (Col. Sir Thomas) on the
Swati and Afridi, 1017.

—— on Tirah, 944.

HOLLAND (T. H.) on the comparative
actions of subaérial and submarine
agents in rock decomposition, 868.

Houtmes (T. V.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 41.

HOPKINSON (J.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 41.

—— on the application of photography
to the elucidation of meteorological
phenomena, 283.

on the rainfall of the south-west of
England, 799.

HORNE (J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 552.

HowartH (0. H.) on a journey in
Mexico across the Sierra Madre from.
Mazatlan to Durando, 941.

on human life at extreme altitudes,
1010.

HowortyH (Sir Henry) on an ethno-
graphical survey of the United Kingdom,
(ley,

HOYLE (W. E.) on zoological bibliography
and publication, 558.

—- on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 570.

on the occupation of a table at the

Zoological Station at Naples, 587.

1082.

*HoYLE (W. E.) Demonstration of Dr.
Field’s card-catalogue of zoological
literature by, 916.

HUDLESTON (W. H.), Address to the
Section of Geology by, 852.

—— on the eastern margin of the North
Atlantic basin, 881.

Huts (Lily H.) on changes in the gland
cells of Drosera produced by various
food materials, 1066.

Hutu (Prof. E.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 552.

—— onthe sub-oceanic physical features
of the North Atlantic, 879.

HumMeE. (Prof. J. J.) on the action of
light wpon dyed colours, 285.

Hydraulic power transmission by com-
pressed air, W. G. Walker on, 994.

Hydrometers of total immersion, A. W.
Warrington on, 791.

Identification, the human ear as a means
of, Miss M. A. Ellis on, 1011.

Imperial idea, some of the economic
aspects of the, Ethel R. Faraday on,
964.

Index generum et specierum animalium,
Report on the compilation by C. Davies
Sherborn of an, 570.

Indian Hill tribes, the Central, W.
Crooke on, 1016.

Indians, Musquakie, the myths and
customs of the, Mary A. Owen on,
1016.

Industrial conciliation, L. L. Price on,
963.

Insect life, some myths and fancies of,
S. C. Southam on, 1023.

Insects, the struggle for existence in
certain, Prof. Poulton and Cora B.
Sanders on, 906.

Intelligence of animals as an experi-
mental study, Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan
on the, 909.

*Tron alloys, new, electric conductivity
and magnetic permeability of, Prof.
W.F. Barrett, W. Brown, and R. A.
Hadfield on the, 805.

Isle of Man, Trish elk remains in the,
Report on the, 548.

TIsomeric naphthalene derivatives, Eleventh
report on the investigation of, 312.

JACKSON (H.) and H. J. H. FENTON on
the oxidation of glycerol in presence
of ferrous iron, 844.

* JAMESON (Dr. H. L.) ona case of pro-
tective resemblance in mice, 905.

Japan, tabu in, K. Minakata on, 1011.

JAPP (Prof. F. R.), Address to the Section
of Chemistry by, 813.

REPORT—1898.

JOHNSON (Claude) on the hydraulic sys-
tem of jointing of tubes on tubular
bodies, 987. ?

Jones (C. E.) on the anatomy of the
stem of species of Lycopodium, 1051.
(Prof. J. Viriamu) on practical elec-

trical standards, 145.

and Prof. W. HE. AYRTON on an

ampere balance, 157.

(Prof. T. Rupert) on the Phyllopoda

of the Paleozoie rocks, 519.

on the eurypterid-bearing rocks of
the Pentland Hills, 557.

JuDD (Prof. J. W.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 556.

*JULIN (Prof. Ch.) on the development of
the heart in Tunicata, 916. e

Kamchatka, North-eastern, a visit to,
Capt. Barrett-Hamilton on, 944.

Karivondo, the languages of, C. W. Hob-
ley on, 1020.

KEEBLE (F. W.) and F. W. GAMBLE on
a circulatory apparatus for use in re-
searches on colour physiology, c.,
913.

KELTIE (Dr. J. Scott) on political geo-
graphy, 942.

KELVIN (Lord) on the comparison and
reduction of magnetic observations, 80.

on tables of certain mathematical

Junctions, 145.

on practical electrical standards,
145.

—— on seismological investigation, 179.

—— on the B. A. screw gauge, 627.

on the dynamical theory of refrac-

~ tion, dispersion, and anomalous dis-
persion, 782.

—— on the continuity in theory of
waves, mechanical, luminous, and
electromagnetic, 783.

—- on graphic representations of the
two simplest cases of a single wave,
792.

KENDALL (Prof. P. F.) on life-zones in
the British Carboniferous rocks, 529.
on the erratic blocks of the British

Isles, 552.

Kentish migrations, traces of early, T.
W. Shore on, 1022.

KERMODE (P. M. C.) on Irish elk remains
in the Isle of Man, 548.

KIpsTon (R.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 529.

on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 530,

KinG@sLEy (Miss Mary H.) on the law
and nature of property among the
peoples of the true negro stock, 1018.

Kirk (Sir John) on the climatology of
Africa, 603.

INDEX.

KIRKLEY ‘(J. W.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 529.

*Kites, American, a new form of, Prof.
A. Schuster on, 797.

——, exploration of the air by means of,
A. L. Rotch on the, 797.

KLEps (Prof. Georg) on alternation of
generations in the thallophytes, 1057.
Knight-Darwin law, F. Darwin on the,

1068.

Kwyort (Prof. C. G.) on seismological
investigation, 179.

KNUBLEY (Rev. E. P.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 569.

Koun (Dr. C. A.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 294.
—— onthe life conditions of the oyster, 559.
Krauss (A.) on the Tarahumare people

of Mexico, 1015.

LAMPLUGH (G. W.) on Canadian Pleis-
tocene flora and fauna, 522.

—— on life-zones in the British Car-
boniferous rocks, 529.

on Irish elk remains in the Isle of
Man, 548.

Land system, the Wakefield, and the
developments from it in the Colonies,
W. P. Reeves on, 974.

LANG (W. H.) on the prothallus of Ly-
copodium clavatum, 1050.

on alternation of generations in the
Archegoniate, 1051.

LANGLEY (Dr. J.N.) on the functional
activity of nerve cells, 714.

LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on investiga-
tions made at the Marine Biological
Laboratory at Plymouth, 583.

—— on the occupation of a table at the
Zoological Station at Naples, 587.

LAPWORTH (Prof. C.) on the structure of
@ coral reef, 556.

LAURIE (Dr. A. P.) and E. H. STRANGE
on the cooling curves of fatty acids,
836.

(M.) on the eurypterid-bearing
rocks of the Pentland Hills, 557.

*LAYARD (Miss Nina) on walled-up
skeletons, 1022.
Leadhillite in ancient leadslags from the
Mendip Hills, L. J. Spencer on, 875.
Leather trade, recent advances in the,
J. G. Parker on, 842.

Leaves, the peltation of, Prof. C. de Can-
dolle on, 1065.

LEBour (Prof. G. A.) on seismological
investigation, 179.

on life-zones in the British Carboni-
Serous rocks, 529.

LEES (Dr. C. H.) on the effect of pressure
on the thermal conductivities of rocks,
807.

1083

LEITH (George) on stone implements
from §. Africa, 1011.

LEMSTROM (Selim) on the relations
between the variations in earth cur-
rents, electric currents from the atmo-
sphere, and magnetic perturbations,
755.

—— on the influence of electricity on
plants, 808.

Lenses not of glass, J. W. Gifford on, 777.

Lepidodendron allied to L. fuliginvsum, a
fine specimen of an halonial branch of
a, Dr. D. H. Scott on, 1049.

Lewis (A. L.) on the stone-circles of
Stanton Drew, 1014.

Life of man at extreme altitudes, O. H.
Howarth on, 1010.

LTife-zones in the British Carboniferous
rocks, Report on, 529.

Light, absorption of, ina magnetic field,
the discovery by Righi of the, Prof.
S. P. Thompson on, 789.

——, the action of, upon dyed colours,
Report on, 285.

——, Standard of,a 10-candle lamp to
be used as a, A. G. V. Harcourt on,
845.

*Limestone, the work of encrusting or-
ganisms in the formation of, H. Weth-
ered on, 883.

LIVEING (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 313.

LiznaRk (Prof. J.) on the variation of
terrestrial magnetic force with alti-
tude, 760.

LuoyD (R. J.) on the articulation and
acoustics of the spirate fricative con-
sonants, 777.

LLoyD MorGAN (Prof. C.) on the geology
of the Bristol District, 862.

—— on animal intelligence as an experi-
mental study, 909.

on the prehistoric antiquities of the
neighbourhood of Bristol, 1014.

LockYER (Sir J. N.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 313.

LopGs (Prof. A.) on tables of certain
mathematical functions, 145,

(Dr. O. J.) on practical electrical
standards, 145.

—— on a magnifying telephone, 782.

Logarithmic coordinates, the use of, J. H.
Vincent on, 159.

Logic, the imaginary of, Prof. G. J.
Stokes on, 796.

Lomas (J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 552.

on worked flints from Glacial de-
posits of Cheshire and the Isle of Man,
882.

LusBBock (Sir John) on the teaching of
science in elementary schouls, 433.

1084

Luminosity produced by striking sugar,
J. Burke on the, 810.

LUXMORE (C. M.) on analyses of Dorset-
shire soils, 841.

Lycopodium clavatum, the prothallus of,
W. H. Lang on, 10650.

-_—- the anatomy of the stem of species
of, C. E. Jones on, 1051.

MACALLUM (Dr. A. B.) on the Canadian
biological station in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, 582.

on the functional activity of nerve
cells, 714.

*___on the micro-chemistry of cells,
905.

*_ on the detection of phosphorus in
tissues, 923.

MACBRIDE (Prof. E. W.) on the Canadian
biological station in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, 582.

MacGregor (Prof. J. G.) on the deter-
mination of the state of ionisation in
dilute aqueous solutions containing
two electrolytes, 803.

MoIntTosH (Prof. W. C.) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the Zoological Station
at Naples, 587.

——. on the effects on fish of the closure
of certain areas in Scottish seas, 911.
McKEnpRIck (Prof. J. G.) on the fune-

tional activity of nerve cells, 714.

Mackerel, races and migrations of the,
W. Garstang on the, 902.

MACLACHLAN (R.) on the compilation of
an index generum et specierum anima-
liwm, 570.

McLAREN (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 277.

MACLEAN (Rev. John) on an ethnological
Survey of Canada, 696.

McLeop (Prof. C. H.) on the meteorolo-
gical observatory at Montreal, 79.

—— (Prof. H.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 439.

MacmAnon (Prof. P. A.) on tables of
certain mathematical functions, 145.
Macotn (Prof. J.) on the Canadian
biological station in the Gulf of St.

Lawrence, 582.

MADAN (H. G.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 439.

Magnetic bar suspended from its centre
of gravity, movement of the N. pole of
a, J. B. Capello on the, 750.

—— elements of the earth, the systematic
investigation of the secular variations
of the, Dr. Ad. Schmidt on, 747.

— elements, influence of altitude on
the, Dr. van Rijckevorsel and Dr.
van Bemmelen on the, 760; Prof. J.
Liznar on the, 760.

—— elements near Etna, L. Palazzo on
the, 759.

REPORT—1898.

Magnetic field, discovery by Righi of the
absorption of light in a, Prof. 8. P.
Thompson on the, 789.

*_____ field, radiation from a source of
light in a, Prof. T. Preston on, 789.
—— and meteorological phenomena,
analogies between the yearly ranges of

some, Dr. van Rijckevorsel on, 797.

—— monthly means, Discussion on, 749.

—— hourly and monthly means, publica-
tion of the differences between the,
Discussion on the, 749.

— observations in the Azores, the

Prince of Monaco on, 749.

observations, Report on comparing

qnd reducing, 80.

I. Magnetic results at Greenwich and
Kew, 1889-1896, by W. Eilis, 80.

II. Account of J. C. Adams’ determina-
tion of the Gaussian constants, by
Prof. W. G. Adams, 109.

— observations, simultaneous, Dr.
Eschenhagen on, 748.
*______ observations at Funafuti, Capt.

EK. W. Creak on, 755.

observatories, the establishment of

temporary, especially in tropical

countries, Prof. von Bezold and Gen.

Ryhkatcheff on, 743.

observatories, Dr. M. Snellen on, 757.

*____ observatories in Cape Colony, Dr.
Beattie and Mr. Morrison on, 750.

—— perturbations, earth currents, and
electric currents from the atmosphere
relations between, S. Lemstrém on, 755.

—— potential of the earth, a simple
method of obtaining the expression of
the, in a series of spherical harmonics,
Prof. A. Schuster on, 752.

Magnetism, Terrestrial and Atmospheric
Electricity, International Conference
on :-—

Address by Prof. A. W. Riicker to
the, 733.
Proceedings, 741.
Extracts from the Report of the
Permanent Committee, 761.
Constitution of the Committee.
International Conference.
Meetings and Resolutions of
the Committee.
Future organisation
Committee.

Magnetism, the application of terrestrial,
to the solution of some problems of
cosmical physics, Prof. A. Schuster on,
745.

Magnets, long and short, the relative ad-
vantages of, Prof. E. Mascart on, 741.
—— of constant intensity under changes
of temperature, the construction of,

J. R. Ashworth on, 742.

Maaunuvs (Sir P.) on the teaching of seience

in elementary schools, 433.

of the

INDEX.

Malvern and Abberley Ranges, age of
the, T. Groom on the, 873.

—, geological structure, T. Groom on
the, 872.

MANN (Dr.) on the functional activity of
nerve cells, 714.

MANsoN (Marsden) on the laws of
climatic evolution, 878.

Maps, national, orthography, location,
and selection of names for the, H. T.
Crook on the, 947.

MARR (J. E.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 529.

MarksH (Prof. O. C.) on the comparative
value of different kinds of fossils in
determining geological age, 869.

on the families of Sauropodous
Dinosauria, 909.

MARSHALL (Dr. Hugh) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 294,
300.

*____ on a new form of stand for electro-
lytic analysis, 830.

*Marshall’s proof that Precis octavia-
natacensis and P. sesamus are seasonal
forms of the same species, Prof. EH. B.
Poulton on, 902.

MARTEN (H. D.) on schemes for the im-
provement of the waterway between
the Bristol Channel and the Birming-
ham District, 991.

MaAscartT (Prof. E.) on the relative ad-
vantages of long and short magnets,
74]

MASTERMAN (A. T.) on the origin of the
vertebrate notochord and pharyngeal
clefts, 914.

Mathematical functions, Report on tables
of certain, 145.

—— and Physical Science, Address by
Prof. W. E. Ayrton to the Section of,
767.

MaAvor (Prof. J.) on the promotion of
agriculture, 312.

Mechanical Science, Address by Sir John
Wolfe-Barry to the Section of, 976.
Medizval population of Bristol, Dr. J.

Beddoe on the, 1013.

Medullosa, a new, from the Lower Coal-
measures of Lancashire, Dr. D. H.
Scott on, 1045.

Megalithic remains near Bristol, Prof. C.
Lloyd Morgan on, 1014.

MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
41.

—— on seismological investigation, 179.

on the application of photography

to the elucidation of meteorological

phenomena, 283.

on the action of light upon dyed

colours, 285.

on an ethnographical survey of the

United Kingdom, 712.

1085

Menai Bridge, Arenig shales beneath the
Carboniferous rocks at, E. Greenly on,
874.

—— Straits, an uplift of boulders at
Llandegfan, E. Greenly on, 874.

Mendip Hills, leadhillite in ancient lead
slags from the, L. J. Spencer on,
875.

Mental and physical defects of children
in schools, Report on the, 691.

Metals, equivalent replacement of, Prof.
F. Clowes, 838.

, heat of combination of, in the
formation of alloys, A. Galt on, 787.
Meteor streams, the dynamical explana-
tion of certain observed phenomena

of, Dr. G. J. Stoney on, 793.

Meteorological exploration of the air by
means of kites, A. L. Rotch on the,
797.

-—— and magnetic phenomena, analogies
between the yearly ranges of some,
Dr. van Rijckevorsel on, 797.

—— observations on Ben Nevis, Report
on, 277.

—— phenomena, the application of photo-
graphy to the elucidation of, Highth
report on, 283.

observatory at Montreal, Report on
the, 79.

Mexico, a journey in, across the Sierra
Madre from Mazatlan to Durango,
O. H. Howarth on, 941.

MIALL (Prof. L.C.) on the Torres Straits
expedition, 688.

*Mice, a case of protective resemblance
in, Dr. H. L. Jameson on, 905.

Miprs (Prof. H. A.) on the origin of
stone-worship, 1013.

Migration of birds, Interim report of the
Committee for making a digest of the
observations on the, 569.

Miuu (Dr. H. BR.) on the climatology of
Africa, 603.

on the prospects of Antarctic re-
search, 942.

MILts (Prof.) on the promotion of agri-
culture, 312.

—— (Dr. T. Wesley) on the Canadian
biological station in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, 582.

MILNE (Prof. J.) on seismological investi-
gation, 179.

———- on earthquake study, 940.

MILNER (S. R.) and Prof. A. P. CHat-
TOCK on the thermal conductivity of
water, 808.

MinakaTa (K.) on tabu in Japan in
ancient, medizval, and modern times,
101).

Minerals, British, Supplementary list of,
by L. J. Spencer, 875.

Moel Trifaen, Glacial sections at, E.
Greenly and A. B. Badger on the, 882

1086

Monaco (the Prince of) on magnetic
observations in the Azores, 749.

Money, gold and silver, the ratio for,
F. J. Faraday on, 966.

Montreal Meteorologicat
Report on the, 79.

Montzu of Western Sze-chuan,
Isabella Bishop on the, 1017.

MoRRELL (R. 8.) and J. M. CROFTS on
the action of hydrogen peroxide on
carbohydrates in the presence of iron
salts, 845.

*MOoORRISON (J. T.) and Dr. BEATTIE on
magnetic observatories in Cape Colony,
750.

Morton (G. H.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 529.

Mort (F. W.) and Prof. W. D. HALLI-
BURTON on the effects upon blood-
pressure produced by the intravenous
injection of fluids containing choline,
neurine, and allied substances, 717.

MUIRHBAD (Dr. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 145.

Municipal enterprises, profit from, in aid
of rates, E. Cannan on, 967.

frontiers, rectification of, W. M.
Acworth on, 968.

Municipalities as traders, G. Pearson on,
966.

Munro (Dr. R.) on the lake village of
Glastonbury, 694.

Murray (Sir John) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 277.

on the structure of a coral reef, 297.

Myelination of nerve fibres, H. V. Ander-
son on, 717.

Myres (J. L.) on the Silchester eacava-
tion, 689.

Observatory,

Mrs.

NAGEL (D. H.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 439.

Naphthalene derivatives, Eleventh report
on the investigation of isomerie, 311.

NATTERER (Dr. K.) on the oceano-
graphical results of the Austro-Hun-
garian deep-sea expeditions 1890-96,
938.

Negro stock, the true, the law and nature
of property among, Miss Mary H.
Kingsley on, 1018.

Neon and argon, extraction from air of
the companions of, Prof. W. Ramsay
and M. W. Travers on the, 828.

Nerve-cells, the functional activity of,
and their peripheral extensions, Report
on, 714.

Appendia :
I. Structural alterations observed in
_ nerve cells, by W. B. Warrington, 715.
Il. Excitatory electrical changes in
nerve, by Prof. F. Gotch and G@. J.
Burch, 716.

REPORT—1898.

Ill. The effects upon blood-pressure
produced by the intra-venous in-
jection of fluids containing choline,
neurine, and allied substances, by
EF. W. Mott and Prof. W. D. Halli-
burton, 717.

IV. The myelination of nerve-fibres, by
HI. V. Anderson, 717.

V. The histology of nerve cells, by
Gustav Mann, 719.

Nerves of Arenicola, Nereis, Sc., F. W.
Gamble on the, 584.

*Newcomen engine at Long Ashton,
W. H. Pearson on an old, $87.

New Guinea, the tribes near the mouth
of the Wanigela River, R. E. Guise on,
1017.

NEWTON (Prof. A.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 538.

—— on making a digest of the observa-
tions on the migration of birds, 569.

NICHOLSON (Prof. H. A.) on life-zones in
the British Carboniferous rocks, 529.

Niger Delta, the natives of the, M. le
Compte C. de Cardi on, 1019.

*Nile, the Upper, Sir C. W. Wilson on,
943.

Nitroso-pinene, J. A. Smythe on, 849.

NoELTING (Prof. EK.) on diamidated
aromatic amidines, a new class of
colouring matters, 843.

*Nomenclature, the report of the Inter-
national Zoological Congress on, Rey.
T. R. R. Stebbing on, 905.

North-Western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada, Twelfth report on the, 628.
I. Physical characteristics of the tribes

of British Columbia, by Franz
Boas and Livingston Farrand, 628.

II. The Chilcotin, by L. Farrand, 645.

Ill. The social organisation of the
Haida, by F. Boas, 648.

IV. Linguistics, by F. Boas, 654.

V. Summary of the work of the Com-
mittee, by F. Boas, 667.

Appendix:

Index to Reports TV .-XII., 684.

Notochord and pharyngeal clefts in
Vertebrata, the origin of the, A. T.
Masterman on, 914,

*OLDHAM (R. D.) on the great earth-
quake of 1897, 882.

—— on the great Indian earthquake of
June 12, 1897, 939.

*OSBORN (Prof. H. F.) on restoration by
Charles Knight of extinct Vertebrates,
883.

Osmotic optimum, theoretical calcula-
tions of an, Prof. L. Errera on, 1067.
—— measurements, the unit to be

adopted for, Prof, L. Errera on, 1068.

INDEX.

OWEN (Capt.) & W. R. HODGKINSON on
the action of ammonia on gun-cotton,
847.

— (Mary A.) on the myths and
customs of the Musquakie Indians,
1016.

Oxycannabin, constitution of, T. B.
Wood, W.T.N. Spivey and T. H. Easter-
field on the, 849.

Oyster, life conditions of the, normal and
abnormal, Third report on the, 559.

Palzolithic conditions in Tasmania and
Australia, the survival of, Prof. E. B.
Tylor on, 1014.

PALAZZO (Luigi) on the form of the
isomagnetic lines in ‘the neighbour-
hood of the volcano Etna, 759.

Pacific telegraph cable, C. Bright on the,
996.

PARKER (J. Gordon) on recent advances
in the leather trade, 842.

PARKINSON (J.) on the variation of Car-
dium, Donax, and Tellina, 593.

Parks (W. A.) on photographs of geo-
logical interest in Canada, 546.

PATTERSON (Rev. Dr. G.) on an ethno-
logical survey of Canada, 696.

PEACH (B.N.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 529.

PEARSON (George) on municipalities as
traders, 966.

— (H. H.W.) on apogeotropic roots
of Bonenia spectabilis, 1066.

*___ (W. H.) on an old Newcomen
engine at Long Ashton, 987.

Pedigree stock, photographic records of,
F. Galton on, 567.

PEEK (Sir Cuthbert E.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
41.

on the North-western tribes of
Canada, 628.

Pelmatozoa (Echinodermata &c.), phylo-
genetic classification of the, F. A.
Bather on a, 916.

'Peltation of leaves, Prof. C. de Candolle
on the, 1065.

PENHALLOW (Prof. D. P.) on Canadian
Pleistocene flora and fauna, 522, 525.

on the Canadian biological station
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 582.

— on an ethnological survey of Canada,
696.

Peptone and its precursors, the physio-
logical effects of, when introduced into
the circulation, Second interim report
on, 720.

PERKIN (Dr. W. H.) on the action of light
upon dyed colours, 285.

PERRY (Prof. John) on practical electrical
standards, 145.

on seismological investigation, 179.

1087

*PBETRIE (Prof. W. M. Flinders) on Egypt
under the first three Dynasties, in the
light of recent discoveries, 1020.

= on traces of Terramare settlements
in modern Italian towns, 1021.

Pheophycea, fertilisation in,
interim report on, 729.

PHILLIPS (Prof. R W.) on fertilisation
in Pheophycea, 729.

on the form of the protoplasmic
body in certain Floridex, 1044.

*Phosphorus, the detection of, in tissues,
Prof. A. B. Macallum on, 923.

Photographic image, undeveloped, action
of certain substances on the, C. H.
Bothamley on the, 850.

plate, action of certain metals and

organic bodies on a, Dr. W. J. Russell

on the, 834.

» action of bacteria on the, Prof.
Percy Frankland on the, 835.

*____ record, the national, Sir B. Stone
on, 943.

records of pedigree stock, F. Galton
on, 567.

Photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, Ninth report on, 530.

in Canada, Report on, 546.

Photography, the application of, to the
elucidation of meteorological pheno-
mena, Highth report on, 283.

Phyllopoda of the Paleozoie rocks
Hourteenth report on the, 519.

Physical and Mathematical Science, Ad-
dress by Prof. W. E. Ayrton to the
Section of, 767.

PICKERING (S. U.) on the promotion of
agriculture, 312.

PitTt-RIVERS (Gen.) on the lake village
of Glastonbury, 694.

on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 712.

Plants, the influence of electricity on, 8.
Lemstrém on, 808.

—— E. H. Cook on, 809.

Pleistocene Canadian flora and fauna,
Report on, 522.

Appendiz :
Pleistocene flora of the Don Valley, by
Prof. D. P. Penhallow, 525.

PLUMMER (W. E.) onphotograms obtained

with the seismometer in the Liverpool
Observatory, 272.

PLUNKETT (Thomas) on further explora-
tion of the Fermanagh Caves, 885.

Plymouth, Report on the occupation of a
table at the Marine Biological Labora-
tory, 583.

*Pocock (R. I.) on musical organs in
spiders, 914.

POLLEN (Rev. G. C. H.) on the Ty
Newydd Cave, Tremeirchion, 884.

*Poor Law administration, Douglas Dent
on, 963.

Second

1088

Poor Law schools, A defence of, by W.
Chance, 962.

Potato disease, Prof. H. Marshall Ward
on a, 1046.

Potentiometer, a pneumatic analogue of
the, W. N. Shaw on, 778.

PouLTon (Prof. E. B.) on the promotion
of agriculture, 312.

us on G. A. K. Marshall’s proof that
Precisoctavia-natacensis and P. sesamus
are seasonal forms of the same species,
902.

and Cora B. Sanders on an experi-
mental enquiry into the struggle for
existence in certain common insects,
906.

PoyntTING (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigation, 179.

PREECE (W. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 145.

on the B. A. screw gauge, 627.

PRENTICE (Manning) on the carbo-
hydrates of cereal strans, 293.

Presidential Address at Bristol by Sir
William Crookes, 3

_ *PRrston (Prof. T.) on radiation from a
source of light in a magnetic field,
789.

Price (Prof. B.) on tables of certain
mathematical functions, 145.

—— (L. L.) on industrial conciliation,
963.

—_— (W. A.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 627.

PRINCE (Prof. E. E.) on the Canadian
biological station in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, 582.

*ProoToR (H. Faraday) on the electric
lighting system at Bristol, with special
reference to auxiliary plant, 991.

Publication, zoological, and bibliography,
Report on, 558.

*Radiation from a source of light in a
magnetic field, Prof. T. Preston on,
789.

Railway vegetation, the origin of, S. T.
Dunn on, 1044.

Rainfall of the south-west of England,
J. Hopkinson on the, 799.

Ramsay (Prof. W.) and M. W. TRAVERS
on the extraction from air of the com-
panions of argon and neon, 828.

RAVENSTEIN (E. G.) on the climatology
of Africa, 603.

—— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 712.

RAYLEIGH (Lord) on practical electrical
standards, 145.

READ (C.H.) on ancient works of art
from Benin City, 1020.

Recuvs (Prof. Elisée) on a proposed
great globe, 945.

Reed organ of the Lao Shans, H. Waring-
ton Smyth on the, 1013.

REPORT—1898,

| REEVES (W. P.) on the Wakefield land

system, and the developments from it
in the Colonies, 974.

Refraction, dispersion, and anomalous
dispersion, the dynamical theory of,
Lord Kelvin on, 782.

Rep (A. 8.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 530.

(Clement) on the Selangor caves,
Singapore, 571.

i (G. A.) on a new theory of retro-
gression, 911.

RENNIE (J.) on practical electrical
standards, 145.

Reproduction in WDietyota dichotoma,
J. Ll. Williams on, 1044.

*Research, juvenile, Prof. H. E. Arm-
strong on, 840.

*Retrogression, a new theory of, G. A.
Reid on, 911.

REYNOLDS (Prof. J. Emerson) on the
electrolytic methods of quantitative
analysis, 294.

e on the position of helium, argon,
krypton, &c., in the periodic classifica-
tion of the elements, 830.

- on the effect of varying propor-
tions of carbon dioxide on the acety-
lene flame, 845.

RIDEAL (Dr. 8.) on standards of purity
for sewage effluents, 847.

Ripuey (H. N.) on the Selangor caves,
Singapore, 571.

Righi’s discovery of the absorption of
light in a magnetic field, Prof, S. P.
Thompson on, 789.

RIJCKEVORSEL (Dr. van) on analogies
between the yearly ranges of some
meteorological and magnetic pheno-
mena, 797.

and Dr. van BEMMELEN on the in-
fluence of altitude above the sea on
the elements of terrestrial magnetism,
760.

ROBERTS (Dr. I.) on seismological investi-
gation, 179.

ROBERTS-AUSTEN (Prof. W. C.) on the
bibliography of spectroscopy, 439.

ROBERTSON (Prof. J. W.) on the promo-
tion of agriculture, 312.

Rock decomposition, comparative actions —
of subaérial and submarine agents in, ©
T. H. Holland on the, 868.

* drawings from British Columbia,
C. Hill-Tout on some, 1016.

Rocks, thermal conductivities of, effect
of pressure on the, Dr. C. H. Lees on
the, 807.

Roman symbolic hands, F. T. Elworthy
on some, 1012.

Roéntgen rays, absorption of the, by
chemical compounds, Dr. J. H. Glad-
stone and W. Hibbert, 835.

INDEX.

Roots of Bowenia spectabilis, apogeo-
tropic, H. H. W. Pearson on, 1066.

Rosa (H. B.) and W.O. ATWATER on the
conservation of energy in the human
body, 778.

—— and A. W. SMITH on the dissipation
of energy in the dielectric of a con-
denser, 790.

ROscozE (Sir H. E.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 313.

on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 433.

Ross (Hon. G. W.) on the North- Western
tribes of Canada, 628.

Rorcen (A. L.) on progress in the explo-
ration of the air by means of kites at
Blue Hill Observatory, 797.

RUCKER (Prof. A. W.) on the comparison
and reduction of magnetic observations,
80.

on practical electrical standards,
145.

——, Address to the International Con-
ference on Terrestrial Magnetism and
Atmospheric Electricity by, 733.

RUSSELL (Dr. W. J.) on the action of
light upon dyed colours, 285.

—— on the action of certain metals and
organic bodies on a photographic plate,
834.

RYAN (Prof. J.) on the Welsh methods
of shipping coal, 993.

RYKATCHEFF (Gen.) and Prof. v, BEZOLD
on the establishment of temporary mag-
netic observatories in certain localities,
especially in Tropical countries, 743.

SALVIN (the late 0.) on the zoology of
the Sandwich Islands, 558.

SANDERS (Cora B.) and Prof. E. B.
POULTON on an experimental enquiry
into the struggle for existence in cer-
tain common insects, 906.

SANDERSON (Prof. Burdon) on the func-
tional activity of nerve-cells, 714.

Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the,
Lighth report on, 358.

SAUNDERS (Dr. W.) on the promotion of
agriculture, 312.

SAVAGE (Rev. E. B.) on Irish elk re-
mains in the Isle of Man, 548.

Saving and spending: a criticism of
recent theories by Prof. A.W. Flux,
972.

SCADDING (Rev. Dr.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 696.

ScHAFER (Prof. E. A.) on the functional
activity of nerve-cells, 714.

—— on the physiological effects of pep-
tone and its precursors when introduced
into the circulation, 720.

1898.

1089

Scumipt (Dr. Ad.) on the systematic
investigation of the secular variations
of the earth’s magnetic elements,
747.

Schools, the physical and mental defects of
children in, Report on, 691.

, Poor Law, W. Chance on, 962.

SCHUSTER (Prof. A.) on the comparison

and reduction of magnetic observations,

9 80.

—.- on practical electrical standards,

145.

on nave-iength tables of the spectra

of the elements and compounds, 313.

on the application of terrestrial

magnetism to the solution of some

problems of cosmical physics, 745.

on the interpretation of earth cur-
rent observations, 756.

— on a simple method of obtaining
the expression of the magnetic poten-
tial of the earth in a series of spherical
harmonics, 752.

*_. on a new form of American kites,
797.

Science, the teaching of, in elementary
schools, Report on, 433.

ScLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the present state
of owr knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 558.

on xoological bibliography and

publication, 558.

on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 570.

Scotr (Dr. D. H.) on a new Medullosa
from the Lower Coal-Measures of
Lancashire, 1045.

— on a fine specimen of the halonial
branch of a Lepidodendron allied to
L. fuligonosum, 1049,

-— onan English Botryopteris, 1050.
.-— on the structure of Zygopteris, 1050.
Scott-KELTIE (Dr. J.) on the Torres

Straits expedition, 688.

Screw gauge proposed in 1884, Interim
report on the means by which practical
effect can be given to the introduction
of the, 627.

Sea coast, action of waves and tides on
the movement of material on the,
W. H. Wheeler on the, 883.

Secret societies of the West coast of
Africa, H. P. Fitz-Gerald Marriott on
the, 1019.

SEDGWICK (A.) on zoological bibliography
and publication, 558.

on investigations made at the

Marine Biological Laboratory at Ply-

mouth, 583.

on the occupation of a table at the
Zoological Station at Naples, 587.

Seismological investigation, Third report
on, 179.

Selangor caves, Report on the, 571.

4a

1090

*Sewage, conditions necessary for the
successful treatment by Bacteria of,
W. J. Dibdin on, 987.

effluents, standards of purity for,
Dr. S. Rideal on, 847.

SEuWARD (A. C.) on arare fern, Matonia
pectinata, 1050.

nich Islands, 558.

cation, 558.

SHAW (W.N.) on practical electrical
standards, 145.

on electrolysis and electro-chemistry,
158.

——on a pneumatic analogue of the
potentiometer, 778.

—— on Dalton’s law, 801.

SHERBORN (0. D.) on zovlogical biblio-
graphy and publication, 558.

SHERRINGTON (Prof. C. 8.) on the life
conditions of the oyster, 559.

on the functional activity of nerve-

cells, 714.

on the physiological effects of peptone
and its precursors when introduced
into the circulation, 720.

Shipping rings and the Manchester cotton
trade, J. R. Galloway on, 968.

SHoRE (T. W.) on traces of early Kentish |

migrations, 1022.

Siam, the boat-building of, H. Warington
Smyth on, 1013.

*SIEMENS (A.) on electric power in work-
shops, 989.

Silchester excavation, Report on the, 689.

*Skeletons, walled-up, Miss N. Layard
on, 1022.

SKINNER (S.) on the carbon-consuming
cell of Jacques, 804

SLADEN (Percy) on the occupation of a
table at the Zoological Station at Naples,
587.

SmrrH (A. W.) and E, B. Rosa on the
dissipation of energy in the dielectric
of a condenser, 790.

—— (BE. A.) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology of the Sandwich
Tslands, 558.

Smut in barley, a method for obtaining
material for illustrating, W. G. P. Ellis
on, 1045.

SmytTH (H. Warington) on the bdoat-
building of Siam, 1013.

—— on the reed organ of the Lao Shans,
1013.

SmyTHE (J. A.) on nitroso pinene, 849.

Snakes, the so-called fascination of, Dr.
A. J. Harrison on, 911.

SNELLEN (Dr. M.) on magnetic observa-
tories, 757.

Snowdon, upper felsitic lava of, probable
source of the, J. R. Dakyns on the,
874.

on zoological bibliography and publi- |

REPORT—1898.

Soils, Dorsetshire, analyses of, C. M. Lux-
more on, 841.

Sokotra, Mrs. Theodore Bent on, 943.

SoLLAS (Prof. W. J.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 552.

on the structure of a coral reef, 556.

| SoLomMoN (M.) on the temperature coeffi-
SHARP (D.) on the zoology of the Sand- |

cient of the 10-ohm coils used in the
1897 determination of the ohm, 151.

Solutions, aqueous, containing two elec-
trolytes, state of ionisation of, Prof.
J. G. MacGregor on the, 803.

*____ dilute, E. H. Griffiths on, 80.

*___. —__ conductivity of, W. C. D.
Whetham on the, 801.

SOMERVAIL (Alex.) on the age and origin
of the granite of Dartmoor, and its re-
lations to the adjoining strata, 877.

South Wales and Monmouthshire, revision
by the Geological Survey of, A. Strahan
on the, 863.

SouTHAM (S. Clement) on some myths
and fancies of insect life, 1023.

Spectra of the elements and compounds,
wave-length tables of the, Report on,
313.

Spectroscopy, the bibliography of, Report
on, 439.

SPENCER (L. J.) on Jeadhillite in ancient
lead slags from the Mendip Hills, 875.

Supplementary list of British mine-
rals drawn up by, 875.

*Spiders, musical organs in, R. I. Pocock
on, 914.

SpPIVEY (W. T. N.), T. B. Woop, and T.
H. EASTERFIELD on the constitution
of oxycannabin, 849.

Stanton Drew, the stone circles of, A. L.
Lewis on, 1014.

Statistics, the mathematical representa-
tion of, Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth on, 791.

STEBBING (Rev. T. R. R.) on zoological
bibliography and publication, 558.

—— on the compilation of an index gene-
rum et specierum animalium, 570.

on the report of the International
Zoological Congress on homenclature,
905.

SrEwart (Prof. A.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 556.

STOKES (Sir G. G.) on the identity of the
stream-lines obtained by means of a
viscous film with those of a perfect fluid
moving in two dimensions, 143.

(Prof. G. J.) on the imaginary of
logic, 796.

*STONE (Sir Benjamin) on the national
photographic record, 943.

Stone implements from South Africa, G.
Leith on, 1011.

—— worship, the origin of, Prof. H. A.
Miers on, 1018.

Stonuy (Dr. G. Johnstone) on practical
electrical standards, 145.

*

INDEX.

StTonrEy (Dr. G. Johnstone) on the dy-
namical explanation of certain observed
phenomena of meteor streams, 793.

*___ on a survey of that part of the
scale upon which Nature works, about
which man has some information,
796.

STRAHAN (A.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 529.

—— on the revision of South Wales and
Monmouthshire by the Geological Sur-
vey, 863.

STRANGE (EB. H.) and Dr. A. P. LAURIE
on the cooling curves of fatty acids,
836.

Straws, the carbohydrates of cereal, Third
report on, 293.

Stream-line motion of a viscous fluid,
Prof. H. 8. Hele-Shaw on the, 136.

— Sir G. G. Stokes on the, 143.

STROH (A.) on the B. A. screw gauge,
627.

StTRouD (Prof. W.) on the action of light
upon dyed colowrs, 285.

STUPART (R. F.) on the meteorological
observatory at Montreal, 79.

Sugar bounties, the effect of, G. E. Davies
on, 969.

—— luminosity produced by striking,
J. Burke on the, 810.

Sulphates and chlorates, reactions of,
when heated, W. R. Hodgkinson and
A. H. Coote on, 839.

SULTE (B.) on an ethnological survey of
Canada, 896.

Sunshine recorder, a quantitative bolo-
metric, Prof. H. L. Callendar on, 796.
Swati and Afridi, Sir T. Holdich on the,

1017.

Symons (G. J.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 41.

—— on seismological investigation, 179.

—— on the application of photography
to the elucidation of meteorological
phenomena, 283.

—— on the climatology of Africa, 603.

Tables, mathematical, Report on (A new
Canon Arithmeticus) 145.
Tabu in Japan, K. Minakata on, 1011.
_ TANGUAY (Abbé) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 696.
Tarahumare people of Mexico, A. Krauss
on the, 1015.
TAYLOR (H.) on practical electrical stan-
dards, 145.
TEALL (J. J. H.) on the collection of
- photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 530.

Teeth of wheels, an instrument for design-
ing, Prof. H. S. Hele-Shaw on, 619.
Telephone, a magnifying, Prof. O. J.

_ . Lodge on, 782.

1091

Temperature and salinity in 1895-96 of
the surface waters of the North Atlantic,
H. N. Dickson on the, 937.

*Terramare settlements in modern Italian
towns, traces of, Prof. Flinders Petrie
on, 1021.

Thermal properties of gases and liquids,
Prof. 8. Young on the, 831.

THISELTON-DYER (W. T.) on the Cana-
dian biological station in the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, 582.

THOMPSON (Prof. S. P.) on practical
electrical standards, 145.

on the teaching of science in element-
ary schools, 433.

—— on the discovery by Richi of the
absorption of light in a magnetic field,
789.

*____ on economic and social influences
of electric traction, 968.
*___ and MILES WALKER on electric

traction by surface contacts, 991.

(Prof. W. H.) on the physiological
effects of peptone and its precursors
when introduced into the circulation,
720.

THomsSON (Prof. J. J.) on practical
electrical standards, 145.

THORPE (Dr. T. E.) on the action of
light wpon dyed colours, 285.

TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 530. °

—— on the erratic blocks of the British
Isles, 552.

TILDEN (Prof. W. A.) on the investiga-
tion of isomeric naphthalene deriva-
tives, 311.

Tirah, Col. Sir T. Holdich on, 944.

Torres Straits anthropological and natu-
ral history expedition, Interim Report
on the, 688.

*Torsional strains, an instrument for
measuring small, E. G. Coker on, 988.
TRAQUAIR (Dr. R. H.) on the eurypterid-
bearing rocks of the Pentland Hiils,

557.

TRAVERS (Morris W.) and Prof. W.
RAMSAY on the extraction from air of
the companions of argon and neon,
828.

Trow (A. H.) on the cytology of Achlya
Americana, 1069.

Tubes, the hydraulic system of jointing
of, on tubular bodies, C ‘Johnson ion,
987.

*Tunicata, the development of the heart
in, Prof. Ch. Julin on, 916.

TURNER (Prof. H. H.) on seismological
investigation, 179.

(Sir W.) on the Torres Straits expe-
dition, 688.

Ty Newydd cave, Rev. G. C. H. Pollen on
the exploration of the, 884.

1092 -

TyLoR (Prof. E. B.) on the North-west-
ern tribes of Canada, 628.

—— on the survival of palolithic con-
ditions in Tasmania and Australia, with
especial reference to the modern use of
unground stone implements in West
Australia, 1014.

TYRRELL (J. B.) on photographs of geolo-
gical interest in Canada, 546.

*Universe known to man, survey of the
part of the, Dr. C. J. Stoney on a, 796.

Vapour pressure, Dalton’s law for, W.
N. Shaw on, 801.

VERNON (H. M.) on the relations between
marine animal and vegetable life in
aquaria, 589.

on the relations between the hybrid
and parent forms of echinoid larve,
589.

Vertebrate notochord and pharyngeal
clefts, the origin of the, A. T. Master-
man on, 914.

*Vertebrates, extinct, restoration by C.
Knight of, Prof. H. F. Osborn on the,
883.

VINCENT (J. H.) on the use of logarithmic
coordinates, 159.

Vines (Prof. 8. H.) on investigations
made at the Marine Biological Asso-
ciation Laboratory at Plymouth, 583.

VIVIAN (Henry) on partnership of capital
and labour as a solution of the conflict
between them, 973.

Voltmeter, platinum, Prof. H. L. Callen-
dar on a, 788.

WAGER (Harold) on the formation of
the zygospore in Polyphagus euglene,
1064.

—— on the structu:e of the yeast-plant,
1069.

Wages in France, the United States, and
the United Kingdom, the change from
1840 to 1891 in, A. L. Bowley on,
970,

WALKER (B. E.) on banking in Canada,
964.

* ___ (Miles) and Prof. 8. P. TaomPpson
on electric traction by surface con-
tacts, 991.

—— (W. G.) on hydraulic power trans-
mission by compressed air, 994.

WALLACE (A. Russel) on the Selangor
caves, Singapore, 571.

WALLER (Dr. A. D.) on the functional
activity of nerve-cells, 714.

WALLIS (HK. White) on the mental and
physical defects of children in schools,

691,

REPORT—1898.

WARD (Prof. Marshall) on the promotion
of agriculture, 312.

on the Torres Straits expedition,
688.

—— on a potato disease, 1046.

—— on Penicillium as a wood-destroying
fungus, 1048.

