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RHEPORT

Commissioner of Agriculture.

DN kan al ae

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1887.

[PUBLIC RESOLUTION—No., 29.]
Joint resolution for printing report of Commissioner of Agriculture.

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of Amer-
ica in Congress assembled, That there be printed four hundred thousand copies of
the annual report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the year eighteen hun.
dred and eighty-six; three hundred thousand copies for the use of members and
delegates of the House of Representatives, and seventy-five thousand copies for the
use of members of the Senate, and twenty-five thousand copies for the use of the
Department of Agriculture.

Sec. 2. That the sum of two hundred thousand dollars, or so much thereof as
may be necessary, is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not
otherwise appropriated, to defray the cost of the publication of said report.

Approved, August 4, 1886.

(2)

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Report of the Commissioner............cccsessccncsncecessnccecsesscnccees
Report of the Chief of the Seed Division ..........ssesecececececeerencenes
Report of the Botanist..... Meith atice OU OR uP OUD Ot Ck CCCOOLICE I fat De re
meport of the Mycological Section .... 1.5... c esse cece se secusccsonsessners
MeemartiGl the MICTOSCOPISE £6 cos ede tees esse eset cetessewassesesesce
Report of the Chief of the Division of Forestry........... sa ahatare cinta died oe Raa
Moport Of the Ornithologist..... 0.5... ccscsccesncccscvcccecs AE nor oot Ce
PeeecIeL BHC FOMOLPISE. 6... cece ne cesnvenccvsneseedes nia ceescke Ee ie or
SINISE REO OHICEING 210. ''c'e ac 5s cs gdiarids aeins + a oaitiagides ocd ae ecees sae aalzarhs
MEMPIEWIOL ENO SLAVISUCIAN. ... 22.6 es cece cnccen sve ssatecercasevoseussencses
MEMMOEDOE CHO EMUOMOLOZISL, 0.2... coe cease nese ast sceteusecacancesecesien
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry..............eeeeees
Report of the Superintendent of Garden and Grounds..............seeeeee

ERRATUM.

Transpose lines 19 to 25 to follow line 46—page 224.
(3)

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST:

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MTEC OUEILTIVETLUCOULILTIL ster sits stcbarepe an ney-l «14 aks eiaeh aie elehe eh tole eue.s) of
. Trifolium megacephalum (Large-headed clover) .........
5 ENG ORTH DGS CUUGKOOUOB GE oon UnabinobobrS oe Could Deo CUG Er
. Trifolium stoloniferum (Running buffalo clover) ........
. Trifolium Caroiinianum (Southern clover). .........+5.
mOnicusiaruensts (Canada) thistle) ip soy -.)«). cies s' g «e'=
PECL Gp PC (EULAOCIR) i. «<1 <rreysisics = “aiessishaleta = ih* cie}>
Manthium Canadense:(Clot-Dur). aya. 6.s sa2 oe welens ie 0+ oh
. Ambrosia ariemisicefolia (Rag-weed) ..........eceeeeees
. Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum (Ox-eye daisy) .........
, Abutilon avicennce (Indian mallow) ............2.-se0e-
. Solanum Carolinense (Horse-nettle).... 22... eee ee cece
| Echium vulgare (Blue-weed)............-..scccsscsccsce
PEL INILC TN LCCLOSELICL (DOLEEL)Persibue sin ci avi o o 2l-!sietolerelefeletelsie:srersis
bicunis: Githago (COCKE) «is cic «a's wa, «shonin. 6 6 o nlejern oiaym papers
Chenopodium album (Pigweed):. 2... on. scjsccewnnecs
LOUNUICULUS ACTS (Dall CEOWLOOL), < «2. sa 5 0001s 321 sis aol
. Ranunculus bulbosus (Bulbous-rooted buttercup) ........
| Barbarea vulgaris (Winter cress). ...........-0..--.00-
PCmeiaonium: majus (Celamdine). 2. sei. -.<\<...42. 20:5 + s050 0
Capsella bursa-pastoris (Shepherd’s purse)............--

REPORT OF THE MYCOLOGICAL SECTION:

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Plate I.—Downy mildew of the grape (Peronospora viticola, B. and C.)
Plate - II.—Powdery mildew of the grape (Uncinula spiralis, B. and C.)
Plate III.—Fungus of the black-rot of the grape (Physalospora Bid-

ACLU UTR SAC! Pac re fate e ne hel crane iaTs one oe eave ee ehceepeast orate) archaic seid
Plate IV.—Anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelinum, De Bary)..........-

Plate V.—Celery-leaf blight (Cercospora Apii, Fries) ....

ofa, oe) ajel(ale (mw s,.9 exe

COR aOR We

ee

a es

Plate VI.—Orange-leaf scab (Cladosporium sp.) ........--
Plate WVII.—Fungus of the potato-rot (Phytophthora infestans, De Bary)
Plate VIII.—Spot disease of orchard grass (Scolecotrichum graminis,

RGR ya Miva Neate to eiviAelist « sce shapca ciberctctace

Maps.—Distribution of the downy mildew of the grape.....

black-rot of the grape...........

PCE ERG aia nye nual che as aieie la raat

Diagrams.—Shrinkage in grape crop in Ohio
Loss from potato-rot in six States in 1885.......

REPORT OF THE MICROSCOPIST:

Plate I.—Crystalline formations of butter and fats.......

see eee ween

ee

Piate I1.—Crystalline formations of butter and fats, as seen by polarized
lioht and'selentte’ plate’. <0 2a: s. seis seeisee excrete peelesie ss
Plate III.—Crystalline formations of butter ............. cece eee eee
Plate IV.—Crystalline formations of ‘‘oleo” and butter................
Plate V.—Crystalline formations of ‘‘oleo” and oleomargarine, boiled
ABE TAWes 3c.068 SScece noncceaen & Feo OO SuOLebtoououTEE Te

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6 ; LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

REPORT OF THE MicrRoscoPpist—Continued. Page.
Plate VI.—Crystalline formations of lard and other fats .........+++++- 148
Plate VII.—The Bunsen filter-pump ..........-.- eee e eee eee e eee ee eens 148

REPORT OF THE CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY :

Diagram.—The Farmer’s interest in Forest Property ......s+.sseeeeerers 170

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST :
Map.—Distribution of the English sparrow in the United States at the end

Olan Osveal HOS... Micteneleitaiviawiciaiis ac oleiss o cle ois sie\a'e w adeis' sishslotnteneeaa 226
Fig. I.—Male English sparrow...........esseeeeees eis ofbieis 60's (vlna Sage 235
Fig. IIl.—Apple pecked by English sparrows........... PT
REPORT OF THE POMOLOGIST :
Plate i= BANA tOTAN PO les velista ce tetes ceaies es s.6.0/s ¢/a'e'a\o 6/00 < saan 272
Plate MMe LOOMS POHL eter iacres aioe atnie, aie cls sisie%e <i0%e ARSON Asean 5c 272
Plate III].—Arkansas Black apple ...........eseseeee in 60)a's1a (als aioe 272
Plate IV.—Fig. 1.—Arkansas Black apple..... wis hp pteinin » ob a» =\p'cinieee 272
Rup, 2.-—M NOMAD DIO’, orcs ans sisson ds 0.0.0.0 0s ye os sss oem 272
Pildee “Vi Figs 1. —Crawiord Apple’. tiie. eos scp os ones ooo csing lh ere 272
By, 2. UOAMMANDPIO « . ea ce apy ois v<lols/ale sta > ain’n 5 3a 272
Plate VI.—Fig. 1.—Shannon apple..........0...seeseeeeee , ai een 272
FIG. SE Ob APPS: «24 saguu oa'> veya oF Rieke a eich 272
Piste’ VIL—lKig. 1.—Burlington apple 2 .2ici5 6. s+ 5,0 se 5 0.00 0 say +5 272
Fig. 2.—Northwestern Greening apple ...........sseeeeees 272
Plate VIII.—Fig. 1.—Wolf River apple.......... w sep pes <0mps 90s uaa 272
Fig. 2.—Waupaca apple.............0. erv\a.6 ejnle’sicie ele ie eee 272
Plate . IX.—Fig. 1.—Scott’s’ Winter apple. .....cscsccreccccensavcatdhus 272
Fig. 2,—Antonovka apple .............. ADICTS SE rk 272
Plate X.—Fig. 1.—Boardman apple.............. ais's.0)0'e.0o> ears eee 272
Fig. 2.—Kelsey’s Japan plum......... ARMOR ODO GON AAC oon. 35 272
REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST:
Plate I.—The Cottony Cushion-scale............06. ey
Plate iI.—The Cottony Cushion-scale.............eeeees gis .s cle ieee « $92
Plate III.—Enemies of the Cottony Cushion-scale............0eeceeee8 592
Plate IV.—Lemon orchard infested by Cottony Cushion-scale ......... 592
Plate V.—Spraying outfit in operation against Cottony Cushion-scale. 592
Plate VIL.—The Southern BRuffalo-gnat .... 2... .. css cewss cn oe ees 592
Plate VII.—The Southern Buffalo-gnat and the Turkey-gnat........... 592
Plate VIII.—The Southern Buffalo-gnat and the Turkey-gnat........... 592
Plate IX.—Sciara mistaken for Buffalo-gnat, and Hydropsyche larva
which feeds upon Buffalo-gnat larve ..........0..ee200 592
Pitre ~~, x.—The Pall Web-worll..... <. 6... 000000 «ge bebe see 592
Plate XI.—The Fall Web-worm—view of a Washington street show- 592
Ing GeTOMAMOM:: ; 0:5 tac ecco ehieratelie soins Oe a ore ee eT 592
REPORT OF THE CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY:
Plate I.—Hog-cholera—ulcerated caecum of a Pig......e.sceeeeesens 636
Plate II.—Hog-cholera—ulcerated caecum of a pig...........-eeseees 686

Plate IIl.—Hog-cholera and swine-plague. Cover-glass preparations
from spken of rabbit inoculated with the bacterium of

HhOs-ChOlaya ,... 5.09! «42,4 sSusi causes be spinel testbte Sak Slates kx aa 686
Plate IV.—Hog-cholera and swine-plague cultures................0005 686
Plate V.—Hog-cholera and swine-plague. Surface growth in gelatine

TUDE coo, 1. a aguid/ais gteinish Rely Saas Ae arm a Ete ec Sho 686
Plate VI.—Hog-cholera—liver of rabbit. ......,.0cccceeccececaccceuny 686
Plate VII.—Bacterium of hog-cholera .......0.ecevsesdeydevcesecences 686

Plate VUI.—Bacterium of hog-cholera and micrococci of swine-plague. 686
Plate IX.—Swine-plague. Cover-glass preparations ..........eseseces 636

REPORT

OF TOKE

COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Washington, D. C., November 15, 1886.
To the PRESIDENT: —

I respectfully submit my second annual preliminary report as Com-
missioner of Agriculture.

American agriculture has developed colossal proportions. With
more than two centuries of growth, much the larger part of its de-
velopment has come from the thought and labor of the last thirty
years. In that time wheat has quadrupled its product, corn has a
threefold production, and cotton has doubled its annual crop. For
every pound of meat and gallon of milk in 1856 there are three in
1886, and more than four times as many pounds of wool. It is no
idle boast that this country produces more than half the cotton of the
world and three-fourths of the maize.

With production so varied that only the tropical fruits are lacking,
and so abundant as to secure almost unexampled cheapness, it is cer-
tain that this is the best-fed nation on the globe. Meat, an occa-
sional indulgence in many countries, is here the staple of nearly
every meal, and the average of individual consumption is at least
three pounds for every one consumed in Europe. Fruits are so
abundant as to tax the power of home consumption, the surplus
going to waste if not fed to farm animals. While the meats, wool,
and corn, wine and oil, sugar and rice, and products of the dairy and
of the orchard and garden, are mostly consumed at home, we are
supplying the deficiencies of other countries, still shipping about
two-thirds of our cotton, one-fourth of our wheat, and one-fifth of
our pork products to foreign countries, and ever ready to enter any
door of profitable consumption that opens to receive the surplus of
our manufactured products of agriculture.

American agricultureis progressive. Its comparatively low yields
are due to the abundance and cheapness of virgin soil, and the desire
to compass a wider land area in the regions of primitive cultivation.
The rate of yield is increasing in older settlements under the influence
of better methods, higher skill, and fertilizing restoratives. Its char-
acteristic features are the application of labor-saving machinery,

8 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

deftness in manipulation, and mental alertnessin management. Pro-
duction has dispensed with half the muscular effort required by the
former generation of farmers, and the result is less of drudgery and
more of physical comfort and mentalculture. The future is likely to
witness a more rapid progress than has yet been recorded.

The results of production in the present season are favorable to the
well-being of producer and consumer. The year has been one of me-
dium fruitfulness. Drought, a specter which stalks so frequently
over many a league of productive area, has this season been confined
mainly to portions of two or three States west of the Mississippi, and
even there has generally left an ample sufficiency for supply of local
wants and avoidance of absolute distress. The cotton crop, wheat,
and small grains are all of medium dimensions;’ corn is ample for all
needs, while below an average yield; fruits and vegetables are of mod-
erate abundance, and the grasses and forage crops, the most impor-
tant source of ouragricultural wealth, have in most sections been fairly
productive. There is no scarcity either in the home supply or in the
surplus necessary for any foreign demand, so thatno curtailment of
agricultural exports is expected. Thus the year to the husbandman
has been one of average fruitfulness, of good markets, comparatively
low prices, and moderate profits.

Such is the condition of that mdustry which this Department
strives to foster, and such the relation which the farming class sus-
tains to the stability, progress, and prosperity of the country. Surely
it should furnish abundant reason for generous legislative support of
all attempts made to increase production, to diversify crops, to pre-
serve and enhance the fertility of the soil, to plant, to cultivate, to
keep and reap more intelligently than those who have gone before,
and to leave for those who follow us those methods and processes out
of which are to be evolved the ultimate solutions of the problems of
agriculture.

During the year it has been my privilege to inaugurate new and
improved methods in the general administration of the Department; —
to give due attention to new and improved processes; and to intro-
duce, from time to time, through the various special reports, what-
ever the scientific and experimental investigations carried on under
my direction have suggested as being worthy of attention and trial
by the progressive agriculturist. It is the aim of the Department
under the present administration not only to extend the benefits of
scientific and enlightened inquiry among the farmers and agricult-
ural workers of our country, but also to induce a habit of thought
among them which will lead to that practical experimentation in local
soils and climates which is always necessary to prove the value or
worthlessness of new theories in agriculture as applied under special
conditions.

That the Department has been unusually active in this regard will

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. 2

be proved, I think, by an examination of the detailed reports of its
several divisions which follow, and that the information gathered has
been diffused over a wide area is fully attested by the enormous de-
mand for its published literature and the inquiries for information
upon special topics from every section,

EXPERIMENTAL AGRICULTURE.

In a new country and upon a virgin soil nature responds so readily
to the plainest cultivation that a maximum of muscle anda minimum
of brain results in successful farming, but when generation after
generation has drawn upon the stored fertility, and agricultural com-
munities have to contend not only with well-worn land, but with
dear labor and active competition froma distance, the prevailing
conditions are far different. Labor-saving inventions are sought,
more brain work becomes necessary, every year seems to bring a
harder problem, and the modern farmer realizes the number of un-
known quantities with which he has to deal and the need of bringing
to his aid all the resources of modern science. No other occupation
requires such intimate acquaintance with the many and mysterious
laws of nature, or is so dependent upon the practical application of
the latest and best of research in every branch of natural science.
But although there is a general recognition of the value of science
applied to agriculture, farmers will never be able to accomplish
much by individual effort in solving the problems met with at every
turn. In addition to all the recorded experience of the past, new
experiments, to determine truths of practical value, are constantly
needed. Some individual farmers have conducted experiments so
carefully and persistently as to reach conclusions of general value.
The work remaining to be done, however, is greater and more im-
portant than all that has been accomplished, and requires time and
means which cannot possibly be supplied by farmers themselves
singly or collectively. And however creditable the results of private
effort in agricultural experiments, such labors are usually found
fragmentary, disconnected, and only useful for local application.
Moreover, so important is a correct plan, absolute accuracy of detail
in execution, and unbiased interpretation of the results, that agri-
cultural investigation, to be of public service, needs to be scientific-
ally conducted by well-trained men. Baron Liebig said:

When the practical man attempts exact methods he is almost invariably a sufferer.
He seems to forget that man does not become intuitively acquainted with scientific
procedure, but that this must be learned, like the skillful use of any complex instru-
ment.

Hence the necessity for new provisions for such experimentation as
is required by progressive agriculture and their better organization
and maintenance.

All other industries and the public welfare are so dependent upon

10 mnEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

the prosperity of agriculture in almost every country, that the inves-
tigation and experiment needed for the progress of farming in any
given country has come to be acknowledged as work properly under-
taken at public expense and under the direction of the state. The
only question which appears to be open for discussion in this connec-
tion is as to the best provisions for that experimental work which is
recognized as essential to the progressive agriculture of our times.

Institutions for this purpose, generally known as agricultural ex-
periment stations, have been established and supported by public
funds, some for nearly thirty years in many parts of Europe, and for
a shorter time in several of the United States. The ‘‘station” is sim-
ply a comparatively new and improved method of conducting agri-
cultural experiments. It is a place where discovery for the benefit
of farming is made a regular business, with complete equipment, and
managed by competent men. These establishments have become so
valuable and popular in Europe, that they have rapidly increased in
number, until there are now about one hundred and forty in operation.

Agricultural experiment stations in this country have been estab-
lished in nine States, in the following order: Connecticut and North
Carolina in 1877; New Jersey, 1880; New York, Ohio, and Massa-
chusetts, 1882; Wisconsin and Alabama, 1883, and Maine in 1885.
These are all distinctly independent institutions, with their own or-'
ganizations, and supported by State appropriations or special tax.
Some, however, are located at State agricultural colleges, and officered
by the college professors. These stations differ greatly in their or-
ganization, facilities, and work. Some are required to control the
business in commercial fertilizers in their respective States, while
others do nothing of this kind. In New Jersey and North Carolina
at least $10,000 is expended yearly, mainly in laboratory work and
the publication of results, although land is somewhat used in New
Jersey. In Alabama and Wisconsin large areas of land are used—
100 acres or more; in Ohio, 25 acres; and in New York about 125 acres.

In several other States there are provisions made for systematic
experiment work at the agricultural colleges and State universities
by appropriations from college funds and the assignment of pro-
fessors to this duty. In some cases the results are becoming very
valuable, at least locally, while in others the efforts are feeble and
uncertain.

Other States and colleges are considering the inauguration of ex-
perimental inquiry, and efforts in this direction are apparently lm-
ited only by lack of means. Hxperimental agriculture is expensive.
It means constant outlay for the good which will come of it, and the
greater the outlay the more valuable the returns. An experinient
station is a place to spend money systematically, judiciously, with no
apparent return, but always for the purpose of ultimately saving
much more. And this saving, being in the production of the neces-

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. nia

saries of life, results in benefit not only to the farmers, but to every
classinthe community. The fact is well known that the endowments
of most of the State agricultural colleges are very meager; in several
instances even insuficicnt to maintain a creditable educational insti-
tution. In such cases expenditures for experimentation are impossi-
ble. Yet to do good work a station should have well-appointed build-
ings, expensive apparatus, books e~d periodicals, and a handsome and
certain annualincome. Abl« menshou!d besccured and salaries paid
according to the nature of the work. The colleges generally cannot
be expected to assume such burdens, and it is probablo that the States
most needing such stations will be the last to creato ther, if ever done.

With a number of well-equipped and fairly maintained stations in
as many different States, operating without communication, much less
co-operation, and often in diverse lines of inquiry, the results are but
a fraction of what they might be if provision were mado for joint
effort and harmony of action. As at present conducted, the results
of investigation at State stations are usually promulgated by publi-
cations which have a very limited distribution, and even where work
in a single State is of a character which makes its conclusions gener-
ally applicable, the country at large fails to derive any benefit there-
from.

National legislation has been proposed to extend the work of ex-
perimental agriculture, establishing it in every State, as well as to
strengthen that already in progress, and to make the results of all
available to the country at large. Without interfering with the or-
ganization and management of State stations, whether at colleges or
independent, Federal support may supplement existing agencies, and
provide through this Department a certain degree of control to secure
co-operation where needed and furnish such a medium of intercom-
munication and exchange as to greatly facilitate and improve the
work as a whole.

I referred in a previous report to a convention of dolegatos from
these various colleges and stations, called by me, to devolop a system
to unify results and make these institutions of greater benefit to the
country. Whilo waiting upon Congress for authority and means to
execute the design and unanimously expressed wish of these institu-
tions, which subject 1 heartily commend as worthy of careful con-
sideration, I have commissioned a special agent to visit and inspect
experiment stations, in order to ascertain what facilities already exist
in this country for systematic experimentation, what has been actu-
ally accomplished, and especially what are the needs for future work.
Many data have been collected, and will form the basis of a future
report upon the subject.

There can bé no question of the value of these investigations and
experiments if liberally supported and ably conducted, especially in
adjusting to its new conditions the agriculture dependent upon the

12 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

worn land of the Northern, Hastern, and Southern States. The
benefit to be derived from them is practically limited only by the out-
lay which it is possible tomake. The stations and colleges of the sev-
eral States are constantly urged to enlarged experimentation, beyond
present resources, and often find themselves ‘“‘ striking new leads,”
which they cannot follow, all for want of means. In nearly all cases
there is land enough, and to spare, owned and immediately available.
In numerous instances buildings are ample, or in shape to be easily
converted to furnish the necessary accommodations for laboratories,
stables, storage, and offices. But, as already shown, the current ex-
pense of experiment work, comprehensive and thorough, is very
heavy. Cheap labor and appliances will not do. Salaries must be
sufficient to command scientific ability of the first order, and the
workers must be untrammeled by other duties. None of the colleges
have the means to keep up their educational facilities and assume
new obligations of this extent and character, however well recog-
nized the importance of the work. A few of the States can be in-
duced to make special provision sufficient for the purpose. Where
State stations do exist and colleges have begun such work, it is ap-
parent that further provision is necessary for their full development.
Hence the very general interest in the bill now before Congress “for
the establishment of agricultural experiment stations in connection
with the agricultural colleges of the respective States and appro-
priating money therefor,” and the prevalent opinion of its impor-
tance and the desire for its early enactment. No measure is now
pending or proposed of greater import or bearing a brighter promise
of deep-seated and lasting benefits to the agricultural interests of the
United States in all their branches.

This bill is not, however, free from defects, and certain amend-
ments may well be recommended here. The amount which it pro-
poses to annually appropriate to each State ($15,000) is none too much
to establish and maintain one good station. To permit this to be
divided and appropriated among different stations or institutions
would at once defeat the desired object; and instead of one strong
station in every State, two or three worthless starvelings would here
and there be found, consuming their whole allowance in the general
expenses necessary to every station, with no margin for accomplish-
ing results. Congress should not repeat the mistake which has
already been made in one State at least, by which a land grant has
been so divided up that no piece can be found big enough to be serv-
iceable, or maintain an institution worthy the name of “‘State Agri-
cultural College.” But while every State should be required to keep
the allowance intact and assign it for expenditure to one and only
one place, permission should be granted for every State to determine
by its legislature, and once for all, to what institution the appropri-
ation shall be assigned. States having well-established independent

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, 13

stations would doubtless prefer to strengthen them rather than create
duplicates, and should be allowed by the law to do so; and it is cer-
tainly to be hoped that in States where the agricultural-college funds
from the land grant of 1862 have been absorbed by institutions which
have shown no desire to conform to the spirit of that law, the people
will not permit their legislators to repeat the former blunder, but

equire them to create a bona-fide station, regardless of the merely
nominal agricultural college existing. The bill as drawn allows only
one-fifth ($3,000) of the first year’s appropriation to be expended for
buildings, repairs, &c., and only $750 annually thereafter. UConsid-
ering the necessary expenses, especially in starting a station where
nothing of the kind exists, this allowance is quite inadequate, an‘
the restriction might defeat the object of the law. For buildings
and repairs $5,000 should be allowed the first year and the second,
-and at least $1,000 annually thereafter. The buildings of the Mas-
sachusetts station, neither extravagant nor large, cost a good deal
over $10,000, and, although models of their kind, and sufficient for
the present income, would have to be enlarged with the extended
operations made possible by the proposed Federal endowment. These
and minor amendments are desirable, but the principle of the pend-
ing bill is right, and all friends of agricultural progress in America
should unite in urging its passage.

With an agricultural-experiment station in every State, well
equipped, ably managed, and liberally supported, the work would be
still incomplete. To prevent useless and wasteful duplications and
repetitions, and to secure co-operation and concerted action when
needed, there must be a central station or office, and the natural place
for this is at Washington. The center for the work should not, and
indeed could not, dictate or control the operations of the State sta-
tions, but it could and should be of great service in harmonizing, uni-
fying, and economizing the whole. If such central office did nothing
more than serve as a medium of communication between the State
stations—a sort of clearing-house, keeping every one informed as to
the operations, progress, and results of all the others—it would still
be indispensable, and a station of equal importance with the others.
But, in addition, the central station should receive, criticise, digest,
edit, and consolidate the results obtained at the various stations, and
periodically promulgate the same in a form suited to popular under-
standing and application.

The “experiment-station bill” before Congress provided but par-
tially for this important service to be performed at the Department
of Agriculture. A vital omission is the failure to make special appro-
priation for the purpose. The already overtaxed clerical force of this
constantly growing Department could not properly perform this ad-
ditional duty. A new office or division is necessary, with a chief
equal in ability to the directors of the State stations, and competent

14 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE,

assistants. This should be provided for independent of the regular
appropriation for the Department; and the simplest and best way is
to amend the pending bill, by placing the United States Department
of Agriculture on an equal footing with the several States as to ap-
propriations and general objects, but especially charging it with the
duties indicated as belonging to the central station.

Experimental agriculture, upon a scientific basis, has already been
so well begun in America, these efforts and their results have been
so favorably received, and the facilities for an extension of the work
are so good, if only the necessary funds can be obtained, that there
is every reason for expecting immediate and lasting results from the
early passage by Congress of the proposed law. The result would bea
great impetus to experimental inquiry, and, in the words of another,
‘“by providing the means for more and extended investigations, agri-
culture will be materially advanced, the condition of the farmer im-
proved, and theagricultural calling accorded in public estimation some
measure of that dignity and importance to which, as one of the chief
elements in national wealth and greatness, it is fairly entitled.” It is
hoped the importance of this subject and the merits of the proposed
legislation will commend themselves to the support of Congress.

THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.

The most important work of this bureau has been the investigation
and control of the contagious diseases of animals. Our vast areas of
productive pasture lands, our enormous crops of grain, and our salu-
brious climate have led to a most remarkable development of the
flocks and herds of the country. With this increase in the number
of animals, their constant importation, and free movement between
all parts of the country contagious diseases have been introduced
and disseminated to an alarming extent.

Most important at this time is the contagious pleuro-pneumonia of
cattle, which, introduced into our Atlantic seaboard States nearly
half a century ago, has until recently been kept away from the great
central markets of the country. About three years ago the contagion
of this disease was carried to Ohio, from Ohio to Illinois, and from
Illinois to Kentucky and Missouri. After a continued application of
all the authority granted under the national and State laws the plague
was extirpated from Ohio, Missouri, and Kentucky, and it was thought
to be also eradicated from Illinois. Unfortunately it was again found
to be in existence in and around Chicago in September last. A thor-
ough investigation has shown that the contagion has been dissemi-
nated among the cattle in the distillery stables and among those run-
ning at large on the streets and commons of the city and suburbs.
Many animals have been exposed, The exact number is not known,
but it is certainly very large, and, what is equally serious, the un-
fenced lands about the city have been infected.

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. 15

Every effort possible under existing laws has been made to locate
the diseased animals and isolate all that have been exposed. With
such a plague as this existing in the greatest live-stock center of the
country, threatening to impair both the quantity and quality of our
food supply, and increasing the insecurity of our export trade in livo
cattle and in cattle products, it would have been most fortunate if
every animal exposed to the disease and liable to contract it could
have been summarily slaughtered and the contagion thus eradicated.
The experience of all countries has been that the malady may be
thoroughly and completely stamped out in this way, and that there
is no other means by which the bovine species can be protected from
its ravages. This disease is one of the most destructive which affects
domesticated animals; it does not run a definite course and disappear,
but remains in the same herd year after year, and as it frequently as-
sumes a chronic form, there is a more than ordinary temptation to
dispose of the milk and flesh of diseased animals for human food.

With a disease of this character at Chicago it has been truly said
that the cattle industry of this country has reached a crisis. There
can be no doubt that it will be soon and widely disseminated unless
prompt and effectual action can be instituted for its speedy suppres-
sion. Even now it may have been scattered to some extent in the
West, and the investigations of the next year will probably bring
other outbreaks to light. The matter is a most important one, over-
shadowing in urgency all others affecting our agricultural popula-
tion, and of vital interest also to every consumer of beef, of milk, of
butter, and of cheese. To prevent the spread of this scourge, which
has already greatly affected our foreign and inter-State commerce,
additional legislation by Congress is now essential.

Under the authority conferred by the acts approved May 29, 1884,
and June 30, 1886, the Department has co-operated with such States
as accepted its rules and regulations for controlling and extirpating
this disease. Much valuable work has already been done in Mary-
land, and the danger of the dissemination of the contagion from that
State has been greatly lessened. No work has been done in the State
of New York, because it was evident that the appropriation was not
sufficient to secure any favorable results there on account of the ex-
tent of the infection. The disease also exists in New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, and Virginia, but the State authorities have not yet accepted
tho rules and regulations of the Department for co-operation.

I greatly regret the necessity of announcing the existence of this
dangerous disease over such a wide area, but the serious results to be
apprehended from it make it imperative that the truth should be
known, in order that such legislative action may be taken as is indi-
cated by the emergency.

