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REPORT OF CHIEF OF BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 


Unirep States DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
Bureau oF BrovocicaL SURVEY, 
Washington, D. C., September 12, 1923. 
Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report of the work of 
the Bureau of Biological Survey for the fiscal year ended June 30, 
1923. 
Respectfully, E. W. NEtson, 
Chief of Bureau. 
Hon. Henry C. WALLACE, 
Secretary of Agriculture. 


ORGANIZATION OF THE BUREAU. 


In order to conduct the necessary investigations relating to our 
wild birds and mammals and to promote the conservation of the 
useful and harmless species and to destroy those that are harmful, 
the Biological Survey is organized under the following divisions: 

1. Economic Investigations, Dr. A. K. Fisher in charge. De- 
velops methods of control and cooperates in campaigns for the 
destruction of predatory animals and injurious rodents. Has super- 
vision also of an experimental fur farm and cooperates in foster- 
ing the fur-farming industry and in the conservation of fur-bearing 
animals. 

2. Food Habits Research, W. L. McAtee in charge. Investigates 
the food habits and economic relations of birds, reptiles, and 
amphibians. Makes studies of the food resources of water areas for 
migratory wild fowl, to improve production, and devises practical 
methods of control for injurious birds. 

3. Biological Investigations, E. A. Goldman in charge. Investi- 
gates the distribution, migration, and other habits of wild birds and 
mammals and the distribution of wild plant and animal life in 
relation to climate for the purpose of mapping the life zones of 
North America. Makes technical laboratory and field studies of 
birds and mammals. The scientific results of the work of this 
Eon form the basis for the increasing economic activities of the 

ureau. 

4, Alaska Reindeer and Fur Bearers, E. W. Nelson and W. F. 
Bancroft in charge. Investigates diseases and parasites of reindeer 
and studies forage plants, grazing areas, herd management, and 
other problems relating to the upbuilding of the reindeer industry. 
Administers the law protecting Alaskan land fur animals and makes 
investigations to assist in developing fur farming in the Territory. 

67020—23——1 


2 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


5. Game and Bird Refuges, Smith Riley in charge. Supervises 
the maintenance of Federal big-game and bird refuges and the 
warden service on them, and the production of hay and feeding of 
elk on the winter Elk Refuge. 

6. Migratory-bird Treaty and Lacey Acts, G. A. Lawyer in charge. 
Administers the laws for the protection of migratory game and 
other birds, for the prevention of illegal interstate shipments of 
game, and for the prevention of the importation of harmful species 
of wild birds and animals. 


ECONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS. 


WILD ANIMAL PESTS. 


The national forests and other great areas of public lands in the 
Western States are the main breeding places of wolves, coyotes, moun- 
tain lions, and other stock-killing animals, and of prairie dogs, 
ground squirrels, pocket gophers, and many other forage and crop 
destroying rodents. For the purpose of reducing losses in liye- 
stock and forage on the public domain and to cooperate with the 
States, local organizations, and individuals in campaigns for the 
destruction of these wild animal pests on State and private lands an 
appropriation of $440,121 was made available by Congress for the 
year, of which $276,890 was used for the destruction of predatory 
animals and -$163,231 for work in rodent control. Twelve of the 
public-land States made direct appropriations of cooperative funds 
to use with the bureau for this fiscal year. Furthermore, seven 
additional States provided cooperative funds without direct appro- 
priations, which made a total of $844,000. Of this, approximately 
$243,000 was for the destruction of predatory animals and more 
than $601,000 for the rodent campaigns. From the beginning of 
this work the survey has maintained that eventually it would be 
practicable completely to destroy some of the worst of these animal 
pests and thus forever eliminate the heavy losses they have been 
causing. Through the campaigns against them prairie dogs have 
been exterminated on considerable areas, and the large wolves, of 
which 4,900 have been killed, are being so reduced in numbers that 
over most if not all of the West their end is in sight. 

The best evidence of the growing appreciation of the practical 
value of campaigns against animal pests in the West was given 
in the winter of 1923 by the legislatures of 13 States, which made 
total appropriations of about $647,000 for cooperation in the work 
during the following biennium. 

The results obtained in the campaigns against animal pests have 
been possible only through the hearty cooperation of States, local 
organizations, and individuals. In addition to funds contributed 
more than 104,000 farmers and stockmen took an active personal part 
in the rodent field work. Good progress was made at the Denver 
laboratory in working out poison combinations to increase the effec- 
tiveness of the field operations. Application has been made for a 
patent in favor of the Department of Agriculture to cover a new 
poison combination that in field tests has given remarkable results 
with both, predatory animals and rodents. 


- BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 3 
’ 
PREDATORY ANIMALS. 


Organized field operations against predatory animals were in 
progress during the year in Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, 
Idaho, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Oregon, 
South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. Requests 
for assistance have also been received from Louisiana, Wisconsin, 
Minnesota, North Dakota, and*Indiana. As a result of demonstra- 
tions given in Missouri the State legislature appropriated $15,000 
for cooperation with the bureau in the destruction of predatory ani- 
mals through the State Board of Agriculture and also provided that 
in further cooperation the State game department might expend 
funds at its disposal. South Dakota for the first time provided a 
cooperative fund of $30,000 for use during the ensuing biennium, 

In connection with its work on the national forests and other 
Federal lands, the bureau has enlisted the cooperation of other 
Federal, State, and private agencies in order to correlate all efforts 
in an effective drive for the destruction of predatory animals on 
Federal, State, and private lands, thus giving general ‘protection 
to livestock. State agencies taking part have included departments 
of agriculture, livestock commissions or boards, game commissions, 
extension departments of the States, county organizations, stock- 
men’s associations, and individuals. Cooperation with other Fed- 
eral agencies which control areas of Federal lands included the Forest 
Service of the Department of Agriculture, the Office of Indian 
Affairs, and the National Park Service of the Department of the 
Interior. The Bureau of Plant Industry and the Bureau of Chem- 
istry, of the Department of Agriculture, have rendered important 
assistance in connection with laboratory investigations. 

Improved poison combinations and their systematic distribution 
have been so successful that poisoning is rapidly superseding other 
methods of predatory-animal control. The great increase in terri- 
tory that can be covered by poisoning campaigns, as now conducted, 
for the first time offers a possibility of eliminating coyotes over 
vast areas. This has hitherto appeared doubtful, owing to the num- 
bers and wide distribution of these pests. More than 200,000 square 
miles were covered by organized poisoning operations during the 
year, and at carefully established poison stations on this area more 
than 1,703,000 specially prepared poison baits were distributed. 

Present methods in poisoning operations are the result of gradual 
development and are based on both laboratory and field investiga- 
tions. From the beginning it has been recognized that the develop- 
ment of an effective poisoning procedure would be essential to the 
ultimate handling of the coyote problem. The results now being 
obtained surpass even the expectations at the beginning of the ex- 
periments. 

Inspectors and field assistants have given special attention to 
cooperative work with stockmen’s associations, which employ men 
to establish poison stations and distribute the baits in accordance 
with demonstrations and directions given them. Stockmen and their 
ranch foremen have also been trained in modern poisoning and 
trapping methods and have participated more extensively than ever 
before in the actual work. 


+ ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
‘ 

During the year an average force of 250 hunters, trappers, and 
poisoners was employed under bureau supervision, in addition to 
the thousands of stockmen who personally took part in the work. 
Part of the men employed were paid from Federal funds and part 
by the States and other cooperating agencies. During the year 
hunters took the skins or scalps of more than 29,300 predatory 
animals, of which 599 were wolves, 447 of these being the large gray 
wolves; 25,622 coyotes; 2,822 bobcats and Canada lynxes; 158 moun- 
tain lions; and 101 bears. Bears are regarded as game animals and 
no effort is made to take them, except individuals known to be de- 
structive to livestock. 

In view of the substitution of poisoning campaigns for other 
methods of field operations in most of the districts during six to 
nine months of the year, the number of skins and scalps taken is no 
longer a satisfactory gauge of the number of animals killed. Men 
spend practically their entire time in establishing poison stations 
and distributing baits, and relatively little time in searching for 
animals killed, as the value of the skin commonly does not pay for 
the time lost. One man in the Lemhi National Forest, Idaho, by use 
of an automobile maintained a poison line 700 miles in extent, which 
served to cover an area of about 5,000 square miles. This method 
of procedure has been strongly urged by stockmen, who, convinced 
of the effectiveness of the poisoning operations, are more concerned 
to have the poison distributed carefully on a large scale than to have 
hunters spend time searching for animals killed. The carcasses are 
usually found later by the stockmen. 

From 5 to 15 dead coyotes are commonly found near a single 
poison station, and one stockman reported having seen 22. In one 
day one of the demonstrators put out a poison line 35 miles long, 
and, returning along it the following morning, saw from his auto- 
mobile 14 dead coyotes. Another hunter, who put out 400 baits in 
the vicinity of several reservoirs, later found 57 dead coyotes, and a 
stockman reported finding 60 more coyotes that had been killed but 
had not been found and scalped by the hunter. The manager of a 
large ranch in Texas, on which about 12,400 baits were used, reported 
that at least 1,000 coyotes were killed. Previous to poisoning, a 
trapper on this range was able to take from 60 to 70 coyotes per 
month, but after poisoning the best a skilled trapper could do was to 
take 10 to 12 per month. 

Complete returns of predatory animals killed in the United States 
in poisoning campaigns can not be obtained, but the sudden marked 
reduction in the numbers of coyotes over great areas and the number 
of carcasses subsequently found by stockmen on their ranges and by 
hunters about poison stations where it has been possible to make 
careful observation, indicate the strong probability that not Jess than | 
75,000 coyotes were killed by the poisoning operations; the carcasses | 
of these were not found, however, in time to be recorded. Many | 
wolves, bobcats, and a few mountain lions also were poisoned, On 
the generally accepted basis of calculation the killing of these preda-_ 
tory animals with those of which the skins and scalps were secured — 
represents an annual saving in livestock and game of more than > 
$5,979,000. Skins sold during this year yielded $34,839 to the Fed- 
eral Government and $39,668 to cooperating States and stockmen’s 


associations. | 


| 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 5 


Poisoning operations are conducted chiefly from October to April, 
but effective work was done even in summer, especially about 
watering places in the drier areas used for winter grazing. When 
practicable the major poisoning operations are carried on at times 
when livestock is not present, poisoning on high summer ranges be- 
ing done just after the stock goes to lower lev els in fall. Poison sta- 
tions are placed systematically over the range, especially in occupied 
territory. The advantage of systematic placing is that, in addition 
to the effectiveness of killing, warning notices can be posted so that 
valuable dogs or other animals may be protected. In addition, poi- 
soned baits not taken by predatory animals can be picked up and 
destroyed or used elsewhere. 

Such systematic work on summer and winter ranges and on lamb- 
ing grounds has practically ended livestock losses over large areas. 
The destruction of predatory animals has been sufficient to enable 
many stockmen to reduce the number of men required to care for 
their flocks and herds. Some stockmen now report carrying their 
flocks through the lambing period with no loss whatever from 
coyotes, where previously losses were heavy. An important feature 
of this service is that it not only permits the stockmen to handle 
their herds at less expense but it also enables them to utilize the 
pasturage much more fully; to manage their stock to better 
advantage by eliminating long drives to bedding grounds; and to 
adopt the advantageous open-herding system. The destruction of 
predatory animals “has also in some places permitted sheep raising 
to be introduced where formerly it was excluded on account of the 
losses inflicted by predatory animals. 

Clearing the ranges of coyotes is proving a boon to the eattle- 
men as well as to the sheepmen, for with the practical elimination 
of the gray or timber wolf over much of the range country of the 
Western States, cattlemen have discovered that heavy losses of 
calves heretofore attributed to wolves have evidently been due to 
coyotes. 

In the campaign which has been waged for the destruction of 
timber wolves, most gratifying results have been obtained. An 
effective patrol maintained along the border of Mexico has resulted 
in the killing of many animals which were crossing from Mexican 
territory into the ranges of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. Per- 
sistent work with poison and traps has so reduced the number of 
adult timber wolves that it probably does not exceed 10 to 50 adult 
animals in any of the various Western States. The ranges of 
practically all the wolves which have proved destructive to live- 
stock are well known, and good headway has been made in clearing 
out these remnants. In many sections these animals have become 
so scarce that they are luring domestic dogs away as mates, and in 
a few instances are known to have produced litters of hybrid young. 

A number of notoriously destructive individuals and even small 
packs of wolves have been destroyed during the past year. Among 
them the following may be cited: 

In response to a telegram from stockmen ranging cattle near 
Thatcher, Colo., a hunter was detailed to take a wolf believed to 
be the leader of a pack depredating in the locality. Work against 
the wolves there had been in progress at intervals during the past 
five years, and inquiry established the fact that during the course 


6 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


of six weeks 20 head of cattle were killed and the tails were bitten 
off a number of small calves. The hunter succeeded in trapping an 
old male wolf, with the result that depredations were entirely 
stopped in the vicinity, and evidence showed that only a lone she 
wolf still remained in that area. This female mated with a collie 
dog, and in efforts to get her, the collie was killed by poison and 
later she was taken in a trap. The stockman, on whose ranch the 
wolf was killed, writes as follows: 

Old Three-Toes, as this particular wolf was. called, was caught in one of 
the Government traps especially constructed for wolves, and the hunter has 
caught two of her pups. With her capture ends the pack of which she was 
leader. Thousands of dollars worth of calves and sheep have been killed by 
this wolf and her pack. Just a few days prior to her capture, Old Three-Toes 
killed six calves here on our ranch, 11 miles west of Thatcher. We hold a 
private grudge against this old gray wolf, as she mated with our pet collie 
dog, even going so far as to dig him out of a pen. He heard the ‘“eall of 
the wild” and answered it, going off for days at a time, sometimes coming 
home for a few days. At last he went away for weeks and was finally 
poisoned by one of your men. This was a good thing, as a collie, hearing the 
“eall of the wild,” kills for his young, too. We extend our thanks for staying 
on the job and getting Old Three-Toes and her pack. Other stockmen join 
us in our praise of you and your men, as the loss from predatory animals 
has been reduced to almost nothing. ‘ 

A stockman in Arkansas makes the following statement regarding 
work accomplished in his locality: 

Your hunter accomplished here what all others failed to do. These wolves 
have been hunted persistently for years, consequently had become very 
shrewd and cunning. JI am one of the hunters of this locality myself, so 
realize what skill was required to capture such cunning animals. We have 
used every method we could think of against these wolves, but failed to do 
more than reduce them to some of the most cunning and destructive ones. 
We have used poison and traps and resorted to wolf drives, but still they 
stayed with us, tak ng an annual toll of thousands of dollars worth of calves, 
pigs, sheep, and goats. The second wolf your hunter captured was a notorious 
old male. I have known this wolf for the past five or six years and am quite 
positive that he participated in the killing of two large calves for me the past 
spring, as well as hundreds of pigs. It has been next to impossible for us’ to 
raise any hogs at all in this section. This particular wolf was an excep- 
tionally large, cunning old fellow, having killed thousands of dollars worth 
of livestock for the stockmen of this county. 