WARINGTON (Prof. R.) on the carbo-
hydrates of cereal straws, 293.

— on the promotion of agriculture, 312.

WARNER (Dr. Francis) on the physical
and mental defects of children in schools,
691.

WARRINGTON (A. W.) on hydrometers of
total immersion, 791.

CW. B.) on str uctural alterations
observed in nerve cells, 715.

Water, thermal conductivity of, Prof, A.
P. Chattock and §. R. Milner on the,
808.

Waterway between the Bristol Channel
and the Birmingham District, schemes
for the improvement of the, E. D.
Marten on, 991.

WATKIN (Col.) on the B. A. serem gauge,
627.

Watts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 313.

(Prof. W. W.) on the work of the

Corresponding Societies Committee, 41.

on the collection of photographs of

geological interest in the United King-

dom, 5380.

on photographs of geological interest
in Canada, 546.

Wave, graphic representations of the two
simplest cases of a single, Lord Kelvin
on, 792.

Wave-length tables of the spectra of the
elements and compounds, Report on,
313.

Waves, Vaughan Cornish on, 937.

, continuity in theory of, mecha-
nical, luminous, and electro-magnetic,
Lord Kelvin on, 783.

Weather types in relation to daily fore-
casts in Western Europe, D. Archibald
on, 798.

WEBBER (Maj.-Gen.) on the B. A. screw
gauge, 627.

WEBSTER (Prof. A. W.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 145.

Weights and measures, ancient standard,
of Bristol, W. R. Barker on the, 810.
WELD (Miss A. G.) on a Buddhist image

found in an Irish bog, 1016.

WELDON (Prof, W. F. R.) on zoological
bibliography and publication, 558.

on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Association laboratory at
Plymouth, 583.

-—— on the occupation of a table at the
Zoological Station at Naples, 587.

INDEX.

WELDON (Prof. W. F. R.) Address to the
Section of Zoology by, 887.

WETHERED (HE. B.) on the building of
Clifton Rocks, 862.

*—__ on the work of encrusting organ-

isms in the formation of limestone, |

883.
WHARTON (Adm, Sir W. J. L.) on the
structure of a coral reef, 556.
WHEELER (W. H.) on the action of waves
and tides on the movement of material
on the sea coast, 883.

WHETHAM (W. C. D.) on electrolysis and |

electro-chemistry, 158.

*____ on the conductivity of dilute solu-
tions, 801.

WHITAKER (W.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 41.

WHITTAKER (EK. T.) on the recent theory
of the functions used in analysis, 793.

WILLEY (Arthur) on the phylogeny of
the anthropod amnion, 905.

WILLIAMs (J. Lloyd) on reproduction in
Dictyota dichotoma, 1044.

—— (Prof. W. Carleton) on the electro-
lytic methods of quantitative analysis,
294, 295.

—— on the determination of zine, 295.
WILLMOTT (Prof. A. B.) on photographs
of geological interest in Canada, 546.
Willows, changes in the sex of, I H.

Burkill on, 1065.

*WILSON (Sir Charles W.) on the Upper
Nile, 943.

—— (the late E.) on two caves at Uphill
containing remains of Pleistocene
mammalia, 867 ; *1023.

WILTSHIRE (Rey. T.) on the Phyllopoda
of the Paleozoic rocks, 519.

WOLFE-BARRY (Sir J.), Address to the |
Section of Mechanical Science by, |

976.

Women, middle-class working, the expen-
diture of, Miss C. E. Collet on, 973.
Woop (Sir H. T.) on the B.A. screw

gauge, 627.

—— (T. B.), W. T. N. SPIVEy, and T. H.
EASTERFIELD on the constitution of
oxycannabin, 849.

Wood-destroying fungus, Penicillium as
a, Prof. H. Marshall Ward on, 1048.
WoopwarD (Dr. H.) on the Phyllopoda

of the Paleozoic rocks, 519.

on life-zones in the British Carboni-
Serous rocks, 529.

——on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 570.

\

1098

WoopDWARD (H. B.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in the
Onited Kingdom, 530.

on arborescent Carboniferous lime-
stone from near Bristol, 869.

WooLnouGH (F.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 530.

Yangtze valley, Mrs. Isabella L. Bishop
on the, 940.

Yeast, the alcohol-producing enzyme in,
Prof. J. R. Green on, 1046.

cell, the structure of the, Prof.
Errera on, 1068.

—— plant, Harold Wager on, 1069.

Youne (Prof. Sydney) on the thermal
properties of gases and liquids, 831.

Zones, aggregate deposits and their rela-

tions to, Rev. J. F. Blake on, 892.

Zones, life-, in the British Carboniferous

rocks, Report on, 529.

Zoological bibliography and publication,

Report on, 558.

Station at Naples, Report on the

occupation of a table at the, 587.
Appendix:

I. The pseudobranch and intestinal
canal of teleosteans, by J. F. Gemmiill,
588.

II. (1) The relations between marine
animals and vegetable life in
aquaria, by H. M. Vernon,
589. |

(2) The relations between the hybrid
and parent forms of echinoid
larve, by H. M. Vernon, 589.

III. On the variation of Cardium, Do-
nax, and Tellina, by J. Parkinson,
593.

IV. List of naturalists who have worked
at the Station from July 1, 1897, to
June 30, 1898, 594.

V. List of papers published in 1896
by naturalists who have occupied
tables at the Station, 595.

Zoology, Address by Prof. W. F. R.

WELDON to the Section of, 887.

—— and Botany of the Sandwich Islands,
Highth report on the, 558.
Zygopteris, the structure of, Dr. D. H.

Scott on, 1050.

Zygospore in Polyphagus euglene, the

formation of the, H. Wager on, 1064.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be
obtained on application at the Office of the Association, Burlington
House, Piccadilly, London, W., at the following prices, viz.—Reports for
1831 to 1874 (of which more than 15 copies remain), at 2s. 6d. per volume ;
after that date, at two-thirds of the Publication Price. A few sets, from
1831 to 1874 inclusive, may also be obtained at £10 per set.

Associates for the Meeting in 1898 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds
of the Publication Price.

REPORT or tHe SIXTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at Toronto,
August, 1897, Published at £1 4s.

CONTENTS.
PAGE
Rules of the Association, Lists of Officers, Grants of pata &e. ‘ ooh el Ail
Address by the President, Sir John Evans . ; 5 é
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee ‘ 23
Report on the State of the Principal Museums in Canada and Newfoundland.
By Dr. Henry M. Amr. 62
Report on the Preparation of aNew Series of Wave- length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements and Compounds. hb

Interim Report on the Calculation of Tables of certain Mathematical Functions 127
Seventh Report on the Application of BhaipergEye to the Elucidation of

Meteorological Phenomena . : 128
Second Report on Seismological Investigation , : . : : : «1 129
Report on Electrical Standards . : > : : i . 206
Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis . ; - E : 3 «219
Report on Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry . 227
The Historical Development of Abelian Functions up to the time of Riemann.

By HARRIS HANCOCK . : F , ‘ A . 246
Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours. : i : . 286
Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools. : : x . 287

Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives . ; - : : . . 292

1095

Report on the Carbohydrates of the Cereal Straws : : fi

Fourth Report on the Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis .

Report on the Production of Haloids from Pure Materials . .

Report on the Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks

Report on the Structure of a Coral Reef . . ‘ d : : : :

Eighth Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom

Report on Cretaceous Fossils in Aberdeenshire . : ‘

Interim Report on the Singapore Caves. : ; : , 3

Thirteenth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.

Report on the Remains of the Irish Elk found in the Isle of Man

Second Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles 5 ; -

Report on the Necessity for the Immediate Investigation of the Biology of
Oceanic Islands : : ; - . : : : :

Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at N. aples .

Seventh Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands

Second Report on Zoological Bibliography and Publication ; ; :

Interim Report on the working out of the Details of the Observations of the
Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightships, 1880-87 , : ;

Second Report on the Elucidation of the Life Conditions of the Oyster under
Normal and Abnormal Environment, including the effect of sewage matters
and pathogenic organisms : : ; x

Report on the Compilation of an Index Animalium .

Report on African Lake Fauna : ‘ . : ; : . A .

Tenth Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Zoology and
Botany of the West India Islands, and on taking Steps to Investigate ascer-
tained Deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora ’ ‘ ; ‘ :

Report on Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory,

.

Plymouth . ; : : : 5 : : ; : : 3 4
Report on the Position of Geography in the Educational System of the
Country ; : - . 5 : - {

Sixth Report on the Climatology of Africa < : é : : ; :

Experiments on the Condensation of Steam. By Prof. H. L. CALLENDAR and
Prof. J. T. NICOLSON : = - : 3 . : ; ; :

Appendix to Report on the Calibration of Instruments used in Engineering
Laboratories . ° ° : : é f , 2 : : i

Second Report on the Means by which Practical Effect can be given to the
Introduction of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884

Interim Report on the Linguistic and Anthropological Characteristics of the
North Dravidian and Kolarian races : . ; : ‘ 2 :

Report on the Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among
Children in Public Elementary and other Schools

First Report on an Ethnological Survey of Canada

Report on Anthropometric Measurements in Schools . : 2

Fifth Report on Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom

Report on the Silchester Excavation . : : : : : : :

Report on the Changes which are associated with the Functional Activity of
Nerve Cells and their Peripheral Extensions - : : ‘ .

Report on the Physiological Applications of the Phonograph, and on the Form
of the Voice-curves made by the Instrument : F E ; :

Interim Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when
introduced into the Circulation , F a 3 F

Interim Report on Fertilisation in Pheophyceze : ; : ‘ : :

Report on the best Methods of Preserving Vegetable Specimens for Exhibition
in Museums . - : : ; ‘ ¢ ¢ : : :

The Transactions of the Sections

Index . :

List of Publications ; ‘ ‘ - ; ; ¢

(Appendix, List of Members, pp. 1-112).

= .

1096

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Lithographed Signatures of the Members who met at Cambridge in 1833, with the
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Index to the Reports, 1831-1860, 12s. (carriage included).

Index to the Reports, 1861-1890, 15s. (carriage, 43d.).

Lalande’s Catalogue of Stars, £1 1s.

Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, 1s. ;

On the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists in the Cotton Industry :—Spin-
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Report on the best means for promoting Scientific Education in Schools, 6d.

Second Report on the present Methods of Teaching Chemistry, 1889, 6d.
Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use
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Second Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science,
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Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee, 1893, 6d.

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Report on Electrical Standards, with seven Appendices, 1894, 1s.

Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Part II., by
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Report on Planimeters, by Prof. O. Henrici, F.R.S., 1894, 1s.

Discussion on Agriculture and Science, Ipswich, 1895, 3d.

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Report on Tables of the Bessel Functions, 1896, 1s.

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The President’s Address, and Sectional Addresses, for 1889, 1892, 1893, 1895, 1896,
1897, each 1s.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

hrs?

OF

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,

CORRECTED TO OCTOBER 15, 1898.

Office of the Association :
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1898-99.

PRESIDENT.
SIR WILLIAM OROOKES, F.R.S., V.P.O.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. the Eart of Ducts, F.R.S., F.G.S. The PRINCIPAL of University Oollege, Bristol.
The Right Rey. the Lorp Bisnop of Bristol, D D. The MAstrEr of The Society of Merchant Venturers

The Right Hon. Sir Epwarp Fry, D.O.L., F.R.S., of Bristol.

FAS. A. JOHN BEDDOE, Esq., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir F, J. BRAMWELL, Bart., D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor T. G. BONNEY, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A,,
The Right Worshipful the Mayor of Bristol. F.G.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor MICHAEL Foster, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. B.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT,
His Grace the LonD ARCHBISHOP OF OANTER- The MAJOR-GENERAL COMMANDING THE SoUTH-

Bury, D.D. EASTERN DISTRICT,
The Most Hon. the Marquis oF SALISBURY, K.G., The Right Hon. A. AkERS-DouGLAs, M.P.
M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Very Rev. F, W. Farrar, D.D., F.R.S., Dean
The Right Worshipful the Mayor or Dovner. of Canterbury.
The Right Hon. Lonp HerscHELt, G.O.B., D.O.L., Sir J. NoRMAN Lockyer, K.O.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
LL.D., F.R.S. Professor G. H. DARWIN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES, P
Professor H. A. ScHArER, LL.D., F.R.S., University Oollege, London, W.C.
Professor W. 0. ROBERTS-AUSTEN, O.B., D.O.L., F.R.S., Royal Mint, London, E.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., College Road, Harrow, Middlesex.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor G. CAREY Fostsr, B.A., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT DOVER,
E, WOLLASTON KnockeEr, Esq., O.B. | W. H. PENDLEBURY, Esq., M.A.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT DOVER.
A. T. WALMISLEY, Esq., M.Inst.0.E.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

Boys, 0. VERNON, Esq., F.R.S. PREECE, W. H., Esq., O.B., F.R.S.
CrEAK, Captain E. W., R.N., F.RB.S. Price, L, L., Esq., M.A,

DaRwiy, F., Esq., F.R.S. REYNOLDS, Professor J, HMERSON, M.D.,
FREMANTLE, Hon. Sir 0. W., K.0.B. F.R.S.

GASKELL, Dr. W. H., F.R.S. SHAW, W.N., Esq., F.R.S.
HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S. TEALL, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Harcoovrt, Professor L. F. VERNON, M.A. THISELTON-DYER, W. T., Esq., C.M.G., F.R.S.
HERDMAN, Professor W. A., F.R.S. THOMPSON, Professor S. P., F.R.S.
Ket, J. Scott, Esq., LL.D. THOMSON, Professor J. M., F.R.S.
MacmAnon, Mason P. A., F.R.S. TILDEN, Professor W. A., F.R.S.

Mark, J. E., Esq., F.R.S. TyLor, Professor E. B., F.R.S.
MELDOLA, Professor R., F.R.S. UNWIN, Professor W. C., F.R.S.
Povuton, Professor E, B., F.R.S, WHITE, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
The Right Hon. Lord Rayieren, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S
Professor A. W. Ricker, M.A., D.Sc., Sec. B.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS,
The Duke of Argyll, K.G.,K.T. | Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S. SirArchibald Geikie, LL.D.,F.R.S,

Lord Armstrong, 0.B., LL.D. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof. J.S.Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S,

Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I. Sir Wm. Dawson, O.M.G., F.R.S. | The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G.,

Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. F.R.S.

Lord Kelvin, G.0.V.0., F.R.S. Sir F, J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S. | Sir Douglas Galton, K.0.B., F.R.9,
F.R.S. | Lord Lister, D.0.L., Pres. R.S.

Prof. A. W. a cee F.R.S. Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B.,
Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir F. A. Abel, Bart., K.0.B., F.R.S. | Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S,

Sir Wm. Huggins, K.O.B., F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.

F, Galton, Esq., F.R.S. P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F-R.S. | Sir Douglas Galton, K.O.B..F.R.S.

Prof. Michael Foster, Sec. R.S. Prof, T. G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S. | A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., F.R.S,

G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. | Prof. A. W. Riicker, Sec, B.S,
AUDITORS.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. | Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. | Sir H. Truema Wood, M.A.

A 2

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LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

1898.

—

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
§§ indicates Annual Subscribers who will be entitled to the Annual
Report if their Subscriptions are paid by December 31,,1898.
+ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members, elected
before 1845, not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.

Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary, G. Griffith, Esq.

Year of
Election.

1887. *Abbe, Professor Cleveland. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, U.S.A.

1897.§§Abbott, A. H. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

1898. §Abbott, George, M.R.C.S. 33 Upper Grosvenor-road, Tunbridge
Wells.

1881. *Abbott, R.T. G. Whitley House, Malton.

1887. {Abbott,T. C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire,

1863. *Apet, Sir Freperick Avevustus, Bart., K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sce.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S., President of the Government Committee on
Explosives. The Imperial Institute, Imperial Institute-road,
and 2 Whitehall-court, S.W.

1885. *ABERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.M.G., LL.D., Haddo
House, Aberdeen.

1885. tAberdeen, The Countess of. Haddo House, Aberdeen.

1885. t Abernethy, David W. Ferryhill Cottage, Aberdeen.

1885. tAbernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.

1873. *Anney, Captain W. pz W., R.E., O.B., D.O.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S,
Rathmore Lodge, Bolton-gardens South, Earl’s Court, S.W.

6

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1886.
1884.
1873.
1882.
1869.
1877.

1873.
1894,
1882.

1877.
1898.
1887.
1892.
1884.
1871.
1879.

1869.

1879.

1896.
1898.
1890.
1890.

1865,
1883.
1896.
1884.
1887.
1864.
1871.
1871.
1895.
1891.
1871.
1898.
1884.
1886.
1896.

1894,
1891.
1883.
1888.
1896.
1891.

1883.

1883.
1883.

tAbraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.

tAcheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.

tAckroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

*Acland, Alfred Dyke. 38 Pont-street, Chelsea, S.W.

tAcland, Sir C. T. Dyke, Bart., M.A. Killerton, Exeter.

*Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Woodmansterne Rectory,
Banstead, Surrey.

*Acland, Rev. H. D., M.A. Luccombe Rectory, Taunton.

*Acland, Henry Dyke, F.G.S. The Old Bank, Great Malvern.

*AOLAND, Sir Henry W. Dyxz, Bart., K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Broad-street, Oxford.

*Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 74 Brook-street, W.

§Acworth, W.M. 47 St. Georges-square, S.W.

tApamt, J.G., B.A. The University, Montreal, Canada.

tAdams, David. Rockville, North Queensferry.

{Adams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

§Adams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, N.W.

*Apams, Rey. THomas, M.A., D.C.L., Canon of Quebec, Principal! of
Bishop’s College, Lennoxville, Canada.

*Apams, WILLIAM Gryits, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.8., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College,
London. 43 Campden Hill-square, W.

tAdamson, Robert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow.

tAdamson, W. Sunnyside House, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

§Addison, William L. T. Byng Inlet, Ontario, Canada.

tAddyman, James Wilson, B.A. Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate.

tApENnny, W. E., F.C.S. Royal University of Ireland, Earlsfort-
terrace, Dublin.

*Adkins, Henry. Ley-hill, Northfield, near Birmingham.

tAdshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.

{Affieck, W. H. 28 Onslow-road, Fairfield, Liverpool.

tAgnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

ftAgnew, William. Summer Hill, Pendleton, Manchester.

*Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Oleator, Carnforth.

*Ainsworth, John Stirling, Harecroft, Gosforth, Cumberland.

tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

*Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

*Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff.

§ArrKEN, Jonny, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Ardenlea, Falkirk, N.B.

Axurs-Dovetas, Right Hon. A., M.P. 106 Mount-street, W. °

*Alabaster, H. Lytton, Mulgrave-road, Sutton, Surrey.

*Albright, G.S. The Elms, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.

tAlexander, A. W. Blackwall Lodge, Halifax.

fAlexander, D. T. Dynas Powis, Cardiff.

tAlexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin.

*Alexander, Patrick Y. 47 Victoria-street, Westminster, 8. W.

tAlexander, William. 45 Highfield South, Rockferry, Cheshire.

*Alford, Charles J., F.G.S. Coolivin, Hawkwood-road, Boscombe,
Hants.

tAlger, Miss Ethel. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

tAlger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

Year of
Election

1867.
1885.
1871.
1871.
1879.
1898.
1888.

1884.
1891.
1887.
1878.
1891.
1889.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 7

tAlison, George L. C. Dundee.

tAllan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen,

tAllan, G., M.Inst.C.E. 10 Austin Friars, F.C.

tAucen, Atrrep H., F.0.8. 67 Surrey-street, Sheffield.

*Allen, Rey. A. J.C. The Librarian, Peterhouse, Cambridge.

§Allen, E. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

§Allen, F. J., M.A., M.D., Professor of Physiology, Mason College,
Birmingham.

tAllen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham,

fAllen, Henry A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W.

tAllen, John. Kilgrimol School, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, vid Preston.

fAllen, John Romilly. 28 Great Ormond-street, W.C.

tAllen, W.H. 24 Glenroy-street, Roath, Cardiff.

tAllhusen, Alfred. Low Fell, Gateshead.

1889.§§Allhusen, Frank E. The School, Harrow.

1886.
1896,
1887.
1873.
1891.
1883,
1883.

*ALLMAN, GrorGE J.,M.D.,LL.D.,F.R.S.,F.R.S.E.,M.R.1LA., F.LS.,
Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset.

fAllport, Samuel, F.G.S. Mason College, Birmingham.

tAlsop, J. W. 16 Bidston-road, Oxton.

tAlward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire.

tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tAmbrose, D. R. Care of Messrs. J. Evans & Co., Bute Docks, Cardiff.

§Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

§Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

1884,§§Ami, Henry, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

1883,
1885.
1874,
1892,
1888.
1887.
1889.
1880.
1886.

1880.
1883.
1895.
1891.
1880.
1886.
1883.
1877.

1886,
1896.
1886,
1878.
1890.
1898.
1894.
1884.

1851.

tAnderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.

*Anderson, Hugh Kerr. Caius College, Cambridge.

tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.

tAnderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, R. Bruce. 35a Great George-street, S.W.

fAnderson, Professor R. J., M.D. Queen’s College, Galway.

tAnderson, R. Simpson. Elswick Collieries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*ANDERSON, Tempest, M.D., B.Sc., F.G.S. 17 Stonegate, York.

*ANDERSON, Sir Wittram, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.,
Director-General of Royal Ordnance Factories. Lesney House,
Erith, Kent.

tAndrew, Mrs. 126 Jamaica-street, Stepney, E.

tAndrew, Thomas, F.G.S. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.

tAndrews, Charles W. British Museum (Natural History), S.W.

tAndrews, Thomas. 163 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.H. Cefn Eithen, Swansea.

§Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry.

tAnelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.

§AneELL, Jonny, F.C.S., F.C. 6 Beacons-field, Derby-road,
Withington, Manchester.

tAnnan, John, J.P. Whitmore Reans, Wolverhampton.

fAnnett, R.C. F. 11 Greenhey-road, Liverpool.

tAnsell, Joseph. 38 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

tAnson, Frederick H. 15 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.

§Antrobus, J. Coutts, Eaton Hall, Congleton.

§Archer,G, W. 11 All Saints’-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§ Archibald, A. Bank House, Ventnor.

*Archibald, E. Douglas. Constitutional Club, Northumberland
Avenue, W.C.

tArer~t, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Inveraray.

8

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883.
1888.
1887.
1857.

1879.
1886.

1878.

1876.
1889.
1884,
1889.

1893.
1898,
1870.
1874.
1889,
1887.
1866.

1888.
1890.
1887,

1887.
1887.
1875.
1861.
1896.
1861.

§Armistead, Richard. 33 Chambres-road, Southport.

*Armistead, William. Oaktield, Compton-road, Wolverhampton.

tArmitage, Benjamin. Chomlea, Pendleton, Manchester.

*ArmstRone, The Right Hon. Lord, O.B., LL.D., D.O.L., F.R.S.
Cragside, Rothbury.

*A RMSTRONG, Sir ALEXANDER, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
The Elms, Sutton Bonnington, Loughborough.

tARMsTRone, Grorcn Frepericr, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Regius
Professor of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. The
University, Edinburgh.

*ArmsTRONG, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemis-
try in the City and Quilds of London Institute, Central
Institution, Exhibition-road, S.W. 55 Granville Park,
Lewisham, §.E.

tArmstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York, U.S.A.

tArmstrong, John A. 32 Eldon-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

ftArmstrong, Robert B. Junior Carlton Club, Pall Mall, S.W.

tArmstrong, Thomas John. 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-upon-

yne.

tArnold-Bemrose, H., M.A., F.G.S. 56 Friar-gate, Derby.
§ARRowsmITH, J. W. Quay-street, Bristol.

*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon.
tAshe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Oo. Dublin.

tAshley, Howard M. Airedale, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire.
fAshton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 36 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
Ashwell, Henry. Woodthorpe, Nottingham.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.

Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
*Ashworth, J. Jackson. Hillside, Wilmslow, Cheshire.
tAshworth, J. Reginald, B.Sc. 105 Freehold-street, Rochdale.
tAshworth, John Wallwork, F.G.S. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor,
Stockport.

tAshworth, Mrs. J. W. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, Stockport.
tAspland, Arthur P. Werneth Lodge, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
*Aspland, W. Gaskell. Tuplins, Newton Abbot.

tAsquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.

*Assheton, Richard. Birnam, Cambridge.

tAston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

1896.§§ Atkin, George, J.P. Egerton Park, Rockferry.
1887.§§Atkinson, Rev. C. Chetwynd, D.D. Fairfield House, Ashton-on-

1865.
1884.

Mersey.
*Arkinson, Epmunp, Ph.D., F.C.S. Portesbery Hill, Camberley,

Surrey.
tAtkinson, Edward, Ph.D., LL.D. Brookline, Massachusetts,
U.S.A

1898. *Atkinson, E. Cuthbert. Temple Observatory, Rugby.
1894.§§ Atkinson, George M. 28 St. Oswald’s-road, S.W.

1894.
1861.
1881.
1881.
1894,
1863.

1884,
1886.
1888.

*Atkinson, Harold W. Rossall School, Fleetwood, Lancashire.

t Atkinson, Rev. J. A. The Vicarage, Bolton.

tAtkinson, J. T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.
tAtxinson, Ropert WiriiaM, F.C.S. 44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.
§Atkinson, William. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.

(ape J., M.A., Ph.D,, F.R.S., F.C.S. 111 Temple-chambers,

tAuchincloss, W.S. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
tAulton, A. D.,M.D. Walsall.

fAyre, Rev. J. W., M.A. 30 Green-street, Grosvenor-square, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 9

Year of
Election.

1877.

*Ayrion, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, S.W. 41 Kensington Park Gardens, W.

. {Baby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada.
. *Bach, Madame Henri. 12 Rue Fénélon, Lyons.

Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.

. {Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.

. “Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s, Wolsingham, R.S.O., Durham.

. *Bacon, Thomas Walter. 4 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N.W.

. {Baddeley, John. 1 Chayrlotte-street, Manchester.

. {Baden-Powell, Sir George S., K.C.M.G., M.A., M.P., F.RAS.,

F.S.8. 114 Eaton-square, 8.W.

. {Baildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport.
. {Baildon, H. Bellyse. Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.
. *Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College-road, Whalley Range,

Manchester.

. §Bailey, Colonel F., Sec. R.Scot.G.S., F.R.G.S. 7 Drummond-place,

Edinburgh.

. {Bailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.
. *Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester. _
. {Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. Ashley House, Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,

Birmingham,

. {Bailey, W. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton.

. {Bailey, W. H. Summerfield, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.

. tBaillon, Andrew. British Consulate, Brest.

. *Baily, Francis Gibson, M.A. 11 Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

. {Baily, Walter. 4 Roslyn-hill, N.W.

. {Bary, AtexanpeEr, M.A., LL.D. Ferryhill Lodge, Aberdeen.

. §Barn, James, jun. Toronto.

. {Bain, William N. Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

. *Baxer, Sir Bengzamin, K.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.

2 Queen Square-place, Westminster, S.W.

. §Baker, Herbert M. Walleroft. Durdham Park, Clifton, Bristol.

. §Baker, Hiatt C. Mary-le-Port-street, Bristol.

. {Baker, J. W. 50 Stacey-road, Cardiff.

. {Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.

. {Baxer, W. Procror. Brislington, Bristol.

. {Baldwin, Rey. G. W. de Courcy, M.A. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.
. [Balete, Professor E. Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.

. {Balfour, The Right Hon. G. W., M.P. 24 Addison-road, Ken-

sington, W.

. §Balfour, Henry, M.A. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
. {Batrovr, Isaac Baytery, M.A.,D.Se.,M.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E., F.L.S.,

Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Inverleith
House, Edinburgh.

. {Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.
. “Ball, Charles Bent, M.D., Regius Professor of Surgery in the

University of Dublin. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.

. *Batz, Sir Ropert Srawett, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of

the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,
Cambridge.

. *Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A, Trinity College, Cambridge.
. {Ballantyne, J. W., M.B. 24 Melville-street, Edinburgh.
. {Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-

street, Westminster, S.W.

10 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1890. {Bamford, Professor Harry, B.Sc. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.

1882. {Bance, Colonel Edward, J.P. Oak Mount, Highfield, Southampton.

1884, {Barbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada.

1866. {Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.

1884, {Barber, Rev. 8S. F. West Raynham Rectory, Swaffham, Norfolk.

1890. *Barber-Starkey, W.J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.

1861. *Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

1855. {Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.

1894, §Barclay, Arthur. 29 Gloucester-road, South Kensington, §,W.

1871. {Barclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

1860. *Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.

1887. *Barclay, Robert. Sedgley New Hall, Prestwich, Manchester.

1886. {Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham.

1881. {Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester.

1882. {Barford, J. D. Above Bar, Southampton.

1886. {Barham, F. F. Bank of England, Birmingham.

1890. {Barker, Alfred, M.A., B.Sc. Aske’s Hatcham School, New Cross, 8.E.

1882. *Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham.

1879. *Barker, Rey. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Priddy Vicarage, Wells,
Somerset.

1886. {Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1873. Barlow, Crawford, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. Deene, Tooting Bec-road,
Streatham, S.W.

1889. §Barlow, H. W. L., M.A., M.B., F.C.S. Holly Bank, Croftsbank-
road, Urmston, near Manchester.

1883. {Barlow, J. J. 37 Park-street, Southport.

1878. {Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in Anderson’s Col-
lege, Glasgow.

1883. {Barlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton.

1885. *Bartow, WittiAM, F.G.8. The Red House, Great Stanmore.

1873. {Bartow, Wittiam Henry, F.R.S., M.inst.C.E. High Combe, Old
Charlton, Kent.

1861. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Cheltenham.

1881. {Barnard, William, LL.B. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

1889. {Barnes, J. W. Bank, Durham.

1868. §Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset.

1884. {Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.

1881. {Barr, ARcHIBALD, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. The University, Glascow.

1890. {Barr, Frederick H. 4 South-parade, Leeds. :

1895. {Barr, James Mark. Central Technical. College, E.C.

1859. {Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.

1891. §Barrell, Frank R., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bristol.

1883. {Barrett, John Chalk. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.

1883. {Barrett, Mrs. J.C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.

1872. *Barrerr, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.1.A., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1883. {Barrett, William Scott. Abbotsgate, Huyton, near Liverpool.

1887. {Barrington, Miss Amy. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.

1874, *Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.

1874, *Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.

1885. *Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
erove, Shortlands, Kent.

1866. {Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.

LIST OF MEMBERS. | 11

Year of
Election.

1893. *Barrow, GzoreE, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28 Jermyn-

street, S.W.
1886. {Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.
1886. {Barrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 13 Ampton-road, Edg-

1896.
1886,
1886.

1858.
1862.
1883.
1875.

1881.
1884,

baston, Birmingham.
§Barrowman, James. Staneacre, Hamilton, N.B.
{Barrows, Joseph. The Poplars, Yardley, near Birmingham.
{Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
{Barry, Right Rev. Atrrep, D.D., D.C.L. The Cloisters, Windsor.
*Barry, Cuartes. 1 Victoria-street, S.W.
tBarry, Charles E. 1 Victoria-street, S.W.
{Barry, Sir Jonn Wotre-, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-
street, Westminster, S.W.
tBarry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.
*Barstow, Miss Frances A. Garrow Hill, near York.

1890. *Barstow, J. J. Jackson. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

1890. *Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

1892. {Bartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 12 Blacket-place,
Edinburgh.

1858. *Bartholomew, William Hamond, M.Inst.C.E. Ridgeway House,
Cumberland-road, Hyde Park, Leeds.

1884. {Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.

1873. {Bartley,G.C.T.,M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street, S.W.

1892.
18938.
1884.
1852.
1892.
1887.

1898.
1876.
1876.
1888.

1891.
1866,
1889.

1869,
1871.

{Barton, Miss. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.

{Barton, Edwin H., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.

tBarton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.

{Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.

{Barton, William. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.

{Bartrum, John 8. 13 Gay-street, Bath.

*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.

§Bason, Vernon Millward. 7 Princess-buildings, Clifton, Bristol.

TBassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, W.

{Bassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.

*Basset, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, Holyport, Berk-
shire,

{Bassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.

*BassErt, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, N.

{BasrasiE, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. Trevelyan-terrace,
Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

{Bastard, S.S. Summerland-place, Exeter.

TBastran, H. Cnartron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University College,
London. 8a Manchester-square, W.

1889. {Batalha-Reis, J. Portuguese Consulate, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1883.

tBatemav, A. E., C.M.G., Controller General, Statistical Depart-
ment. Board of Trade, 7 Whitehall Gardens, S.W.

1868. {Bateman, Sir F., M.D., LL.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

1889.
1884,
1881.

tBates, C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.

{Barsson, WittraM, M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Batuer, Francis ArtHuR, M.A., F.G.S. 135 Kensington High-
street, W.; and British Museum (Natural History), S.W.

1863. §BavERMAN, H., F.G.S. 14 Cavendish-road, Balham, S.W.
1867, {Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.
1892. §Bayly, F. W. 8 Royal Mint, E.

1875
1876

. *Bayly, Robert, Torr-grove, near Plymouth.
. *Baynes, Rosert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

12 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887. *Baynes, Mrs. R. E, 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
1883. *Bazley, Gardner. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.
Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Hatherop Castle,

Fairford, Gloucestershire.

1886. {Beale, C. Calle Progress No, 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.

1886, {Beale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1860, *Bratz, Lionet S., M.B., F.R.S. 61 Grosvenor-street, W.

1882.§§Beamish, Lieut.-Colonel A. W., R.E. 27 Philbeach-gardens, S.W.

1884. {Beamish,G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool.

1872. tBeanes, Edward, F.C.S. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley,
Kent.

1883. {Beard, Mrs. Oxford.

1889. §Beare, Prof. T. Hudson, F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. University College,
W.C

1842, *Beatson, William. Ash Mount, Rotherham.

1889. {Beattie, John. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1855. *Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.S.S. 18 Picea-
dilly, W.

1886. {Beaugrand,M.H. Montreal.

1861. *Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.

1887. *Beaumont, W. J. Post Office, Knutsford, Cheshire.

1885. ee W. W., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. Outer Temple, 222 Strand,

C

1896, {Beazer,C. Hindley, near Wigan.

1871. *Beazley, Lieut.-Colonel George G. 74 Redcliffe-square, S.W.

1887. *Brecxert, Joon Hamppen. Corbar Hall, Buxton, Derbyshire.

1885. {BeppARD, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Zoo-
logical Society of London, Regent’s Park, N.W.

1870. §Brppor, Joun, M.D., F.R.S. The Chantry, Bradford-on-Avon.

1896. §Bedford, F. P. King’s College, Cambridge.

1858. §Bedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds.

1890, {Bedford, James E., F.G.S. Shireoak-road, Leeds.

1891, §Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.

1878. {Bepson, P. Pururps, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1884. {Beers, W.G., M.D. 34 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

1873. {Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.

1874. {Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.

1891. *Belinfante, L. L., M.Sc., Assist.-Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W.

1892. {Bell, A. Beatson. 143 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

1871. {Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.

1884. {Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.

1894, {Butt F. ees M.A., F.Z.S. 85 Cambridge-street, Hyde
Park, W.

Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.

1860. {Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.

1862, *Bexz, Sir Issac Lowruran, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.0.E.
Rounton Grange, Northallerton.

1875, {Bett, Jams, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. Howell Hull Lodge,
Ewell, Surrey.

1896. §Bell, James. Care of the Liverpool Steam Tug Co., Limited,
Chapel-chambers, 28 Chapel-street, Liverpool.

1891. {Bell, James. Bangor Villa, Clive-road, Cardiff.

1871. *Brrt, J. Carrer, F.C.S. Bankfield, The Cliff, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 13

Year of
Election.

1883.
1864,
1888.
1842.
18938.

1884,
1886.
1885.

1891.
1870.

1896.
1881.
1883.
1896.
1881.

1870.
1889.
1887.

1863.
1898.
1884.

*Bell, John Henry. Dalton Lees, Kirkheaton, Huddersfield.

tBell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.

*Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.

{Brxtrrr, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.M. Kingston, Nottingham-
shire.

{Bemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada,

§Benger, Frederick Baden, F.I1.C., F.C.S. The Grange, Knutsford.

{Brnnam, WittiAM Braxtann, D.Sc., Professor of Biology in the
University of Otago, New Zealand.

tBennett, Alfred Rosling. 44 Manor Park-road, Harlesden, N.W.

{Bewnert, ALFRED W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

§Bennett, George W. West Ridge, Oxton, Cheshire,

§Bennett, John Ryan. 38 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

*Bennett, Laurence Henry. The Hall, East Isley, Berkshire.

tBennett, Richard. 19 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.

{Bennett, Rev. S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,
York.

*Bennett, William. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool.

{Benson, John G. 12 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

*Benson, Mrs. W. J. Care of Standard Bank of South Africa, Stel-
lenbosch, South Africa.

tBenson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Bent, Mrs. Theodore. 153 Great Cumberland-place, W.

tBentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

1897.§§Bently, R. R. 97 Dowling-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

1896

1894.

1863.
1886.
1898.
1894.
1862.

1882.
1890.
1880.
1885.
1884.
1890.
1870.
1888.
- 1885.

1882.
1898.
1891.
1886.
1887.
1884.

1881.
1873.

*Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
College, Cork.

§Berkeley, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Foxcombe, Boarshill, near
Abingdon.

tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.

tBernard, W. Leigh. Calgary, Canada.

§Berridge, Miss C. E. 17 Rotunda-terrace, Cheltenham.

§Berridge, Douglas, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Malvern.

TBusant, Witt1am Henry, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

*Bessemer, Henry. Town Hill Park,West End, Southampton.

tBest, William Woodham. 31 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.

*Bevan, Rev. James Oliver, M.A., F.G.S. 55 Gunterstone-road, W.

tReveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen.

*Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

§Bevington, Miss Mary E. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks, Kent.

{Bickerton, A.W. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.

*Bidder, George Parker. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W.

“BIDWELL, SHELFORD, M.A., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodge,
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, 8S.W.

§Biggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, S.E.

§Billington, Charles. Wolstanton, Staffordshire.

tBillups, J. E. 29 The Parade, Cardiff.

{Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, N.W.

*Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles, Manchester. .

*Bingham, Lieut.-Colonel John E., J.P. West Lea, Ranmoor,
Sheffield.

tBinnie, Sir Alexander R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. London County
Council, Spring-gardens, 8. W.

tBinns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.

14

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1880.

1888.
1887.
1871.
1892.
1894,
1885.
1886.
1889.
1889.
1881.

1869.
1876.
1884.
1877.
1855.

1856.
1884,
1883.
1896.
1886.
1895.
1883.
1892.
1892.
1849.

1883.
1846.
1891.

1894.
1887.
1881.

1895.
1884.
1869,

1887.

1887.
1887.
1884,
1880.
1888,

1870.
1859.

1885,.,

1883.
1867.
1887.

{Bird, Henry, F.0.S. South Down House, Millbrook, near
Devonport.

*Birley, Miss Caroline. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, W.

*Birley, H. K. Hospital, Chorley, Lancashire.

*BiscHor, Gustay. 19 Ladbroke-gardens, W.

{Bishop, Arthur W., Ph.D. Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh.

{Bisset, James. 5 East India-avenue, E.C.

{Bissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.

*Bixby, Major W. H. Engineer’s Office, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

{Black, W. 1 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{ Black, Wiliam. 12 Romulus-terrace, Gateshead.

TBlack, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.OS.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.

{Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter.

tBlackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshven, Fort William, N.B.

TBlackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.

tBlackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

*Brackiz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 1 Belhaven-terrace, Kelvinside,
Glasgow.

§Blackie, Walter W., B.Sc. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

{Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Blacklock, Mrs. Sea View, Lord-street, Southport.

{Blackwood, J. M. 16 Oil-street, Liverpool.

{Blaikie, John, F.L.S. The Bridge House, Newcastle, Staffordshire.

{Blaikie, W. B. 6 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.

TBlair, Alexander. 385 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

{Blair, John. 9 Ettrick-road, Edinburgh.

*Brake, Henry WOLLASTON, M. A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire-
place, Portland-place, W.

*Biaxe, Rev. J. F., M.A., F.G.S. 69 Comeragh-road, W.

*Blake, William. ee South Petherton, Somerset.

{Blakesley, Thomas H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, S.E.

{Blakiston, Rev. ©.D. Exwick Vicarage, Exeter.

{Blamires, George. Cleckheaton.

{Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.

{Blamires, William. Oak House, Taylor Hill, Huddersfield.

*Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.

{BranForp, W. T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F. R.G.S. 72 Bedford-
gardens, Campden E Hill, W.

*Bles, A. J. S. Palm House, Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.

*Bles, Edward J., B.Sc. Newnham Lea, Grange-road, Cambridge.

tBles, Marcus 8. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

{Bloxam, Genie, MEAS) Palit: Presburg-street, Clapton, N.E.

§Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Hazelwood, Crumpsall
Green, Manchester.

{Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby.

{Blunt, Captain Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.

Blyth, B. Hall. 155 George-street, Edinburgh.

{Bryra, J. AEs, M. A., E.R. S.E. , Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.

tBlyth, Miss Phoebe. 27 Mansion House-road, Edinburgh.

*Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.

tBlythe, William S. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 15

Year of
Election.

1870, {Boardman, Edward. Oak House, Eaton, Norwich.
1887. *Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.
1889. {Bodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.0.E. 30 Walbrook, E.C.
1884, {Body, Rey. C. W. E.,M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.
1887. *Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam,
1876. {Bolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.
1898. §Bolton, J. W. Baldwin-street, Bristol.
1894, §Bolton, John. Clifton-road, Crouch End, N.
1898. §Bonar, J., M.A., LL.D. 1 Redington-road, Hampstead, N.W.
1883, §Bonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Staffordshire.
1883. §Bonney, Miss 8S. 28 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.
1871. *BonnEy, Rev. Tuomas Gtorex, D.Sc., LL.D., F.RS., F.S.A.,
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in University College, London.
23 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.
1898. §Booby, Edward P. 2 Clifton-terrace, Torquay.
1888. {Boon, William. Coventry.
1893. {Boot, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham.
1890. *Booth, Charles, D.Sc.,F.S.S. 2 Talbot-court, Gracechurch-street, E.C.
1883. §Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.
1883. {Booth, Richard. 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
1876. {Booth, Rev. William H. Mount Nod-road, Streatham, S.W.
1883. {Boothroyd, Benjamin. Solihull, Birmingham.
1876. *Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.
1882. §Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S8. 19 Alexandra-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
1876. *Bosanquet, R. H. M.,M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Tenerife,
1896. {Bose, Dr. J.C. Calcutta, India.
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
1881. §BorHamiry, Cuartes H., F.LC., F.C.S., Director of Technical
Instruction, Somerset County Education Committee. Otter-
wood, Beaconsfield-road, Weston-super-Mare.
1887. {Bott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.
1872. {Bottle, Alexander. Dover.
1868. {Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.
1887. eee ey James, D.Sc., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-road, Man-
chester.
1871. *Bortomiry, James THomson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., E.R.S.E., F.C.S.
13 University-gardens, Glasgow.
1884. *Bottomley, Mrs. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.
1892. {Bottomley, W. B., B.A., Professor of Botany, King’s College, W.C.
1876, {Bottomley, William, jun. 15 University-gardens, Glasgow.
1890.§§Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. 44 Campden House Court,
Kensington, W.
1883. {Bourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common, 8.W.
1883. {Bournn, A. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the
Presidency College, Madras.
1893. alee a. C., M.A., F.L.S. Savile House, Mansfield-road,
xford.
1889, {Bourne, R. H. Fox. 41 Priory-road, Bedford Park, Chiswick,
1866. § Bourne, SrzpHen, F.S.S. 5 Lansdown-road, Lee, S.E.
1890. {Bousfield, C. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds.
1884.§§Bovey, Henry T., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineer-
ing and Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal.
Ontario-avenue, Montreal, Canada.
1888. {Bowden, Rev. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath.
1881. *Bower, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of Botany in
the University of Glasgow.

16 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1898. *Bowker, Arthur Frank, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Royai Societies Club,
St. James’s-street, S.W. -

1856. *Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.

1880, {Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.

1887. {Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.

1865. §Bowman, F. H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Mayfield, Knutsford, Cheshire,

1887.§§Box, Alfred Marshall. 68 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

1895. *Boycr, Rupert, M.B., Professor of Pathology, University College,
Liverpool.

1884. *Boyd, M. A., M.D. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.

1871. tBoyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

1865. {BoyiE, The Very Rev. G. D., M.A. The Deanery, Salisbury.