Of next importance among the contagious diseases of animals is the
plague of swine, generally known as hog cholera. The losses from

16 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

this malady are estimated at from ten to thirty millions of dollars
annually. The investigations of the past year have thrown much
light upon its nature and cause; they will make possible more intel-
ligent measures of prevention, and it is hoped that they will soon lead
to discoveries which will enable our farmers to guard with more cer-
tainty against it.

In former years the introduction into the herds of our Middle and
Northern States of the Texas or splenic fever of the South has caused
the loss of many cattle during the hot and dry weather of summer
and fall. The information which this Department has collected and
disseminated in regard to the nature of this disease and the districts
from which it might be introduced has enabled our stock men to pro-
tect themselves so effectually against it that the losses of the current
year have been inconsiderable.

The quarantine of cattle imported from other countries has been
mniaintained by this Department, and during the year no cases of con-
tagious disease have been detected among such animals.

DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.

The work in this division during the past year has been of a varied |
character. The usual number of examinations of waters, minerals,
fertilizers, and miscellaneous articles has been made. This class of
miscellaneous work is sufficient to employ the time of one analyst
constantly.

The systematie work of the division has been directed to the fol-
lowing investigation, viz: ;

(1) Dairy products.—A critical examination has been made of the
various methods of analysis which have been proposed for butter
and milk. This study was considered of especial importance on ac-
count of the interest excited among the agriculturists of the country
on the subject of artificial butter. Combined with the chemical ex-
amination there was made a thorough optical study of the various
fats used in the fabrication of butter and mixtures of the same. <As
a result of these studies the best and most certain methods of dis-
tinguishing between pure and artificial butter have been pointed out.

A thorough study of the specific gravities of the different fats and
oils has also been made, and in addition to this a new and accurate
method of determining their melting points has been worked out.

In respect of milk, all the latest methods of analysis have been
subjected to minute examination, and a new method of separating
cream for analytical determination has been devised and put into
successful operation. By this method the speedy and accurate esti-
mation of the percentage of fat in milk has been secured. The re-
sults of all the work with dairy products have been collected, and
will appear in Bulletin No. 14.

(2) Condiments.—It has long been known that spices, peppers, and

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, 17

other condiments exposed for sale have been largely adulterated. To
determine the character and extent of this adulteration the division
has undertaken a critical chemical and microscopic study of these
substances. The results of these studies, now ready for publication,
show that the expectation of adulteration has, unhappily, not been
disappointed, and also the nature of the adulterants used and the
chemical and microscopic manipulation necessary for their detec-
tion.

(3) Commercial fertilizers.—The importance of accurate and uni-
form methods for the analysis of commercial fertilizers has long been
acknowledged.

Accepting the invitation of the Department, the Association of
Official Agricultural Chemists held its third annual convention in the
rooms of the division, under the presidency of the chief Chemist.
Representatives were present from the experimental stations and
agricultural colleges of the country, and nearly all the State chemists
were inattendance. Uniform methods of analysis were adopted, and
the details of the manipulations have been published as Bulletin No.

12 of the division.
(4) Hxperiments in the manufacture of sugar.—As a result of

the experiments carried on last year at Ottawa, Kansas, an account of
which was published in Bulletin No. 6, the Department was led to
continue the experiments at Fort Scott, Kansas.

Congress made a liberal appropriation for continuing these experi-

ments, and the work of preparation was at once commenced on the
approval of the bill, June 30, 1886. Asa preliminary study the Chem-
ist of the Department had made a careful examination of the various
forms of machinery best adapted to the work, and a description of
this machinery was published as Bulletin No. 8. The machinery for
the experimental work was mostly constructed by the Pusey and Jones
Company, of Wilmington, Delaware, and it was erected in a building
provided by the Parkinson Sugar Company, at Fort Scott, Kansas.
It was only in the latter part of September that this machinery was
finally put: into tolerable working order. All the mechanical diffi-
culties which the experiments at Ottawa had revealed were avoided
in the new machinery with the exception of the apparatus for moy-
ing the chips and slicing the cane, which, by neglect of the contractor,
was left just as it was used at Ottawa. This omission caused a great
deal of delay in the subsequent experiments.

The result of the season’s work showed that the extraction of the
sugar from the chipped cane proceeded with ease and to a degree
wholly satisfactory. Less than one-half of 1 per cent. of total sugars
out of the average 12 per cent. present was lost in the process of ex-
traction. A severe frost September 30 greatly injured the cane and
diminished the percentage of crystallizable sugar therein so rapidly,
that on the 22d of October no further crystallization could be ob-

AG. *86—2 a,

‘

18 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

tained, While the experiments showed that the process of diffusion
would practically secure all the sugar in the cane, they also showed
that a good article of sirup could an be produced unless the canes
were moro thoroughly cleaned. This part of the work must be sub-
mitted to further experiment, which the early close of the manufact-
uring season unfortunately prevented.

Another difficulty of a chemical nature also presented itself during
the progress of the work, and so far no practical method of avoiding
it has been discovered. This is the inversion which the sucrose suf-
fers during the progress of diffusion, and which is caused by the
acids of thecane. These acids existed in remarkably large quantities
in the cane used for experiments, and caused the conversion of a great
deal of the crystallizable into uncrystallizable sugar. This dimin- |
ished the product of the sugar and correspondingly increased the
output of molasses. Experiments were made looking to the avoid-
ance of this difficulty by making the water of diffusion alkaline,
These, however, were not practically successful. Better results were
obtained by using the carbonate of lime freshly precipitated or in the
state of an impalpable powder, like powdered chalk. ‘With the ex-
ception above mentioned the experiments were attended with encour-
aging results.

(5) Huperiments with sugar-cane from Louisiana.—These ex-
periments were undertaken as preliminary to the work which the
Department proposes to do in Louisiana next year. About 150 tons
of cane were sent by Hon. E. J. Gay, and the experiments were made
during the first half of November. The most brilliant success at-
tended these experiments, some 40 pounds per ton of sugar being
obtained above the results obtained in Louisiana by the average
milling.

These experiments prove beyond a doubt the easy applicability of
diffusion and carbonatation or some similar process to the extraction
of sugar from sugar-cane. By the introduction of this procedure
into Louisiana the yield of sugar would be increased fully one-third
over its present amount from a given weight of cane,

ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION.

_ The value of the work of this division was set forth in my last re-
port to you, and is so well known to the farming and industrial com-
munity as to call for nocomment. The appreciation of the work,
however, is not confined to this country, and I observe with some
pride the favor with which the publications of this division are re-
ceived in other countries, as evidenced by letters of acknowledgment
sent to me and by honors conferred upon the Entomologist. A marked
evidence of the importance now attached to applied entomology abroad
is shown in the appointment of a government entomologist for Hng-
land, and in the holding on the Continent of an international exhi-

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, 19

bition of machinery and contrivances for applied remedies against
both fungi and insects that are destructive to cultivated plants. This
congress was held in October at Florence, and his excellency B. Gri-
maldi, the minister of agriculture, industry, and commerce for Italy,
very strongly urged me to have a representation of the discoveries
and mechanical appliances that have been developed in the work of
this division, and to send a representative to take part in the discus-
sions of the congress to be held in connection with the exhibition,
The Entomologist was, in fact, appointed one of the jurors, An in-
telligent report of these appliances and tests would have been of great
value to this country, particularly as the more important devices, so
far as I can learn, are modifications of those which have been per-
fected in this Department. The last year’s appropriation for the work
of the Entomological Division expressly prevents my taking advan-
tage of any such opportunity in a foreign country, and I am, unfort-
unately, powerless to meet such emergency.

Ten thousand dollars of the appropriations to the division were
transferred to the new Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy, and
this has necessitated a reduction of the working force of the Ento-
mologist. Although the possibilities for extended results are lessened
thereby, the division has accomplished much good work during the
year.

The publications of the division have been, in addition to the an-
nual report of the Entomologist, the fourth report of the United States
Entomological Commission, Bulletins Nos, 9, 11, and 12, and a com-
plete report on insects affecting the orange.

The first-named work comprises the final report on the c6tton-worm
and the boll-worm, by Prof. C. V. Riley. It is a volume of more
than 500 pages, and is illustrated by 64 plates in addition to the text
figures. ‘There has been a large call for this volume from cotton
planters throughout the South, and it was fortunately published, after
much delay, at the beginning of a season in which the cotton-worm
appeared in great force in several of the cotton States. Bulletin No.
9 is a thoroughly revised edition of the manual of instructions in silk
culture, introducing many new figures and modifying the work in
the light of recent discoveries and methods. Bulletin No. 11 contains
detailed reports of experiments made by agents of the division in New
Jersey, Indiana, and Iowa, with many of the insecticides recommended
against insects injurious to garden crops. Bulletin No. 12 comprises
a long series of notes on the injurious insects of the season of 1885,
an article on the production and manufacture of buhach, the Califor-
nia insecticide, a continuance of the work on forest insects, and ad-
ditional material on the periodical cicada.

The report on insects affecting the orange has met with much favor
among orange growers, and, although issued late in March, the edition
is already exhausted. The remedies recommended have come into

90 "REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

quite general use, and there is still a continual demand for the report,
a new edition of which I hope may soon be issued.

Several new and important investigations have been entered upon,
The cottony cushion scale insect has for many years done great dam-
age to orange, lemon, olive, and other fruit trees in California, into
which State it was introduced nearly twenty years ago from Aus-
tralia, while many other scale insects seriously affect California horti-
culture. In consequence, two agents were sent to Los Angeles early
in the spring, and have continued through the summer, making an
extensive series of experiments with remedies.

At the request of many prominent planters of the Lower Missis-
sippi Valley an investigation has been begun into the habits of and
remedies for the Southern buffalo-gnat, an insect which almost annu-
ally, and particularly in seasons of overflow, causes great loss of life
among stock in that region. Threeagents have visited infested local-
ities at different times during the season, and the life history of the
insect has been made out and will shortly be published. An investi-
gation has also been begun upon the insects affecting garden crops in
Florida; and agents in Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, and Nebraska
are studying the insects of their respective regions and experiment-
ing with remedies.

The correspondence on economic entomology has been more ex-
tended than ever, and nearly three thousand letters of inquiry have
been answered. This increase is due not only to the fact that agri-
culturists take a constantly increasing interest in the work of the
division, but also to the fact that the season has been particularly
favorable t8 the increase of many of our most injurious insects. The
chinch-bug and the Hessian-fly have done considerable damage in
several of the Western grain-growing States. Plant lice of all kinds
have increased enormously, particularly in the Northeast. The hop-
plant louse alone has damaged the hop crop of New York State to
the extent of hundreds of thousands of dollars. The Entomologist
visited the hop fields in September and made a number of important
observations, which will lead to practical results. The shade trees of
the principal cities of the Atlantic coast have suffered severely from
the attacks of the fall web-worm and other hairy caterpillars, which
the English sparrow will not touch. The work of this insect was
especially noticeable at the capital on the avenues of trees, which
form such a beautiful featuro of the city. The Department has al-
ready published, as one of the bulletins of the Entomological Divis-
ion, full directions how to protect trees from injury of this kind, and
it is to be regretted that the District commissioners were not in a po-
sition to follow the practical recommendations thus made.

Work has been continued at the apicultural station in Illinois, and
some valuable results accomplished. Most improvement in bee cult-
ure in the past has been in the direction of mechanical appliances

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, 91

intended to economize wax, increase the honey supply, and facilitate
manipulation. The experiments now being carried on have in view
rather the improvement of the bee itself, and there is every promise
that, by controlling reproduction and by other methods, the honey-
yielding power of the bee can be materially increased, and that bee
culture will thus receive an impetus analogous to that given to the
dairy interest by improving the milk and butter producing qualities
of the cow.

SILK.

I am happy to say that Congress at the last session met several of
the recommendations and suggestions in my first annual report, and
prominent among those departures which the Department has thus
been able to make during the year may be mentioned that of experi-
ments in reeling silk in this District from domestic-grown cocoons.
Experiments had been made for many years in this country in the
production of cocoons, and while the results were encouraging and
progressive, yet our people, not having the incentive of a market to
bring to the problem of successful cocoon raising, American genius
and adaptability cannot be said to have become first-class cocoon
raisers. Obviously, then, the step of wisdom, of economy, of pru-
dence, must be one looking toward a profit in the production of co-
coons, or, in other words, amarketforthem. There can be no doubt
of our ability to raise cocoons, and that, too, by the labor of women
and children, who might otherwise be unemployed.

Having, etter) American-grown cocoons, what is their place in the
economies? Will they furnish raw silk to be reeled in America in
an American way, and furnish a remunerative reward to American
labor?

The Entomologist considered this in his last report, and clearly
showed that no decisive answer to this question could be reached until
a practical silk-reel had been thoroughly tested at some point where
the details of its work could be watched and directed by himself and
his assistants, and where the work could be carried on for at least two
years on strictly business principles. In accordance with this sug-
gestion circulars have been sent into every section, offering to pur-
chase cocoons, which, upon receipt, are appraised by experts at their
market value. The experimental and reeling stations at San Fran-
cisco, New Orleans, and Philadelphia have been abandoned, and a
careful experiment is now being made with the Serrell automatic reel
at this Department. The success already obtained is most gratifying.
This interesting experiment is enabling the Department to carefully
note the quality of cocoons grown in different sections and climates,
to examine the raw silk produced thereby, and to ascertain its market
value; to compare the relative merits of osage-orange and mulberry
fed worms; and to determine various other questions of importance

22 , REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

before any recommendation can be made. It is believed that in one
respect an interesting fact has already been developed, viz., that silk
produced from osage-orange-fed worms is in every way equal, and in
some respects superior, to that produced from mulberry-fed worms,
both in quality and quantity. The general result of these experi-
ments is, indeed, so satisfactory, that I have asked Congress to in-
crease the appropriation for the coming year by adding the $5,000
given to the Women’s Silk-Culture Association of Philadelphia,
which, though appropriated in connection with the appropriations
of this Department, is virtually in the nature of a gift, over which I
have no control, the association being neither responsible to me nor
to any one else for the disbursement of the same.

DIVISION OF STATISTICS.

This branch of the Department organization has a corps of corre-
spondents, representing over 2,300 counties, four in each county, a
duplicate service for unification and special investigation, under the
direction of State statistical agents, and a European statistical agent
connected with the United States consular system.

Its work receives high commendation from the press of this country
and unstinted praise from foreign publicists for the prompt and
intelligent effort to keep abreast of the statistical progress of the
age, to improve its machinery of crop reporting, to advance its
standard of accuracy, to enlarge its practical utilities, and to assist
in broadening the scope and unifying the methods of international
statistics.

Its service is called in requisition by every branch of the Govern-
ment, by the representatives of foreign courts, by home and foreign
agricultural and industrial organizations, by writers and compilers,
the representatives of commercial guilds, and the people generally.
Its printed reports of the year, in which the utmost brevity has been
sought, comprise nearly one thousand pages, in addition to its exten-
sive manuscript reports, statements, and correspondence.

This division is becoming yearly a more efficient defense of pro-
ducers against the speculative commercial class, who are unscru-
pulous in their selfish statements of the amount of production. The
saving to farmers of a single mill on each bushel of grain amounts
to nearly $3,000,000 per annum. The possibilities in protection of
producers are enormous, and the accomplished results are believed
to be very considerable. It has also done good service during the
past year in collecting information exposing the numerous organized
efforts to defraud the agricultural class on cunningly devised pre-
texts. From the isolation of farmers, and the large numbers of for-
eign birth little acquainted with the English language, a wide field
is opened for the operation of sharpers and confidence-men,

/

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. 23

The work of this division is not only various, but widely extended;
not only continental, but international; claiming the attention and
affecting the interests of producers and consumers, buyers and sell-
ers, throughout the world. lts investigation becomes an indispen-
sable adjunct to law-making, as well as to crop-growing, commercial
distribution, and the daily economy of national life and labor, It is
important, therefore, that it should possess all necessary facilities for
the thorough and full exercise of its proper functions through the
appreciation and aid of Congress.

Its international aspects are attested by the large increase of for-
eign correspondence and frequent interchange of cablegrams relative
to the results of its work. It is called upon especially to assist in
improving the methods of administrative statistics, relative to which
an energetic effort is now in progress in connection with the govern-
mental bureaus of statistics of the most advanced nations of the world.
To this end, and for progress also in scientific statistics, an organi-
zation was effected in 1885 of the International Statistical Institute.
Its headquarters is in London, and its membership already includes
57 statisticians of various countries, of whom 6 are citizens of this
country. It seeks, among other important objects, a greater “‘uni-
formity in the methods of compiling and abstracting statistical re-
turns,” with a view to a comparison of results obtained in different
countries, The first bicennial congress of these statisticians meets in
Kurope the coming year, and the participation of this Department in
the important work is desired and expected.

The increase of production, as shown by statistics, has been mar-
velous in recent years. While the number of the people in 1880
was more than double that of 1850, the production of cereals not
only kept pace with population, but furnished 53 bushels for each in-
habitant in place of 88 at the earlier date. With an increase of
seven millions of people in the first half of the present decade, the
aggregate of cereals exceeded 3,000,000,000 bushels in 1888, still
keeping up the extraordinary rate of supply attained in 1880, and
showing in wheat a product five times as large as in 1850, and a corn
crop nearly four times as large. The present year is one of medium
productiveness, with less corn and more wheat than in 1885, prom-
ising nearly 1,700,000,000 bushels of corn, and something more than
450,000,000 bushels of wheat, a supply of the latter ample for con-
sumption, while reserving a fourth of the whole for exportation.
The other cereals have a medium rate of yield, the hay crop is ample,
and the cotton product promises to be nearly as large as that of last
year—six and a third to six and a half million bales,

The recent extension of area and product has been remarkable, as

‘94 °, REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

shown by a comparison of the averages of the decade between 1870
and 1880 and those of the six years of the present decade, as follows:

1870-1879. 1880-1885.
Cereal.
Acres, Bushels. Acres. Bushels,
COTTE tere ttetainyeraisiesere cieievelsislale Gleveieia oie oleic iensin\e 43,741, 33 1, 184, 486, 954 67, 225, 872 1, 635, 357, 756
RVVIFISEUDE eo tere ais cave ciafainiaio es vie Wle a caib es Gone ielele 25, 187, 414 312, 152, 725 37 147; 276 446, 163, 088
MORES Tie iateleie ease odedoo 7 on0nbds Bin'e ois sie ia]ofbieters 11, 076, 822 314, 441,178 19, 3820, 630 517, 826, 0°5
PERV Chrereire ea ravcistelciniciem orc elec ciecasavors sia’s peatciete ce (alt 1, 305, 061 18, 469, 985 2? 095; 438 25, 610, C87
BATNOV ii <.010.6 sleiviele OC CUS SOD EOUIGHOGETG nero t a4 529, 3857 33, '704, 652 2, 300, 021 50, 829, 9E0
PEREIC ENV PLEA UlTetsianicls eieseie/e wreree sieleie’s ofarcte:cle.eTolows "551, 104 9,747, 272 858, 318 11,089, 007

AMT eTCRIS ec a Pots see facussiies wale 83,891,080 | 1,872,993,769 | 128,947,550 | 2, 686, 875, 948

The increase of production in this brief period is over 43 per cent.,
while the enlargement of area is still greater, amounting to 54 per
cent. So the advance was attained in a series of years with a com-
paratively low rate of yield, including the unfavorable seasons of
1881 and 1883.

The increase of wheat is seen to be more rapid than the increase
of population, while the market for the surplus has declined, in
consequence of the better harvests of other countries and of the
increased facilities for handling the surplus of India and South
America. The increase of grain-growing in South America comes
from a strong tendency of Kuropean emigration in that direction
and a larger use of improved implements and machines. Should it
continue, competition with our grain fields will be still more severe.

Accurate records of the progress and changes of production of
minor crops as well as large products, and of changes in value as
well, are of the first importance to rural economists, to guide ina
wise distribution of crop areas and in the introduction of new crops
to fill the gaps in consumption and reduce the areas of such crops as
may have a surplus unprofitably large.

DIVISION OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS, HORTICULTURE, ETC.

One of the prominent duties of this division is the propagation and
distribution of economic plants. The impression seems to prevail
that all kinds of plants are freely distributed from the gardens, and,
in consequence, unlimited demands are made, and requests for gen-
eral collections of plants are of common occurrence—requests that
would tax the capacity of the largest nursery establishment in the
world to fill, The impracticability, to say nothing regarding the im-
propriety, of attempting to meet these extensive demands is so incon-
sistent with the intentions of Congress in regard to the functions of
the Department as to be sufficient reason for its inability to meet such
demands. In the propagation of plants for general distribution the
line is strictly drawn between merely ornamental plants and those of
strictly economic value, Distribution is therefore confined to the

‘ REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, YAS)

latter class; and even with this limitation great discrimination is nec-
essary to select for propagation only those species and varieties that
are of special merit and such as promise to be of value to the country.

The demand for tropical and semi-tropical fruit-bearing plants has
been very pressing for several years from the warmer regions of Cali-
fornia and Florida. These demands are being met so far as the means
of the Department will permit. Observation proves that the climatic
conditions necessary for the profitable culture of tropical plants are
confined to a very limited area in the United States. Ofcourse there
are many tropical plants which produce their crops as annuals, and
which can be profitably cultivated over an extensive area—such as
cotton—and which only require a comparatively brief tropical season
for their maturity. But in the case of ligneous plants which are
perennial in their nature, the cold portion of the year, although of
short duration, is still sufficiently severe to permanently injure them.
The limits, therefore, of climate congenial to the growth of the va-
nilla bean, the chocolate plant or cacao, the coca, erythroscylon coca,
coffee, cinnamon, nutmeg, pepper, cinchona, &c., are not yet defined.
In localities where, owing to a series of congenial seasons, success
seemed certain, an unusually cold period has destroyed all hopes;
but this partial success is sufficient to encourage further attempts,
although it would seem that such experiences would tend towards a
different conclusion.

With regard to plants of a semi-tropical nature, such as the citrus
family, experience proves that, under favorable conditions of posi-
tion and culture, the coldest seasons likely to pertain in orange-
growing regions are comparatively harmless to these crops, thus giv-
ing the industry a factor of permanency greatly in its favor.

‘The Department continues to foster industries of this kind by in-
troducing new varieties and testing and disseminating the plants.

BOTANICAL DIVISION.

_ During the past year the work of the Botanical Division has been
conducted with good success. Large and important additions have
been made to the herbarium, which is constantly becoming more val-
uable as a representation of thé flora of North America. In order to
facilitate an acquaintance with the grasses of the country, a distri-
bution of typical specimens has been made to twenty or more of the
agricultural colleges and experiment stations and other educational
institutions.

The subject of suitable grasses for cultivation in different climates,
soils, and conditions is receiving attention from other countries as
well as our own, and frequent applications from abroad are received
for seeds of our native grasses for the purpose of experimental culti-
vation. One such application has been received from the govern-
ment botanic garden in Upper India, where extensive tracts of saline

26 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. °.

soil called ‘“‘ Usar land” exist. These tracts are uncultivated, and an
attempt is being made to procure grasses suitable for cultivation on |
them.

Werbave complied with these requests so far as possible, but the
difficulty of procuring seeds in distant localities hay much restricted
our distribution. Packages of the seeds of about thirty native spe-
cies were sent to the different agricultural colleges and experiment
stations for trial, and these were also sown in our own grounds, where
most are growing and giving promise of usefulness.

Under my direction the Botanist has spent several weeks of this
season in an examination of the native grasses of the arid regions of
the West. This is but a beginning in this important work, and it
will be resumed as soon as circumstances will permit.

The eastern limit which has been usually fixed as the beginning of
the arid regionsis the one hundredth meridian. Itis said that nearly
half of the public domain, exclusive of Alaska, lies west of this line,
and amounts to some 900,000,000 acres.

Much the larger part of this immense region consists of mountains
and arid plains. A large part of the land on the Pacific coast is pro-
ductive without irrigation, and some of the finest lands for grazing
purposes lie in the mountain valleys and parks where there is an
abundant rainfall.

The remainder of this great domain west of the line above men-
tioned consists mainly of arid land, such as the high mesas of New
Mexico, Western Texas, Arizona, and Southern California, together
with the interior plains of Utah, Nevada, and Wyoming, in addition
to those of Western Nebraska, W estern Kansas, and Eastern Colorado.

Various estimates have been made as to the amount of this arid
land. Its various portions present great variations in the amount of
vegetation, and especially of the native grasses which they present,
and consequently they vary accordingly in their capability for the
support of cattle and sheep, for which purpose it was thought this
land was alone adapted.

There is reason to believe that the unproductive character of a part
of this region, notably that of Western Nebraska, Western Kansas,
and Bastern @cisrnde, has been greatly exaggerated, and those sec-
tions have recently been the seat of a great rush of immigration, by
which the larger portion of the district will be absorbed by home-
stead and pre-emption claims for the purpose of general cultivation,
The efforts at agriculture which have been made in this region dur-
ing the past two or three years have been attended with considerable
success, possibly owing to favorable seasons, but the most sanguine
expectations are entertained by the settlers.

Sufficient time has not elapsed to determine what may be the ulti-
mate success of general agriculture, but there can be no doubt that
the country is eminently adapted to pastoral purposes, and that the

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, 27

cultivation of the soil and the selection of suitable kinds of grasses
will double the capability of that country for the raising of stock and
for dairying purposes. There can be little doubt that in the area
above referred to there are 50,000 square miles capable of being util-
ized without irrigation, and capable of sustaining, under proper man-
agement, at least 50 head of cattle to the square mile, or 2,500,000
cattle on the entire tract. By many of the residents this estimate
would be considered much too small; but it must be remembered
that this estimate is based on the cultivation of the soil, or of a large
part of it, and not on its use under the ranch system.

It is probable that there are large areas of arid land where no agri-
cultural improvement can be expected, and such areas will continue
to be occupied as ranches for cattle and sheep. Notwithstanding the
great development of the cattle industry during recent years, statis-
tics show that the production of beef has not kept pace with the in-
crease of population, and to supply the great demand for meat we
will require not only the usual product of the ranches, but there is
also an excellent opportunity of cattle farming where the additional
labor and care will greatly increase the supply. The great and rapid
expansion of the country will soon require the consideration of means
to reclaim and utilize to the fullest extent all portions of the public
territory.

The investigations by the Botanist of the native grasses of the arid
plains has convinced him that there are other species than the pre-
vailing ones which can be substituted for them with the result of
greatly increasing the grass product. But they, as well as other
grasses and forage plants, require to be subjected to careful and pro-
longed trials and experiments in order to obtain proof of their relative
values under the different circumstances of soil, altitude, &c., there
existing. These trials and experiments cannot well be made by in-
dividuals on account of the expense and peculiar skill required and
the knowledge of the grasses and forage plants to be tested. Hence it
is highly important that the Government should provide experi-
mental stations at suitable points, particularly in the interest of that
body of settlers who are now taking possession of the country, and
who will, without the aid of such information as could thus be com-
municated, be exposed to many losses and disappointments in prose-
cuting agriculture under the peculiar circumstances there existing.
As the result of these recent investigations I am led to particularly
recommend what I consider to be a fine situation for an experimental
grass station at the town of Wallace, in the extreme western part of
Kansas. Here is the Government reservation of Fort Wallace, em-
bracing a tract of 2 miles wide by 7 miles long, and including low or
bottom land and high upland, and therefore eminently suitable for the
enterprise. I regard the location as typical of the larger portion of
that arid region, Thereare a number of buildings formerly used for

—

28 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

the military post which would answer all the purposes required, and a
small stream runs through the reservation, supplying water for stock
and some for irrigation. A very moderate appropriation, applied
under the direction of this Department, could here be made pro-
ductive of great good.

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION.
INVESTIGATIONS OF TEE FUNGOUS DISEASES OF PLANTS.

The heavy losses sustained by the fruit-growers and farmers of the
country on account of the mildews, blights, smuts, rusts, and other
injurious fungi—losses amounting in the aggregate to many millions
of dollars annually—very forcibly demonstrate the importance of
thoroughly investigating the nature and habits of these destructive
parasites, with the view of discovering means for preventing their
ravages.

Early in my administration I found that the Department was in
constant receipt of letters from agriculturists and fruit-growers in
all parts of the country, earnestly asking for information on matters
pertaining to this subject, and especially inquiring for remedies that
will enable them to prevent or at least check the losses occasioned by
these parasites.

Memorials from scientific societies have frequently been addressed
to the Commissioner, setting forth the importance of the investiga-
tion of plant diseases, and strongly urging the establishing in the
Department of a division to be wholly devoted to this work.

Fully appreciating the value and importance of information on
this subject, and understanding its intimate connection with the in-
terests of horticulture and general agriculture, one of the first mat-
ters, therefore, to which I gave attention upon assuming the duties
of Commissioner was this question of the fungous diseases of plants. .
In the absence of a specific appropriation for the prosecution of this
work, the duties involved were assigned to the Assistant Botanist, a
person fully qualified to conduct the required investigations, and
whose appointment was made with this object in view.

Investigations were prosecuted with as much vigor as possible dur-
ing the year, and among the important plant diseases that have been
directly brought to the attention of the Department by correspond-
ents during that time are pear blight, the fungous diseases of wheat
and rice, corn smut, the smut of the smaller grains, strawberry rust,
the red rust of the raspberry, raspberry-cane rust, leaf-spot disease
of the raspberry, ‘‘double flowers” of blackberry, foot-rot of the
orange tree, the nectria of orange twigs, orange-leaf scab, gooseberry
blight, leaf-spot disease of the currant, black knot of the plum and
cherry trees, apple-leaf scab and rust, the disease causing the crack-
ing of pears and apples; peach yellows, peach-leaf curl, plum rot,
potato scab, cotton rust, and the various fungous diseases of the grape.