Another stockman reports that he missed a pig one morning and 
when the hunter ran his trap line that day he brought in a wolf 
with parts of the pig in her stomach. 


PREDATORY ANIMAL WORK IN MICHIGAN. 


Depredations of wolves on deer in northern Michigan became so 
serious in 1921 that at the request of the conservation commission of 
that State one of the most experienced and competent wolf hunters of 
the bureau was detailed to Michigan for the purpose of training war- 
dens to destroy these pests. Bounties on wolves, coyotes, weasels, 
woodchucks, crows, hawks, and owls, amounting to more than $312,- 
000, were paid during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1921. All 
bounty payments have now been discontinued. The present plan of 
conducting systematic trapping and poisoning campaigns through 
warden-hunters, trained by our experienced man, as mentioned 
above, is costing the State $35,000 annually, the expense being borne 
by funds derived from hunting licenses. The work has been so 
effective that in some sections wolves have entirely disappeared and 
elsewhere are being rapidly reduced in numbers. 


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BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 9 


NEW LURE FOR MOUNTAIN LIONS. 


One of the important developments of the year has been the intro- 
duction of oil of catnip as a lure in trapping and poisoning moun- 
tain lions and bobcats. Heretofore the taking of mountain lions 
has been exceedingly arduous work because of the rough and inac- 
cessible country which they frequent and the fact that it has been 
necessary chiefly to trail them with dogs and to shoot them when 
treed or driven into caves. A representative of the Biological 
Survey had ascertained that mountain lions and bobcats were at- 
tracted by the odor of catnip. Effort was made to obtain an extract 
of this plant or a synthetic product which would carry the attractive 
odor in a form sufficiently permanent for use in field operations. 
Oil of catnip was not produced on a commercial scale and the 
Bureau of Chemistry advised that only very minute quantities had 
ever been extracted in connection with laboratory experiments. 

The securing of a supply of oil of catnip for the desired purpose 
is a most interesting case of effective cooperation. From the Drug 
Investigations Division of the Bureau of Plant Industry the Bio- 
logical Survey in 1920 obtained a very small quantity, sufficient to 
determine that the oil carried the characteristic odor and that this 
would persist for several months when exposed in the open air. 
A small area was planted to catnip by the Bureau of Plant Industry 
on the Arlington Experimental Farm, from which enough was pro- 
duced to extract sufficient catnip oil for a thorough test in field 
operations. It was found that the oil of catnip could be diluted 
with oil of petrolatum and still retain the characteristic odor. This 
permitted a more extensive use of the limited supply, and through 
it several mountain lions and large numbers of bobcats have been 
lured into traps or to take poisoned baits. The odor of catnip ap- 
pears to exert an almost unfailing attraction for these animals and 
other members of the cat family. Discovery of this use of the mate- 
rial is an important contribution to the methods of taking these 
destructive animals, 


PREDATORY ANIMALS AND GAME. 


State game departments and sportsmen’s associations have coop- 
erated heartily with the bureau in efforts to destroy predatory ani- 
mals. Timber wolves, coyotes, wild cats, and foxes all join in game 
destruction, the kill being heaviest in winter when the snow is deep 
and especially in early spring after the snow becomes crusted. At 
this period wolves and coyotes often appear to kill for no apparent 
reason other than amusement or sheer lust of killing. During the 
spring and summer the losses of young game animals and the de- 
struction of ground-nesting birds, their nests, and young is one of 
the most serious checks on game increase. In many sections of the 
West, where operations have been in progress for a sufficient length 
of time for the reduction of predatory animals to become effective, 
State game departments report a notable increase in quail, grouse, 
and deer. 


8 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
RABIES, 


Sporadic outbreaks of rabies have continued to occur in a number 
of the Western States, but have. been kept under control by the 
prompt concentration of skilled hunters to destroy infected preda- 
tory animals and other carriers of the disease. 


RODENT PESTS. 


Investigations by the Biological Survey during a long period show 
conclusively that many species of rodents occupying the territory 
from the Great Plains west of the Mississippi River to the Pacific 
coast are exceedingly destructive to the most nutritious forage 
grasses and to crops. Through their excessive numbers they have 
thus become very serious competitors of livestock on hundreds of 
millions of acres as well as a heavy drain on the agricultural output. 
Losses from rodent pests in orchards, vineyards, and truck farms of 
the Eastern States are also reported to be severe by State officials and 
by employees of the bureau. 

In 1916 it was estimated that the losses through rodents in the 
Western States amounted to about $300,000,000, of which $150,000,- 
000 was in the destruction of forage and the remainder in the dey- 
astation of cultivated crops. This bureau, working in cooperation 
with State and local agencies, has conducted campaigns against 
these animals since that time and a large decrease in the losses has 
resulted. 

These campaigns have been organized with a view to correlating 
all Federal, State, and local agencies into an effective cooperative 
force so that the work might be so systematically planned and con- 
ducted as, one after another, to clear great areas of rodent pests. 
This work has been backed by a remarkably sustained interest and 
strong financial support on the part of farmers and stockmen, who 
recognize the direct and definite benefits from it. The magnitude of 
the results of the campaigns has been achieved largely through the 
fine cooperation of the States Relations Service, now the Office of 
Cooperative Extension Work, with the State extension organizations, 
including the county agricultural agents, and State and county farm 
bureaus. State departments of agriculture are taking an increasingly 
large part in the undertaking through the establishment of pest dis- 
tricts and enforcement of State laws which provide for the clearing 
of rodent-infested lands on petition of the resident landowners. 
Many other agricultural, horticultural, and livestock organizations 
have also taken active part. Officials of the Forest Service, of the 
Office of Indian Affairs, and of the Reclamation Service continued 
to cooperate heartily in campaigns involving Federal lands under 
their control. 

Where the strictly economic problems are involved with features 
relating to community health, as in bubonic and pneumonic plague, 
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, tularaemia, and kindred diseases dis- 
seminated by rodents, the bureau has continued to cooperate with 
the United States Public Health Service of the Treasury Depart- 
ment and with State, county, and municipal health organizations. 
Such cooperation is essential to an effective and economical handling 
of the work when such rodents as house rats and mice infest cities, 
villages, and the rural sections. 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 9 
PRAIRIE DOGS AND GROUND SQUIRRELS. 


Among rodent pests, one of the most conspicuous and destructive 
in the area which it inhabits is the prairie dog, but the various 
species of ground squirrels occupy a vastly larger area and because 
of their abundance and general distribution cause even heavier losses 
to farmers and stockmen. Prairie dogs occupy more than 120,000,000 
acres of grazing and farming land in 11 States, as follows: Texas, 
New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, 
South Dakota, North Dakota, and Montana. Ground squirrels of the 
various species infest practically the entire country west of the 
Mississippi River. These animals cause enormous losses by digging 
up the planted seeds of farm crops and by cutting down the growing 
crops throughout the season to harvest time. 

Over great areas both prairie dogs and ground squirrels reduce the 
forage available for livestock by as much as 25 per cent or more. 
Prairie dogs often completely denude productive lands of all grasses, 
leaving them to make barren wastes also of new locations where food 
is more readily available. In many places these bare areas grow up 
to worthless weeds and require several seasons before desirable for- 
age plants are able to become reestablished. In other cases the top 
soil is washed away down to the bedrock or to a clay base, leaving 
more or less permanently waste land. 

Not only do prairie dogs and ground squirrels select the more fer- 
tile lands, but their competition with livestock is rendered increas- 
ingly serious because they select and feed upon the same highly nutri- 
tious grasses which are most sought and fed upon by livestock. This 
not only results in a marked decrease in the numbers of livestock that 
can be carried on the grazing lands but it prevents complete success 
in efforts to increase the production of forage through improved 
range-management practices, such as deferred grazing or grazing 
rotation. The rodents prevent the normal growth and reestablish- 
ment of grasses during the interval that the stock are kept off such 
ranges, while the more abundant food supply thus made available to 
them is favorable to their more rapid multiplication, as it is found 
that their increase is closely correlated with the abundance of food. 

In organized campaigns against prairie dogs and ground squirrels 
13,673,079 acres of Federal and private lands were given a first treat- 
ment with poisoned baits during the year, and follow-up work was 
done on 12,358,315 acres. This makes a total of 11,093,884 acres of 
Federal and 97,718,640 acres of State and private lands on which 
the heavy percentage of these pests have been poisoned since 1916 in 
Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, 
Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Da- 
kota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. The bureau assumes the 
cost of operations on Federal land, although adjacent landowners 
often contribute the labor required for distribution of the poison and 
even the grain used as bait, in order that the limited Federal funds 
may be used to cover the largest possible acreage. State officials pro- 
vide for work on State lands and farmers and stockmen on their own 
holdings. Funds contributed by State and county appropriations 
and those expended by landowners in this cooperative undertaking 
during the year amounted to $592,812. 


67020—_23—2 


10 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Reduced cost of poison supplies made it possible materially to re- 
duce the cost of treating lands. Poisoned grain amounting to 1,323 
tons was prepared and distributed under the direction and super- 
vision of bureau representatives and cooperating State and county 
officials, and 210,682 pounds of carbon bisulphide were used in fumi- 
gating burrows to eradicate these rodents completely. Farmers and 
stockmen numbering more than 104,000 took active part in clearing 
their lands. Taking into consideration the low prices prevailing on 
farm crops and range grasses during the year, it is estimated that a 
saving of more than $8,000,000 was thus effected. The estimated sav- 
ing in crops and forage since this work was started on a large scale 
in 1916 totals $68,000,000. As lands are progressively and perma- 
nently cleared of these pests the savings effected become permanent 
additions to their productiveness. 

Field operations against these rodents progressed during the year 
to a point where it appeared practicable to lay plans for three-year 
campaigns to exterminate the rodents in a systematic manner from 
great units of land. From 75 to 95 per cent of the animals are 
usually destroyed by the first poisoning treatment and the new plan 
of procedure contemplates follow-up applications of poisoned grain 
and carbon bisulphide or other fumigants to complete the work by 
the third year. In addition to several counties in western States 
which are now reported completely cleared of prairie dogs. many 
others have been cleared to a point where only an occasional prairie 
dog or ground squirrel can be found. Over enormous areas of farm- 
ing land the repressive measures employed have made it possible for 
farmers completely to protect their crops from damage in regions 
where the loss had been excessively heavy and where in many in- 
stances it covered the entire crop. 

The work is so organized and conducted as to make available to 
all farmers and stockmen supplies of poisoned bait at a moderate 
cost. Arrangements made by the bureau for the cooperative pur- 
chase of poisons in large quantities have greatly reduced the cost of 
these supplies. So far as local conditions make it practicable, field 
operations ‘are being planned with a view to complete eradication 
over great areas to eliminate permanently the worst rodent pests. 
Operations will be extended from cleared areas as centers to prevent 
reinfestation. The work is being correlated along the borders of 
adjacent States for the purpose of protecting cleared areas in one 
State from reinfestation from adjoining lands in another. In re- 
gions where rodents are regularly extending their ranges they are 
attacked along the border of such extensions and pushed back. 
Western Arizona affords a good example of this kind, where the 
westward movement of prairie dogs was stopped by clearing an in- 
festation on a front 75 miles long and 10 miles deep. Without this 
check there was serious danger of their spreading over into millions 
of acres of new territory. 

In some instances county eradication campaigns reached the point 
where only a few rodents were to be seen, and there was a tendency 
for landowners to slacken in the work. A number of counties which 
failed to continue effectively the follow-up work suffered consider- 
able reinfestation and came to a realization of the danger that the 
rodents might return to their former abundance and destructiveness. 
The work has been taken up again in earnest with a view to perma- 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 11 


nent riddance of these destructive animals, and other counties are 
profiting by this experience. The lack of sufficient Federal funds 
to poison all Federal lands bordering on treated private holdings is 
seriously impeding the progress of the cooperative campaigns and 
this is becoming an increasing source of appeal on the part of land- 
owners who have cleared their holdings and feel that they should be 
protected from reinfestation from public lands. 


POCKET GOPHERS. 


Recognition of the damage wrought by pocket gophers in orchards 
and vineyards and in alfalfa and truck crop fields has brought about 
an increasing demand for operations against them. Successful 
completion of campaigns against the prairie dogs and ground 
squirrels in many counties has served as a stimulus to under- 
take the more difficult task of destroying pocket gophers. As these 
are burrowing animals, the damage to plants occurs chiefly under- 
ground and is often irreparable before the cause is noted. Knowl- 
edge of the actual damage being done by these animals and demon- 
stration that it can be effectively controlled at a reasonable cost 
has led to extensive field operations against them during the year. 
Such operations have proved that these pests can be successfully 
eradicated through the use of various vegetable, grain, alfalfa, or 
clover baits treated with strychnine and properly placed in the run- 
ways, and by the use of traps of special design. 

Work against pocket gophers has been undertaken on a consid- 
erable scale in Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska, New 
Mexico, Oregon, Texas, Utah, and Washington, and considerable 
demonstration work has been done in a number of other States. In 
Arizona notable progress has been made in eliminating pocket 
gophers from the citrus and date orchards, with the result that very 
few trees have been killed by these animals during the past year in 
such localities. Practically all orchardists in the citrus belt coop- 
erated in treating their holdings with poisoned sweet potato baits. 
One orchardist who had lost over $10,000 worth of trees from 
pocket-gopher damage suffered no losses whatever this year, a result 
of the effective work done. In California it was found that the 
pocket gopher had gradually worked its way entirely around to the 
northern end of the Salton Sea and had made its appearance in the 
Coachella Valley. This presented a serious danger to the Govern- 
ment date gardens established there. As the pocket-gopher injury to 
a date palm is well concealed until the tree is permanently injured, 
it appeared advisable that work be done at once to check the infesta- 
tion, and steps were taken to that end. 

In the mountain parks and pasture ranges throughout the Rocky 
Mountain region pocket gophers are doing an extensive injury to 
grazing and hay meadows. The introduction of the promising head- 
lettuce industry into the mountain valleys of Colorado has made the 
work of controlling pocket gophers of far greater importance than 
formerly, and they are now looked upon there as one of the greatest 
pests. 

In seven of the important alfalfa-producing counties of Kansas 
extensive operations against pocket gophers have been conducted. 
A test was made on 57,400 acres, and the results proved so satisfac- 


12 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


tory that plans were laid to continue the work on a still larger scale 
during the coming year. Many alfalfa fields have been entirely 
freed of these pests and others have only an occasional animal 
where formerly there were large numbers. Chief reliance was placed 
on poisoned vegetable or grain baits, but large numbers of traps also 
were employed. 

In Utah 40,254 acres of highly cultivated land were treated by the 
owners to destroy pocket gophers. This was undertaken after dem- 
onstrations were made and other educational work done to show 
landowners the proper way to use poison and after arrangements 
‘were made for them to obtain the required poison supplies in con- 
venient form. In Sevier County, Utah, an interesting demonstra- 
tion was made on an 80-acre field in which 78 acres were treated with 
poison at a total cost for labor and poison of $10. The following 
spring an examination of the field showed by actual count only 6 live 
pocket-gopher workings on the 78 acres that were treated, while on 
the remaining 2 acres which were left untreated as a check plot there 
were 15 live workings. 