1884, *Boyle, R. Vicars, O.S.I. Care of Messrs, Grindlay & Co., 55
Parliament-street, 8. W. ;

1892. §Boys, CHARLES VERNON, F.R.S. 27 The Grove, Boltons, S.W.

1872. *BraBsrooxr, E. W., C.B,, F.S.A. 178 Bedford-hill, Balham, 8. W.

1869. *Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington,
Middlesex.

1894. *Braby, Ivon. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex.

1893. §Bradley, F. L. Bel Air, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

1892. §Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.

1857. *Brady, Cheyne, M.R.LA. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.

1863. {Brapy, Grorer S., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.

1880. *Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, 8.0., Essex.

1864. {BrawaM, Pari. 3 Cobden-mansions, Stockwell-road, S.E.

1888. §Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.

1898. §Bramble, James R. Seafield, Weston-super-Mare,

1865. §BRaAMWELL, Sir Freprerick J., Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, S.W.

1872. {Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.

1867. tBrand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.

1861. *Brandreth, Rev. Henry. The Rectory, Dickleburgh.

1885. *Bratby, William, J.P. Alton Lodge, Hale, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1890. *Bray, George. Belmont, Headingley, Leeds.

1868. {Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, W.C.

1877. tBrent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.

1898. §Brereton, Cuthbert A., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, S.W.

1882. *Bretherton, C. E. Goldsmith-buildings, Temple, E.C.

1866. {Brettell, Thomas. Dudley.

1891. {Brice, Arthur Montefiore, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 159 Strand, W.C.

1886.§§Bridge, T. W., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the Mason
Science College, Birmingham,

1870. *Bridson, Joseph R. Bryerswood, Windermere.

1887. {Brierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester.

1870. {Brierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.

1886. {Brierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1879. {Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.

1870. *Briee, Joun, M.P. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1890. {Brigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1893. {Bright, Joseph. Western-terrace, The Park, Nottingham.

1868. {Brine, Admiral Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall,

S.W.
1893.§§Briscoe, Albert E., A.R.C.Sc., B.Sc. Battersea Polytechnic,
<W..
1884. {Brisette,M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS, 17

of

Election.

1898
1879
1878
1884

1897

1896.
1859.
1883.

1884.

1883.
1881.

1864.
1888.

1887.

1863.
1887.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1886.

1885.
1863.

1892.

1896.
1867.
1855.
1871.
1863.
1883.
1881.
1883.
1883.
1885.
1870.

1883.

1895.
1870.

1876.
1881.
1882.
1895.
1894.
1882.

1

. §Bristot, the Right Rev. G. F. Browne, Lord Bishop of, D.D. 17
The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

. *Britrary, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Alma Works, Sheffield.

. {Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum, S.W.

. *Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 9 Vanbrugh-hill, Black-
heath, S.E.

.§§Brock, W. R. Toronto.

*Brocklehurst, S. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Bropuurst, BERNARD Epwarp, F.R.C.S. 21 Portland-place, W.

*Brodie, David, M.D. Care of Mrs. Johnson, Ventnor House, Can-

terbury. ’

pene, ag ra: M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,

S.A.

*Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. 5 Devonshire-place, Eastbourne.

tBrook, Robert G. Wolverhampton House, St. Helens, Lanca-
shire.

*Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax.

TBrooke, eet Canon R. E., M.A. 14 Marlborough-buildings,
Bath.

$Broolks, James Howard. Elm Hirst, Wilmslow, near Man-
chester.

tBrooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tBrooks, S. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.

*Bros, W. Law. Camera Club, Charing-cross-road, W.C.

*Brotherton, EK. A. Arthington Hall, vid Leeds.

*Brough, Mrs. Charles 8. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, S.E.

tBrough, Professor Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy
in University College, Aberystwith.

*Browett, Alfred. 29 Wheeley’s-road, Birmingham.

*Brown, ALEXANDER Orum, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.C.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Bel-
grave-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Brown, Andrew, M.Inst.C.E. Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co., Renfrew,
near Glasgow.

{Brown, A.T. The Nunnery, St. Michael’s Hamlet, Liverpool.

{Brown, Sir Charles Gage, M.D., K.C.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, S.W.

{Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.

TBrown, David. Willowbrae House, Midlothian.

*Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.

tBrown, Mrs. Ellen F. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

TBrown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.

Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.

tBrown, Mrs. H. Bienz. 62 Stanley-street, Aberdeen.

{Brown, Mrs. Helen. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh.

§Brown, Horace T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 52 Nevern-square, S.W.

Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.

{Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh.

{Brown, J. ALLEN, J.P., F.R.G.S., F.G.S._7 Kent-gardens, Ealing, W.

pee Eonee J. Campsext, D.Sc., F.C.S, University College,

iverpool.

§Brown, Ji okt Longhurst, Dunmurry, Belfast.

*Brown, John, M.D. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.

*Brown, John. 7 Second-avenue, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

*Brown, John Charles. 7 Second-avenue, Nottingham.

{Brown, J. H. 6 Cambridge-road, Brighton.

Ei Mrs. Mary. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.

898. B

18 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1898, §Brown, Nicol, F.G.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, N. -

1897.§§ Brown, Price, M.B. 87 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada.

1886. §Brown, R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth,

1863. {Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1897.§§Brown, Richard. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

1896. {Brown, Stewart H. Quarry Bank, Allerton, Liverpool.

1891. §Brown, T. Forster, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Guild Hall Chambers,
Cardiff.

1865. {Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.

1885. {Brown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen.

1884, {Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Co., Virginia, U.S.A.

1868. {Browne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.E. Westacres, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

1892. {Browne, Harold Crichton. Crindon, Dumfries.

1895. *Browne, Henry Taylor. 10 Hyde Park-terrace, W.

1879, {Browne, Sir J. Cricuton, M.D.,LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 61 Carlisle-
place-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.

1891. {Brownn, Monracu, F.G.8. Town Museum, Leicester.

1862. *Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Browne's Hill, Carlow, Ireland.

1872. {Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks, Kent.

1887. { Brownell, T. W. 6 St. James’s-square, Manchester.

1865. tBrowning, John, F.R.A.S. 63 Strand, W.C.

1883. {Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

1855. { Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.

1892. {Bruce, James. 10 Hill-street, Edinburgh.

1893. tBruce, William S. University Hall, Riddle’s-court, Edinburgh.

1863. *Brunel, H. M., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

1863. {Brunel, I. 15 Devonshire-terrace, W.

1875. {Brunlees, John, M.Inst.C.E. 12 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

1896. *Brunner, Sir J. T., Bart., M.P. Druid’s Cross, Wavertree, Liver-
pool.

1868. {Brunron, T. Lavprr, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place,
Oxford-street, W.

1897. *Brush, Charles F. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

1878. §Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.

1886. *Bryan, G. H., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in
University College, Bangor. ~

1894, {Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Bangor.

1884, {Brycn, Rey. Professor GEorer. Winnipeg, Canada.

1897.§§Bryce, Right Hon. James, D.C.L., M.P., F.R.S. 54 Portland-
place, W.

1894, {Brydone, R. M. Petworth, Sussex.

1890. §Bubb, Henry. UlJlenwood, near Cheltenham.

1871. §BucHan, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish
Meteorological Society. 42 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

1867. tBuchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.

1881. *Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.

1871. {BucHanan, Jonn Youne, M.A., F.RS., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., F.C.S,
10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

1884, {Buchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.

1883. {Buckland, Miss A. W. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.

1886. *Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, W.C.

1865. *Buckley, Henry. 18 Princes-street, Cavendish-square, W.

1886. §Buckley, Samuel. Merlewood, Beaver Park, Didsbury.

1884, *Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, W.

1880. tBuckney, Thomas, F.t.A.S. 53 Gower-street, W.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 12

lection.

1851. *Bucxron, Grorce Bowpter, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.

1887. {Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley

ss Range, Manchester.

1875. {Budgett, Samuel. Penryn, Beckenham, Kent.

1883. {Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland.

1893. §Butterp, ARTHUR, F.S.A. Glastonbury.

1871. {Bulloch, Matthew. 48 Prince’s-gate, 8S. W.

1883. {Bulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport.

1865. {Bunce, John Thackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birmmgham.

1895. {Bunte, Dr. Hans. Karlsruhe, Baden.

1886.§§ Burbury, 8. H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

1842. *Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.

1875. t{Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol.

1869. {Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, W.

1881. {Burdett-Coutts,W.L.A.B., M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, W-

1891. {Burge, Very Rev. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York.

1894. {Burke, John. Owens College, Manchester.

1884. *Burland, Lieut.-Col. Jeffrey H. 824 Sherbrook-street, Montreal,.
Canada.

1888. {Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.

1885. *Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, G.C.S.L, C.LE., F.R.G.S-
132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, W.

1876. {Burnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1885. *Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. 11 Belmont-street, Aberdeen.

1877. {Burns, David. Alston, Carlisle.

1884, {Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A.

1887. {Burroughs, Eggleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, E.C.

1883. *Burrows, Abraham. Russell House, Rhyl, North Wales.

1860. {Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.

1894. {Burstall, H. F. W. 76 King’s-road, Camden-road, N. W.

1891. {Burt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff.

1888. {Burt, John Mowlem. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, W.-

1888. {Burt, Mrs. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, W.

1894, {Burton, Charles V. 24 Wimpole-street, W.

1866. *Burron, Frepertcx M., F.L.S., F.G.8. Highfield, Gainsborough.

1889. {Burton, Rev. R. Lingen. Little Aston, Sutton Coldfield.

1897.§§ Burton, 8. H., M.B. 50 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

_ 1892. {Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. St.
George’s Club, Hanover-square, W.

1897.§§Burwash, Rev. N., LL.D., Principal of Victoria University,
Toronto, Canada.

1887. *Bury, Henry. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1895. §Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. 19 Cromwell-road, S.W.

1878. {Burcouzr, J. G., M.A. 22 Collingham-place, S.W.

1884, *Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Holyrood, Cleveland-road,
Ealing, W.

1884. {Butler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

1888. {Buttanshaw, Rev. John. 22 St. James’s-square, Batb.

1884, Cee W. Greenhill. Church-lane, Harpurhey, Man-
chester,

1872. tBuxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.

1883. { Burton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.

1887. *Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstewe.

1868. {Buxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.

1881. {Buxton, Sydney. 15 Eaton-place, S.W.

2 B 2

2) LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1872. {Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Warlies,
Waltham Abbey, Hssex.

1854, {Byprtey, Isaac, F.L.S. 22 Dingle-lane, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.

1885. {Byres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen.

31852. {Byrne, Very Rey. James. KErgenagh Rectory, Omagh.

1883. {Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairfield, near Manchester.

1889. {Cackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-

yne.
1892. {Cadell, Henry M., B.Se., I’. R.S.E. Grange, Bo'ness, N.B.
1894, {Caillard, Miss E. M. Wingfield House, near Trowbridge, Wilts.
1863. {Cuird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
1861. *Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee.
1886. *Caldwell, William Hay. Cambridge.
1868. {Caley, A. J. Norwich.
1887. {Cartaway, CuaruEs, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. 35 Huskisson-street,
Liverpool.
1897. §CaLLENDAR, Professor Hucu L., M.A., F.R.8. University College,
Gower-street, W.C.
1892. {Calvert, A. F., F.R.G.S. Royston, Eton-avenue, N.W.
1884. t{Cameron, A‘neas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
1876. {Cameron, Sir Charles, Bart., M.D., LL.D. 1 Huntly-gardens,
Glasgow.
1857. {Cameron, Sir Coartes A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
1896. §Cameron, Irving H. 807 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada.
1884. {Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.
1870. {Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1884. {Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.
1876. {Campbell, Right Hon. James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House,
Brechin.
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place,
Edinburgh.
1897.§§Campbell, Major J.C. L. New Club, Edinburgh.
1898. §Campbell, Mrs. Napier. 81 Ashley-gardens, S.W.
1897.§§Campion, B. W. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
1882. {Candy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton,
1890. {Cannan, Edwin, M.A., F.S.8. 24 St. Giles’s, Oxford.
1897. §Cannon, Herbert. Erith, Kent.
1898. Canterbury, Right Hon. and Most Rev. F. Temprn, Lord Archbishop
of, Lambeth Palace, 5 E.
1888. {Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.LE. 27 Kensington Court-gardens,
London, W.
1894. §Capper, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, W.C.
1880. {Capper, Robert. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.
1883. {Capper, Mrs. R. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.
_ 1887. {Capstick, John Walton. University College, Dundee.
1873. *Carsurt, Sir Epwarp Hamer, Bart., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-
gardens, W.
1896. *Carden, H. V. Lagonda, Lancaster-road, Wimbledon.
1877. {Carkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.
1898. §Carlile, George M. 7 Upper Belgrave-road, Bristol.
1867. {Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.
1897, eambee (4- Norman R. Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario,
anada.
1884, {Carnegie, John. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 21)

Year of
Election.

1884,

i ouaie ete Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado,
U.S.A.

1897. Bienen, R. C. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

1854,
1889.
1893.

1889.
1867.

1886.
1883.
1868.
1897.
1866.
1855.
1870.
1883.
1883.
1896.
1878.
1870.

1862.
1894.
1884,

1884.
1887.
1897.
1896.
1871.
1873.

{Carpenter, Rey. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.

tCarr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

tCarr, J. Westey, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Nottingham.

{Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

{OarRurHeERS, Wim, F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S. 14 Vermont-
road, Norwood, 8.1K.

tCarstake, J. Barwa. 80 Westfield-road, Birmingham.

{Carson, John, 61 Royal-ayenue, Belfast.

*Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S., F.1.C. 180 New Bond-street, W.

§Carter, H. Tremlett. Broadclyst, 55 Cloudesdale-road, S.W.

fCarter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.

{Carter, Richard, F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

{Carter, Dr. William. 78 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

tCarter, W. C. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

{Carter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

§Cartwright, Miss Edith G. 7 Fairfax-road, N.W.

*Oartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. i Courtfield-gardens, S.W.

§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.I., Borough and Water
Engineer. Albion-place, Bury, Lancashire.

fCarulla, F. J. R. 84 Argyll-terrace, Derby.

tCarus, Paul. La Salle, Illinois, U.S.A.

*Carver, Rey. Canon Alfred J., D.D.,F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, 8. W.

Carver, Mrs. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, London, S.W.

tCasartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Manchester.

*Case, Willard If. Auburn, New York, U.S.A.

*Casey, James. 10 Philpot-lane, H.C.

{Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.

*Cash, William, F.G.S. 35 Commercial-street, Halifax.

1897.§§Caston, Harry Edmonds Featherston. 340 Brunswick-avenue,

1888,
1874.
1859.

1886,

1883,
1859,
1883.
1884,

1883.
1883.

1881.
1865.
1865.
1886,
1865.
1888,
1861,

Toronto, Canada.

tCater, R. B. Avondale, Henrietta Park, Bath.

tCaton, Richard, M.D. Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool.

{Catto, Robert. 44 Kinge-street, Aber deen.

*Cave-Moyles, Mrs. Isabella. Lancaster House, Palace-road, Tulse-
hill, S.W.

Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.

Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
t{Chadwick, James Percy. 51 Alexandra-road, Southport.
tChalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen,
tChamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park, Southport.
tChamberlain, Montague. St. John, New Brunswick, Canada.
tChambers, Mrs. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.

{Chambers, Charles, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.

*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.

*Champney, John E. Abchurch-chambers, E.C.

tCOhance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Chance, James T. 1 Grand-avenue, Brighton.

*Chance, John Horner. 40 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

{Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Chandler, S. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset.

ear Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C. S. Hill End, Mottram, Man-
chester,

22

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Glection. »

1897.§§Chapman, Edward Henry. 17 St. Hilda’s-terrace, Whitby.

1889.

1876.

{Chapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

- {Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada. ‘
. {Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. 17 Wesley-ayvenue, Liscard, Cheshire,
. (Charles, J. J., M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in

Queen’s College, Cork. Newmarket, Co. Cork.
{Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.

- {Charnock, Richard Stephen, Ph.D., F.S.A. Crichton Club, Adelphi-

terrace, W.C.

- {Chate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

“Chatterton, George, M.A., M.Inst.0.E. 46 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

- *Chattock, A. P., M.A., Professor of Experimental Physics in

University College, Bristol.

- “Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park,

Worsley, Manchester.

- {CHavuveav, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.
» {Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
. {Coeaptz, W. B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 19 Portman-street,

Portman-square, W.

- {Cheetham, F, W. Limefield House, Hyde.
- {Cheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.
« {Chenie, John. Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.

“Chermside, Colonel Sir H. C., R.E., K.C.M.G.,C0.B. Care of Messrs,
Cox & Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, 8. W.

- {Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.

- Cherry, R. B. 92 Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

- “Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.

. {Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.

. {Chipman, W. W. L. 957 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

. {Chirney, J. W. Morpeth.

- {Chisholm, G, G., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.G.8. 26 Dornton-road, Balham,
S.W.

: {Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.
- {Chorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.
. “Coren, Cuarres, D.Sc., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Kew

Observatory, Richmond, Surrey.

. “Christie, William. 29 Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.
- “Christopher, George, F.C.S. May Villa, Lucien-road, Tooting

Graveney, S.W.

- “CurysTat, Grorez, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathe-

matics in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Belgrave-crescent,
Edinburgh.

. §Caurcn, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., Professor of Chemistry in the

Royal Academy of Arts. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road, Kew. :

. §CuurcuH, Colonel G. Fart, F.R.G.S. 216 Cromwell-road, S. W.

. tChurch, William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, E.C.

- §Clague, Daniel, F.G.S. 5 Sandstone-road, Stoneycroft, Liver-
1

pool.
- {Clark, E. K, 13 Wellclose-place, Leeds.
- “Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset.

Clark, George T. 44 Berkeley-square, W.
{Clark, George W. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.

1892.§§Clark, James, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Agriculture in the York-

1892.

shire College, Leeds.
{Clark, James. Chapel House, Paisley.

1876. {Clark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glasgow.
4881. {Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc. 112 Wool Exchange, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 23

Year of
Election.

1861.

1855.
1883.
1887.
1875.
1886.
1886.
1875.
1897.
1883.
1896,
1884.

${Crark, Larrer, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.Inst.C.E. 11. Victoria-street,

S.W.
{Clark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
tClarke, Rev. Canon, D.D. 59 Hoghton-street, Southport.
§Clarke, C. Goddard, J.P. Fairlawn, 157 Peckham-rye, 8.1.
{Clarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
{Olarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.
{Clarke, Rev. H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham.
{CiarKE, Joun Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
§Clarke, Colonel 8. C., R.E. Parklands, Caversham, near Reading.
{Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport.
§Clarke, W. W. Albert Dock Office, Liverpool.
tClaxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.

1889.§§Ciayppy, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s, Polsloe-road, Exeter.

1866.
1890.
1859.
1875.
1861.

1861.

1898.
1893.

1878,
1873.
1892.
1883.

1863.
1881.
1885.
1891.

tClayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, W.C.

*Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.

tCleghorn, John. Wick.

t{Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.

§CLELAND, Joun, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow.

*Oxirron, R. Bettamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 3 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford.

§Clissold, H. 30 College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{Clofford, William. 36 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.

§Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 38 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

TClough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Clouston, T.S., M.D. Tipperlinn House, Edinburgh.

*Ctowrs, Franx, D.Sc., F.C.S. London County Council, Spring-
gardens, 8. W.

*Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.

*Clutton, William James. The Mount, York.

tClyne, James. Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.

*Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth.

1897.§§Coates, J., M.Inst.C.E. 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, Australia.

1884.
1895.
1889,
1864.
1889.
1892.
1883.
1861.

1898.
1881.

1896.
1884,
1887.
1894.
1895.
1895.
1853.
1893.

Cobb, Edward. Falkland House, St. Ann’s, Lewes.
§Cobb, John. Westfield, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
*CoBBoLD, Frrix T., M.A. The Lodge, Felixstowe, Suffolk.
{Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
“Cochrane, James Henry. Burston House, Pittville, Cheltenham.
{Cochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tCockburn, John. Glencorse House, Milton Bridge, Edinburgh.
{Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.
*Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road,

Bournemouth. .

§Coffey, George. 5 Harcourt-terrace, Dublin.

*Corrin, Watter Harris, F.C.8. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South
Kensington, 8. W.

*Coghill, Percy de G. Camster, Cressington.
*Cohen, B. L., M.P. 380 Hyde Park-gardens, W.
{Cohen, Julius B. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
*Colby, Miss E. L., B.A. Carregwen, Aberystwyth.
*Colby, James George Ernest, M.A., F.R.C.S. Malton, Yorkshire.
*Colby, William Henry. Carregwen, Aberystwyth.
{Colchester, William, F.G.S. Burwell, Cambridge.

tCole, Grenville A. J., F.G.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

24

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of -
Election.
1879. {Cole, Skelton. 887 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

1894.

fColefax, H. Arthur, Ph.D., F.C.S. 14 Chester-terrace, Chester-
square, S.W.

1897. §Coleman, Dr. A. P. 476 Huron-street, Toronto, Canada.
1893. {Coleman, J. B., F.C.S., A.R.C.S. University College, Nottingham.

1878.
1854.
1892.

tColes, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W.
*Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.
fCollet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, N.

1892. {Collie, Alexander. Harlaw House, Inverurie. /
1887. {Cortin, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry to the

Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 16 Campden-grove, W.

1869. {Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.
1893. {Collinge, Walter E. Mason College, Birmingham.
1854, {CoLtLinewoop, Curnpert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 69 Great Russell-

1861.

1865.
1876.

street, W.C.
*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 5 Irene-road, Parson’s Green,
S.W.

*Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tCorins, J. H., F.G.S. 162 Barry-road, S.E.

1892, {Colman, H.G. Mason College, Birmingham.
1882. {Colmer, Joseph G.,O.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for

1884,

1897
1896

1888.
1884,

1891.
1892.
1884,
1896.
1890.
1871.
1881.
1893.

1898.
1882,

1876.
1881.
1868.
1895.
1868.
1884.
1878.
1881.
1865.
1896.
1888.
1895.

1893,

1883.

Canada, 17 Victoria-street, S.W. io St

tColomh, Sir J.C. R., M.P., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare, Kerry,
Tveland; and Junior United Service Club, S.W.

-§§Colquhoun, A. H. U., B.A. 39 Borden-street, Toronto, Canada.

- *Comber, Thomas, F.L.S. Leighton, Parkgate, Chester.

tCommans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.

fCommoy, A. A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing,
Middlesex, W.

{Common, J. F. F. 21 Park-place, Cardiff.

t{Comyns, Frank, M.A., F.C.S. The Grammar School, Durham.

tConklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.

tConnacher, W.S. Birkenhead Institute, Birkenhead.

{Connon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds.

*Connor, Charles C. 4 Queen’s Elms, Belfast.

tCoyroy, Sir Jonny, Bart., M.A., F.R.S, Balliol College, Oxford.

tConway, Sir W. M., M.A., F.R.G.S. The Red House, Hornton-
street, W.

§Cook, Ernest H. 27 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

{Cooxr, Major-General A. C., R.E., C.B., F.R.G.S. Palace-chambers,.
Ryder-street, S.W.

*CooxE, Conran W. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

{Cooke, F, Bishopshill, York.

tCooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.

tCooke, Miss Janette E. Holmwood, Thorpe, Norwich.

{Cooxz, M. C.,M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, N.

{Cooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

{Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.

tCooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.

{Oooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.

tCookson, KE. H. Kiln Hey, West Derby.

tCooley, George Parkin. Cavendish Hill, Sherwood. Nottingham.

Woerers Charles Friend, M.I.E.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster,

W.

tCooper, F. W. 14 Hamilton-road, Sherwood Rise, Notting—
ham.
tCooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, W.C.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 26

Election.

1868.
1889.
1878.
1871.

1885,
1881.

t{Cooper, W. J. New Malden, Surrey.

t{Coote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tCope, Rev. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds.

{Coprranp, Ratpu, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.

tCopland, W., M.A. Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B.

{Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.

1891.§§Corbett, E,W. M. Y Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff.

1887.
1894,

1881.
18853.
1870.

1893.
1889.

1884.
1885.
1888.
1891.
1891.
1883.
1891.
1874.

1864.

1869.
1876.
1876.
1889.
1896.

1890.
1896.

1863.
1863.
1872,

1895.

1871.
1867.
1867.
1892.
1882.

1888.
1867.
1883.
1890.

*Corcoran, Bryan. 9 Alwyne-square, N.

§Corcoran, Miss Jessie R. The Chestnuts, Mulgrave-road, Sutton,
Surrey.

§Cordeaux, vole Great Cotes House, R.S.O., Lincoln.

*Core, Professor Thomas H., M.A. Fallowfield, Manchester.

*CorrietD, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiene
and Public Health in University College, London. 19 Savile-
row, W.

*Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. 95 Forest-road West, Nottingham.

{Cornish, Vaughan, M.Sc., F.R.G.S. Branksome Cliff, Branksome
Park, Bournemouth.

*Cornwallis, F.S. W., M.P., F.LS. Linton Park, Maidstone.

tCorry, John. Rosenheim, Parkhill-road, Croydon.

tCorser, Rev. Richard K. 57 Park Hill-road, Croydon.

{Cory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, near Cardiff.

{Cory, Alderman Richard, J.P. Oscar House, Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Costelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 33 Chancery-lane, W.C.

*Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt. G.W.R. Laboratory, Swindon, Wilts.

*Correritt, J.H., M.A.,F.R.S. Broadwater, Tweedy-road, Brom-
ley.

t{Corron, General Freprrick C., R.E., C.S.I. 15 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, 8. W.

{Corron, Witt1am. Pennsylvania, Exeter.

tCouper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Courtney, F. 8S. 77 Redcliffe-square, South Kensington, S.W.

{Courtnry, Right Hon. Lxronarp, M.P. 15 Cheyne Walk,
Chelsea, S.W.

{Cousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

tCoventry, J. 19 Sweeting-street, Liverpool. .

Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.

tCowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.

tCowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.

*Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.S. 17 King William-street,
Strand, W.C.

*CowELL, Puitip H. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 8.E.

Cowie, The Very Rev. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., D.D., Dean of
Exeter. The Deanery, Exeter.

Cowper, 0. E. 6 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.

*Cox, Edward. Cardean, Meigle, N.B.

*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.

tCox, Robert. 34 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

Cox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the S., P., and D. Railway.
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs, Grindlay & Co., Parliament=
street, S. W. ;

tCox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdowne, Bath.

}Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.

{Crabtree, William, 126 Manchester-road, Southport.

tCradock, George. Wakefield.

26

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1892.
1884,
1876.
1858.
1884,
1887,
1887.
1871.

1871.

1846.
1890.
1883.
1870.
1885.

*Craig, George A. 66 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

§CraiciE, Major P. G., F.S.S. 6 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N. W.

{Cramb, John. Larch. Villa, Helensburgh, N.B,

{Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.

{Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Craven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.

*Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey.

*CRAWFORD AND Batcarrus, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Dun Echt, Aberdeen.

*Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Craig-
lockhart, Edinburgh.

*Crawshaw, The Right Hon. Lord. Whatton, Loughborough.

§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.

*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, N.

*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Caversham Park, Reading.

§Creak, Captain EK. W., R.N.. F.R.S. 9 Hervey-road, Black-
heath, 8.E.

1896.§§Cregeen, A.C. 21 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.

1879.
1876.
1887.
1896.
1896.
1880.

1890.
1878.

1857.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1887.
1898.
1865.

1879.
1897.

1870.
1894.
1870.
1890.

1887.
1861.

1858.
1887.
1894,

1897.
1894.
1883.
1882.
1890.

tCreswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffield.

*OCrewdson, Rev. Canon George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere.

*Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.

§Crewe, W. Outram. Central Buildings, North John-street, Liverpool.

§Crichton, H. 6 Rockfield-road, Anfield, Liverpool.

*Crisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.LS., F.G.S. 5 Lansdowne-road,
Notting Hill, W..

*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.

{Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. University College, Stephen’s Green,
Dublin.

tCrolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.

{Crombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

{Crombie, John, jun. Daveston, Aberdeen.

{Cromsrs, J. W., M.A., M.P. Balgownie Lodge, Aberdeen.

{Crombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

§Croox, Henry T. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.

§Crooke, William. West Leigh, Arterberry-road, Wimbledon.

§Crooxes, Sir W., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (PREsrpent.) 7 Kensington Park-
gardens, W.

tCrookes, Lady. 7 Kensington Park-eardens, W.

*Crookshank, E. M., M.B., Professor of Bacteriology in King’s
College, London, W.C.

tCrosfield, C. J. Gledhill, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Crosfield, Miss Margaret C, Undercroft, Reigate.

*CROSFIELD, WittIaM. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.

fCross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough.

§Cross, John. Beaucliffe, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

tCross, Rev. John Edward, M.A., F.G.8. Halecote, Grange-over-
Sands.

{Crosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.

*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Crosweller, William Thomas, F.Z.8., F.I.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sidcup,
Kent.

*Crosweller, Mrs. W. T. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.

{Crow, C. F. Home Lea, Woodstock-road, Oxford.

{Crowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.

§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.

*Crowley, Ralph Henry. Bramley Oaks, Croydon.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 27

Year of
Election.

1863.
1885.
1888.

1873.
1883.

1883.
1878.
1883.

1897
1874
1898
1861

1861
1882

1877.

1891.
1852.
1885,
1869.

1883.
1892.

1892.
1884,
1898.
1878.
1884.
1883.
1881.

1889.

1854.
1883.

1898.
1889.
1863.
1867.
1894,

1870.

1862.
1876.

{Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Cruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen.

t{Crummack, William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.

t{Crust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.

*Cryer, Major J. H. The Grove, Manchester-road, Southport.

Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

*CULVYERWELL, Epwarp P., M.A. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.

tCulverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.

tCulverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.

.§§Cumberland, Barlow. Toronto, Canada.

. {Cumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.

. §Cundall, J. Tudor. 1 Dean Park-crescent, Edinburgh.

. *Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-

chester.

. *Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.

. *CunnineHAm, Lieut.-Colonel Attan, R.E., A.LC.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, W.

*CunnincHamM, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Anatomy in Trinity College, Dublin.

{Cunningham, J. H. 4 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Ounningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.

t¢CunnineHam, J. T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.

{Cunnrvenam, Rozert O., M.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., Professor of
Natural History in Queen’s College, Belfast.

oe alee Rey. Wittiam, D.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cam-

ridge.

§Cunningham-Craig, E. H., B.A., F.G.8. Geological Survey Office,
Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

*Currie, James, jun., M.A. Larkfield, Golden Acre, Edinburgh.

tCurrier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.

§Curtis, John. 1 Christchurch-road, Clifton, Bristol.

tCurtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.

{Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.

tCushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.

§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depét, Belvedere-road,
Lambeth, S.W.

{Dagger, John H., F.I.C. Victoria Villa, Lorne-street, Fairfield,
Liverpool.

tDaglish, Robert. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.

{Dahne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.

§Dalby, W. E. 6 Coleridge-road, Crouch End, N.

*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Westbourne, Buxton, Derbyshire.

tDale, J.B. South Shields.

TDalgleish, W. Dundee.

poaleirn, W. Scott, M.A., LL.D. 25 Mayfield-terrace, Edin-

urgh.

tDatiinerr, Rev. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside, New-
stead-road, Lee, 8.E.

Dalton, Edward, LL.D. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.

tDansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S8. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.

tDansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.

1896.§§Danson, F. C. Liverpool and London Chambers, Dale-street,

Liverpool.

28 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1849. *Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.

1894, {Darbishire, B. V., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W.

1897. §Darbishire,C. W. Elm Lodge, Elm-row, Hampstead, N.W.

1897. §Darbishire, F. V. Rossplatz 121, Leipzig.

1861. *DarsisuirE, Rosprr Doxiyrierp, B.A. 26 George-street, Man-
chester.

1896.§§Darbishire, W. A. Penybryn, Carnarvon, North Wales.

1882. {Darwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wychfield, Hun-
tingdon-road, Cambridge.

1881. *Darwtn, Grorcr Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

1878. *Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

1894, §Darwin, Major Lronarp, Sec, R.G.S. 12 Egerton-place, South
Kensington, 8. W.

1882. {Darwin, W. E., M.A., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton,

1888. {Daubeny, William M. 11 St. James’s-square, Bath,

1872. {Davenport, John T. 64 Marine-parade, Brighton.

1880. *Davry, Henry, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 3 Prince’s-street, West-
minster, S.W.

1898. §Davey, William John. 6 Water-street, Liverpool.

1884. {David, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C.

1870. {Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

1885. {Davidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen.

1891. {Davies, Andrew, M.D. Cefn Parc, Newport, Monmouthshire.

1875. {Davies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.

1887. {Davies, David. 55 Berkley-street, Liverpool.

1870. {Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.

1887. *Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.

1896. *Davies, Thomas Wilberforce, F.G.S. 41 Park-place, Cardiff.

1893. *Davies, Rev. T. Witton, B.A., Ph.D. Midland Baptist College,
Nottingham.

1898. §Davies, Wm. Howell, J.P. Down House, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

1887. {Davies-Colley, T. C. Hopedene, Kersal, Manchester.

1873. *Davis, Alfred. 13 St. Ermin’s-mansions, 8S. W.

1870. *Davis, A. S. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.

1864, {Davis, Cuarzes E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.

1882. {Davis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton.

1896. *Davis, John Henry Grant. 18 Clare-road, Halifax, Yorkshire.

1885. *Davis, Rev. Rudolf. 1 Victoria-avenue, Evesham.

1891. {Davis, W. 48 Richmond-road, Cardiff:

1886. {Davis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.

1886. {Davison, Cuartes, M.A. 16 Manor-road, Birmingham.

1864, *Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.

1857. {Davy, E. W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, Dublin.

1869, {Daw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.

1869. {Daw, R. R. M. Bedtford-circus, Exeter.

1860. *Dawes, John T. The Lilacs, Prestatyn, North Wales.

1864. {Dawxins, W. Boyp, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology and Paleontology in the Victoria University, Owens
College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1886. {Dawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.

1891. {Dawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

1897.§§ Dawson, G. M., C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the Geological
Survey of Canada. Ottawa, Canada.

1885. *Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. Hartlington, Burnsall, Skipton.

1884, {Dawson, Samuel. 258 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 29

Year of
Election.

1855. §Dawson, Sir Witriam, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.G.S.
293 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

1859. *Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common, Kent.

1892. {Day, T.C., F.C.S. 86 Hillside-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. *DzEacon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Warwick-square, S.W.

1861. {Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.

1887. {Deakin, H.T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.

1861. {Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.

1884. *Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 1 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, N.W.

1866. PEATEs Hetvricu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel,

essen.

1884. {Deck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.

1893, §Deeley, R. M. 38 Charnwood-street, Derby.

1878. {Delany, Rev. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.

1884. *De Laune, C. De L. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne.

1870. {De Meschin, Thomas, B.A., LL.D. 2 Dr. Johnson’s Buildings,
Temple, E.C.

1896. §Dempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

1889. {Dendy, Frederick Walter. 3 Mardale-parade, Gateshead.

1897.§§Denison, F. Napier. The Observatory, ‘loronto, Canada.

1896. {Denison, Miss Louisa E. 16 Chesham-place, S.W.

1889.§§ Denny, Atrrep, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in University College,
Sheffield.

Dent, William Yerbury. 5 Caithness-road, Brook Green, W.

1874.§§De Rance, Cuartzs E., F.G.S. 55 Stoke-road, Shelton, Stoke-
upon-Trent.

1896. {Drrsy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.B. Knowsley, Prescot,
Lancashire.

1874, *Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, W.

1894. *Deverell, F. H. 7 Grote’s-place, Blackheath, S.E.

1868. {Drwar, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pres.C.S., Fullerian
Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and
Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy
an the University of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cam-

ridge,

1881. {Dewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

1883. {Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.

1884. *Dewar, William, M.A. Rugby School, Rugby.

1872. {Dewick, Rey. E.8., M.A., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, W.

1887. {Dz Winton, Major-General Sir F., G.C.M.G., C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, S.W.

1884, {De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.

1873. *Dew-Surrn, A. G., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1896. {D’Hemry, P. 136 Prince’s-road, Liverpool.

1897.§§Dick, D. B. Toronto, Canada.

1889. {Dickinson, A. H. The Wood, Maybury, Surrey.

1863. {Dickinson, G. T. Lily-avenue, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

1887. {Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.S. South Bank, Pendleton.

1884. {Dickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.

1881. {Dickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.S. 2 Starkie-street, Preston.

1887. §Dickson, H. N., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 2 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

1885. {Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen.

1883. {Dickson, T, A. West Cliff, Preston.

1862. *Ditxe, The Right Hon. Sir Cuartes WentTwoxrtu, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, S.W.

1877. {Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 386 Dawson-street, Dublin,

30 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1869. {Dingle, Edward. 19 Kine-street, Tavistock.

1898, *Dix, John William S. Hampton Lodge, Durdham Park, Clifton,
Bristol.

1874, *Drxon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork,
Mentone Villa, Sunday’s Well, Cork.

1883. {Dixon, Miss E. 2 Cliff-terrace, Kendal.

1888. §Dixon, Edward T. Messrs. Lloyds, Barnetts, & Bosanquets’ Bank,
54 St. James’s-street, S.W.

1879. *Drxon, Harorp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
the Owens College. Birch Hall, Rusholme, Manchester.

1885. {Dixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B.

1896. §Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Ecclestone Park, Prescot.

1887. {Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire.

1885. {Doak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

1890. {Dobbie, James J., D.Sc. University College, Bangor, North Wales.

1885. §Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh.

1860. *Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 34 Westbourne-park, W.

1897.§§Doberck, William. The Observatory, Hong Kone.

1892. {Dobie, W. Fraser. 47 Grange-road, Edinburgh.

1891. {Dobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff.

1898. {Dobson, W. E., J.P. Lenton-road, The Park, Nottingham.

1894. {Dockar-Drysdale, Mrs. 39 Belsize-park, N.W.

1875. *Docwra, George. 2 Paulton-square, Chelsea, S.W.

1870. *Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York.

1876. {Dodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.

1897.§§Dodge, Richard E. Teachers’ College, Morningside Heights, New
York, U.S.A.

1889. {Dodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.

1898. §Dole, James. Redland House, Bristol.

1893. {Donald, Charles W. Kinsgarth, Braid-road, Edinburgh.

1885. {Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal ot
the University of St. Andrews, N.B.

1882. {Donaldson, John. Tower House, Chiswick, Middlesex.

1869. {Donisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.

1877. *Donkin, Bryan, M.Inst.C.E, The Mount, Wray Park, Reigate.

1889. {Donkin, R.S.,M.P. Campville, North Shields.

1896. {Donnan, I’, KE. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland.

1861, {Donnelly, Major-General Sir J. F. D., R.E., K.C.B. South Ken-
sington Museum, S.W.

1881. {Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.

1867. {Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.

1863. *Doughty, Charles Montagu. Henwick, Newbury.

1884, {Douglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.

1890. {Dovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry.

1883. {Dove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York.

1884, {Dove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B.

1884, {Dowe, John Melnotte. 69 Seventh-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

1876. {Dowie, Mrs. Muir., Golland, by Kinross, N.B.

1894. {Dowite, Robert Chambers. 18 Carter-street, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.

1884, *Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent.

1857. {Downing, S., LL.D. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

1865, *Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.

1881. *Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.K. 39 Old Queen-street, S.W.

1887. {Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.

1894. {Doyne, R. W., F.R.C.S. 28 Beaumont-street, Oxford.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 31

Year of
Election.

1883. {Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.

1892. *Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

1868. {DressER, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon- -street, 0.C,

1890. tDrew, John. 12 12 Harringay-park, Crouch Ind, Middlesex, N.

1892. {Dreyer, oe L. E., M.A., Ph.D., FRAS. The Observatory,
Armagh,

1893. §Drucz, G. Crariper, M.A., F.L.S. 118 High-street, Oxford.

1889. {Drummond, Dr. 6 Saville-place, Neweastle-upon- Tyne.

1892. {Du Bois, Dr. H. Mittelstrasse, 39, Berlin.

1889. {Du Chaillu, Paul B. Care of ‘John Murray, Esq., 504 Albemarle-
street, W.

1856. *Ducrz, The Right. Hon. Henry Jonny Reynozps Moreron, Earl
of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, W.; and Tortworth
Court, Falfield, Gloucestershire.

1870. {Duckworth, Henry, FL. S., F.G.8. Christchurch Vicarage, Chester,

1895. *Duddell, William, 47 Hans- -place, 5. W.

1867. *Durr, The Right Hon. Sir Mountstuarr ELpurnstone GRant-,
G.C.S. lee ERS. F.RGS. 1 Chelsea-embankment, S.W.

1852. {Durrerin AND AVA, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K. P., G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G., G.OSL, D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., FRGS. ’ Clande-
boye, near Belfast, Treland.

1877. {Duffey, George F., M.D. 30F itzwilliam-place, Dublin.

1875. {Duffin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford.

1890. {Dufton,S. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1884, {Dugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, W.

1883. {Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.

1892. {Dulier, Colonel E., C.B. 27 Sloane-gardens, S.W.

1866. *Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, E.C.

1891. *Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.

1880. {Duncan, William S. 148 Queen’s-road, Bayswater, W.

1896. {Duncanson, Thomas. 16 Deane-road, Liverpool.

1881. {Duncombe, The Hon. Cecil, F.G.8. Nawton Grange, York,

1893. *Dunell, George Robert. 7 Spencer-road, Grove Park, Chiswick,
Middlesex.

1892. {Dunham, Miss Helen Bliss. Messrs. Morton, Rose, & Co., Bartholo-
mew House, E.C.

1881. {Dunhill, Charles H. Gray’s-court, York.

1896. *Dunkerley, 8., M.Sc. Professor of Applied Mechanics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, 8.1.

1865. {Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.

1882. {Dunn, J. T., M.Sc., F.C. S. Northern Polytechnic Institute,
Holloway-road, N.

1883. {Dunn, Mrs. Northern Polytechnic Institute, Holloway-road, N.

1876. {Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

1878. {Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logic in the Catholic Uni-
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.

1884.§§Dunnington, F. P. University Station, Charlottesville, Virginia,
U.S.A.

1859. {Duns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.

1893. *Dunstan, M. J. R. Neweastle-circus, Nottingham.

1891, {Dunstan, Mrs. Neweastle-circus, Nottingham.

1885. *Dunstan, WynpHAm R., M.A., F.R.S., Sec.C.S., Director of the
Scientific Department of the Imperial Institute, S.W.

1869. {D’Urban, W. 8S. M., F.L.S. Moorlands, Exmouth, Deyon.

1898. §Durrant, R. G. Marlborough College, Wilts,

1895. *Dwerryhouse, Arthur R. 65 Louis-street, Leeds.

1887. {Dyason, John Sanford. Cuthbert-street, W.

32 LIST OF MEMBERS.

“

Year of
£lection.

1884. {Dyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.

1885. *Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.

1869. *Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Bletchley.

1895.§§Dymond, Thos.5., F.C.S. County Technical Laboratory, Chelmsford.

1897.§§ Dynan, Miss. 15 Queen’s-park, Toronto, Canada.

1868. {Eade, Sir Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
1895. {Earle, Hardman A. 29 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W.
1877. {Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.
1888. {Earson, H. W.P. 11 Alexandra-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1874. {Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.
1871. *Easton, Epwarp. 11 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
1863. {Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.
1876. {Easton, John. Durie House, ’Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B,
1883. {Eastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.
1893. §Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland- -alley, Fe enchurch-street, EC.
1884, {Eckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.
1861. {Ecroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley. .
1870. *Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. “The Lodge, Adel, Leeds.
*Hddy, James Ray, F. GS. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.
1887. {Ede, Francis J., F.G.S. Silchar, Cachar, India.
1884, *EKdgell, Rey. R. Arnold, M, A’ F.CS. The College House,
Leamington.
1887. §Epcewortu, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S., Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Oxford. All Souls College,
Oxford.
1870. *Edmonds, F. B. 6 Clement’s Inn, W.C.
1883. {Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon.
1888. *Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W.
1884, *Edmunds, James, M.D. 29 Dover-street, Piccadilly, W.
1883. {Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B., F.G.S. 1 Garden-court, Temple, £.C.
1867. *Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.
1855. *Epwarps, Professor J. Baxrer, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.
1884, {Edwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
1887. *Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford.
1896. §Ekkert, Miss Dorothea. 95 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
1876. tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glascow.
1890.§§ Elford, Percy. St. John’s College, Oxford.
1885. *Exie@ar, Francis, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.cC.E. 113 Guntank
street, H.C.
1885. {Ellingham, Frank. Thorpe St. Andrew, Norwich.
1883. {Ellington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge
street, Westminster, S. W.
1891. {Elliott, A. C. ,D.Sc., Professor of Engineering in University College,
Cardiff. 2 Plasturton- avenue, Cardiff,
1883. *ELtrorr, Epwrn Batinny, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Waynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford.
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.
Hiliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.
1886. {Eliiott, Thomas Henry, C.B., F.S.5. Board of Agriculture,
4 Whitehall-place, 5. W.
1898. §Elliott, W. J. 14 Buckingham-place, Clifton, Bristol.
1877. {Ellis, Arthur Devonshire. Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
1875. *Ellis, H. D. 12 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.
1880. *Euuis, Joan Henry. Woodhaye, Ivy Bridge, Devon.
1891. §Ellis, Miss M. A. 11 Canterbury-road, Oxford.