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, 29

These have all received as much attention as the time and means
at command would allow. Concerning all the diseases here named
there remains more to be learned than is now known. The life his-
tory of these disease-producing pests has for the greater part yet to
betraced. Careful and long-continued observations, both in the field
and laboratory, will be required to accomplish this, but such work is
necessary if we wish to make intelligent application of remedies to
combat these evils. We have to learn how these fungi are distrib-
uted, how they come upon or enter the plants they infest, what phases
of development they pass through—phases often more complicated
than the transformation of insects and far more difficult to trace;
and, finally, how they maintain their existence during the season of
winter. This work has been accomplished in only a very few cases.
_ From results obtained, however, and from other sources of informa-
tion received during the administration of this branch of the Depart-
ment, we may safely assume that the value of the corn and wheat
annually destroyed in this country by diseases induced by fungi is not
less than $200,000,000. The potato rot, so destructive in wet seasons,
caused a loss in 1885, in the chief potato-growing States, of from 10
to 40 per cent. of the entire crop. The grape vine is particularly sub-
ject to the attacks of fungi. Scientists have described over 200 spe-
cies found upon this plant alone. Some of these, as the mildew and
black rot, are particularly destructive, so much so that grape-grow-
ing has ceased to be profitable in many localities once noted for their
production of this fruit, and hundreds of acres of vineyards have
been rooted out simply because of a lack of information respecting
the nature and habits of these parasites and the means to be employed
in preventing their ravages. The rust of the cotton plant is another
fungous disease that causes incalculable loss to planters of the cot-
ton-growing States. The orange interests in Florida are seriously
threatened by the fungi that attack this tree, over 100 species of
which have been figured and described by Huropean mycologists.
The apple tree has its peculiar and destructive parasites, and so have
the pear, the peach, the plum, the quince; and go also have the small
fruits, as the raspberry, blackberry, currant, and strawberry; nor
are our garden vegetables, nor the plants we cultivate for ornament
or shade, more exempt than others from the ravages of these diseases.

While this branch of investigation could not be prosecuted more
than superficially, owing to the want of funds, yet it-is gratifying to
note that an encouraging’ result has followed.

During the early part of the present season circulars were distrib-
uted to all parts of the country, for the purpose of gaining a more
exact knowledge of the range and extent of injury occasioned by the
fungous diseases of the grape, and material was collected and plates
of illustrations prepared for a special report on this interesting and
important subject. Circulars were also sent out proposing for trial

30 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

certain remedies believed to be of value in combating the grape mil-
dew and rot. The preparation of the report here referred to is now
engaging the attention of the Mycologist.

In accordance with my recommendations to committees of Con-
gress, a small appropriation was granted the Department for enlarg-
ing the scope of this investigation. This has enabled me to place the
work in the immediate and full charge of a special agent, to procure
such assistance as was imperatively necessary and to infuse vigor
into the work.

A consideration of the above facts will satisfy the most casual ob-
server that the field for labor is a large one and the difficulties con-
nected with the work of investigation necessarily render it slow of
results, but the great practical value of these results when attained
will, Iam sure, more than warrant the labor spent upon them. If,
for example, through these investigations we learn how to effectually
prevent the leaf rust of the cotton plant or the yellows of the peach,
the value of such a result would be so much out of proportion to the
aggregate of the entire annual appropriation made to the Depart-
ment, that the latter would sink into insignificance,

I have submitted an estimate for the thorough prosecution of this
labor, and I trust that the matter will receive its due consideration
at the hands of Congress. That the agricultural public is interested
in the work is amply attested by correspondence already at hand,
and that it commends itself to the scientific thought of the country
is proven by the following resolutions, which I beg leave to present.

At the meeting of the American Pomological Society at Grand
Rapids, Michigan, it was unanimously resolved—

That this society heartily commends the action of Commissioner Colman, of the
United States Department of Agriculture, in the appointment of a person to inves-

tigate the diseases of plants, and desires to assure him of continued support in his
effort to develop this new line of work in the Department.

At the meeting of the Western New York Horticultural Society
it was resolved—

That the Western New York Horticultural Society, believing that one of the
pressing needs of the horticulturist is more reliable and complete information re-
garding the hosts of microscopic foes, especially parasitic fungi, which beset our
cultivated plants, and which annually entail a loss to the country of many millions
of dollars, desires to give to the Commissioner of Agriculture its hearty assurance
of support in his efforts to. build up a section of mycology which shall be suitably
equipped for the difficult investigations that this subject demands.

The following was received from the Botanical Club of the Amer-
ican Association for the Advancement of Science :

The honorable COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE :

The members of the Botanical Club of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, recognizing the importance of the movement so happily in- '
augurated by you whereby provision has been made for the investigation of plant
diseases, would hereby assure you of their hearty support in all your efforts to pro-
cure the necessary means for carrying on the work proposed.

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, 31

Finally, the practical issue of all these endeavors cannot fail to
have its effect in all the ramifications of important branches of trade
and commerce, and the subject is commended as worthy of the most
careful deliberation.

FORESTRY.

I desire again to refer in strong terms to the urgent needs of the
country for a changed forest policy and the requirements of the De-
partment for a proper prosecution of needful investigations into the
subject of forestry. While I have made only the usual estimate of
$10,000 for the continuance of the division, I consider this amount
below the actual requirements for a line of work which, if it is to be
done at all under Government control, recommendation, or advice,
should be pursued in a manner adequate to its importance to the
nation at large.

While, from the experience of the Old World, we may learn the
effects of recklessness and waste, and the necessity of a rational for-
est policy, yet with our different system of landholding we cannot
expect to adopt their plans of administration. While from European
forest management we may learn the principles underlying forest
growth and forest management in general, with our different forest,
flora, and different climatic conditions we shall have to work out our
own systems of management. This requires painstaking and sys-
tematic study and inquiry at the hands of experts conversant with
forestry principles and forest conditions. The Department should be
placed in position to employ and pay liberally the very best talent on
these subjects which the country affords.

Regarded simply from a business point of view, the forestry prob-
lem is growing every year jn importance and urgency as the forest
area is diminished by both legitimate and reckless denudation, and
it should be an object of serious concern to the Government to insure
continuity of supply of raw material to a lumber industry represent-
ing a capital invested of not less than $200,000,000, not to speak of
the many minor necessities of a wood supply for railroad building,
manufactures, and domestic purposes. Figures are at hand to prove
that this supply must be waning.

Practically there is in the United States no forest reproduction
attempted or forest planting done worth mentioning, in comparison
with the enormous annual consumption of forest products.

Of still more momentous bearing upon the welfare of the country
are the effects upon climatic and agricultural conditions caused by
improper deforestation.

The influence of the forest cover on water supply has become espe-
cially noticeable in those districts which, like Eastern Colorado and
Southern California, are dependent for their agricultural success upon
irrigation, and where a diminution and irregularity of the wonted

32 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

water supply has gone hand in hand with the havoc and desolation
wrought in the mountains adjoining by reckless denudation.

The scientific data so far at hand to establish this inter-relation of
forest cover and water supply will be reviewed and their application
to the particular conditions of our own country discussed in a special
report of the Forestry Division.

While, through publications from this Department and other
sources, through agitation and discussion by societies and newspa-
pers, a better knowledge of the condition of our forests has been
gained, and through representations of the experience of older na-
tions, the importance of the subject of forestry and the dangers result-
ing from its neglect are appreciated by a larger number of people than
formerly, yet it cannot be said that we have come very much nearer
to a practical solution of the problem. Meanwhile the difficulties in
its solution are increasing as time goes on.

As a first step of reform undoubtedly the land policy of the United
States in the timbered regions requires a change according to the
changed conditions of those localities. A state of affairs which allows
railroad companies, miners, prospectors, and settlers to cut timber
on the public domain as their wants require, without any proper
supervision, without proper opportunity of acquiring either material
or timber land by purchase, holds out a premium for fraud, theft, and
immorality. The inadequacy of the force to prevent depredations
and to enforce existing laws is productive of the most reckless devas-
tation of these mountain forests, while the value of timber destroyed
by fire in one year in Colorado alone would suffice to pay a force of a
thousand forest guards.

Besides the good example which the Government may set in taking
better care of its own timber lands, it might appropriately extend its
operations, by planting on a large scale, in bodies of several contigu-
ous sections, in the treeless States and Territories of the West.

The military reservations in those States, owned by the General
Government, would form a most desirable field of operation. Only
by such extensive planting can a desirable modification of the ex-
tremes of climate on the Western plains be expected.

If, as seems contemplated by Congress, the so-called timber-culture
act should be repealed, I would suggest that this be not done without
in some way making proper provision for timber planting on home-
stead entries. More good is to be expected from such planting, where
the owner is near at hand to watch and give needed cultivation, than
in the case of timber-claim planting, which, to a large extent, has
been practiced, it is alleged, for mere speculative purposes.

The newly appointed chief of the division was sent by me to in-
spect the tree planting in Kansas and Nebraska, and his observations
will enable me to give much needed information to the Western
planter in regard to methods of forest planting.

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, 33

The division, hitherto with entirely inadequate means for such
work, has attempted mainly to gather statistics and compile data
from home and foreign sources, with the purpose of ascertaining our
actual forest conditions and requirements, and to acquaint our people
with the significance and the importance of our forests, and by pre-
senting the experiences of foreign nations and their methods of forest
administration to awaken an interest in and to popularize the sub-
ject of forestry.

This class of work, which has been vigorously prosecuted during
the year, will be brought to a close by a series of special reports,
illustrating the relation of forestry to certain industries directly de-
pendent on forest supplies and often involving large forest tracts; a
fact which ought to dictate a more careful policy with regard to fut-
uresupply. These are, notably, the railroad and mining companies,

‘charcoal manufacturers, &c.

These reports have been written by experts, and, besides their gen-
eral interest, will be of value to the particular industries to which
they refer.

A new line of work has been begun during the year by the study
of the biology of our most important timber trees. Before we can
advise as to the treatment of a given species we must know its nature,
life history, and behavior under various conditions. I am gratified
at the willingness with which able botanists in various parts of the
country have undertaken these special biological studies, which will
eventually form the basis of future American forestry. A tabular
classification of the economically important flora, manuals on willow
culture, and other subjects directly bearing on American forest prac-
tice are in preparation.

To bring the educational institutions into sympathy with the for-
estry movement, and to interest them in forestry matters, the public
school organizations of several States have been invited to co-operate
in gathering the forestry statistics of their localities, and schedules
for phenological observations have been distributed among the agri-
cultural colleges and several thousand private observers.

The requirements of experimentation and distribution of seeds and
seedlings, as provided in the appropriation bill for this division, could
not be fulfilled at all, or only very partially, for lack of adequate
funds.

The liability of tree seeds to deteriorate when kept, and the diffi-
culty of handling most of them by inexperienced planters, makes
this manner of supplying material a doubtful aid to tree planters.
The distribution of seedlings, on the other hand, requires a more
systematic and organized arrangement than the present funds of the
division will allow.

Both the requirements of experimentation and aid by supply of ma-
terial, as well as instruction in the art of forest planting and man-

3 AG.—’86

34 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE,

agement, could be admirably complied with in connection with such
plantations by the General Government, as heretofore suggested.

Several States, notably New York, Ohio, Colorado, and California,
recognizing the value of their forests, have instituted commissions
or boards of forestry, with a view of at least protecting what remains
from useless destruction. Besides the National Forestry Congress,
which continues in its deserving missionary work, several State for-
estry associations are endeavoring to create a public sentiment in the
interest of forest preservation. These endeavors are worthy of encour-
agement, and this Department should be authorized in its discretion
to extend aid to such boards of forestry and to societies by the publi-
cation of their proceedings or in other ways.

With the increasing interest in forestry the correspondence of a
technical character is constantly growing, and this work of giving
information and advice alone consumes a considerable amount of time,
and requires better office facilities than it has been possible to pro-
vide without curtailing other work.

It will appear from these statements that the work of this division
ought to grow in importance as well asin scope; but that, in order to
do the work required for acountry with such a vast area, such a great
diversity of climate, soil, and conditions, such immense variety of for-
est flora, more adequate means must be provided, if it is to be more
reliable, more exhaustive, and of more practical value, or a direct
benefit to our people. If forethought is the root of statesmanship,
here indeed is a worthy field for its exercise ; for the interests of for-
estry lie in the future rather than in the present. It is for future
generations rather than for our own that we must be wise in dealing
with this problem, and the time for dealing with it is now, when
favorable conditions are not yet entirely lost, and while it is still pos-
sible to avoid the disastrous effects of a policy of unconcern.

SEED DIVISION

In the Seed Division much attention has been given to improved
methods for handling, storing, ventilating, testing, and distributing
the large quantity of seed received,

The detailed report of the division will show that, aside from the
usual distribution to miscellaneous applicants, a regular system of
distribution has been begun to experiment stations and agricultural
colleges and to agricultural societies, In view of the fact of imper-
fect returns relative to the adaptation of new and valuable seeds to
the various localities, I have prepared suitable circulars, asking for
more definite and full information from the directors of experiment
stations, agricultural colleges, State boards of agriculture, agricult-
ural societies, and individuals who are interested in experimental
work. The responses received at this date indicate that the plan will

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, © 35

be successful, and that valuable practical information will thus be
secured for diffusion among the people.

Of the new and valuable seeds introduced from foreign countries,
which have been distributed during the fiscal year ending June 30,
some of which are likely to prove of great value to the agricultural
interests, are several varieties of Russian forage plants and forest-
tree seeds, and several of wheat from Southern, Central, and North-
ern Europe. Increased attention has been given to the distribution
of native and foreign plants. An earnest and measurably successful
effort has been made to distribute seeds in the special localities to
which they are best adapted.

This Department is in receipt of numerous letters from the direct-
ors of agricultural experiment stations expressive of their satisfac-
tion at the hearty co-operation now existing between the Department
and themselves in regard to present system of distribution, by which
they are the first to receive seeds of new and rare varieties, and of
the good results to the country at large that will surely be realized
therefrom.

Just cause of complaint has heretofore existed that the seeds de-
signed for distribution in the Gulf States and California have been
received at too late a date for the customary time of planting. To
remedy this, the putting up of the seeds designed for general distri-
bution has been begun at a much earlier date than usual, and suffi-
cient additional storage has been provided for the seeds that are ready
for mailing,

Recognizing the fact of the tendency to overcrop and exhaust the
soil, and that comparatively little attention is paid by very many
farmers to either the preservation of the fertility of the soil or to
the proper care and selection of seed (both being direct causes of a
continuously diminishing average yield), it becomes necessary, for
the welfare of the nation, that the General Government, which is
largely based on its agricultural resources, should lend its influence
in remedying this evil, so far as it is possible, by the diffusion of in-
formation bearing upon these topics, as well as by the importation
and interchange of seeds of a high grade of productiveness that will
tend to increase the annual average yield.

To show the extent of the distribution of seeds alone and its poc-
sible value in increasing the total annual production, and indirectly
the prosperity of the people, it may be stated that for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1886, there were sent out from this Department
4,267,165 packages of seeds, embracing vegetable, flower, field, text-
ile, &e.

Another evidence of the improvements introduced into this divis-
ion is the attention now given to the nature of the soils and the cli-
matic differences and the better adaptation of the seeds to special
localities, and also in the fact that every effort consistent with the

36 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

conditions still imposed upon me has been made to secure from those
who receive the seeds more accurate and reliable reports as to their
practical value to American farmers,

MICROSCOPICAL DIVISION.

The recent enactment of a United States law regulating the man-
ufacture and sale of oleomargarine has operated to increase the work
of this division. Many letters have been received and answered by
the microscopist from scientific men, professors in colleges, universi-
ties, and experiment stations, as well as from editors of scientific and
literary publications, and especially from those engaged in the dairy
interests of the country, asking for such information as may be of
value in relation to the best methods of detecting butter substitutes.

During the current year the division has made over one thousand
examinations of pure butter, of butter substitutes, and of the fats of
various animals. The Microscopist believes that every statement
heretofore emanating from this division is amply confirmed by the
results of his investigations during the present year relating to the
crystallography of the fats of animals and plants, and particularly with
regard to the views advanced in his former report, that the fats of
various animals yield typical crystals, which may at once be distin-
guished from one another. In the production of these typical crys-
tals the respective fats are subjected to a simple uniform treatment.
While nearly all the fats are composed of palmatine, stearine, and
oleine, they contain these glycerides in greatly varying proportions,
and there may be other considerations, as yet unknown, which con-
tribute to the remarkable diversity seen in the composite fats of dif-
ferent animals. Many specimens have been mounted and sent to the
various agricultural colleges and experiment stations. A large num-
ber of photographs representing the diverse character of the typical
fatty crystals have also been made and distributed to scientific men,
the object being to demonstrate that the fat of one animal may be
easily distinguished, within certain limits, from that of another.
Over one thousand specimens of fats, including the butter of noted
breeds and various compositions of oleomargarine, have been made
during the current year and results noted.

Preliminary experiments have also been made in testing butter with
relation to the effects of silo feed, grass feed, dry feed, &c. Itisthe
opinion of the Microscopist that there are strong indications: that
within certain limits the butter crystals are affected as to their form
and density by the breed and character of food.

Butter is being prepared at present by prominent dairymen and
farmers of several States who have especially fine breeds of cattle
with a view to having microscopic observations made in regard to
this question. Photographs, exhibiting modifications of the butter

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. 37

erystals under the varied conditions mentioned, will be employed to
illustrate the subject in the annual report of the division,

This is believed to transcend in importance all others whose inves-
tigations have been imposed upon the division, and much study and
time have therefore been devoted to it. As the investigations are
completed the Microscopist will give his attention to the adulteration
of other food supplies, as also to an examination of certain fibers, &c.
The results of these will be embodied in a future report.

POMOLOGICAL DIVISION.

Another subject which I last year commended to your considera-
tion has, I am glad to say, received that recognition from Congress
which it has long deserved, and I have been enabled to establish dur-
ing the year a Pomological Division in this Department.

_ The satisfaction of many leading thinkers with this departure has
been generously expressed, not only through correspondence, but
through offers of hearty co-operation in the methods employed to es-
tablish the division in a proper way. It is too early in the history of
the division to enumerate definite results, but there is every prospect
that, if properly encouraged, we shall be able to furnish the country,
and especially its pomological and horticultural industries, with in-
formation of value. The United States contains some of the largest
and best adapted fruit-producing regions of the world. Farmers
everywhere are beginning to give thought to the necessity of diver-
sification, and naturally a fruit orchard suggests itself as the fit suc-
cessor of those crops which year after year have been exhausting his
soil and lessening his annual profits more and more. The all-impor-
tant step to the thoughtful farmer, then, is necessarily the first one.
What can science and the latest results of experience and information
teach him in the matter of adaptation of fruit trees to particular soils
and climates? This is what the division will endeavor to undertake
to set forth. Different pomological experimenters, as well as agri-
cultural colleges, have generously offered their grounds and per-
sonal labors 1o assist in any experiments that may be instituted.

We may also make an investigation relative to foreign fruits, and
the probability of their successful importation and development in
American soil, to meet the demands of local markets; we may as-
certain the habitat of every fruit now known, and in diverse ways
assist an industry whose annual product probably represents a value
of $150,000,000, and is an important one to the United States. Qur

- people need to plant intelligently, as well as to reap intelligence

through public schools, and it is just as much the province of the

General Government to assist them in one asin the other. Horti-

culture is elevating in all its tendencies, and, by advancing and pro-

tecting and promoting this and other branches of agriculture, our

88 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE,

people will advance in those paths which will lead to moral and in-
tellectual and prosperous citizenship.

DIVISION OF ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY.

The investigation of the economic relations of birds was begun July
1, 1885, as a branch of the Division of Entomology. On the Ist of
July, 1886, pursuant to an act of the Forty-ninth Congress, the scope
of the work was enlarged, and it was made an independent division,
‘“‘for the promotion of economic ornithology and mammalogy, an in-
vestigation of the food habits, distribution, and migrations of North
American birds and mammals in relation to agriculture, horticulture,
and forestry.”

The work of the division consists in the collection of facts relating
to the above subjects, and in the preparation for distribution among
farmers and others of special reports and bulletins upon birds and
mammals which affect the interests of the farmer, and also upon the
migration and distribution of North American species, In this way
it is hoped to correct the present widespread ignorance concerning
injurious and beneficial effects of our common birds and mammals,
and to prevent the wholesale destruction of useful species now go-
ing on.

At the outset it was seen that two birds pre-eminently claimed the
immediate attention of the division. The so-called English sparrow
(Passer domesticus), and the bobolink, or rice-bird (Dolichonyax ory-
zivorus), by their numerical abundance, the extent of the damages
they were said to cause at certain times of the year, and the wide-
spread difference of opinion in regard to their economic status as a
whole, demanded searching and systematic investigation; hence, they
have been made subjects of special research.

THE ENGLISH SPARROW (Passer domesticus.)

Questions relating to the English sparrow were contained in the
first circular on Economic Ornithology, issued by the Department (in
July, 1885). Subsequently these questions were amplified, and dur-
ing the current year a special circular and schedule were prepared,
upwards of 5,000 copies of which have been distributed. To date re-
plies have been received from about 2,500 persons. They contain
a vast amount of valuable information, which is now being collated
for publication. In order to be able in future years to determine
the rate of spread of the sparrow over regions which it does not
now occupy, the Department has undertaken to ascertain, with as’
much precision as possible, the exact limits of its distribution at
the present time, and hopes to show the same by means of a colored
map in its forthcoming bulletin on the sparrow question. In addi-
tion to the material collected by the Department of Agriculture, the
American Ornithologists’ Union has turned over to the division the

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, 39

results of its investigations on the eligibility or ineligibility of the
European house sparrow in America. This material has been since
collated and arranged by Dr. F. H. Hoadley, who, from interest in
the subject, kindly volunteered his services.

THE BOBOLINK, OR RICE-BIRD (Dolichonyx oryzivorous).

Early in the progress of the work it became apparent that, if any

credence was to be placed on the testimony ofpersons interested, the
bobolink, or rice-bird, must be regarded as one of the most destructive
of birds. Hence a special circular to rice growers was prepared, and
copies were sent to all planters whose addresses the division was-able
to secure. The replies received were so startling in the magnitude
of the losses they revealed, that it was thought advisable to make a .
thorough study of the whole subject of rice culture, and to investi-
gate on the spot the manner in which the ravages were committed,
“in the hope of devising some means, compatible with reasonable
economy, for lessening their extent. With this object in view the
Assistant Ornithologist, Dr. A. K. Fisher, was sent on an extended
tour through the rice-growing districts of the Southern States, from
Charleston to New Orleans. His investigations were carried on in
the spring, at and shortly after the time of planting. At harvest-
time in the fall the chief of the division, Dr. C. Hart Merriam, vis-
ited the rice fields of portions of South Carolina and Georgia, and
witnessed in person the destructive ravages of the birds at the height
of the season. Furthermore, to render the investigation still more
complete, the Department has employed a special field agent, Col.
Alexander Macbeth, whose headquarters are at Georgetown, South
Carolina, in the very heart of one of the largest rice-growing dis-
tricts. The results of these investigations will be given in full in the
forthcoming report of the division.
_ The work of the division has not been limited to the study of the
English sparrow and bobolink. Circulars of inquiry have been issued,
and a large amount of information has been accumulated concerning
the food habits of various birds and mammals, with special reference
to those of decided economic importance. Among these may be men-
tioned the hawks and owls, the crow, the various blackbirds, the
gophers, and the small mammals which prey upon poultry.

Yor the purpose of positively determining the exact character of
the food habits of birds at different times of the year the division has
made a collection of their gizzard and stomach contents. In this un-
dertaking it has been aided by ornithologists throughout the country,
many of whom have made large contributions, thus doubly utilizing
birds killed for strictly scientific purposes.

From a scientific as well as a practical point of view the work here
undertaken cannot fail to prove of great value, and I recommend a
continuance of the encouragement which Congress has already given
for the thorough study of this interesting subject.

40 REPORT OF THE*COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

LABORATORY.

I shall ask Congress at the forthcoming session to provide means
for the erection of a new chemical laboratory, apart from the main
building of the Department, in order that the latter and its occu-
pants may be removed from the annoyance of offensive odors and
dangers from combustion which now continually surround them,
The present laboratory is now in the basement of the main building,
in quarters illy fitted for the purpose, neither being fire-proof nor
healthful. The building is of a highly inflammable character, and
no better argument ought to be necessary. Indeed, within the past
two weeks an explosion took place there which set a portion of the
laboratory on fire. The flames were fed in every direction by chem-
“icals and oils, and but for the timely forethought of an assistant the
entire building would undoubtedly have been destroyed, together
with books and records, whose loss would be incalculable. Congress
should regard this warning and provide suitable and safe quarters
for this, one of the most important divisions of the Department.

IRRIGATION.

Upon assuming my duties as Commissioner I found a comprehen-
sive examination going on into the subject of irrigation. While it
was necessarily abandoned for a time, I am glad to be able to report
that I have since been able, though working with reduced appropria-
tions, to complete this work, which must prove of unusual interest to
those who can only successfully till the ground by means of this aux-
iliary force. Congress has already called for the manuscript, and it
will be submitted at the opening of the session.

DAIRY.

The operations of the dairy branch of the Department have been
continued during the year, and it has published a special report, which
is being widely disseminated. It is hoped that the publication and
distribution of this report will be sufficiently encouraging to those
engaged in the dairy industry to induce them to continue to keep
this branch of the Department informed of its condition and needs.

TOBACCO CULTURE.

At the request of a correspondent the Department undertook to
secure, through the kindness of the State Department, specimens of
tobacco leaf and tobacco seed, as well as short articles upon the cul-
tivation of the crop, from every quarter where the plant is grown.
The responses of the consuls have been generous and very satisfac-
tory. The seed has been placed in the hands of careful cultivators
with the view to improvement of our own seed, and the various arti-
cles received will be prepared for a forthcoming report.

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, Al

THE GOVERNMENT TEA FARM,

A great deal has been said and written in recent years relative to
the cultivation of the tea plant and the manufacture of its leaf into
tea upon a practical and commercial basis. The Government has
appropriated for the last eight years an aggregate of $28,000 to en-
courage the industry. With the desire to thoroughly test the ques-
tion a so-called ‘‘ tea farm” was leased some years ago by a predeces-
sor, and a plantation of tea seed and young plants inaugurated.
Active efforts in this direction were soon abandoned, and since that
the farm has been used simply as a distributing center for those who
wished the plants for trial. But it should be borne in mind that this
farm was not established for the distribution of plants. The original
design was to test there the culture of the plant and the manufacture
of tea as a commercial and profitable enterprise. The Department
had long previous to its establishment given its opinion that tea
culture, so far as the plant was concerned, presented no cultural or
climatic difficulty, and had encouraged the cultivation of the crop as
a domestic industry. It had distributed plants for years with that
view, and with that view only, believing that tea culture as a profita-
ble and commercial industry could not be encouraged, because there
could not be found any foundation to encourage capital to develop
the enterprise. After these years, and at a considerable expense, the
Department is confirmed in its original belief. Congress has pro-
vided for the closing out of the interests of the Government at its
tea farm, and I can see no reason to doubt its wisdom. The farm
will be abandoned and revert to its owner, according to the terms of
the lease, with the beginning of the new fiscal year.

STORM AND FLOOD SIGNALS.

Petitions have been received at the Department for many years,
and are still coming in, with relation to the establishment by the
Government of a system of signaling by cannon, from central sta-
tions, to announce the approach of storm, flood, or frost. It seems
to be the general belief among planters and farmers that such cen-
tral stations could be established at the post-office or other place
under Federal control, and that cannon and other field pieces belong-
ing to the Government, now happily in disuse, could thus be utilized
in the avocations of peace. The expense would be trifling when
compared with the benefits to be derived in many sections.

I would recommend that a few stations be established, under the
a direction of the Chief Signal Officer, for the purpose of testing the

“plan proposed.

COTTON INDUSTRY.

In accordance with a recommendation of my last report, Congress
has provided for the printing of a report of an elaborate investiga-

42 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

tion into the subject of American wool. This report is now in press,
after several years’ delay, and will soon be ready for distribution.

Pending the investigations incident to the preparation of this re-°
port experts and manufacturers became acquainted with the general
character of the results embodied therein, and this knowledge pro-
duced a demand for similar information relative to cotton. In res-
ponse to such demand from various sources the Department in 1883
and 1884 caused to be collected for investigation a series of samples,
as follows :'

(1) Cotton produced under different known conditions of seed,
soil, climate, and culture in all parts of the great cotton belt of the
United States.

(2) Representative cotton from the different commercial grades of
the several cotton markets.

(3) Cotton from different stages in various processes of manu-
facture.

The material thus collected was to be used in the careful exami-
nation of the external characteristics—the length, fineness, strength,
and elasticity—upon all of which the value of the staple evidently
depends.

This examination was begun and carried along in connection with
the final work of examination of wools, using the same apparatus and
similar methods, and in all about $5,000 expended upon it. In view
of the results thus far obtained and of those that may yet be secured,
as well as of the expense already incurred, it seems eminently desira-
ble that this investigation should be completed and the information
developed published at once.

The information already obtained is voluminous, but Iam sorry
to say is incomplete, and cannot be published until a large number
of tests are made. The work would no doubt be of inestimanie
value both to the producer and consumer of this important staple,
and they are entitled to that benefit which was designed for them
when the work was instituted. I am assured the investigation can
be completed for $7,500, and I commend the proposition as worthy
of consideration by Congress.

INVESTIGATIONS ABROAD.

I have referred in a former portion of this report to my inability
to meet emergencies for specific investigations which naturally can-
not be anticipated and the expense annually estimated. The Depart-
ment is continually in receipt, through the State Department and
other sources, of invitations and urgent requests for American rep-
resentation at foreign exhibitions and enterprises of various kinds.
The amount of information to be gleaned by the attendance of in-
telligent representatives and specialists at these various centers for
observation and learning could be made of lasting benefit to our own

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. 43

people. It ought to be borne in mind that the official reports, when
there are such, are not written from an American point of view, and
hence the practicability or impracticability of propositions or ma-
chinery as applied in this country is never set forth. The founda-
tion of the prosperity of this country rests upon agriculture, and the
greatest success of agriculture will come from an intelligent applica-
tion of those practical methods which are the result of the combined
thought and experience not of America, but of the world itself. Our
people, competing as they do in foreign markets, ought to have the
advantage of every avenue which promises the latest information
relative to foreign needs and foreign methods. The information
should be collated and compiled by the best of our specialists. Faint
efforts have been made in the past to gather such information; and
while the result has been more than commensurate with the expense
incurred, yet there has always been the attending and humiliating
embarrassment of a lack of funds, and the work therefore more or
less circumscribed.