In Nebraska 53,870 acres were treated in a pocket-gopher cam- 
paign and 26 counties included pocket-gopher work in their farm 

bureau programs. In Oklahoma 480 pocket gophers were trapped 
~ on one 80-acre tract. An Oklahoma cooperator writes of the results 
accomplished as follows: 

It is hard to estimate the value of the pocket-gopher trapping which was done 
in my alfalfa fields last spring through increased yield, for the reason that 
there is not a similar field of alfalfa with which to make comparison, and to 
compare with last season is not fair because of the difference in growing condi- 
tions in the two seasons. From long experience as an alfalfa grower, however, 
I do believe that there is a sufficient increase in yield fully to justify the work 
to say nothing of the advantages the elimination of the pocket gopher gives to 
the harvesting of hay, which alone are worth the cost of exterminating them. 

Much interest was shown in the eradication of pocket gophers 
along irrigation canal banks and in the intensively cultivated irri- 
gated districts. This is due both to the direct damage which they do 
by feeding on the crops and to their burrows in the banks of the irri- 
gation canals. These burrows frequently cause destructive washouts, 
entailing a serious loss of water, often at a critical period, and expen- 
sive repairs, and at the same time may damage the orchards and 
crops by flooding. Considerable work of this character has been 
done during the past year in cooperation with the Reclamation Sery- 
ice of the Department of the Interior and with water users’ associa- 
tions. A notable example of the benefits from work against pocket 
gophers is on the Elephant Butte Project, in New Mexico and Texas. 

In Oregon pocket-gopher work was confined almost entirely to 
Polk County, where a clean-up campaign was inaugurated. Very 
general satisfaction is expressed with the results to date by most of 
the farmers in the district. Some of them report that there are 
absolutely no pocket gophers left on their land, and most of the 
others report one or two where there were formerly dozens or even 
hundreds. To complete the work some of this area still needs to be 
given a third treatment. To date, first treatment has been completed 
on 20,770 acres, and of this 18,395 acres have been given a secon: 
treatment and 8,800 acres a third. The work will be continued 
during the fall of 1923 on a larger scale. 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 13 


Pocket-gopher campaigns in Idaho include work in eight counties, 
where more than 1,650 quarts of bait were used on about 78,000 
acres and considerable trapping was done in connection with the 
poisoning operations. 


JACK RABBITS. 


Great fluctuations in numbers characterize the occurrence of jack 
rabbits throughout their range. Relatively little work against them 
has been required during the past year. The very extensive poison- 
ing and driving campaigns which were conducted in Idaho, Oregon,, 
and Washington during the fiscal year 1922 resulted in such a 
marked reduction in their numbers that little damage has been 
réported since. 

In Nevada, where serious damage has been done from time to time 
and extended poisoning campaigns have been conducted with good. 
effect, it has been reported that jack rabbits were destroyed in large: 
numbers by a disease and that they did relatively little damage. In 
Utah 334,000 jack rabbits are reported killed as a result of the 
campaigns which were conducted. 

In limited campaigns organized in four counties in Idaho about 
6,100 pounds of poisoned bait were used on 51,000 acres, and a few 
drives were also conducted. In Kansas, Montana, and Texas it is 
reported that jack rabbits are on the increase, and as considerable 
damage is being done locally, interest is awakening in the maugu- 
ration of control measures. Where these animals occur in large 
numbers they are capable of doing serious damage to growing crops, 
range grasses, meadows, hay in stacks, and to orchards and vine- 
hae but methods for destroying them on a large scale have been. 

ound. 


MEADOW MICE, PINE MICE, POCKET MICE, AND KANGAROO RATS, 


Under favorable conditions the various kinds of native mice be- 
come excessively abundant locally, and, although small in size, col- 
lectively they do serious damage in orchards, gardens, and truck 
farms. During the previous year meadow mice appeared in de- 
structive numbers in many of the important orchard sections of 
Idaho and Washington. Where these were foreseen in time the use: 
of poisons recommended by the bureau prevented serious damage, 
but in many localities where such action was not taken the loss im 
trees was heavy. ‘This situation emphasized the importance of fore- 
sight in dealing with local outbreaks of these small rodents. 

During this year such outbreaks of orchard mice occurred in 
Yakima, Chelan, Okanogan, Grant, Douglas, and Kittitas Counties, 
in Washington, and necessitated control measures. A questionnaire 
sent to orchardists showed that in Yakima County 292 growers: 
reported 4,598 trees girdled during the previous winter. In Chelan 
County a loss of 900 trees was reported. As the trees are from 1 
to 15 years old, and valued at from $5 to $100 each, the importance 
of controlling the mice is evident. A general poisoning campaign 
was started the 1st of November, Deas is a very favorable time. 
Steamed-rolled oats proved a most satisfactory carrier of the poison. 
In this campaign 19,600 acres of orchard land were treated by more 
than 1,400 cooperators. 


14 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Based on reports received from orchardists, it is estimated that 
not less than $100,000 worth of trees were saved in the Yakima 
Valley as a result of these poisoning operations and that the com- 
bined savings for all counties would amount to not less than $250,000. 
One grower stated that he had “55 trees damaged before poisoning; 
none after poisoning; all damage stopped; value to me, $500.” 
Another grower writes: “ Poisoned as near 100 per cent as possible; 
believe every tree in my orchard (4,800) would have been killed.” 
These statements are typical of many received from other orchard- 
ists. Trees once girdled have relatively little chance of complete re- 
covery. Bridge grafting may save a good percentage, but the fruit 
is usually lost for a period of two years and the trees weakened to 
such an extent that often they blow over. The injured parts also 
afford harborage for insect pests, particularly the woolly aphis. 

In Idaho, field mice were not very numerous during the past year 
and did damage in only a few communities. Poisoning operations 
were conducted in Ada County, where 480 acres of orchard were 
treated, 600 quarts of poisoned bait being used. 

Pine mice continued to do much injury in orchards when the ground 
was covered with snow, and considerable loss of potatoes, sweet 
potatoes, and other root or tuber crops and flower bulbs was reported. 
The experiments conducted resulted in developing a much more effec- 
tive poison preparation and in devising a simple and relatively inex- 
pensive method of distribution. Very satisfactory protection was 
thus given to orchards, as the poison so distributed continues effective 
for a long period during the winter. 

Pocket mice did a considerable amount of damage to grain in parts 
of Adams and Franklin Counties, Wash. A few farmers applied 
control measures, but relatively little work for the destruction of 
these rodents was undertaken, despite the fact that pocket mice can 
be controlled very easily. 

In the control of kangaroo rats, which at times cause extensive 
damage to open ranges, a limited amount of assistance has been given 
landowners. In many instances, where infestation is heavy, kangaroo 
rats are a critical factor in determining the numbers of livestock 
that can be grazed on the area and interfere materially with natural 
reseeding by destroying quantities of seeds of native grasses. They 
also attack fields of sprouting grain and various vegetable crops. 
As a result of demonstrations given in El] Paso County, Tex., several 
hundred pounds of oatmeal baits were distributed to protect the 
cantaloupes on irrigated lands. An expenditure of $30 in this in- 
stance saved several thousands of dollars worth of melons to the 
producers. 

WOODCHUCKS. 


Many complaints of unusual abundance of woodchucks and dam- 
age by them have been received during the year from points through- 
out the northern United States. These animals not only damage 
garden vegetables, but also alfalfa, clover, and other valuable forage 
plants. Their burrows often cause erosion to start, resulting in the 
washing out of extensive gullies. Investigational work was con- 
ducted in the Eastern States with a view to determining baits and 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 15) 


poisoning or fumigating methods which would be effective in destroy- 
ing these animals. 

In the Northwestern States woodchucks did considerable damage to 
alfalfa and clover crops adjacent to the rocky ridges amid which 
they live. The most extensive campaign against them was conducted 
in Okanogan County, Wash., but some work was also done in Doug- 
las, Grant, Kittitas, and Yakima Counties in the same State. It is 
estimated that about 19,000 woodchucks were killed there, affording 
protection to nearly 10,000 acres of crops and resulting in a substan- 
tial saving. 

HOUSE RATS AND MICE. 


The bureau continued to furnish information through bulletins 
and special articles on the destructiveness of house rats and mice, 
the danger to health involved in their presence, and the practical 
methods possible for their control, This information has been very 
widely used by magazines, farm journals, and newspapers, and by 
educational workers and public-spirited citizens in bringing to the 
attention of individuals and communities the importance of applying 
direct, vigorous measures for the eradication of these pests. ‘Two 
specialists of the bureau have been engaged during a large part of 
the year in demonstrating control measures through the extension 
services of the agricultural colleges and in assisting with the 
organization of antirat campaigns in States east of the Mississippi 
' River, The entire force of rodent-control specialists employed by 
the bureau in States west of the Mississippi has also cooperated in a 
similar way in arousing interest in this important undertaking and 
aiding in the organization and conduct of campaigns looking to the 
eradication of these animals. In this way practically nation-wide 
attention has been given to the matter of getting rid of rats, and 
greater repugnance is being manifested to the presence of these pests 
and an intolerance of the waste due to their depredations. 

Effort toward rat riddance has assumed larger proportions and 
more definiteness of procedure. It is coming to be recognized that 
the intelligent and persistent application of a few simple measures 
will serve to rid a farm or acommunity of rats. Experience has shown 
that rats can not long survive a concerted and sustained campaign 
against them. During the year the bureau has given particular atten- 
tion to the working out of detailed plans of organization for use in 
large-scale operations. Looking to the permanent elimination of the 
rat pest, emphasis has been placed on the following features: Rat- 
proof construction or repair of buildings; the closing of all open- 
ings which provide entrance for rats, including the screening of 
basement windows; prompt disposal of garbage and elimination of 
piles of trash and refuse where rats find food or harborage; the 
poisoning of rats with barium carbonate in barns, granaries, ware- 
houses, and other buildings in which the use of poison is practicable ; 
systematic trapping where for any reason the use of poison is in- 
advisable; the fumigation of rat burrows with carbon bisulphide 
or hydrocyanic-acid gas; the use of effective rat dogs; and the organi- 
zation of community rat-killing drives. The plans of procedure 
which are being followed involve educational effort to arouse the 
public to a definite realization of the damage and danger involvea 


16 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


in the presence of rats and to stimulate definite operative measures 
for the exclusion and destruction of rats. 

One of the most striking instances of an extended and well- 
organized antirat campaign was that undertaken during the year in 
the State of Virginia. Two specialists of the bureau cooperated 
with the extension service of the Virginia Agricultural College, 
including the county agents and home-demonstration workers. 
Other State agencies also joined actively in the undertaking. The 
governor issued a proclamation on the subject. The Virginia De- 
partment of Agriculture distributed campaign publicity. The Vir- 
cinia division of markets put on an advertising campaign and 
assisted in numerous other ways. The State Board of Education 
carried the message of rat riddance effectively through the schools. 
The State Board of Health issued circular letters and other publicity 
matter. The State Farm Bureau Federation purchased and dis- 
tributed all poison used, besides giving out much publicity and 
aiding the organized effort in many ways. The Virginia Bankers’ 
Association sent out letters to all bankers within the State urging 
their cooperation and financial support. The Virginia Parent- 
Teachers’ Association sent a letter to all local parent-teachers’ asso- 
ciations urging their participation. The Cooperative Educational 
Association sent out circular letters urging cooperation. Other or- 
ganizations, including the Farmers’ Union, the State organization 
of Rotary Clubs, the Peanut Growers’ Association, local chambers 
of commerce, farm bureaus, women’s clubs, farmers’ clubs, and 
many others entered heartily into the campaigns. Banks, farm bu- 
reaus, county commissioners, merchants, and many other organiza- 
tions were liberal in financial assistance, and the newspapers of the 
State responded in a most gratifying and helpful way by giving 
many columns of space to the campaign propaganda. Valuable 
support came from the public schools, many of the campaigns being 
carried out almost exclusively through them. 

Carefully compiled reports from the county agents of 71 counties 
in which the campaigns were conducted indicate that more than 
500,000 rats were destroyed, and persons competing for prizes turned 
in 91,365 rat-tails; 158,198 people participated in the campaigns; 
44,198 pounds of barium carbonate were distributed; 125,585 pieces 
of publicity material were circulated ; 126,000 copies of poison direc- 
tions, 10,000 posters, and 21,900 mimeographed letters and circulars 
were issued by the Virginia Extension Service; and prizes offered 
for rattails totaled $2,332 in value. 

The total cost of the Virginia campaign was $7,444. As the aver- 
age damage done by a rat in the course of a year is estimated at $2, 
the number of rats reported destroyed would represent a saving of 
produce and other property of more than a million dollars. 

Important by-products of such campaigns are the interest aroused 
and definite action taken looking toward improved sanitation in 
individual homes, on farms, in villages, and in cities. The adoption 
of ordinances providing for the construction and repair of buildings 
with a view to the exclusion of rats and the improvement of sewage 
and garbage disposal frequently follow. The active and effective 
participation of the people of a community in such a concerted drive 
also cultivates a sense of community responsibility, a tendency to- 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. ily 


ward individual and community thrift, and a spirit of community 
teamwork that is far-reaching in its influence and helpfulness. 

The development of the poultry industry in many sections of the 
country has brought a realization of the seriousness of the damage 
wrought by rats as destroyers of eggs and young chicks, and as pos- 
sible carriers of avian tuberculosis. Much interest has been mani- 
fested in rat destruction by poultry producers, and special attention 
has been given by the bureau to meeting their requirements. 

Investigations have been continued to improve methods of com- 
bating rats, including experimental studies of the effectiveness of 
various rat viruses on the market. Laboratory studies and field 
trials were made in cooperation with the Bureau of Animal Indus- 
try, and a number of agricultural college experiment stations also 
conducted bacteriological studies and laboratory tests of these 
products, all of which confirmed former conclusions that the use of 
poisons now available give more economical and effective results. 


MOLES. 


Due to widespread complaints regarding damage by moles in 
lawns, gardens, truck farms, pastures, and hay meadows, the bureau 
has continued investigations designed to simplify and make more ef- 
fective methods for combating these animals. Assistance has been 
given those who have reported damage due to moles by furnishing 
them, through correspondence, bulletins, or demonstrations, informa- 
tion on the most practical known methods for their control. 


PRODUCTION OF DOMESTIC RABBITS. 


Inquiries continually come to the bureau regarding the produc- 
tion of domestic rabbits as a source of meat and fur. The bureau 
has kept in touch with officials of National and State organizations 
of rabbit breeders, and information has been furnished regarding 
the care, feeding, and management of these animals. Recommenda- 
tions have been made, in cooperation with the Bureau of Agricul- 
tural Economics, regarding procedure which would afford the most 
satisfactory results in developing a market for the animals produced. 


FUR-BEARING ANIMALS. 


Investigations regarding the rearing of fur-bearing animals in 
captivity have been carried forward vigorously during the past year, 
and progress of a very fundamental character has been made. The 
bureau has kept in close touch with those engaged in rearing fur- 
bearing animals, with dealers in raw furs, and with those engaged in 
dressing and dyeing furs and manufacturing fur products. 