LISI OF MEMBERS. 33

Year of
Election.

1884, {Ellis, Professor W. Hodgson, M.A., M.B. 74 St. Alban’s-street,
Toronto, Canada.

1869, {ELiis, Wm114mM Horton. Hartwell House, Exeter,

Ellman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.

1887, tElmy, Ben. Congleton, Cheshire.

1862. {ElIphinstone, Sir H. W., Bart., M.A., F.L.S. 2 Stone-buildings,
Lincoln’s Inn, W.C,

1897. §Elvery, Mrs. Elizabeth. The Cedars, Maison Dieu-road, Dover.

1883. {Elwes, Captain George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.

1887. §Etwortuy, FREeprrick T. Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.

1870, *Exy, The Right Rev. Lord Atwynr Compron, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire.

1897.§§Ely, Robert E. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1863, {Embleton, Dennis, M.D. 19 Claremont-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

1891. {Emerton, Wolseley, D.C... Banwell Castle, Somerset.

1884, {Emery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.

1863, {Emery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

1890. {E£msley, Alderman W. Richmond House, Richmond-road, Head-

ingley, Leeds.

1894. {Emtage, W. T. A. University College, Nottingham.

1866, {Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

1884, {England, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.

1863. English, E. Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate, Hull.

1883. {Entwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westclyffe-road, Southport.

1869. *Enys, John Davis. Enys, Penryn, Cornwall.

1894, §§Erskine-Murray, James. 46 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

1864. *Eskrigee, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins Hey, Liverpool.

1862. *Esson, Writ1am, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Savilian Professor of
Geometry in the University of Oxford. 13 Bradmore-road,

Oxford.

1878. {Estcourt, Charles, 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street, Man-
chester.

1887. *Estcourt, Charles. Hayesleigh, Montague-road, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.

1887. *Estcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.1.C. 20 Albert-square, Manchester.

1869. {Ernerrpes, R., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 14 Carlyle-square, S.W.

1888. {Etheridge, Mrs. 14 Carlyle-square, S.W.

1883. {Eunson, Henry J., F.G.S., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E, Vizianagram, Madras.

1891. {Evan-Thomas, C., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire,

1881. {Evans, Alfred, M.A., M.B. Pontypridd.

1889. *Evans, A. H. Care of R. H. Porter, 18 Prince’s-street, W.

1887. *Evans, Mrs. Alfred W. A. Lyndhurst, Upper Chorlton-road,
Whalley Range, Manchester.

1870. *Evans, ARTHUR JouN, M.A., F.S.A. Youlbury, Abingdon.

1865. *Evans, Rev. Coartes, M.A. 41 Lancaster-gate, W.

1896.§§Evans, Edward, jun. Spital Old Hall, Bromborough, Cheshire,

1891. {Evans, Franklen. Llwynarthen, Castleton, Cardiff.

1889, {Evans, Henry Jones. Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff.

1884. t{Evans, Horace L. 6 Albert-buildings, Weston-super-Mare,

1883, *Evans, James C. 175 Lord-street, Southport.

1883. *Evans, Mrs. James C. 175 Lord-street, Southport.

1861, *Evans, Sir Joun, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S., P'S. As,
F.L.S., F.G.8. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

1898. §Evans, Jonathan L. 4 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

1897. *Evans, Lady. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

1881. {Evans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach, R.S.0., Pembrokeshire,

1875. {Evans, Sparke, 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1898. c

LIST OF MEMBERS.

34

Year of

Election.

1865. *Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.

1891. tEvans, William Llewellin. Guildhall-chambers, Cardiff.
1886. tEve, A. S. Marlborough College, Wilts.

1871. {Eve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, W.C.

1868.

1895

1863.

1886
1883
1881

1874.
1876.

1883.
1871.
1884.
1882.

1890.
1896.
1865.
1886.
1896.
1883.
1898.

1877.

1891.
1892.

1886.
1897.
1897.
1883.
1883.
1885.
1886.
1859.
1885.
1866.

1883.
1857.

*Everert, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Derryvolgie-
avenue, Belfast.

. §Everett, W. H., B.A. University College, Nottingham.

*Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.
. tEveritt, William E. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove.

. TEves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.

. tEwarr, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
the University of Edinburgh.

tEwart, Sir W. Quartus, Bart. Glenmachan, Belfast.

*Ewine, James ALFRED, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.
C.E., Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the
University of Cambridge. Langdale Lodge, Cambridge.

tEwing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh. *

*Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.

*Eyerman, John, F.Z.S. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

tEyre, G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.

Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.

{Faser, Epmunp Beckett. Straylea, Harrogate.

§Fairbrother, Thomas. 46 Lethbridge-road, Southport.

*Farrtgy, THoMAS, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.

{ Fairley, William. Beau Desert, Rugeley, Staffordshire.

§Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Liverpool.

tFallon, Rev. W.S. 9 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham.

§Faraday, Miss Ethel R., M.A. Ramsay Lodge, Levenshulme, near
Manchester.

§Faravay, F. J., F.L.S., F.S.S. College-chambers, 17 Brazenose-
street, Manchester.

tFards,G. Penarth.

*Farmer, J. Brertann, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany, Royal
College of Science, Exhibition-road, London. 4 Lichfield-
road, Kew.

tFarncombe, Joseph, J.P. Saltwood, Spencer-road, Eastbourne.

*Farnworth, Ernest. Rosslyn, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.

*Parnworth, Mrs. Ernest. Rosslyn, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.

{Farnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

{Farnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

{Farquhar, Admiral. Carlogie, Aberdeen.

{Farquharson, Colonel J., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.

{Farquharson, Robert F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.

{Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.

*Farrar, The Very Rev. Freperic Wint1am, D.D., F.R.S. The
Deanery, Canterbury.

{Farrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland.

{ Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.

1897.§§ Farthing, Rev.J.C., M.A. The Rectory, Woodstock, Ontario, Canada.
1869. *Faulding, Joseph. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.
1883. {Faulding, Mrs. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

1887.

1890.

1886.

§Faulkner, John. 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester.

*Fawcett, F. B. University College, Bristol.

§Felkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S. 6 Crouch Hall-road, N. -
Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 35

Year of
Election.

1883. {Fenwick, E.H. 29 Harley-street, W.

1890. {Fenwick, T. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

1876, {Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

1883, {Ferguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

1871. *Fercuson, Joun, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.

1896. *Ferguson, John. Colombo, Ceylon.

1867. {Ferguson, Robert M., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Learmouth-terrace,
Edinburgh.

1883. {Fernald, H. P. Clarence House, Promenade, Cheltenham.

1883. *Fernie, John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.

1862. {FeRrers, Rey. Norman Macrxop, D.D., F.R.S. Caius Collece
Lodge, Cambridge.

1873. {Ferrier, Davin, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-
Pathology in King’s College, London, 34 Cavendish-square, W.

1892. {Ferrier, Robert M.,B.Se. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1897.§§ Ferrier, W. F. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

1897.§§Fessenden, Reginald A. Western University of Pennsylvania,
Alleghany, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

1882. §Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. King Edward VI. Grammar School,
Southampton.

1887. tFiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester,

1875. {Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.

1868. {Field, Edward. Norwich.

1897.§§Field, George Wilton. Experimental Station, Kingston, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.

1886. Field, H.C. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1869. *FreLp, Rogrrs, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Westminster-chambers, West-
minster, 8. W.

1882. {Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset.

1883. *Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 1 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge.

1878. *Findlater, Sir William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

1892. {Findlay, J. R., B.A. 3 Rothesay-terrace, Edinburgh.

1884, {Finlay, Samuel, Montreal, Canada.

1887. {Finnemore, Rev. J., M.A.,Ph.D., F.G.S. 8S Upper Hanover-street,

Sheffield.
1881. {Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike.
Firth, Thomas. Northwich.

1895. §Fish, Frederick J. Spursholt, Park-road, Ipswich.

1891. {Fisher, Major H.O. The Highlands, Llandough, near Cardiff.

1884, *Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.

1869, {FisuerR, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
Cambridge.

1873. {Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomerysbire,

1875. *Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

1858. {Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.

1887. *Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 25 Blenheim-gardens, Willesden Green, N.W.

1885. {Fison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich.

1871. *Fison, Freperick W., M.A., M.P.,F.C.S. Greenholme, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, near Leeds.

1871. {Frrou, Sir J. G., M.A., LL.D. Athenzeum Club, S.W.

1883. {Fitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport.

1878. {Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.

1878. §FirzGrRaLp, GrorcE Francis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of

Naturaland Experimental Philosophy in Trinity College, Dublin.

1885. *FitzGerald, Professor Maurice, B.A, 32 Eglantine-avenue, Belfast,

1894.§§Fitzmaurice, M., M.Inst.C.E, Nile Reservoir, Assuan, Egypt.

C2 ‘

36 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1857. tFitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin.

1888, *FrrzpaTRicK, Rey. THomas C. Ohrist’s College, Cambridge.

1897.§§Flavelle, J. W. 565 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

1881. ¢Fleming, Rev. Canon J., B.D. St. Michael’s Vicarage, Ebury-
square, S. W.

1876. {Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

1876. {Fleming, Sir Sandford, K.C.M.G., F.G.S. Ottawa, Canada.

1867.§§FLEercHER, ALFRED E., F.C.S. Delmore, Caterham, Surrey.

1870. {Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.

1890. {Fletcher, B. Morley. 7 Victoria-street, S.W.

1892. {Fletcher, George, F.G.S. 60 Connaught-avenue, Plymouth.

1888. *Frercuer, Lazarus, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., Keeper of
Minerals, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,
S.W. 86 Woodville-road, Ealing, W.

1862. §Fiower, Sir Witt1am Henry, K.C.B., LL.D.,D.C.L., D.Se., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.C.S. 26 Stanhope-gardens,.S.W.

1889. {Flower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, S.W.

1877. *Floyer, Ernest A. Downton, Salisbury.

1890. *Flux, A. W., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in the Owens
College, Manchester.

1887. {Foale, William. 8 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.

1883. {Foale, Mrs. William, 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.

1891.§§Foldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth.

1879. {Foote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3% Albion-place, Sunderland.

1880. ¢Foote, R. Bruce, F.G.S. Care of Messrs. H. S. King & Co., 65
Cornhill, E.C.

1873. *Forprs, Grorcz, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great
George-street, S. W.

1883, {Forses, Heyry O., LL.D., F.Z.S., Director of Museums for the Cor—
poration of Liverpool. The Museum, Liverpool.

1897.§§Forbes, J..Q.C. Hazeldean, Putney-hill, S.W.

1885. {Forbes, The Right Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire.

1890. tForp, J. Rawiryson. Quarry Dene, Weetwood-lane, Leeds.

1875. *ForpHaM, H. Gxorer. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.

1894. tForrest, Frederick. Beechwood, Castle Hill, Hastings.

1887. {Forrest, The Right Hon. Sir Jouy, K.C.M.G., F.B.G.S., F.G.S-
Perth, Western Australia.

1883. tForsyrn, A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sadlerian Professor of Pure
Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College,
Cambridge.

1884. {Fort,George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.

1877. t{Forrescur, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.

1882. { Forward, Henry. 10 Marine-avenue, Southend.

1896. {Forwoop, Sir Wrr11am B., J.P. Ramleh, Blundellsands, Liverpool.

1875. {Foster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, S.W.

1865. {Foster, Sir B. Walter, M.D.,M.P. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.

1865, *Fosrer, Crement Le Neve, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mining in the Royal College of Science, London. Llandudno.

1883. {Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve. Llandudno.

1857. *FosteR, GrorcE Carry, B.A. F.RS., F.C.S. (GENERAL
TREASURER.) 18 Daleham-gardens, Hampstead, N.W.

1896. {Foster, Miss Harriet. Cambridge Training College, Wollaston-road,
Cambridge.

1877. §Foster, Joseph B. 4 Cambridge-street, Plymouth.

1859. *Fosrer, Micwart, M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., Sec.R.S., F.LS.,
Professor of Physiology in the University of Cambridge.
(Prestpent-Etect.) Great Shelford, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 37

Year of
Election.

1863.

1896.
1866.

1868.

1892.
1882.

1883.
1883,

1896.
1883.
1847.
1888.
1881.

1889.

1845.

1887.

1894.
1895.
1882.
1885.

1865.

tFoster, Robert. The Quarries, Grainger Park-road, Newcastle-
upon-T yne.

}Fowkes, F. Hawkshead, Ambleside.

{Fowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham,

{Fowler,G.G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.

{Fowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 Imperial-buildings, Ludgate-circus, E.C.

}Fow ter, Sir Jonny, Bart., K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Queen
Square-place, Westminster, S.W.

*Fox, Charles. The Chestnuts, Warlingham, Surrey.

§Fox, Sir Cuartes Doveras, M.Inst.C.E. 28 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W,

{Fox, Henry J. Bank’s Dale, Bromborough, near Liverpool.

{Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Rosehill, Falmouth.

*Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Clive, Wellington, Somerset.

tFox, Thomas. Court, Wellington, Somerset.

*FoxweE.t, Herpert S., M.A., F.S.S., Professor of Political Economy
in University College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tFrain, Joseph, M.D. Grosvenor-place, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-

e.

Francis, WittraM, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond, Surrey.
{FRANKLAND, Sir Epwarp, K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D.,

F.R.S., F.C.S._ The Yews, Reigate Hill, Surrey.
*FRANKLAND, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
and Metallurgy in the Mason College, Birmingham.
§Franklin, Mrs. E. L. 50 Porchester-terrace, W.
§Fraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness.
tFraser, Alexander, M.B. Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin.
tFraser, Aneus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. 232 Union-street, Aber-
deen.

*Fraser, Joun, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.

1897.§§Fraser, Sir Malcolm, K.C.M.G. 15 Victoria-street, S.W.

1871.

1859.
1871.
1884,

1884,

1877.
1884,

1869.
1886.
1887.
1887.

1892.
1882,
1887.
1898.

1898.
. 1898.
1875.

fFraser, Toomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

*Frazer, Daniel. Rowmore House, Garelochhead, N.B.

tFrazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.

*Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France). Room 1042,
Drexel Building, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

*Fream, W., LL.D., B.Sc. F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.S. The Vinery,
Downton, Salisbury.

§Freeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, South Devon.

*FREMANTLE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. 12 Buckingham Palace-
gardens, S.W.

{Frere, Rey. William Edward. The Rectory, Bitton, near Bristol.

{Freshfield, Douglas W., F.R.G.S. 1 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, W.

tFries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.

fFroehlich, The Cavaliere. Grosvenor-terrace, Withington, Man-
chester.

*Frost, Edmund. Chesterfield, Meads, Eastbourne.

§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.

*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 53 Victoria-road, W.

§Fry, The Right Hon. Sir Epwarp, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S,A.
Failand House, Failand, near Bristol.

§Fry, Francis J. Leigh Woods, Clifton, Bristol.

§Fry, J. Storrs. Union-street, Bristol.

*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 13 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

38 LIST OF MEMBELS.

Year of
Election.

1898. §Fryer, Alfred C. 13 Eaton-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.

1884.§§Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham.

1895. {Fullarton, Dr. J. H. Fishery Board for Scotland, George-street,
Edinburgh.

1872. *Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, 8.E.

1859. {Furter, Frepericx, M.A. 9 Palace-road, Surbiton.

1869. {Furrer, G., M.Inst.C.E. 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington, W.

1884.§§Fuller, William, M.B. Oswestry.

1891. {Fulton, Andrew. 23 Park-place, Cardiff.

1881. {Gabb, Rev. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, Yorkshire.

1887. {Gaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchester.

1836. *Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.

1857. {Gages, Alphonse, M.R.ILA. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.

1863. *Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.

1896, {Gair, H. W. 21 Water-street, Liverpool.

1876. {Gairdner, Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire.

1850. {Garrpver, Sir W. T., K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Medicine in the University of Glasgow. The University,
Glasgow.

1876. {Gale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Glasgow.

1885. *Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.

1861. {Galloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.

1889. {Galloway, Walter. TEighton Banks, Gateshead.

1875. {Gattoway, W. Cardiff.

1887. *Galloway, W. J., M.P. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

1860. *Gatron, Sir Doveras, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 12 Chester-street, Grosvencr-place, S. W.

1860. *Gatton, Francis, M.A., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
42 Rutland-gate, Knightsbridge, 8. W.

1869. t{Gatron, Joun C., M.A., F.L.S. New University Club, St.
James’s-street, S.W.

1870. §Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel Sir D., Bart., C.B. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1889.§§Gamble, David, jun. Ratonagh, Colwyn Bay.

1870. {Gamble, J.C. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1888. *Gamble, J. Sykes, M.A., F.L.S. Arundel House, Stoke-road,
Guildford.

1877. {Gamble, William. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1868. {Gamcrn, ArtHuUR, M.D., F.R.S. 8 Avenue de la Gare, Lausanne,
Switzerland.

1889. {Gamgee, John. 6 Lingfield-road, Wimbledon, Surrey.

1898. §Garde, Rey. C. L. Skenfrith Vicarage, near Monmouth.

1887. {GarpineR, Water, M.A.,F.R.S. 45 Hills-road, Cambridge.

1882. *Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, Eastbourne.

1894, {Gardner, J. Addyman. 5 Bath-place, Oxford.

1896.§§Gardner, James. The Groves, Grassendale, Liverpool.

1882. {GarpNeER, JomN Starncin. 29 Albert Embankment, S.E.

1884, {Garman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1887. *Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, near Bolton, Lancashire.

1882. {Garnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Spring-gardens,
S.W

1873. tGarnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, 8.E.

1883. {Garson, ie G.,M.D. 64 Harley-street, London, W.

1894. *Garstang, Walter, M.A., F.Z.S. Marine Biological Laboratory,
Plymouth, -

LIST OF MEMBERS. 39

Election.

1874, *Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

1882. {Garton, William. Woolston, Southampton.

1892. §Garvie, James. Devanha House, Bowes-road, New Southgate, N.

1889.
1870.
1870.
1896.

1896.
1862,

1890.
1875.
1892.
1871.
1883.
1885.
1887.
1867.

1871.

1898.
1882,

1875.
1885.
1884.
1884.
1865.
1874.

1892.
1876.

1896.

1884.
1889.
1893,
1887.

1888.
1898.
1884.
1842.

{Garwood, E. J., B.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tGaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.

*Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, Liverpool.

“GASKELL, WALTER Hotproox, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. The
Uplands, Great Shelford, near Cambridge.

§Gatehouse, Charles. Westwood, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.G.S. Fel-
bridge Place, Kast Grinstead, Sussex.

{Gaunt, Sir Edwin. Carlton Lodge, Leeds.

tGavey, J. Hollydale, Hampton Wick, Middlesex.

{Geddes, George H. 8 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Geddes, John, 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh,

{Geddes, John. 33 Portland-street, Southport.

{Geddes, Professor Patrick. Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

{Gee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester.

{Gerxre, Sir Arcursatp, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United King-
dom. 10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s-park, N.W.

tGerxre, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Murchison
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of
Edinburgh. 31 Merchiston-avenue, Edinburgh.

§Gemmill, James F., M.A., M.B. 16 Dargavel-ayenue, Dumbreck,
Glasgow.

*GENESE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwyth.

*George, Rey. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford.

tGerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen.

*Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 20 St. Jobn-street, Oxford.

tGibb, Charles. Abbotsford, Quebec, Canada.

{Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham,

{Gibson, The Right Hon. Edward, Q.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square,
Dublin.

tGibson, Francis Maitland. Care of Professor Gibson, 20 George-
square, Edinburgh.

*Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Secretary to the
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 17 Alva-street,

Edinburgh.

tGibson, Harvey, M.A., Professor of Botany, University College,
Liverpool.

tGibson, Rev. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

*Gibson, T. G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland.

tGibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

{Girren, Sir Rozert, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.S.8. Atheneum
Club, 8S. W.

*Gifford, H. J. Lyston Court, Tram Inn, Hereford.

“Gilford, J. William. Chard.

{Gilbert, E. E. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada.
Gitpert, Sir JosepH Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.0.S. Har-
enden, near St. Albans,

1883.§§Gilbert, Lady. Harpenden, near St. Albans.

1857.
1884.
1895.

{Gilbert, J. T., M.R.I.A. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.
*Gilbert, Philip H. 63 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada.
tGilchrist, J.D. F. Carvenon Anstruther, Scotland.

40

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1896.

1878.
1971.

1888,
1884,
1896.
1892,

1867.
1898.

1867.

1884.
1886.
1850.
1849.

1883.
1861,

1871.

1897.5
1883.
1881.

1881.
1859.
1867.
1874.

1870.
1889.
1872.
1886.
1887.
1878.
1880.

1883.
1852.
1879.

1876.
1898.
1881,
1886.

1890.
1884,

1852.
1878.

*Gricueist, Percy C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Froenal Bank, Finchley-

road, Hampstead, N.W.
Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.

{Giles, Oliver. Brynteg, The Crescent, Bromsgrove.

*Qritt, Davin, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., FRA. s. Royal Observatory,
‘Cape Town.

§Gill, John Frederick. Douglas, Isle of Man.

{Gillman, Henry. 130 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.

tGilmour, H. B. Underlea, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Gilmour, Matthew A. B.,¥.Z.S. Saffronhall House, Windmill-road,
Hamilton, N.B.

tGilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.

*Gimingham, Edward. Stamford House, Northumberland Park,
Tottenham.

{Ginszure, Rev. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.

tGirdwood, Dr.G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

*Gisborne, Hartley. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

*Gladstone, George, F.R.G.S. 34 Denmark-villas, Hove, Brighton.

*GuapsTonE, JoHN Hatt, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pem-
bridge-square, W.

*Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, W.

*QLAIsHER, JAMES, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Shola, Heathfield-road,
South Croydon.

*GLAISHER, J. W. L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Trinity College,
Cambridge.

§Glashan, J.C. Ottawa, Canada.

TGlasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.

*GuazEBRoOK, R. T., M.A., F.R.S., Principal of University College,
Liverpool.

*Gleadow, Frederic. 38 Ladbroke-grove, W.

tGlennie, J. S. Stuart, M.A. Verandah Cottage, Haslemere, Surrey.

tGloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.

{Glover, George I. Corby, Hoylake.

Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.

tGlynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

TGoddard, F. R. 19 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tGopparD, RicHarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.

TGodlee, Arthur. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

{tGodlee, Francis. 8 Minshall-street, Manchester.

*Godlee, J. Lister. 3 Clarence-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

tGopman, F. Du Cans, F.R.S., F.L. S., FGS. 10 Chandos-street,
Cavendish-square, W.

tGodson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.

tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.

tGopwry-Avsren, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S.,
F.Z.S. Shalford House, Guildford.

Goff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.

§Goldney, F. B. Goodnestone-park, Dover.

tGotpscumipt, Epwarp, J.P. Nottingham.

TGorpsmip, Major-General Sir F. J., C.B., K.COS.1, F.R.GS.
Godfrey House, Hollingbourne.

*GonneR, E. OC. K., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in Univer-
sity College, Liverpool.

{Good, Charles E. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.

tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.

{Goodbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 41

Year of
Election.

1884

1885.
1884,

1884.
1885.
1871.
1884.

1885,
1887.
1865.
1875.

1873.

1849.
1881.
1894.
1888.
1867.
1876.
1883,
1873.

1886.
1875.
1892.
1893.

tGoodbody, Robert. Fairy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

tGoopman, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Goodridge, Richard E,. W. 1038 Rookery Building, Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A.

tGoodwin, Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.

tGordon, Rev. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Chetwynd Rectory,
Newport, Salop.

*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, West-
minster, S. W.

*Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. 8 St. Mary-street, St.
Andrews, N.B.

tGordon, Rev. William. Braemar, N.B.

TGordon, William John. 3 Lavender-gardens, S.W.

Gore, GroreE, LL.D., F.R.S. 20 Easy-row, Birmingham,

*Gorcu, Francis, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
the University of Oxford, The Lawn, Banbury-road, Oxford.

tGott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.

tGough, Rev. Thomas, B.Sc. King Edward’s School, Retford.

tGould, G. M., M.D. 119 South 17th-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

tGouraud, Colonel. Little Menlo, Norwood, Surrey.

tGourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.

tGow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill Gardens, Glasgow.

§Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill Gardens, Glasgow.

§Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.

{GRAHAME, James, 12 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

Grange, C. Ernest. 57 Berners-street, Ipswich.

tGranger, Professor F. §8., M.A., D.Litt. 2 Cranmer-street,
Nottingham.

1896.§§Grant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Ottawa, Canada.

1892,
1864.

1881.
1890.

1864.
1876.
1881.
18938.

. 1870..
1892.
1892.
1887.

1887.
1886.
1881.
1873.

~ 1888.

tGrant, W. B. 10 Ann-street, Edinburgh.

f{Grantham, Richard F., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Northumberland-cham-
bers, Northumberland-avenue, W.C.

tGray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

tGray, Professor ANDREW, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Univer-
sity College, Bangor.

*Gray, Rey. Canon Charles. West Retford Rectory, Retford.

tGray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.

tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

tGray, J. C., General Secretary of the Co-operative Union, Limited,
Long Millgate, Manchester.

tGray, J. Macfarlane. 4 Ladbroke-crescent, W.

*Gray, James Hunter, M.A., B.Sc. 3 Crown Office-row, Temple, E.C.

§Gray, John, B.Sc. 351 Coldharbour-lane, Brixton, S.W.

tGray, Joseph W., F.G.S. Cleveland Villa, Shurdington Road,
Cheltenham.

tGray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

*Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

tGray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technical In-
stitute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

tGray, William, M.R.I.A. 8 Mount Charles, Belfast.

*Gray, Colonel Witt1am. Farley Hall, near Reading.

tGray, William Lewis. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

42

LIST OF MEMBERS,

lection.

1883. {Gray, Mrs. W. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

1886. {Greaney, Rey. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Birmingham.
1866.

1893.
1869.
1872.
1872.
1888.

1887.
1882.

1881.
1884,
1898.
1884.
1884.
1887.
1863.
1890.
1875.
1877.
1887.

1887.
1861.

1894,

1896.
1885.
1881.
1859.
1870.

1878.
1836.
1894.
1894.
1859.

1884.
1884.
1891.
1847.

1870.
1888.

1884.
1894.
1894.
1896.
1892.
1891.
1863,

§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.

*Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham.

tGreaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.

tGreaves, William. 33 Marlborough-place, N.W.

*Grece, Clair J., LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.

§GrepN, J. Reynozps, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Botany to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.
Arncliffe, Grange-road, Cambridge.

{ Greene, Friese. 162 Sloane-street, S.W.

{GreEnaitt, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 10 New Inn, W.C.

{Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire.

{Greenish, Thomas, F.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, N.W.

*Greenly, Edward. Achnashean, near Bangor, North Wales.

tGreenshields, E. B. Montreal, Canada.

tGreenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.

tGreenwell, G. C., jun. Driffield, near Derby.

{Greenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.

t{Greenwood, Arthur. Cavendish-road, Leeds.

{Greenwood, F., M.B. Brampton, Chesterfield.

tGreenwood, Holmes. 78 King-street, Accrington.

t{Greenwood, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.

*Greg, Arthur. Hagley, near Bolton, Lancashire.

*Grec, Roprert Pures, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.

tGregory, J. Walter, D.Sc., F.G.S. British Museum, Cromwell-
road, 8. W.

§Gregory, R. A. 4 Cumnor-place, Sutton, Surrey.

{Gregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston.

{tGregson, William, F.G.S. Baldersby, 8.0., Yorkshire.

{Grierson, THomas Bortz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.

tGrieve, John, M.D. Care of W. L. Buchanan, Esq., 212 St. Vin-
cent-street, Glassow.

}Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.

Griffin, 8. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, N.

*Griffith, C. L. T. College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.

*Griffith, Miss F. H. College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.

*GrirritH, G. (Assistant GENERAL SecRETARY.) College-road,
Harrow, Middlesex.

{Grirrirus, E. H., M.A., F.R.S. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.

TGriffiths, Mrs. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.

{Griffiths, P. Rhys, B.Sc., M.B. 71 Newport-road, Cardiff.

tGriffiths, Thomas. The Elms, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham. ,

{Grimsdale, T. F., M.D. Hoylake, Liverpool.

*Grimshaw, James Walter, M.Inst.C.E. Australian Club, Sydney,
New South Wales.

{Grinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.

tGroom, P., M.A., F.L.S. 38 Regent-street, Oxford.

tGroom, T. T. The Poplars, Hereford.

¢Grossmann, Dr. Karl. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{Grove, Mrs. Lilly, F.R.G.S. Mason College, Birmingham.

tGrover, Henry Llewellin. Clydach Court, Pontypridd.

*Groves, THomas B. 9 Commercial-road, Weymouth.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 43

Year of
Election.

1869. {Gruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 51 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Dublin.

1897.§§Griinbaum, A. S., M.A., M.D. 46 Ladbroke-grove, W.

1897. §Griinbaum, O. F. F., B.A., D.Se. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1886. {Grundy, John. 17 Private-road, Mapperley, Nottingham.

1891. {Grylls, W. London and Provincial Bank, Cardiff.

1887. {GuitLemaRD, F. H. H. Eltham, Kent.

Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin.

1842. Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.

1891. {Gunn, Sir John. Llandaff House, Llandaff.

1877. {Gunn, William, F.G.S. Office of the Geological Survey of Scot-
land, Sheriff’s Court House, Edinburgh.

1866. {GUnruer, ArpEert CO. L. G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Pres.L.S.,
F.Z.8. 22 Lichfield-road, Kew, Surrey.

1894. {Giinther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford.

1880. §Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.

1876. {Guthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.

1883. {Guthrie, Malcolm. Prince’s-road, Liverpool.

1896. {Guthrie, Tom, B.Sc. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

1857. {Gwynne, Rev. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.

1876. {Gwyruer, R. F., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

1884. {Haanel, E., Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.

1884. {Hadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich.

1881. *Happon, ALFRED Cort, M.A.,F.Z.S. Inisfail, Hills-road, Cambridge.

1842. Hadfield, George. Victoria Park, Mauchester.

1888. *Hadfield, R. A., M.Inst.C.E. The Grove, Endcliffe Vale-road,
Sheffield.

1892. tHaigh, E., M.A. Longton, Staffordshire.

1870. {Haigh, George. 27 Highfield South, Rock Ferry, Cheshire.

1879. {Haxn, H. Witson, Ph.D., F.C.S. Queenwood College, Hants,

1883. {Hatreurton, R. G.,Q.C. 13 Pall Mall, S.W.

1879. *Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.

1881. {Hall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

1854, *Hatt, Huen Ferrer, F.G.S. Cowley House, Headington Hill,
Oxford.

1898. §Hall, J. P. The ‘Tribune,’ New York, U.S.A.

1887. {Haill, John. Springbank, Leftwich, Northwich.

1885. §Hall, Samuel, F.1.C., F.C.S. 19 Aberdeen-park, Highbury, N.

1896. §Hall, Thomas B. Larch Wood, Rockferry, Cheshire.

1884, {Hall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto, Canada.

1866. *Hatt, TownsHEnD M.,F.G.S. Orchard House, Pilton, Barnstaple.

1896. {Hall-Dare, Mrs. Caroline. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

1891. *Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-road, Penarth, Glamorganshire.

1891. §Hallett, J. H., M.Inst.C.E. Maindy Lodge, Cardiff.

1873. *Hatrerr, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.

1888, §Hatireurton, W. D., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
te College, London. 9 Ridgmount-gardens, Gower-street,

Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.

1858. *Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S, Fairley, Weston, Bath.

1883. *Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

1885. {Hamilton, David James. 41 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

1881. *Hammond, Robert. Ormond House, Great Trinity-lane, E.C.

1892, {Hanbury, Thomas, F.L.S. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.

1878. §Hance, Edward M., LL.B. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.

Ad

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1875.
1897.
1861.
1890.
1882.
1884,

1894,
1886.
1859.

1890.
1886.

1892.
1865.
1869.
1877.
1869.
1894.

tHancock, C. F., M.A. 125 Queen’s-gate, S.W.

§Hancook, Harris, University of Chicago, U.S.A.

tHancock, Walter. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, E.C.

tHankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Hankinson, R. C. Bassett, Southampton.

{Hannaftord, E. P.,M.Inst.C.E. 2573 St. Catherine-street, Montreal,
Canada.

§Hannah, Robert, F.G.S. 82 Addison-road, W.

§Hansford, Charles, J.P. Englefield House, Dorchester.

*Harcourr, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS., F.C.S.
Cowley Grange, Oxford.

*Harcovurt, L. F. Vernon, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Anne’s-gate,
S.W.

*Hardcastle, Basil W., F.S.S. 12 Gainsborough-gardens, Hampstead,
N.W

*Harden, Arthur, Ph.D., M.Sc. 20 Kensington-crescent, W.
tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.

t Harding, Joseph. Millbrook House, Exeter.

{Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.
{Harding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.
tHardman, 8. C. 225 Lord-street, Southport.

1897.§§Harpy, Hon. Artuur §., Premier of the Province of Ontario.

1894.
1894.
1838.

1898.
1858.
1883.
1883.
1890.
1881,
1890.
1896.
1887.
1878.

1871.
1875.

1877.
1883.
1883.
1862.

1868.
1881.

1882,
1872.
1884.

1872.
1888.
1842,

Toronto, Canada.

tHare, A. T., M.A. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex,

tHare, Mrs. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex.

*Hare, Cuartes Jonny, M.D. Berkeley House, 15 Manchester-
square, W.

§Harford, W. H. Oldown House, Almondsbury.

{Hargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.

tHargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

tHargreaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

tHargrove, Rev. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds.

tHargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.

§Harker, ALFRED, M.A.,F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Harker, Dr. John Allen. Springfield House, Stockport.

tHarker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.

*Harlmess, H. W., M.D. California Academy of Sciences, San
Francisco, California, U.S.A.

tHarkness, William, F.C.S. 1 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.

*Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.

*Harland, Henry Seaton. 1 Belmont, Tenby.

*Harley, Miss Clara. Rosslyn, Westbourne-road, Forest Hill, S.E.

*Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, W.C.

*Harey, Rev. Roprert, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rosslyn, West-
bourne-road, Forest Hill, 8.E.

*HARMER, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.

*Harmer, Sipney F., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S. King’s College, Cam-
bridge.

}Harper, G.T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton.

tHarpley, Rev. William, M.A. Olayhanger Rectory, Tiverton.

tHarrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. University-street,
Montreal, Canada.

*Harris, Alfred. lLiunefield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland.

tHarris, C.T. 4 Kilburn Priory, N.W.

*Harris, @. W., M.Inst.C.E. Millicent, South Australia.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 45

Year of
Election.

1889.
1898.

1888.
1860,
1864.
18658.
1892.
1889.
1870.

1853.
1892.
1895.
1886.

1876.
1875.
1893.
1897.§§Hartley, E.G.S. Wheaton Astley Hall, Stafford.

1. {Harriey, Water Nort, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.0.S., Professor of

187

1896.
1886.
1887.
1897.
1898.

§Harris, H. Grawam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W.

§Harrison, A. J.. M.D, Failand Lodge, Guthrie-road, Clifton,
Bristol. ,

tHarrison, Charles. 20 Lennox-gardens, S.W.

tHarrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham.

tHarrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.

*Harrison, J. Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park, W.

tHarrison, Joun. Rockville, Napier-road, Edinburgh.

§Harrison, J.C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough.

tHarrison, Rearnatp, F.R.C.S. 6 Lower Berkeley-street, Port-
man-square, W.

tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.

tHarrison, Rey. 8. N. Ramsay, Isle of Man.

tHarrison, Thomas. 48 High-street, Ipswich.

tHarrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Board School, Icknield-street, Bir-
mingham,

*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.

tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

*HarrLanp, E. Srpney, F.8.A. Highgarth, Gloucester.

Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 36 Water-
loo-road, Dublin.

tHartley, W. P., J.P. Aintree, Liverpool.

*HarroG, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen’s College, Cork.

tHartog, P. J., B.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.

§Harvey, Arthur. Rosedale, Toronto, Canada.

§Harvey, Eddie. 10 The Paragon, Clifton, Bristol.

1885.§§Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.

1862.
1884.
1893.
1875.
1889.
1898.
1898.
1887.
1872.
1864.

1897.
1884.
1889.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1890.
1877.
1861.

1885.

1891.
1894,

*Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.

tHaslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

§Haslam, Lewis. 44 Evelyn-gardens, S.W.

*Hastines, G.W. 23 Kensington-square, W.

tHatch, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

tHatton, John L. S. People’s Palace, Mile End-road, E.

§Hawkins, Major H. 1 Wells-road Villas, Glastonbury.

*Hawkins, William. LEarlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, S.W.

*HAWKSHAW, JOHN CLARKE, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Down-
street, W., and 83 Great George-street, 8. W.

§Hawksley, Charles. 60 Porchester-terrace, W.

*Haworth, Abraham. Hilston House, Altrincham.

tHaworth, George C. Ordsal, Salford.

*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.

tHaworth, S. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester.

tHaworth, Rev. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birmingham.

tHawtin, J.N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds.

tHay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland.

*Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Jonn C. D., Bart., K.O0.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, S. W.

*Haycraft, John Berry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology,
University College, Cardiff.

tHayde, Rev. J. St. Peter’s, Cardiff.

tHayes, Edward Harold. 5 Rawlinson-road, Oxford,

1896.§§Hayes, Rev. F.C. The Rectory, Raheny, Dublin.
1896.§§Hayes, William, Fernyhurst, Rathgar, Dublin.

46

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1873.
1898.
1858.
1896.
1879.
1851.

1883.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1883.
1861.
1883.
1883.
1882.
1877.
1877.
1883.
1898.
1866.
1898.
1884.
1883.
1865.
1892.

1889.
1884,

1888.
1888.

1855,
1887.
1881.

1897.
1887.
1897.
1867.
1875.
1883,
1891.

1892.
1885.
1880,

1896.

1892

1856,

*Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.
§Hayman, C. A. Kingston Villa, Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol.
*Haywarp, R. B., M.A., F.R.S. Ashcombe, Shanklin, Isle of Wight.
*Haywood, A.G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blundellsands.
*Hazelhurst, George S. The Grange, Rock Ferry.
§Heap, Jerrmran, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. 47 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.
{Headley, Frederick Haleombe. Manor House, Petersham, 8,W.
tHeadley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
§Headley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
§Healey, George. Oak Hill, Windermere.
*Heap, Ralph, jun. 1 Brick-court, Temple, E.C.
*Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, Manchester.
tHeape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire.
{Heape, Joseph R. 96 Tweedale-street, Rochdale.
*Heape, Walter, M.A. Heyroun, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.
tHearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.
{Hearder, William Keep. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.
tHeath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Southport.
*Heath, Arthur J. Monkton Combe School, near Bath.
tHeath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.
§Heath, R.S., M.A., D.Sc. Mason University College, Birmingham.
tHeath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.
tHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.
tHeaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, Birmingham.
*Hzaron, Wriit1am H., M.A., Professor of Physics in University
College, Nottingham.
*Heaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
Preadsde Rev. George, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. 7 Grosyenor-
street, Coventry.
*Heawood, Edward, M.A. 3 Underhill-road, Lordship-lane, S.E.
*Heawood, Perey Y., Lecturer in Mathematics at Durham University.
41 Old Elvet, Durham.
tHxcror, Sir Jamus, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the
Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand.
*Hupees, KintinewortH, M.Inst.C.E, Wootton Lodge, 39 Streat-
ham-hill, S.W.
*Hetp-Suaw, H. S., LL.D., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering
in University College, Liverpool. 27 Ullett-road, Liverpool.
§§Hely-Hutchinson, John. Seafield, Donahate, Dublin.
§Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Langford, Sidcup, Kent,
§Hemming, G. W., Q.C. 2 Earl’s Court-square, 8. W.
tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.
*Henderson, A. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.
tHenderson, Mrs. A. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.
*Henperson, G.G., D.Sc., M.A.,F.C.S., F.L.C., Professor of Chemistry
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. 204
George-street, Glasgow.
tHenderson, John. 3 St. Catherine-place, Grange, Edinburgh.
tHenderson, Sir William. Devanha House, Aberdeen.
*Henderson, Captain W. H., R.N. 21 Albert Hall-mansions, Ken-
sington, S. W.
tHenderson, W. Saville, B.Sc. Beech Hill, Fairfield, Liverpool.
§§Henigan, Richard. Alma-road, The Avenue, Southampton.
{Hennessy, Henry G., F.RS., M.R.ILA, Clarens, Montreux,
Switzerland.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. 47

of

Election.

1873

1892.
1855.
1855.
1890.
1890.
1892.
1887.

1893.
1891.
1871.

1874.

1895.

1894.
1890.

1894.
1896.
1893.
1883.

1882.
1883.

1866.

1897
1861

1879.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1875.
1898.
1877.

1886.
1884.
1887.

1864.
1875.

1891.

1894,

. *Henricr, OLraus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics
and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute,
Central Institution, Exhibition-road, 8.W. 84 Clarendon-
road, Notting Hill, W.

Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.
Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, W.

t{Hepburn, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Edinburgh.

*Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Oakfield Cottage, Dartford, Kent.

tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, W.

tHepper, J. 43 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds.

tHepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds.

*HERBERTSON, ANDREW J., F.R.G.S. Colinton, Midlothian.

*Herpman, WittramM A., D.Sce., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in University College, Liverpool. Croxteth
Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Herdman, Mrs. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

tHern,S. South Cliff, Marine Parade, Penarth.

*HERSCHEL, ALEXANDER S., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham. Observatory House, Slough, Bucks.

§Herscuet, Colonel Jonn, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.

§Hesketh, James. Scarisbrick Avenue-buildings, 107 Lord-street,
Southport.

t{Hewetson, G. H. 39 Henley-road, Ipswich.

ae epee H. Bendelack, M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 11 Hanover-square,
Leeds.

tHewins, W. A.S., M.A., F.S.S.. 26 Cheyne-row, Chelsea, S.W.

§Hewitt, David Basil. Oakleigh, Northwich, Cheshire.

tHewitt, Thomas P. Eccleston Park, Prescot, Lancashire.

tHewson, Thomas. Care of J. C. C. Payne, Esq., Botanic-avenue
The Plains, Belfast. ‘

tHeyrcocr, Cuartes T., M.A., F.R.S, King’s College, Cambridge.

§Heyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.G.S. Swerford,
Enstone, Oxfordshire.

*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.

.§$Heys, Thomas. 130 King-street West, Toronto, Canada.

. *Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.

tHeywood, Sir A. Percival, Bart. Duffield Bank, Derby.

§Hnywoop, Henry, J.P., F.C.S. Witla Court, near Cardiff.

tHeywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.

tHichens, James Harvey, M.A., F.G.S._ The College, Cheltenham.

tHicxs, H., M.D., F.R.S., Pres.G.S. Hendon Grove, Hendon, N.W.

§Hicks, Henry B. 44 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§Hicks, Professor W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of Firth
College, Sheffield. Firth College, Sheffield.

tHicks, Mrs. W. M. Dunheved, Endcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.

tHickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Hicxson, Sypnny J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in
Owens College, Manchester.

*Hrern, W.P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple.

tHiggins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E. Alfred
House, Birkenhead.

§Higgs, Henry, LL.B., F.S.S. 12 Lyndhurst-road,Hampstead,N.W.

Hildyard, Rev. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.
§Hill, Rev. A. Du Boulay. East Bridgford Rectory, Nottingham.

48

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1885.
1898.

1881.

1887.
1884.

1886.

1885.
1898.
1888.
1876.
1885.

1886.
1863.
1887.
1858.

1870.

1883.
1888.
1886.

1881.
1884.

1884.
1858.
1881.

1879.

1887.
1883.
1883.
1877.
1888.
1877.
1876.
1852.

1863.
1887.

1896.