The Department has no recourse buta uniform declination to all
these requests for conference and interchange of thought between the
specialists of the two hemispheres. I believe that some action should
be taken at once in this matter. National pride alone should dictate
a different policy than that heretofore pursued. If there be fear in
any quarter relative to an abuse of such a provision of law, a com-
mission might easily be established, to be composed of different offi-
cials, to pass upon the necessity or desirability for an investigation
in the directions to which I have alluded.

DEPARTMENTAL REPORTS.

The reports of the Department consist of annual, monthly, and
special volumes upon the various subjects with which it deals, The
demand for this agricultural literature is annually increasing, and
the record of the folding-room of the past year shows that the num-
ber of volumes distributed among the people has been greater than
ever before in the Department’s history.

The Annual Report of 1885 has been printed during the current
year, by order of Congress, 310,000 copies in number, of which 280,-
000 are held for distribution by Senators and Members of the House
of Representatives, and 30,000 copies assigned to this Department.
Reports have been printed by the Department as follows:

DIVISION OF STATISTICS—NEW SERIES.
No. copies
5 ; printed.
No. 25. Report on the crops of the year and on freight rates of transpor-
tation companies. December, 1885. 55 pp., octavo.......... 15,000
No. 26. Report upon the numbers and values of farm animals, on the cot-
ton crop and its distribution, and on freight rates of transpor-
tation companies. January and February, 1886. 56 pp., oc-

ER NM MN MAL crete s cee ware ey cate cena ete comes tae RENT ee owes 15,000

44 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

No. copies

No. 27. Report on the distribution and consumption of corn and wheat, on
the production of European wheat, and on freight rates of
transportation companies. March, 1886. 49 pp., octavo......

No. 28. Report of the area of winter grain, the condition of farm animals,
and on freight rates of transportation companies. April, 1886.
REL SESTiey CUA Ol. eS ove a afin wie visio te sate ela ie lian ate aie wie crerole ni tere

No. 29. Report on the condition of winter grain, the progress of cotton
planting, and on freight rates of transportation companies.
May, 1886. 48 pp., OCLAVO........ 0. eee e ee ee eee eee teens

No. 30. Report of the acreage of spring wheat and cotton, the condition of
winter grain,and the world’s supply of wheat, with freight
rates of transportation companies. June, 1886. 45 pp., octavo.

No. 31. Report on the area of corn, potatoes, and tobacco, and condition of
growing crops, and on freight rates of transportation compa-
nies. July, 1886. 45 pp., OCtAVO........ ee cece ce ee eee cee nes

No. 32. Report on the condition of growing crops and on freight rates of
transportation companies. August, 1886. 52 pp., octavo.....

No. 33. Report on the condition of crops in America and Europe and on
freight rates of transportation companies. September, 1886.
BO GP OCEAVO oid Rieter seine cielo ale sly's ierela's sl oluiwis ois olctele nts cis Niue

No. 34. Report on condition of crops, yield of grain per acre, and freight
rates of transportation companies. October, 1886. 39 pp.,

OCLAIVO Saraile eps eleiaiobets eleticne ce iiehie wi eiruskecieieueisiete cist venclote cere sayeualcl ct ekete
No. 35. Report on yield of crops per acre and on freight rates of transpor-
tation companies. November, 1886, 2 pp., octavo..........

ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION,

Bulletin 9. The Mulberry Silk Worm, being a manual of instructions in silk
culture. By C. V. Riley, M. A., Ph. D., Entomologist. Sixth

revised edition, with illustrations. 65 pp., octavo............
Bulletin 11. Reports of experiments with various insecticide substances,
chiefly upon insects affecting garden crops. Made under the

direction of the Entomologist. 34 pp., octavo.............+6.

Bulletin 12. Miscellaneous notes on the work of the division for the season
Of 1885.0 Mlustrated. ATs p..OCta vO. ne .cie se cic cle scree f-lsleletoiens

Insects affecting the orange. Report on the insects affecting the culture of
the orange and other plants of the citrus family, with practical

suggestions for the control or extermination, made under the

direction of the Entomologist. By H. G. Hubbard. With

plates and wood-cuts. 227 pp., OCtAVO..........202--seeneeee

CHEMICAL DIVISION.

Bulletin 7. Methods of analysis of commercial fertilizers. Proceedings of
the Association of Official Chemists. September 1 and 2, 1885.
By H. W. Wiley, Chemist. 49 pp., octavo............0....05
Bulletin 8. Methods and machinery for the application of diffusion to the
extraction of sugar from sugar-cane and sorghum, and for the
use of lime and carbonic and sulphurous acids in purifying the
diffusion juices. By H. W. Wiley, Chemist. 85 pp., octavo..
Bulletin 9. Third report on the chemical composition and physical prop-
erties of American cereals, wheat, oats, barley, and rye. By
Clifford Richardson, Assistant Chemist. 82 pp., octavo

printed.

15,000

15, 000

15, 000

15, 000

15, 000

15, 000

15, 000

15, 000

15, 000

3, 000

3, 500

1,500

1,200

1, 000

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. 45

No. copies
printed.
Bulletin 10. Principles and methods of soil analysis. By Edgar Richards, ‘
Assistant Chemist, - 66 pp., OCbAVO . 6.0. cies cece sane cnas decease 2,000

Bulletin 11. Report of experiments in the manufacture of sugar at Magnolia
Station, Lawrence, Louisiana, season of 1885-86. Second re-
port. By Guilford L. Spencer, Assistant Chemist. 26 pp., oc-
PV OMe aya terse recited: lala tegatel ayeiaie. of vtasevaiecay vitals’ si thateheve: be creases Me Cena Ee 2, 000
Bulletin 12. Methods of analysis of commercial fertilizers. Proceedings of
the third annual convention of the Association of Official Agri-
cultural Chemists, August 26 and 27, 1886. By H. W. Wiley,
Herm Stay Oompa OCU Oli. scvetsera cote ciaiars « Nereus feiuaretone ken creetace 2,500

\

BOTANICAL DIVISION,

Bulletin 1. Report of an investigation of the grasses of the arid districts of
Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado. By Dr. George Vasey, Bota-
nist. Prepared under the direction of the Commissioner of
Wemieniiure.. p26. pp: , OCULYVO4.). as'cci4 Zale oe 2s shine wee dates oe os Dic 5, 000

MISCELLANEOUS REPORTS.

Special Report 10. A descriptive catalogue of manufactures from native
woods, as shown in the exhibit of the United States Department
of Agriculture at the World’s Industrial and Cotton Exposition
at New Orleans, Louisiana. By Charles Richards Dodge. 84
Lp OCLA VG 755, Oh a ea tial Sta c'sle 50 Sau aa Seta Sere hove Glut accra eee 10, 000
Report on the condition of dairying in the principal dairy States for the
season of 1885. By Allen Dodge, Dairy Division. 35 pp., oc-
PN Ol acm tord et es o's ae BRR TEE Gacwet HN Roh Oa oe phe eee 38, 500
In conclusion, it gives me pleasure to state that the satisfactory
record, now completed, of another year in the history of this institu-
tion is due, in a great measure, to the cordial co-operation and hearty
sympathy of those having charge of their respective divisions; and
also to the intelligent, zealous, and faithful performance of the duties
imposed upon the clerks and employés. The Department, under
these influences, has made one more step in advance and toward
whatever future the legislative branch may lay out for it.

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
NORMAN J. COLMAN,

Commissioner of Agriculture.

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REPORT OF CHIEF OF SEED DIVISION.

Sir: In accordance with your request I herewith submit my second
annual report, So far as I have been able I have endeavored to aid
you in complying with the spirit and letter of section 527 of the act
of Congress creating the Department of Agriculture, which provides
that ‘‘the purchase and distribution of seeds shall be confined to such
as are rare and uncommon to the country, or such as can be made
more profitable by frequent changes from one part of the country
to another, * * * and to promote the general interest of horiti-
culture and agriculture throughout the United States.”

By reference to the tabulated statement with which the present re-
port is concluded, it will be seen that, aside from the usual distribu-
tion to members of Congress and miscellaneous applicants, a regular
system of distribution fas been begun to experiment stations, agri-
cultural colleges, agricultural societies, and to graduates of agricult-
ural colleges who are now engaged in farming. The reports usually
received from those to whom the seeds have been sent being as a
rule not only exceedingly limited in number but somewhat imper-
fect, so far as they relate to the adaptation of new and valuable seeds
to the various localities to which they were sent, it was deemed advis-
able to issue circular letters of inquiry with the view of subsequently
tabulating the replies for publication in the annual reports. The
responses received at this comparatively early date indicate that the
plan will be successful, and the amount of practical information for
use in the annual reports of this division will eventually be greatly
increased,

In addition to the reports from experiment stations, agricultural
colleges, and agricultural associations on seeds sent out by this divis-
ion, I also present a condensed report on grasses, grains, and vege-
tables from States and Territories. While in some instances these
reports are not as full as could be desired, they indicate to some ex-
tent the result to be attained when the system is further perfected.
Some of the reports received were valueless on account of the failure
to give names of varieties.

An earnest and measurably successful effort has been made to dis-
tribute seeds in the special localities to which they are presumably
the best adapted. The directors of many of the agricultural experi-
ment stations have expressed themselves as being well pleased with
the hearty co-operation now existing between experiment stations
and this division of the departmental service. Good results are likely
to accrue to the agricultural interests of the nation, particularly when
the present system of reports of experiments shall be still further
perfected. The special study of the needs of the various sections to
which the seeds are sent has proved to be a very essential part of the
work to be performed, since it is a well-known fact that although
some seeds do well in one locality and under certain climatic condi-
tions, they prove to be utterly worthless in others,

(47)

48 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

With the view of obviating one of the just causes for complaint
as to the quality and vitality of the seeds distributed by the Depart-
ment, a system for the testing and examination of ali seeds before
payment is made for them has been adopted. A test of the germi-
nating qualities of the seed is made in what is known as the “ De-
partment seed-tester,” and under the most favorable circumstances
in the propagating-houses in the Department grounds. By means of
this Hoable test, errors are avoided, and no seedsman or grower of
seeds has yet questioned the conclusions arrived at by those having
this matter in charge. The testing apparatus consists of a heavy
block-tin pan, 17 inches in length, 12 in width, and 2? in depth.
This is painted inside and out. Inside of the top of the pan are
grooves, in which a thick pane of glass is placed for a cover when
needed. Along the inside of the sides there is a ledge or projection
half an inch in width, 2 inches from the bottom, upon which the ends
of the brass rods, 11 inches in length, rest. Fifty of these are suf-
ficient. The rods are required to support the y-shaped pockets, which
extend across the pan, and are made as follows: ‘Take two strips of
muslin, each 10} by 24 inches. On one edge of each make a hem ;%
of aninch in width. Stitch the two pieces together 14 inches from
the unhemmed edge, and pass the rods through the hems. Cover
the bottom of the pan with tepid water to the depth of half an inch,
or enough so that the lower edge of the muslin is immersed, and the
cloth is kept moist by capillary attraction. The seeds to be tested
are accurately counted and placed within the muslin trough and
moistened, and the exact time noted. The pan is then covered and
placed in a position affording the requisite warmth. From time to
time the process of fe ape is observed, and when a sufficient
period has elapsed thé germinated seeds are counted and the rela-
tive number of sound and unsound ones determined. The average
germination of all seeds accepted was 93 per cent. When the per-
centage in those varieties which are somewhat difficult to germi-
nate approximates 75 to 85 per cent. the seed is regarded as being of
sufficient value to warrant its purchase and distribution. In the tests
of flower seeds the percentage usually ranges from 75 to 80 per cent.
During the past year a considerable quantity of seed has been re-
turned to the growers because of its lack of freshness and vitality.
Without the proper appliances for testing the seed several thousand
dollars’ worth of seed might have been put up and distributed by the
Department, which would have been justly blamed therefor.

THE SEED DIVISION LIBRARY.

The library now includes a complete list of the Reports of the De-
partment of Agriculture, and an index to them, up to the present
time. Also, the latest reports of the secretaries of the various State
boards of agriculture, as well as those of the experiment stations in
the States and Territories.

IMPROVED METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION.

_ The efficiency of the work in the Seed Division has been materially
increased by clearly defining the duties of my assistants and exact-
ing strict attention to the details of the work to be accomplished.
As a result, the large and varied assortment of seeds which had been
put up and Jabeled and made ready for the beginning of the special
and general distribution early in December last; and the various seeds

SEED DIVISION. ~ 49

now being put up, are more equally distributed, and in much greater
variety, than has heretofore been attainable. This is important, as,
in justice to the members of Congress, statistical correspondents, and
others, the distribution should include the largest number of varie-
ties possible. By the present method not less than thirty additional
varieties are now systematically sent into each Congressional dis-
trict, which is a matter of no little importance, as the greater the
number of varieties the greater is the possibility of widely dissemi-
nating such seeds as are ‘‘rare and uncommon,” or, to say the least,
of determining their adaptedness to the locality. It is a well-known
fact that if some kinds of seed are not changed, the crop will soon run
out. This fact is true of grains, but applies to a larger extent to gar-
den vegetables. The thousands of letters received during each year
and referred to the Seed Division are ample evidence that such is the
fact. The testimony as to the value of the seeds distributed during
the past fiscal year has been both general and emphatic. For in-
stance, Maj. H. E. Alvord, director of the Houghton Farm experi-
ment station, in a report to the Department dated May 4, 1886, says:

The seeds received this season, as a whole, for the first time since my experience
with the Department, answered the definition of new and useful.

REPORTS OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS, AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES,
AND ASSOCIATIONS,

ALFALFA,

Colorado Agricultural College: Reports alfalfa an entire success,
If the land is kept well irrigated two crops can be taken the first sea-
son, yielding three and four tons tothe acre. The second season three
cuttings can be made, yielding seven tons per acre. This year the
second crop grew 42 inches in thirty days, so thick and heavy one
could not walk through it. When once well rooted it appears to be
an impossibility to kill it. Plowing it under, like clover, only makes
it grow better. After having been plowed under and the land sowed
to oats, 3 tons of alfalfa per acre were cut after 42 bushels of oats per
acre had been harvested. Wheat, corn, and potatoes are raised with
excellent success after plowing it under, and without interfering with
the stand of alfalfa the next year. Of the clovers, alfalfa will always
head the list in this region. In some respects it is unequaled, as it
has unrivaled vigor of stem and root, the latter qualification enabling
it to survive our seasons of scantiest water supply, which the grasses
will not do as a general rule, an irrigation in the fall being a desira-
bility and often a necessity to insure their wintering safely, and this
in some seasons might prove to be impossible to accomplish, owing |
to lack et water in our streams, especially if a large area had to be
irrigated.

Indiana Experiment Station: Alfalfa does well, but must be sown
in drills to secure a stand. In the western part of the State it is not
considered a profitable crop.
ees Saint Helena Parish: Alfalfa did well on dry, good

and.

Michigan Agricultural College: Alfalfa does well on dry upland,
but does not get a good stand until the second year. Clover is con-
sidered better in a rotation of crops.

Missourt Agricultural College: The soil in this section is not
adapted to alfalfa. In the southern part of the State it is a success.

4 AG.—’86

50 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Nebraska Industrial College: The seed was sown broadcast, and
failed to maintain itself against weeds.

New York Experiment Station: Alfalfa is a success. Four crops
per year can be cut. At Houghton Farm, sown broadcast, it failed
to start soon enough to keep ahead of the weeds. Sown in drills June,
1885, and thoroughly cultivated through the season, it was in bloom
May 15, 1886, and gave a faircrop. About 25 per cent. of the area
winter-killed; the remainder was 1} feet high, with rather wiry stems,
at time of cutting.

Pennsylvania State College: Alfalfa set well the first year, and
grew sufficiently to yield several fair cuttings. Height when in
bloom, 21 inches. Experiments to be continued.

South Carolina Hxperiment Station: Reports alfalfa as thoroughly
adapted to the soil and climate, and considered a most valuable for-
age plant.

Texas Agricultural College: Alfalfa does well only on rich land,
andisa goodcrop. In Gonzales County it does well, and is the most
valuable feed grown there; also in Travis County.

BARLEY (Melon).

Georgia, Clay County: This barley makes good winter pasturage.

Indiana Experiment Station: Melon barley is not considered su-
perior to native barley. y

Missourt Experiment Station: This variety did well. Gave a
nice bright barley; long heads and plump grain.

Ne Beare Agricultural College: It failed to maintain itself against
weeds.

New Vork Experiment Station: Reports the Melon barley much
later than the common barley. Not considered valuable. Houghton
Farm reports a fair crop of plump bright kernels.

Pennsylvania State College: This variety of barley grew well
early in the season. Yield was about the average of common barley.
Height, 36 inches; length of head, 5 inches. It suffered some from
smut.

BARLEY (Imperial.)

New York, Monroe County: Imperial barley yielded well; a fine
heavy berry.

CLOVER (Alsike).

Connecticut Experiment Station: Alsike is considered a valu-
able crop.
Colorado Agricultural College: Alsike is admirably adapted to
our low alkaline lands, where alfalfa would not grow.
pares Experiment Station: Alsike valuable chiefly as a honey
ant,
Michigan Agricultural College: Alsike falls down too easily to
be popular for hay. It is a good honey plant.
Nebraska Agricultural College: It was sown broadcast, and failed
to maintain itself against weeds.
New York Experiment Station: Alsike succeeds well here and is
a valuable crop. At Houghton Farm it is successful as a forage
plant; one of the finest clovers. It was well in bloom 75 cays from
sowing.

SEED DIVISION, 51

Pennsylvania State College: Alsike set well, but the yield was
much less than that of alfalfa or of common clover. Sown on calca-
reous clay soil. Hxperiments will be continued.

South Carolina HKxperiment Station: Plants succumbed to the
sun.

CLOVER (Melilotus alba),

Indiana Experiment Station: This clover is valuable if cut and
fed green.

Iowa Experiment Station: The seed was sown broadcast in well-
prepared black loam. Produced one mowing this dry season. Plants
appeared healthy all through a protracted drought. Hogs ate the
freshly cut clover with avidity. )

Louisiana, Catahoula Parish: Reports this clover as growing
well and a good honey plant.

Massachusetts, Bussey Institution: This plant grows well even on
poor land. A good honey plant.

Michigan Agricultural College: Melilotus alba thrives wherever
sown. <A good honey plant.

Missourr Agricultural College: It did nicely, giving strong,
healthy plants, whose roots found their way into our stiff subsoil,

Nebraska Agricultural College: It failed to vegetate.

New York Experiment Station: A very good bee food, but cattle
have a decided distaste for it.

Pennsylvania State College: It grew well in height, but spread
only moderately well. Will experiment further.

South Carolina Experiment Station: This clover is an admirable
crop, like the alfalfa, Thrives and flourishes in wet and dry weather.

JAPAN CLOVER (Lespedeza striata),
Louisiana, Saint Helena Parish: This clover does well.
CORN.

Connecticut Agricultural College: Reports the Early Concord a
valuable variety.

Colorado, Jefferson County: Reports the Egyptian Prolific not as
good a variety for that section as the White Australian.

Louisiana, Tangipahoa Parish: Egyptian Prolific does well here.

Texas, Gonzales County: Egyptian Prolific grows well and yields
abundantly.

Pennsylvania State College: The Little Willis was very late in
its development and failed to come near maturity.

Virginia, Spottsylvania County: White Giant Normandy is a
splendid variety ; large, deep grain, flinty, and very prolific.

COTTON.

Arkansas, Arkansas County: Jower’s Improved did not do well.
Shine’s Early Prolific is a good cotton; bolls well and good staple.

Georgia, Clay County: Jower’s Improved is one of the best.

Tennessee, Shelby County: Jones’s Prolific, and Zelmar, cluster
varieties, good, but not equal to the Peterkin in yield.

Laxas, Gonzales County: Bagley’s Prolific did well.

52 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.
GRASSES,

Colorado Agricultural College: Of the native grasses sent here
for trial I have no hesitation in saying that with but few exceptions
they are worthless for purposes of cultivation in this region. The
kinds I would except are Phleum alpinum (native timothy), Agro-
pyrum-glaucum fbiue stem), Elymus condensatus (rye-grass), Dey-
euxta canadensis (mountain blue-joint). The best of these is blue-
stem, our best native upland hay.

The species worthy of trial that occur in this region, in addition to
those just mentioned, are Hlymus canadensis, a rye-grass; Turkey-
foot (Andropogon provincialis), and A.scoparius, Panicum virga-
tum, Chrysopogon nutans (Indian grass, wood-grass) and perhaps
Muhlenbergia glomerata. What is especially desired for this region
is a good pasture grass. If alfalfa did not bloat cattle and horses we
might look no further. Of the species not native to this region, we
know of nothing that comes so near meeting this want as orchard-
grass. The best tame grasses for this region are tall meadow, oat,
orchard, and timothy, with tall fescue worthy of further trial.

Indiana Haperiment Station: Festuca is valuable both for hay
and pasture.

Louisiana, Saint Helena Parish: Rescue and Bermuda do well.

Nebraska Agricultural College: Grasses from Texas all failed here
except Panicum Texanum, which made a fair growth, but being an
annual, cannot compete with perennial grasses.

Tennessee Experiment Station, Knoxville: Reports Hricoma cus-
pidata a good grass. Poa Nevadensis, like blue-grass, a good grass.
Mixed seed from Colorado, fine in texture, good lawn grass. In Shelby
County, Kentucky blue-grass will grow, but is not a success, except
in a few yards.

Virginia, Spottsylvania County: The Department lawn-grass
seed did splendidly, and makes a fine appearance, notwithstanding
the dry weather.

MILLET (Golden).

Louisiana, Tangipahoa Parish: Reports golden millet as growing
finely and a fine forage crop. In Saint Helena Parish it also does
well.

Louisiana, Fast Baton Rouge: Australian millet is a success.

Tennessee, Shelby County: Golden millet does well.

MUSKMELON (Spanish).

Indiana Experiment Station: This isan excellent melon as grown
here.

New York Experiment Station: The plants made a vigorous
growth, but no fruit ripened.

Tennessee Agricultural College: Did not fruit.

OATS.

Indiana Experiment Station: Reports the White Victoria as only
mediuin.

Kentucky, Christian County: White Victoria and Harris both
yield well. Valuable.

Louisiana, Tangipachoa Parish: The Early Burt is the earliest and
best and is rust proof.

SEED DIVISION. 53

Mississippi, La Fayette County: Burpee’s Welcome does not suc-
ceed here. Fmie Early Burt is a success.

Missourt Agricultural College: White Victoria gave a tall,
branched, very white, heavy oat, of medium size; promises well.

Nebraska Agricultural College: White Victoria sown broadcast
failed to maintain itself against weeds.

New York Experimental Station: White Victoria medium good.
Very closely allied to the Welcome, differing only in time of matu-
rity.

Houghton Farm: White Victoria gave a fine crop of plump, heavy
oats in well-branched heads. Straw leafy and fairly tall.

Pennsylvania State College: White Victoria a good variety;
plump and heavy grain. A more valuable oat for this locality than
the Harris, notwithstanding the earlier maturity of the latter.

Tennessee Hxperiment Station, Knoxville: White Victoria did
not succeed.

Virginia, Spottsylvania County: Russian oats made a fine yield;

evidently could be profitably grown here.

POTATO SEED (Pringle’s Hybridized).

Colorado Agricultural College: From this seed over 2,000 plants
were raised and set out in the open ground; 55 of the most promis-
ing were saved for trial another season. Nearly all the plants bore
some tubers, but only such as bore tubers of fair size, close in the
hill, and with a moderate amount of haulm, were thought worthy of
trial again. The weights of such varieties as were weighed varied
from 3 ounces, the lowest, to 4 pounds 11 ounces, the largest yield
from one plant.

Connecticut Experiment Station: The potato seed produced small,
well-shaped tubers. t the Storrs School they produced remarkably,
some of the tubers being as large as small hens’ eggs. They are pre-
served for planting next year.

Massachusetts, Bussey Institution: Reports potato seed planted
at Pembroke. The experiment was a great success in spite of
drought. Some of the tubers grew to be as large as a man’s fist.

Michigan Agricultural College: The potato seed gave a bountiful
harvest of tubers. We havea half bushel of these, which we shall
test further.

New York Experiment Station: ‘‘Pringle’s Hybridized” potato
seed grew well. Will test further.

Houghton Farm: Potato seed gave a fair crop of small tubers of
the most diversified characteristics, which promise some very inter-
esting results from future crops.

Tennessee Experiment Station: About two quarts of small pota-
toes; shall experiment further.

PYRETHRUM ROSEUM.

Connecticut Experiment Station: Seed of this plant was sown in
1884, bloomed in 1885, and then died.

ifichigan Agricultural College: The seasons are too cool and
short for the profitable growth of this plant.

New York Experiment Station: The plants grew well, blossomed,
and some of them matured their seed.

Pennsylvania State College: Did not bloom.

4 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.
RUSSIAN FORAGE PLANTS.

Colorado Agricultural College: Teradella forage plant imported
from Russia is too slow of growth in this region to be of any agri-
cultural value. }

Spergula maxima: This plant, like the last, lacks the vigor to be
of value here.

Puff Bean: This forage plant from Russia is of extremely vigorous
habit, even on the thinnest soils, and is perhaps worthy of further
trial. It very closely resembles the English broad bean (Fata vul-

aris).
i J Seas bean: This bean resembles the last very closely and is of
equally vigorous habit. Hogs ate both plants with avidity.

Yellow lupin: Sheep-fodder from Russia. A plant of medium
vigor, and, like all the lupins, impatient of much irrigation. Would
have but little value in competition with more vigorous species.

Vicia villosa: Sheep-fodder from Russia. Height about 3 feet.
A vigorous grower; foliage abundant; flowers purple. Worthy of
further trial.

Dakota Territory, Grant County: The Vicia villosa is well suited
to this climate and soil.

Indiana Experiment Station: Reports the Vicia villosa as the
only variety that proved of value. The drought affected the others.

lowa Experiment Station: Reports as follows: Vicia villosa, two
plats, each 4 by 12 feet, were sown May 5. A thin stand secured.
The growth was slow during May and June. July and August be-
ing exceedingly dry but little growth was made, though the plants
remained healthy, and when the fall rains came on they continued
their growth somewhat. The plants began flowering May 26, and
continued in flower as late as October 16. Stood in the plats 20 inches
high, but the scandent vines were much longer. Probably not over
a ton and a half of dry fodder was produced per acre.

Ieradella: This variety, sown May 5, on May 22 was just starting;
on July 3 was 5 inches high and blossoming; on August 7 it was four-
teen inches high and was mown. ‘The second growth stood 4 inches
high August 21 and was beginning to blossom. Blossoming con-
tinued until October 2, when the plants stood 8 incheshigh. Plants
resist considerable frost.

Spergula maxima: Sown May 5, came up May 13, and grew vig-
orously; June 12 it stood 14 inches high and was in bloom. It was
sown so thick that the plants were much crowded.

Iowa, Kossuth County : None promise well except the Blue lupins,
which survived the drought and made a tremendous growth after the
fall rains,

Michigan Agricultural College: All made a fair growth for the
season, which was very dry, and seem promising enough to warrant
further trial.

Missouri Agricultural College: The Puff and Jaegar beans were
not a success here. Vicia villosa perfectly suits soil here, and is a
very promising plant.

i Ae York Experiment Station: None of these seem adapted to
1e soil.

BOY Farm reports as follows:

Teradella: Growth small; kept fresh and green, despite the drought,
until after several hard frosts; eaten eagerly by cows; might prove
a good grazing plant.

SEED DIVISION. © 55

Spergula maxima: Growth not large enough for profit.

Vicia villosa: Made luxuriant growth, bloomed and seeded; should
be a good soiling crop when sowed withrye. Haten eagerly by cows.

Jaegar bean: Capable of producing a heavy crop per acre.

Puff bean nearly the same.

Blue and Yellow lupins did not do well. On account of heavy
rains in May the ground was very wet, and these seeds were not sown
until June 8; hence the growing season previous to the drought,
which set in early in August, was short. The whole lot of plants
completed their growth under exceptional conditions, and some of
them were doubtless dwarfed by the severe drought, which continued
until after the crop was gathered.

New Jersey, Salem County: Vicia villosa and Ieradella did not suc-
ceed well. Spergula maxima grew very well and would yield a large
amount of fodder. It does not stand up well, which is a disadvan-
tage. The plat was mown pretty close June 19, and all but a little
around the edges was killed out by the drought. A few plants in the
borders show that it resists quite severe frosts.

Puff bean was planted in drills about 1 foot apart May 5. Began
to blossom June 9, and continued until July 3. Plants stood 33
inches high. In July and August the plants suffered considerably
from drought. A rather small crop of beans was produced. "Would
doubtless do better in this climate in a more favorableseason. Some
seedlings that have come up since the fall rains show that this bean
resists frost almost as well as red clover.

Jaegar bean: Same report as puff bean, except that these seemed
less affected by the dry weather.

Blue lupins: Two small plats were sown May 5, in drills about one
foot apart, and cultivated with the hoe. Blossomed about July 3.
August 7 the plants stood 35 inches high and appeared promising.
They were much reduced in size by the dry weather.

Yellow lupins: Report the same as in Blue lupins, except that
they measured but 19 inches August 7, when in blossom.

Pennsylvania State College: None of these did well except Vicva
villosa: that grew luxuriantly, and was still blossoming after severe
frost. Cattle ate it with avidity when in the fresh state.

Texas, Limestone County: The sheep-fodder and hog-bean are a
valuable addition to our forage.

Virginia, Hampton School: Made a fine growth, but not thought
superior to the black or cow pea for this locality.

Virginia, Spottsylvania County: Sheep-forage made a fine yield,
and is valuable.