The formation of State and National organizations designed to 
serve the interests of the industry, to gather information regarding 
the progress made, and to establish an adequate system of record and 
registration has been encouraged. Most gratifying progress has 
been made along these lines. Encouragement has also been given to 
the enactment of legislation which would prove effective in the con- 
servation of fur-bearing animals with a view to maintaining a perma- 
nent supply. In response to requests, assistance has been given a 


67020—23——3 


18 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


number of States in revising existing laws or in framing new ones 
relative to protecting and rearing fur animals. 

The active help of State game commissions, conservation societies, 
and the fur trade has been enlisted in conserving the wild fur bear- 
ers, since maintenance of a supply adequate to meet the requirements 
of the fur trade is of the utmost importance. An encouraging step 
was taken at the recent International Fur Exposition, held in New 
York City, where those assembled went on record as favoring the 
formation of a national association for the purpose of devoting con- 
siderable effort to the study of the problems of conservation as they 
affect the industry. The fur trade realizes that the future of the 
industry is dependent upon an assured source of supply of raw furs. 

Fur farming is coming to be an important factor in the mainte- 
nance of the supply of fur-bearing animals and its development 
along sound lines is being encouraged. The number of persons 
engaged in the production of silver foxes in captivity is steadily 
increasing, and great interest is being manifested in this and other 
lines of fur production. Since the production of fur bearers in 
captivity is a comparatively recent enterprise it is not supported by 
the exhaustive research data enjoyed by similar industries of longer 
standing. Constant effort is being made by the bureau through its 
scientific investigations to obtain the information essential to the 
requirements of this growing industry. 

Important progress has been made in studies of fur-bearing 
animals at the experimental fur farm at Keeseville, N. Y., including 
investigations of the prevalence of internal and external parasites 
of foxes, determinations of the age and seasonal susceptibility of the 
animals to infestation and their tendency to develop immunity toward 
such infestation, and experiments with remedial agents for the 
removal of parasites. Improved methods of administering remedies 
have been devised and valuable data have been secured regarding 
the tolerance of foxes to various medicinal drugs. Such information 
is essential to proper treatment at various ages and under different 
conditions of health and vigor. As a basis for clinical and diagnos- 
tic work studies have been continued of various features of the physi- 
ology of foxes, including the pulse, respiration, and temperature. 

A number of fox farms were visited for the purpose of studying 
outbreaks of contagious disease, as fox influenza, which in some 
instances proved serious. 

Experiments were continued with pens so equipped with concrete 
or board floors that they can be washed daily, to determine their 
effectiveness in preventing the infestation of foxes with internal 
parasites. Special attention was given to the use of these pens at the 
time of whelping and for care of the pups during the first few weeks, 
and they were found to be much better for use at whelping time than 
pens with earth floors. 

A bulletin on silver fox farming, which reviews the history of fox 
farming and covers such essential features as suitable sites for a 
ranch, proper organization, and satisfactory practices in breeding, 
feeding, and management of foxes, was published during the year. 
As an indication of the interest in fox farming, it may be stated that 


applications were filed for a large portion of the original edition of | 


10,000 copies of this bulletin before it had left the press. 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 19 


The chief fur expert of the Biological Survey made an extended 
trip among the blue-fox farms of Alaska during the early part of 
the year on the bureau’s power cruiser Sea Otter and obtained valu- 
able information which it is intended to publish in a bulletin on 
the blue-fox farming industry. In cooperation with the chief fur 
warden of the bureau and representatives of the Forest Service, he 
assisted in the organization of two associations of blue-fox farmers. 


FOOD HABITS RESEARCH. 


EXAMINATION OF STOMACHS OF BIRDS. 


In the course of the fiscal year 2,302 stomachs of birds were re- 
ceived and incorporated in the collection, preparatory to examina- 
tion. Laboratory work on the examination of various bird stomachs 
included 561 English sparrows, making the total examined for this 
species about 5,100. Examination of the stomachs of five species of 
Mes birds has been completed and the data secured therefrom tabu- 
lated, preparatory to the preparation of a report on their economic 
status. In a continuation of a study of the food of birds of prey 331 
stomachs and 248 pellets representing 10 species were analyzed. Con- 
siderable recently acquired material of fish-eating birds has been ex- 
amined with the object of incorporating the data obtained in the 
manuscript previously prepared on the food habits of these birds. 
Additional material examined includes stomachs of band-tailed 
pigeons, studied in their relation to grain crops in California, and 
of domestic pigeons in relation to an imported snail now destructive 
in the vicinity of La Jolla, Calif. 

In response to a request from persons in the Dominican Republic 
engaged in raising cacao, examination was made of two lots of stom- 
ach material of the “carpintero,” a woodpecker having rather pro- 
nounced vegetarian habits, From the food preferences revealed it is 
apparent that this bird may become destructive to corn and the 
cacao, into the green fruit of which it drills holes to feed on the pulp. 
Other examinations made for correspondents included stomachs of 
ruffed grouse, from NewEngland; pileated woodpeckers and pigmy 
owls, from Oregon; several species of hawks and owls, chiefly from 
New York; crossbills, from Illinois; swifts, from Washington; and 
wild ducks, from Argentina. 


PINYON JAY CONTROL, 


The status of the pinyon jay in its relation to grain crops was 
investigated during the year, and measures for control during the 
corn harvest were devised. Damage by the bird to wheat also occurs 
when it is in the shock, and the year’s efforts were directed toward 
finding effective and economical means of control during that period. 
Experiments conducted in Colorado indicated that poisoning is only 
moderately successful during the wheat harvest and is economical 
only in small fields so situated that there is likely to be a concen- 
tration of jays in a limited area which can be baited. The great 
danger of killing mourning doves through poisoned baits placed in 
wheat stubble precludes the possibility of extensive poisoning cam- 
paigns against pinyon jays during the wheat harvest. Recommenda- 
tion was made, therefore, that control measures for these birds be 


20 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


conducted during the corn season wherever this crop is grown, and 
during winter wherever the birds congregate. 


RELATION OF GROUSE TO ORCHARDS. 


During the winter of 1922-23 the bureau received complaints of 
depredations by ruffed grouse feeding on the buds of apple trees in 
several of the New England States. In New Hampshire the situa- 
tion resulted in a public hearing being called at Concord, at which 
the Biological Survey was represented for the purpose of presenting 
data on the food habits and economic tendencies of these birds. 
From the information presented at this hearing and from other 
sources it is apparent that grouse have become very abundant during 
the past few years and under some conditions are inflicting damage. 
Reports to this effect have been substantiated by stomach examina- 
tion of birds collected. History shows that the abundance of grouse 
runs in cycles of years, and it is believed that the present condition 
is temporary, and that a year or two will see a reduction in their 
numbers with a resultant decrease of damage. 


WILD-FOWL FOOD RESOURCES. 


Continued progress was made in the survey of aquatic food for 
wild fowl, work being done in Maine, New York, Minnesota, Michi- 
gan, and Montana. Owing to the multitude of lakes in Minnesota, 
work in that State will have to be continued at least one more season 
before representative bodies of water in all lake regions of the State 
can be studied. In Montana 25 localities were investigated in carry- 
ing out a cooperative project, and as a result a report on the wild- 
duck foods of Montana was prepared for publication. In Michigan 
another cooperative piece of work was started in which local assist- 
ance was given investigators of the bureau in a survey of aquatic 
plant life. In Maine the waters of Lafayette National Park and a 
few lakes on the near-by mainland were surveyed. In connection 
with all this work recommendations for the improvement of the 
waters studied were made to interested persons. 


MISCELLANEOUS WORK IN ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 


A preliminary investigation was made of the relation of pelicans 
to trout and other fish in Pyramid Lake, Nev. It is planned to 
make a thorough study of this problem during the next breeding 
season of these birds. 

A special survey of Jekyl Island, Ga., was made, with recommenda- 
tions for improving conditions for bird life in general. 

Important additions have been made to the reference study collec- 
tions of various kinds, all of which assist materially in the study of 
food habits. These included insects, mollusks, crustaceans, other 
invertebrates, and vertebrates of various kinds, as well as seeds and 
other plant structures. 

A manuscript on the magpie in relation to agriculture, based on 
the examination of 547 stomachs, has been prepared. Its publica- 
tion, however, will be delayed until the results of control experiments 
planned for the winter of 1923-24 can be incorporated in it. 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 21 


Manuscript for a revised bulletin on bird houses also has been 
largely completed, along with a series of sketches illustrative of prin- 
ciples in bird-house construction. A circular on the various names 
by which migratory game birds are known locally is in press. 


WAR GASES AS BIRD-CONTROL AGENCIES. 


Through a cooperative arrangement with the Chemical Warfare 
Service, experiments were conducted at the Edgewood Arsenal, Md., 
to determine whether some of the common war gases might be 
of use in the control of certain injurious birds, which for one rea- 
son or another do not lend themselves to poisoning operations. Use 
was made of the ample facilities for such work at the toxicological 
laboratory at the arsenal, and through the cooperative help of the 
laboratory staff extensive series of asphyxiation tests were made for 
the purpose of discovering a gas that would be lethal to birds, yet 
safe to use in agricultural sections. 

English sparrows and domestic pigeons were used in the tests and 
were subjected, in varying concentrations and exposures, to the action 
of phosgene, “ mustard,” methyldichloroarsine, chloropicrin, chlorine, 
and bromocyanogen. A comparison of the results here obtained with 
the lethal dose for a dog (considered to approximate that for a human 
being?) indicated that consistent results could not be expected against 
the birds in doses less than one-third of the lethal dose for man. In 
some instances birds survived after being subjected to a full lethal 
dose for a human being. Owing to the fact that such high concen- 
trations are required, as well as to the factors of cost and the diffi- 
culty of handling, it is apparent that, with the possible exception of 
a limited use of chlorine or chloropicrin, the common war gases have 
no utility as bird-control agents. Chlorine and chloropicrin, as well 
as the others, can be released only in sections where their effect on 
vegetation would not be objectionable. 


FOOD HABITS OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS. 


Progress has been made in the study of the food habits of reptiles 
and amphibians, including the critical examination of 642 stomachs 
of toads, representing 19 species, from North and Central America 
and the West Indies. Important additions were made to the card- 
index files on subjects relating to food habits, behavior, life histories, 
and other general information regarding reptiles and amphibians. 
A mimeographed account of the common toad, including information 
on its range, life history, and economic status, was prepared. About 
550 stomachs of amphibians were added to the collection, including 
300 presented by Cornell University. 


EXAMINATION OF STOMACHS OF MAMMALS. 


An examination of 85 stomachs of grasshopper mice was made and 
a report prepared on the food habits of these beneficial rodents. Ap- 
proximately 380 stomachs have been added to the collection during 
the fiscal year. 


67020—23——-4 


22 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 


As during previous years, the work of the Division of Biological 
Investigations has been conducted with the view of furnishing the 
basic scientific information needed for the proper administration 
of the various duties intrusted to the bureau—the enforcement of 
the migratory-bird treaty act and the Lacey Act, the management 
of big game and bird refuges, the numerous activities bearing on the 
conservation of game birds and mammals, and all the varied rela- 
tions of birds and mammals to agriculture, forestry, and animal 
husbandry. Owing to the limitation of funds the biological surveys 
of States, as well as other field activities, have been curtailed. Prog- 
ress has been made in adding to the files of information, mainly in 
the form of card indexes, on the distribution, abundance, and habits 
of North American mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. These 
files, being an accumulation dating from the establishment of the 
bureau many years ago, now contain by far the largest mass of 
data on wild life in readily accessible form in existence. They 
comprise notes gathered from all available sources, including the 
field notes of the bureau staff, published accounts in books and 
periodicals, manuscripts from volunteer observers and friends of 
the bureau, and notes gleaned from correspondence and other sources. 
The value of the card catalogues is constantly increasing; they 
are in daily use to furnish information desired by other govern- 
ment departments, officials of State and municipal organizations, 
museums and other educational institutions, and individuals through- 
out the United States and in many foreign countries. 


BIOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF STATES. 


Actual field work in connection with State surveys was confined 
to Wisconsin, Arizona, and Florida. In Wisconsin a field party 
worked during August and September in several widely separated 
sections, visiting a number of localities the fauna of which still 
needed investigation. In October an assistant visited the north- 
western part of Arizona, completing certain field work required in 
that section of the State. Through the generosity of a naturalist 
friend of the bureau, who paid the expenses of an investigator, it 
was possible to make a survey of the bird and mammal life of a 
considerable area in central Florida during March, April, and May, 
thus adding materially to our knowledge of the distribution and 
breeding habits of the birds of that region. Several rare and in- 
teresting species were studied in the field and valuable original data 
obtained. 

Progress was made also in the preparation of reports on the 
fauna of States. A report on the mammals of Wyoming was com- 
pleted and one on the mammals of Oregon is partly completed. Re- 
ports on the birds and mammals of the State of Washington and 
of the birds of Florida are well advanced. Other reports already 
completed but awaiting publication include annotated lists of the 
mammals of New Mexico and North Dakota and of the birds of 
New Mexico and Texas. 


s e_ ka ceieniad 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 23 


DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 


Bird migration reports were received from about 285 volunteer 
observers; a number of these have been sending in records from the 
same localities for more than 20 years, and a few as long as 30 years. 
The cumulative value of such series of records can scarcely be esti- 
mated. The card catalogue of the bird collection was brought up to 
date, and considerable work was done in rearranging the study 


collection of birds. 
BIRD CENSUSES. 


Reports on the birds breeding on definite areas, usually selected 
as affording a variety of topographic conditions and different types 
of vegetative cover, numbered about 100, nearly double the number 
received during the previous year. Many of these involved areas 
which had been reported on during several previous years, thus 
affording an index to such local fluctuations in bird life as may have 
occurred. A publication on this subject, the third report on bird 
censuses in the United States, covering the period from 1916 to 1920, 
inclusive, was in press at the close of the year. 


BIRD BANDING. 


The work of banding birds, as an aid to the study of distribution 
and migration, made material progress during the year. More than 
25,000 birds were banded and the number of cooperators increased 
to 851, of whom 63 are in Canada. During the shooting season 668 
returns of banded ducks were reported, which has added much to 
our knowledge of the seasonal movements of these important species. 
There has been a gratifying increase in the number of persons under- 
taking the operation of trapping stations, by means of which the 
best returns of the small nongame birds are obtained, and the results 
have been correspondingly satisfactory. 

In October the Inland Bird Banding Association, formed to coor- 
dinate the activities of cooperators of the bureau in the Mississippi 
Valley, was organized in Chicago, the work of this organization 
being in a measure similar to that of the New England Bird Banding 
Association, which was formed in 1921. Plans have been formulated 
looking to the organization of similar regional associations covering 
the Atlantic seaboard and the Pacific slope. 

An important feature of the year’s progress has been the perfect- 
ing by a private firm of machinery which makes it possible to manu- 
facture numbered aluminum bird bands cheaply and in large quanti- 
ties, thus solving what has heretofore been a perplexing problem. 