*Hill, Alexander, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge.
§Hill, Charles. Clevedon.
*Hill, Rev. Canon Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory,
Harlow.
*Hitt, Rev. Epwin, M.A., F.G.S. The Rectory, Cockfield, Bury
St. Edmunds.
tHill, G. H., F.G.S._ Albert-chambers, Albert-square, Manchester.
tHill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada.
fHitt, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics
in University College, W.C.
*Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.
*Hill, Thomas Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.
tHill, William. Hitchin, Herts.
{Hill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.
*HILLHovsn, WILL1AM, M.A., F.L.8., Professor of Botany in Mason
Science College. 16 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, near Bedford.
tHills, F. C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E.
tHilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.
{Hivcxs, Rev. Tuomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stokeleigh, Leigh Woods,
Clifton, Bristol.
tHinor, G. J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Ivythorn, Avondale-road,
Croydon, Surrey.
*Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.
*Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.
tHingley, Sir Benjamin, Bart. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Wor-
cestershire.
tHingston, J. T. Clifton, York.
tHinestoy, Sir Witt1am Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 387 Union-ayenue,
Montreal, Canada.
tHirschfilder,C. A. Toronto, Canada.
tHirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.
§Hobbes, Robert George, M.R.I. Livingstone House, 374 Wands-
worth-road, 8. W.
{Hobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. The Headlands, Scotland-lane, Hors-
forth, near Leeds.
*Hobson, Bernard, B.Sc., F.G.S. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.
tHobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.
tHobson, Rey. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.
tHockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.
tHocking, Rev. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
tHodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A, 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth,
tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.
tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
College, Belfast.
*Hopexin,THomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Hodekinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology at
Owens College, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester.
tHodgkinson, Arnold. 16 Albert-road, Southport.

1880.§§ Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of

1884,
1863.
1863.
1898.

Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich.
8 Park-villas, Blackheath, S.E.

tHodgson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.

tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.

tHodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Hodgson, T. V. Municipal Museum and Art Gallery, Plymouth,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 49

Year of
Election.

1896. {Hodgson, Dr. Wm., J.P. Helensville, Crewe.
1894.§§Hogg, A. F., M.A. 13 Victoria-road, Darlington.
1894. §Holah, Ernest. 5 Crown-court, Cheapside, H.C.
1883. {Holden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire,

1883
1883,

. tHolden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.
» tHolden, John J. 23 Duke-street, Southport.

1884. {Holden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada.

1887
1896

- *Holder, Henry William, M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
. Holder, Thomas. 2 Tithebarn-street, Liverpool.

1887. *Holdsworth, C.J. Hill Top, near Kendal, Westmoreland.

1891.
1879.

THolgate, Benjamin, I’.G.S. 4 Montpelier-terrace, Cliff-road, Leeds.
tHolland, Calvert Bernard. [azel Villa, Thicket-road, Anerley, S.E

1896.§§Holland, Mrs. Lowfields House, Hooton.

1898. §Holland, Thomas H., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Calcutta.
1889. {Hollinder, Bernard. King’s College, Strand, W.C.

1886. {Holliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.

1883. {Hollingsworth, Dr. T.S. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth.

1883.
1866.
1892.
1882.
1896.
1897.

*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
*Holmes, Charles. 24 Aberdare-gardens, West Hampstead, N.W.
tHolmes, Matthew. Netherby, Lenzie, Scotland.

*Hormes, Tuomas Vincent, F.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, S.E.
tHolt, William Henry. 11 Ashville-road, Birkenhead.

§Holterman, R. F. Brantford, Ontario, Canada,

1891. “Hood, Archibald, M.Inst.C.E. 42 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1875. *Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester. ;
1847. {Hooxer, Sir Josepu Darron, G.O.S.L, 0.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,

1892.

F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale.
tHooker, Reginald H., M.A. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.

1865. *Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Rutford-road, Streatham, S.W.

1877

*Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Holy Trinity Vicarage, Blackheath
Hill, Greenwich, S.E.

1856. tHooton, Jonathan. 116 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.

1842.

Hope, Thomas Arthur. 14 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, W.

1884, *Horxinson, CHartes. The Limes, Didsbury, near Manchester,
1882. *Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. -Oakleigh, Timperley, Cheshire.
1871. *Horxinson, Jonny, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 34 Margaret-

street, Cavendish-square, W.; and The Grange, St. Albans.

1858. {Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
1891, {Horder, T. Garrett. 10 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.

1898. §Hornby, R., M.A. The High School, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
1885. t{Horns, Jon, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff

Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

1875, *Horniman, F. J., M.P., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Falmouth House, 20

Hyde Park-terrace, W.

1884, *Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.
1887. {Horsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.
1893. *Horstry, Victor A. H., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 25 Cavendish-

square, W.

1884, *Hotblack,G.S. Bremdall, Norwich.

1859. {Hough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.
1896. *Hough, S.S. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

1886. {Houghton, F.T.S., M.A., F.G.S. 188 Hagley-road, Edgbaston,

Birmingham.

1887. {Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. Norbury Booths, Knutsford.

1896,

tHoult, J. South Castle-street, Liverpool.

1884. {Houston, William, Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada.
D

1

898,

50

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883.

18983.
1883.
1886,

1887,
1882.

1886,
1876,
1889.

1857.

1868.
1898.
1891.

1886,

1884,
1884.
1865,

1863,

1883.
1883,
1887.
1888.
1898.
1888.
1894,
1867,

1858,

*Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,
West Dulwich, Surrey, S.E.

tHoward, F. T., M.A., F.G.S. University College, Cardiff.

tHoward, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S._ Sandycroft, Shaw.

*Howarp, James L., D.Sc. 86St. John’s-road, Waterloo, near Liverpool.

*Howard, 8.8. 658 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.

tHoward, William Frederick, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 13 Cavendish-
street, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.

tHowatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley.

tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glascow.

§Howden, Robert, M.B., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Durham College of Medicine, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tHowell, Henry H., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of
Great Britain. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh.

{Howe tt, Rev. Canon Hinps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.

§Howell, J. H. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{Howell, Rey. William Charles, M.A., Holy Trinity Parsonage, High
Cross, Tottenham, Middlesex. i

§Howss, Professor G. B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Royal College of
Science, South Kensington, S.W.

tHowland, Edward P.,M.D. 211 413-street, Washington, U.S.A.

tHowland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada.

*Howzert, Rev. Frepericx, F.R.A.S. 7 Princes Buildings, Clifton,
Bristol.

tHoworrn, Sir H. H., K.C.LE., MP., D.C.L, F.RS., ES.A.
30 Collingham-place, Cromwell-road, S.W.

tHoworth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire,

tHoyle, James. Blackburn.

§Hoytz, WitrrAM E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

tHudd, Alfred E., F.S.A. 94 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§Hupteston, W. H., F.R.S., F.G.S. 8 Stanhope-gardens, S.W.

tHupson, OC. T., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 2 Barton-crescent, Dawlish.

§Hudson, John E. 125 Milk-street, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

*Hupson, Witi1aM H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
Merde London, 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Common,

*Hvueerns, Sir Wittram, K.C.B., D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.RB.S.,
F.R.A.S. 90 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W.

1887. {Hughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
1883.§§Hughes, Miss E. P. Cambridge Teachers’ College, Cambridge.

1871.

1887.
1896.
1870.
1891.
1868.

1891.
1865.

1867.

ENE PS, Gorse Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
erland.

tHughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham.
tHughes, John W. New Heys, Allerton, Liverpool.

*Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-chambers, Liverpool.

{tHughes, Thomas, F.C.S. 31 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

§Hueuns, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor

of Geology in the University of Cambridge. 18 Hills-road,
Cambridge.

tHughes, Rev. W. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford.

fHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the City of Birmingham.
Birmingham.

§Hutt, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.G.S. 20 Arundel-gardens,
Notting Hill, W.

*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.O.L. Breamore House, Salisbury.

1897.§§Hume, J. G., M.A., Ph.D. 650 Church-street, Toronto, Canada.

1887,

*HumMeEL, Professor J. J. 152 Woodsley-road, Leeds,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 51

Year of

Election,

1890. {Humphrey, Frank W. 638 Prince’s-gate, S. W.
1878. tHumphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.

1880.

1877.
1891.
1886,
1891.

1875.
1881.
1889.
1881,
1884.
1879.

1885.

1863.
1898.
1869.
2861.

1896.
1887.
1882.
1894.

tHumphreys, Noel A., F.S.S.. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames.

*Hount, Arruur Roors, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.

*Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.

tHunt, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.

tHunt, ES de Vere, M.D. Westbourne-crescent, Sophia-gardens,
Cardiff.

*Hunt, William. Northcote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.

tHunter, F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

tHunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

tHunter, Rev. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.

*Hunter, Michael. Greystones, Sheffield.

tHountrneron, A.K.,F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,

W.C.

tHuntly, The Most Hon. the Marquess of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.

f{Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.

§Hurle, J. Cooke. Southfield House, Brislington, Bristol.

tHurst, George. Bedford.

*Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Co. Down,
Treland.

*Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Holly Lodge, Cressington, Liverpool.

t¢Husband, W. E. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester.

tHussey, Major E. R., R.E. 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton.

*Hutchinson, A. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

1896.§§Hutchinson, W. B. 4 West-street, Southport.

1864.
1887.
1861.
1883.
1871.

1883,

1884.
1885.
1888.

1858.
1893.
1876,
1891.
1852.

1885.
1886.
1898.
1892.
1892.
1892.
1882.

Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire,
*Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.
*Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
*Hourton, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin.
tHyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport.

*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces-
tershire.

§Idris, T. H. W. Pratt-street, Camden Town, N.W.
Thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.

*Tles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.

tim-Thurn, Everard F., C.M.G., M.A. British Guiana.

*Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley,
Kent.

fIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.

tIngle, Herbert. Pool, Leeds.

TInglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

tIngram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth.

tIneram, J. K., LL.D., M-R.LA., Senior Lecturer in the Univer-
sity of Dublin: 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.

tIngram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.

tInnes, John. The Limes, Alcester-road, Moseley, Birmingham.

§Inskip, James. Clifton Park, Clifton, Bristol.

fIreland, D. W. 10 South Gray-street, Edinburgh,

fIryine, James. Devonshire-road, Birkenhead.

fIrvine, Robert, F.R.S.E. Royston, Granton, Edinburgh.

§Irvine, Rey. A., B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Hockerill Vicarage, Bishop’s
Stortford, Herts.

D2

52 _ LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1888. *Isaac, J. F. V., B.A. Royal York Hotel, Brighton.

1883. tIsherwood, J ames, 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1881. {Ishiguro, Isojt. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square, W.
1891. *Ismay, THomas H. 10 Water-street, Liverpool.

1886. {Izod, William. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1859. tJack, John,M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.

1884. {Jack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1876. *Jack, William, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Glaseow. 10 The College, Glaszow.

1883. *Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc. 358 Collins-street, Melbourne,
Australia.

1883. {Jackson, Frank. 11 Park-crescent, Southport.

1874, *Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Penalya Ranche, Millarville, Alberta,
Calgary y, N.W.T., Canada.

1883. *J ackson, F. J. Harefield, 1 Morley-road, Southport.

1883. {Jackson, Mrs. F. J. Harefield, 1 Morley-road, Southport.

1887. *Jackson, George, 53 Elizabeth-street, Cheetham, Manchester.

1885. tJackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen.

1866. {Jackson, H. W., F.R.A.S. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincolnshire.

1897. §Jackson, James, F. R.Met.Soc. 34 Lonsdale-square, N.

1898. *Jackson, Sir John. 3 Victoria-street, S.W.

1869. §Jackson, Moses, J.P. 189 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon.

1887. §Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.

1874. *Jaffe, John. Villa Jaffe, Nice, France.

1865. *Jaffray, Sir John, Bart. Park-crove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

189]. {James, Arthur P. Grove House, Park-grove, Cardiff.

1891. *James, Charles Henry. 8 Courtland-terrace, Merthyr Tydfil.

1891. *James, Charles Russell. 6 New-court, Lincoln's Inn, W.C.

1860. {James, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.

1886. {James, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall.

1891. {James, Ivor. University College, Cardiff.

1891. tJames, John. 24 The Parade, ‘Cardiff,

1891. {James, John Herbert. Howard House, Arundel-street, Strand, W.C.

1891. {James, J. R., L.R.C.P, 158 Cowbridge-road, Canton, Cardiff.

1896.§§ James, 0.8. 192 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

1858. {James, William C. Woodside, "Plymouth.

1896. *Jameson, H. Lyster. Killencoole, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

1884. {Jameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, W.

1881. {Jamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.

1887.§§Jamieson, G. Auldjo. 37 ae Edinburgh.

1885. {Jamieson, Patrick. Peterhead, N.B

1885. {Jamieson, Thomas. 173 Union-street, Aberdeen.

1859. *Jamieson, Thomas F., LL.D., F.G.S. ’ Ellon, Aberdeenshire.

1889. *Japp, F. R., M.A., Ph.D., |B PTO F.R.S., V.P.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen.

1896. *Jarmay, Gustav. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire.

1870. {Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.

1891. {Jefferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth.

1855. *Jeffray, John. 9 Winton-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

1897. §Jeffrey, E. C., B.A. The University, Toronto, Canada.

1867. tJeffreys, Howel, M.A. 61Bedford-gardens, Kensington, W.

1864, tJelly, Dr. W. ’Aveleanas, ile Valencia, Spain.

1891. §Jen ins, Henry C., Assoc. M Inst.0. E., F.C.S. Royal College of
Science, South Kensington, S.W.

‘Year

LIST OF MEMBERS, 53

of

Election.
1873. §Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, S. W.
1880, *Jenxrns, Sir Jonn Jonus, M.P. The Grange, Swansea.

1852

. {Jennings, Francis M., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork.

1893, §Jennings,G. E. Ashleigh, Ashleigh-road, Leicester.

1897

1878.

. §Jennings, W.T. 34 St. Vincent-street, Toronto, Canada.
tJephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary's Office, The Castle, Dublin.

1887, §Jervis-Smitu, Rev. F. J., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Oxford.

Jessop, William, jun. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.

1889, {Jevons, F. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.
1884, {Jewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode

Island, U.S.A.

1891. {John, E. Cowbridge, Cardiff.
1884. {Johns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1884,

1883.
1883.
1871,

1883.
1865.
1888,
1870.
1863.
1881,
1890.

1898.
1887,
_ 1883.
1883.
1861.

1883,
1859,
1864,
1884.
1883.
1884,
1884.
1885,

1886,
1864,
1871.

1888.
1896.
1888.

1898,
1881.

§Jounson, ALpxanpER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal, 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.

tJohnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge,

{Johnson, Ben. Mickleeate, York.

*Johnson, David, F.C.S., F.G.S. 1 Victoria-road, Clapham Common,

S.W.

tJohnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert-road, Southport.

*Johnson, G. J. 386 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

tJohnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, N.

tJohnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 46 Jermyn-street, Liverpool.

tJohnson, R. 8. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.

tJohnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.

*Jounson, Tuomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

*Johnson, W. Claude, M.Inst.C.E. The Dignaries, Blackheath, S.1.

tJohnson, W. HH. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.

tJohnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.

tJohnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport.

fJohnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.

tJohnston, Sir H. H., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, S.W.

fJohnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B.

tJohnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, N.W.

TJohnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.

tJohnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks.

fJohnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada,

*Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire.

ee, H, J., M.D., F.G.S. Beaulieu,-Alpes Maritimes,

rance,

tJohnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham,

YJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.

fJorty, Wituram, F.RS.E., F.G.S. St. Andrew’s-road, Pollok-
shields, Glasgow.

tJolly, W.C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.

*Joly, C. J., M.A. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin.

fJoty, Jouy, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Astronomy in the
University of Dublin and Royal Astronomer for Ireland, 39
Waterloo-road, Dublin.

§Jones, Alfred L. Care of Messrs. Elder, Dempster & Co., Liverpool.

tJones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Cardigan Villa, Harrogate.

1887. {Jones, D. E., B.Sc., H.M. Inspector of Schools, Science and Art

Department, South Kensington, S.W.

1891, {Jones, D, Edgar, M.D. Spring Bank, Queen-street, Cardiff.

54

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1890. § Jones, Rey. Edward, I'.G.S. 7 Fairfax-road, Prestwich, Lancashire.
1891. tJones, Dr. Evan. Aberdare.

1896. {Jones, E. Taylor. University College, Bangor.

1887.

1891.
1883.
1895.
1884.
1877.

1881.

1873.
1880.
1860.

1896.
1883.
1891.
1875.
1884.
1891.
1891.
1879.
1890.
1872.
1883.
1886.
18986.
1891.

1848.
1870.

1883.

tJones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,
Manchester. :

*Jonzs, Rey. G. Hartwett, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey.

*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, Waterloo, Liverpool.

tJones, Harry. Engineer’s Office, Great Eastern Railway, Ipswich.

tJones, Rey. Harry, M.A. 8 York-gate, Regent’s Park, N.W.

{Jones, Henry C., F.C.S. Royal Coliege of Science, South Kensing-
ton, 8.W.

*Jonzs, J. Virtamv, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of the University
College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff.

tJones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-circus, E.C.

tJones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.

{Jonzs, THomas Rorert, F.R.S., F.G.S. 17 Parson’s Green, Ful-

ham, S.W

§Jones, W. Hope Bank, Lancaster-road, Pendleton, Manchester.

tJones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.

{Jones, William Lester. 22 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Jose, J. E. 49 Whitechapel, Liverpool.

tJoseph, J. H. 788 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada,

{Jotham, F. H. Penarth.

fJotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff.

tJowitt, A. Scotia Works, Sheffield.

tJowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.

tJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James's, 8. W.

tJoyce, Rev. A.G., B.A. St. Jchn’s Croft, Winchester,

tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

tJoyce, Joshua. 151 Walton-street, Oxford.

{Joynes, John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester-
shire.

*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.

{Jupp, Joun Wester, C.B.,F.R.S.,F.G.8., Professor of Geology in the
Royal College of Science, London. 22 Cumberland-road, Kew.

{Justice, Philip M. 14-Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, W.C.

. *Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-road, N.
. {Kapp, Gisbert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. 38 Lindenallee, Westend,

Berlin.

. {Kay, David, F.R.G.S. 78 Warwick-gardens, Kensington, W.

. {Keefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

. tKeeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.

. {Keen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham.

. {Keene, Captain C. T. P., F.Z.S. 11 Queen’s-gate, S.W.

, {Keightley, Rev. G. W. Great Stambridge Rectory, Rochford,

Essex.

. {Keiller, Alexander, M.D., LL.D., F R.S.E, 54 Northumberland-

street, Edinburgh.

. {Kelloge, J. H.,M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.

. *Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.

. §Ketrim, J. Scorr, LL.D., Sec. R.G.S., F.S.S. 1 Savile-row, W.

. *Ketvin, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.V.0., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,

F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The University, Glasgow. ©

. *Kelvin, Lady. The University, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 55
Year of
Election.
1887. {Kemp, Harry. 55 Wilbraham-road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man-

chester.

1898. *Kemp, John T., M.A. 61 Cotham Brow, Bristol.

1884, {Kemper, Andrew U.,A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A.

1890. §Kempson, Augustus. Kildare, 17 Arundel-road, Eastbourne.

1891. {Kenpatt, Percy F., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in Yorkshire
College, Leeds.

1875. {Kunnepy, Arexanprer B. W., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Victoria-
street, 8. W., and 1 Queen Anne-street, Cavendish-square, W.

1897. §Kennedy, George, M.A., LL.D. Crown Lands Department, Toronto,
Canada.

1884.§§Kennedy, George T., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1876. {Kennedy, Hugh. 20 Mirkland-street, Glasgow.

1884, {Kennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, {Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

1897.§§Kenrick, Frank B. Knesebeckstr. 3iii., Charlottenburg, Berlin.

1886, {Kenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1893. §Kent, A. F. Stantey, F.G.S. St. Thomas's Hospital, 8.E.

1886. §KenwarD, JAmus, F.S.A. 43 Streatham Hizh-road, S.W.

1857. *Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.

1876. {Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.

1881. {KerMopE, Puitip M.C. Ramsey, Isle of Man.

1884. {Kerr, James, M.D. Winnipeg, Canada.

1887. {Kerr, James. Dunkenhalgh, Accrington.

1883. {Kurr, Rey. Joun, LL.D., l.R.S. Free Church Training College,
Glasgow.

1892. {Kerr, J. Graham. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

1889, {Kerry, W. H. R. Wheatlands, Windermere.

1887. {Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.

1869. *Kesselmeyer, Charles A. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1869. “Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

1883. *Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

1876. {Kidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

1886. §Kipston, Rosert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 12 Clarendon-place, Stirling.

1897.§§Kiekelly, Dr. John, LL.D. 46 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.

1885. *Kilgour, Alexander. JLoirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.

1896. *Killey, George Deane. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo,
Liverpool.

1890. {Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge.

1878, {Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart. 11 Merrion-square North,
Dublin.

1860. {Krvanan, G. Henry, M.R.L.A. Dublin.

1875. *Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester.

1888. {King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath.

1888. *King, E. Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.

1883. *King, Francis. Alabama, Penrith.

1875. *King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

1871. *King; Rey. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.

1855. {King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.

1883, *King, John Godwin. Stonelands, East Grinstead.

1870, {King, John Thomson. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.

1883. *King, Joseph. Lower Birtley, Witley, Godalming.

1860. *King, Mervyn Kersteman. 3 Clifton-park, Clifton, Bristol.

56 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1875, *King, Percy L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

1870. {King, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.

1889, {King, Sir William. Stratford Lodge, Southsea.

1869. {Kingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.

1897.§§ Kingsmill, Nichol. Toronto, Canada.

1875. §Krnezerr, Cuartzs T., F.C.S. Elmstead Knoll, Chislehurst.

1867. {Kinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.

1892. {Kinnear, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. Blair Castle, Culross, N.B.

1870. {Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.

1897, §Kirkland, Thomas. 432 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

1870. {Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.

1890. *Kitson, Sir James, Bart., M.P. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.

1886. {Klein, Rev. L. M. de Beaumont, D.Se., .L.8. 6 Devonshire-road,
Liverpool.

1869, {Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter,

1886. {Knight, J. McK., F.G.S. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.

1898. §Kwocrrer, E. Wortastoy, C. B. (Locat Secretary). Castle Hill
House, Dover.

1888, {Knott, Professor Cargill G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray-street,
Edinburgh.

1887. *Knott, Herbert. Aingarth, Stalybridge, Cheshire.

- 1887. *Knott, John F. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.

1887. {Knott, Mrs. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.

1874. {Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co, Antrim.

1897.§§Knowlton, W.H. 386 King-street Mast, Toronto, Canada.

1883. {Knowlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.

1883. tKnowlys, Mrs. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.

1876, {Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.

1875. *Knubley, Rev. E. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

1883. {Knubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

1892. {Koun, Cartes A., Ph.D. University College, Liverpool.

1898. §Krauss, A. Hawthornden, Priory-road, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton,
Bristol.

1890. *Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Wilmslow, Cheshire.

1888, *Kunz,G. F. Care of Messrs, Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-square, New
York City, U.S.A. -

1870, {Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S. Kensington, Liverpool.

1858. {Lace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.

1884, {Laflamme, Rev. Professor J. C. K. Laval University, Quebec.

1885. *Laing, J. Gerard. 111 Church-street, Chelsea, S.W.

1897.§§Laird, Professor G. J. Wesley College, Winnipeg, Canada.

1877. tLake, W.C., M.D. Teignmouth.

1859. {Lalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin.

1889. *Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Old Lodge, Salisbury.

1887. {Lams, Horacs, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
Owens College, Manchester. 6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.

1887. t{Lamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1883. {Lamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1883. {LamBert, Rev. Brooxz, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, 8.E.

1896, §Lambert, Frederick Samuel. Balgowar, Newland, Lincoln.

1893, {Lambert, J. W., J.P. Lenton Firs, Nottingham.

1884, {Lamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.

1893. eg tg G. W.,F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 57

Year of
Election.

1890. t{Lamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster.
1884, {Lancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire.
1871. tLancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
1886. {Lancaster, W. J., F.G.S. Colmore-row, Birmingham.
1877. {Landon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St.
John’s, 8.E.
1883. {Lang, Rev. Gavin. Mayfield, Inverness.
1859. tLang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow.
1898. *Lang, William H. 10 Jedburgh-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
1886, *Lanerey, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S, Trinity College, Cambridge.
1870. tLangton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.
1865, {LanKustER, E. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Director British Museum,
Cromwell-road, S. W.
1880. *LAnspELL, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S. Morden College,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.
1884, §Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,
1878. tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
1885, {LapwortH, Cuartes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Physiography in the Mason Science College, Birmingham.
28 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1887. tLarmor, Alexander. Clare College, Cambridge.
1881. {Larmor, Josppu, M.A.,D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1883, §Lascelles, B. P., M.A. The Moat, Harrow.
1896. *Last, William J. South Kensington Museum, London, S.W.
1870. *LarHam, Batpwrn, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers,
Westminster, S. W,
1870. Lovage John Knox, M.A.,F.R.G.S. 5 Pepy’s-road, Wimbledon,
urrey.
1891. tLaurie, A. P. 49 Beaumont-square, E.
'1892. §Laurie, Malcolm, B.A., B.Se., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in St.
Mungo’s College, Glasgow.
1888. {Laurie, Colonel R. P., C.B. 79 Farringdon-street, H.C.
1883. {Laurie, Major-General. Oalfield, Nova Scotia.
1870. *Law, Channell. Ilsham Dene, Torquay.
1878. tLaw, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, 8. W.
1884. §Law, Robert, F.G.S. Fennyroyd Hall, Hipperholme, near Halifax,
Yorkshire.
1870. t{Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.
1881. tLawrence, Rev. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York.
1889. §Laws, W. G., M.Inst.C.E. 65 Osborne-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1885. tLawson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B.
1888. tLayard, Miss Nina F, 2 Park-place, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich.
1856. {Lea, Henry. 38 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
1883. *Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.
1875. tLeach, Colonel Sir G., K.0.B., R.E. 6 Wetherby-gardens, S.W.
1894, *Leahy, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Firth College.
92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield.
1884, *Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.
1884, tLearmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.
1847. *Leatham, Edward Aldam. 46 Eaton-square, S.W.
1884, *Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.
1872. {Lesour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col-
lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1884, ¢Leckie, R.G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia.
1895. *Ledger, Rev, Edmund. Barham Rectory, Claydon, Ipswich.

58

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.
of

Election.

1898

. §Lec, Antuur, J.P. 10 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

1861. {Zece, Henry. Sedgeley Park, Manchester.

1896
1891
1884
1896

1887.
1892.

1886.
1882.
1859.
1896.
1883.

1889.

1881.
1872.
1869.
1892.
1868.
1856.
1890.
1891.
1867.
1859.
1882.
1867.
1878.
1887.
1871.

1874.
1884,
1890.

1883.
1880.
1894.
1896.
1887.
1890.
1893.

1879.

1870.
1891.
1891.
1897.

1891.
1891.
1891.
1884.

. §Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton. South Park View, Ashburton, Devon.

.§§Lee, Mark. The Cedars, Llandaff-road, Cardiff.

. *Leech, Sir Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

. *Leech, Lady. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

tLeech, D. J., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the Owens
College, Manchester. Elm House, Whalley Range, Manchester.

*Lres, Cuartes H., D.Sc. 6 Clyde-road, West Didsbury, Man-
chester.

*Lees, Lawrence W. Claregate, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton.

tLees, R. W. Morra-place, Southampton.

tLees, William, M.A. 12 Morningside-place, Edinburgh.

tLees, William. 10 Norfolk-street, Manchester.

*Leese, Miss H. K. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.

*Leese, Joseph. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.

*Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., C.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.

{Lz Frvvre, J. E. Southampton.

tLrrevre, The Right Hon. G. SHaw. 18 Bryanston-square, W.

tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.

tLehfeldt, Robert A. 28 South Molton-street, W.

{Letcester, The Right Hon. the Karl of, K.G. Holkham, Norfolk.

tLxr1eu, The Right Hon. Lord. Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,

tLeigh, Marshall. 22 Goldsmid-road, Brighton.

tLeigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire,

tLeishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.

tLeith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.

§ Lemon, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Lansdowne House, Southampton.

tLeng, Sir John, M.P. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.

tLennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.

*Leon, John T. 388 Portland-place, W.

tLronarpD, Huey, M.R.LA. 24 Mount Merrion-avenue, Blackrock,
Co. Dublin.

{Lepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.

tLesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.

*Lester, Joseph Henry. 651 Arcade-chambers, St. Mary's Gate,
Manchester.

§Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.

tLercoer, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea.

tLeudesdorf, Charles. Pembroke College, Oxford.

§Lever, W. H. Port Sunlight, Cheshire.

*Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester.

tLevy, J.H. Florence, 12 Abbeyille-road South, Clapham Park, S.W.

*Lewes, Vivian B., F'.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Naval
College, Greenwich, 8.E.

tLewin, Colonel, F.R.G.8. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, S.W.

tLewis, Atrrep Lionrr. 54 Highbury-hill, N.

tLewis, D., J.P. 44 Park-place, Cardiff.

§Lewis, Professor D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwyth.

§Lewis, Rev. J. Pitt, M.A. Care of G. A. Mackenzie, Esq., 18
Toronto-street, Toronto, Canada.

tLewis, W. Lyncombe Villa, Cowbridge-road, Cardiff.

tLewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff.

{Lewis, W. Henry. Bryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff. -

*Lewis, Sir W. T., Bart. The Mardy, Aberdare.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 59

Year of

Hiection.

1876. {Lietke, J.O. 30 Gordon-street, Glasgow.

1887. *Lightbown, Henry. Weaste Hall, Pendleton, Manchester.

*Luverick, The Right Rev. Coartes Graves, Lord Bishop of, D.D.,

F.R.S., M.R.LA. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick.

1878. {Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

1881. *Lindley, William, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 74 Shooters Hill-road, Black-
heath, S.E.

1871. {Lindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A.,D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.

1898. §Lippincott, R. Cann. Over Court, near Bristol.

1883. {Lisle, H. Claud, Nantwich.

1895, *“Listrr, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., Pres.R.S. 12 Park-crescent,
Portland-place, W.

1882. *Lister, Rev. Henry, M.A. Hawridge Rectory, Berkhampstead.

1888. {Lister, J. J. Leytonstone, Essex, N.E.

1861. *Livrine, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.

1876. *LiversipGE, ARcHIBALD, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, N.S.W.

1880, {LiewrELyrn, Sir Joun T. D., Bart., M.P. Penllegare, Swansea.

1889, {Lloyd, Rev. Canon. The Vicarage, Rye Hill, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1865. t{Lloyd, G. B., J.P. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.

1865. {Lloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.

1886. {Lloyd, J. Henry. Ferndale, Oarpenter-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

1891. *Lloyd, R. J., M.A., D.Litt., F.R.S.E. 494 Grove-street, Liverpool.

1886. t{Lloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.

1865. *Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S.. Park Lane House, Woodgreen, Wed-
nesbury.

1897. §Lloyd-Verney, J. H. 14 Hinde-street, Manchester-square, W.

1854, *Losiey, Jamus Loean, F.G.8. City of London College, Moorgate-
street, E.C.

1892. §Loch, C.8., B.A. 154 Buckingham-street, W.C.

1867. *Locke, John. 42p Filmer-road, Fulham, S.W.

1892. {Lockhart, Robert Arthur. 10 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh.

1863. {LockyEr, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal College
of Science, South Kensington, S. W.

1886, *Lopen, Atrrep, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines.

1875. *Lopex, Ortver J., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
University College, Liverpool. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool.

1894. *Lodge, Oliver W. F. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool.

1889. tLogan, William. Langley Park, Durham.

1896. §Lomas, J. 16 Mellor-road, Birkenhead.

1876. tLong, H. A. Brisbane, Queensland.

1883. *Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

1883. {Long, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

1883. {Long, Miss. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

1866. {Longdon, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.

1883. {Longe, Francis D. Lowestoft,

1883. {Longmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport.

1875. *Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.8. Highlands,
Putney Heath, S.W.

1872. ees Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S, Ridgelands, Wimbledon,

urrey. ;
1881, *Longstatf, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.

1883,

*Longton, E. J., M.D. Brown House, Blawith, vid Ulverston.

60 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1861. *Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.

1894, tLord, Edwin C. E., Ph.D. 347 Washington-street, Brooklyn, U.S

1889. tLord, Riley. 75 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1897.§§Lovpon, JAMmzs, GU.) President of the University of Toronto,
Canada,

1883. *Louis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, W.

1896. §Louis, Henry, Professor of Mining, Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1887. *Lovez, A. E. H., MLA. F.RS.. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1886. *Love, Hae. J; M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.

1876. *Love, James, ERA. S., F.G.S.,F.Z.8. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, Wis

1883. {Love, James Allen. 8 Eastbourne-road West, Southport.

1875. *Lovett, W. Jesse, F.I.C. 29 Park-crescent, Monkeate, York.

1892. §Lovibond, J. W. Salisbury, Wiltshire.

1889. tLow, Charles W. 84 Westbourne-terrace, W.

1867. *Low, James F. Seaview, Monifieth, by Dundee.

1885, §Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.

1891. §Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Cardiff.

1885. *Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.

1892, Lowe, D. T. Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh.

1861. *Lowz, Epwarp Josrru, F.R.S. ,FRAS., E.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.MLS.
Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow.

1886. *Lowe, John Landor, M. Inst.C.E. Lansoar, Burton-road, Derby.

1850. {Lowe, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-
burgh.

1894. {Lowenthal, Miss Nellie. 60 New North-road, Huddersfield.

1897.§§ Lowry, George. Manchester.

1881. {Lubbock, Arthur Rolfe, High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.O., Kent.

1853, *Luszocrx, The Right Hon. Sir Jonn, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D.,
E.R. S. , FL. S. F.G.S. High Elms, Farnborough, R.S8. O., Kent.

1881, {Lubbock, John B, 14 Berkeley-street, W.

1870. {Lubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, W.

1889, tLucas, John. 1 ‘Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.

1878. {Lucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, S.W.

1889. tLuckley, George. The ‘Grove, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1891. *Lucovich, Count A. The Rise, Llandaff.

1881. {Luden, C. M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.

1897.§§Lumsden, George E., F.R.A.S. 87 Him-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

1866, *Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire,

1873. tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

1850. *Lundie, Cornelius. 32 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1892, tLunn, Robert. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court House,
Edinburgh.

1853. {Lunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.

1883, *Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., Professor of Coal Mining in
Yorkshire College, Leeds. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.

1874. *Lupron, Sypnuy, M.A. A. Audley-mansions, 44 Mount-street, W.

1864, *Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.

1898. §Luxmore, Dr. C. M. Reading College, Reading.

1871. {Lyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., M.P., F.G.S8. 48 Eaton-place, S.W.

1884, {Lyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884. tlyman, H.H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.

1874. {Lynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.

1885. {Llyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

1896. §Lyster, A. G. Dockyard, Cobtirg Dock, Liverpool.

1896. {LystER, GrorcE F. Plas Isaf, Ruthin.

1862. *Lyrs, I’, Maxwatt, F.C.S. 60 Finborough-road, S$. W.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. 61

of

Election.

1854

1876
1868
1878

1896
1897

1896.
1879.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1896.

. *Macapam, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.1.C., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House
Portobello, Edinburgh.

. *Macapam, Wit1tAm Ivison, F.R.S.E., F.1.C., F.C.S. Sureeons’
Hall, Edinburgh. 2

. {Macaristrr, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

, eer Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-

ridge.

. {Macalister, N. A.S. 2 Gordon-street, W.C.

.§§ McAllister, Samuel. 99 Wilcox-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Macatium, Professor A. B., Ph.D. The University, Toronto.

§MacAndrew, James J., F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon,

t{MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.

§MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester.

*M‘Arthur, Alexander. 79 Holland-park, W.

t{McArthur, Charles. Villa Marina, New Brighton, Chester.

1884. {Macarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada.
1896, *Macaulay, F.S., M.A. 19 Dewhurst-road, W,
1834, Macaunay, JAues, A.M., M.D. 4 Wynnstay-gardens, W.
1896, aber Professor E. W., M.A. McGill University, Montreal,
anada.
1884, {McCabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa
Canada. i

1886.
1887.
1884.
1884.
1891.

1876.
1868.

1872.
1878.
. *McCowan, John, M.A., D.Sc. University College, Dundee.

1883.
1884.

1897
1881

1885

tMacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 93 Hagley-road, Birmincham,

*McCarthy, James. Bangkok, Siam. i

*McCarthy, J. J., M.D). 83 Wellington-road, Dublin.

tMcCausland, Orr. Belfast.

*McClean, Frank, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Rusthall House,
Tunbridge Wells. {

*M‘Cretiann, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glascow.

tM‘Crurock, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., K.C.B, FIRS.
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, S.W. 7

*McClure, J. H., F.R.G.S. Whiston, Prescot.

*M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

. {McCrae, George. 3 Dick-place, Edinburgh.

- {MeCrossan, James. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

. “MacDonald, Mrs, J. R. 3 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C.

. tMcDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.

. }MacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.

. *McDonald, W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

. }MacDonnell, Mrs. F. H. 1483 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada,

MacDonnell, Hercules H.G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
tMacDonnell, Rev. Canon J. C.,D.D, Misterton Rectory, Lutterworth,
{McDougall, John. 385 St. Frangois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.
-§§McEwen, William C. 9 South Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.

. {Macfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A. j

. {Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware (o., Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A.

1879. {Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow.
1897.§§McFarlane, Murray, M.D. 32 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canad,
1867. *M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.

1897.§§McGaw, Thomas, Queen’s Hotel, Toronto, Canada

1888

+ TMacGeorge, James. 67 Marloes-road, Kensington, W.

62 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1884. tMacGillivray, James, 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, tMacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. Dunavon, Westmount,
Montreal, Canada.

1885. {Macgregor, Alexander, M.D. 256 Union-street, Aberdeen.

1884. *MacGrucor, JAMES Gorpon, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1885. ice aaa J.,M.A., M.B. 26 Buchanan-street, [illhead,

lasgow.

1867. *M‘Intosn, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews, 2 Abbots-
ford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.

1884. {McIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants.

1883. t{Mack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.

1884.§§Mackay, A. H., LL.D. Education Office, Halifax, Nova Scotia,
Canada.

1885. §Macxay, Joun Yur, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University
College, Dundee. :

1897.§§McKay, T. W. G., M.D. Oshawa, Ontario, Canada,

1896. *McKechnie, Duncan. Eccleston Grange, Preston.

1873. {McKenoprick, Joun G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. 2 Florentine-
gardens, Glasgow.

1883. {McKendrick, Mrs. 2 Florentine Gardens, Glasgow.

1897.§§McKenzie, John J, 61 Madison-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

1884. ¢{McKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 26 Finsbury-circus, E.C.

1884. {McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.

1883. tMackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.

1872. *Mackey, J. A. 175 Grange-road, S.E.

1867. {Macxir, Samurt JosErH. 17 Howley-place, W.

1884. {McKillican, John B. 387 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

1887. tMacxrnper, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S. Christ Church, Oxford.

1867. *Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

1891. {Mackintosh, A. C. Temple Chambers, Cardiff.

1850. {Macknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

1872. *McLacuian, Ropert, F.R.S., F.L.S. West View, Clarendon-road,
Lewisham, S.E.

1896, {Maclagan, Miss Christian. Ravenscroft, Stirling.

1892. {Mactacan, Sir Doveras, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh. 28
Heriot-row, Edinburgh. i

1892. {Maclagan, Philip R. D. St. Catherine’s, Liberton, Midlothian.

1892. {Maclagan, R. Craig, M.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

1873. {McLandsborough, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

1885. *M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place,
Edinburgh.

1860. {Maclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.

1897.§§MacLaren, J. F, 380 Victoria-street, Toronto, Canada.

1873. t{MacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.

1897 §§MacLaren, Rev. Wm., D.D. 57 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada.

1882. {Maclean, Inspector-General, C.B. 1 Rockstone-terrace, Southampton.

1892. *Macrean, Maenvs, M.A., F.R.S.E. The University, Glasgow.

1884, {McLennan, Frank. 817 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, t{McLennan, Hugh. 3817 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, {McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada.

1868, §McLeop, Herperrt, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines. +

LIST OF MEMBERS, 63

Year of
Election.

1892. tMacleod, W. Bowman. 16 George-square, Edinburgh.
1861. *Maclure, John William, M.P., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Whalley Range,
~Manchester.
1883. *McManoy, Lieut.-General O. A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 20 Nevern-square,
South Kensington, S.W.
1883. {MacMauon, Major Peroy A., R.A., F.RS. 52 Shaftesbury-
avenue, W.C,
1878. *M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Rathmines, Ireland.
1874, {MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.
1884. {McMurrick, J. Playfair. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, U.S.A.
1867. {M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.
1883. {McNicoll, Dr. E.D. 15 Manchester-road, Southport.
1878. {Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.

1887. {Maconochie, A. W. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros., Lowestoft.
1883. {Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh,

*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 19 Pembridge-square, W.
1887. {Macy, Jesse. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.
1883. {Madden, W.H, Marlborough College, Wilts.
1883. {Mages, Thomas Charles, F.G.S. 56 Clarendon-villas, West Brichton.
1868. {Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich. :
1875. *Maenvs, Sir Puirrp, B.Sc. 16 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

1896. {Maguire, Thomas Philip. Eastfield, Lodge-lane, Liverpool.

1878. {Mahony, W. A. 34 College-creen, Dublin.

1869. {Main, Robert. The Admiralty, Whitehall, S.W.

1887. {Mainprice, W. 8S. Longcroft, Altrincham, Cheshire,

1883. {Maitland, P.C. 136 Great Portland-street, W.

1881. {Malcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.

1874, {Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.

1889, {Maling, C. T. 14 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1857. {Matter, Joun WitiaM, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.0.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co. , U.S.A.

1896. *Manbré, Alexandre. 15 Alexandra-drive, Liverpool.

1897. §Mance, Sir H.C. 32 Earl’s Court-square, S. W.

1887. {MancuxstER, The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of, D.D. Bishop's
Court, Manchester,

1870. tManifold, W. H.,M.D. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1885. {Mann, George. 72 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.

1888. {Mann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.

1894.§§ Manning, Perey, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts.

1864, {Mansel-Pleydell, J. C., F.G.S. Whatcombe, Blandford.

1888. {Mansergh, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 5 Victcria-street, West-
minster, S.W.

1891. ¢{Manuel, James. 175 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1887, ars Pie Henry Oolley,M.D., F.S.A. Portesham, Dorchester, Dorset-
shire,

1870. {Marcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.

1898. *Mardon, Heber. 2 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

1887. {Margetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.

1883. {Marginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire,

1887. {Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soc. Spratton, N orthampton.

1864, [Marcnam, Sir Crements R., K.O.B., F.R.S., Pres.R.G.S., F.S.A.

21 Eccleston-square, S.W.

1894. {Markoff, Dr. Anatolius. 44 Museum-street, W.C.

1863. tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.

1888. {Marling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire,

1888, {Marling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire,

64

Year of
Election

1881.
1887.
1884.

1892.
1883.
1887.
1864.
1889.

1889.
1892.

1881.
1890.
1881.
1886.

1849,

1865.
1891.
1887.
1884.

1889.
1890.

1865.
1883.
1891.
1878.

1847.

1886.
1879.
1896.
1893.
1891.
1885.
1898.
1883.
1887.
1890.
1865.
1898.
1894.
1865.
1889.
1861.

1881.
1883.
1858.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

*Marr, J. E., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S._ St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tMarsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester,

*Marsden, Samuel. 1015 North Leffingwell-avenue, St. Louis,
Missouri, U.S.A.

*Marsden-Smedley, J. 5. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.

*Marsh, Henry. Hurstwood, Roundhay, Leeds.

{Marsh, J. E., M.A. The Museum, Oxford.

{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 387 Grosyenor-place, Bath.

*MarsHatt, Atrrep, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Political Keonomy
in the University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft, Madingley-road,
Cambridge.

{Marshall, Frank, B.A. 31 Grosvenor-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Marshall, Hugh, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 181 Warrender Park-road,
Edinburgh.

*Marshall, John, F.R.A.S. 2 Strattan-street, Leeds,

{Marshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.

{ Marshall, John Ingham Fearby. 28 St. Saviourgate, York.

*MarsHatt, Wittiam Baytry, M.Inst.0.E, Richmond Hill, Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham.

*MarsHatL, WitLiAmM P., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§Marrzn, Epwarp Binpon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.

*Martin, Edward P., J.P. Dowlais, Glamorgan.

*Martin, Rev. H. A. Laxton Vicarage, Newark.