SORGHUM (White African),

Indiana Experiment Station: Reports this variety only medium.
Missouri Experiment Station: It did admirably.

SUGAR BEET.

Connecticut Haperiment Station: Mangel-wurzel is preferred
here to the sugar beet for stock.

Georgia, Clay County: It succeeds well, and is good feed.

Kansas, Ellis County: The sugar beet succeeds well. Root crops,
such as beets, rutabagas, mangel-wurzel, &c., are valuable on ac-
count of not being liable to injury from insects, which frequently
entirely destroy other field crops.

56 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Louisiana Experiment Station: Sugar beets grew very large.
The largest sugar content was July 13, 3 per cent.

Louisiana, Catahoula Parish: The sugar beet was a success.

Massachusetts, Bussey Institution: This beet did well at Pem-
broke.

Mississippi, La Fayette County: It did well, yielding bountifully.

TEOSINTE.

Louisiana, East Baton Rouge Parish: Reports teosinte planted
too late tomature seed. November 8, height10feet. Putforth from
20 to 40 stalks from the first stalk. If it can be planted early enough
to mature seed will be one of the finest forage plants grown here.

Louisiana, Tangipahoa Parish: It made a wonderful growth;
stock very fond of it. . :

Lousiana, Saint Helena Parish: Teosinte bids fair to make one of
our best forage plants, and will ripen seed if planted by March 1.
Gives three to four cuttings.

Mississippi, La Fayette County: It is the most prolific forage
plant I ever saw.

Texas, Limestone County: If planted very early, the teosinte is a
most prolific and valuable forage plant here.

Tennessee, Shelby County: It did not succeed well; perhaps was
planted too late; still have hope of it.

TOBACCO.

Colorado Agricultural College: Nine varieties of tobacco from
the Department of Agriculture were grown the past season. The
seed was sown in a mild hot-bed April 27, and transplanted to open
ground June 1, not a plant failing to grow. Our notes on these va-
rieties are as follows:

Vuelta Abajo: This variety is a vigorous grower. Leaf smooth;
shape, ovate-lanceolate; greatest length of leaf, 35 inches; width, 20
inches. It isa late variety, and did not ripen well.

Figi Orinoco: Leaf coarse; shape, lanceolate; greatest length of leaf,
aenecnes ; width, 15 inches. This variety ripened and colored a deep
yellow.

Caboni: A dark green, rough leaf when growing, which cured into
a reddish-brown; greatest length of leaf, 83 inches; width, 13 inches.
Quality good.

Big Orinoco: Has a rough, dark leaf when growing, which did not
ripen thoroughly; greatest length of leaf, 88 inches; width, 20 inches,

General Grant: Leaf rough and crimpled; shape, ovate-lanceolate :
greatest length of leaf, 384 inches; width, 17 inches. Much like
Golden Leaf in flavor, color, and desirability.

Hungarian: This variety cured a light yellow leaf of mild flavor;
longest leaf, 34 inches; width, 15 inches.

The experiment with this plant is not yet complete, as the leaf needs
more age before one can speak definitely as to the desirability of these
varieties for this region and as to the quality of the tobacco grown.

Competent judges, however, at this stage of the experiment, speak
favorably of the burning qualities and flavor of the kinds grown, so
that another season’s trial, and with early maturing varieties, would
ae the question of the profitable culture of the tobacco plant in
this State.

SEED DIVISION. 57

Parts of Colorado would seem to possess some positive advantages
over the Eastern States in the culture of tobacco, and these are:
first, a long dry season, insuring the ripening of the latest kinds; sec-
ond, the presence of irrigation, enabling us to set out plants at the earli-
est possible moment and insuring a perfect stand; and, third, the ab-
sence of fall rains would assure to us the perfect curing of the leaf.

Tennessee Haperiment Station, Knoxville: Big Orinoco very
good. White Burley very good. Gooch’s Broad-leaf fine; leaves
18 inches long and 9 wide.

Virginia, Hampton Normal School: Connecticut-seed Leaf made
a fine growth; rather coarse and heavy in quality.

TREE (Tartarian mapie).

Colorado, Jefferson County: Made but little growth; seems tender.

Indiana Experiment Station: Did very poorly.

Michigan Agricultural College: It makes a desirable ornamental
shrub here.

Missouri Agricultural College : It is not entirely hardy here.

Texas Agricultural College: The plants summer-killed.

TURNIPS.

Connecticut Experiment Station: All the varieties of field turnips
did well and proved distinct and valuable.

Indiana Experiment Station: Purple Top Strap-leaf is the best.
Milan Strap-leaf next. The Garden Rose did not do well.

aa eae Tangipahoa Parish: All the varieties of turnip did
well.

_ East Baton Rouge Parish: Reports all the turnips as doing well—
better than any other raised there.

La Fourche Parish: Reports the Purple Top as giving excellent
results, although the weather was exceedingly dry.

Massachusetts, Bussey Institution: The turnips all did well at
Pembroke.

New York, Monroe County: The turnips were excellent. Did well
in the hands of five or six parties.

Texas, Limestone County: The turnips are a success, especially
the Purple Top.

Tennessee Hxperiment Station: Great Southern Prize good for
greens. Purple Strap-leaf very productive and keeps well. White
Norfolk Extra very productive. Red Top Globe best of all for qual-
ity and productiveness. All the turnip seed was sown August 15
and turnips gathered November 4.

pence Shelby County: Garden Rose and Milan Strap-leaf extra
good.

WHEAT.

Michigan Agricultural College: Reports that the imported varie-
ties—Genoese, White Crimean, Egyptian, and Indian—grew vigor-
ously in the fall, but were not sufficiently hardy to withstand the
winter. The Extra-Karly Oakley also proved too tender for this lati-
tude. The Diehl Mediterranean is a bearded variety, having heads
about 3 inches in length. Thestraw is long and strong, being about
4 feet in length over the whole plat; no smut or rust; 3 to 6 stalks to
the stool; thick on the ground; ready for harvesting July 1, the berry
being plump and hard. McGhee’s White showed some rust on the

58 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

leaves, and a good many stalks were cut down by the “‘fly;” no
smut, but ripened unevenly.

Missouri Experiment Station: Reports the Crimean a coarse
wheat, mostly winter-killed. The plants saved made a grand head
to look upon—long, full, and evidently very prolific, but a large,
coarse wheat. The Indian and Egyptian wheat all winter-killed.
The Diehl Mediterranean stood the winter well and gave a good berry,
but ripened late. The Genoese was a failure, giving a very poor re-
turn. The McGhee White gave a moderate yield of a most beautiful
wheat, of light color, with a glazed or pearly luster. Ripened June 16.

Nebraska, Pawnee County : The Sheriff wheat winter-killed badly.

New York Experiment Station: Diehl Mediterranean is well
adapted to this climate. Martin’s Amber is first-class. Genoese,
White Crimean, and Egyptian are failures as winter varieties and of
no value as spring varieties, the grain not maturing sufficiently. The
last is not the true Egyptian wheat (Triticum vulgare, var. com-
positum). This variety has a simple panicle; the true Egyptian
wheat, as usually understood, has a composite head, according to all
authorities.

Pennsylvania State College: Reports eight varieties sown side by
side. From observation taken October 31, 1885, the White Crimean,
Genoese, and Egyptian were doing excellently. The Indian did not
come up well. All the imported varieties winter-killed, The expos-
ure was somewhat exceptional, it is true; nevertheless they seem too
delicate for our winters here. At the same date (October he it was
noted that the McGhee and Early Oakley had a good, deep color, and
were welladvanced. The Diehl Mediterranean had an excellent color,
was well stooled, and taller than either of the other American varie-
ties. Martin’s Amber was inferior in color, and not very well stooled.
The final height attained by all these varieties was about 44 feet.
The straw seemed nearly alike in stiffness. The Diehl Mediterranean
was the only one bearded. The yield from one quart of seed was:
McGhee, 22 pounds; Extra-Early Oakley, 22 pounds; Dieh] Mediter-
ranean, 60 pounds; Martin’s Amber, 13 ounces. All suffered consid-
erably from the ‘“‘fly.” Wearetrying the first three American varie-
ties again.

South Carolina Experiment Station: Reports the Extra-Harly
Oakley a very early variety; yielded an excellent crop; an admirable
variety for this latitude, and much valued. Yielded about 20 bush-
els per acre. McGhee’s White—another excellent variety, a week
later than the Oakley, yielded well; a good Southern wheat. The
Diehl Mediterranean—an excellent bearded variety, rather fate, but
made a fine yield. The Four-Rowed Sheriff—too late for this lati-
tude. The Egyptian, Crimean, and Indian varieties were all killed
by cold. Martin’s Amber was about half killed; yield unsatisfactory.
These varieties were all drilled and cultivated; all fertilized alike
and closely observed.

Virginia, Hampton School: The Red Mediterranean seems to be
the only wheat that is at all sure here.

REPORTS FROM CORRESPONDENTS.
ALABAMA,

Grasses and forage plants: Grasses are very little grown in Northern Alabama,
but we badly need something that will afford good pasture. Crab-grass grows in
abundance, and makes excellent hay. Alfalfa does well, but very little is planted.

SEED DIVISION. - 59

Our most popular grasses are clover, orchard, herd’s or red-top, Texas blue, ard
Bermuda, Kattir corn grows vigorously, producing a mass of foliage of rich deep-
greencolor. It continues its growth till frost, and successfully withstands drought.
It produces, besides the mass of foliage, an immense crop of seed, exceeding in
yield per acre the Millo maize. It is quite promising as a source of coarse forage,
as well as for grain for stock.

Grain: Our most popular grains are corn, wheat, oats, barley, andrye. We usu-
ally commence planting corn the Ist of March, which makes large, heavy ears.
Corn is planted from March to June; oats, corn, wheat, and rye for seed are best
for this climaie if raised south of Tennessee. If raised north of the Ohio River, they
will not succeed well. The Fultz, Karly Red May, and Mediterranean wheats are the
best varieties in Northern Alabama. Very little wheat is sown, as it is almost in-
variably injured by rust. We need a rust-proof variety adapted to our climate.
Red rust-proof oats, one of our best varieties, are sown from November to March.
Barley grows finely on rich land, and small grains yield more abundantly when
sown in October.

ALASKA.

Grain: The land laws are such that the privilege of acquiring a title to land is
expressly denied, hence there is no encouragement to agriculture on any extended
scale; otherwise it is believed cattle-raising, at least, would be largely followed.
The shores are never covered for any length of time by snow in the winter, so cattle
’ have been known to live through the winter without other food than what they
found themselves. The climate is probably too rainy for grain culture in this part
of Alaska. Barley and oats grow luxuriantly, but are difficult to ripen and cure.
Timothy and clover grow luxuriantly. Wheat has not been fairly tested.

Vegetables: The following are all the vegetables that can be grown here with

rofit: Potatoes, planted in April; cabbage, cauliflower, turnips, peas, lettuce,

eets, carrots, and salsify, planted in May. The above have been raised with suc-
cess, and in quantities to suit the demand. Tomatoes, cucumbers, corn, melons,
pumpkins, &c., will not grow. In Klawock there is no farming carried on; the
country is heavily wooded, although there are several clear tracts of land which
could with comparatively small outlay of money be turned into good farms, How-
ever, the cost and opportunities of transportation between the different points in
Southeast Alaska would make it almost impossible at present to find a paying
market for products raised. ;

ARKANSAS.

Grasses and forage plants: Millet is the chief forage plant. It is planted in June.
Some red clover is grown. The different kinds of grasses are not grown extensively,
but experiments are teaching us that this isa fine grass country. Crab-grass makes
an excellent pasture and is used for hay. The usual time for sowing clover, blue,
timothy, and herd’s grass is-in the month of February. There is a desire to try
other varieties than those we now have. Bermuda grass is our best grass for sum-
mer grazing, and on rich land makes fine hay. Johnson grass has proved a great
success to all who have tried it. Alfalfa and red clover grow finely here on our
best land. It is a difficult matter to get the people aroused to the vast importance
of giving more time and attention to different grasses and forage plants.

Grain: Wecommence plowing in February. Amber wheat and similar varieties
do the best in our locality. Our climate requires a wheat that is early and will
stand the rust. The Walker wheat is a popular variety. Wheat and rye are sown
in October. Rye is a profitable crop if sown earlier. Weare growing more grain
_ and less cotton. Late corn has proved to be best for our climate, making the larg-
est yield per acre. Corn is usually planted in April. White winter oats sown in
the fall make a good yield, and are free from rust. Barley and rice are raised to a
limited extent.

Vegetables : All vegetables grow to perfection in this climate; we grow almost
every known variety with little labor. Gardening is commenced in February and
March ; early and late Flat Dutch cabbage and some drumhead for winter use. Irish

otatoes must be of an early kind, on account of our hot, dry summers; planted in

farch. Turnips, purple-top and Flat Dutch, for early use, do well, but for a main
crop must have a hardier kind, like the seven top, to stand the winter. Peas, beans,
carrots, and parsnips are planted in April.

CALIFORNIA.

Grain: Winter plowing and seeding commences in Northern California as soon
as the soil is wet enough to plow. The principal grains are barley, oats (mammoth),

60 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Eeyptian and eight-rowed corn. Only the early varieties of corn will mature in
Northern California. In the southern part of the State it makes a large and valua-
ple crop. Flax is grown for its seed; sometimes one and a quarter tons are produced
per acre. Barley known as the Coast Range variety is a profitable grain.

Grasses und forage plants: Very few grasses are raised in Northern California,
Alfalfa is grown along the river bottoms or in places that can be irrigated; it is
used in Eastern California for hay; it yields two cuttings a season on dry land.

‘Timothy and red-top do well on wet land, and yield from eight to ten tons of hay
per acre. In Central California white Chili wheat and white wild oats are sown for
forage.

Vegetables: Vegetables grow to perfection, and gardeners plant nearly every
month in the year in the southern section. The Lima bean isa valuable crop in the
south.

CONNECTICUT.

Grass and forage plants: Clover, timothy, red top, orchard grass, blue grass,
tall fescue, red and white clover, and alsike are the most profitable.

Grain: Wheat, yellow Dent corn, barley, cats, and buckwheat are the principal

rains.
i Spring plowing usually begins April 1 and grain sowing about April 10. Corn
ripens in from 90 to 100 days from planting.

Vegetables: The melon trade is growing, particularly the small green-fieshed
varieties of musk-melon. Hackensack standsat the head. We plant the first week
in May. The leading vegetable in the southwest is the onion. There are growers
who plant twenty to thirty acres annually. The average yield is three hundred to
four hundred bushels per acre; the principal market for this product is New York
City. Carrots are raised in large quantities, more particularly for stock and horse
feeding. Pumpkins, largely grown for cattle and hog feeding; time for planting
about June 10.

DAKOTA.

Grasses and forage plants: Only wild grasses grown at present. Clover, alfalfa
and the hardier grasses would do well, as the winters, although extremely cold, are
not subject to thaw, which causes grasses to winter-kill. The country being new,
grasses have not been cultivated. Native grasses are preferable to any others;
ee fattening qualities are greater than the native or tame grasses of Illinois or

owa.

Grain: The varieties of spring wheat grown in Southwestern Dakota have a world-
wide reputation for producing the best quality of flour. Spring varietiesof wheat are
harvested 118 days from sowing. ‘The early-sown grain produces a larger yield, and
a great effort is made to get seeding done by the 10th of April. In 1886 wheat
yielded from 9 to 20 bushels to the acre. Fall plowing is necessary for the best yield
for wheat. Scotch Fife is the favorite variety.

Our principal market crop is flax. Welcome oats is a favorite variety. Corn does
well planted any time from the last week in April to May 25. Rice-corn is a variety
that should be cultivated and improved by the settlers in Dakota. Barley does better
sown about the 26th of April. Amber cane does well, but has not been extensively
grown for lack of mills.

Vegelables: Nearly all kinds of vegetables are of excellent quality and very pro-
lific. Some of the carrots are 2 feet long. Specimens of Early Rose potatoes
weighed 6 pounds. They average 175 bushels per acre. Sugar-beets, turnips, and
rutabagas are extensively raised for stock-feeding. The southern section seems
peculiarly adapted to root crops of all kinds. Tomatoes and melons rarely mature,
on account of frost.

FLORIDA.

Grasses and forage plants: On the Gulf border of Florida the yellow Millo maize
and Johnson grass have been reported by good farmers asexcelling all other forage
plants. Alfalfa is pre-eminent for hay, soiling, and green manuring. It does not

ead re-seeding. Bermuda grass is unexcelled for pasture, and once established is
permanent. However, the principal dependence is the wild native grasses.

Grain: Oats acclimated here are far superior to any variety raised north. They
are planted as late as December. For pasturage, sowing begins in October. Rye
and barley are sown in October, and yield well, but the weevil cannot be kept from
the grain when it is matured. Northern rye will not grow successfully here, as it
does not head out.

SEED DIVISION. 61

Vegetables: There are two distinctive kinds of vegetables grown here—winter and
spring. The early vegetable business is steadily increasing with the facilities for
inarketing. All kinds of vegetables grown in the United States can be successfully
grown here at some time of the year. Seed can be planted at any time after the
heat of the semmer, and suffers, as a general thing, no check, as the winter temper-
ature rarely falls below 50 degrees Fahrenheit.

GEORGIA.

Grasses and forage plants: Very little attention is given to grasses in Eastern
Georgia. Lucerne is the best-paying clover we have; crab-grass and crow-foot
make excellent hay. Would like grasses in Southwest Georgia adapted to our
climate. In the western section Bermuda-grass was introduced some years ago; it
does not produce seed, but is easily propagated by the rocts. Seven tons have been
produced to the acre. Our forage consists mostly of oat straw.

Grain : Rye, oats, and corn are our grain crops. Corn is planted in March and
cotton in April. Kaffir corn is creating a great deal of excitement in Western
Georgia. It has proved to be an excellent forage plant. The seed commands a
high price, but will be within the reach of ali by another year. Indian corn is
largely used as a forage plant in the northern section. Corn should be procured
_ from other iocalities and renewed every two or three years. Wheat is not as suc-
cessful here as in higher latitudes. Wheat is sown in the months of October and
November. The Burt rust-proof oats are two weeks earlier than other oats, but
the heads are not as heavy.

Vegetables: In Central Georgia dwarf peas, though not so fine flavored as some
others, are preferred. Among the best varieties of squash are yellow crook-neck
and Boston marrow for fall and winter. Early varieties of Irish potatoes are best,
as two crops can be grown. The sweet-potato is entitled to more consideration.
The Government should import new varieties from South America. The sweet-
potato is deteriorating in the South, losing its keeping qualities from continual prop-
agation from cuttings and sprouts. Potatoes planted in February mature in F une.
A second crop planted August 10 will mature by frost. This crop keeps through
the winter and spring. Almost every variety of vegetables and fruit grow well
here. The time for sowing varies every year, owing to the difference in the seasons;
therefore it is best to plant and sow something every month. Fiat Dutch turnips
are in demand in the spring; yellow rutabaga and purple-top in the fall. In the
western part oi Georgia carrots and parsnips are not grown.

LOUISIANA.

Grasses and forage plants: Millo maize, the sorghums, and millets may be grown
profitably either for grain or forage crops. ‘Sorghum is planted in April; millet is
sown in Mayor June. Teosinte bids fair to be one of our most valuable forage
plants. Rescue grass is good winter pasture. Crab-grass makes our best hay. In
Southern Louisiana cow-pea is the principal reliance of the planters for hay.

Grain: In the central part of the State the cld reliable gourd-seed variety of corn
is the most popular. The flint variety, on account of its hardness, is rarely planted,
except for bread. Oats are sown about the 10th of January. In the eastern sec-
tion red oats and rice are the principal grains. Rye and barley grow well, but are
not raised to any extent. Rye makes poor pasturage, and barley is of but little
value for the same purpose. Sorghum is extensively raised here for sirup and for-
age. Wheat rusts, and but very little is sown.

Vegetables: Most of the garden vegetables are planted between February and
April. The best peas in Eastern Louisiana are marrowfat; the dwarfs are not fruit-
ful enough to pay for culture. Drumhead and Flat Dutch cabbage, red-top and
white-globe turnips are the favorites. The pole bean and the black wax are prefer-
able. Watermelon seed from the Department of Agriculture the first year made a
poor show; the melons split open in the sun, but the year following melons were
raised from the same seed, many of which weighed over 40 pounds. Asparagus,
celery, carrots, and spinach do not come to perfection here. In Southwestern Lou-
isiana spring vegetables are sown from the ist to the 10th of March; fall vegetables
from the 1st to the 10th of August. There is a growing demand for the carly vari-
eties of all kinds of vegetables.

“MAINE.

Grasses and forage plants: Timothy and red clover were formerly the only grasses
sown, but of late years several other varieties have been added with satisfactory re-

62 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

sults. Red-top, Kentucky blue-grass, orchard grass, alsike, and white clover are now
largely grown. A mixture of oats, wheat, and barley is quite extensively raised for
feed. But little rye or buckwheat is raised in the southern part of Maine, In addi-
tion to the other grasses given, foul meadow and blue joint are extensively grown
on low and swampy land. ;

Grains: Spring plowing is sometimes begun earlier than May 1. A mixture of
oats, wheat, and barley is quite extensively raised for feed. Peas are sometimes
added to make it more valuable.

Among small grairis oats have much the largest average; barley comes next.
Wheat, rye, and buckwheat receive little attention, Large quantities of sweet and
Dent corn are grown to feed while in a green state.

Vegetables: Our chief vegetables are cabbage, beets, carrots, tomatoes, and tur-
nips. The date of planting gardens is about the middle of May, and all the varieties
are planted about the same time. Potatoes are grown to a greater extent in the
southwestern part of Maine than any other vegetable, but immense quantities of
cabbage are raised in a few towns in the southern portion.

Pumpkins are grown for stock in all localities. Squashes and tomatoes are grown
by nearly every farmer, and large quantities are raised by market gardeners in the
southern section.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Grasses and forage plants: Timothy, red-top, and clovers are the most popular
grasses. Hungarian and millet are sown as ‘‘ catch crops” for forage.

Grain: The grains are corn, oats, rye, barley, and wheat.

Vegetables: Sweet corn is planted every ten days from April 10 to June17, Asa
general thing vegetables are planted too early. Later planting would produce bet-
ter results. Among the best varieties of peas are First and Best and McLean’s Ad-
vancer.

MICHIGAN.

Grasses and forage plants: The northern part of Michigan is second to none for
clover and grasses. Mammoth clover is grown to some extent for plowing under.
In the southwestern part a field of alfalfa, sown for the first time last spring, stood
the summer drought better than red clover. Timothy is considered the best for hay.
Medium red clover preferred.

Grain: There is no part of the State better for winter wheat than the northern
ortion. Spring wheat is found to succeed better than fall wheat in average seasons.
n the central part of the State the Clawson is the most popular at present. Mar-

tin’s Amber and Centennial are growing in favor. Welcome oats are good. The
Russian variety is alittle late. Barley does well. What we need most is a good and
early field corn. The flint varieties succeed best. The Dent varieties are rather
late. Corn planting begins about the 10th of May and continues up to the ist of
June. One hundred bushels per acre is considered a good crop, but a hundred and
twenty bushels are not uncommon in favorable seasons with good cultivation. The
seasons are tooshort in the northern part of the State to mature all varieties of corn
and potatoes. Early Concord sweet corn proved to be the best late sweet corn ever
planted in the southeastern part of the State.

Vegetables: All vegetables do well here, Early Flat Dutch cabbage is always sure
to head, also the Winningstadt. The Hubbard squash is the best variety for winter.
The season in the northern part of the State is short and the growth of vegetables
very rapid.

MINNESOTA.

Grasses and forage plants: As yet we depend mostly on native grasses, though
some farmers are beginning to seed with timothy and red-top.

Grain: Wheat, oats, barley, rye, and early corn are grown, No winter wheat is
raised. Spring wheat is sown as soon as the ground will permit. Fife and blue-
stem wheats and white Russian oats are the standards. Scotch Fife makes the best
flour under the new process, Wheat and oats are almost invariably sown on fall
plowing. Spring plowing for corn and wheat is done from the 10th to the 25th of
May. Spring rye is raised to some extent.

Vegetables: Potatoes and rutabagas are the main crop. Garden vegetables are
grown for home consumption, Marblehead squash and Stowell’s evergreen sweet
corn are favorites.

_ SEED DIVISION. . 63

MISSISSIPPI,

Grasses and forage plants: Our red-clay lands produce excellent red clover,
which is the most popular of the grasses as a fertilizer and forage plant. Bermuda
grass is unequaled for grazing. Our planters are just beginning to find out that
grass is their best friend. German millet is cultivated to some extent and yields
abundantly. In the eastern section we need some new varieties of clover and,
grasses for forage. Crab-grass will surpass anything in yield and quantity.

Grain: Red rust-proof oats is the only variety that will do well in Central Mis-:
sissippi. Grain sowing is usually begun in February and March—in the southern
part of the State early in February. We wanta rust-proof wheat. Wheat growing
has proved unprofitable for several years, and very few farmers are engaged in it.
Nearly every variety fails to be rust proof, and rust is a deadly foe to wheat in this
locality. Cotton, which is our principal crop, is planted in April. Rye is cultivated
to some extent, though mostly for early spring pasture.

Vegetables: We are favorably situated for the business of gardening, and most
vegetables can be successfully grown with ordinary skill and labor. Some vege-
tables can be raised all the year round. Gathered 32 different varieties at one time
the 1st of May. In the southern section the wax-bean cannot stand the long hot
summer, and in the western part of the State turnips, rutabagas, and cabbage are
generally failures. Beauty of Hebron potatoes proved excellent. All turnip seed
received from the Department of Agriculture was unusually fine, particularly the

- red-top and white globe.

MONTANA.

Grasses and forage plants: We have had little experience with grasses. We need
a deep-rooted grass, capable of enduring drought. Our most desirable grasses are
timothy, alfalfa, orchard, and red-top. In the eastern part of the Territory millet
is the most desirable.

Grain: All kinds of grains yield well in Central Montana. The best wheat and
barley are raised on bench lands. The most popular varieties of wheat are Scotch
Fife and white Sousse. Two-row barley is a very satisfactory crop. We should be
able to raise an early variety of corn, but as yet but little attention has been given
to this grain. White flint promises to be the best variety. All field crops in this
country require irrigation to insure a good yield. Too little attention has been
given to raising crops that will withstand drought. Early amber cane attains a
good growth and makes fine forage for stock, but will not succeed as a sugar-pro-
ducing plant. Oats are more extensively sown than any other grain. Morrs En-
nobled Black, Welcome, and Surprise oats are successfully grown.

Vegetables: Almost all vegetables are raised in abundance, but the earliest varie-
ties must beselected. Best varieties are Early Rose, Beauty of Hebron, Saint Patrick,
and Snow Flake potatoes. Silverleaf, Drumhead, and Jersey Wakefield cabbage
planted May 15. Silverskin onions, blood turnip beet, long green cucumber planted
April 20. Vegetables grow to an immense size and are superior in quality. Our
potatoes cannot be excelled.

NEW HAMPSHIRE,

Grasses and forage plants: Clover, timothy, red-top, blue-grass, orchard-grass,
and Hungarian are the favorite varieties.

Grain: Oats, barley, wheat, and rye are successfully grown.

Vegetables: Potatoes are a staple product. Other vegetables do well. Winning-
stadt cabbage, Early Blood, and Egyptian beets, Danvers and Weathersfield red
onions, cranberry and white Dutch pole beans, Boston curled lettuce, nutmeg-musk-
melon, black Spanish watermelon, sweet mountain pepper, early scarlet radish,
Hubbard squash, General Grant tomato, and strap-leaf turnip are the favorite va-
rieties.

NEW MEXICO.

Grasses and forage plants: Grasses, such as alfalfa, are needed here, and amber
or orange cane. The seeds of varieties grown here have been used so long that they
have become entirely unprofitable for seed, having been planted year after year.

Grain: Seed wheat adapted to this locality is greatly needed in the southern part
of New Mexico. Barley and Canada corn, if planted very early and properly culti-
vated, yields two crops a year.

San

64 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Vegetables: Nearly all the seed sent from the Department did well, particularly
Flat Dutch cabbage. Potatoes do not grow in this country—eastern part—but do
wellin the mountains. I have raised sugar beets here that weighed 35 pounds. The
red turnip beet is best for table use. All classes of vegetables will do well, however,
if sufficient water can be had for proper irrigation.

NORTH CAROLINA.

Grasses and forage plants: The native varieties of grasses succeed better than for-
eign ones. Timothy, red clover, red-top, and orchard are the most desirable. We
have natural pasturage of spontaneous growth. No doubt most of the varieties of
grass would do. well, but our farmers have never resorted tothem. In the southeast
there is some millet and sorghum planted for forage. Very little forage grass used,
except crab-grass. Most of the planters use the cow-pea and corn for fodder.

Grain: The most popular grains in the northern part of this State are corn, wheat,
oats, and rye. Oats are sown from February to April; yellow and white are the
most desirable, but the rust-proof varieties are preferred to all others. The best oats
for fall sowing are the white winter and rust proof ; for spring the black, which is
sown from February to March. Very little spring wheat is sown. There is not
wheat enough raised in some parts of this State to supply the demand. In the north-
ern part of the State spring wheat has not been sown since 1849. The most popular
wheats for red land are the Clawson and Golden Prolific. On sandy soil the Fultz
and the Mediterranean, both bearded varieties, succeed well. Wheat and rye are
sown from October i to December 25.

Vegetables: Ali vegetables known to the temperate zone grow here to great per-
fection. In the central part of the State cabbage is the most profitable vegetable
grown from summer and early fall, Drumhead and Flat Dutch are the favorites.
Nearly all kinds of beans are grown. Our best varieties of tomatoes are Livingston’s
Perfection and Acme. Lettuce, Early Hanson and Salamander. The sugar beet
sent us by the Department is considered the best for table use. Sweet potatoes stand
first in quantity and value among vegetables. Irish potatoes are raised in large
quantities for early market for Northern cities.