During the year two important field trips were made by an assist- 
ant for the purpose of banding ducks. The first expedition, covering 
most of October and November, involved trapping and banding 
ducks on an extensive scale on the grounds of the Sanganois Club, 
near Browning, Ill., where similar work had been done during the 
early spring of the same year. By means of traps of wire netting 
it was possible to capture and band over 1,300 ducks, including mal- 
lards, black ducks, and pintails. It is expected that many interesting 
returns will be reported during the fall shooting season. Another 
trip was made in January to Oakley, S. C., for the purpose of exam- 
ining a proposed station for trapping and banding ducks. The con- 


24 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


ditions seem to be favorable and it is believed that a productive sta- 
tion can be established there. 

No official publications have been issued, but several articles on 
bird banding in ornithological periodicals have been reprinted in 
quantities and made available to collaborators through the gener- 
osity of an ornithologist who is much interested in this project. 
Addresses on the subject of bird banding have been made by repre- 
sentatives of the bureau at Camp Bradley, Md.; in Boston, Mass. ; 
and in New York City. 


INVESTIGATIONS OF MIGRATORY WILD FOWL. 


Investigations concerning the condition of migratory wild fowl 
have been carried on, mainly in cooperation with State officials, thus 
adding materially to our files of information concerning the dis- 
tribution, migration, and breeding of these important game species, 
and serving an important purpose in the administration of the 
migratory-bird treaty act. Birds collected under scientific collecting 

ermits during the calendar year 1921 have also been carded, bring- 
ing the data regarding this activity up to date. 

Tt will be recalled that in 1929 concerted efforts were made by 
certain sportsmen, notably in Missouri, to be allowed a shooting sea- 
son extending from February 10 to March 10, the contention being 
made that the birds were not mated during this period. In that year 
an investigation made by the bureau showed that mallards were 
paired as early as February 21, while specimens of both sexes taken 
early in March showed functional activity of the breeding organs. 
In order to gather additional data an assistant visited some of the 
more important wild-fowl resorts in Missouri frequented by these 
birds during the northward migration. The period covered was 
from February 20 to March 7, 1923, and the data thus obtained 
in southeastern Missouri concerned mallards, pintails, and hooded 
mergansers. Anatomical examination of specimens taken February 
91 to 23 showed that many of the birds were in breeding condition. 
About 73 per cent of the mallards examined here between February 
20 and 27 showed decided enlargement of the reproductive organs. 
Observations made at another locality in Missouri March 1 to 7 dis- 
closed nearly similar conditions. 

The participation of a representative of the bureau in the session 
of the American School of Wild Life Protection, held at McGregor, 
Towa, in August, 1922, afforded opportunity for the presentation 
on a broad scale of the methods and policies of the bureau regarding 
the protection of wild life. Besides the influence exerted directly 
at these sessions, which were attended by sportsmen and game 
officials and many other persons representing organizations inter- 
ested in the conservation of the wild-life resources of the Mississippi 
Valley, a number of short trips to near-by points were made in the 
interests of related projects. These included an inspection of a 
proposed game preserve near Garden City, Kans., and examina- 
tions of Clear Lake, near Mason City, Iowa, and Rice Lake, near 
Lake Mills, Iowa, localities formerly inhabited by considerable 
numbers of breeding wild fowl, and where it is desired to institute 
more effective protective measures. An examination was made also 
of the Winneshiek bottoms near Lansing, Iowa, in company with 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 25 


Towa and Minnesota officials, to determine the advisability of drain- 
ing the area. 

Another representative of the bureau, while investigating the 
condition of migratory wild fowl in South Dakota, with special 
reference to the breeding of wild geese, made an examination of the 
Chase Lake Bird Reservation. Reports of damage to shocked 
wheat by mallards in Kidder County, N. Dak., before the opening 
of the shooting season, were also investigated and found to be borne 
out by the facts. About the same time Island Lake, in Aitkin 
County, Minn., proposed as a game refuge, was thoroughly examined. 
It was found to be a comparatively small wooded island, and while 
its fauna and flora were found to be interesting, its establishment 
as a Federal game refuge was not considered desirable. 

In April, a member of the staff, while investigating the distribu- 
tion of birds and mammals in Florida, visited the Island Pond and 
Spruce Creek breeding rookeries near Maytown, and a series of 
rookeries on Sebastian River near Roseland, for the purpose of 
estimating the numbers of breeding herons, egrets, and ibises. 


WILD LIFE ON NATIONAL AND STATE PARKS AND FORESTS. 


An assistant of the bureau made an examination of the Grand 
Canyon National Game Preserve, Ariz., late in September and early in 
October, to obtain information regarding conditions affecting game, 
with special reference to making plans for disposing of the surplus 
deer on this refuge. Reports indicated that the mule deer on this pre- 
serve, the only large game there, had increased to such an extent 
as to overstock the ranges, especially in summer. The trip was a 
cooperative one, the Biological Survey representative being associ- 
ated with officials of the Forest Service concerned with the admin- 
istration of the Kaibab National Forest, within the boundaries of 
which the game preserve is located. Deer were found to be very 
abundant, it being estimated that upward of 20,000 were present. 
Late in March and early in April, 1923, another investigation was 
made of the region, the personnel including the same bureau repre- 
sentative and most of the same members of the Forest Service. 

In general, the observations made on this trip confirmed the find- 
ings of the previous examination. Notable concentration of deer 
was observed in certain areas of bench land so situated topographi- 
cally that movement of the animals to less crowded sections was dif- 
ficult. While no suffering from lack of winter forage is yet apparent, 
excessive utilization of the summer forage is evident, as well as 
undesirable concentration on parts of the winter range, and it is be- 
lieved that material reduction in the number of the deer is advis- 
able, unless migration to less crowded areas can be induced. 

Following the investigation of the Grand Canyon Game Preserve 
an eXamination was made, in cooperation with the National Park 
Service, of the Tonto Plateau, Grand Canyon National Park, to ascer- 
tain its suitability as a prospective preserve for antelope. The area 
was found to be fairly well suited to this purpose, except that it is 
considerably overgrazed by burros, the descendants of animals aban- 
doned in the canyon many years ago. Since the burros serve no use- 
ful purpose, their removal or elimination is considered advisable, 


26 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


and in case this can be accomplished, the successful establishment of 
a small herd of antelope is considered to be practicable. 

A final examination was made of game conditions on the Wichita 
National Game Preserve and a report made to the forester with 
recommendations for handling the game there and for disposal of 
the surplus. 

As a matter of cooperation in methods of administering parks and 
forests, with special reference to their wild-life resources, an assistant 
of the bureau attended the North Carolina Forestry Convention at 
Pinehurst, January 23 and 24, and the Third National Conference on 
State Parks, held at Turkey Run State Park, Ind., May 7 to 9, at 
each of which he delivered addresses on the relation of wild life 
to forests and parks. 


LIFE HABITS OF INJURIOUS ANIMALS. 


Detailed experiments with captives of several species of injurious 
rodents, with special attention to breeding habits, were carried on 
during the year. The species studied included meadow mice, pocket 
gophers, kangaroo rats, pocket mice, grasshopper mice, and jump- 
ing mice. These studies disclosed many interesting habits hitherto 
unknown, especially with reference to the rapidity of breeding in 
certain species. These laboratory results admirably supplement field 
studies previously made on the same species and assist in interpreting 
habits imperfectly understood. Reports on the results of studies of 
meadow mice and grasshopper mice were prepared for publication. 
Intensive field studies also were made of certain injurious rodents in 
Washington and Oregon, especially mountain beavers, pocket mice, 
pocket gophers, and silver gray squirrels. 

Late in October and early in November assistants of the bureau 
made an examination of the plots established in Arizona in coopera- 
tion with the Forest Service, the Carnegie Institution of Washing- 
ton, and the University of Arizona, to determine quantitatively the 
damage effected on forage plants or stock ranges by certain rodents. 
These experimental plots are so arranged as to furnish data on the 
varying conditions of vegetation on fenced plots of uniform size, 
rodents of different species and cattle being given access or excluded 
to simulate the different natural conditions. A report on the results 
of a study of the feeding habits of prairie dogs and the quantitative 
damage to forage plants by these pests has been prepared for pub- 
lication. 

An intensive study of the habits of jack rabbits, with special ref- 
erence to their economic status, has also been undertaken. 

Early in October an assistant of the bureau, in cooperation with 
an official of the Bureau of Plant Industry, made a reconnaissance 
of Coachella Valley, Calif., as the first step in a proposed intensive 
study of the geographical and ecological relations of the fauna and 
flora of this region, which is believed to be potentially one of the 
richest agricultural areas in the State. Dates are the most important 
crop and their culture is being studied at the Government date gar- 
den, at Indio. Several native rodents are believed to be injurious to 
this crop. The time spent was too short to afford results of im- 
portance, but this preliminary survey gives promise of information 
of great practical value should it be possible to continue investiga- 
tions there. 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. oF 


INTRODUCTION OF TROPICAL AMERICAN GAME BIRDS. 


For some years the Biological Survey has been interested in hay- 
ing experiments made for the introduction and acclimatization of 
the ocellated turkey, a wonderfully beautiful game bird found from 
Yucatan to Honduras, and the curassow and possibly other game 
birds of the same region. In the spring of 1923, a cooperator of 
the bureau provided the funds needed to send a naturalist to the 
Lake Peten region of Guatemala to secure a stock of living birds 
for this experiment, the birds when received to be placed on islands 
off the coast of Georgia. The leader of the expedition reports that 
a considerable number of young ocellated turkeys and other birds 
are being raised for this experiment by Indians under his super- 
vision. 

INVESTIGATION OF INTRODUCED QUAIL. 


Within the past eight years large numbers of quail, or bob- 
whites, have been introduced into Pennsylvania and Maryland from 
northern Mexico in an attempt to replenish the depleted covers. 
These birds belong to a form which differs from the native birds in 
smaller size and paler or grayer coloration. It is a matter of much 
interest to ascertain to what extent the introduced birds have in- 
creased and whether they interbreed with the native stock. To ob- 
tain these data a representative of the bureau, in cooperation with 
members of the State game commissions, during the hunting season 
visited the sections of those States affected by the introductions 
and collected specimens from as many coveys as possible. The re- 
sults showed that mterbreeding between the imported and the na- 
tive stock had taken place in a number of instances, while a few 
birds which showed only the characters of the imported birds may 
have been either members of the original importations or their 
descendants. This investigation will be continued, as the results will 
have a practical bearing as well as a scientific value. 


y ih “D 


HAWAIIAN ISLAND EXPEDITION. 


Some years ago a German living on Laysan Island, a celebrated 
breeding place of enormous numbers of albatrosses and other notable 
sea fowl, and within the Hawaiian Islands Bird Reservation, intro- 
duced the European rabbit. The multiplication of these animals on 
this wonderful island made it evident that they must be exterminated 
if the vegetation and some of the species of birds peculiar to the 
island were to be saved. In the spring of 1923, through the coop- 
eration of the Navy Department, a vessel of 1,000 tons capacity was 
detailed for four months to provide facilities for a careful scientific 
reconnaissance under the direction of a representative of the Biologi- 
cal Survey of all of the islands in the Hawaiian Islands Bird Reser- 
vation and others adjacent thereto, including Wake and Johnston 
Islands. Through the active cooperation of the Bishop Museum, of 
Honolulu, the scientific personnel of the expedition included a botan- 
ist, an entomologist, an anthropologist, a geologist, and other scien- 
tists. The present survey of these islands is one of the most com- 
plete ever undertaken in the Pacific. 


28 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Word has been received that the rabbits have now been exter- 
minated on Laysan, although before the arrival of the expedition 
they had almost completely destroyed the vegetation. Plants and 
seeds were subsequently obtained in Honolulu and planted on Lay- 
san, where undoubtedly vegetation of a more varied character than 
heretofore will flourish. One of the interesting results already 
reported is the finding about this and other islands of considerable 
numbers of the little-known Hawaiian seal. 


ALASKA INVESTIGATIONS. 


REINDEER. 


At the beginning of the bureau’s reindeer investigations, in 1920, 
the reindeer experiment station was established at Unalakleet, on the 
shore of Norton Sound. By July 1, 1922, the work had developed 
to a point that made it advantageous to move the station to Nome, 
where there is a more suitable building, with a barn and corral for 
conducting experiments. 


FEEDING EXPERIMENTS. 


In order to conduct feeding experiments, in the fall of 1922 seven 
reindeer—four adults and three fawns—were procured from a Govy- 
ernment herd located 25 miles from Nome and brought to the experi- 
ment station. Until the animals became accustomed to their new 
_ quarters they were fed reindeer moss. Later moss was mixed with 
other feed, and finally eliminated altogether. Only about 15 days 
were required to wean fawns completely from the use of moss, but 
it took much longer for the adults. The feeding experiment proved 
very successful and was one step toward demonstrating the possi- 
bility of utilizing reindeer far more extensively in travel and winter 
transportation than is now being done. Further experiments will be 
conducted to determine the quantity of forage necessary each day for 
a sled animal traveling long distances. As carrying space on sleds 
is at a premium on long trips, the weight and bulk of food necessary 
to be taken along for sled animals is of prime importance. 


GENERAL OBSERVATION WORK. 


The bureau’s auxiliary power schooner Hazel, used for reindeer 
investigational work on the Bering and Arctic coasts, traveled a total 
of 3,573 miles during July, August, and September, proceeding south 
to the town of Bethel, on the lower Kuskokwim River, and north to 
Kotzebue Sound. These cruises were made for the purpose of inves- 
tigating the condition of the herds and for studying the herds and 
methods of herd management. At the same time educational work 
was undertaken with the herd owners for the purpose of introducing 
improved management, which is already showing results, especially 
in methods of castration, in branding, and in the handling of herds 
on the range. Collections made of forage plants and the studies of 
their abundance and distribution supply invaluable information 
necessary for the wise allotment of grazing areas to herd owners. 
when such allotments are authorized by law. 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 29 


RANGES. 


Careful investigations were made of the kind and distribution of 
forage plants and of the grazing capacity of the reindeer ranges over 
a large area. The vital importance of this investigation has become 
evident since it was learned definitely that in winter reindeer are 
almost entirely dependent on reindeer moss. This involves the neces- 
sity of providing summer and winter grazing areas for each herd, 
in which the “ moss” or winter areas must be larger than those for 
summer, when grass and other ordinary herbage is eaten. This fact 
has necessitated a change in computing the grazing capacity of rein- 
deer ranges from a basis of 30 acres per animal to from 40 to 60 
acres. On this new basis it is estimated that Seward Peninsula alone 
would carry approximately 200,000 head. 


CARIBOU INVESTIGATIONS. 


The field naturalist with headquarters at Fairbanks continued his 
investigations of caribou during the year and obtained much valuable 
information during an extended winter trip through the Endicott 
Range country and back to Fairbanks by way of Fort Yukon. 


INVESTIGATION OF REINDEER INDUSTRY IN NORTHERN EUROPE, 


The investigation of the reindeer industry in northern Europe, 
conducted in August and September by the bureau’s former chief 
specialist in the reindeer investigations in Alaska, proved not only 
very interesting but of much value in its relation to the reindeer 
investigations now being made. The Norwegian reindeer were found 
to be smaller than the Alaskan animals, and less fat, both character- 
istics probably being due to the depleted ranges. The heaviest 
reindeer were found in Lapland. In Norway reindeer were found 
to be very healthy as a rule and less attacked by warble flies than 
in Alaska, the constant moving of the herds being given as the cause 
for this freedom from parasites. The frequent moving of herds 
recommended by the bureau’s experts in Alaska in 1921 is now 
being followed by many herd owners in the Territory, with bene- 
ficial results. 