§Martin, N. H., J.P., F.L.S. Ravenswood, Low Fell, Gateshead-on-
Tyne.

“Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Northdene, New
Barnet, Herts.

§Martindale, William. 19 Devonshire-street, Portland-place, W.

*Martineau, Rev. James, LL.D., D.D. 35 Gordon-square, W.C.

tMartineau, R. F. 18 Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

{Marwick, Sir James, LL.D. Killermont, Maryhill, Glasgow.

t{Marychurch, J.G. 46 Park-street, Cardiff.

tMasaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
E.C

{Masxketyne, Nevit Srory, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Basset Down
House, Swindon.

tMason, Hon. J. BE. Fiji.

tMason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.

{Mason, Philip B., F.L.S., F.Z.8. Burton-on-Trent.

*Mason, Thomas. 6 Pelham-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

*Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire.

tMasson, Orme, D.Sc. _ University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.

§Masterman, A. T. University of St. Andrews, N.B.

tMather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.

*Mather, William, M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Manchester.

{Mathers, J.S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.

{Mathews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

§Mathews, E. R. Norris. Cotham-road, Cotham, Bristol.

{Marunews, Prof. G. B., M.A., F.R.S. Bangor.

*Mathews, G. 8S, 32 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tMathews, John Hitchcock. 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, W.

*Marnews, WILLIAM, M.A., F.G.S. 21 Augustus-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham,

t{Mathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport.

t{Mathwin, Mrs. 40 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 65

Year of
Election.

1885. {Marruews, James. Springhill, Aberdeen.

1885. {Matthews, J. Duvcan. Springhill, Aberdeen.

1893. oe GS James, M.A., LL.D. University of Toronto,

anada.

1865. *Maw, Guorer, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Benthall, Kenley, Surrey.

1894.§§Maxim, Hiram 8. 18 Queen’s Gate-place, Kensington, S.W.

1876. {Maxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.

1887. t{Maxwell, James. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.

*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.

1883. §May, William, F.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray, Kent.

1883. {Mayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport.

1884, *Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, W.C.

1878. *Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.

1871. {Meikie, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh,

1879. §Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, W.

1887. {Meischke-Smith, W. Rivala Lumpore, Salengore, Straits Settle-

’ ments.

1881. *Mrtpora, Rapwart, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.IC., Professor of
Chemistry in the Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds
of London Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, W.C. ~

1867. {Mrtprum, Cuartzes, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Marine

House, Beach~road, St. Luke’s, Jersey.

1883. {Mellis, Rev. James. 23 Park-street, Southport.

1879. *Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.

1866. {Mztto, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.

1883. §Mello, Mrs. J. M. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.

1896. §Mellor,@. H. Weston, Blundell Sands, Liverpool.

1881. §Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.

1887. {Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.

1847, {Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College,
Galway.

1863. {Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.

1896. {Menneer, R. R. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-street,

S.W.
1862. Cat Henry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
E

1879, {Merivate, Joun Herwan,M.A. Togston Hall, Acklington,
1880. {Merry, Alfred S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.
1889. *Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
1863. {Messent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
1896.§§ Metzler, W. H_, Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse University,
Syracuse, New York, U.S.A.
1869. {Mratz, Louts C., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
the Yorkshire College, Leeds.
1886. {Middlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birmingham.
1865. {Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1881. *Middlesbrough, The Right Rey. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Middlesbrough.
1893, §Middleton, A. 25 Lister-gate, Nottingham.
1881. {Middleton, R. Morton, F.L,S., F.Z.S. 46 Windsor-road, Ealing, W.
1894, *Mrurs, H. A., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in the
University of Oxford. Magdalen College, Oxford.
1889. {Milburn, John D. Queen-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
1886, {Miles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres.
1881. {MizEs, Morris. Warbourne, Hill-lane, Southampton,
1885, §Mitt, Huew Roserr, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Librarian R.G.S. 109 West
189 End-lane, Hampstead, N.W.
8. E

66 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1889, *Millar, Robert Cockburn. 30 York-place, Edinburgh.

Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E, Perta.

1875. {Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.

1895. }Miller, Henry, M.Inst.C.. Bosmere Touse, Norwich-road, Ipswich.

1888, {Miller, J. Bruce. Rubislaw Den North, Aberdeen.

1885. Miller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

1886, {Miller, Rev. John, B.D. The College, Weymouth.

1861. *Miller, Robert. Totteridge House, Hertfordshire, N.

1895. §Miller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Thoroughfare, Ipswich.

1884. {Miller, T. F., B.Ap.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

1876. tMiller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.

1897.§§Miller, Willet G., Professor of Geology in Queen’s University,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

1868. *Mizis, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.8S., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotland
Technical College, Glasgow. 60 John-street, Glasgow.

1880, §Mills, Mansfeldt H., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Sherwood Hall, Mans-
field.

1885. {Milne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

1882. *Mriyz, Joun, F.R.S.,F.G.S, Shide Hill House, Shide, Isle of Wight,

1885. {Milne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

1887. +Milne-Redhead, R., F.L.S. Holden Clough, Clitheroe.

1898. *Milner, S. Roslington, B.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.

1882. {Milnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 22a Goldhurst-terrace, South Hamp-
stead, N.W.

1880. {Mrincutn, G. M., M.A., F.RS., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Surrey.

1855, tMirrlees, James Buchanan, 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.

1859. tMitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen. ‘

1876, {Mitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

1883. oes Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,

1883. {Mitchell, Mrs. Charles T. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
WwW

1885. {Mitchell, Rev. J. Mitford, B.A. 6 Queen’s-terrace, Aberdeen,

1885. tMitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford.

1879. ¢Mrvarz, Sr. Gzrorer, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., PLS. F.ZS8. 77 In-
verness-terrace, W.

1895. *Moat, William, M.A. Johnson, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.

1885. t{Moffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen.

1885. {Moir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

1883. {Mollison, W. L.,M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

1878. {Molloy, Constantine, Q.C. 65 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.

1877. *Molloy, Right Rev. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

1884. t{Monaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.

1887, *Monp, Lupwic, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Avenue-road, Regent's
Park, N.W.

1891. *Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 20 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, N.W,

1882. *Montagu, Sir Samuel, Bart., M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, W.

1892. {Montgomery, Very Rev. J. F. 17 Athole-crescent, Edinburgh.

1872. t{Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 8 Porchester-place, Edgware-road, W.

1872. t{Moon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton,

1896. t{Moore, A. W., M.A. Woodbourne House, Douglas, Isle of Man.

1884, tMoore, George Frederick. 49 Hardman-street, Liverpool.

1894.§§Moore, Harold E, 41 Bedford-row, W.C.

1891. {Moore, John. Lindenwood, Park-place, Cardiff.

LIST OF MEMBERS. G7

Year of

Election.

1890. {Moore, Major, R.E. School of Military Engineering, Chatham.
1857. *Moore, Rev. William Prior. Carrickmore, Galway, Ireland.

1896. *Mordey, W. M. Princes-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.

1891. {Morel, P. Lavernock House, near Cardiff.

1881. {Morean, Atrrep. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,

1895.
1873.
1891.

1896,
1887.

U.S.A.

§Morean, C. Luoyn, F.G;S., Principal of University College, Bristol.
16 Canynge-road, Clifton, Bristol.

tMorgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, South
Kensington, 8. W.

t{Morgan, F. Forest Lodge, Ruspidge, Gloucestershire.

§Morgan, George. 61 Hope-street, Liverpool.

tMorgan, John Gray. 38 Lloyd-street, Manchester.

1882.§§Morgan, Thomas, J.P. Cross House, Southampton.

1892.
1889,

1898,
1891.
1883.

1889.
1896.

~ 1881.
1880.

tMorison, John, M.D., F.G.S. Victoria-street, St. Albans.

§Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Saville-row, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

tMorland, John, J.P. Glastonbury.

tMorley, H. The Gas Works, Cardiff.

*Mor.ey, Henry Forsrer, M.A.,D.Sc., F.C.S. 47 Broadhurst-gar-
dens, South Hampstead, N.W.

tMortpy, The Right Hon. Joun, M.A., LL.D., M.P., F.RS.
95 Elm Park-gardens, 8. W.

tMorrell, R. 8. Caius College, Cambridge.

tMorrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York.

tMorris, Alfred Arthur Vennor. Wernolau, Cross Inn, R.S.0., Car-
marthenshire.

1883. {Morris,C.S. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales.
1892. {Morris, Daniel, C.M.G., M.A., D.Se., F.L.S. 12 Cumberland-road,

1883.
1880.
1883.
1896.
1888.

1874.
1871.
1865.
1869.
1857.
1858.
1887.
1886,
1896.

1883.
1878.
1876,

1864,
1892.
1873.
1892.
1869,
1866.

1856

Kew.
tMorris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.
§Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.
tMorris, John. 4 The Elms, Liverpool.
*Morris, J. T. 13 Somers-place, W.
tMorris, J. W., F.L.S. The Woodlands, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
{Morrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.E. Shanghai, China.
*Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh.
tMortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.
tMortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
§Morton, Grorer H., F.G.S. 209 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
*Morton, Huenry JoserH. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough,
tMorton, Percy, M.A. Illtyd House, Brecon, South Wales.
*Morton, P. F. Hocklitfe Grange, Leighton Buzzard.
*Morton, William B., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
College, Belfast.
tMoseley, Mrs. Firwood, Clevedon, Somerset.
*Moss, Jonn Francis, F.R.G.S. Beechwood, Brincliffe, Sheffield.
§Moss, Ricnarp Jackson, F.1.C., M.R.I.A. Royal Dublin Society,
and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.
*Mosse, J. R. 5 Chiswick-place, Eastbourne.
tMossman, R. C., F.R.S.E. 10 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.
{Mossman, William. Ovenden, Halifax.
*Mostyn, S. G., M.A. 19 Peak-hill, Sydenham, 8.E.
§Morr, Atsert J.,F.G.S. Detmore, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.
{Morr, Freperick T.,,.F.R.G.S. Crescent House, Leicester.
. {Mould, Rey. J.G.,B.D. Roseland, Meadfoot, Torquay.
E2

68

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1878.

1863.
1861.

1877.

1887.
1888.
1884.

1884,
1894.
1876.
1874.
1872.

1876.
1883.

1883.
1891.

1884.

1880.

*Moutton, J. Frercupr, M.A., Q.C., M.P., F.R.S. 57 Onslow-
square, S.W.

{Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland.

*Mountcastle, William Robert. The Wigwam, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester.

{Mount-Epecumset, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgcumbe, Devonport.

tMoxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.

tMoyle, R. E., B.A., F.C.S. The College, Cheltenham,

tMoyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada.

tMoyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

tMugliston, Rev. J., M.A. Newick House, Cheltenham.

*Muir, Sir John, Bart. Demster House, Perthshire.

{Murr, M. M. Parrison, M.A. Caius College, Cambridge.

tMuirhead, Alexander, D.Sc., F.C.S. 2 Prince’s-street, Storey’s-gate,
Westminster, S.W.

*Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. 14 Kerrsland-street,
Hillhead, Glasgow.

{MunwHatt, Micnart G. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.

tMulhall, Mrs. Marion. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.

{Muxter, The Right Hon. F, Max, M.A., Professor of Comparative
Philology in the University of Oxford. 7 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.

*Miutter, Hueco, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 13 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

tMuller, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.

1897.§§Mullins, W. E. Preshute House, Marlborough, Wilts.

1398.

1876.
1898.

1883.
1855.
1890.
1889.
1884.
1887.
1891.

1859.
1884.

1884.

1872.
1892.
1863.
1874.

§Mumford, C. E. Bary St. Edmunds.

Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, E.C.

t{Munro, Donald, M.D., F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.

§Munro, John, Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the Merchant

Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol.

*Mouwro, Ropert, M.A.,M.D. 48 Manor-place, Edinburgh.

tMurdoch, James Barclay. Capelrig, Mearns, Renfrewshire.

t{Murphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.

tMurphy, James, M.A.,M.D. Holly House, Sunderland.

§Murphy, Patrick, Marcus-square, Newry, Ireland.

tMurray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.

{Murray, G. R. M., F.RS., F.RS.E., F.L.S. British Museum
(Natural History), South Kensington, S.W.

t{Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.

{Mourray, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Chal-
lenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh.

tMurray, J. Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Mental and Moral
Philosophy in McGill University, Montreal. 111 McKay-street,
Montreal, Canada.

{Murray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.

{Murray, T.S. 1 Nelson-street, Dundee.

{Murray, William, M.D. 9 Ellison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Musgrave, Sir James, Bart., J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast.

1897.§§Musgrave, James, M.D. 511 Bloor-street West, Toronto, Canada.
1870. *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.

1891.
1890,

t{Muybridge, Eadweard. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
. USA.
*Myres, John L., M.A., F.S.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. 69

of

Election.

1886.
1892.
1890.
1876.
1872.

1887.
1896,
1887.
1883.

tNacer, D. H., M.A. Trinity College, Oxford.

*Nairn, Michael B. Kirkcaldy, N.B.

§Nalder, Francis Henry. 34 Queen-street, E.C.

tNapier, James S. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

tNarrs, Admiral Sir G. 8., K.C.B., RN., F.RS., F.RGS.
11 Claremont-road, Surbiton.

JNason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D. Troy, New York, U.S.A.

{Neal, James E., U.S. Consul. 26 Chapel-street, Liverpool,

§Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel Walks, Manchester,

*Neild, Theodore, B.A. ‘The Vista, Leominster.

1887. {Neill, Joseph S. Claremont, Broughton Park, Manchester.
1887. {Neill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester,
11855. {Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.

1897.§§Nesbitt, Beattie S. A., M.D. 71 Grosvenor-street, Toronto, Canada.

1868.
1898.
1866.

{Nevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.

§Nevill, Rev. J. H. N. The Vicarage, Stoke Gabriel, South Devon.

*Nevill, The Right Rey. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.

1889, {Nevitte, F. H., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney College, Cambridge.
1869. {Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

1889.
1886.
1889.

1860.

1892.

1883.
1882.
1867.
1866.

1867.

1887.
1884,

1883.
1887.
1893.
1887.

*Newall, H. Frank. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.

tNewbolt, F.G. Edenhurst, Addlestone, Surrey.

§Newstead, A. H. L., B.A. Rose Villa, Prospect-road, Snakes-lane,

Woodford.

*NEwTon, ALFRED, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalene College, Cambridge.

{Newron, E. T., F.R.S., F.G.8. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
S.W.

tMas, Miss Isabel. 56 Montagu-square, WW.

tMas, J. B., B.A. 56 Montagu-square, IW.

{Nicholl, Thomas. Dundee.

{Nicwotson, Sir CuHarzEs, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.8. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.

tNicnHotson, Henry Atteyne, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,
Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.

*Nicholson, John Carr. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds.

}Nicuotson, Josery S., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Political Economy in
the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge, Newhattle-terrace,
Edinburgh,

tNicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport.

tNicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull.

{Nickolls, John B., F.C.S. ‘The Laboratory, Guernsey.

t{Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.

1885.§§Nicol, W. W. J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E. 15 Blacket-place, Edin-

1896
1878

1877

1874.
1863.

1879
1886
1887

burgh.

. {Nisbet, J. Tawse. 175 Lodge-lane, Liverpool.

. {Niven, Cartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Aberdeen. 6 Chanonry, Aber-
deen.

. {Niven, Professor James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.

{Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.

*Nosie, Sir Awnprew, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick

Works, and Jesmond Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

. {Noble, T.S. Lendal, York.

. [Nock, J. B. Mayfield, Penns, near Birmingham.

. [Nodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.

70 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1870. {Nolan, Joseph, M.R.LA. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
1863. §Norman, Rev. Canon ALFRED Merzy, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S.,
F.L.S. The Red House, Berkhampstead.
1888. {Norman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.
1865. {Norris, Ricnarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.
1872. t{Norris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.
1883. *Norris, William G. Dale House, Coalbrookdale, R.S.O., Shropshire.
1881. {North, William, B.A. 84 Micklegate, York.
Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 85 Eaton-place, 8.W.;
and Hamshall, Birmingham.
1886. {Norton, Lady. 35 Eaton-place,S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.
1894. §Norcurt, 8. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. 98 Anglesea-road, Ipswich.
1861. ¢{Noton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham,
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
1896.§§Nugent, the Right Rev. Monsignor. 18 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo,
Liverpool.
1887. {Nursey, Perry Fairfax. 2 Trafalgar-buildings, Northumberland-
avenue, London, W.C.

1882. §Obach, Eugene, Ph.D., F.1.C., F.L.S., F.C.S. 118 Victoria-road, Old
Charlton, Kent.
1898, *O’Brien, Neville Forth. Queen Anne’s-mansions, S.W.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.

1878. {O’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland,

1883. {Odgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple, E.C.

1858. *Oprine, Wittram, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.

1884. {Odlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.

1857. {O’Donnavan, William John. 654 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Dublin,

1894. §Ogden, James. Kilner Deyne, Rochdale.

1896.§§Oeden, Thomas. 4 Prince’s-avenne, Liverpool.

1885. {Ogilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.

1876. {Ogilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.

1885. {Ocitvin, F. Grant, M.A., B.Sc., F.RS.E. Ileriot Watt College,
Edinburgh.

1893. {Ogilvie, Miss Maria M., D.Sc. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.

1859. {Ogilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldan House, Dundee.

*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.

1884, {O’Halloran, J. S.,C.M.G. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumber-
land-avenue, W.C.

1881. tOldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.

1887. {Oldham, Charles. Romiley, Cheshire.

1896. {Oldham, G. 8. Town Hall, Birkenhead.

1892. JOldham, H. Yule, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the
University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge.

1853. {OrpHam, James, M.Inst.C.E. Cottingham, near Hull.

1885. {Oldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.

1893. *Oldham, R. D., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India. Care of Messrs.
HS. King & Co., Cornhill, E.C.

1892. {Oliphant, James. 50 Palmerston-place, Mdinburgh.

1863, {Oxtver, Dayiet, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany
in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew,
Surrey.

1887. {Oliver, F. W., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in University
College, London. The Tower House, Tite-street, Chelsea, S.W.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 71

;

Election.

1883.
1889.
1882.

1860.
1880.

1872.
1883.
1867.
1885.
1883.
1880.

1861.
1858,
1883.
1884,

1884.
1838.
1897.§
1887.

§Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.
§Oliver, Professor T., M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*§Olsen, O. T., F.R.ALS., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s - terrace,

Grimsby.

*Ommanney, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.AS.,
F.R.G.S. 29 Connaught-square, Hyde Park, W.

*Ommanney, Rey. E. A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea,
Hants.

t{Onslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, S.W.

{Oppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Berlin.

f{Orchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.

{Ord, Miss Maria. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.

fOrd, Miss Sarah. 2 Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol.

fO’Reilly, J. P., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

tOrmerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester.

{Ormerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.

Orpen, Miss. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

*Orpen, Lieut.-Colonel R. T., R.E. Care of G. II. Orpen, Esq,,
Erpingham, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

*Orpen, Rey. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.

Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
§Osborne, James K. 40 St. Joseph-street, Toronto, Canada.
§O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. University College, Sheffield.

*OstEr, A. Fotterr, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1897.§§Osler, E. B., M.P. Rosedale, Toronto, Canada.

1865.
1884.
1884.

. *Oswald, T. R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.

. *Ottewell, Alfred D. 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby.

. tOulton, W. Hillside, Gateacre, Liverpool.

. tOwen, Rev. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Owen, Alderman H.C. Compton, Wolverhampton.

. §Owen, Peter. The Elms, Capenhurst, Chester.

. {Oxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.

1866

*Osler, Henry F. Coppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,

Birmingham.

Oster, Witr1aM, M.D., F.R.S. Johns Hopkins University, Balti-
more, U.S.A.

{O’Sullivan, James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-
Trent.

. {Page, Dr. F. 1 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

. {Page, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.

. Page, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.

. {Paget, Octavius. 158 Fenchurch-street, H.C.

. §Paget, The Right Hon. Sir R. H., Bart, Cranmore Hall, Shepton

Mallet.

. {Paine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.

. {Paine, William Henry, M.D. Stroud, Gloucestershire.

. *ParcRave, R. H. Inets, F.R.S., F.8.8. Belton, Great Yarmouth.
. tPallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

. [Patmer, Sir Coartes Marx, Bart., M.P. Grinkle Park, York-

1878.

shire.
*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Rose Lawn, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.
§Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham.

1883.§§Pant, F, J. Van der. Clifton Lodge, Kingston-on-Thames.

72 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1886, t{Panton, George A., F.R.S.E, 73 Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1883, {Park, Henry. Wigan.

1883, {Park, Mrs. Wigan.

1898. §Parker, G., M.D. 14 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1880, *Parke, George Henry, F.LS., F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield,
Yorkshire.

1863. {Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1886. {Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1891, ¢Parker, William Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.

1879. {Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield. _

1887. §Parkinson, James. Station-road, Turton, Bolton.

1859, tParkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands,

1862. *Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, N.E.

1883. {Parson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.

1865, *Parsons, Charles Thomas. Mountlands, Norfolk-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1878. {Parsons, Hon. C, A., F.R.S. Elvaston Hall, Newcastle-upon-

Tyne.

1883. {Part, Isabella. Rudleth, Watford, Herts.

1898. §Partridge, Miss Josephine M. Girton College, Cambridge.

1898. §Pass, Alfred C. Clifton Down, Bristol.

1881. {Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham.

1887. {Paterson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Liverpool.

1897.§§Paterson, John A. 23 Walmer-road, Toronto, Canada.

1896. {Paton, A. A. Greenbank-drive, Wavertree, Liverpool.

1897. §Paton, D. Noél, M.D. 33 George-square, Edinburgh.

1883. *Paton, Henry, M.A. 15 Myrtle-terrace, Edinburgh.

1884, *Paton, Hugh. Care of the Sheddon Co., Montreal, Canada.

1871. *Patterson, A. Henry. 16 Ashburn-place, S.W.

1876. {Patterson,T. L. Maybank, Greenock.

1874. {Patterson, W. H.,M.R.LA. 26 High-street, Belfast.

1863. {Partinson, Jonny, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1867. {Pattison, Samuel Rowles. 11 Queen Victoria-street, E.C.

1879. *Patzer, F. R. Winton-square, Stoke-on-Trent.

1863. {Pavz, Bensamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W-.

1892. {Paul, J. Balfour. 30 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

1863. {Pavy, F. Wittram, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street, W.

1887. *Paxman, James. Stisted Hall, near Braintree, Essex.

1887. *Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s

Teath.

1881. {Payne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1877. *Payne, J. C. Charles. 1 Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.

1881. {Payne, Mrs. 1 Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.

1866, {Payne, Joseph F., M.D. 78 Wimpole-street, W.

1888. *Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor House, Yeovil.

1886. {Payton, Henry. Wellington-road, Birmingham.

1876. {Peace, G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.

1879. {Peace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.

1885. {Pzacu, B.N., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Edinburgh.

1883. {Peacock, Ebenezer. 8 Mandeville-place, Manchester-square, W.

1875. {Peacock,Thomas Francis, 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, W.C.

1881. *PEanrce, Horacz, F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. The Limes, Stourbridge.

1886, *Pearce, Mrs. Horace. The Limes, Stourbridge.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 73

Election.

1888.

1884.
1886,
1883,
1891.
1898.
1898.
1883.
1881.
1883.
1872.
1892.
1881.
1883,
1889.
1863.

1863.

1888,
1885.
1884.
1883.
1878.
1881.
1861.
1878.
1887.

1894.
1894.

§Pearce, Rev. R. J., D.C.L. The Vicarage, Bedlington, R.S.O.,
Northumberland.

tPearce, William. Winnipeg, Canada.

{Pearsall, Howard D, 19 Willow-road, Hampstead, N.W.

tPearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, 8. W.

tPearson, B. Dowlais Hotel, Cardiff.

*Pearson, Charles E. Chilwell House, Nottinghamshire.

§Pearson, George. Baldwin-street, Bristol.

{Pearson, Miss Helen E. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

{Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

{Pearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

*Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada.

tPearson, J. M. John Dickie-street, Kilmarnock.

}Pearson, Richard. 57 Bootham, York.

“Pearson, Thomas H. Redclyffe, Newton-le- Willows, Lancashire.

{Pease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tPease, Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guis-
borough.

tPease, J. W. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

*Peckover, Alexander, LL.D., F.S.A., F.LS., F.R.G.S. Bank
House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

{Peckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

tPeddie, William, D.Se., F.R.S.E. 2 Cameron Park, Edinburgh.

tPeebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.

{Prex, Sir Curnpert E., M.A., F.S.A, 22 Belgrave-square, 8. W.

*Peek, William. The Manor House, Kemp Town, Brighton.

tPeggs, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

*Peile, George. Greenwood, Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.

tPemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

§PENDLEBURY WILLIAM H., M.A., F.C.S. (Locan Srcrerary). 6
Gladstone-terrace, Priory Hill, Dover.

§Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, 'l'orquay.

§Pengelly, Miss Hester. Lamorna, Torquay.

1897.§§PENHALLOW, Professor D. P., M.A. McGill University, Montreal,

1896.
1898.
1881.
1875.
1889.

1898.
1895.
1894.
1868.

Canada.

§Pennant, P. P. Nantlys, St. Asaph.

§Pentecost, Harold. Clifton College, Bristol.

{Penty, W. G. Melbourne-street, York.

{Perceval, Rey. Canon John, M.A., LL.D. Rugby.

}Percival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B. 16 Ellison-place, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

§Percival, Francis W., M.A., F.R.G.S., 2 Southwick-place, W.

§Percival, John, M.A., Professor of Botany in the South-Eastern
Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Perigal, Frederick. Lower Kingswood, Reigate.

tPerkin, A. G., F.RS.E., F.C.S., F.LC. 8 Montpelier-terrace,
Woodhouse Cliff, Leeds.

*PerkIn, Wit1raM Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts,
Sudbury, Harrow, Middlesex.

. {Perxin, WititaM Henry, jun., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of

Organic Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.

. *Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
- *Perman, E. P, University College, Cardiff.

. {Perrin, Miss Emily. 31 St John’s Wood Park, N.W.
. {Perrin, Henry 8. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

. {Perrin, Mrs. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

74

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1874.

1883.
1883.

1897.

1898.
1883.
1895.

1871.
1886.

1886.
1863.

*Prrry, Joun, M.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics and
Mathematics in the Royal College of Science, S.W.

tPerry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.

tPerry, Russell R. 34 Duke-street, Brighton.

§§Peters, Dr. George A. 171 College-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Pethick, William. Woodside, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

tPetrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.

§Purrim, W. M. Frinpers, D.C. te Professor of Egyptology in Uni-
versity College, W.C.

*Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 13 Fourth-avenue, Brighton.

tPhelps, Major-General A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

{Phelps, Hon, E. J. American Legation, Members’ Mansions, Victoria-
street, S.W.

*Puenfk, Joun Samvet, LL.D.,F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, SW.

1896.§§Philip, George, jun. 14 Holly-road, Fairfield, Liverpool.

1892

1885.
1884,
1896.
1888.
1871.
1884.
1865.
1873.

1896.
1896.
1877.
1868.
1876.

1887.
1875.
1883.
1864,

. {Philip, R. W., M.D. 4 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh,
1870.
1853.
1853.
1877.
1863.
1883.
1894.

1887.
1892.
1890.

1883.
1881.
1898.
1868.
1884.
1883,
1894,

{Philip, T. D. _51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.

*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

*Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.

§Philips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, George-lane, Woodford, Essex.

{Philipson, Dr. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tPhillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.

§ Phillips, Statf-Commander E. C. D., R.N., F.R.G.S. 14 Hargreaves-
buildings, Chapel-street, Liverpool.

tPhillips, H. Harcourt, F.C.S. 183 Moss-lane East, Manchester.

§Phillips, J. H. Poole, Dorset.

§Phillips, R. W., M.A., Professor of Biology in University College,
Bangor.

{Phillips, S. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter.

TPhillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.

§Philps, Captain Lambe. 7 Royal-terrace, Weston-super-Mare.

{Phipson, T. L., Ph.D., F.CS. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey, S.W.

*Pickard, Rev. H. Adair, M.A. Airedale, Oxford.

*Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster.

{Picxarp-CampBrincE, Rey. O., M.A., F.R.S. Bloxworth Rectory,
Wareham.

*PICKERING, SPENCER P. U., M.A., F.R.S. Har vented Herts.

*Pickett, Thomas E., M.D. "Maysville, Mason Co., Kentucky, U.S.A.

{Picton, W. H. College-avenue, Crosby, Liverpool.

*Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, W.

tPigot, Thomas F., M.R.L.A. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

{Pike, L. G., M.A., "FZS. 12 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C.

tPrxz, L. Owrn. 201 Maida-vale, W.

tPike, W. H., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Toronto, Canada.

*Pilkington, A.C. The Hazels, Prescot, Lancashire.

*Pilling, William. Rosario, Keene-road, West Worthing.

tPim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

tPinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.

{Pirr, Rey. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Aberdeen. 33 Collece Bounds, Old Aberdeen,

{Pitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, E.C.

{Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.

tPitt, George Newton, M.A.,M.D. 24 St. Thomas-street, 5.1.

tPitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 75

Year of
Election.

1883. {Pitt, Sydney. 16 St. Andrew’s-street, Holborn-circus, F.C.

1893. *Pitt, Walter, M.Inst.C.E. South Stoke House, near Bath.

1868, {Prrr-Rivers, Lieut.-General A. H. L., D.C.L., F.RS., I.GS.,
F.S.A. Rushmore, Salisbury.

1867. {Pxayrarr, Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. L., K.C.M.G. (Messrs. King & Co.,
Pall Mall, S.W.)

1884, *Playfair, W. S., M.D., LL.D., Professor of Midwifery in King’s
College, London. 38 Grosvenor-street, W.

1898. §Playne, H.C. 28 College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1883. *Plimpton, R.T.,M.D. 23 Lansdowne-road, Clapham-road, S.W.

1893. {Plowright, Henry J. Brampton Foundries, Chesterfield.

1897.§§Plummer, J. H. Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

1898. §Plummer, W. E. The Observatory, Bidston, Birkenhead.

1857. {Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Iveland,

_1881. §Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.

1888. {Pocock, Rev. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath.

1846. {Porr, Witt1Am, Mus.Doc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Athenzeum Club,
Pall Mall, 8S. W.

1896.§§Pollard, James. High Down, Hitchin, Herts.

1898. §Pollen, Rev. G. C. H., F.G.S. St. Beuno’s College, St. Asaph,

North Wales.

1896. *Pollex, Albert. Dale End, Cavendish Park, Rockferry.

*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
R.S.0., Yorkshire.

1862. *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.

1891. tPomeroy, Captain Ralph. 201 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1892. §Popplewell, W. C., M.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Yorkshire College,
Leeds.

1868. {Portat, WynpHAM S. Malshanger, Basingstoke.

1883. *Porter, Rev. C. T., LL.D., D.D. All Saints’ Vicarage, Southport.

1883. {Postgate, Professor J. P., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1887. {Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton.

1883. {Potter, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the College of
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 14 Portland-terrace, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

1886. *Poutron, Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., I.G.S., F.Z.8., Pro-
fessor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Wykeham House,
Banbury-road, Oxford.

1898. *Poulton, Edward Palmer. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1873. *Powell, Sir Francis S., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. Tlorton Old Hall,
Yorkshire ; and 1 Cambridge-square, W.

1887. *Powell, Horatio Gibbs. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolver-
hampton.

1883. {Powell, John. Brynmill-crescent, Swansea.

1894, *Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 62 Wimpole-street, W.

1875. {Powell, ae Augustus Frederick. -Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol. :

_ 1887. §Pownall, George H. Manchester and Salford Bank, St. Ann-street,
Manchester.
1867. {Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.

1883. {Porntine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Mason
College, Birmingham.

1884, *Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 66 Banbury-road, Oxford.

1891. {Pratt, Bickerton. Brynderwen, Maindee, Newport, Monmouthshire.

1869, *Prerce, Witttam Henry, C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Gothic
Lodge, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.

76

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1888,

1884,
1894,
1892.
1889.

1894,
1893.

1893.
1884,

1856,
1888.

1875.
1891.

1897.

*Preece, W, Llewellyn, Tan-y-bryn, Rusholme-road, Putney Heath,
S.W,

*Premio-Real, His Excellency the Count of. Quebec, Canada.

§Prentice, Manning, F.C.S. Woodfield, Stowmarket.

§Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.

§Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.E., F.G. 8. 14 The Exchange, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire,

tPreston, Arthur E. Piccadilly, Se Berkshire.

*Preston, Martin Inett. Journal-chambers, Pelham-street, Notting-
ham,

§Preston, Professor THomas, F.R.S. Bardowie, Orwell Park, Dublin.

*Prevost, Major L. de T. 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders,

*Pricz, Rev. BartHotomew, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Master
of Pembroke College, Oxford.

Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.

{Prioz, L. L, F. R., M.A., F.S.S. Oriel College, Oxford.

*Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.

{Price, William. 40 Park-place, Cardiff,

*Price, W. A., M.A, Teign House, Westcombe Park-road, S.E.

1897.§ §Primrose, Dr, Alexander. 196 Simcoe-street, Toronto, Canada.

1892.
1864,
1889.
1876.
1888.
1881.
1898.
1863.

1884.
1879.
1872.
1871.
1873.
1867.
1883.
1891.
1842.

1887.

}Prince, Professor Edward E., B.A. Ottawa, Canada.

*Prior, R.C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.
1B itchard, Erie Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. 45 St. Giles, Nor wich,
*PRITcHARD, Urzan, M.D., FRCS. 26 Wimpole-street, W.
}Probyn, Leslie C. Onslow- -square, 8. W.

§Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York.

§Proctor, H. Faraday. Temple Backs, Bristol.

tProctor, R.8. Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Proctor, William, Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 9 Phillips-place, Montreal, Canada.
*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S. Alvington, Slade-road, Tifracombe.
*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Park, Stevenage, Herts,

*Puckle, Thomas John. 42 42 Cadogan-place, S.W.

{Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.

*Pullar, Sir Robert, F.R. SE. Tayside, Perth.

*Pullar, Rufus D., FCS. Ochil, Perth.

tPullen, W. W. F, University College, Cardiff.

*Pumphrey, Charles. Castlewood, Park-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
§PumpHrRey, WILLIAM. 2 Oakland- road, Redland, Bristol.

1885.§§Purpiz, THomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the

1852.
1881.

1874.
1866.

1878.
1884.
1860.
1898.
1883.
1883.
1868.

1879.

University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St. Andrews, N.B.

tPurdon, Thomas Henry, M.I). Belfast.

}Purey-Cust, Very Rey. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York, The
Deanery, York.

{Purssr, Frepericx, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.

Purser, Professor Jonn, M.A., M.R.ILA. Queen’s College,
Belfast.

{Purser, John Mallet. 5 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.

*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, W.

*Pusey, 8. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.

*Pye, Miss E. St. Mary’s Hall, Rochester.

§Pye-Smith, Arnold. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon.

§Pye-Smith, Mrs. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon.

t¢Pyz-Saorn, P. H., M.D.,F.R.S. 48 Brook-street, W.; and Guy's
Hoare S.E.

tPye-Smith, R. J, 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 77

Hlection.

1896.
1893.
1894,

1870.

1870.
1896.
1877.

1855.
1887.
1864.
1898.

1896.
1894.

1863.
1884,

1884,
1861.
1885.
1889.
1876.

1883.
1869.

1868.
1898.
1863.
1861.

1889.

1864.
1892.
1870.
1895,
1874,

1889,
1870.
1866,

1887.
1875.

1886.

{Quaill, Edward. 3 Palm-grove, Claughton,
tQuick, James. University College, Bristol.
{tQuick, Professor Walter J. University of Missouri, Columbia, U.S.A.

tRabbits, W. T. 6 Cadogan-gardens, 8.W.

tRadcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.

§Radcliffe, Herbert. Balderstone Hall, Rochdale.

{Radford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.

*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.

*Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. Mayfield, Woolston, Southampton.

*Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Whitefield, Manchester.

tRainey, James T. 3 Kent-gardens, Ealing, W.

*Raisin, Miss Catherine A., D.Sc. Bedford College, York-place,

Baker-street, W.

*Ramage, Hugh. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

*RamBautT, ArTauR A., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.AS., M.R.IA.,
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

{Ramsay, ALEXANDER. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.

tRamsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Glassow. 6 The College, Glasgow.

{Ramsay, Mrs. G.G. 6 The College, Glasgow.

tRamsay, John. Kildalton, Argyllshire,

tRamsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.

tRamsay, Major R.G. W. Bonnyrige, Edinburgh.

*Ramsay, Witt1aAM, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Uni-
versity College, London. 12 Arundel-gardens, W.

tRamsay, Mrs. 12 Arundel-gardens, W.

*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, West Ken-

sington, W.

*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 22 Ashburnham-road, Bedford.

{Ransom, W. B.,M.D. The Pavement, Nottingham.

{Ransom, Witt1am Henry, M.D., F.B.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.

tRansome, Artuur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Sunnyhurst, Deane Park,
Bournemouth,

Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.
§Rapkin, J. B. Sidcup, Kent.
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

}tRate, Rev. John, M.A. Fairfield, East Twickenham.

*Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.

§Rathbone, R. R. Glan y Menai, Anglesey.

tRatuHpone, W., LL.D. Green Bank, Liverpool.

j{Ravenstern, E. G., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. 2 York-mansions, Battersea
Park, S.W.

tRawlings, Edward. Richmond House, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.

tRawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.

*Rawiinson, Rev. Canon Groner, M.A. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.

tRawson, Harry. Earlswood, Ellesmere Park, Eccles, Manchester.

§Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. 68 Corn-
wall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, S.W.

tRawson, W.Stepney,M.A. 68 Cornwall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, S.W.

1868. *Rayieren, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.BS.,

F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
Royal Institution. Terling Place, Witham, Essex.

1895.§§Raynbird, Hugh, jun. Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basing,

Basingstoke.

78

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883.
1897.
1896.
1870.
1884,

1852

1892.

1889.
1889.
1890.

1861.

1889.
1891.
1894,
1891.
1891.
1891.
1888.
1875.

*Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Mary’s Gate, Lancaster.

*Rayner, Edwin Hartree. Mayfield House, Ashbourne.

§Read, Charles H., F.S.A, British Museum, W.C.

tReave, THomas Metrarp, F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.

§Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 4 Lindsay-place, Edinburgh.

*REDFERN, Professor Peter, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.

tRedgrave, Gilbert R., Assoc.Inst.C.H. The Elms, Westgate-road,
Beckenham, Kent.

{Redmayne, J. M. Harewood, Gateshead.

tRedmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Redwood, Boverton, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 4 Bishopsgate-street
Within, £.C.

Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.

tReep, Sir Epwarp James, K.C.B., F.R.S. 75 Harrington-
gardens, S. W.

tReed, Rev. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill, Carlisle.

*Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.

*Rees, Edmund 8. G. 15 Merridale-lane, Wolverhampton.

§Rees, I. Treharne, M.Inst.C.E. Highfield, Penarth.

t{Rees, Samuel. West Wharf, Cardiff.

tRees, William. 25 Park-place, Cardiff.

tRees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, W.C.

tRees-Moge, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.

1897.§§Reeve, Richard A. 22 Shuter-street, Toronto, Canada.

1881,
1883.
1892.

1889.
1876.
1897.
1892.
1887.
1893.
1875.

1863.
1894,
1891.

1885.
1889.
1867.
1883.
1871.

1870.

1858.
1896.
1896.
1883.
1858.
1877.
1888.

§Reid, Arthur 8., B.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.

*Rerp, Crement, F.L.S., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, 8.W.

{Rerm, E. Waymours, B.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
University College, Dundee.

tReid, G., Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tReid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

§Reid, T. Whitehead, M.D. St. George’s House, Canterbury.

tReid, Thomas. University College, Dundee.

*Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.

{Reinach, Baron Albert von. Frankfort s. M., Prussia.

§Retmotp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

t{Renats, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.

tRenpatt, G. H., M.A. Charterhouse, Godalming.

*Rendell, Rev. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road,
Accrington.

t{Rennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen.

*Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, S.W.

tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

*Reynolds, A. H. Bank House, 1385 Lord-street, Southport.

}Rerywotps, Jawes Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., MR.LA.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Labora-
tory, Trinity College, Dublin.

*Rerynoitps, Osporne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor
of Engineering in Owens College, Manchester. 19 Lady Barn-
road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

§Reynotps, Ricwarp, F.C.S. Cliff Lodge, Hyde Park, Leeds.

{Reynolds, Richard S. 73 Smithdown-lane, Liverpool.

§Rhodes,, Albert. Field Hurst, Liversidge, Yorkshire.

{Rhodes, Dr. James. 25 Victoria-street, Glossop.

*Rhodes, John. Potternewton House, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

*Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.

tRhodes, John George. Warwick House, 46 St. George’s-road, 8S. W.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 79

Year of
Election.
1890. {Rhodes, J. M., M.D. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.

1884.
1877.

1891.
1891.
1889.
1888.
1869.
1882.
1884.
1889.
1884,
1896.

1870.
1889.
1881.
1876.
1891.
1891.
1886.
1868,

1883.
1894.
1861.
1889,
1884,
1881.
1883.
1892.
1873.

1892.
1867.
1889.
1869.
1898.
1869.

1887.
1859,
1870.

1894.
1881.
1879.
1879.
1896.
1883.
1868,

{Rhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada.

*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Riva
Muro, 14, Modena, Italy.

tRichards, D. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

tRichards, H. M. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

{Richards, Professor T. W., Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

*Ricuarpson, ArtHuUR, M.D.

*Richardson, Charles. 6 The Avenue, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

§Richardson, Rev. George, M.A. The College, Winchester.

*Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, Piccadilly, W.

{Richardson, Hugh. Bootham School, York.

*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.

*Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.S. Montevideo, Chickerell,
near Weymouth.

tRichardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.

tRichardson, Thomas, J.P. 7 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

{Richardson, W. B. Elm Bank, York.

§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Worls, Glasgow.

tRiches, Carlton H. 21 Dumfries-place, Cardiff.

§Riches, T. Harry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff.

§Richmond, Robert. Heathwood, Leighton Buzzard.

{Rickrrrs, CuHartes, M.D.,F.G.S. 19 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.

*RIDDELL, Major-General Cuartzs J. Bucuanan, C.B., R.A., F.R.S.
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.

*Ripeat, Samuet, D.Se., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Rrortpy, KE. P. 6 Paget-road, Ipswich.

tRidley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, N. W.

tRidley, Thomas D. Coatham, Redcar.

{Ridout, Thomas.. Ottawa, Canada.

*Rige, Arthur. 152 Blomfield-terrace, W.

*Riac,,.EpwarD, M.A. Royal Mint, E.

tRintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

{Ripley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds,

*Riron, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.S.1, C.LE.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment, S.W.

tRitchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.S.E. 1 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

tRitchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.

fRitson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.

§Robb, Alfred A. Lisnabreeny House, Belfast.

*Ropains, Jonn, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale,
London, W.

*Roberts, Evan. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, London, N. W.

tRoberts, George Christopher. » Hull.

*Roserts, Isaac, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Starfield, Crow-
borough, Sussex.

*Roberts, Miss Janora. 5 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

}Roberts, R. D., M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. 17 Charterhouse-square, E.C,

{Roberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.

{Roberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.

§Roberts, Thomas J. 31 North-road, Cowley Hill, St. Helens.

tRoserts, Sir Witi1amM, M.D., F.R.S. 8 Manchester-square, W.

*RopErts-Austen, W. Cuanvrer, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.,
Chemist to the Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the
Royal College of Science, London, (GENERAL SECRETARY.)
Royal Mint, E.

80 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883. {Robertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.

1859. {Robertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.

1884, tRobertson, FE. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

1883. {Robertson, George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

1883. {Robertson, Mrs. George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

1897.§§Robertson, Sir George S., K.C.S.I. Care of Messrs. Wm. Watson
& Co., 7 Waterloo-place, S.W.

1897.§§Robertson, Professor J. W. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa,

anada.

1892, {Robertson, W. W. 3 Parliament-square, ldinburgh.

1888. *Robins, Edward Cookworthy, F.S.A. 8 Marlborough-road, St.
John’s Wood, N.W.

1886, *Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham.

1898. §Robinson, Charles E., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Lodge, Torquay.

1861. {Robinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne. i

1897.§§Robinson, Haynes. St. Giles’s Plain, Norwich.

1887. §Robinson, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 18 Victoria-street, S.W.

1888. {Robinson, John. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal.

1863. tRobinson, J. H. 6 Montallo-terrace, Barnard Castle.