OHIO.

Grasses and forage plants: We need a grass that will stand the drought better
than timothy. Experiments with orchard grass very satisfactory; also alfalfa from
Department of Agriculture. Alsike is just what we need asa clover; it grows 18
inches high and ripens its seed.

RHODE ISLAND.

Grasses and forage plants: The most desirable grasses are timothy, clover, red-
fop, and orchard. Forage plants are red clover, corn fodder, millet, Hungarian,
and some sorghum.

Vegetables: Our season is along one. We are subject to dry weather from June
to September, and farmers are anxious to get their crops in as early as possible to
obtain the advantage of spring rains. The variety of garden seed used is great;
onions and carrots are the specialties, red onion preferred.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Grasses and forage plants: The reliance for pasture and hay is on native grasses
or rye, which many plant for winter and spring grazing. Herd’s grass grows wellon
low lands, and crab-grass makes a good crop. Bermuda and Texas blue have both
been introduced ona small scale. Pea-vines make fine forage. We plant Bermuda,
rescue, orchard, clover, lucerne, and millet in the fall.

Grain: Wheat is sown from October 1 to December 25. Our best crops are from
the red varieties. Oats are sown from July to March. Those sown in July are
twice as productive as those sown in the spring. White winter oats would prove
quite as valuable as the favored red if more generally introduced. Red rust-proof
oats are considered to be the best. Indian corn has been the main reliance for grain
until the importation of the red rust-proof oat. The most popular field corn in
South Carolina is gourd-seed. Dent’s early is being introduced. Kaffir corn and
Millo maize are being tried. We plant Indian and pop-corn and field peas in March
or April; barley and rye in November,

SEED DIVISION. 65

Vegetables: Spring plowing begins as soon after the 1st of January as is practi-
cable. Turnips, parsnips, and carrots are planted in the fall; cabbage, collards,
garden peas, beans, beets, salsify, and potatoes in the spring; in fact, all kinds of
vegetables are planted here except celery and cauliflower; never knew them to grow
successfully in this locality. All vegetables, early and late, with proper attention,
will make two crops, and some three, in this climate.

Department seeds are sought after and always give satisfaction. The sowing of
seed is not usually judiciously done, and in this climate all vegetables deteriorate
after the second year. Northern seed for the Southern climate insures for the year
choice vegetables. All imported seed of the root crops to be preferred.

TENNESSEE.

Grasses and forage plants: Blue-grass, red-top, orchard, timothy, clover, and
herd’s grass, and common red clover are grown more than any others. Other grasses
are being rapidly introduced. Herd’s grass and clover mixed make the best grass
for grazing, and should be sown the 15th of November. Red clover grows to per-
fection. Japan clover grows all over the country and is valuable as feed for stock.

Amber cane is becoming more popular every year as a feed for mules and cows.
The Russian sheep fodder (yellow lupin) proved a failure with us. A few farmers
did their spring plowing in December last, and their crops are decidedly the best in

_the country. For hay, red clover, herd’s grass, and timothy are chiefly used. Be-
sides these there are large quantities of sorghum and German millet grown for win-
ter feeding. Clover, timothy, and herd’s grass are sown in February and March.

Grain: Winter wheat is sown from the 1st of September to the 15th of Novem-
ber. The varieties principally sown are the Fultz, Odessa, and Red May. German
amber is also much liked. Red Mediterranean is also a favorite, and is not liable to
damage from rust. Red and black oats are the favorite varieties, and are sown in
February and March. Oats, if sown in October and not winter-killed, yield the
best results. In Central Tennessee Indian corn is our principal crop, and is planted
from April1toJune1. In the southeastern part of the State the farmers usually
commence spring plowing for the corn crop about January 15. Corn planted in
March gives the best results. Corn and cotton are the principal farm crops. Our
corn is a general mixture, the white being used for bread and the yellow for stock.

Vegetables: All varieties of vegetables grow to perfection here. Central Tennessee
is peculiarly adapted to the growing of corn and potatoes, both Irish and sweet.
Turnips and onions produce good crops. Cabbage is uncertain. Peas, both garden
and field, do well. Wethersfield onions, Flat Dutch cabbage, early and late purple-
top, and white-globe turnip, Acme and Livingston tomato, perpetual lettuce, pole
and Valentine snap beans are fine varieties. Morrowfat and early May peas are the
best. Crook-neck squash is very early and of fine flavor.

TEXAS.

Grasses and forage plants: The cultivation of grasses in Southeastern Texas is
very limited, most of them failures, until the introduction of Johnson grass from
Alabama, which proved a great success for horses and cattle, and is considered equal
to the best imported hay. It is not affected by drought; grows from 3 to 4 feet high.
It is good where you want exclusively a hay farm. In Southern Texas we have a
grass known as Texas-rye, which promises well as a winter and spring pasturage.
It is hardy, standing the coldest weather, and would prove valuable for hay if prop-
erly managed. Grasses do not succeed in Western Texas on account of long droughts.
The Bermuda succeeds only when planted on bottom-lands. Ryeand sorghum afford
fine green forage for hogs. Rescue-grass is a good variety for winter pasture.

Grain: In this climate the most successful farmers prepare their corn land in No-
vember and December, securing the benefits of light winter rains. Corn is consid-
ered the most valuable grain. Egyptian or dhoura is the most valuable, as it stands
the dry weather remarkably well. It is difficult to procure the seed. Broom corn
is a paying crop, yielding two crops per year. The second one is the better. In the
northern section all wheat is sown in the fall. The White May and Mediterranean
are the varieties that suffer the least from rust. Nicaragua wheat is a good variety.
It averages 35 bushels tothe acre. Both red and black oats are popular and superior
in yield to other varieties. There is a great need of arust-proof variety. Although
peanuts are a paying crop, averaging $2 per bushel in market and yielding well, still
they are but little grown.

Vegetables: All varieties of vegetables do well here when properly cultivated; the
early varieties succeed best. Gardening is usually commenced about the 14th of

3 AG.—’86

66 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

February, or as soon as the weather will permit. We can stand a drought here longer
than in any other part of the world. Flat Dutch cabbage and drumhead, strapleaf
and white globe turnip are considered good varieties. Tomatoes of all varieties do
well, and melons are successfully grown.

VIRGINIA.

Grasses and forage plants: Alfalfa is splendid as a forage plant, and also for hay-
making purposes. Under favorable circumstances it cannot be surpassed. It yields
more to the acre than any other known grass. It should be cut three or four times
during the season, or it will be too coarse and unfit for hay. Alsike is a fine grass
for hay. It grows, under ordinary cultivation, from 2 to 3 feet in height. The
blossom is so fragrant that it is a valuable honey plant. The meadow containing
the clover was literally covered with bees from morning until night when in bloom.
Two fine crops were produced during the season. Hay should be secured early
enough in the season to allow the meadows a good start before thc summer drought
sets in, so that the roots may be well protected. This is not necessary with alfalfa, as
its roots extend into the ground from 10 to 20 feet, where the soil is of a loose, calca-
reous character. Neither alfalfa nor alsike should be pastured until the fall rains
set in. Care should be taken not to pasture too late in the spring.

Grain: From 8 quarts of seed wheat, sown on about one-sixth of an acre of land,
nearly 6 bushels of the red Mediterranean wheat were harvested, The soil was a
sandy loam, very deep, not very stiff, and was well adapted for the growth of alsike
and alfalfa clover.

VERMONT,

Grasses and forage plants: Red-top is becoming quite popular. Farmers have
found that it will grow and do well where timothy fails. The most popular corn
for fodder is white Sanford; Stowell’s evergreen sweet is also used.

Grain: White Russian wheat makes choice flour, and yields from 30 to 40 bushels
per acre. Oats yield on good soil, if sown by the 15th of May, from 50 to 60 bushels
per acre. Barley sown by the 15th will yield 40 to 45 bushels per acre,

Vegetables: All kinds of vegetables do well, Beans are an important crop in this
State. Onions are largely raised for Eastern markets.

WASHINGTON TERRITORY.

Grasses and forage plants: Our grasses are blue-grass, red clover, alsike, timo:
thy, and orchard grass. The climate is so mild that all the grasses named do ex-
ceedingly well. Five acres of red clover yielded 15 tons of splendid hay at one cut.
ting. Could have cut nearly as much more, but preferred to use it for pasture,
Most of the grasses here remain green nearly all the year. Timothy, with wheat-
oats, and barley, is sown and cut for hay before ripe. We want grasses that will
suit our alkali soil and long summer droughts.

Grain: Rye, wheat, and barley are the principal grains. Winter wheat is sown
between the 15th of October and ist of November.

Vegetables; All kinds of vegetables grow well except peppers, egg-plant, and
other pends varieties, It rarely freezes deep enough to injure potatoes left in the
ground,

WISCONSIN.

Grasses and forage plants: Grass yields in ordinary seasons from 1 to 2 tons per
acre. Timothy, clover, red-top, millet, and Hungarian are the principal varieties.

Grain: Wisconsin is well adapted for growing all kinds of grain. Plowing is be-
gun early in April for small grains; in May for corn. Corn, oats, and barley are
the staple crops at this time. Burpee oats grow 6 feet high and are about ten days
earlier than others sown atthesame time. Surprise oats from the Department are
earlier and larger and yield more than our native oats. Winter wheat is raised to
asmall extent. Stock farming is the main stay. Amber cane is not raised to any
extent at present, as we have no sugar manufactories. ‘The eastern part of Wis-
consin is a fine section for wheat, oats, and barley.

Vegetables : The seeds received from the Department produced a fine crop, Me-
Lean’s advancer was first and best, and Laxton’s prolific peas did well and were of
fine flavor. Corn and potatoes are the principal and most profitable crop. Onions
are largely raised for city markets. Mangel-wurzel and rutabagas weigh as high as
13 pounds, beets 5 to 11 pounds, and cabbage 22 pounds. Cucumbers are a prolific
crop. In fact, the yield of all kinds of garden vegetables is an abundant one,

SEED DIVISION. ~ 67

In conclusion, I herewith append the following tabulated statement,
showing the quantity and kind of seed issued from the Seed Division
of the Agricultural Department, under the general apprupriation act
of Congress, from July 1, 1885, to June 30, 1886:

bvA PY es a Be | ae
he Boe : fae | 8
gu of | 2 eh
o % 2p _ R o nD $ = ay 2 5 n a
Description of seeds. a | wees 23 Ae zs Gea | 23 s
2 ES bob =e i) 2s palate hae aad
S o8g Ww So cS) | ins 3
oO eas AQ, DR one | (3) zs
= oS 5 co Fo 77) is o roHow| 12 |
a B2RQoO 3 3 z Be 5 5p g
- 7) a7) DR = <3) <4 do)
Vegetable .:............8.. 138 | 2,785,250 | 159,161 | 41,076 | 330,482 200 | 2,265 | 3,268, 434
IHU NMOUS ar narsisclses oe <ses\c 132 Press DOE | oisiaieisiels/dierell ob siaiaistns GBSOOL. [56 cst cle aratl| stars oiie are 337, 436
112105) obec berserndedodoneeas CONE Sot Hina d| ICU bSHEtCG anny. cere 51 BD liven aeren 96
PREPAC OG Ro sle'v'. 28. s\t\e%0 b5'c1 12 Ee Ot ac ORGOOOE 617 4,782 66 | 1,640 132, 057
JND2E lob Sept CapIeG OO OrEte 5 (|| Gibbs aca: 84 3, 892 170 7 5, 150
GBM Olyien: fee se ccies aster Dy |Risrare, sis: @s\ste ore saree ave erare efatciare see G45 oak See vei 300 1, 245
OQPIIMIPOPPY) fans. oo05 ons IBN fouseet siete cstetatet apa inrava craeraisicte Pee eie’s e.g LBA sinc teense | secmenes 13
PONLUITELEME ays ctvicleleSicie.c's susie yl aon Han coou mScUnE aobd uospeee 175 AG Nisa eee 221
White sage ..............5. Pulte 2.4K SamAeas Akos [Rae save UN ea Pia Uuom 920
FIELD SEEDS.
Vidi tere tinanepcoeenadeT ‘ il 10, 800 7,210 |..035 2,885 656 467 22, 018
MOSER trait Dates: clate aie igrels os\c.d'0 2 3, 156 619 47 1, 257 41 23 5, 143
(GUST hornoane opobeberOronbEe 3 9, 039 60 37 1, 488 59 146 10, 829
Tepid car Heda e go OOUOCHOE 1 10 BDU OBBedel longadcn 294 34 p 544
TEA Sonor OOBAAGECDODOBORE 1 0 f4 Waist acrid lbpddigaas 149 46 114 324
Sorphiyin ...2.6..56ckeciss. 2 PA i One eee Cee Ree 1,336 20 40 9,013
HNO NE COUP AAG BOLIGUEE 12 339, 684 50, 142 | 23,485 5,615 493 12 419, 431
Stigar beet tai ciscicsis.. 2 12, 288 2.466 | 2,146 1, 336 32 37 18, 305
Mangel-wurzel......... bis. PU GeHbo uBRene 1,208 |. csiasccs (2-1 BOUNOO AE he sls 1,925
GTARSU ORO sia heinc be: 4 TANGADN ee. cere 7 2,945 465 11 18,548
(O10 mic ty Rou dngsencpeoundedHre 2 3)4| Sourieonrue 74 990 136 11 1,594
WN conic see bop OOCnonHeE 2 143 629) | settee CT ERE Oe 1 97
Teosinte....... Wlagdiaiessieee® aD Pre ocdecercl coleese ebcljonocmeee Pte | jacine sae 398 695
Forage plants, imported. Of bebaddrovcdec P'S) ll ROAEe 922 822 975 4, 620

TEXTILE.

426, 251 2,871 | 7,039 | 4, 267,165

WM. M. KING,
Chief of Seed Division.
Hon. NoRMAN J. COLMAN,
Commissioner.

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REPORT OF THE BOTANIST.

Sir: There isin agriculture a conservative tendency to follow in the
beaten path of precedent. Hence it isthatsosmalla number of plants
are known in cultivation. Very few of the great mass of laborers can
afford the time for and the risk attending experiments on a large
scale, yet there are very few who cannot devote a little care to the trial
of new plants, especially in localities where the ordinary kinds do not
prove wholly satisfactory. For instance, the common red and white
clovers came to us from Kurope, and are almost the only kinds known
in cultivation, whereas we have many native species which seem to
~ have the qualities of hardiness, vigor, and size, which would probably
render them valuable for the purpose of cultivation.

In those parts of the country where these clovers occur it would
not be difficult for farmers or others to make an extended trial of one
or more of such kinds, and report the result to this Department or to
some agricultural paper for the benefit of others. Asa help to such
trials, we present herewith a paper on some promising native species
ot clovers, with such figures and descriptions as will serve to identify
them.

As much loss and injury to crops result from the presence of per-
nicious weeds, as a ane to their recognition and destruction, we pre-
sent a paper on some of the more important and common weeds of
cultivated grounds, with instructions as to the means of eradicating
them; this practical part of the information being from the pen of
Mr. A. A. Crozier, the Assistant Botanist.

A history of the Division of Botany and an account of its work is
also presented, for the information of the public and of all such as
are interested in knowing what are its purposes and aims.

HISTORY OF THE DIVISION.

Soon after the completion, in 1868, of the building for the Depart-
ment of Agriculture it was found necessary to have an experienced
Botanist to complete the working force of the Department. It was
recognized, also, that one of the first requisites for the use of the
Botanist was a herbarium, in which should be represented, as far
as possible, botanical specimens of all the plants of the country. An
appropriation for a Botanist was made by Congress, and an arrange-
ment was made between Hon. Horace Capron, then Commissioner of
Agriculture, and Prof. Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution, by which the botanical collections then in the possession
of that Institution were transferred to the Department of Agricult-
ure as a beginning toward the formation of an herbarium. Those
collections were chiefly made under various surveys and explorations
of the Government, as those of Commodore Wilkes, those of the
Mexican boundary, and of the Pacific Railroad surveys, together
with large contributions from foreign Governments. To these have
been since added the plants collected under the different Geological

(69)

70 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Surveys, and large quantities obtained by purchase from various
botanical collectors in lifferent parts of the country, and important
additions by exchanges and contributions.

The herbarium has now grown to be one of the largest and most
valuable in the country, and contains a representation of nearly all of
our 12,000 native phenogamous plants, as well as large numbers from
Mexico, South America, and other countries. These specimens aie
a necessity to the Botanist, in order that he may be able to distinguish
and determine the names of the plants which are constantly being
sent from all parts of the country to the Department for determina-
tion and investigation. It is, in fact, a kind of reference library, to
be consulted whenever occasion requires. Well prepared botanical
specimens are for purposes of comparison almost as useful as the liy-
ing plants, so that the herbarium gives nearly all the advantages of
an arboretum and botanical garden, accessible at all times, and much
fuller in species than it is possible to have a living collection. The
rapid development of this vast country is constantly bringing to light
new kinds of plants, respecting which information is sought, and
which has to be obtained through the medium of the herbarium.

The herbarium is also often consulted by teachers and professors
of science, who avail themselves of the opportunity here afforded of
studying plants from all parts of the United States. This advantage
is also participated in by educated foreigners, who, in visiting the
capital of the country, expect to find centered here a full represen-
tation of its various productions. Natural history collections are a
necessity of the present age, and every country of the world, which
is advanced in intelligence and science, makes its capital the head-
quarters for information relating to its resources and productions,
thus fostering that spirit of research to which the progress of the
world is so much indebted.

EXPOSITION WORK.

In 1876 the various Departments of the Government were called
upon to contribute toward making a suitable display of their func-
tions and operations at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition. As
a proper representation of the work of the Botanical Division the
Botanist made an extensive exhibit of large sections of the various
kinds of forest trees of this country, embracing between 300 and 400
different species, brought from all portions of the Union, the largest
and best display of the kind that had ever been made in the United
States, This collection was afterward returned to the Department
and subdivided into smaller sets, most of which were distributed to
our agricultural colleges and institutions of learning, and to foreign
Governments which desired them.

The division has also been called upon to assist in making displays
at other important expositions, as at Louisville, Cincinnati, and New
Orleans, particularly at the last-named city, where a large collection
of the grasses of the United States was displayed, intended to show
how extensive are the resources of the country in this important ele-
ment of wealth,

WORK ON GRASSES,

Investigations of the grasses of the country have been conducted for
many years by the Botanist, with the purpose of bringing to view and
into cultivation new kinds which might prove useful additions to the

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. val

agriculture of the country. In connection with this subject several
special reports on our native grasses have been published by the De-
partment and distributed among farmers and others. The principal
of these reports, called the ‘‘Agricultural Grasses of the United States,
with their chemical composition,” is a pamphlet of 144 pages, with
120 full-page plates,

Another, entitled a ‘‘ Descriptive Catalogue of the Grasses of the
United States,” containing 110 pages, was published in connection
with the grass display at the New Orleans Exposition,

Recently a special bulletin, or report of an investigation of the
grasses of the arid districts of Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, has
been issued,

There is yet urgent need for investigation of our native grasses,
particularly in the line of thorough and protracted experiments, to
determine their productiveness and adaptation to peculiar climatic
conditions,

In a country so extensive as ours, embracing such a variety of soil,
surface, and climate, it cannot be expected that any one kind of grass
‘will be adapted to cultivation in all situations. But private experi-
ments of the kind needed are attended with much expense, and very
few persons have the means or the time to prosecute them. But itis
in the power of the Government to conduct investigations which will
natin result in greatly extending our agricultural resources and
contribute to the happiness and wealth of the people. Particularl
in the arid regions of the West new kinds of grasses are needed,
adapted to the peculiar conditions there existing.

We present here, from a mass of correspondence, extracts to illus-
trate the nature of the inquiries which are constantly received by this
Department,

A correspondent writes from Alabama as follows:

T find in this vicinity a grass growing about residences and along roadsides, in
bunches and patches, the value of which I would like to learn more about. From
the places where I find it it would seem to be an important grass just getting a start in
our lands. It grows well under trees, and in the shade Soualle; as well as in the
open ground, and, owing to the number and strength of its roots, it grows in hard
and dry grounds. I find it green now, after an unusually long drought, when almost
all other grasses are burned up. Its rooting capacity is very great; a man can only

pull up a small bundle with his hands, 1 wish to know what is the name of the
grass, and its probable value as a grazing grass,

The grass referred to was the Sporobolus Indicus, described on
page 50 of the “Agricultural Grasses of the United States,” and fig-
ured on plate 50, It deserves attention from Southern farmers.

From ‘Texas comes the following:

Isend you herewith a package of grass for which I have no name, This grass I
consider the most valuable of all the grasses that Iam acquainted with. It is per-
ennial and grows here all the year round, furnishing excellent green feed for stock
at all seasons of the year, eh that the green blades freeze in our very coldest
weather, perhaps two or three times a winter, and then they grow out again in a
few days. It increases rapidly from seeds, and also reproduces itself from suckers,
which sprout from the nodes of the culm after the first crop of seeds ripens. I have
seen these suckers remain green six or eight weeks after the old stalk was as dead
and dry as any hay, and then they take root and form new plants, It grows well in
all kinds of dryland. The plants from roots from one to two or three years old form
large stools from 12 to 18 inches across and have very strong roots, and grow in the
longest drought almost as fast as when it rains. I am anxious to prove which are
the most valuable grasses for cultivation, because I am confident that they are des-
tined to become one of our most profitable crops.

The grass mentioned was Paspalum dilatatum, which is highly

72 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

recommended for cultivation in the South. It is described in the
*‘Acricultural Grasses of the United States,” at page 24.
Another, writing from California, says:

I find that there is an intense desire among farmers here to obtain a grass capa-
ble of resisting the intense heats of our summers, and also, if possible, one that
should grow on poor soil. There is no grass known here that will thrive through the

summers and autumns, affording grazing for cattle during that period. If such
could be had it would simply revolutionize California agriculturally, as many dis-
tricts are fast becoming worthless for want of some such resource. This arises from
the system of continuous wheat cropping, to which the land has been subjected for
the last thirty years without relief from rotation of crops, so indispensable to proper
farming.

A correspondent, of Lampasas County, Texas, writes:

The Texas blue-grass, which you recommended, I have.found in my yard. I ob-
served it closely last winter, not knowing what kind it was until it bloomed. Now
it has spread, by means of underground stolons, until I have quite a quantity of it.
Lalso found it growing luxuriantly in the Colorado bottoms, about 20 miles from
here. It spreads very rapidly, almost equal to Bermuda or curly mesquite. This, I
think, is just the grass I have been looking for. "We want grasses that will take care
of themselves, and I think Bermuda for summer and Texas blue-grass for winter
will answer every purpose. Of native grasses we have two kinds that excel all
others. One is Buchle dactyloides, known as curly mesquite, running mesquite, fine
mesquite, and buffalo-grass. It is a good summer grass and fair for winter, as it is
only partially killed by frost. The other grass is the Stipa setigera, known as bunch
mesquite, winter mesquite, and big-bearded mesquite. It is, pre-eminently, the win-
ter grass of a large portion of Texas, but of no value for summer. It is biennial, but
usually thought to be perennial. This grass is found with the live-oak. For culti-
vated land Johnson grass, alfalfa, and Texas millet succeed well here. The Texas
millet (Panicum Texanwm) is undoubtedly the finest forage grass in existence.
Horses, cattle, and sheep prefer it to any other kind of hay. It is a sure crop, and
produces 2 or 3 tons per acre.

From Camden, Del., we have the following:

Inclosed please find a sample of what is here called an air plant. We have always
been finding small patches of a few square yards in our clover fields, but that
amounted to nothing, but in a lucerne patch it is very destructive. My own hay
this year was absolutely unfit for bedding for stock. As the man who cut it re-
marked, you could stand at one end of the lot and move the grass at the other, so
completely was it matted. I suppose it must have come in seed procured in Cali-
fornia. How is the plant disseminated? What is it? Is there any prevention or
remedy ?

The plant spoken of above is a species of dodder (botanically, Cus-
cuta). It is a parasite, which first germinates in the ground and
sends up a slender stalk, which attaches itself at once to green plants
in its neighborhood, and thereafter draws its support from them by
means of small suckers, which adhere closely to the surface. There
are many species of dodder, some of which are parasitic upon only
one particular kind of plant, as the flax dodder, the clover dodder,
&c. In California there has been much trouble in fields of alfalfa
from the presence of a kind of dodder, which, it is stated, was intro-
duced with alfalfa seed from Chili, and this is probably the kind
above complained of. The only prevention of the pest is to make
sure of sowing only pure seed. The cure, when it gets into a field,
will consist in cutting the crop before the dodder matures any seed,
and repeating the process as long as the dodder makes its appearance.

From Chicago, Ill., comes the following inquiry:

I have heard of a strong-growing beach-grass that they have used with success in
staying the shifting sand-dunes in the north part of Germany and Holland. We
have some similar land at the south end of Lake Michigan on which we would like
to experiment, if we knew the kind of seed and where to get it; something with
strong roots, that would grow in pure sand, surviving strong winds and winter
storms, would be a blessing to a large section of this country.

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. 73

There are several grasses employed in Europe for the purposes
above indicated, but chiefly the one which is botanically called Am-
mophila arundinacea. \t grows on the seacoast in Kurope, and
also in North America. It has no agricultural value, being quite too
coarse for food for cattle, But the widely creeping and matted root-
stocks serve to bind the sands and resist the encroachment of the
waves. This grass has also been used at Provincetown, or Cape Cod,
for the above purpose, and the harbor at that place was long pre-
served from destruction by the care which was taken in setting out
this grass, through a committee appointed for that purpose.

A correspondent from Walsh County, Dakota, says:

The question of what is the best variety of grass to replace the native grasses,
which are fast disappearing in this country, is one of vital importance tous. Clover
has been a failure with us thus far; the frost destroys it so effectually that not a
blade can be seen in the spring. Timothy has been only partially successful; a fair
crop has been obtained the first year, but the second year it appears to get choked
out by weeds and foul stuff. What we need is some variety that will stand the
severe frosts of winter, produce a good crop of hay, and make a good, permanent
- pasture.

There is a very great and important necessity, not only for Dakota
but for many other portions of the country, that experimental sta-
tions should be established for the testing of all kinds of grass and
forage plants, in order to obtain such for cultivation as are proven
to be adapted to the existing circumstances.

From Uvalde, Tex.:

Inclosed find a stalk of a wild grass which has made its appearance in Western
Texas within a few years. It is a perennial grass, comes up in early spring and
matures about the middle of May. It seems to be adapted to this dry climate.

This is a native grass, growing in most of the Southern States, in
Texas, and extending west to California. In California it is known
as California timothy, but is not there esteemed of much agricult-
ural value. In the Southern States it has been cultivated to some
extent, and is known in some localities as Gilbert’s relief grass.
Doctor Phares says that Mr. Stewart, of Louisiana, prefers this grass
to others which he has tested, for quantity and quality, for winter and
spring grazing, and for soiling for milch cows. There is much favor-
able testimony respecting the grass in the South, and it is deserving
of extended cultivation.

Again, from Texas:

We send you this day, by mail, a bundle of grass. It is a true winter grass,
coming up with the fall rains in October and November; is fine pasture all winter
for horses, cows, sheep, hogs, &c. No freeze affects it here whatever. Seed ripens
in April; it dies in May, and remains so until fall. Stock do not seem to relish it
much until after frost. It forms avery thick mat or sod, and is spreading fast
over our grounds. It kills out weeds that usually come up in the spring. Such a
grass is worth millions to Texas for winter pasturage.

This is Bromus unioloides, which is sometimes called rescue grass,
or Schrader’s grass. A full account of it is given in the “‘Agricult-
ural Grasses of the United States.” Respecting this grass also an-
other Texas correspondent says:

Inasmuch as Western Texas is the great stock-raising section of the Southwest
and considering the fact that pasturage is scanty, particularly in February, thus
stunting the growth of young cattle, this grass seems wonderfully adapted to supply
just what is greatly wanted, both for milch cows, calves, colts, and ewes; and, be-
sides, it grows well on the thinnest soil and crowds out weeds, while not interfering
the native mesquite. I therefore regard it as a wonderful and most important

overy.

74. REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

From Putnam County, Arizona, we have the following :

This country contains millions of acres of land that seems adapted to no other
earthly purpose than grazing, but the grass is so thin upon the ground that it takes
many acres to maintain one cow, and cattle must be distributed very thinly along
the water-fronts in order to have them thrive, because when feed is scarce they are
obliged to travel too far, and are, consequently, poor in flesh and stunted in growth,
whereas if all the land was well seeded to thrifty grass the same land could maintain
three times as many cattle. We want to know if there are not some kinds of
imported grasses that are good for our purpose, and that will grow in our climate,
between 32° and 35° north latitude on the Pacific Slope. There isin this latitude rain
only twice a year. The land is fertile, but lacks the proper kinds of grass to furnish
sufficient pasturage, Are there not some kinds which might be imported from
Arabia, or some country with a similar climate, which would be an improvement?

There are millions of acres of arid lands, of the character of the
above described, for which the great need is the establishment of ex-
periment stations in the arid districts, where many kinds of grasses
and forage plants could be thoroughly tested on a large scale and
under skillful and intelligent managers. Such experimentation
would, undoubtedly, result in important practical benefits.

A correspondent, of Taylor County, Texas, writes as follows:

I have a body of land lying north of Fort Worth, in the black, sandy soil, also
another in the Panhandle country, along the Upper Red River, among the red
lands, which I am improving for agricultural and stock-raising purposes, I desire
to obtain information as to what are, or would be, the best grasses for these regions,
as the short, curly mesquite and sedge-grasses which abound, while being very nu-

tritious are not of sufficient growth, and are not suitable for hay-making, nor will
they support the number of stock to the acre that the soil would warrant.

Such inquiries as the above can only be partially answered at the
present time for the want of proper investigations and experiments.
By devoting a portion of the land to the cultivation of summer crops
of such grasses as Hungarian, Texas millet, and sorghum it could be
made safe to keep twice the quantity of stock, Atthe same time ex-
periments should be made with permanent grasses, such as Johnson
grass, Texas blue-grass, orchard-grass, and any others that give
promise of utility, including even some of the thriftier and more pro-
ductive native grasses of the region, as blue-joint and some of the
Panicums.