PROTECTION OF LAND FUR ANIMALS. 


Some progress has been made in the work of protecting land fur 
animals in Alaska, but not so much as is desirable, owing to the in- 
adequate law and to the limited funds available for the purpose. 
The practical value of educational work to emphasize the need of 
better conservation of both the game and fur animals of Alaska 
is shown by the rapid growth of favorable sentiment in the Terri- 
tory and by an increasing appreciation of the work being done along 
these lines by the bureau. 

The only important change in the fur regulations during the 
year related to the protection of blue foxes, and was made at the 
request of the blue-fox farmers in order to prevent poaching, an evil 
practice which was becoming a serious menace to the industry. This 
regulation, promulgated on January 9, prohibits the killing of blue 
foxes at all times in district 1, except on the Aleutian Islands Res- 


30 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


ervation, and in district 2, south of latitude 62°, with the exception 
that the duly authorized agents, owners, lessees, or permittees of 
islands and lands used and maintained as fur farms for the propa- 
gation of blue foxes may kill at any time the animals in their pos- 
session. 

A fur warden was appointed at Nome, and warden service was 
maintained during parts of the year at Fairbanks, Unalaska, Anchor- . 
age, Juneau, Cordova, and Belkofsky. Excellent cooperation was 
given by the customs division of the Treasury Department and by 
agents of the Department of Justice. Plans have been made for 
extending fur-warden service by the appointment of regular wardens 
for the Kuskokwim region and for that about Fairbanks. 

The fur warden stationed at Nome made a careful investigation of 
conditions in regard to fur-bearing animals along the Kuskokwim 
River early in 1923, traveling a total distance of if 608 miles by dog 
team and going as ‘far south as Bethel. Valuable information was 
obtained regarding land fur animals, one important fact being noted 
that, with the possible exception of the beaver and the marten, the 
fur bearers were more than holding their own. Serious forest fires, 
however, have ruined many miles “of marten territory in the Kus- 
kokwim region. The establishment of a Forest Service fire patrol 
in interior Alaska is seriously needed and will be of enormous value 
to the future welfare of the Territory. Fires annually destroy vast 
areas of timber valuable for local use and forage for game and rein- 
deer that can not be replaced in many years. 


PROSECUTIONS AND SEIZURES. 


Only two, arrests were made for violations of the fur law, each re- 
sulting in a conviction and fine. A number of contraband skins were 
seized, but the possessors were not prosecuted, owing to defects in 
the fur law which make successful prosecution doubtful. 

Reports of the use of poison and explosives in the destruction of 
beavers, their dams, and their houses continue to be received and pre- 

-sent the most serious danger to the future of the fur animals that 
exists. So many beavers were killed during the recent open season 
that a general desire has been expressed by people from all parts of 
the Territory for another extended close season. 

With an adequate fur law and sufficient funds to enforce it, proper 
protection could be given to the land fur-bearing animals of the 
Territory, and thus perpetuate and increase one of its most valuable 
natural assets. 

q SHIPMENTS OF ALASKA FURS. 


Shipments of furs from the Territory continue to form an im- 
portant item of its annual production. According to reports made to 
the bureau by postmisters and agents of transportation companies, 
covering the year from December 1, 1921, to November 30, 1922, the 
number of furs shipped greatly exceeded that for the previous year. 
Only 254,788 skins were shipped during the year ended November 30, 
1994, while 394,514 were shipped in 1922. “Exclusive of white and 
blue foxes of the Pribilof Islands, which are under the jurisdiction 
of the Bureau of Fisheries, the value of the skins of land fur bearers 
shipped for this year amounted to $1,732,693. The number of the 
principal pelts shipped and their value were as follows: 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 31 


Kind of fur. Number.| Value. Kind of fur. Number.| Value. 
IMISKYAG! Sains foci cncl's Sterdise 3 BISM450 |p $89b, Aste | Beaver. aeeisesscec-cecee- el 12,216 | $250,587 
Bliefoxsse tis... s22522524-6- 1,080 118; 8003)|) Laridiotters. 2.220. 2.23-.. 3.02 1,899 43, 677 
NVI COMOX ccc cee fans ce ece's. 4,393 U755 720" || Me eo Fac Gace cispjs cee 31, 983 223, 881 
svodiioxt et of OGY SL LeS AAR 5, 979 110} GLE |\Marten! +2255 3873s Fo. 22 ek 10,385 | 285,587 
BLLVON- PLA Vil OXS = 5. - oce ee eee 291 58,200 || Weasel (ermine)..........-... 10, 656 9, 057 
Crossifox.23)52,. SOM 740 29, 600 || Black bear.......-........... 751 10, 138 


As a considerable number of furs are used in Alaska and as many 
are taken out by travelers and by vessels not reporting them, it 
appears safe to estimate the take of land furs for the year as ex- 
ceeding a value of $2,000,000, or a 6 per cent return on a capital 
valuation of about $33, 000, 000 for this natural resource. 


GENERAL ACTIVITIES. 


The bureau’s seagoing power boat Sea Otter has been used con- 
tinually, patrolling waters and streams of southeastern Alaska, and 
visiting fur-farming islands and many other points to enforce the 
fur laws and to enable the chief warden to be of increased practical 
assistance to the fur farmers. The chief fur warden and other em- 
ployees of the bureau in Alaska are encouraged to conduct a per- 
sistent educational campaign for the better conservation of the fur 
and game resources of the Territory. Most gratifying results have 
been obtained in a way that holds out great encouragement for the 
future. 

FUR FARMING IN ALASKA. 


During the summer and early fall of 1922 the chief fur warden 
and the chief fur-farming expert of the bureau made a trip on the 
Sea Otter from southeastern Alaska to Unalaska, studying the fur 
farms and other matters relating to fur production. The results of 
this are mentioned earlier in this report under the general subject of 
fur farming. The fur-farming industry in Alaska appears to have 
a most promising future. 

All but one of the ten islands under the jurisdiction of the bureau 
for leasing for fur-farming purposes have been leased. It is not 
considered advisable to grant an exclusive lease on the remaining 
island. 

Fox farming, mainly of blue foxes, is developing rapidly and 
appears to have a good future in the Territory, Two associations 
of fur farmers were formed in the fall of 1922, one at Cordova and 
the other at Petersburg, <A list of blue-fox farmers of Alaska with 
their names, post-office addresses, and the name of the island occupied 
by each has been prepared and distributed in mimeographed form 
by the bureau, showing that there are now 99 blue- fox armers in 
southeastern Alaska, 29 in the Prince William Sound region, 8 in 
the Lower Cook Inlet region, 13 in the Kodiak- Afoenak region, 
and 10 on islands off the Alaska Peninsula, or a total of 159. In 
addition there are about 20 blue-fox farmers in the Aleutian Islands 
Reservation, while 25 permits have been issued to residents of Alaska 
_ to capture alive beavers, minks, martens, and muskrats for propa- 


32 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


gating purposes. All possible encouragement is given responsible 
parties who have favorable locations to engage in this new en- 
terprise. . 

One handicap to the development of the fur-farming industry in 
Alaska is the lack of authority in any governmental agency to lease 
the numerous islands which are suitable for the purpose but which 
are located outside the national forests and the Aleutian Islands 
Reservation. 


PROTECTION OF ALASKAN GAME. 2 


The Alaska game law is administered by the Governor of Alaska 
under regulations promulgated by the Secretary of Agriculture. 
Migratory birds in the Territory are protected under the provisions 
of the migratory-bird treaty act. 

The most important change in the regulations during the year in 
regard to game in Alaska was the elimination of specific protection 
of deer on Duke, Gravina, San Juan, Suemez, Zarembo, Hawkins, 
Hinchinbrook, Montague, Long, and Kodiak Islands. Kruzof 
Island, near Sitka, alone in southeastern Alaska, remains a deer 
preserve. It is forbidden, however, to kill deer anywhere west of 
longitude 141°, thus giving this game protection on all islands in 
that region. 

DESTRUCTION OF WOLVES IN ALASKA, 


For some years requests have come from citizens of Alaska that 
efforts be made to destroy wolves, which have been enormously de- 
structive to deer on the coastal islands of southeastern Alaska. 
Local residents had made efforts for a long period to destroy wolves 
in that region, and the impression was general that, because of un- 
usual topographic and climatic conditions, these animals could not 
be successfully destroyed. Our representative working in Michigan 
was detailed to Alaska for two months, where he demonstrated 
beyond question that it was not only feasible to trap and poison 
the wolves successfully on the Alaskan islands, but that it would not 
be a very difficult matter to exterminate them on most, if not all, of 
the islands. Thirty large timber wolves were taken by traps or 
poison, and no doubt, as is usually the case, numerous others killed 
by poison were not found. The results were so promising that this 
work will be continued. Destruction of the wolves will be extremely 
helpful in increasing the numbers of the deer, which are so impor- 
tant a factor as a part of the food supply of the Indians and other 
residents of that region. 


GAME AND BIRD REFUGES. 


The continual increase in the number of hunters and the decrease 
of various species of game are producing a healthy reaction among 
sportsmen and others interested, causing the establishment of State 
game refuges. The number of such refuges in a list compiled by the 
Biological Survey in 1922 was 423, of which 346 contained a total 
of more than 19,331,000 acres. To these, early in 1923, the legisla- 
tures of 12 States added 38, with a total of 3,000,000 acres. Among 
those of notable interest are several refuges made in Nevada, mainly 
for the benefit of antelope. 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 33 


The Shoshone and Pathfinder Federal refuges on irrigation proj- 
ects in Wyoming were abolished during the year, as they had proved 
to be of too little value to be retained. This leaves a total of 68 
Federal bird and big-game refuges administered by this bureau. 


BIG-GAME REFUGES. 


During the last part of June the 12-mile big-game fence which 
had been under construction at the Niobrara Reservation, near Valen- 
tine, Nebr., for several years was completed. It incloses approxi- 


- mately 4,000 acres of ideal range for big-game animals adjoining the 


two small areas heretofore available for this purpose. 

The winter of 1922-23 was a comparatively mild one in the West, 
enabling game in general to come through in satisfactory condition. 
The increase in game animals on the refuges was satisfactory, the one 
item of disappointment being the misfortune which overtook the 
antelope herds on the Bison Range and the Wind Cave Refuge. The 
difficulty of maintaining and building up herds of antelope is in 
striking contrast with the ease attending the increase of herds of 
other game animals. Buffalo, elk, mule deer, and white-tailed deer 
appear to be as hardy and to breed as freely on game refuges as 
ordinary domestic stock. They are at the same time surprisingly 
free from diseases. 

No damage by fire was done to any of the refuges during the year. 

The following table shows the number of big-game animals on the 
refuges under the jurisdiction of this bureau at the close of each 
calendar year from 1916 to date, the figures for 1923 being as re- 
ported up to June 30 only: 


Kind of game. 1916 1917 1918 | 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 

Peitale ent Badin tee the 206| 251| 311} 381] 431| 508| 603| 717 
ee tec ae cebeecessseteuceuscce 165 205 261 | 345 433 519 2608 4657 
PRMLOIONO! 5 os se eee Oe ses egaed 47 57 55 54 65 91 21 16 
Deore mules: f.0 2 des yous mete ce weve ce 2 2) 15 | 21 27 54] @52 | a 62 
Deer, white-tailed.........-.-...---.- 3 6 | 8 9 5 21 a31 a27 
IMOlmitannishao yet eee e spoke 02 sede 8 cla ke Sale Ve cis AR MS a 8 15 220 
AV pbel.:.52) yas res sshi ie hs 3 feet 423 521 650 810 961 | 1,193 | 1,330 1,499 


a Estimated. 


The distribution of the 1,499 big-game animals shown in the last 
column above on reservations under the jurisdiction of the Biological 
Survey was as follows: 


= | Bison Wind : Sullys 

Kind of game. Range Cave Niobrara. Hill. 
SPIT AO ee ee sete eee ce mie sep ee alee oh nob ae cccinle<tai-le'e sas citete 549 107 48 13 
SC SE RCDBEE Syociine Sock ee PE Boos Be OnHeCCr Ceenuree > SAone Oaaanac 1400 1170 57 30 
PASTICO LODO! ict te wjat~ fofsataie io aiy ate Sees aisle sincera Dlalsia a ciate sistem 3 taleipisisiaciticielleretipelg eae s AES Caen ee Sees 
DY Ye, pho 07) Ye ee oe Res Be pd ae 8 Be ere oD 8B ea ie Ce 0 Se 160 | DELS SE. Se eeeeee 
IDB ANN Coo AEE le Re ee een AROSE ee oe ae YP Rage Aen 2 5 
CIN GaN SNES ns She ne en anes sattediat je tceecieciatnacscnecceues HD EsOaSeccnn|sadeertese|joneincici a 
Hyer 4 Vall Reedy IBN Alo A ee 1,049 | 295 107 48 


1 Estimated. 


34 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


National Bison Range, Mont—By far the most disastrous occur- 
rence in connection with this refuge was the final extermination of 
the remnants of the herd of 60 antelope that was on this range early 
the preceding year. The antelope were killed by predatory animals 
which came in from the surrounding country during severe winter 
weather, probably assisted by Indian dogs from the reservation 
near by. During several years hunters have been detailed to destroy 
predatory animals in and about this and the other game refuges, 
and large numbers have been thus killed. The destruction of ante- 
lope here and at Wind Cave is good evidence of the difficulty of 
protecting game refuges from the inroads of coyotes or other preda- 
tory animals, which are able to travel great distances during a single 
night. Antelope appear to be peculiarly helpless before such danger, 
the losses of other game animals from this source in the same refuge 
being negligible. 

The rapid increase of buffalo and elk on this range has about 
stocked it to capacity, as is shown by indications of deterioration 
in the range here and there. As a consequence, it has become neces- 
sary to provide for the disposal of surplus animals. Negotiations 
looking to this were initiated during the last part of the year. 

The buffalo on the preserve now number 549, including 92 calves 
of the year. Only three deaths took place in the herd during the 
year. It is estimated that there are about 400 elk in the herd, in- 
cluding about 60 of this year’s calves. So far as known, only two 
elk, both young bulls, died during the year. The mule deer, white- 
tailed deer, and mountain sheep are all doing well. It is esti- 
mated that from 50 to 60 beavers live along Mission Creek within the 
reservation. 

The number of game birds on the refuge is estimated to include 
about 400 sharp-tailed grouse, 50 blue grouse, 50 Hungarian par- 
tridges, 100 Chinese pheasants, and 200 mallard ducks. During 
mild weather in the last part of February 12 Chinese pheasants in 
excellent condition and apparently preparing to mate appeared about 
the headquarters corral. These introduced birds appear to have 
become well established on the refuge, and with other game birds 
will serve to supply a surplus to sportsmen in the country surround- 
ing the fenced area. 