1878. {Robinson, John L. 198\ Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.

1895. *Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1876. tRobinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.

1887. §Robinson, Richard. Belltield Mill, Rochdale.

1881. {Robinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, 8.W.

1875. *Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Beechwood, Darlington.

1884. {Robinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.

1863. {Robinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.

1891. {Robinson, William, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, Nottingham.

1888. tRobottom, Arthur. 3 St. Alban’s-villas, Highgate-road, N.W.

1870. *Robson, E.R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S. W.

1872. *Robson, William. 5 Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edinburgh.

1890. {Rochester, The Right Rev. E. 8. Talbot, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Kennington Park, S.E.

1896. §Rock, W. H. 73 Park-road East, Birkenhead.

1896. t{Rodger, Alexander M. The Museum, Tay Street, Perth.

1885. *Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.

1885. *Rodriguez, Epifanio. New Adelphi Chambers, Adelphi, W.C.

1866. {Roe, Sir Thomas. Grove-villas, Litchurch.

1898, §RocERs, Bertram, M.D. 11 York-place, Clifton, Bristol.

1867. tRogers, James 8S. Rosemill, by Dundee.

1890. *Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Yorkshire College,
Leeds. 13 Beech Grove-terrace, Leeds.

1883. tRogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.

1882. §Rogers, Rev. Saltren, M.A. Tresleigh, St. Austell, Cornwall.

1884, *Rogers, Walter M. Lamorva, Falmouth.

1889. t{Rogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham.

1897.§§Rogerson, John. Barrie, Ontario, Canada. .

1876, tRoxuit, Sir A. K., M.P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon.
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, Kast Yorkshire,

1892. *Romanes, John. 38 Oswald-road, Edinburgh.

1891. {Ronnfeldt, W. 43 Park-place, Cardiff.

1894. *Rooper, T. Godolphin. 12 Cumberland-place, Southampton.

1869. {Roper, O. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.

1881. *Roper, W.O. Bank-buildings, Lancaster.

1855. *Roscor, Sir Henry Enrietp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S,
10 Bramham-gardens, 8S. W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 81

Year of
Election.

1883. *Rose, J. Holland, M.A. 11 Endlesham-road, Balham, S.W.

1894, *Rose, T. K., D.Sc. 9 Royal Mint, E.

1885. {Ross, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.

1897.§§Ross, Hon. Alexander M. 3 Walmer-road, Toronto, Canada.

1887. {Ross, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.

1880. {Ross, Captain G. E. A., F.G.S. 8 Collingham-gardens, Cromwell-
road, S. W.

1897.§§Ross, Hon. G.W., Minister of Education for the Province of Ontario.
Toronto, Canada.

1859. *Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.

1869. *Rossz, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.RS., F.RAS., MRA. Birr Castle, Parsonstown,
Treland.

1891. §Roth, H. Ling. 32 Prescot-street, Halifax, Yorkshire.

1893. tRothera, G. B. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

1865. *Rothera, George Bell, F.L.S. Orston House, Sherwood Rise,
Nottingham.

1876. tRottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.

1884, *Rouse, M. L. 54 Westbourne-villas, West Brighton.

1861. {Rourn, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.G.S. St,
Peter’s College, Cambridge.

1861. {Rowan, David. LElliot-street, Glasgow.

1883. {Rowan, Frederick John. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1881. {Rowe, Rev. G. Lord Mayor's Walk, York.

1865. {Rowe, Rey. John. 13 Hampton-road, Forest Gate, Essex.

1877. {Rown, J. Brooxine, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Ply-
mouth.

1890. tRowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.

1881. *Rowntree, Joun 8S. Mount Villas, York.

1881. *Rowntree, Joseph. 38 St. Mary’s, York.

1876. {Roxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.

1885. {Roy, John. 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.

1875, *Ruckmr, A. W., M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, London. 19 Gledhow-gardens,
South Kensington, 8. W.

1892. §Riicker, Mrs. Levetleigh, Dane-road, St. Leonards-on-Sea.

1869. §Rupier, fF. W., F.G.S. The Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W.

1882. {Rumball, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Union-court Chambers, Old
Broad-street, E.C.

1896. {Rundell. T. W. 25 Castle-street, Liverpocl.

1887.§§Ruscoe, John. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Manchester.

1847. {Rusxrn, Jonny, M.A., D.C.L., F.G.S. Brantwood, Coniston, Amble-
side.

1889. {Russell, The Right Hon. Earl. Amberley Cottage, Maidenhead.

1875. *Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Dunrozel, Haslemere,

1884, Russell, George. 13 Ohurch-road, Upper Norwood, S.E.

Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

1890. Russell, J. A., M.B. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Edinburgh.

1883. *Russell, J. W. 16 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

1852. *Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Hanover-square, W.

1876. {Russell, Robert, .G.8. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.

1886. {Russell, Thomas H, 3 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

1852. *Russett, Witt1aM J., Ph.D., F-R.S., F.C.S. 34 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, N.W.

1886. {Rust, Arthur. Jiversleigh, Leicester.

1897.§§Rutherford, A. Toronto, Canada.

1891. §Rutherford, George. Dulwich House, Pencisely-road, Cardiff.

1898. F

82

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1871.

1887.

1879.
1875.
1889.

§RurHERFoRD, WitttAM, M.D., I.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physi-
ology in the University of Edinburgh.

tRutherford, William. 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-
chester.

tRuxton, Vice-Admiral Fitzherbert,R.N. 41 Cromwell-gardens,S.W.

{Ryalls, Charles Wagner, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, £.C.

tRyder, W. J.H. 52 Jesmond-road, Newcdstle-upon-Tyne.

1897.§§Ryerson, G.S., M.D. Toronto, Canada,
1898. §Ryland, C. J. Southerndon House, Clifton, Bristol,

1865.
1861.

1883.
1871,
1885.
1886.
1898.

1881.
1857.

1885.
1878.
1887.
1861.
1894.

1878.
1883.
1883.

1893.

1872.

1883.
1896.

1896.
1892.
1886.

1896.

1896.
1886.
1886.
1868.
1886.
1881.
1885.
1846.

1884,
1891.
1884.

tRyland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.
*Rytanps, THomAs GuazeBRooK, F.L.S., F.G.8. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington,

tSadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.

tSadler, Samuel Champernowne. 186 Alderszate-street, E.C.

{Saint, W. Johnston. 11 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

§St. Clair, George, F.G.S. 225 Castle-road, Cardiff.

ySauispury, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S.
20 Arlington Street, 8. W.

fSalkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.

fSatmon, Rev. Grorer, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin.

tSalmond, Robert G. Kingswood-road, Upper Norwood, S.L.

*Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

{Samson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.

*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.

tSamvetson, The Right Hon. Sir Beryuwarp, Bart., F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E. 56 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

tSanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.

*Sanders, Charles J. B. Pennsylvania, Exeter.

tSanderson, Deputy Surgeon-General Alfred. East India United.
Service Club, St. James’s-square, S.W.

tSanderson, F. W., M.A. The School, Oundle.

§SanpeErson, J. S. Burpon, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., :
F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of Medicine in the University of
Oxford. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

tSanderson, Mrs. Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.

§Saner, John Arthur, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Highfield, Northwich.

{Saner, Mrs. Highfield, Northwich.

§Sang, William D. Tylehurst, Kirkcaldy, Fife.

§Sankey, Percy E. Down Lodge, Fairlight, Hastings.

*Sargant, Miss Ethel. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

{Sargant, W. L. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

tSauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A.

tSaundby, Robert, M.D. 83a Edmund-street, Birmingham.

{Saunders, A., M.Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn.

tSaunders, C. T. Temple-row, Birmingham.

{Saunpers, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S._ 7 Radnor-place, W-

tSaunders, Rey. J.C. Cambridge.

{SaunpERs, TRELAWNEY W., F.R.G.S. 3 Elmfield on the Knowles,
Newton Abbot, Devon.

{Saunders, Dr. William. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada,

{Saunders, W. H.R. Lianishen, Cardiff.

{Saunderson, C, E. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 88

Year of
Election.

1887. §Savage, Rev. Canon E. B., M.A., F.S.A. St. Thomas’ Vicarage,

1871.
1883.
1885.
1887.

1884.
1883.
1884.
1879.

1888.
1880,

1892.
1842.
1887.
1883.
1885.

1873.
1847.

1883.

1867.
1881.

1882.
1878.

1881.
1889,

1885.
1897.
1857.

1884,
1869,
1895.
1881.
1883.
1895.

Douglas, Isle of Man.

{Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton,

{Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.

tSavery, G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.

§Sarce, Rey. A. H., M.A., D.D., Professor of Assyriology in the
University of Oxford. Queen’s College, Oxford.

{Sayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

*Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire.

tScarth, William Bain. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

*ScuArer, E. A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Professor of Physiology
in University College, London. (GrNERAL SECRETARY.)
Croxley Green, Rickmansworth.

*ScHarrr, Ropert F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.

*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)

tSchloss, David F. 1 Knaresbhorough-place, 8.W.

Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
tSchofield, T. Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester.
tSchofield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.

§Scholes, L. Lyme House, Marsland-road, Brooklands, Cheshire.

Scuunck, Epwarp, Ph.D., F.K.S., F.C.S. Qaklands, Kersal Moor,

Manchester.

*Scuusrer, ArrHuUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Physics
in the Owens College, Manchester.

*Scrtater, Pure Lourtey, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., Sec.Z.8. 3 Hanover-square, W.

a W. Lourrey, M.A., F.Z.8. South African Museum, Cape

own.

tScorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.

*Scorr, ALEXANDER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Royal Institution, Albe-
marle-street, W.

tScott, Colonel A.deU., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.

*Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter.

§Scott, Miss Charlotte Angas, D.Sc. Lancashire College, Whalley
Range, Manchester.

*Scorr, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. The Old Palace, Rich-
mond, Surrey.

tScott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.

§Scott, James. 173 Jameson-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

*Scorr, Robert H., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.Met.S., Secretary to the
Council of the Meteorological Office. 6 Elm Park-cardens,
S.W.

*Scott, Sydney C. 28 The Avenue, Gipsy Hill, S.E.

tScott, William Bower, Chudleigh, Devon.

§Scott-Elliot, G. F., M.A., B.Se., F.L.S. Newton, Dumfries.

*Scrivener, A. P. Haglis House, Wendover.

tScrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.

§Scull, Miss KE. M. L. 2° Langland-gardens, Finchley-road, N.W.

1890.§§Searle, G. F. C., M.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge.

1859,
1880.
1861.

tSeaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.
{Sepewrcx, ApaM, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
*SeeLry, Harry Govirr, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Geology in King’s College, London. 25 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, W.
F2

84 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1891. {Selby, Arthur L.,M.A., Assistant Professor of Physics in University
College, Cardiff.

1898. {Srrpy-Bieen, L. A., M.A. University College, Oxford.

1855. {Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.

1879. {Selim, Adolphus, 21 Mincing-lane, E.C.

1897.§§Selous, F. C., F.R.G.S. Alpine Lodge, Worplesden, Surrey.

1884. {Srtwyn, A. R. C.,C.M.G., F.R.S. Ottawa, Canada.

1885. {Semple, Dr. A. United Service Club, Edinburgh.

1887. §Semple, James C., F.R.G.S., M.R.I.A. 2 Marine-terrace, Kings-
town, Co. Dublin.

1892. tSemple, William. Gordon's College, Aberdeen.

1888, *SenreR, ALFRED, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway.

1888. *Sennett, Alfred R., A.M.Inst.C.E. The Chalet, Portinscale-
road, Putney, S. W.

1870. *Sephton, Rev. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

1892. {Seton, Miss Jane. 37 Candlemaker-row, Edinburgh.

1895. *Seton-Karr, H. W. Spencer House, Wimbledon, Surrey.

1892. §Srwarp, A.C., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. Westfield, Huntingdon-road,
Cambridge.

1891. {Seward, Edwin. 55 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1868. {Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.

1891. {Shackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1888. {Shackles, Charles F. Hornsea, near Hull.

1883. {Shadwell, John Lancelot. 380 St. Charles-square, Ladbroke Grove-
road, W.

1871. *Shand, James. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, S.W.

1867. {Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.

1881. {Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.

1869. *Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. 1 Barnfield-crescent, Exeter.

1878. {Suarp, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge. ;

1896, {Sharp, Mrs. E. 65 Sankey-street, Warrington.

Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.

1886. {Sharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.

1883. {Sharples, Charles H. 7 Fishergate, Preston.

1870. {Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.

1896. {Shaw, Frank. Ellerslie, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

1865. {Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.

1870. {Shaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.

1891. {Shaw, Joseph. 1 Temple-gardens, E.C.

1889. *Shaw, Mrs. M.8., B.Sc. Halberton, near Tiverton, Devon.

1837.§§Shaw, Saville, F.C.S. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1883. *Saaw, W.N., M.A., F.R.S. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.

1883. {Shaw, Mrs. W. N. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.

1891. tSheen, Dr. Alfred. 23 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1878. {Shelford, William, M.Inst.C.K. 35a.Great George-street, West-
minster, S. W.

1865. {Shenstone, Frederick S. Sutton Hall, Bircombe, Lewes.

1881. {SHenstonn, W. A., F.R.S. Clifton College, Bristol.

1885. {Shepherd, Rev. Alexander. Ecclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.

1890. tShepherd, J. Care of J. Redmayne, Esq., Grove House, Heading-
ley, Leeds.

1883. {Shepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.

1883. {Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

1882. tSherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

188%. {Sherlock, Rev. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, wd Lancaster.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 85

Year of
Election.

1896.§§SHERRINGTON, C. S., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
versity College, Liverpool. 16 Grove-park, Liverpool.

1888. *Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A. Langridge Rectory, Bath.

1886. {Shield, Arthur H. 35a Great George-street, S.W.

1892. {Shields, John, D.Sc., Ph.D. Dolphingston, Tranent, Scotland.

1883, *Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, E.C.

1867, {Shinn, William C. 39 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, Surrey,
S.W

.1887. *Surprey, ArtHur E., M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
1889. {Shipley, J. A. D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead. ,
1885. {Shirras,G. F. 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
1883. {Shone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham,
1870. *SHoorprep, J. N., M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, 8. W.
1888. {Shoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, W.C.
1897.§§Shore, Dr. Lewis E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1875. {SHorr, THomas W., F.G.S. Hartley Institution, Southampton.
1882. {SHorn, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, E.C.
1897.§§Shortt, Professor Adam,i M.A. Queen’s University, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada.
1889. {Sibley, Walter K., B.A., M.B. 7 Upper Brook-street, W.
1883. {Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes. Flook House, Taunton.
1883. *Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1883. *Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Parkfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.
1877. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson, M.P. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1885, *Srpewick, Henry, M.A., Litt.D., D.C.L., Professor of Moral Philo-
sophy in the University of Cambridge. Hillside, Chesterton-
road, Cambridge.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1873. *Siemens, Alexander. 7 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, W.
1878. {SteuRson, Professor Groren, M.D., F.L.S., MRA. 3 Clare-
street, Dublin.
1859. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.
1871. {Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.
1898. §Simmons, Henry. Kingsland House, Whiteladies-road, Clifton,
Bristol.
1862. {Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, E.C.
1874. {Simms, William. Upper Queen-street, Belfust.
1876. {Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, W.
1887. *Simon, Henry. Lawnhurst, Didsbury, near Manchester.

1893. {Simpson, A. H., F.R.Met.Soc. Attenborough, Nottinghamshire.
1871. *Smpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

1883. {Simpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
_ 1887. {Simpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.

1859. {Simpson, John. Maylirk, Kincardineshire.

1863. {Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.

1857. {Smrpson, MaxweE tt, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 9 Barton-street,

West Kensington, W. ,

1894. §Simpson, Thomas, F.R.G.S. Fennymere, Castle Bar, Ealing, W.
1883. {Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1896. *Simpson, W., F.G.S. The Gables, Halifax.

1887. {Sinclair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester,

1874. {Sinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.

1870. *Sinclair, W. P. Rivelyn, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

1897. ‘sane J aie Bank of England-chambers, 12 Broad-street,

ristol.

86 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1864, *Sircar, The Hon. Mahendra Lal, M.D., O.I.E. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta.
1892, {Sisley, Richard, M.D. 11 York-street, Portman-square, W.
1879. {Skertchly, Sydney B. J. 3 Loughborough-terrace, Carshalton,
Surrey.
1883. {Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.
1885. {Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.
1898. §Skinner, Sidney. Cromwell House, Trumpington, Cambridgeshire.
1892. {Skinner, William. 35 George-square, Edinburgh.
1888. §Sxrinz, H. D., J.P., D.L. Claverton Manor, Bath.
1870. §S~aDEN, WALTER Percy, F.G.S., F.L.S. 13 Hyde Park-gate, S.W. ;
and Northbrook Park, near Exeter.
1889. §Slater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire.
1884, {Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
1877. {Sleeman, Rev. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S. 65 Pembroke-road, Clifton,
Bristol.
1891. §Slocombe, James. Redland House, Fitzalan, Cardiff.
1884. {Slooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada,
1849. {Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes.
1887. §Small, Evan W., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. County Council Offices, New-
port, Monmouthshire.
1887. §Small, William. Lincoln-circus, The Park, Nottingham.
1885. {Smart, James. Valley Works, Brechin, N.B.
1889. *Smart, William, LL.D. Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1898. §Smeeth, W. F., M.A., F.G.S._ Mysore, India.
1876. {Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
1877. {Smelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.
1890, {Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.
1876. {Smieton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1867. {Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1892. {Surrn, Apam Guiriiss, F.R.S.E. 385 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edin-
burgh.
1892. {Smith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A.
1897.§§Smith, Andrew, Principal of the Veterinary College, Toronto,
Canada,
1872. *Smitu, Basti Woopp, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, N. W.
1874. *Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, S.W.
1887. {Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
1873. {Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.
1887. *Smith, Charles. 739 Rochdale-road, Manchester.
1889, *Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The Ob-
servatory, Madras.
1865, {Smrra, Davin, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
1886. {Smith, Edwin, 83 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1886, *Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.
1886, {Smith, E. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.
1886, {Smith, E.O. Council House, Birmingham.
1892. tSmith, E, Wythe. 66 College-street, Chelsea, S.W.
1866, *Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.
1897.§§Smith, Sir Frank. Toronto, Canada.
1885. {Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 21 Sardinia-terrace, Glasgow.
1897. §Smith, G. Elliot, M.D. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1860. *Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 87

Year of
Election.

1870.
1889.
1888.
1885.
1876.

1883.
1837.

1885.
1870.

1873.
1867.
1867.

1859.

1894.
1884.
1892.
1885.
1896.
1852.
1875.
1876.
1883.

1885.
1883.
1892.

- 1882.
1874.
1850.
1883.
1857.

1888.
1888.

{Smith, H. L. Crabwal! Hall, Cheshire.

*Smith, H. Llewellyn, B.A., B.Sc., F.S.8. 49 Beaumont-square, E

{Smith, H. W. Owens College, Manchester.

{Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.

*Smith, J. Guthrie. 5 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, tron Bridge,

Shropshire.

{Smith, M. Holroyd. Royal Insurance Buildings, Crossley-street,
Halifax.

Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.

tSuirw, Robert H., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 52 Victoria-street, S.W.

{Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool. :

{Smith, Sir Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Smith, Thomas. Dundee.

{Smith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.

TSmith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, East York-
shire.

§Smith, T. Walrond. 52 Victoria-street, Westminster, S. W.

tSmith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada.

TSmith, Walter A. 120 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

*Smith, Watson. University College, W.C.

*Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. 31 Esplanade-gardens, Scarborough,

{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.

*Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton Down, Bristol.

{Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{SMITHELLS, ARTHUR, B.Sc., Professor of “Chemistry i in the York-
shire College, Leeds.

tSmithson, Edward Walter. 13 Lendal, York.

{Smithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York.

§Smithson, G. E. T. Tyneside Geographical Society, Barras Bridge,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tSmithson, T. Spencer. "Facit, Rochdale.

tSmoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.

*SmyTH, CHARLES Prazzi, F.RS.E., F.R.A.S. Clova, Ripon.

Smyth, Rey. Christopher. Firwood, Chalford, Stroud.

*Suyra, Jonny, M.A., F.C.S., FR. MS. ., M.Inst.C.E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.

*Snape, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, ‘Aberystwith.

{Snell, Albion I’. Brightside, Salusbury-road, Brondesbury, N. W.

1878.§§Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, W.O.
1

889.
1898.
1879.

1892.
1859.
1879.
1892.
1888.
1886.

1865,
1898.
1887.
1885.

tSnell, W. H. Lamorna, Oxford-road, Putney, S.W.

§Snook, Miss L. B. V. 13 Clare-road, Cotham, Bristol.

*Souttas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.RS., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Profesear
of Geology i in the University of Oxford.

*Someryail, Alexander. Torquay.

*Sorsy, H. Cuirron, LL.D. JERS. , F.G.8. Broomfield, Sheffield.

*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

tSorley, James, FP R.S.E. 18 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh,

{Sorley, Professor W. R. University College, Cardiff.

age Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birming-
am.

*Southall, John Tertius. Parlkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.

§Southby, Rev. R. W., M.A. 4 Royal- -park, Clifton, Bristol.

§Sowerbutts, Eli, F.R.G.S. 16 St. Mz ary’s Parsonage, Manchester.

{Spanton, W illiam Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,
Staffordshire.

88 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1890. {Spark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds.

1863. *Spark, H. King, F.G.S. Startforth House, Barnard Castle.

1893. *Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.

1887. {Spencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.

1884.§§Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.

1889. *Spencer, John. Newbiggin House, Kenton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1891. *Spencer, Richard Evans. 6 Working-street, Cardiff.

1863, *Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co.
Durham.

1864, *Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, High-

ury, N.

1894, {Spiers, A. H. Newton College, South Devon.

1864. *Spriter, Jonny, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.

1878. §Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 38 Cadogan-square, S.W.

1864, *Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 107 Sloane-street, S.W.

1854. *Spracur, THomas Bonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E, 29 Buckingham-
terrace, Edinburgh.

1883. {Spratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, 8.E.

1888. {Spreat, John Henry. Care of Messrs. Vines & Froom, 75 Alders-
gate-street, E.C.

1884, *Spruce, Samuel, F.G.S. Beech House, Tamworth.

1897.§§Squire, W. Stevens, M.D. Charendon House, St. John’s Wood
Park, N.W.

1888. *Stacy, J. Sargeant. 15 Wolseley-road, Crouch End, N.

1897.§§Stafford, Joseph. Morrisburg, Outario, Canada.

1884. {Stancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

1892. {Stanfield, Richard, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., Professor of En-
gineering, in the Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh. 49 May-
field-road, Edinburgh.

1883. *Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. Thornbury, Bromley, Kent.

1865. {Sranrorp, Epwarp C.C., F.C.S. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.

1881. *Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood, 8,E.

1883. {Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, 8.E.

1894, *STANSFIBLD, ALFRED, D.Sc. Royal Mint, E.

1893. {Staples, Sir Nathaniel, Bart. Lisson, Cookstown, Ireland.

Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.

1876. {Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. 32 Craven-street, Strand, W.C.

1898. §Stather, J. W. 16 Louis-street, Hull.

Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.

1894. {Stavert, Rev. W. J.. M.A. Burnsall Rectory, Skipton-in-Craven,
Yorkshire.

1878. *Stead, Charles. Red Barns, Freshfield, Liverpool.

1881. {Stead, W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, E.

1881. {Stead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, E.

1884, {Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada.

1892. *Sressine, Rey. Toomas R. R., M.A., F-R.S, Ephraim Lodge, The
Common, Tunbridge Wells.

1896. *Stebbing, W. P. D., F.G.S. 169 Gloucester-terrace, W.

1891. tSteeds, A. P. 15 St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.

1873, {Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1887. {Steinthal, Rey. S. Alfred. 81 Nelson-street, Manchester.

1887. [Stelfox, John L. 6 Hilton-street, Oldham, Manchester.

1884, {Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, {Stephen, Mrs, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, *Stephens, W. Hudson. Low-Ville, Lewis County, New York, U.S.A.

1879, *SrepHEnson, Sir Henry, J.P. The Glen, Sheffield.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 8&9

Election.

1880.
1886.
1892.

1863.
1890,

1885.
1887.
1864.

1892.
1885.
1886.
1875,

1892.
1876.
1867.
1876.

1867.
1865.
1890.
1883.

1898.
1898.
1845.

1887.
1888.
. 1886.
1886.
1874.

1876.

1883.
1857.

1895.
1878.

1861,
1876,

1883.
1887.

*Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, near Swansea.
{Stevens, Marshall. Highfield House, Urmston, near Manchester.
{Stevenson, D. A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 84 George-street,
Edinburgh.
*Srevenson, JAMES C. Westoe, South Shields,
*Steward, Rey. Charles J., F.R.M.S. The Cedars, Anglesea-road,
Ipswich.
*Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Heathcot, Aberdeen.
*Stewart, A, H. St. I'homas’s Hospital, London, S.£.
tSrewart, Cuartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Hunterian Professor and
Conservator of the Museum, Royal College of Surgeons,
Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C,
{Stewart, C. Hunter. 3 Carlton-terrace, Edinburgh.
Stewart, David. Banchory House, Aberdeen.
*Stewart, Duncan. 14 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow. ;
*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near
Clifton, Gloucestershire.
{Stewart, Samuel. Knocknairn, Bagston, Greenock.
{Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.
tSrretine, WitL1AM, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Owens College, Manchester.
*Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Stock, Joseph S. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.
{Stockdale, R. The Grammar School, Leeds.
*Stocker, W. N., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal Indian
Engineering College. Cooper’s Hill, Staines.
§Stoddart, I’, Wallis, F.1.C. Grafton Lodge, Sneyd Park, Bristol.
*Stokes, Professor G. J., M.A. Riversdale, Sunday’s Well, Cork.
*Sroxes, Sir GrorcE GABRIEL, Bart., M.A., D.O.L., LL.D., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.
{Stone, EZ. D., F.C.S 19 Lever-street, Piccadilly, Manchester.
{Stonz, Joun. 15 Royal-crescent, Bath.
{Stone, Sir J. Benjamin, M.P. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham.
TStone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
{Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 3 Dr. Johnson’s-buildings,
Temple, H.C.
Rt aoe C., F.R.G.S. 49 Bolsover-street, Regent's Park,

{Stone, Thomas William. 189 Goldhawk-road, Shepherd's Bush, W.
{Sronry, Brypon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.1I.A., Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.

*Stoney, Miss Edith A. 8 Upper Hornsey Rise, N.

*Stoney, G. Gerald. 7 Roxburgh-place, Heaton, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

*StonEy, GuorcE Jounstonr, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.R.IL.A. 8&
Upper Hornsey Rise, N.

§Stopes, Henry. Mansion House, Swanscombe, Greenhithe, Kent.
tStopes, Mrs. Mansion House, Swanscombe, Greenhithe, Kent.
*Storey, H. L. Lancaster.

1884.§§Storrs, George H. Gorse Hall, Stalybridge.

1888.
1874,
1871.

*Stothert, Percy K. 3 Park-lane, Bath.

{Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.

*Srracuey, Lieut.-General Sir Ricwarp, R.E., G.C.S.I., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.LS., F.G.8, 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde
Park, W.

90

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1881.

1876,
1863.
1889.
1882.
1898.

1881.

1889.
1879.
1884,
1888.
1898.
1887.

1887.
1876.

1878.
1876.
1872.

1892.
1884.
1893.
1896.
1888.

1885.

{Strahan, Aubrey, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, S.W.

{Strain, John. 143 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

TStraker, John. Wellington House, Durham.

tStraker, Captain Joseph. Dilston House, Riding Mili-on-Tyne.

{Strange, Rev. Cresswell, M.A. Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham.

§Strangeways, C. Fox. Leicester.

{Strangways, C. Fox, F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,S.W.

{Streatfeild, H.5., F.GS. Ryhope, near Sunderland.

tStrickland, Sir Charles W., Bart., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.

{Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.

§Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.

*Strong, W. M. Helstonleigh, Champion Park, Denmark Hill, 8.H.

*Stroud, Professor H., M.A., D.Sc. College of Science, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

*Srrovup, Wixt1aM, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire Col-
lege, Leeds.

*Srruruers, Sir Jonn, M.D., LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Anatomy
3 ai University of Aberdeen. 24 Buckingham-terrace, Edin-

urg:

{Strype, W.G. Wicklow.

*Stuart, Charles Maddock. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E.

*Stuart, Rev. Edward A.,M.A. St. Matthew, Bayswater, 5 Prince’s-
square, W.

{Stuart, Morton Gray, M.A. Lttrickbank, Selkirk.

{Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

{Stubbs, Arthur G. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

{Stubbs, Miss. Torrisholme, Aigburth-drive, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Stubbs, Rey. E. Thackeray, M.A. Grove Lea, Lansdowne-grove,
Bath. ;

{Stump, EdwardC. 16 Herbert-street, Moss Side, Manchester.

1897.§§Stupart, R. F. The Observatory, Toronto, Canada.

1879.
1891,
1898.
1884,
1887.
1888.
1883.
1873.
1863.
1886.
1892.

1884

1863.
1889.
1898.
1891.

1881.
1881.
1897.
1879.
1883.
1887.
1870.

*Styring, Robert. 64 Crescent-road, Sheffield.

*Sudborough, J. J., Ph.D., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.

§Sully, T. N. 12 Downleaze, Sneyd Park, Bristol.

tSumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.

tSumpner, W. E. 37 Pennyfields, Poplar, E.

TSunderland, John EK. Bark House, Hatherlow, Stockport.

{Sutcliffe, J. 8., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.

tSutclifte, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.

tSutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tSutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

{Sutherland, James B. 10 Windsor-street, Edinburgh.

{Sutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.

tSurron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.

{Sutton, William. Hsbank, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Sutton, William, M.D. 6 Camden-crescent, Dover.

{Swainson, George, F.L.S. North Drive, St. Anne’s-on-Sea, Lan-
cashire.

t{Swales, William. Ashville, Holeate Hill, York.

§Sway, JosppH Witson, M.A., F.R.S. 58 Holland-park, W.

§Swanston, William, F.G.S. Queen-street, Belfast.

{Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.

Sweeting, Rev. T. BE. 50 Roe-lane, Southport.

§Swinaurne, James, M.Inst.C.E. 66 Victoria-street, S.W.

ppiagit sone Sir John, Bart. Capheaton Hall, Newcastle-upon-

'yne.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 91

Yoar of
Election.

1887. aed Rupert, F.R.G.S. Wilton Villa, The Firs, Bowdon, '
Cheshire.

1890.§§SwiyHoE, Colonel C., F.L.S. Avenue House, Oxford.

1891. {Swinnerton, R. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Bolarum, Dekkan, India.

1889. §Sworn, Sidney A., B.A., F.C.S. The Municipal Technical School,
Gravesend.

1873. {Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.

1896. {Sykes, E. R. 38 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.

1887. *Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, Elmbourne-
road, Tooting Common, S.W.

1896. *Sykes, Mark L., F.R.M.S. 19 Manor-street, Ardwick, Manchester.

1887. *Sykes, T. H. Cringle House, Cheadle, Cheshire.

1893. {Symes, Rev. J. E., M.A. 70 Redcliffe-crescent, Nottingham.

1870, {Symus, Ricuarp Guascort, M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of
Scotland. Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

1885. {Symington, Johnson, M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.

1881. *Symington, Thomas. Wardie House, Edinburgh.

1859. §Symons, G. J., F.R.S., Sec.R.Met.Soc. 62 Camden-square, N.W.

1855. *Symons, Wittram. Dragon House, Bilbrook, near Taunton.

1886. eeeoney Ww H., M.D. (Brux.), MRCP, F.L.C. Guildhall,

' Bath.

1896.§§Tabor, J. M. 20 Petherton-road, Canonbury, N.
1898. §Tagart, Francis. 199 Queen’s-gate, S.W.
1865. {Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, Forfar-
shire.
1877. *Tart, Lawson, F.R.C.S._ 195 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
1871, {Tarr, Perer Gururie, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.
1867. {Tait, P. M., F.S.S. 6 Rossetti-mansions, Cheyne-walk, S.W.
1894, {Takakusu, Jyun, B.A. 17 Worcester-terrace, Oxford.
1893. {Talbot, Herbert, M.ILE.E. 19 Addison-villas, Addison-street, Not-
tingham.
1891. {Tamblyn, James. Glan Llynvi, Maesteg, Bridgend.
1890. {Tannur, H. W. Luoyp, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Astro-
nomy in University College, Cardiff.
1897.§§Tanner, Professor J. H. Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.
1892. *Tansley, Arthur G. 167 Adelaide-road, N.W.
1883. *Tapscott, R. Lethbridge, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., I°.G.S., F.R.A.S.
62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.
1878. {Tarpry, Hvuen. Dublin.
1861. *Tarratt, Henry W. 190 Old Christchurch-road, Bournemouth.
1857. *Tate, Alexander. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.
1893. {Tate, George, Ph.D. College of Chemistry, Duke-street, Liverpool.
1858. *Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds.
1884. *Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge.
1887. §Taylor,G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.
1898. §Taylor, Lieut.-Colonel G. L, Le M. 6 College-lawn, Cheltenham,
1874. {Taylor,G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.
1887. {Taylor, George Spratt. 13 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s Wood, N.W.
1881. *Taylor, H. A. 69 Addison-road, Kensington, W.
1884, *Taynor, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1882. *Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.
1887. {Taytor, Rey. Canon Isaac, D.D. Settrington Rectory, York.
1861. *Laylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. The Old Palace, Richmond,
Surrey.

92

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.
of

Election.

1881

1865.
1876.
1884.
1881.
1883.
1870.
1887.

1894

1882,
1896.

1892.
1883.
1883.
1882.

1885.
1871.
1871.

. *Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.

tTaylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.

tTaylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow.

*Taylor, Miss S, Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham,

tTaylor, Rev. 8. B., M.A. Whixley Hall, York.

tTaylor, S. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport,

tTaylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon,

tTaylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.

. TTaylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.

. {Taylor, W. A., M.A., F.R.S.E, Royal Scottish Geographical
Society, Edinburgh.

. {Taylor, W. F. Bhootan, Whitehorse-road, Croydon, Surrey.

. *Taylor, W. W. 10 King-street, Oxford.

. tTaylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell.

. {Tnarz, Tuomas Prinein, M.A., F.R.S. 388 Cookridge-street,
Leeds.

. {Tratt, J. J. H., M.A., F.RS., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

. §Tebb, Robert Palmer. Enderfield, Chislehurst, Kent.

. Temple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near Worcester.

. {Tempxy, The Right Hon. Sir Ricwarp, Bart., G.C.S.1, C.LE.,
D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club, 8.W.

. {Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

. {Tennant, James. Saltwell, Gateshead.

.§§Terras, J. A.. B.Sc. Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.

tTerrill, William. 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea.

*Terry, Rey. T. R., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Rectory, East Ilsley, New-
bury, Berkshire.

*Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.

tTetley, C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

tTetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds,

*Thane, George Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Gower-street, W.C.

tThin, Dr. George. 22 Queen Anne-street, W.

tThin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.

{TuiseLton-Dyer, W. T., C.M.G.,0.LE., M.A., B.Se., Ph.D,, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.L.8. Royal Gardens, Kew.

1870. {Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.

1891. {Thomas, Alfred, M.P. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff.

1871. {Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.

1891. {Thomas, A. Garrod, M.D.,; J.P. Clytha Park, Newport, Mon-
mouthshire.

1891. *Thomas, Miss Clara. Llwynmadoc, Garth, R.S.O,

1891. ¢{Thomas, Edward. 282 Bute-street, Cardiff.

1891

1884.
1869.
1875.
1881.
1869.
1880.

1898,
1883.
1883.
1886,
1886,
1875.

.§§Thomas, E. Franklin. Dan-y-Bryn, Radyr, near Cardiff.

{THomas, F. Worrerstan. Molson’s Bank, Montreal, Canada.

tThomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.

tThomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol.

{THomas, J. Bhount. Southampton.

tThomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. 86 Breakspear’s-road, Brockley, 8.E.

*Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. 2 Hampstead Hill-mansions,
N.W.

§Thomas, Rey. W. Bristol School Board, Guildhall, Bristol.
tThomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff.

{Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.

Thomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.
t{Thomason, Yeoville. 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, W.
thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 98

Year of
Election.

1891. *Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 55 Victoria-road, Northampton.

1883. {Thompson, Miss C. E. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.

1891. {Thompson, Charles F. Penhill Close, near Cardiff.

1882. {Thompson, Charles O. Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

1888. *Thompson, Claude M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University

ollege, Cardiff.
1885. eens D’Arcy W., B.A., C.B., Professor of Zoology in University
ollege, Dundee. University College, Dundee.

1896. *Thompson, Edward P. Whitchurch, Salop.

1883. *Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Haling Park-road, Croydon.

1891. ¢{Thompson, G. Carslake. Park-road, Penarth.

1893. *Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E., Madras, Care of Messrs. Grindlay
& Co., Parliament-street, S.W.

1870. t{Tnompson, Sir Henry. 35 Wimpole-street, W.

1883. *Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 86 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon.

1891. {Thompson, Herbert M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff.

1891. {Thompson, H. Wolcott. 9 Park-place, Cardiff.

1883. *THompson, Isaac Cooxn, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. 53 Croxteth-road,
Liverpool.

1897.§§Thompson, J. Barclay. 37 St. Giles’s, Oxford.

1891. {Thompson, J. Tatham. 23 Charles-street, Cardiff.

1861. *Tuomrson, JoserH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Manchester.

1876. *Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York.

1883. Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.

1876. {THompson, Srtvanus Puituirs, B.A., D.Sc., F.RS., F.R.ALS.,
Principal and Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of
London Technical College, Finsbury, E.C.

1883. *Thompson, T. H. Redlynet House, Green Walk, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1896. *Inompson, W. H., M.D., Professor of Physiology in Queen's
College, Belfast.

1896. §Thompson, W. P. 6 Lord-street, Liverpool.

1867. {Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.

1894. {Thomson, Arthur, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in the
University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.

1889. *Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1868. §THomson, James, F.G.S. 6 Stewart-street, Shawlands, Glasgow.

1876. tThomson, James R. Mount Blow, Dalmuir, Glasgow.

1891. tThomson, John. 70a Grosvenor-street, W.

1896. tThomson, John. 3 Derwent-square, Stonycroft, Liverpool.

1890, §Thomson, J. Arthur, M.A., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Zoology at the
School of Medicine, Edinburgh. 11 Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

1883. {THomson, J. J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Experimental
Physics in the University of Cambridge. 6 Scrope-terrace,
Cambridge.

1871. *Tnomson, Joun Mrttar, LL.D., F.R.S., Sec.0.S., Professor of
Chemistry in King’s College, London. 85 Addison-road, W.

1874. §THomson, WILLIAM, F.R.S.E.,F.0.S. Royal Institution, Manchester.

1880. §Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.

1897.§§Thorburn, James, M.D. Toronto, Canada.

1871. t{Thornburn, Rev. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.

1887. tThornton, John. 3 Park-street, Bolton.

1867. t{Thornton, Sir Thomas. Dundee.

1898. §Thornton, W.M. Leigh View, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

1883.§§Thorowgood, Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.

1881. tThorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.

1881. *Thorp, Josiah. Undercliffe, Holmfirth.

1898, §Thorp, Thomas. Moss Bank, Whitefield, Manchester.

94

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1864.
1871.

1898.
1888.
1896,

1868,

1889.
1870,

1873.
1874.

1873.
1883.
1883.
1865.
1896.
1876.
1891.

*Toorr, WitiiaM, B.Sc., F.C.S. 22 Sinclair-gardens, West Ken-
sington, W.

{Tuorpe, ’ TE. ,Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Treas.C.8S., Principal
of the Government Laboratories, Clement’s Inn- -passage, W.C.

§Thorpe, William George. 4 Elm-court, Temple, EC.

§Threlfall, Henry Singleton, J.P. 12 Loadoesecat! Southport,

§Thrift, William Edward. 80 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines,
Dublin.

{THourirmer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A., C.S.L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S,
Tudor House, Richmond Green, Surrey.

{Thys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.

{Tichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., MR.LA. Apothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.

*Trppeman, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28
Jermyn-street, S. W.

tTitpen, Wri11am A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington, London.
9 Ladbroke-gardens, W.

¢Tilzhman, B. C. Philadelphia, U.S.A.

{Tillyard, A. I., M.A, Fordfield, Cambridge.

{Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.

tTimmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Hill Cottage, Fillongley, Coventry.

§Timmis, Thomas Sutton. Cleveley, Allerton, Yorkshire.

tTodd, Rey. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, S.E.

tTodd, Richard Rees, Portuguese Consulate, Cardiff.

1897.§§Todhunter, James. 85 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.

1889.
1857.
1896.
1888.
1887.
1865.

1865.
1873.
1887.
1886.
1875.

1886.
1884.
1884,

1873.
1875.
1861.
1877.
1876.

1883.
1870.

1868.

1891.
1884.

§Toll, John M. 49 Newsham-drive, Liverpool.

{Tombe, Rey. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow. ,

tToms, Frederick. 1 Ambleside-avenue, Streatham, 8. W.

{Tomkins, Rev. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

{Tonge, James; F.G.8. Woodbine House, West Houghton, Bolton.

{Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire.

*Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.

*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street,S. W.

{Topham, F. 15 Great George-street, S.W. ~

t{Topley, Mrs. W. 18 Havelock-road, Croydon.

{Torr, Charles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher-
wood, Nottingham.

{Torr, Charles Walker. Cambridge-street Works, Birmingham,

t Torrance, John F. Folly Lake, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Torrance, Rey. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada,

Towgood, Edward. St. Neots, Huntingdonshire.

Townend, W.H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.

t{Townsend, Charles. St. Mary’s, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

t{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.

tTozer, Henry. Ashburton.

*Train, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.R.S,, F.L.S., Regius Professor of
Botany i in the Univer sity of Aberdeen.

{Trait A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.

{TRAILL, Wits A. Giant's Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.

{TRaQvUAIR, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the
Natural History "Collections, Museum of Science and Art,
Edinburgh.

tTrayes, Valentine. Maindell Hall, Newport, Monmouthshire.

{Trechmann, Charles O,, Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 95

Year of

~ Election.

1868. {Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.

1891. {Treharne, J. Ll. 92 Newport-road, Cardiff.

Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.

1887. *Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Parlington, Aberford, Leeds.

1883. {Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks.

1884, {Trenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884.§§Tribe, Paul C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,
U.S.A.

1879. {Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.

1871. {Troen, Ropand, F.BS., F.LS., F.Z.8. 88 Onslow-gardens,
Queen’s Gate, S.W.

1860. §TRIsTRAM, Rev. Henry Baxer, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Canon of
Durham. The College, Durham.

1884, *Trotter, Alexander Pelham, Government Electrician and Inspector.
The Treasury, Cape Town.

1885. §Trorrer, Coutts, F.G.S.,F.R.G.S. 10 Randolph-crescent, Edinburgh.

1891. {Trounce, W. J. 67 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1887. *TRoutTon, Freperick T., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Trinity College, Dublin.

1898. §Trow, Albert Howard. Glanhafren, Penarth.

1896, §Truell, Henry Pomeroy, M.B., F.R.C.S.I. Clonmannon, Ashford,

Co. Wicklow.

1885. *Tubby, A. H., F.R.C.S. 25 Weymouth-street, Portland-place, W.

1847. *Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.

1888. {Tuckett, William Fothergill, M.D. 18 Daniel-street, Bath.

1871. {Tuke, Sir J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.

1887. tTuke, W.C 29 Princess-street, Manchester.

1883. {TuprER, The Hon. Sir Cuartzs, Bart., G.C.M.G.,C.B. 17 Victoria-
street, S. W.

1892. {Turnbull, Alexander R. Ormiston House, Hawick.

1855, {Turnbull, John. 387 West George-street, Glasgow.

1896. { Turner, Alfred. Elmswood Hall, Aigburgh, Liverpool.

1893. §TurNER, Dawson, M.B. 387 George-square, Edinburgh.

1882. {Turner,G.S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.

1883. {Turner, Mrs. G.S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.

1894, *Turnur, H. H., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Sec. R.A.S., Professor of Astro-
nomy in the University of Oxford. The Observatory, Oxford. .

1886. *Turner, THomas, A.R.S.M., F.C.S., F.LC. Ravenhurst, Rowley
Park, Stafford.

1863. *TurnER, Sir Witi1aM, M.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pro-
fessor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-
terrace, Edinburgh.

1893. {Turney, Sir Joun, J.P. Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

1890. *Turpin, G. S., M.A., D.Sc. School House, Swansea.