From Savannah, Ga., we have the following:

In your ‘‘ Descriptive Catalogue of the Grasses of the United States,” page 11, itis
stated that Panicum maximum (Guinea-grass), seldom matures seed in this country,
and is usually propagated by division of the roots, and that it is too tender to be cul-
tivated, except in the very warmest portions of our country. Doctor Phares, in his
valuable book of grasses, states that whenever it has had proper care the crop is
enormous, and in Jamaica, where it is cultivated extensively, it is held next to sugar
in value of crop, and that the roots are easily killed by frost and must be protected
in winter. For the information of your Department I beg to state that specimens
of this grass have been growing in a garden here for several years; that the roots are
uninjured by our frosts, and that the plants have borne seeds freely, and have been
extensively propagated from these seeds.

Probably this valuable grass will prove hardy in the southern por-
tion of the Gulf States and throughout Ilorida,
A correspondent from Missouri sends a specimen of plant, and says:

This morning a gentleman brought me a ape 4 of a plant he found in a garden
here that he suspects to be the Canada thistle. I inclose it for your inspection. We
have considerable excitement about the Canada thistle, as many farmers are afraid
it will get introduced. We have a law against allowing it to grow, and I am the
prosecuting attorney, and wish to have information in regard to it,

In this case the plant sent was what is called sow-thistle, an annual
spiny-leaved plant, but easily killed, and not inclined to spread.

‘REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. 75

The introduction of the Canada thistle may well be dreaded in any

agricultural district.

From Inyo County, California, a correspondent writes:

Our cattle often eat something that is poisonous, and I am inclined to think that
the plant I send herewith is that which poisoned them. The cattle swell up and
die soon after eating the poison.

The plant sent was a species of Cymopterus, of low growth, akin
to what is called poison parsley, but of its properties we know little.
The same kind is frequently sent from Idaho and Wyoming, with
the same complaint of its poisonous character. It makes its appear-
ance early in the spring, before grass has become plentiful, and cattle
eat it from hunger and not from choice. It is so abundant that its
extermination would be difficult. If cattle were well provided with
hay or fodder they probably would not touch it. Probably it pro-
duces hoven, like the effect of over-feeding on green clover, —

From Bakersfield, Cal,, comes the following respecting a poisonous
plant known there as ‘‘loco”:

It prevails quite abundantly over an extent of 150 square miles in this valley, and,
‘Iam informed, is found in other valleys of the State, and alsoin Arizona. This year
the army-worm and a minute insect, which destroys the seeds, have killed a great
deal of it; but, if not molested, it will soon flourish to as great an extent as ever.
I think very few, if any, animals eat the loco at first from choice; but, as it resists
the drought until other food is scarce, they are at first starved to it, and, after eat-
ing it a short time appear to prefer it to anything else. Cows are poisoned by it as
well as horses, but it takes more of it to affect them. It is also said to poison sheep.
As I have seen its action on the horse, the first symptom of the poisoning is halluci-
nation. When led or ridden up to some little obstruction, such as a rail or bar,
lying in the road, he stops short, and, if urged, leaps as though it were 4 feet high.
Next he is seized with fits of mania, in which he is quite uncontrollable, and some-
times dangerous. He rears, sometimes even falling backward, runs or gives several
leaps forward, and generally falls. His eyes are rolled upward until only the white
can be seen, which is strongly injected, and, as he sees nothing, he is as apt to leap
against a wall or a man as in any other direction, Anything that excites him ap-
pears to induce the fits, which I think are more apt to occur when crossing water
than elsewhere, and the animal sometimes falls so exhausted as to drown in water
not over 2 feet deep. He loses flesh from the first, and sometimes presents the ap-

earance of a walking skeleton. In the next and last stage he only goes from the
oco to water and back; his gait is feeble and uncertain; his eyes are sunken, and
have a flat, glassy look, and his coat is rough and lusterless. In general, the animal
appears to perish from starvation and constant excitement of the nervous system,
but sometimes appears to suffer acute pain, causing him to expend his strength in
running wildly trom place to place, pawing and rolling, until he falls and dies ina
few minutes.

We inyite further information from those acquainted with the
plant and its poisonous qualities.

The plants sent were those of Astragalus lentiginosus, locally called
*‘rattle-weed” and ‘‘loco.” It belongs to the order Leguminose, and
is somewhat similar to lucern in appearance, and produces bladdery
pods, in which the seeds rattle when ripe. Hence the name ‘‘rattle-
weed,”

In Colorado and New Mexico the same disease among horses and
cattle is produced by the Astragalus mollissimus and other allied
plants, The losses of stock from the eating of these plants has been
very great.

From Wellborn, Fla.:

Inclosed I send you, for identification, a forage plant called here “‘ beggar-weed.”
It is a nuisance in our cotton fields, yet all our planters are anxious to get it into
their fields. It grows from 1 to 6 or 8 feet high. All kinds of stock eat it with greedi-
ness and fatten on it, and can work daily with nothing else. It has large, spread-

ing roots, and I think it would enrich the ground as much as clover if plowed under.
Persons sometimes go 20 miles to strip the seed to get a start.

76 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

This plant is a species of Desmodium, several kinds of which grow
throughout the country, and are commonly called ‘‘ beggar-lice,” from
their appearance and from adhering tenaciously to the clothing of
passers-by. The species sent would not probably be hardy in the
Northern States.

From Gainesville, Fla. :

Vanilla beans are quoted in New York at from $7 to $12 per pound wholesale.
Can you inform me if the climate and soil of Florida are adapted to their growth?”

From Tucson, Ariz. :

During the past year I have discovered tobacco growing wild in the mountains of
Arizona. Have you any record of the existence of wild tobacco in this region?

Several species of wild tobacco were cultivated by the Indians.
One species (Nicotiana rustica) was cultivated by the Indians in
New Mexico and Arizona, as observed by Dr. Ed. Palmer. Another
species (Nicotiana quadrivalvis) was cultivated by the Indians from
Missouri to Oregon. One or two other species are recorded as having
been cultivated in California.

From Philadelphia, Pa.:

I wish to utilize a strong, white fiber which is furnished by the plant called
‘*bear-grass,” which grows in the Southern States. Todo so economically and profit-
ably requires that the plant should be found in large quantities in some particular
locality. Can you inform me of any place where it grows in sufficient quantity for
that purpose?

From Savannah, Ga.:

Can you give me the botanical name and description of the inclosed plant? It
grows in a wild state in Brooks County, Georgia, and is known among the negroes
as ‘‘poor man’s salve,” and a wonderful efficacy is claimed for it in curing old sores
and indolent ulcers.

The plant is a species of Croton, which grows commonly in the
Southern and Western States.

From Norfolk, Va.:

I send a few cork-oak acorns, grown on a tree produced from an acorn planted
about 1860 or 1861. The original acorns came from Washington Patent Office, I
think, and being planted just before the war were neglected, and only three of the
five have lived, and they being too close together to develop. The largest tree is
about 14 inches in diameter and about 20 feet high. This is the first year I have
ever seen acorns. Thecork is about 14 to 2 inches thick, and too porous for use.

A large quantity of these cork-oak acorns were distributed in the
Southern States about the time mentioned above and many of them
grew. Reports concerning such have been received from South Car-
olina and Georgia, where trees are probably still growing. No bark
has yet been produced of sufficient thickness and compactness to be
serviceable for the manufacture of corks.

From Titusville, Fla. :

I send you a package containing a plant that is said to be the best known specific
for dysentery and all bowel complaints. It is said to be an old-time remedy in

the Southern States. It is called ‘‘ flux-weed.” I will be thankful if you will give
me the name and medical properties of the plant.

This is Galium hispidulum, a low, spreading plant of the order
Rubiacee. We have no knowledge of its medicinal properties.

From Texas:

I inclose a plant called ‘‘ Indian blood-weed.” Please identify and classify for me.
It grows mostly along the foot of the ‘‘red hills” (which are ranges of flat hills con-
taining iron). It was used by the Indians for purifying the blood and curing skin
diseases. I have seen it used by the settlers and herders, who made a tea of it,
which in all cases proves beneficial in curing sores or skin diseases in a short time.

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. fi

The plant referred to is a species of Ephedra, a singular looking,
leafless, or nearly leafiess, shrub, growing In the southwestern arid
districts. It is a popular remedy in those regions, and probably has
active properties. —

From West Virginia:

Isend you aspecimen of shrub which grows in mountainous situations in this
State, and which is called mountain-tea. It is used as a substitute for ordinary tea
of commerce, and is said to be as pleasant and agreeable to the taste as that article.
Please inform me of, its botanical name.

The plant is botanically called Comptonia asplenifolia, growing
abundantly in the Northern States, where it is called “‘sweet-fern.”
There are a number of other substitutes for tea employed in differ-
ent parts of the country, as, Ceanothus americanus, or New Jersey
tea; Sida stipulata, a small malvaceous plant; [lex cassine, the black
tea of South Carolina, and others.

From Burnet County, Texas:

This day I send you by mail a species of a grass which is our best forage plant for
_ winter pasture. It grows rapidly all winter, and is ready to go to seed in April.
Stock of all kinds are very fond of it. It is never killed or even injured by cold in
the winter. The seeds are large enough to be ground, and probably would make
good breadstuff. Please let me know the name of the grass.

The grass is Bromus unioloides, a native of Texas and the South-
west, and is undoubtedly one of the most valuable of grasses for win-
ter pasturage in that region.

From an Army officer in Montana, transmitted by the Quarter-
master-General: ;

I have the honor to send herewith samples of a weed found among the wild-grass
hay delivered here under current contracts. In small quantity it appears to do no
harm, but when present in greater amount among hay cut in creek bottoms, par-
ticularly in swampy spots, it causes griping and spasmodic action in the legs, fol-
lowed by looseness in the bowels and general weakness. Mules and horses avoid
eating it as much as possible, but farmers assert that cows do not mind it and eat it
with impunity. I would be glad to have the name and character of the plant deter-
mined.

The plant sent with this communication proved to be Smilacina
stellata, a common plant in mountainous regions, especially in the
Northern States and Rocky Mountains. It is related to the Conval-
laria or the lily of the valley, so called in cultivation. We have no
previous record of the peculiar properties noted in the above instance.

From Ennis, Tex:

Inclosed we send you a twig of a shrub which abounds on some of the hills of
Central Texas, and is commonly known as prickly currant. As you will observe,
it resembles holly, and we think it must belong to the same family. Will you
kindly determine its botanical name, and let us know at your earliest convenience?

The specimen sent belongs to a species of barberry peculiar to Texas
and the Southwest, the botanical name of which is Berberis trifol-
vata. The leaves are thick and spiny-toothed, somewhat like the
holly, but much smaller. The bush, which is 3 or 4 feet high, is very
spiny, and has bunches of red fruit somewhat like the currant in
appearance.

From Fremont County, Wyoming:

_ Please let me know if you have or if there is any grass seed such as will grow
in this climate. The climate is dry and the altitude high, and in the summer months
there is a scarcity of water; consequently we cannot raise hay, and wild grass, by
being pastured so much, seems to grow shorter every year. The soil is good, but

sandy. We want a grass that will grow in such a climate and make a good hay,
even by irrigating in the spring as long as water lasts.

78 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

From a seed-merchant, Chicago, IIL:

Kindly name the inclosed specimen, and let me know what it is as soon as pos-
sible.

From Spartanburg, 8. C.:

I send you herewith a pod of a plant growing in this State having an abundance
of fine, silky hairs attached to the seed. I would like to know if this fine delicate

fiber can be utilized in any way. I think the plant also possesses medicinal prop-
erties, and would be glad to know if such is the case.

The pod belongs to a kind of milkweed, botanically called ‘‘Ascle-
pias tuberosa,” or, popularly, ‘‘pleurisy root,” because it is employed
in cases of pleurisy and other diseases. The silky fibers of the seeds
‘are like those of all the milkweeds, of which there is a large number
of species, and the inquiry as to its economic use is often made;
but, although very delicate and beautiful, it lacks tenacity, and can-
not be spun by itself into a thread.

From Florida:

We are alarmed here at the appearance in our fields and orange groves of what is
called ‘‘nut-grass,” and which bids fair to double our labor in cultivation, Tearing
up by the roots and even sifting the soil have proved of no avail in getting rid of it,

May I beg that you will indicate as soon as possible the best and quickest means for
its destruction?

The nut-grass, or coca as it is also called, is one of the worst pests
of agricultureinthe South. The botanical name is Cyperus rotundus.
Mr. Elliott, in his ‘‘ Botany of South Carolina and Georgia,” says of
this sedge:

It is becoming a great scourge to our planters. It shoots from the base of its stem
a threadlike fiber, which descends perpendicularly from 6 to 18 inches, and then
produces a small tuber. From this horizontal fibers extend in every direction, pro-
ducing new tubers at intervals of 6 to 8 inches, and these immediately shoot up
stems to the surface of the earth and throw out lateral fibers to form a new prog-
eny. This process is interminable, and it is curious to see what a chain or net-
work of plants and tubers can with some care be dug up in loose soil. The only
process yet discovered by which this grass can be extirpated is to plow or hoe the
spots in which it grows every day through a whole season. In their perpetual efforts
to throw their leaves to the ight the roots become exhausted and perish, or if a few
appear the next spring they can easily be dug up. This experiment has been suc-
cessfully tried by John McQueen, esq., of Chatham County, Georgia,

This account was written more than sixty years ago. The method
given for destroying the pest is applicable to the present time, and
is perhaps as good as any one known.

From editor of the Courier-Journal, Louisville, Ky.:

Inclosed we hand you a specimen of a plant received from a correspondent at

Salem, N. C. Please name it for us, and give any information which there may be
about it of any special interest.

From the commissioner of agriculture for Georgia:

I will be obliged to you if you will name the grass of which IT inclose a speci-
men, stating its economic value. The grass grows in bunches in fence corners,
stems from 5 to 7 feet high, leaves from 8 to 12 inches long. It is sent to me from
Washington County in this State,

FOREIGN INQUIRIES, ETC,

From the Government Botanical Gardens at Saharamper, North-
western India:

Tam just now studying the grasses of Northern India with special reference to
their relative value for forage or fodder, and as many of our best kinds occur also
in America, the information given in your book (‘The Agricultural Grasses of the

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. 719

United States’) is of very great value. In Upper India we have extensive tracts
(called usar land) devoid of cultivation, owing to an excess of saline ingredients in
the soil (salts of soda). There are two or three kinds of grass which apparently
thrive in such soil, one of which, called ‘‘usar grass” (Sporobolus tenacissimus), rep-
resents the only vegetation over extensive areas of this usar land; the other grasses
which affect usar in less abundance are Hragrostis ciliaris and EH. cynosuroides,
The Sporobolus appears to be a good fodder grass, as it is greedily eaten by cattle.
I can not help thinking that it would be well worth while trying to introduce from
other countries any species known to thrive in saline soil, and I should be extremely
obliged if you could put me in the way of obtaining the seed of such kinds.

The usar grass above referred to is, according to a figure of the plant
in “‘Illustrations of the Forage Grasses of Northwestern India,” very
closely related to our Sporobolus cryptandrus, which abounds on
the arid plains of the West.

From Timaru, New Zealand:

Noticing in an Australian paper an account of some of your native grasses, which
would seem to be desirable to add to present varieties in New Zealand, I take the
liberty of writing youupon the subject. Unfortunately our native grasses are nearly
all delicate, fine annuals, which disappear before heavy stocking. The prevailing
grass or tussock (Poa australis) is a wiry, hard grass, that yields no feed except when

‘ burned in spring and the tender, green shoots spring up. Thereafter it becomes a
hard, wiry bunch-grass, that sheep never eat, and seems to serve for shelter to the
finer sorts. There appears plenty to eat, but sheep do not touch it unless starvation
drives them. Cultivation has driven out the native grasses, and those sorts com-
mon to England are in use here. We want varieties which might thrive here. The
only one yet that does is Kentucky blue-grass.

From Prussia, Europe:

I have for a number of years been experimenting with various plants at the Agri-
cultural Institute of the Halle University, and would like to do the same with the
native buffalo-grass of the United States, which is illustrated and described in the
Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the year 1880. I have not
been able to get the seed in Europe.

RELATION TO OTHER BRANCHES OF THE DEPARTMENT.

The natural sciences are intimately related to and dependent on each
other. The plants which are the care of the Botanist are often sub-
ject to the destructive depredations of insect foes, and the aid of the
Entomologist has to be obtained to learn the name and history of such
insects. Again, the Botanist and the intelligent cultivator of plants
find that insects have much to do with the fertilization of plants, and
that without their aid, in many cases, the production of fruit would
be much diminished. or entirely fail; in other words, success in cer-
tain crops is largely dependent on the good offices of these insect
friends. In such instances as these botany and entomology come into
close connection,

The Chemist is often required to make an analysis of plants or veg-
etable products having medicinal or poisonous properties, and he finds
it important to know the name, botanical character, and affinities of
such plants or products, and for that purpose calls in the aid of the
Botanist. The Ornithologist may be pursuing investigations into the

-food habits of birds to ascertain which are granivorous, and which are
insectivorous. He finds that he needs the assistance of the Botanist
in identifying the seeds and grains which he finds in the stomachs of
his birds.

Thus each division of the Department is an aid to the other, and the
development of each is required not only for its own work, but also
for the aid which it may furnish the others. The following statement

t

80 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

from the Division of Entomology indicates how botany aids that
sc1ence:

Very frequently insects are sent to the Division of Entomology for determination
and report, accompanied by specimens of their food-plants. The latter are fre-
quently in a fragmentary condition, and when known to the sender are known only
by some local name. In such cases as this it is our custom to consult the Botanist,
and the information which we obtain from him is of material aid to our own divis-
ion. The two divisions are, in fact, closely related in their work.

The Chemist states as follows:

The relations of the Botanical to the Chemical Division are of the most important
nature. A large part of the plant material which is sent to the Chemist must be
accurately identified by the Botanist before being submitted to analysis, in order
that there may be no doubt as to the exact species examined. The data are thus
preserved for the future and accurately fixed as relating to some particular plant
On the other hand, this identification prevents the repetition of an analysis, by mak
ing it possible to search for previous analyses of the known species in hand.

In studies of the adaptability of plants to climatic condition the Chemist and Bota-
nist work hand in hand, and in all the analytical investigations which are under-
taken by the Chemical Division the confidence that their results are applied in the
right places is due to the certainty derived from the identifications of the Botanist.

Asan example of the manner in which the two divisions work together may be
cited the studies at present being made of one of the prickly pears of Texas, which
is attracting attention as of value for stock. The Botanist’s knowledge as to the
growth and distribution of the plant and his observations of its habits of growth
are a necessary complement to the chemical study of its food value.

With an increased force the fields which the Botanical Division might enter in
conjunction with the Chemical would be numerous.

The relations of the Botanical to the Seed Division are becoming
increasingly important. In the purchase of seeds for distribution
the Botanist’s knowledge of the natural habits of a plant is essential
to the determination of its probable agricultural value. Some of the
native grasses investigated by the Botanist have been introduced into
cultivation through the Seed Division, and further work of the kind
is needed to supply the demand for grasses adapted to different parts
of thecountry. Every year the aid of the Botanist is required to de-
termine the purity of seeds purchased by the Seed Division for dis-
tribution.

The relation of the Botanical to the Horticultural Division is too
obvious to require mention. The greenhouses and grounds are a
constant source of supplies to the herbarium, and each division is an
aid to the other in many ways.

INVESTIGATION OF FUNGOUS DISEASES.

At the last Congress an appropriation was made for the investiga-
tion of the fungous diseases of plants, such as mildew, smut, blight,
grape-rot, potato-rot, &c., and for experiments necessary to deter-
mine suitable remedies for those diseases. The mycological section
has accordingly been organized, and is conducting investigations
in this line of work which will, it is hoped, result in great good, by
preventing the immense losses which farmers and horticulturists are
subject to by the frequent occurrence of those diseases. Special bul-
letins on the subject will be published for general distribution.

DIRECTIONS TO CORRESPONDENTS.

In order that the division may be more useful to those who consult
it, the following directions regarding plants for identification are
inserted. Plants are often received by the Botanist for name in so

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. 81

imperfect a state that the desired information cannot be given.
Additions to the herbarium are constantly being made of even
ordinary plants, for the purpose of exchange, &c., and when not
of further use to the sender specimens sent are often added to the
herbarium, and it is desirable to have them suitable for the purpose.

PERFECT SPECIMENS.

Not every plant can be recognized at sight even by botanists; but
any plant which has been described and named can be identified if
perfect specimens are furnished. In the case of new plants, which
are still occasionally found, it is especially important to have good
specimens, in order that they may be classified and named.

Sometimes perfect specimens cannot be obtained at the time infor-
mation is wanted. In such cases whatever can be had wee be sent
and may prove sufficient, but as full a description as possible should
be given of the parts not obtainable.

_ A perfect specimen includes all parts of the plant or samples of all

parts, though some parts are more important in identification than
others. The flower is the part usually most essential; any other part
can better be wanting than this, and in most cases this is furnished.
With all plants, however, the fruit is also important, and many cannot
be determined without it. Dry fruits require less care in preparation
than flowers, are less likely to be injured, and are more easily exam-
ined. Notwithstanding these facts, the specimens received at the
herbarium from both botanists and others are much more frequently
defective in the fruits than in the flowers. The leaves are always im-
portant and are seldom omitted, but inmany herbs the radical leaves,
or those from the base of the stem, differ in form from the others,
and these are not always furnished.

In some plants certain parts are more important for identification
than the same parts in other plants. With herbs it is important to
know whether they are annual, biennial, or perennial. To determine
this requires the root as well as stem. If this is not furnished, the
duration of the plant should be stated. With sedges it is essential to
have the full-grown fruit, though desirable to have the flowers also.
The habit of growth in sedges, whether singly or in tufts, is a dis-
tinctive character, which the specimens should show. With grasses
it will usually be sufficient to gather specimens soon after flowering,
though if some be in flower and others ripe it is better. The difficulty
with fully-ripe grasses is the liability of the seeds and chaff to scatter.
The rooting portions of grasses should also be furnished, as this is
especially important in determining their agricultural value.

PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS.

It is not necessary to have living specimens for identification. Prop-
erly dried plants are nearly as good. They can be more easily and
safely transported, and may be examined at any time. If dried
quickly under pressure, in the manner of herbarium specimens, they
retain essentially their original shape, something of their color, and
do not become brittle, as when dried in the open air.

In drying, the plants should be placed between folds of absorbent
paper (newspaper will answer) and subjected to a pressure of 25 to 50
pounds, according to nature of the specimens and the amount under
pressure. As the papers become damp the plants should be removed

6 AG—’86

82 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

‘to fresh ones. This should at first be done as often as once a day.
If considerable paper is used the plants will require to be changed less
frequently and will be less likely to become discolored if neglected.

Plants should be gathered when dry, and preferably in dry weather.
In the collection of specimens botanists commonly carry drying pa-
pers into the field and place the plants in them as soon as gathered,
holding them in place by straps. When this is not convenient a tin
collecting case is often used, which keeps the plants from wilting
until they can be placed in the drying papers. A very good substi-
tute for such a case is ordinary paper, in which the plants may be
wrapped as gathered. In placing the plants in the papers to dry,
have but one kind on a sheet, and place with it at once a label bearing
the date and place of collection, with the name, if known, and any
other particulars desired. Fleshy plants will need to be divided to
dry properly, and thick specimens to prevent them occupying too
much space. Seeds may be placed in an envelope and deposited with
the remainder of the plant.

SOME NATIVE CLOVERS.

aan are in the United States 40 species of native clovers (Trifo-
wum).

The larger number of these belong to the Pacific side of the conti-
nent, and to Utah, Idaho, and Montana; a few species belong to Texas
and the Southern States, two or three of which extend northward in
the States adjacent to the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.

None of our native species have been cultivated so far as is known,
although several of them are of as large and vigorous growth as the
common red clover, and are worthy of trial, as they may prove bet-
ter adapted to some soils than that species. We give descriptions and
figures of the most promising ones, and suggest that in the sections
where they grow they should be subjected to experiment.

Trifolium fucatum.

This is one of the largest and strongest growing of our native kinds,
and is found on the Pacific coast. Under favorable circumstances it
attains a height of 2 to 3 feet. The stem is decumbent, smooth, thick,
and juicy. ‘The stipules at the base of the leaf are half an inch to an
inch long, ovate, broad, and clasping the stem. The leaves are trifol-
ate, with stems or petioles 3 to 6 inches long; the leaflets vary from
roundish or oblong to obovate, thickish, strongly veined, three-fourths
of an inch to an inch and a half long, and with numerous small, sharp
teeth on the margins. The flower heads are large (1 to 2 inches in
diameter), larger than those of the common red clover on naked
peduncles (stems), which are longer than the leaf-stalks (sometimes 5
to 6 inches long). There is a conspicuous green involucre surround-
ing the base of the flower head deeply divided into 7 to 9 ovate, entire,
and pointed lobes, which are about half as long as the flowers. The
heads contain comparatively few flowers (about 8 to 10), but these
are about an inch long, thick and inflated, the calyx about one-fourth
as long as the corolla, which varies from pink to purple in color, Mr.
S. Watson, in the ‘‘ Botany of Calfornia,” says of this: ‘‘A common
species in the Coast Ranges and in the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada,
through the length of the State—in some places very abundant and
affording good pasturage * It would seem very desirable that this
species should be given a fair trial in cultivation. (Plate I.)

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. 83

Trifolium megacephalum (Large-headed clover).

A low species, seldom reaching a foot in height, but robust and
with strong, deeply penetrating roots. A number of stalks usually
proceed from one root, but these stems are unbranching, somewhat
hairy, and terminate with a single large head. The leaves mostly
proceed from the base of the stem, there usually being but one pair
on the stalk near the middle. The lowest leaves are long-stalked,
and with 5 to 7 leaflets instead of 3, as in most clovers, but the upper
ones are sometimes reduced to 3 leaflets. The leaflets are an inch
long or less, somewhat wedge-shaped or obovate and blunt at the
apex, and with very fine, sharp teeth on the edge. The stipules at the
base of the leaves are large, mostly ovate in form, and sharply toothed
or deeply cut. The heads are mostly terminal, about 14 inches long,
on a naked peduncle, and without an involucre. The flowers are
large, purplish, about an inch long, and very compact and spicate in
the head. The calyx, with its long, plumose teeth, is half as long
as the corolla. This species grows in the mountain region of Cali-
fornia, Oregon, Washington Territory, Nevada, and Montana. It is
not as large as the common red clover, but experiments are needed
to determine its possibilities for pasturage. Its large, showy heads
and its peculiar Necives would make it an interesting ornamental
species. (Plate IT.)

Trifolium tnvolucratum.

This is an annual species, presenting a great variety of form, but
under favorable circumstances reaching 1$ or 2 feet in height and of
vigorous growth. The stems are usually decumbent and branching
Piov, very leafy, and terminating with 1 to 3 heads on rather long
peduncles. The leaves are on stalks longer than the leaflets, which
are in threes, one-half inch to an inch long, of an oblong or obovate
form, smooth, and with very fine, sharp teeth on the margins. The
stipules are large, ovate, or lanceolate, and usually much gashed or
deeply toothed. The heads are long-stalked, about an inch long, the
purplish flowers closely crowded, and surrounded with an involucre,
which is divided into numerous long-toothed lobes. The flowers are
half to three-fourths of an inch long, slender, with a short, striate
calyx, the teeth of which are very slender, entire, and pointed, and lit-
tle shorter than the corolla. This species has a wide range of growth
in the western part of the continent, prevailing from Mexico to Brit-
ish America through the mountain districts. Under cultivation it
would probably produce a good yield of fodder, but has never been
subjected to experiment so far as known. (Plate III.)

Trifolium stoloniferum (Running buffalo clover).

This is a perennial species, growing about a foot high; long run-
ners are sent out from the base, which are procumbent at first, be-
coming erect. The leaves are all at the base, except one pair at the
upper part of the stem. The root leaves are long-stalked, and have
three thinnish obovate leaflets, which are minutely toothed. The
pair of leaves on the stem have the stalk about as long as the leaflets,
which are about 1 inch long. The stipules are ovate or lanceolate,
pointed, and entire on the margins, the lower ones nearly an inch
long, the upper ones about half as long. There are but one or two
heads on each stem at the summit, each on a peduncle longer than
the leaves. The heads are about an inch in diameter, rather loosely

84 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

flowered, each flower being on a short, slender pedicel, or stem, which
bends backward at maturity. Each flower has a long-toothed calyx
about half as long as the corolla, which is white, tinged with purple.
‘This species is found in rich, open wood-lands and in prairies in Ohio,
Illinois, Kentucky, and westward. It is smaller in size and less vig-
orous in growth than the common red clover. (Plate IV.)

Trifolium Carolinanum (Southern clover).

A small perennial clover, having much resemblance to the common
white clover. It usually grows from 6 to 10 inches high, somewhat
pubescent, the stems slender, procumbent, and branching. Theleaves
are trifoliate, on petioles of variable length. The leaflets are about
half an inch long, obovate, wedge-shaped at base, and somewhat
notched at the summit. The stipules are nearly as long as the leaf-
lets, ovate or lanceolate, and slightly toothed above. Each stalk has
usually two long-stalked heads, proceeding from the upper joints.
The roundish heads are from one-half to three-fourths of an inch in
diameter, without an involucre, and with numerous crowded, small
flowers on slender pedicels, which become reflexed in age. The long
lanceolate teeth of the calyx are slightly shorter than the small,
purplish, pointed corolla. The pods are usually four-seeded. This
species occurs in all the Southern States and in Texas. It is toosmall
to be valuable for fodder, but is worthy of trial as a constituent of
pastures in the South. (Plate V.)

WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE.