A number of needed improvements were added during the year, 
including a reservoir 130 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 4 feet deep; 
a frame cabin, known as “ The substation ”; an ice house; four small 
outbuildings; and three poison and trapping stations for predatory 
animals. Many old posts in the game fence were replaced or reset, 
and two floodgates crossing Mission Creek were rebuilt to prevent 
the animals from escaping. 

Wind Cave Game Preserve, S. Dak—Coyotes had reduced the 
antelope herd on this refuge by early spring from 21 to 8 does. 
By June 30 these were accompanied by an equal number of fawns, 
making a total of 16. In order to protect them a number of poison- 
bait stations were established and a vigorous campaign was put in 
effect and will be continued to destroy the predatory animals in 
and about the refuge. As in the case of the Bison Range, the sur- 
rounding country is inhabited by coyotes and other game-killing 
animals, which frequently travel great distances. Consequently it 
will be possible to maintain antelope here only with unceasing vigi- 


: 
' 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 85 


lance. The buffalo and elk are in excellent condition and have in- 
creased to a point that necessitates the disposal of a number of 
each in order to prevent the range from becoming overstocked. 

Evidence of the unexpected aggressiveness of bobcats on the game 
was found when a warden trailing an antelope during a winter 
snowstorm discovered that a bobeat had joined the trail a little ahead 
of him. <A short time later he came on the carcass of a full-grown 
antelope that had been killed by the cat just before the warden 
arrived. A large number of coyotes have been destroyed in and 
about this refuge. 

Niobrara Reservation, Valentine, Nebr.—The large game animals 
on this refuge up to the end of the present year have been maintained 
in two small inclosures. Several years ago the inclosure of an addi- 
tional 4,000 acres of excellent range land for game was undertaken 
and was completed at the end of the present year. Later in the sea- 
son game will be transferred to it. A number of beavers live along 
the river on this refuge, but how many is not known. 

Quail were more numerous here during the spring of 1923 than at 
any other time within the past seven years. About 300 pairs of 
prairie chickens and sharp-tailed grouse nest along the southern side 
of the refuge, and in winter others move into the shelter from the 
more open country on the north side. Many ducks remain along the 
river on the refuge during winter, when, at times several hundred 
are present. 

Sullys Hill Game Preserve, near Devils Lake, N. Dak.—The hostess 
house for visitors to this refuge and 1 mile of 6-foot fence which keeps 
the buffalo and elk from Sweetwater Lake, were completed, thus 
making the refuge a pleasanter place for the public to visit. This 
refuge continues to be a popular place for picnic outings for people 
of Devils Lake and the surrounding region, the total number of visi- 
tors during the fiscal year being 6,079, as follows: July (1922), 2,931; 
August, 1,321; September, 514; June (1923), 1,313. 

The numbers of animals on the refuge on June 30 were as follows: 
Buffalo, 13; elk, 80; white-tailed deer, 5; a total of 48. Shipping 
corrals were built for the purpose of readily crating and transporting 
surplus elk. Unfortunately, severe weather conditions developed 
before shipments could be made, and a number of the elk perished. 
The buffalo came through the winter in excellent shape. 

Winter Elk Refuge, Jackson, Wyo.—The early winter was com- 
paratively open, with light snowfall, thus leaving the pasturage acces- 
sible to the game. About 3,400 elk were fed on the two feeding 
grounds, of which 3,000 or more came in early in the year and about 
400 came in in small parties at different times. They remained in 
good condition throughout the season and the loss was comparatively 
hght. 

Feeding the elk started on January 23, after a snowfall of 21 
inches, and continued until April 25. Very satisfactory results were 
obtained by the construction of feeding corrals for the elk calves, so 
arranged with low, narrow entrances, called “ creeps,” that the calves 
could enter to feed free from molestation by the larger animals. This 
method of feeding was so successful that it will be continued on an 
extended scale during the coming winter. It is certain that this will 
result in saving a large number of calves that would have died, as 


36 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


formerly, from being pushed about and worried by the large ani- 
mals on the general feeding grounds. 

At the commencement of winter the bureau had on hand a little 
less than 1,000 tons of hay, of which 686 were raised on the refuge, 
the remainder being purchased from neighboring ranches. Jn addi- 
tion, the grazing privileges were rented on 400 acres of bottom lands. 
At the end of the season 85 tons of hay remained on hand. 

In order that the refuge may be made to produce the maximum 
of hay a tractor with plows and other implements has been pur- 
chased and an increased annual acreage will be tilled until the entire 
range is producing. 

Much of the fencing about this refuge is now old and in such con- 
dition that it must be replaced in the near future. Other improve- 
ments are also greatly needed. 


BIRD REFUGES. 


Flat Oreck Bird Refuge, Wyo., covering 40 acres in the valley 
bottom adjacent to the winter Elk Refuge at Jackson, was estab- 
lished by Executive order of September 29, 1922. Although this is 
a small area it is used extensively by migratory wild fowl not only 
during the nesting period and migrations but also throughout the 
winter months. The area contains springs which keep it open 
throughout the winter and afford plant and insect food which sus- 
iain the resident ducks during the cold season. Its situation adja- 
cent to the Elk Refuge adds additional pasture for the elk herds. 

Belle Fourche Bird Refuge, S. Dak.—Conditions on this refuge 
were, as formerly, unsatisfactory, owing to the continuous grazing 
on lands immediately adjacent to the lake shore, without which 
nesting birds might take advantage of the cover. Fencing has been 
built for the purpose of eliminating livestock from this portion of 
the refuge. The excellent result from this has become apparent and 
it is planned to increase the protected area in order to attract addi- 
tional nesting birds. 

Big Lake Bird Refuge, Ark.—This refuge is notable as a resting 
and feeding place for wild fowl during both spring and fall migra- 
tions. Through the excellent support given the wardens by the 
District Court of the Eastern District of Arkansas in the protection 
of this refuge the people of the region now respect it and look upon 
it as a distinct local asset. A warden’s house has been built on the 
highest point of the refuge near the principal hunting and trapping 
grounds, and is an improvement which renders the control of the 
lake much more effective. In order to prevent undue disturbance of 
the wild fowl, trapping of fur-bearing animals on this refuge is 
allowed only under permit, the trappers not being permitted to visit 
their traps before sunrise or after sunset. Refuges of this character 
are exceedingly important in giving migratory wild fowl resting 
places during their journeys north and south. With the drainage 
of many other water areas such places are becoming more and more 
valuable for the purpose for which created. 

Lake Malheur Bird Refuge, Oreg.—A compromise agreement pro- 
posed by representatives of the State of Oregon and of the Biological 
Survey as to the future status of this refuge was not consummated, 
and the matter still remains for adjustment. Ravens are so abundant 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 37 


in this district that they are becoming a menace to the welfare of the 
wild fowl breeding there and must be reduced in numbers. Serious 
depredations by them on the bird life, particularly during the breed- 
ing season, call for active measures against them, and these will be 
taken during the coming winter. 

Salt River Bird Refuge, Roosevelt, Ariz—On August 8, 1922, the 
Secretary of Agriculture issued an order permitting the hunting 
of migratory wild fow] on the eastern arm of Roosevelt Lake within 
this refuge. This will give a limited amount of hunting in a region 
where opportunities for this sport are exceedingly scarce, but will 
not seriously interfere with the welfare of the birds. 


MIGRATORY-BIRD TREATY AND LACEY ACTS. 


The helpful effect of the migratory-bird treaty act in increasing 
the supply of migratory wild fowl continues to impress all observers 
and to make friends for this legislation from its former opponents. 
Unfortunately, the progress of drainage of fresh-water marshes 
and lakes goes on rapidly, and unless enough of these areas can be 
perpetuated to afford feeding and breeding grounds no hope can be 
held out for the maintenance of the supply of these fine game birds. 
During the year representatives of the bureau have assisted State 
game commissions and other conservationists to protect several 
fine wild-fowl water areas from drainage, notably Swan Lake in 
Minnesota and the Winneshiek Bottoms on the upper Mississippi. 


COOPERATION. 


The Biological Survey is deeply indebted to State game officials, 
conservation organizations, and sportsmen from practically every 
State for the fine spirit of cooperation extended by them, not only 
in the enforcement of the law but in influencing public opinion for 
its observance. Much effort has been made to build up and maintain 
this cooperation, to which so much of the success achieved in increas- 
ing our migratory wild fowl is directly attributable. 


WARDEN SERVICE. 


Approximately 28 full-time United States game wardens were on 
duty through the year, aided by about 400 cooperative deputy 
wardens. Of the last, 35 were placed on per diem duty during 
short intervals in emergencies. Cooperative wardens receive a 
nominal salary of $1 per annum, except when placed on active duty, 
when they receive $3.50 a day with an allowance for expenses. 

Shortly after he entered the service and while in the performance 
of his duty, United States Game Warden Edgar A. Lindgren, of 
Council Bluffs, Iowa, was brutally murdered by two Italians on 
August 13, 1922. A United States attorney assisted the State au- 
thorities in the prosecution of the assassins, who were convicted in 
the State court and sentenced to life imprisonment. Several other 
Federal game wardens also were feloniously assaulted while in the 
discharge of their duties, one with a loaded firearm, but fortunately 
they were not seriously injured. The frequent occurrence of these 
assaults on Federal wardens again demonstrates the great need of a 


38 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


F ederal statute under which assailants of Federal officers engaged 
in the discharge of their duties may be adequately punished. 


STATE HUNTING LICENSES. 


-Incomplete returns show a substantial increase in the number of 
hunting licenses issued in some States and a small decrease in others. 
’ Reports received indicate that the total number issued in the United 
States probably exceeds 4,000,000, approximately the same number 
as issued the preceding year. In addition, under a legal: authoriza- 
tion, nearly half as many people hunted without a license. 


MIGRATORY-BIRD TREATY-ACT ADVISORY BOARD. 


The migratory-bird treaty-act advisory board held its annual 
meeting in Washington on December 14 with 16 of the 22 members 
present. A number of amendments to the Federal regulations sug- 
gested by the bureau were considered by the board, and its recom- 
mendations were very helpful to the department in reaching its de- 
cisions on the advisability of making changes in the regulations. 
The meeting of this board each year is of great service to the bureau 
also in giving an opportunity to confer with State game officials and 
other conservationists among its members regarding migratory wild- 
fowl conditions throughout the country and the effect of the policy 
of the department in maintaining the supply of these valuable game 
birds. 


MATING HABITS OF MIGRATORY WATERFOWL. 


Supplementing its investigations of last year to determine the 
earliest mating dates of wild ducks in the Mississippi Valley regions, 
the bureau this year again assigned an assistant biologist to investi- 
gate mating and breeding habits of wild fowl in Missouri, as stated 
earlier in this report. Last year his investigations were confined 
mainly to the northern part of the State, but this year they extended 
into the southeastern sections, where the mating of wild ducks was 
found to be well advanced as early as February 21. The data thus 
gathered are of the utmost value, in view of the demand still being 
made for the privilege of hunting wild fowl in Missouri and certain 
other States later in the winter than January 31. 


PERMITS TO KILL MIGRATORY BIRDS INJURIOUS TO PROPERTY. 


Under regulation 10 of the migratory-bird treaty-act regulations 
the Secretary issued orders during the year permitting employees 
of the State Conservation Commission of Wisconsin to kill great blue 
herons and authorizing State game wardens of Idaho to kill mer- 
gansers and great blue herons when these birds are found injurious 
to fish. In addition, growers of small fruits in Connecticut, Idaho, 
and Washington and members of their immediate families and their 
bona fide employees were given permission to kill robins found 
injuring cherries or other small fruits from May 16 to September 
30. Permits for this purpose were already valid in Colorado, Indi- 
ana, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon, and Wiscon- 
sin. These orders provide that robins may be killed only when com- 
mitting or about to commit serious injury to growing cherries or 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 39 


other small fruits, and only by the holders of permits countersigned 
by the chief official in charge of the enforcement of the fish and game 
laws of the State in which the order is effective. Permits are revoca- 
ble in the discretion of the Chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey 
or of the person countersigning them. 


VIOLATIONS OF THE MIGRATORY-BIRD TREATY ACT. 


At the beginning of the fiscal year, migratory-bird treaty-act cases 
to the number of 722 were pending before the courts, and during the 
year there were 693 new cases reported for prosecution. Of these 
1,415 cases, 472 were disposed of by convictions, 28 were nolle 
prossed, in 2 the grand jury did not return true bills, 99 were dis- 
missed, 3 were terminated by the death of the accused, and in 8 the 
jury returned a verdict of not guilty; the remainder are pending. 

The total revenue collected during the year in all cases amounted 
to about $8,650, the fines ranging from $250 to $1 each. In numer- 
ous instances the defendants were also required to pay the costs, 
which in some cases equaled and in others exceeded the amount of 
the fines. About 115 other cases were reported by the Federal war- 
dens, which, on account of the youthfulness of the accused, insuf- 
ficient evidence, adequate fines having been imposed previously in 
State court, or for various other reasons, were not forwarded for 
Federal prosecution. The evidence in many of the cases, however, 
was transmitted to State game authorities for appropriate action, 
as violations of State laws were involved. 

Convictions in Federal courts were distributed as follows: Ala- 
bama, 20; Arkansas, 15; Delaware, 13; District of Columbia, 2; 
Florida, 19; Georgia, 55; Idaho, 3; Lllinois, 51; Indiana, 29; Lowa, 
90; Kansas, 9; Kentucky, 3; Louisiana, 13; Maine, 14; Maryland, 
12; Massachusetts, 138; Minnesota, 18; Mississippi, 7; Missouri, 19; 
Montana, 7; Nebraska, 6; Nevada, 3; New Mexico, 3; North Carolina, 
4; Ohio, 14; Oklahoma, 2; Oregon, 14; Pennsylvania, 1; South 
Carolina, 5; South Dakota, 5; Tennessee, 14; Texas, 21; Virginia, 
23; Washington, 18; West Virginia, 1; and Wisconsin, 1. 

Four jail sentences, ranging from 5 months to 15 days each, 
were imposed against violators in Maryland and Nebraska as a re- 
sult of illegal trapping, sale, and shipment of wild ducks, killing 
ducks in close season, and hunting ducks after sunset. While many 
substantial penalties were imposed, some offenders escaped with 
small fines and a few on payment of costs. 

Fines ranging from $100 to $25 were imposed against many of- 
fenders for offering for sale and selling aigrettes, possessing ducks 
in storage during the close season, selling ducks, hunting ducks 
from motor boats, capturing live waterfowl, and operating without 
a Federal permit, and for other miscellaneous offenses. The fourth 
and fifth convictions for the hunting of wild fowl from an airplane 
were obtained in the Federal Court for the Eastern District of 
Arkansas on May 8, 1923, where the violators, charged with killing 
wild ducks from an airplane, were fined $20 each. Six cases involv- 
ing this means of hunting are still pending. 

Among other cases of interest terminated during the year may be 
- mentioned 2 in South Carolina, involving the killing of wood ducks 
and resulting in a fine of $250 each; 1 in the District of Columbia, 


40 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


where wild ducks were possessed in cold storage during the close 
season and a fine of $250 was imposed; 1 in Ohio, involving the 
hunting of ducks in close season, in which a fine of $125 and costs 
was assessed; and 1 in Missouri, involving the killing of wood ducks 
and resulting in a fine of $150. 