1884. *Tutin, Thomas. The Orchard, Chellaston, Derby.

1886. *T'wige,G.H. 56 Claremont-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

1898. §Twige, H. W. 65 Victoria-street, Bristol.

1888. §Tyack, Llewelyn Newton. University College, Bristol.

1882. {Tyer, Edward. Horneck, 16 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, Hampstead, N.W,

1865. §Tytor, Epwarp Buryerr, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Anthropology, and Keeper of the University Museum, Oxford.

1883. {Tyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Stirling Chemical Works, Abbey-lane,
Stratford, E ;

1897.§§Tyrrell, J. B., M.A., B.Sc. Ottawa, Canada.

1861. *Tysoe, John. Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester,

- 1884, *Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
1888, {Underhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford,

96

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

of

Election.

1886,
1885.
1883.
1876.

1887.
1872.
1876.
1859.

1866.
1898.
1880.

1885.
1896.
1887.
1888.
1884,

1883.

1886.
1868.

1865.
1870.
1869.
1884,
1895.
1887.
1875.
1883.
1881.
1878.

1883.
1883.
1896.
1896.
1864.
1890.
1868.
1883.

1891.
1886,

1860.
1890.

1888
1890
1896

1891.
1884,

{Underhill, Thomas, M.D. West Bromwich.

§Unwin, Howard. 1 Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

§Unwin, John. Eastcliffe Lodge, Southport.

*Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering at
the Central Institution of the City and Guilds of London In-
stitute. 7 Palace-gate Mansions, Kensington, W.

{Upton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.

{Upward, Alfred. 150 Holland-road, W.

{Ure, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

t{ Urquhart, W. Pollard. Craigston Castle, N.B. ; and Castlepollard,
Treland.

fUrquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

§Usher, Thomas. 3 Elmgyrove-road, Cotham, Bristol.

{Ussuer, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

{Vachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. 38 Charles-street, Cardiff.

{Vacher, Francis. 7 Shrewsbury-road, Birkenhead.

*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.

fVallentin, Rupert. 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.

{Van Horne, Sir W.C., K.C.M.G. Dorchester-street West, Montreal,
Canada.

*Vansittart, The Hon. Mrs. A. A. Haywood House, Oaklands-road,
Bromley, Kent.

tVarpy, Rey.A.R., M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmingham.

{Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, N.

*Varey, S. ALFRED. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, N.W.

tVarley, Mrs. 5. A. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, N.W.

tVarwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.

{Vasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-gardens, W.

§ Vaughan, D. T. Gwynne. Howry Hall, Llandrindod, Radnorshire.

*VauGHAN, His EminenceCardinal. Carlisle-place, Westminster,S. W.

{Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.

{Vaughan, William. 42 Sussex-road, Southport.

§Vetey, V. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. 22 Norham-road, Oxford.

*VeRNEY, Sir Epuunp H., Bart., F.R.G.S. Claydon House, Winslow,
Bucks.

*Verney, Lady. Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks.

{Vernon, H.H.,M.D. Yorlk-road, Birkdale, Southport.

*Vernon, Thomas T, 24 Waterloo-road, Waterloo, Liverpool.

*Vernon, William. Tean Hurst, Tean, Stoke-upon-Trent.

*Vicary, WitttaM, I'.G.8. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.

*Villamil, Lieut.-Colonel Rt. de, R.E. 55 Queensborough-terrace, W.

{Vincent, Rev. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.

*Vines, SypNry Howarp, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.

{Vivian, Stephen. Llantrisant.

*Waclaill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. Leamington Spa.

f{Waddingham, Jolin. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire.

tWadsworth,G.H. 3% Southfield-square, Bradford, Yorkshire.

. {Wadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.

. §WaceEr, Harotp W.T. Bank View, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

. ¢Wailes, Miss Ellen. Woodmead, Groombridge, Sussex.

tWailes, T. W. 25 Richmond-road, Cardiff.

t Wait, Charles E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Ten-
nessee. Knoxyille, Tennessee, U.S.A.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 97

Year of
Election.

1886. {Waite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.
1870. {Waxs, CHARLES StanILAND. Welton, near Brough, East Yorkshire.
1892. {Walcot, John. 50 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1884, {Waldstein, C., M.A., Ph.D. Slade Professor of Fine Art in the
University of Cambridge.
1891, { Wales, H. T. Pontypridd.
1891. {Walford, Edward, M.D. Thanet House, Cathedral-road, Cardiff.
1894, {WatrorD, Epwin A., F.G.S. West Bar, Banbury.
1882, *Walkden, Samuel. Downside, Whitchurch, Tavistock.
1885. { Walker, Mr. Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.
1893. § Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Nant-y-Glyn, Colwyn Bay.
1890. {Walker, A. Tannett. Hunslet, Leeds.
1897. *Watxer, B. E. Canadian Bank of Commerce, Toronto
1883. { Walker, Mrs. Emma. 13 Lendal, York.
1883. {Walker, E. R. Pagefield Ironworks, Wigan.
1891. { Walker, Frederick W. Hunslet, Leeds.
1897.§§Walker, George Blake. Tankersley Grange, near Barnsley.
1894. *Watxer, G. T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1866. { Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
1896. { Walker, Horace. Belvidere-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
1890. { Walker, Dr. James. 8 Windsor-terrace, Dundee.
1894. *Walker, James, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
1866. *Watxer, J. Francis, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S. 45 Bootham, York.
1855. {Watxer, J. J., M.A., F.R.S. 12 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.
1886. *Walker, Major Philip Billingsley. Sydney, New South Wales.
1866. { Walker, S. D. 88 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
1884, { Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, 8.E,
-1888. {Walker, Sydney F. 195 Severn-road, Cardiff.
1887. {Walker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, S.W.
1883. {Walker, Thomas A. 66 Leyland-road, Southport.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1895. §Watker, Witiiam G., A.M. Inst.0.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W.
1896. § Walker, Colonel William Hall. Gateacre, Liverpool.
1896. {Walker, W.J. D. Lawrencetown, Co. Down, Ireland.
1883. {Wall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.
1863. {Wattacr, AtrrEep Rousset, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Corfe
i View, Parkstone, Dorset.
1897.§§ Wallace, Chancellor. Victoria University, Toronto, Canada.
1892. { Wallace, Robert W. 14 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.
1887, *WatiER, Aveustus D., M.D., F.R.S. Weston Lodge, 16 Grove
End-road, N.W.
1889. *Wallis, Arnold J.,M.A. 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.
1895. {Watuis, E. Waite, F.S.S. Sanitary Institute, Parkes Museum,
Margaret-street, W.
1883. { Wallis, Rev. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge.
1884, { Wallis, Herbert. Redpath-street, Montreal, Canada.
1886. { Wallis, Whitworth, F.S.A. Chevening, Montague-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham. j
1894. *Watmistey, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. (Locat Treasurer). Engineer's
Office, Dover Harbour.
1887. {Walmsley, J. Monton Lodge, Eccles, Manchester.
1891, § Walmsley, R. M., D.Sc. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C.
1883. { Walmsley, T. M. Clevelands, Chorley-road, Heaton, Bolton.
' iiaahhianealevg The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S. Merton Hall,
etford.
1881. { Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver's Mount School, Scarborough.
te A a John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada.
: G

98 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887. {Ward, A. W., M.A., Litt.D.

1874. { Ward, F.D.,J.P., M.RILA. Wyneroft, Adelaide Park, Belfast.

1881. § Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.

1879, Warp, H. Marswatt, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
University of Cambridge. New Museums, Cambridge.

1890. Ward, Alderman John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds,

1874. § Ward, John, J.P., F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.

1887. { Warp, Jonn, F.G.S. 23 Stafford-street, Longton, Staffordshire.

1857. {Ward, John S. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.

1880. *Ward, J. Wesney. Red House, Ravensbourne Park, Oatford, S.E.

1884, *Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax.

1888. { Ward, Thomas. Arnold House, Blackpool.

1887. {Ward, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.

1882. {Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton,

1867. {Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street, Dundee.

1858. {Wardle, Sir Thomas, F.G.8. St. Edward-street, Leek, Staffordshire.

1884. {Wardwell, George J. 31 Grove-street, Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.

1887. *Waring, Richard 8. Standard Underground Cable Co., 16th-street,
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

1878. §WaRineTon, Roser, F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Rural Economy
in the University of Oxford. High Bank, Harpenden, St.
Albans, Herts.

1882. { Warner, F. 1., F.L.S. 20 Hyde-street, Winchester.

1884, *Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

1896. { Warr, A. F. 4 Livingstone-drive North, Liverpool.

1896. {Warrand, Major-General, R.E. Westhorpe, Southwell, Middlesex.

1875. { Warren, Algernon. Downgate, Portishead.

1887. {WaRREN, Major-General Sir Cuartzs, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
FE.R.S., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, S.W.

1898. § Warrington, Arthur W. University College, Aberystwith.

1893. {Warwick, W. D. Balderton House, Newark-on-Trent.

1875. *Waterhouse, Lieut.-Colonel J. Oak Lodge, Court-road, Eltham, Kent.

1870. { Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 60 Bedford-street, Liverpool.

1892. {Waterston, James H. 37 Lutton-place, Edinburgh.

1875. {Watherston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. The Grammar
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.

1887. { Watkin, F. W. 46 Auriol-road, West Kensington, W.

1884. { Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.

1886. *Watson, C. J. 34 Smallbrook-street, Birmingham.

1883. {Watson, C. Knight, M.A. 49 Bedford-square, W.C.

1892. § Watson, G., Assoc.M.Inst.0.EK. 21 Springfield-mount, Leeds.

1885. {Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.

1882. {Wartson, Rev. H. W., D.Sc., F.R.S. Berkeswell Rectory, Coventry.

1884, {Watson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

1889. { Watson, John, F.1.C. P.O. Box 317, Johannesberg, South Africa.

1863. { Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.

1863. { Watson, R. Spence, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.

1867. { Watson, Thomas Donald. 16 St. Mary’s-road, Bayswater, W.

1894, *Wartson, W., B.Sc. 7 Upper Cheyne-row, 8. W.

1892. § Watson, William, M.D. Slateford, Midlothian.

1879, *Warson, Witt1AM Henry, F.C.8.,F.G.S. Braystones, Cumberland.

1882. {Watt, Alexander. 19 Brompton-avenue, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

1884, { Watt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.

1869. {Watt, Robert B. E. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.

1888. {Warrs, B.H. 10 Rivers-street, Bath.

1875, *Warts, Jonny, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 99

Year of
Election.

1884, *Watts, Rev. Canon Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford.

1870. § Watts, William, F.G.S. Little Don Waterworks, Langsett, near
Penistone.

1896, { Watts, W. H. Elm Hall, Wavertree, Liverpool.

1873. ee W. MarsHatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near

ettle,

1883, *Warts, W. W., M.A., Sec. G.S., Assistant Professor of Geology in
the Mason Science College, Birmingham.

1891, {Waugh, James. Higher Grade School, 110 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1869. Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.

1883. {Webb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.

1871. {Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.

1890. {Webb, Sidney. 4 Park-village East, N.W.

1866, *Wess, Wittiam Freprrick, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham.

1886.§§WerBBER, Major-General C. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Egerton-
gardens, 8. W.

1891. § Webber, Thomas. Kensington Villa, 6 Salisbury-road, Cardiff.

1859. {Webster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.

1834, { Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, E.C.

1882. *Webster, Sir Richard Everard, LL.D., Q.C., M.P. Hornton
Lodge, Hornton-street, Kensington, S.W.

1884, *Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.
48 Westendstrasse, Karlsruhe.

1889. { Weeks, John G. Bedlington.

1890, *Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Owens
College, Manchester.

1886, { Weiss, Henry. Westbourne-road, Birmingham.

1865. Welch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
East, 8. W.

1894, § Weld, Miss. Conal More, Norham Gardens, Oxford.

1876. *Wetvon, W. F. R., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Comparative
Anatomy and Zoology in University College, London. 304
Wimpole-street, W.

1880. *Weldon, Mrs. 30a Wimpole-street, W.

1897.§§ Welford, A. B., M.B. Woodstock, Ontario, Canada,

1881. §Wellcome, Henry 8. Snow Hill Buildings, E.C.

1879. §Wetts, Cuartes A., A.I.E.E. 219 High-street, Lewes.

1881. §Wells, Rev. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.

1894, {Wells, J. G. Selwood House, Shobnall-street, Burton-on-Trent.

1883. { Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.

1881. *Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. Escrick Park, Yorkshire.

Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.

1864, *Were, Anthony Berwick. Hensingham, Whitehaven, Cumberland.

1886, * Wertheimer, Julius, B.A., B.Se., F.C.S., Principal of and Professor
of Chemistry in the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College,
Bristol.

1865. { Wesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, W.

1853. { West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.

1898. § West, Charles D. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

1853. {West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.

1897.§§ Western, Alfred E. 36 Lancaster-gate, W.

1882. *Westlake, Ernest, F.@.8. Vale Lodge, Vale of Health, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

1882. {Westlake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.

G2

100

-LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1882.
1885.

1853.

1884,

1878.
1888.

1883.
1893.

1888,
1888.
1879.

1898.

1874.
1888.

1859.
1884.

1886.
1897.
1886.
1876.
1886.
1883.
1898.
1882.

1885.
1873.
1859.
1883.
1865.
1895.

1884.
1898.
1859.
1877.
1883.
1886.
1897.
1883.
1893.

1881.
1852.
1891.
1897.
1896.
1857,

1887

{WerHeEreD, Epwarp B.,F.G.S. 4 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Chelten-
h

am.

*Wuarton, Admiral Sir W. J. L., K.C.B., R.N., F.R.S., FR.A.S.,
F.R.G.8., Hydrographer to the Admiralty. Florys, Prince’s-
road, Wimbledon Park, Surrey. 7

{ Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.

tWheeler, Claude L., M.D. 251 West '52nd-street, New York City,
U.S.A

*Wheeler, Ww. H., M.Inst.C.E. Wyncote, Boston, Lincolnshire.

§ Whelen, "John Leman. 18 Frognal, Hampstead, N.W.

tWhelpton, Miss K. Newnham ‘College, Cambridge.

*WuetHam, W.C.D., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.

*Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.

*Wurpporne, Rev. Grorcr Ferris, M.A., F.G.8. St. George’s
Vicarage, Battersea Park-road, 8. W.

§Whipple, Robert S. Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge.

t{ Whitaker, Henry, M.D. Fortwilliam Terrace, Belfast.

*Whitaker, T. Walton House, Burley-in-W harfedale.

*WHITAKER, WILLIAM, B.A., FRS., I.G.S. Freda, Campden-road,
Croydon.

t{Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.

{Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.

§ Whitcombe, George. The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester.

tWhite, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{White, Angus. Easdale, Argyllshire.

{White, A. Silva. 47 Clanricarde-gardens, W.

{White, Charles. 23 Alexandra-road, Southport.

§White, George. Clare-street House, Bristol.

tWhite, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, South-
ampton.

*White, J. Martin. 5 King-street, Dundee.

}White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.

t White, John Forbes. 311 Union-street, Aberdeen.

tWhite, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.

{White, Joseph. 6 Southwell-gardens, S.W.

ft White, Philip J., M.B,, Professor of Zoology i in University College,
ae North Wales.

tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada.

§ White, Samuel. Clare-street House, Bristol.

tWhite, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.

*White, William. 66 ‘Cambridge-zardens, Notting Hill, W.

*White, Mrs. 66 Cambridge-gardens, Notting Hill, W.

*White, William. The Ruskin Museum, Sheffield.

*Wuitz, Sir W.H., K.C.B.,F.R.S. The Admiralty, Whitehall, S. 0:

t Whitehead, P.J. 6 Cross-street, Southport. ;

§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., "FLC. 20 Beeches-road, West.
Bromwich.

tWhitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.

ft Whitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.

§ Whitmell, Charles T., M.A., B.Sc. Invermay, Headingley, Leeds.

§ Whittaker, E. T. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§ Whitney, Colonel C. A. The Grange, Fulwood Park, Liverpool.

*Wuitty, Rey. Joun Irwine, M.A., D.C.L., LL. D. “i Poplar-
road, Ramsgate.

{Whitwell, William. Overdene, Salthurn-by-the-Sea.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 101.

Year of
Election,

1874, *Whitwill, Mark. 1 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

1883. {Whitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport.

1870. t{ Whitworth, Rev. W. Allen, M.A. 7 Margaret-street, W.

1892. § Whyte, Peter, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Clifton-terrace, Edinburgh.

1897.§§ Wickett, M., Ph.D. 539 Berkeley-street, Toronto, Canada.

1888. tWickham, Rey. F. D.C. Horsington Rectory, Bath.

1865. { Wiggin, Sir H., Bart. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham,

1886. {Wigein, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

1896. { Wigglesworth, J. County Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool.

1883, Wigglesworth, Mrs. 23 Westbourne-grove, Scarborough.

1881. * Wigglesworth, Robert. Beckwith Knowle, near Harrogate.

1878. {Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.

1889. *Wilberforce, L. R., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1887. {Wild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.

1887. *Witpz, Henry, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Manchester.

1896.§§ Wildermann, Meyer. 22 Parli-crescent, Oxford.

1887, {Wilkinson, C. H. Slaithwaite, near Huddersfield.

1892. { Wilkinson, Rey. J. Frome., M.A. Barley Rectory, Royston, Herts.

1886, * Wilkinson, J. H. Elmhurst Hall, Lichfield.

1879. { Wilkinson, Joseph. York.

1887. *Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Vale Bank, Knutsford, Cheshire.

1872. { Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.

1890, {Willans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.

1872. t{Wrtterr, Henry. Arnold House, Brighton.

1894, { Willey, Arthur. New Museums, Cambridge.

1891. { Williams, Arthur J.,M.P. Coedymwstwr, near Bridgend.

1861. *Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook-street,
Grosyenor-square, W.

1887. { Williams, Sir E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E. The Oaks, Altrincham.

1883. *Williams, Edward Starbuck. ‘Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.

1861. * Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S, 6 Heathfield, Swansea.

1875. * Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.

1888. { Williams, Rey. H. Alban, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

1857. { Williams, Rev. James. Llanfairynghornwy, Holyhead.

1888. { Williams, James, Bladud Villa, Entry Hill, Bath.

1891. § Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. Lingfield Grange, Branksome

Park, Bournemouth.
1887. { Williams, J. Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A.
1888, * Williams, Miss Katharine T. Llandaff House, Pembroke Vale,
Clifton, Bristol.

1875. *Williams, M. B. Killay House, near Swansea.

1879, {Witt14ams, MatrHew W. 26 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.

1891. { Williams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.

1886. { Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.

1883. { Williams, R. Price. 28 Compayne-gardens, West Hampstead,

London, N.W.

1883. { Williams, T. H. 21 Strand-street, Liverpool.

1877. *Wittiams, W. Carterton, F.C.S. Firth College, Sheffield.

1883. { Williamson, Miss. Sunnybank, Ripon, Yorkshire.

1850. *Witi1aMson, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

. F.C.S., Corresponding Member of the French Academy. High

Pitfold, Haslemere.

1857. EWLELAMEOS, Bensamin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College,

ublin.

1876. { Williamson, Rey. F,J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.
1863. { Williamson, John. South Shields.

i

102

Year of
Blection

1895.
1895.

1896,
1882.
1859.
1886.
1898.
1886.
1885,
1878.

1876.
1894.

1874.

1876.
1890.
1863.
1847.
1875.

1874,
1863.
1895.
1883.
1879.
1885.
1890,
1896.

1865.
1884.

1879.
1876.
1847.
1885.
1892.
1861.
1887.
1871.

1861].

1877.
1886.

1887.
1893.

1863,
1888.
1883,
1898.
1884,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

jWittrik, W. 14 Castle-street, Liverpool.

tWillis, John C., M.A., Senior Assistant in Botany in Glasgow
University. 87 Lawrence-place, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

§Wittison, J. 8. Toronto.

Willmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants.

*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Chelsea Lodge, Tite-street, S. W.

Wills, A. W. Wylde Green, Erdington, Birmingham.

§Wills, H. H. Barley Wood, Wrington, R.S.O., Somerset.

{ Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.

f{Wilson, Alexander H. 2 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

f{Wilson, Professor Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. Free Church Manse,
North Queensferry.

t Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.

*Wilson, Charles J., F.1.C., F.C.S. 14 Old Queen-street, Westmin-
ster, S.W.

t¢Wutson, Major-General Sir C. W., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. The Athenzeum Club, 8. W.

{Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

{ Wilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.

}{ Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.

*Wilson, Frederick. 99 Albany-street, N.W.

{Wutson, Grorce Fereusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.8. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.

*Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

{ Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.

tWilson, Grege. The University, Edinburgh.

*Wilson, Henry, M.A. Farnborough, R.S.O., Kent.

{ Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.

tWilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

tWilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. 51 Hall Gate, Doncaster.

{ Wilson, John H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany, Yorkshire
College, Leeds.

{Wuson, Ven. James M., M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage, Rochdale.

tWilson, James 8S. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.

t Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, Hast Bank-road, Sheffield.

tWilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, 8. W.

*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.

{Wilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

§ Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. Wyddrington, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

t Wilson, Thos. Bright. 4 Hope View, Fallowfield, Manchester.

§ Wilson, W., jun. Hillocks of Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire.

*Witson, WILLIAM E., F.R.S. Daramona House, Streete, Rath-

owen, Ireland.

*WitsHirE, Rev. THomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S.,F.R.A.S., Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in King’s College, London,
25 Granville-park, Lewisham, S.E.

{Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.

}Winptz, Berrram OC. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., Professor of Ana-
tomy in Mason College, Birmingham.

t Windsor, William Tessimond. Sandiway, Ashton-on-Mersey.

*Winter, G. K., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.A.S. C/o The Union Bank of

London, 2 Princes-street, E.C.

*Warwoon, Rey. H.H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.

tWoprnovss, Right Hon. E. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, S. W.

TWolfenden, Samuel. Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.

§ Wollaston, G. H. Clifton College, Bristol.

t{ Womack, Frederick, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Physics and Applied

ee es

LIST OF MEMBERS. 103

Year of
Election.

1881.
1883.
1863.
1861.
1883.
1875.
1878.

1883.
1881.
1883.
1893.

1883.

1864,
1871.
1872.
1845,

1863.

1884.
1883.
1884.
1896.
“1888.
1872.

1883.

1888,
1887.

1869.
1886.
1866.

1870.
1894,

1884,
1890,

1877.

1883,
1856.
1874.
1878.
1863.
1855,

Mathematics at St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Bedford College,
Baker-street, W.
*Wood, Alfred John. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
tWood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.
*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
{ Wood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.
*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.
{Woop, Sir H. Trurman, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street,
Adelphi, W.C.
*Woop, Jams, LL.D. Grove House, Scarisbrick-street, Southport.
{ Wood, John, B.A. Wharfedale College, Boston Spa, Yorkshire.
*Wood, J. H. Hazelwood, 14 Lethbridge-road, Southport.
{Wood, Joseph T. 29 Muster’s-road, West Bridgeford, Nottingham-

shire.
{Wood, Mrs. Mary. Care of E. P. Sherwood, Esq., Holmes Villa,
Rotherham.
}Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
{Wood, Provost T. Baileyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,
{Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.
*Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A.,D.D. Waldington, Combe Park.
Bath.
*WooDaLEL, JoHN Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S. 5 Queen’s-mansions,
Victoria-street, 8. W.
}Woodbury, C.J. H. 31 Milk-street, Boston, U.S.A.
{Woodcock, Herbert S. The Elms, Wigan.
{Woodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, N.W.
§ Woodhead, G. Sims, M.D. 1 Nightingale-lane, Balham, 8.W.
*Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Weston Manor, Birkdale, Lancashire.
{Woodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
*Woops, EpwarpD, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
tWoods, Dr, G. A. ERS L., F.R.MS, 16 Adelaide-street, Lea-
mington.

Woops, Samvet. 1 Drapers-gardens, Throemorton-street, E.C.
tWoodthorpe, Colonel. Messrs. King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, S.W.
*Woopwarp, ArTHuR Suir, F.L.S., F.G.8., Assistant Keeper of

the Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, 8. W.
*WoopwapD, C. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. 97 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
t Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, S.W.
{Woopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Depart-
ment of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, 8. W.
{Woopwarp, Horace B., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Museum,
Jermyn-street, S. W.
*Woodward, John Harold. 6 Brighton-terrace, Merridale-road,
Wolverhampton.
*Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees.
§ Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.1.Inst., F.S.8., M.R.LA.,
F.R.S.A. (Ireland). 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
fWoollcombe, Surgeon-Major Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke,
Devonport.
*Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.
fWoolley, Thomas Smith. South Collingham, Newark.
}{ Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.
t{Wormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. Roydon, near Ware, Hertfordshire.
*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.
*Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. The Hill, Stourbridge

104 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Electiou,

1856. {Worthy, George §. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent,
'. Hampstead-road, N.W.

1884. {Wragge, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.

1896. { Wrench, Edward M., F.R.C.S. Park Lodge, Bastow.

1879. {Wrentmore, Francis. 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, S.W.

1883, * Wright, Rey. Arthur, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

1883, *Wright, Rev. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford.

1890. {Wright, Dr. ©. J. Virginia-road, Leeds. ’

1857. {Wrieut, E. Purcevat, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Professor
of Botany and Director of the Museum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin.

1886. { Wright, Frederick William, 4 Full-street, Derby.

1884, { Wright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

1876. { Wright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.

1865, { Wright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham,

1884.§§Wericut, Professor R, Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada.

1876, {Wright, William. 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.

1871. {Wricutson, Tuomas, M.P., M.Inst.C.l., F.G.8. Norton Hall,
Stockton-on-Tees.

1898. § Wrong, Professor George M. The University, Toronto, Canada.

1897.§§ Wyld, Frederick. 127 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada.

1883. §Wyllie, Andrew. Sandown, Southport.

1885. {Wyness, James D., M.D. 349 Union-street, Aberdeen.

1871. {Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.

1862. {|Wynnz, ArtHuR Brevor, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.

1875. {Yabbicom, Thomas Henry. 23 Oaltield-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp's Mount, Doncaster,
1894, *Yarrow, A. F, Poplar, E.
,1883.§§ Yates, James. Public Library, Leeds.
1896. {Yates, Rev.S.A.Thompson. 43 Phillimore-gardens, S.W.
1867. {Yeaman, James. Dundee.
1887. tYeats, Dr. Chepstow.
1884, {Yee, Fung. Care of R. E. C. Fittock, Esq., Shanghai, China.
1877. {Yonge, Rey. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.
1891. {Yorath, Alderman T. V. Cardiff.
1884, {York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, W.
1891. §Young, Alfred C., F.C.S. 64 Tyrwhitt-road, St. John’s, S.E.
1886. *Youne, A. H., M,B., F.R.C.8., Professor of Anatomy in Owens
College, Manchester.
1884, { Young, Sir Frederick, K.C.M.G. 5 Queensberry-place, S.W.
1894, *Young, George, Ph.D. Firth College, Sheffield.
1884, {Young, Professor George Paxton. 121 Bloor-street, Toronto, Canada.
1876, {Youne, Joun, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1896. {Young, J. Denholm, 88 Canning-street, Liverpool.
1885. {Young, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1886. §Young, R. Fisher. New Barnet, Herts.
1883. *Youne, Sypney, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Bristol. 10 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
1887. tYoung, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, E.C.
1890, {Young, T. Graham, F.R.S.E. Westfield, West Calder, Scotland.
1868. {Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.

1886, {Zair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham.
1886, {Zair, John. Merle Lodge, Moseley, Birmingham.

COLKRESPONDING MEMBERS. 105

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887,
1892.
1881.

1897.
1894,
1894,
1887.
1892.
1894.

1898.
1880.
1887.

1884,

1890,
1893.

1887.
1884.

1894,

1897.
1887.

1887.
1887.
1894.
1861.
1894.
1887.

1873.
1880.
1870.
1876.

Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, United States.

Professor Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm. (Bergs-
gatan 18).

Professor G. F. Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
United States, (8909, Locust-street).

Professor Carl Barus. Brown University, Providence, R.I., U.S.A.

Professor F. Beilstein. 8th Line, No. 17, St. Petersburg.

Professor E. van Beneden. The University, Liége, Belgium.

Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 11, 4, Germany.

Professor M. Bertrand. L’Kcole des Mines, Paris.

Deputy Surgeon-General J. S. Billings. Washington, United
States.

Professor Christian Bohr. Bredgade 62, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. IX. Fiirkenstrasse 3, Vienna.

Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
United States,

Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. Harvard Medical School, Boston,
Massachusetts, United States.

Professor Dr. L. Brentano. Maximilian-platz 1, Miinchen.

Professor Dr. W. OC. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Kristiania, Norway.

Professor J. W, Briihl. Heidelberg.

“ne George J. Brush. Yale College, New Haven, Conn., United

tates.
Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, United States.

M. C. de Candolle. 8 Cour de St. Pierre, Geneva, Switzerland.

Professor G. Capellini. Royal University of Bologna. (65 Via
Zamboni),

Professor J. B. Carnoy. Rue du Canal 22, Louvain.

Hofrath Dr. H. Caro. Mannheim.

Emile Cartailhac. 5 Rue de la Chaine, Toulouse, France.

Professor Dr. J. Victor Carus. Universitiitstrasse 15, Leipzig.

Dr. A. Chauveau. The Sorbonne, Paris.

F. W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
United States.

Professor Guido Cora. Via Goito 2, Rome.

Professor Cornu. Rue de Grenelle 9, Paris.

J.M. Crafts, M.D. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.

Professor Luigi’ Cremona. The University, Rome. (5 Piazza S.
Pietro in Vincoli),

106

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1889.

1872.
1870.
1890.
1876.
1894,
1892.
1894.
1892.
1874.
1886.
1887.
1894.
1872.
1894,
1894,
1887.
1892.
1881.
1866.
1861.
1884,

1884.
1889.

1892.

1870.
1889,
1889.
1884.

1892.

1876.
1881.
1895.

1887.
1893.
1894.
1893.

1893.
1897.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1884,

1867.
1876.

W. If. Dall. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,
United States.

Professor G. Dewalque. Liége, Belgium.

Dr. Anton Dohrn, D.C.L. Naples.

Professor V. Dwelshauvers-Dery. 5 Quai Marcellis, Liége, Belgium.

Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Holland.

Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.

Professor T. W. W. Engelmann. N. Wilhelmstrasse 15, Berlin.

Professor Léo Errera. 38 Rue de la Loi, Brussels.

Dr. W. Feddersen. 9 Carolinenstrasse, Leipzig.

Dr. Otto Finsch. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor Dr. R. Fittig. Strassburg.

Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 3a, Berlin, S.W.

W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris.

Professor Léon Fredericq. Rue de Pitteurs 18, Liége, Belgium.

Professor C. Friedel. 9 Rue Michelet, Paris.

Professor Dr, Anton Fritsch. 66 Wenzelsplatz, Prague.

Professor Dy. Gustav Fritsch. Roon Strasse 10, Berlin.

Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 Rue Edouard Detaille, Paris.

Dr. Gaudry. 7 bis Rue des Saints Péres, Paris.

Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.

Professor J. Willard Gibbs. Yale University, New Haven, Conn.,
United States.

Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Newport, Rhode Island, United States.

G. K. Gilbert. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,
United States.

Daniel C. Gilman. President of the Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, United States.

William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, United States.

Professor Gustave Gilson. 1Université, Louvain.

A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.

General A. W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington, D.C.,

U.S.A.
Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.

Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 37 Gorham-street, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Professor Dr. Emil Chr. Hansen. Carlsberg Laboratorium, Copen-
hagen, Denmark.

Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.

Professor Paul Heger. Rue de Drapiers 35, Brussels.

Professor Ludimar Hermann. The University, Konigsberg, Prussia.

Professor nee Hertwig. Zoologisches Museum, Alte Akademie,
Munich.

Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm.

Dr. G. W. Hill. West Nyack, N.Y., U.S.A.

Professor W. His. Konigstrasse 22, "Lei zig.

Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL D., C. M.Z.S. The University,
Utrecht, Holland.

Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Cloyne House, Newport, Rhode Island,
United States.

Professor C. Loring Jackson. 12 Wave-street, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, United States.

Dr. J. Janssen, LL.D. L’Observatoire, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.

Dr. ee J. Janssen. Villa Frisia, Aroza, Graubiinden, Switzer-
and,

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 107

: Ww. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States

Naval Academy. 382 East Preston-street, Baltimore, U.S.A.

. Professor C. Julin. Liége.
. Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 9 Via Borgo Nuovo, Milan.
. Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokya,

Japan.

. Professor Dr. Felix Klein. Wilhelm Weber Strasse 3, Gottingen.
. Professor Dr. L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 92, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin.
. Dr. Kohlrausch. Physikalisch-technische Reichsanstalt, Charlot-

tenburg, Berlin.

. Professor A. von Koélliker. Wiirzburg, Bavaria.
. Professor J. Kollmann. St. Johann 88, Basel, Switzerland.
. Professor Dr. Arthur Kénig. Physiological Institute, The Uni-

versity, Berlin, N.W.

. Maxime Kovalevsky. Beauiieu-sur-Mer, Alpes-Maritimes.
. Professor W. Krause. Knesebeckstrasse, Charlottenburg, bei Berlin.
. Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. The University, Bern,

Switzerland.

. Professor A. Ladenburg. (Kaiser Wilhelm Str. 108, Breslau.
. Professor J. W. Langley. 8473 Fairmount-street, Cleveland, Ohio,

United States.

. Dr. 8. P. Langley, D.C.L., Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Washington, United States.

. Dr. Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at the Stevens Institute, Hoboken,

New Jersey, United States.

. M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue Notre Dame des Changes, Paris.

. Professor A. Lieben. IX. Wasagasse 9, Vienna.

. Dr. F. Lindemann. Georgenstrasse 42/0, Munich,

. Dr. M. Lindemann, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society.

Bremen.

. Professor Dr. Gecrg Lunge. The University, Zurich.
. Professor Jacob Liiroth, The University, Freiburg-in-Dreisgau,

Germany.

. Professor Dr. Liitken. Nérregade 10, Copenhagen, Denmark.
. Dr. Otto Maas. Wurzerstrasse 1b, Munich.
. Dr. Henry C. McCook. 3,700 Chestnut-street, Philadelphia, United

States.

. Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe 11, Passy, Paris.
. Professor O. C. Marsh. Yale College, New Haven, Conn., United

States. -

. Dr. C. A. Martius. Voss Strasse 8, Berlin, W.
. Professor E. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. 176 Rue de l'Université,

Paris.

. Professor D. I. Mendeléeff, D.C.L. St. Petersburg.

. Professor N. Menschutkin. St. Petersburg.

. Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A.

. Professor J. Milne-Edwards. 57 Rue Cuvier, Paris.

. Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.
. Professor G. Mittag-Leffler. Djuvsholm, Stockholm.

. Professor H. Moissan. The Sorbonne, Paris (7 Rue Vauquelin).

. Professor V. L. Moissenet. 4 Boulevard Gambetta, Chaumont, Hte.

Marne, France.

» Dr. Edmund yon Mojsisovics. III/3. Strohgasse 26, Vienna.
. Professor Oskar Montelius. Stockholm, Sweden.

. Professor E. W. Morley. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

1864.
1887.

Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia.
E.S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.

108

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1889.
1894,

1864.
1884.

1887.
1894,
1894.
1890.
1889,

1890.
1895.
1887.
1890.
1894,
1870.
1884.

1886.

1887.
1868.

1895.
1886.
1897,
1873.
1896.
1892.
1890.

1881.
1895.
1894,
1897.
1883.
1874,
1846,
1878.
1892.

1887.
1887.
1888,
1889.
1881,
1894,
1881.
1884,

1864,

1887.
1887.

Dr. F. Nansen. Lysakr, Norway.
Professor R, Nasini, Istituto Chimico dell’ Universita, Padua,
Italy.

Dr. G. Newrlayar: Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.

Professor Simon Newcomb. 1620 P.-street, Washington, D.C., United
States.

Professor Emilio Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass, Germany.

Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A.

Baron Osten-Sacken. Heidelberg.

Professor W. Ostwald. Linnestrasse 2/8, Leipzig.

Professor A. S. Packard. Brown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, United States.

Maffeo Pantaleoni. Geneva.

Professor F. Paschen. Nelkenstrasse 14, Hannover.

Dr. Pauli. Fiildbergstrasse 49, Frankfurt a. M., Germany.

Professor Otto Pettersson. Hogskolas Laboratorium, Stockholm.

Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. The University, Leipzig.

Professor Felix Plateau. 152 Chaussée de Courtrai, Gand, Belgium.

Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the
United States. Washington, D.C., United States,

Professor Putnam. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
United States.

Professor Georg Quincke. Friederichsbau, Heidelberg.

L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich

(Sonnenstrasse 7).

Professor Ira Remsen. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.

Rey. A. Renard. 6 Rue du Roger, Gand, Belgium.

Professor Dr. C. Richet. Faculté de Médecine, Paris, France.

Professor Baron von Richthofen. Kurfiirstenstrasse 117, Berlin.

Dr. van Rijckevorsel. Parklaan 7, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.

A. Lawrence Rotch. Blue Hill Observatory, Readville, Massachu-
setts, United States.

Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, United States.

Professsr Karl Runge. Kd6rnerstrasse 194, Hannover.

Professor P. H. Schoute. The University, Groningen, Holland.

Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.

Dr. Ernst Schréder. Gottesanerstrasse 9, Karlsruhe in Baden.

Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Potsdamerstrasse 754, Berlin.

Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.

Dr. A. Shafarik. Weinberge, Kopernicus Gasse 422, Prague. ©

Dr. Maurits Snellen, Chief Director of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht.

Professor Count Solms. Bot. Garten, Strassburg.

Ernest Solvay. 25 Rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.

Dr. Alfred Springer.. Box 621, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States.

Professor G. Stefanescu. Stradaverde 8, Bucharest, Roumania.

Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘lhe University, Athens.

Professor EK. Strasburger. The University, Bonn.

Professor Dr. Rudolf Sturm. The University, Breslau.

Professor Robert H. Thurston. Sibley College, Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York, United States.

Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.

Dr. T. M. Treub. Buitenzorg, Java.

Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 109

Year of
Election.

1890.

1889.
1886.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1881.

1887.

1874.
1887.

- 1887.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1896.
1887,

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.

Professor Dr. J. H. van’t Hoff. Uhlandstrasse 2, Charlottenburg,
Berlin.

Wladimir Vernadsky. Mineralogical Museum, Moscow.

Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 59 Rue du Congres, Brussels, Belgium.

Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich.

Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Kiel.

Professor August Weismann. Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Baden.

Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, United States.

Professor H. M. Whitney. Beloit College, Wisconsin, United
States.

Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen. [C/o T. A. Barth, Johannis-
gasse, Leipzig. |

Professor G. Wiedemann. Thalstrasse 35, Leipzig.

Professor Dr. R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im-Breisgau,

Baden.

Professor Dr. J. Wislicenus. Liebigstrasse 18, Leipzig.

Dr. Otto N. Witt. 21 Siegmundshof, Berlin, N.W. 28.

Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aureliusstrasse 9, Aachen,

Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Professor E. Zacharias. Botanischer Garten, Hamburg.

Professor F. Zirkel. Thalstrasse 33, Leipzig.

110

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Belfast, Queen’s College.

Birmingham, Midland Institute.

Brighton Public Library.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Cardiff, University College.

Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.

Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.

, Royal College of Surgeons in

Treland.

, Royal Geological Society of
Ireland.

——, Royal Irish Academy.

, Royal Society of.

Dundee, University College.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

, Royal Medical Society of.

, scottish Society of Arts.

Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.

Glasgow Philosophical Society.

, Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland.

Leeds, Institute of Science.

, Philosophical and Literary
Society of.

Liverpool, Free Public Library.

, Royal Institution.

London, Admiralty, Library of the.

, Anthropological Institute.

——,, Arts, Society of.

——, Chemical Society.

——, Civil Engineers, Institution of.

——., East India Library.

——, Geological Society.

——, Geology, Museum of Practical,
28 Jermyn Street.

——., Greenwich, Royal Observatory.

——, Guildhall, Library,

——, Kew Observatory.

——, King’s College.

——., Linnean Society.

London, London Institution.

, Mechanical Engineers, Institu-
tion of.

—., Meteorological Office.

——, Royal Asiatic Society.

—, Royal Astronomical Society.

——, Royal College of Physicians.

——., Royal College of Surgeons.

—, Royal Engineers’ Institute,
Chatham.

——.,, Royal Geographical Society.

——, Royal Institution.

, Royal Meteorological Society.

, Royal Society.

——,, Royal Statistical Society.

——, Sanitary Institute.

——,, United Service Institution.

——., University College.

——, War Office, Library.

——.,, Zoological Society.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.

» Mechanics’ Institute.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.

» Public Library. .

Norwich, The Free Library.

Nottingham, The Free Library.

Oxford, Ashmolean Society.

——,, Radcliffe Observatory.

Plymouth Institution.

, Biological Association. A

Salford, Royal Museum and Library.

Sheffield, University College.

Southampton, Hartley Institution.

Stonyhurst College Observatory.

Swansea, Royal Institution of South
Wales.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

The Corresponding Societies
list in Report).

(see

111

EUROPE. ;

Boerlinis..:...i.3.. Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Milan ............ The Institute.

demie der Wissen- | Modena ......... Royal Academy.

schaften, Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists,
ee University Library. SS University Library.
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of | Munich ......... University Library.

Sciences. Naples............ Royal Academy of
Charkow ......... University Library. Sciences,
Coimbra ......... Meteorological Ob- | Nicolaieff......... University Library.

servatory. Paris .€3s.f00s20 Association Francaise
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of pour l’Avancement

Sciences, des Sciences.
Dorpat, Russia... University Library, —$ SS rarsceccenee Geographical Society.
Dresden ......... Royal Museum. $$ receceveeees Geological Society.
Frankfort ...... Natural History So- | — ............ Royal Academy of

ciety. Sciences,
Geneva...... .-.--. Natural History So- | —— ............ School of Mines.

ciety. Pultova ......... Imperial Observatory.
Gottingen ...... University Library. Ronieheinne ced Accademia dei Lincei.
GTATZ ....0202<025 Naturwissenschaft- a EAS Collegio Romano.

licher Verein. a soot cvs tte Italian Geographical
alle .....:.<0.. Leopoldinisch-Caro- Society.

linische Akademie. | —— ............ Italian Society of
Harlem ......... Société Hollandaise Sciences.

des Sciences.

. University Library.
-.. Imperial Observatory.

Helsingfors ...... University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
OU is siohaceescrs University Library. AEGTIN' (so0:5es.00s Royal Academy of
Kazan, Russia ...University Library Sciences,
ee Royal Observatory. Utrecht: ....,..2. University Library.
a a University Library Vienna............ The Imperial Library.
Lausanne......... The University, = | —— ........0008 Central Anstalt fiir
Leyden ......... University Library Meteorologie und
MORO, <6. 42.0500 University Library Eyvdmagnetismus.
Lisbon ......... ...Academia Real des | Zurich............ General Swiss Society.

Sciences,

ASIA.

BMATAN laviececossess The College. Calcutta ......... Hooghly College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institue | —— ___......... Medical College.

fon. OE. a =... tee ee Presidency College.
== See Grant Medical Col- | Ceylon............ The Museum,Colombo

lege. MAdrAS. ... 2.2.0.2 The Observatory.
Calcutta ......... Asiatic Society. = 8 | —— ....... University Library,

AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope .

The Royal Observatory.

112

AMERICA.

Albany .....0.+. The Institute. New York...,..American Society of
Bostonsespediost. {3 American Academy of Civil Engineers,

Arts and Sciences. | —— _...... Lyceum of Natural
California ...... The University. History.

......Liick Observatory. Ottawa ......0+ Geological Survey of

Cambridge ...... Harvard University Canada.

Library. Philadelphia,., American Philosophical
Chicago ......... American Medical, Society.

Association. ... Franklin Institute.
Pepi oth ie ae = See Field Columbian Mu- | Toronto ...... The Observatory. |

seum. ... The University.
Kingston ......... Queen’s University. Washington ...Bureau of Ethnology.
Manitoba .........Historical and Scien- .. omithsonian Institu-

tific Society. tion.
MMESICO SL icewsnts Sociedad Cientifica | —— ...The Naval Observatory.

‘ Antonio Alzate.’ | —— ...United States Geolo-
Montreal ......... Council of Arts and gical Survey of the

Manufactures. Territories.
——daeeveene McGill University.

AUSTRALIA.
et Adelaide. . . . The Colonial Government.

Brisbane. . . . Queensland Museum.
Sydney . . . . Public Works Department.
Victoria . . . . The Colonial Government.

NEW ZEALAND.

Canterbury Museum.

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