SCIENTIFIC-COLLECTING AND OTHER PERMITS. 


During the year 994 permits were issued authorizing the collecting 
of migratory birds or their nests or eggs for scientific purposes. 
This is an increase of 42 permits over the previous fiscal year. 
About half the permits issued were limited in character, confining 
the operations of the permittees to the collection of nongame birds 
and of shorebirds during the open season for black-breasted and 
golden plovers and greater and lesser yellowlegs. Permits authoriz- 
ing the possession, purchase, sale, and transportation for scientific 
purposes of migratory birds legally acquired, but not the collection 
of such birds, were issued to 201 persons, most of whom weré taxi- 
dermists. 

Permits authorizing the possession and sale of migratory water- 
fowl raised in captivity were issued to 3,538 persons, and permits 
authorizing the taking of a limited number of waterfowl or their 
eggs for propagating purposes were issued to 90. 

The bureau issued permits authorizing the trapping of migratory 
birds alive for banding purposes to 847 persons, an increase over the | 
fiscal year ended June 30, 1922, of 357. These permits are issued 
by the bureau in line with its investigations relative to the times and 
lines of flight of migratory birds. The holder of a bird-banding 
permit is allowed to possess a migratory bird only a sufficient length 
of time for it to be properly banded and liberated. 


INTERSTATE COMMERCE IN GAME. 


The number of cases reported for prosecution under the Lacey 
Act has decreased steadily since the passage of the migratory-bird 
treaty act. This is due partly to the fact that the illegal interstate 
transportation of all wild birds now is a Federal offense under sec- 
tion 4 of the migratory-bird tfeaty act, and partly to the fact that 
wild animals or parts thereof are more frequently transported in 
interstate commerce by means other than common carrier, thus 
avoiding the Federal statute, although transported in violation of 
State laws. The bureau, through its game-warden service, has been 
able to render valuable cooperation in various States by unearthing 
shipments involving interstate commerce in birds and animals made 
in violation of State laws, and by collecting and reporting the evi- 
dence to State game authorities. Many States have collected thou- 
sands of dollars through fines resulting from evidence obtained by 
Federal wardens. Furthermore, these Federal laws have a most 
salutary effect in safeguarding wild life, as persons prone to violate 
State laws know that the valuable assistance rendered the States by 
United States game wardens materially lessens the chance of a vio- 
lator escaping the jurisdiction of either Federal or State courts. 

Evidence of approximately 200 apparent violations of State 
laws was turned over to State game officials during the year, and - 
145 State prosecutions based on information furnished by the bureau, 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 4] 


or in which the bureau assisted in completing the evidence, were 
brought to successful conclusions in State courts with fines, costs, and 
forfeitures totaling more than $7,000. Many guns and traps, the 
carcasses of 2 deer, and the skins of 27 muskrats and 66 beavers 
were included in the list of articles confiscated in connection with 
the disposition of these State cases. In an Oregon case one violator 
was fined $300 and sentenced to 30 days in jail. 

Of six cases reported for Federal prosecution during the year, two, 
together with five cases previously reported, were disposed of in Fed- 
eral courts. Of these seven cases, four resulted in the imposition of 
fines and costs totaling $250; two prosecutions were barred by the 
statute of limitations, because informations were not filed in time; 
and one was dismissed because the authorities were unable to ap- 
prehend the accused. : 

Many other investigations of interstate shipments were made, but 
did not result in prosecutions, as the shipments were either legally 
made or it was impossible to obtain evidence of their illegality. At 
the close of the fiscal year 85 cases were being investigated. 


IMPORTATION OF FOREIGN BIRDS AND MAMMALS. \Ara>s 


The importation of foreign birds and mammals, while showing 
a considerable increase over that of previous years, has not yet 
reached the maximum prior to the World War, which was attained 
in the year 1913. The number of permits issued during the year 
was 572, an increase of 44 over the previous vear, and the number 
of shipments inspected increased from 186 to 222. The total number 
of birds imported was 388,388, of which 8,331 were entered without 
permits. 

The permits for mammal imports included 2,756 foxes from 
Canada, a considerable increase over the 2,064 authorized to enter 
in 1922. One notable importation of mammals was a shipment of 
12 chinchillas, which reached Los Angeles, Calif., about February 
20. This is the first consignment of which there is any record for 
evel years of these animals actually imported into the United 

tates. : 

Importation of game birds included 9,123 Mexican quail, some 
ruffed grouse from Canada, a few Hungarian partridges, and oc- 
casional small consignments of ducks and geese, and 600 bamboo 
partridges and 200 sand grouse were received from China in Jan- 
uary. Importations of some of the rarer aviary pheasants haye de- 
creased to such a very low point that very few of some species are 
to be found in the United States since the dispersal of several of 
the larger private collections of pheasants which were brought to- 
gether 20 years ago. 

The principal cage birds imported as usual have been canariés and 
parrots, of which the canaries numbered about 182,000 and the par- 
rots 37,/21. Of the latter group, those most commonly entered are 
Cuban parrots, several of the other Amazons from tropical America, 
and grass parrakeets from Australia. A shipment of 6,000 grass 
parrakeets entered on June 30, 1922, passed into the hands of three 
of the large importers in New York, and nearly all died within six 
months after arrival. These were wild birds, and when cold weather 
came on and the windows were closed in the buildings in which they 


42 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


were confined they seemed to have contracted some disease from other 
birds, and practically all of them were reported to have died within 
a few weeks. Of the popular Lady Gould finches, 816 arrived in one 
shipment. Of the weaver birds, 600 black-headed nuns were entered 
in one consignment, and about 200 in all of the rufous-necked weaver 
birds were brought in, about half of which arrived in one day in 
January. 

A marked decrease in the importation of some of the common 
European and Asiatic birds was evident in the small number of 
entries of skylarks, brown linnets, chaffinches, and nightingales, as 
well as such of the cheaper oriental birds as Java sparrows, straw- 
berry finches, nutmeg finches, sociable finches, diamond finches, and. 
tricolored nuns. 

A number of rare and interesting birds were included in the impor- 
tations from the Old World, particularly from Africa, the Orient, 
and the East Indies. Among these may be mentioned two eagle 
owls (Bubo bubo), from Europe; two species of ground hornbills 
(Bucorvus abyssinicus and B. caffer), the ved-collared wydah (Pen- 
thetria ardens), and the rufous-tailed wydah (Bathilda ruficauda) , 
from Africa; the golden-headed mynah (Ampeliceps coronatus) and 
knobbed geese (Cygnopsis cygnoides), from India; 8 fire-back pheas- 
ants (Lophura diardi), from Siam; several species of pigeons from 
the East Indies and South Pacific, including 2 bronze-winged par- 
tridge pigeons (Geophaps smithi) from northwestern Australia, 30: 
Phlogoenas rubescens from the Marquesas Islands, 2 yellow-breasted 
fruit pigeons (Leucotreron occipitalis) from the Philippines, one 
nutmeg pigeon (Myristicivora bicolor) from the East Indies, and 
12 bleeding-heart doves (Phlogoenas luzonica) from the Philippine 
Islands. The Marquesas Islands pigeons apparently represented the 
first importation of this species into the United States, and the bleed- 
ing-heart doves were the first that had been received from the Philip- 
pines for some time, although before the war considerable numbers of 
these interesting birds were entered at Pacific coast ports. 

An attempt has been made to coordinate efforts by zoological 
gardens and museums to obtain some of the rarer birds. Several 
years ago an anomalous condition existed under which certain birds 
which were entirely unrepresented, or very poorly represented, in some 
of the largest public museums in this country were exhibited alive in 
several zoological gardens, while the museums failed to realize for 
some time the opportunity of obtaining desirable material in case- 
the birds died. Two notable examples are those of the golden- 
headed mynah of India (Ampeliceps coronatus) and a handsome 
African weaver bird (Hyphantornis cucullatus), which until recently 
were represented in the United States National Museum by one or- 
two specimens, and yet 18 of the mynahs and more than 200 of the 
weaver birds were imported alive during the year. This condition 
has been partially remedied by checking up the lists of desiderata of 
some of the larger museums, so that it is now possible to tell whether 
or not imported birds are represented in museum collections as well 
as in zoological gardens. 

Many inquiries are received from time to time in regard to the 
importation of foreign game birds which may be useful for stocking - 
covers or increasing the local game supply. Unfortunately, it can 
not be said that importations of game birds since the war have done - 


BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 43 


very much for the improvement of existing conditions. Mexican 
quail, which have been imported in considerable numbers, have been 
distributed for the most part in only four or five States, and the 
rest of the country has received little benefit from these importa- 
tions. A few ruffed grouse have been imported from Alberta, but 
in such small numbers as to provide breeding stock for only a few 
localities. Pheasants have been conspicuous by their absence, but 
this may indicate that the main demand for ring-neck pheasants is 
now supplied by stock bred in this country. A few Hungarian 
partridges have been brought in, but high prices at present prohibit 
restocking with these birds on a large scale. 

The demand for new birds can not be met properly until there is 
closer cooperation between aviculturists, experimenters, and game 
commissions in order to ascertain the precise conditions under which 
certain species may be acclimated and the peculiar treatment re- 
quired by each. Among the more promising game birds are the 
Prince of Wales and true Mongolian pheasants, tinamous of several 
species from South America, the chuckar partridge from India, the 
bamboo partridge from China, the red-legged partridge, and the 
black cock of Europe. Spasmodic attempts have been made from 
time to time to introduce these birds into the United States, but sus- 
tained experiments under favorable conditions have not been con- 
tinued long enough to ascertain the reason for lack of success. 


IMPORTATION OF QUAIL FROM MEXICO, 


Comparatively few quail were imported from Mexico during the 
past spring, notwithstanding the extensive preparations made by 
several importers. The first shipment of 72 birds was entered at 
Brownsville, Tex., on January 3, but, by common consent, dealers 
postponed operations until February so that the birds would not 
arrive in the north during cold weather. Shipments did not begin 
regularly until February 15, but during the next month they arrived 
at frequent intervals at the ports of Brownsville and Laredo, Tex. 
No birds were entered at Eagle Pass, Tex. 

Owing to restrictions imposed by Mexican authorities compara- 
tively few large shipments were brought in, most of the birds bein 
entered in consignments of 500 or less. About 6,500 were forwarde 

_to the Kentucky game and fish commission, some were shipped to the 
conservation commission of Maryland, and others were distributed 
to various other States. No quail disease appeared, and shipments 
were admitted to entry without being held in quarantine, but were 
examined as usual by inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Importations reached their maximum early in March, but fell off 
noticeably toward the latter part of the month. 

The total number of quail imported during the season was 9,123, 
which makes the total number of Mexican quail entered during the 
13 years since importations began 161,471. 


PUBLICATIONS ISSUED FROM THE BUREAU DURING THE YEAR. 
N NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA. 
oO. 
46. A Biological Survey of the Pribilof Islands, Alaska: Part I, Birds and 
Mammals; Part II, Insects, Arachnids, and Chilopods. Pp. 255, pls. 
15 (including 3 maps). 


44 ANNUAL REPORTS OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


No DEPARTMENT BULLETINS. 


1078. Beaver Habits, Beaver Control, and Possibilities in Beaver Farming. Pp. 
31, pls. 7, figs. 7 (including map). 

1089. Reindeer in Alaska. Pp. 74, pls. 24, figs. 2 (including map). 

1091. Life History of the Kangaroo Rat, Dipodomys spectabilis spectabilis 
Merriam. Pp. 40, pls. 9, figs. 8 (including map). 

1145. Migration Records from Birds Banded at Great Salt Lake, Utah. Pp. 16, 
pls. 2, fig. 1 (map). 

1151. Silver Fox Farming. Pp. 60, pls. 4, figs. 46 (including map). 


FARMERS’ BULLETINS. 


1288. Game Laws for 1922. Pp. 80. 

1293. Laws Relating to Fur Animals, 1922. Pp. 30. 

1302. How to Get Rid of Rats. Pp. 14, figs. 8. 

1327. Canaries: Their Care and Management. Pp. 22, figs. 6. 


REVISED EDITIONS. 


506. Food of some Well-known Birds of Forest, Farm, and Garden. Pp. 34, 
figs. 16. 

587. Economic Value of North American Skunks. Pp. 24, figs. 10. 

621. How to Attract Birds in the Northeastern States. Pp. 16, figs. 11. 

702. Cottontail Rabbits in Relation to Trees and Farm Crops. Pp. 14, figs. 4. 

844. How to Attract Birds in the Middle Atlantic States. Pp. 16, figs. 11. 

869. The Muskrat as.a Fur Bearer, with Notes on Its Use as Food. Pp. 20, 
figs. 4. 

1239. Community Bird Refuges. Pp. 16, figs. 3. 

1247. American Moles as Agricultural Pests and as Fur Producers. Pp. 24, 
figs. 16. 

2 DEPARTMENT CIRCULARS. 


242. Directory of Officials and Organizations Concerned with the Protection of 
Birds and Game, 1922. Pp. 20. 

260. Report of the Governor of Alaska on the Alaska Game Law, 1922. Pp. 7. 

261. Bird Censuses and How to Take Them. Pp. 4. 


SERVICE AND REGULATORY ANNOUNCEMENTS (BIOLOGICAL SURVEY). 


47. Hunting of Wild Fowl on Salt River Reservation, Ariz. P. 1. 

48. Migratory Bird Treaty Act and Regulations. (Including amendments of 
March 8, 1922.) Pp. 12. 

49. Importation of Quail from Northeastern Mexico. P. 1. 

50. Trapping of Fur-bearing Animals on Big Lake Reservation, in the State 
of Arkansas. P. 1. 

51. Regulations for the Protection of Land Fur-bearing Animals in Alaska. 
Psi. 

52. Regulations for the Protection of Land Fur-bearing Animals in Alaska. 
12250 

53. Regulations for the Protection of Game in Certain Localities in Alaska. 
Pp. 3. 

54. Regulations for the Importation of Eggs of Game Birds for Propaga- 
tion. Pp. 2. 


PUBLICATIONS IN PRESS AT CLOSE OF YEAR, WITH MANUSCRIPT TITLES. 


Report on Bird Censuses in the United States, 1916 to 1920. (Department 
Bulletin No. 1165, pp. 36, fig. 1, map.) 

Food and Economic Relations of North American Grebes. (Department Bulle- 
tin No. 1196.) ) 

Local Names of Migratory Game Birds. (Miscellaneous Circular No. 13, pp. 95, 
figs. 52.) 

Migratory Bird Treaty, Act, and Regulations. (Including amendments of June 
11, 1923.) (Service and Regulatory Announcements—B., 8. 55, pp. 13.) 

Bird Houses and How to Build Them. (Revision of Farmers’ Bulletin No. 
609.) 

Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. (Revision of Farmers’ bulletin 
No. 630.) 

Common Birds of Southeastern United States in Relation to Agriculture. (Re- 
vision of Farmers’ Bulletin No. 755.) ~ 


WASHINGTON : GOVERN MENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1923