The majority of our most troublesome weeds are plants introduced
from other countries. As a locality becomes cleared up and brought
into cultivation the character of the spontaneous vegetation always
undergoes marked changes. Many of the native plants disappear,
others become more abundant, and new plants introduced from for-
eign countries, or other parts of the same country, frequently become
the prevailing vegetation.

Owing to the conditions of modern commerce and the natural pro-
vision for their distribution it is practically impossible to long ex-
clude outside weeds from any considerable district. The weed laws
of various States have done much to call the attention of agricult-
urists to the most troublesome weeds, and have in many cases re-
tarded their introduction and distribution, but it is not to be ex-
pected that through any agency our worst weeds will become so sub-
dued as to require no further attention. An account like this can
only furnish the means of recognizing some of the more pernicious
ones, and give some account of their origin and methods of propaga-
tion, with suggestions for keeping them in check or eradicating them
for a time.

If the plants troublesome in cultivated crops were only such as
were always and everywhere recognized as weeds, the question would
be much simpler. Unfortunately many of our worst weeds were
first introduced as useful plants. A large number have escaped from
flower gardens, as Indian mallow, toad-flax, and daisy. Many plants
ave useful in one locality, but known only as weeds in another.
Cock’s-foot (Panicum crus-gallz) is a coarse grass, very troublesome
in gardens in many Northern States, but in the South it is a valu-
able fodder plant. Besides these, there are plants of common culti-
vation which act as weeds, and are difficult to eradicate when it 1s

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. 85

desired to grow other plants. Kentucky blue-grass, one of the most
valuable forage plants known, is quite difficult to subdue, owing
to its creeping root-stocks. On this account many farmers aim to
exclude it from their farms, preferring such plants as clover and tim-
othy, which, though inferior in some respects, are more easily sub-
dued.

The following general hints on the destruction of weeds may be
found of use. Whether it be profitable to attempt the complete ex-
termination of weeds will depend on the price of land and labor, the
kind of crops to be grown, &c. There can be little doubt, however,
that the more troublesome perennial and biennial weeds can usually
be eradicated altogether with profit, especially where they are not
yet abundant:

HINTS ON KILLING WEEDS.

1. Plants cannot live indefinitely deprived of their leaves. Hence
preventing their appearance above the surface will kill them sooner
or later.

2. Plants have greater need for their leaves, and can be more easily
killed in the growing season than when partially dormant.

3. Cultivation in a dry time is most injurious to weeds and bene-

ficial to crops. ;
4, Avoid the introduction of weeds in manure or litter or from
weedy surroundings. Some gardeners use no stable manure on
grounds they desire to keep especially clean, relying on commercial
fertilizers and the plowing under of green crops.

5. After a summer crop has ripened, instead of allowing the land
to grow up to weeds it is often well to sow rye or some other crop to
cover the ground and keep them down.

6. Give every part of the farm clean cultivation every few years
either with a hoed crop or, if necessary, with a fallow.

7. It is often stated that cutting weeds while in fiower will kill
them. This is only reliable with biennials, and with them only when
done so late that much of the seed will grow.

8. If the ground is kept well occupied with other crops weeds will
give much less trouble. Keep meadows and roadsides well seeded
and plow-land cultivated, except when shaded by crops.

Cnicus arvensis (canada thistle).

This thistle grows usually to the height of 2 or 3 feet, the stems
very leafy and much branched, with the flower-heads gathered into
small clusters at the end of the branches. Thestem and branches are
not winged by decurrent leaves, asthey arein many other species. The
leaves are comparatively small, those of the stem being mostly 3 to 6
inches long, about half an inch wide in the main part, with three or four
prominent lobes on each side, and armed on the edges with an abund-
ance of sharp, rather stiff, prickles, which are 1 or 2 lines long. The
heads of the flowers are mostly less than an inch high, with a close in-
volucre, the small scales mostly without prickly points. The flower-
heads are mainly dicecious; that is, those of one plant are male only,
while those of other plants are female only. The plant has creeping
root-stocks, which spread deep beneath the surface and send up new
stems, thus multiplying the plant. Although this plant is called
Canada thistle, it is really a native of Europe, and has been intro-

86 REPORT OF THH COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

duced into this country, probably first into Canada and from thence
into the United States.

The Canada thistle nearly or quite fails to seed in many localities,
spreading chiefly by the running root-stocks, so that it is not very
rapidly disseminated. The failure to seed is doubtless mainly due to
its dicecious character, as, if completely so, no seed would be formed
where a patch originated from a single plant. It is not yet trouble-
some to any extent beyond the Kastern and Middle States. It prefers
a heavy soil, but on such land is most easily killed. In pastures, or
wherever the land is compact, if only a few plants appear they may
often be killed by pulling them upafewtimes. Larger patches should
be plowed deeply about once a week.in the growing season, or each
time before any plants appear above the surface. After each plowing
rolling is advantageous, especially on sandy soil, There are numer-
ous instances where fields of this weed have been completely killed in
a single season in time to sow winter wheat. Cases have been re-
ported of Canada thistles being killed by a single cutting at a certain
period of growth. In some of these instances at least the plant has
proved to be some other thistle. If the characters above given are
borne in mind, especially the fact of the creeping root-stocks and of
its growing on dry land, there will be little danger of this mistake.

Plate VI, Fig. 1, a portion of the stem, leaves, and flower-heads;
Fig. 2, a portion of the running root-stock; Fig. 3, a single flower,
with the seed and pappus.

Arctium Lappa (burdock).

A well-known biennial plant of the natural order Composite,
which, like many of our common weeds, has been introduced from
Europe. It has a thick branching stem, 3 to 5 feet high, with round-
ish heart-shaped leaves 3 inches to a foot or more long, the lowest on
long stout stalks, the upper ones nearly sessile, the margins undulate
and sometimes erosely toothed. The flower-heads are roundish, about
an inch thick, mostly in small clusters at the ends of the branches.
The scales of the involucre are extended into hooked points, which
adhere to the clothing or to the hair or woolof animals. Within the
involucre are a number of slender purplish flowers, each containing
anthers and styles of the kind peculiar to this order, and at the base
of each flower is the seed, surmounted with a number of slender
bristles.

There are several varieties of this species, differing in the size of the
heads and in other points, which varieties are by some called ‘‘ species.”
It gives but little trouble in cultivated land, being found in waste
places about buildings and fences, and occasionally in meadows where
the seeding is thin. It prefers strong soil, and its presence is consid-
ered a sign of good land. Though not a serious weed in cultivated
crops, its unsightliness and the annoyance of its burs in the wool and
hair of animals make it desirable to try to exterminate it, especially
as it is one of the easiest weeds to get rid of. One of the best times
to destroy it is in the fall when the leaves are conspicuous and time is
less pressing. It is killed any time if cut below the crown. It may
also be killed by being mowed when the seed has fully formed, and
the tops burned. If cut while in flower, as sometimes recommended,
a second crop of seed will generally be produced.

Burdock has some reputation in medicine as a blood purifier and for
rheumatism. Its valueis probably slight. Itis known in England as
hare-burs or hurrburr, and the young shoots, after being stripped of

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. 87

their rind, are occasionally used as a substitute for asparagus. In
Japan it is cultivated under the name of gobo, the root, growing to 3
or 4 inches in diameter and often 2 feet long, being used much as we
use salsify.
Plate VII, Fig. 1, a branch of the small variety; Fig. 2, a single
flower magnified; Fig. 3, a portion of the large-headed variety—major.

Xanthium Canadense (clot-bur, cockle-bur).

A coarse branching annual plant of the order Composite, usually
1 to 3 feet high, with alternate, rough leaves from 3 to 6 inches long
and about as wide, somewhat lobed and coarsely toothed, strongly
three ribbed, somewhat heart-shaped at the base, and on long stalks.
The flower-heads are in small axillary and terminal clusters of 2
kinds, male and female, the male heads on a short spike at the
summit and the female in clusters of 2 or 3 at the base of the male
spike. The male or staminate flowers are in roundish heads, with a
thin scaly involucre. After shedding the pollen these heads soon
drop off and disappear, and the female heads enlarge, and become
- thick, hard, oblong burs about an inch long, beset with stiff hooked
prickles. At the apex of the bur there are two hard and sharp or
hooked beaks, and within are two cells, each containing a single
seed. Those whoare accustomed to look at the aster and the sunflower
as representatives of the order Composite, will not at first recognize
this plant as a member of that family because of the separation of the
male and female flowers, but a close examination will reveal its true
position.

This plant is most abundant on low pasture and stubble land and
along streams, though often growing rankly in waste places on up-
land. «Itisseldom a troublesome weed in crops, but its burs are a great
annoyance in the fleeces of sheep. Seeding to clover and meadow
grass and mowing several times the first season is recommended for
its destruction. |

We have figured this species (X. Canadense), believing that it is
the one which is troublesome in corn fields and roadsides in the West-
ern States, where it is probably native, but perhaps introduced from
the South through travel and commercial intercourse. The species
which occurs in the Eastern States is probably Xanthium struma-
rium, which is supposed to be a native of Europe and India. It is
smaller in size, with smaller burs, more slender and smoother prickles.

Dr. Gattinger, of Nashville, Tenn., states that some twenty-two
years ago he fed his horse quite a quantity of the Xanthiwm Cana-
dense in its flowering season. It possesses an aromatic smell, and his
horse liked it. It didnot have any noxious effects upon him, although
he has since heard a farmer say that it was poisonous to stock, which,
however, he does not believe.

Plate VIII, Fig. 1, a branch, showing the spikes of male flower-
heads, with the female clusters below; Fig. 2, three mattire’ burs.

Ambrosia artenisiefolia (rag-weed, bitter-weed, hog-weed,
Roman wormwood).

A common annual weed of the natural order Composite, gener-
ally 2 to 3 feet high, rather slender, and much branched. The leaves
are from 1 to 4 inches long, mostly alternate and thinnish, pinnat-
ifid, or cut into deep narrow lobes, which are again lobed or toothed.
The ends of the branches bear the flowers, which are of 2 kinds,
male and female. The male flowers are in small heads of 5 to 8 to-

88 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

gether, inclosed by a 5-toothed green involucre. These heads are
arranged in a slender, spikelike raceme 2 to 3 inches long, each one
nodding on the very short recurved pedicel. At the base of the raceme
are a few female flowers, which are erect, some of which develop into
small hard nutlets or fruits. The flowering spikes are quite variable,
sometimes being nearly all male, and sometimes mostly or entirely
female. Itseems to bean American weed, native of the warmer parts
of the continent, but by cultivation introduced and spread over the
United States and Canada.

It is very common in wheat-stubble and along roadsides. In Ohio
it was reported to the State experiment station in 1883 by the greatest
number of correspondents as the most troublesome weed in corn.
It thrives on all soils, and can be eradicated only by the most care-
fal cultivation. Itis kept down in well-seeded meadows, but some
of the plants persist, and produce seed when but a few inches high.
Sheep are a valuable stock to keep on land infested with this and
other weeds.
| Plate IX, a branch with the flowering spikes; Fig. 1, a single male
head; Fig. 2, a fertile nutlet.

Chay egnipeyeuste leucanthemum (white daisy, ox-eye daisy,
white-weed).

A perennial plant, 1 to 2 feet high, simple or with few branches,
often several stems from one root. The stem is rather sparsely
clothed with narrow, coarsely-toothed or gashed, obovate or spatulate
leaves, the upper ones sessile with a clasping fringed base, the lower
ones more or less petioled. The main stem and the few long branches
are each terminated with a single head of flowers, which, when ex-
panded, is an inch toan inch anda half indiameter. There isan ex-
ternal set of thinnish scales, which is called the involucre; within this
are the florets, or flowers, of 2 kinds—an outside row of showy, white
flat florets called ‘‘the ray,” and a central mass of short tubular yellow
florets, which constitute the ‘‘ disk.”

Both the ray and disk florets are fertile; that is, provided with an
achenium or seed at the base. If the small disk florets are carefully
examined they will each be found to contain 5 stamens united by
the anthers around the central style. In the ray florets the stamens
are absent. The plant is a native of Europe, but has become widely
spread over all the eastern part of this continent.

The daisy is most troublesome in meadows and pastures. Though
long known in this country, it is still spreading westward into new
localities. In some cases it has escaped as a weed from flower gar-
dens; in others it is introduced in grass or cloverseed or hay. It has
been introduced in some places as a grazing plant for sheep, though
the close grazing of the sheep will exterminate it. Where the plant
is abundant it has been utilized to restore worn-out land too poor to
grow clover. For this purpose it is sown at the rate of one-fourth
bushel per acre. It is too much of a weed, however, to be introduced
into a new locality for any purpose. If the land is brought to the
proper state of fertility grass and clover will keep the daisies down, so
that the few which remain may be readily exterminated. (Plate X.)

Abutilon avicennce (Indian mallow, velvet-leaf).

_ A coarse annual plant of the order Malvacew. The stem is branch-
ing and grows to the height of 4 or 5 feet. The stem, branches, and
leaves are covered with short soft hairs; hence the name of velvet-

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. 89

leaf. The leaves are roundish-ovate, 3 to 6 or more inches long, and
rather long-pointed, heart-shaped at the base, the margins with fine
blunt teeth, and with a stalk longer than the leaf. There are about
5 principal nerves diverging from the base.

From the axil or angle of each leaf-stalk is produced a flower-stalk,
which develops 1 or 2 flowers or is sometimes extended into a branch-
ing raceme, with 3 to5 flowers. The flowers consist of an outer calyx,
cleft into 5 lobes or teeth, the corolla consisting of 5 obovate orange-
yeilow petals, and a column of numerous stamens united into a tube,
which closely surrounds the 12 to 15 styles. The expanded flower
is half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter. After the fall of the
corolia the ovaries develop into a crowded mass of dry pods or cap-
sules, each one having 2 shert stiff points or teeth, which spread or
radiate upward and outward. The base of this mass of carpels is
surrounded by the persistent calyx. The calyx and capsules are soft,
hairy, or pubescent. .

In some parts of the country this plant is called stamp-weed, be-
cause the pods are used to ornament or stamp butter.

This plant, originally from India, has spread quite extensively in
Europe and Asia, and also in the United States, where in some locali-
ties it has become a serious weed in rich cultivated grounds. It was
long sold as an ornamental plant; but few, if any, seedsmen now
offer it. It possesses a strong fiber, which some have attempted to
utilize for manufacturing purposes. (See Report 1879, p. 508.) Be-
ing an annual, and easily recognized, and generally confined as yet
to limited localities, it would seem to be more easy to get rid of than
many of our weeds. (Plate X1.)

Solanum Caroliniense (horse-nettle).

A iow, perennial plant, with deep, running roots, belonging to the

order Solanacec, the same that contains the potato, tomato, &e.
The stems are 1 to 2 feet high, rather straggling, branching, and half-
shrubby at the base. The stems and the midnerve of the lower side
of the leaves are more or less thickly armed with short, sharp, stout,
yellowish prickles. The stem and leaves are also covered with minute
star-shaped hairs of from 4 to 8 points. The leaves are large for the
size of the plant, 2 to 4 inches long, short-stalked, oblong in outline,
sometimes only coarsely and irregularly toothed, sometimes with 3
to 5 deep lobes on each side. The flowers are in racemes, mostly
from the axils of the upper leaves. There are from 3 to 10 flowers
on each raceme, on rather short pedicels. They are an inch or less in
diameter when expanded, having a 5-parted calyx and a 5-lobed bluish
or whitish, spreading corolla. The flowers are succeeded by round
berries, half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter, when mature
of a yellowish color, and filled with pulp and numerous small seeds.
The pedicels of the berries are reflexed, and the berries remain upon
the plant into the winter. Common in the Southern and Western
States, and becoming too frequent in the North. Darlington says:
_ This is an exceedingly pernicious weed, and so tenacious of life that it is almost
impossible to get rid of it when once fully introduced. It grows in patches so thickly
as to deter stock from feeding among it and even to monopolize the soil, while its
roots gradually extend around and to a great depth.

It seems to prefer sandy soil, at least in the North, where it is
sometimes called sand-brier. As it is perennial, and spreads by the
root, only the most thorough treatment will eradicate it.

Plate XII, Fig. 1, a branch; Fig. 2, a raceme of mature berries.

90 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Echium vulgare (blue-weed, blue-thistle, bugloss).

A biennial plant, of the order Borraginacee.

The stem is from 2 to 3 feet high, rough, hairy, and leafy. The
leaves vary from lanceolate to linear, the lower ones 5 to 8 inches
long, becoming shorter above, the uppermost bractlike and shorter
than the flowering racemes. Like the stem, they are roughened with
stiff whitish hairs, which have a stinging quality. The upper part
of the stem, sometimes for more than half its length, bears numer-
ous short, axillary spikes or racemes of flowers. These racemes are
1 to 2 inches long, and are coiled backward in bud, but straighten
out as they expand. The flowers are rather crowded, and consist of
a 5-lobed or cleft calyx, and a somewhat bell-shaped corolla about
an inch long, which is purplish at first but changing to a light blue,
When in full flower the plant has a handsome appearance. The
nutlets, of which there are about 4 in each flower, are small, round-
ish, and rough, with a peculiar appearance, which has been likened
to a viper’s head. This plant isa native of Europe and Asia, but has
become extensively naturalized along roadsides, in waste grounds
and fields, principally in the Middle Atlantic States, (Plate XIII.)

Rumex acetosella, (sheep sorrel, field sorrel).

This small plant belongs to the order Polygonacee, or the family
which contains the wild buckwheats and the docks. It multiplies
rapidly by underground runners or roots. The stems are seldom
more than 15 or 16 inches high, and are slender, erect, somewhat
angular, and furrowed. The leaves are rather distant on the stem;
_ the root and lower stem-leaves are on long and slender petioles, the
upper ones becoming short-stalked or sessile. They have the pecul-
iar form which is called hastate, that is, arrow-shaped, with the
lobes spreading outward, or at right angles to the main part. Some-
times in the upper leaves the lobes are wanting.

The flowers are in racemes, at small distances apart, and in whorls
of 3 to 6, nodding on the very short pedicels. The plant is of the
kind called dicecious; that is, all the flowers of one plant are of one
sex, either male or female. The flowers are very small, and in the
male plants consist of the calyx of 6 sepals, 3 inner and 3 outer ones,
and 6 stamens. Inthe female plants (and these are said to be larger
than the male plants) the calyx is the same, but in place of the
stamens, the small ovary, with its feathery stigmas, is seen, the ovary
finally enlarging to form the 3-angled fruit. This sorrel is a native
of Europe, but has become extensively naturalized in our country.
It is often stated that the presence of sorrel is an indication of an
unusual amount of acid in the soil, and that an application of lime
or other alkali eradicates the sorrel by correcting the acidity. Such
is not the case. Sorrel is generally most abundant on poor, light
land, where little else will grow. An application of lime or other
fertilizer enables other plants to grow and crowd out the sorrel.

Plate XIV, Fig. 1, a male flower magnified;: Fig. 2, a female flower
magnified,

Lychnis Githago (corn-cockle, or cockle).

A rather showy annual plant, belonging to the same family as the
pink and sweet-william. It isa native of Europe, from whence it
has been introduced with grain, and is now too commonly found in
fields of wheat and rye.

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. 91

Tho plant is from 2 to 4 feet high, sparingly branched above. The
leaves are narrowly lanceolate, 3 to 5 inches long, less than half an
inch wide, gradually tapering to a point, entire, thick, and, like the
branches and calyx, covered with fine soft hairs. They are in single

airs at the base of each branch and opposite each other. The

ranches are slender, naked, and terminated with single flowers,
which are 2 to 24 inches long when expanded.

The calyx is 10-ribbed, and divided into 5 linear lobes, similar to
the leaves, and longer than the corolla, which consists of 5 obcor-
date petals of a reddish-purple color, and about 1} inches long.
There are 10 stamens and 5 styles. The ovary develops into a
roundish-oblong pod, filled with numerous dark-purple seeds, which
under a lens are beautifully ribbed and roughened.

In regard to the comparative injury to wheat by cockle and chess
a grain-dealer of Michigan writes :

Tn this State there is much more chess in wheat than cockle, but it is screened
out easily, whereas cockle is very difficult to screen out, as it is as heavy and has
nearly as large a berry as wheat. The chess is of no value, while the presence of
cockle makes the flour of low grade.

A grain-dealer at Duluth, Minn., writes, December 30, 1886, con-
cerning cockle: _

Its effect on the grade of wheat as inspected here is serious. We had one car,
which contained No. 1 hard wheat (our highest grade here), reduced to rejected
(which is next to the lowest grade) solely on account of cockle. That would make
a reduction in price of at least 15 cents per bushel.

A Minneapolis (Minn.) miller writes :

Cockle runs from 1 to 5 pounds to the bushel, 5 pounds being an extreme per-
centage. It is abolutely impossible to clean all the cockle out of the wheat, as
it is so near the weight of the berry. Chess is found in winter-wheat sections, and
can be all cleaned out of the wheat, as it is light, and can be handled to much better
advantage than the cockle.

Sow a portion, at least, of the crop with perfectly clean seed on
land where no grain grew the year before. Use this for the next
year’s seeding. In afew years the crop will be free from cockle. If,
when clean seed is obtained, it is offered to surrounding growers, the
area free from this weed may be extended, so as to lessen the liability
of its being again introduced.

a XV, Fig. 2, a section through the ovary; Fig. 3, a seed mag-
nified.

Chenopodium album (pig-weed, lamb’s quarters).

This very common weed is of variable size, sometimes in good soil
growing 5 or 6 feet high, in other circumstanees reaching only 1 or 2
feet. The stem is rather stout and angular, and much branched.
The leaves are on rather long and slender petioles, and vary from 1
to 3 inches in length, of an oblong or ovate form, the larger ones
coarsely and irregularly toothed, the smaller ones narrow and mostly
entire. The flowers are in small roundish clusters, at short distances
apart, on. slender spikes or racemes, which terminate the branches.
The flower clusters are covered with a whitish mealy powder, and in
many cases this mealiness extends also to the leaves. The individual
flowers are very small, consisting of a five-cleft calyx, 5 stamens, and
an ovary with 2 styles. The flower is destitute of a corolla. The
mature ovary or seed is round in outline, but much flattened and
lens-shaped, smooth, shining, and black, inclosed in a thin green

992 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

aed

pericarp or cover. These parts require to be magnified to be dis-
tinctly seen. ‘

This plant, as well as a number of others of the same family, is, a
native of Europe, but is extensively naturalized, and is found in
waste places and cultivated ground. The young plants are some-
times used as a pot-herb.

The variety viride, by some considered a distinct species, has also
been introduced, and is becoming in some localities even more abun-
dant than the other. Itis of a deeper green, has narrower leaves,
and blooms earlier. (Plate XVI.)

Ranunculus acris (buttercup, tall crowfoot).

A perennial herb of the order Ranunculacee, a native of Europe,
but extensively naturalized in New England and New York in past-
ures and meadows. The roots are fibrous, the stem is about 2 feet
high, and branching near the summit. The leaves are’ mostly from
the base, and on long stems, which are generally clothed with soft
hairs. These leaves are roundish in outline, but divided into about
three or five principal segments, and each segment is again parted into
about three divisions, which are again cut into coarse teeth or lobes.
The-stem has but few leaves, and those more deeply gashed, with the
uppermost reduced to a few linear segments. The flowers are at the
ends of the long naked branches, either singly or 2 or 3 near together.
They are about three-fourths of an inch in diameter and of a bright
yellow color. The calyx consists of 5 green sepals, which are shorter
than the petals and spread out horizontally. The outer organs soon
fall off, and the ovaries mature into a roundish head of small, hard,
flattened, and pointed carpels.

It is not uncommon in the New England States and in New York
to see large fields of pasture-land completely taken possession of by
this buttercup or crow-foot. On account of the acrid juice which it
contains it is always rejected by cattle in the field, but as the acridity
is dissipated by drying, the leaves are eaten when present in hay, but
the long coarse stems are so much waste matter. (Plate X VIL.)

Ranunculus bulbosus (bulbous-rooted buttercup).

A small species of buttercup, with a roundish bulbous root, also
introduced from Europe and naturalized in some places, particularly
in Pennsylvania and Virginia, to such an extent as to be quite a pest
in meadows and pastures. The segments of the leaves are about
three, not so close together as in the R. acris, and generally with
fewer lobes. The flowers are of about the same size and color as the
RVD but the sepals or parts of the calyx are reflexed. (Plate

Barbarea vulgaris and Barbarea preecox (winter-cress,
scurvy-grass).

A biennial plant of the natural order Crucifere, related to the
mustard, turnip, cress, and cabbage. It grows to the height of about
2 feet. The stem is disposed to branch at the upper part. It pro-
duces numerous yellow flowers in rather close, short racemes, which
as they grow older are elongated and covered with somewhat four-
sided, narrow pods, about an inch in length. There are two species,
differing principally in the leaves, which in B. vulgaris are shorter,
with a large roundish extremity and sometimes a few short lobes be-

ort of the Botanist, Department of Agricuiture, 1886.

TRIFOLIUM FUCATUM.

ia OS Ee
: > ; are aa — = 5 he Be : : = : 2
2: * ss : a Beat oF eRe Pe

Cy sae aera pt ae

7 =? J

« Report of the Botanist, Department of Agriculure, 1886. Plate tr

\

TRIFOLIUM MEGACEPHALUM.

Plate IV.

Report of the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886.

Marx. del,

_OMUDEMANSE,

TRIFOLIUM STOLONIFERUM.

' ?
eee.

so
3
2,

R on of the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886. Plate V.

TriroLium CAROLINIANUM.

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ane > C.
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Report of the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886. : Plate VI.
.

Pa

7 CNICUS ARVENSIS (CANADA TIISTER).

Plate VII.

ee

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fs eS ee ee ee

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NF

WA
ArcTitm Lappa (BURDOCK).

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Report of the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886. Plate VIII.
, 3

—— yo oe

XANTHIUM CANADENSF (CLOT-RUR).

Report of the Botanist, Department uf Agiiculture, 1888. Plate IX.

y
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AMBROSIA ARTEMISLEFOLIA (ROMAY WorMWoop),.

Ag - - ¥: ae yt . a b — op ee eee” ee

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Nat awitlunliely ata

CURYSANTHEMUM LEUCANTUFMUM (WHITE Dalsy).

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ty

afk 14) MO all hs Gaps
wo

i Svintatt

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= Ny hss

Plate XI.

Department of Agriculture, 1886,

p ort of the Botanist,

ABUTILON AVICENN.E (VELVET-LEAF).

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Report of the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886. Plate XII.

F
2

SOLANUM CAROLINENSE (HORSE-NETTLE).

Ye

;
Report of the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886, Plate XIII.

ECHIUM VULGARE (BLUE THISTLE).

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ow toed. Woks RAM

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B

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i Report of the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886. Plate XIV.

—) () 4

Sapa oo é yt . R.Cowing atl (>
: Hy

5 N Md

RUMEX ACETOSELLA (RED SorReEL).

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Report of the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886.

Plate XV.

NN . CPi,
SSL \ yy
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LA
LG
= =
= 1 ia/e/ 7 —
| SS
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f i f (CAN mM

LYCHNIS GITHAGO (CORN

COCKLE).

reas ee

tof the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886, — . Plate XVI.

ie
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iN roe)
N Nee

oy,

CHENOPODIUM ALBUM (PIG-WEED)

ort of the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886. Plate XVII.

LZZ

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Coming. del.

RaNUNCULUS : tRIS (TALL CROWFOOT).

_ Report of the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886. Plate XVIII

fj

Je +

4

4 lowing,

RANUNCULUS BULBOSUS (BUTTERCUF),

Pile 2

Report ot the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886.

BaRBAREA VULGARIS (WINTER CRESS),

Report of the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886.

CHELIDONIUM MaAJUS (CELANDINE),

Plate XX.

ina
7

m1 "

oan

“oe

j Report of the Botanist, Department of Agriculture, 1886. Plate XXI.

: . Stay ry
\ NZ 2

CAPSELLA BURA-PASTORIS (SHEPHERD’S PURSE).

— es? sr

REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. _ 93

low; in B. preecox the leaves are longer and pinnatifid, with irregu-
lar lobes, decreasing in size from the apex toward the base.

In the vicinity of New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., this
lant is considerably cultivated as an early salad, and has escaped
rom cultivation to such an extent as to become very troublesome in

cultivated fields. As found in these places it is probably introduced
from Europe, but in the neighborhood of the great lakes, in Canada,
and northward it is thought to be a native plant. (Plate XIX.)

Chelidonium majus (celandine).

A plant of the poppy family FA Mates It is herbaceous and
perennial, growing 1% to 2 feet high, with a brittle, watery stem,
which when broken emits a yellowish, disagreeable-smelling juice,
which is bitter and acrid. The stem is somewhat branching, with
large pinnatifid leaves. Those from the root are on long stalks, those
on the stem are short-stalked or the upper ones sessile. They are usu-
ally 3 or 4 inches long and nearly as broad, divided into about five prin-
cipal segments, which are again subdivided into a few lobes and coarse
teeth. The flowers are in small clusters of 3 to 8 at the extremity of
the branches, each one on a short stalk or pedicel. They are less than
an inch in diameter when expanded, and of a bright yellow color.
The calyx consists of 2 greenish sepals, which fall off when the flower
expands. ‘The corolla is composed of 4 oblong petals, within which
are an indefinite number (usually from 16 to 20) of stamens, and cen-
trally the ovary, which enlarges into a slender, smooth, two-valved,
many-seeded pod, about an inch in length.

This plant is rather common about dwellings in the Eastern States,
and, although classed as a weed, it is one which interferes principally
with garden culture. Like many other common weeds, it is intro-
duced from Europe. (Plate XX.)

Capsella bursa-pastoris (shepherd’s-purse).

One of the commonest garden and roadside weeds. It is an up-
right annual plant of variable size, sometimes fruiting when 2 or 3
inches high, and sometimes attaining a height of 18 inches or more.
The leaves are mostly near the lower part of the plant, the upper
ones becoming small, narrow, and somewhat arrow-shaped, while the
lower ones are sometimes 5 or 6 inches long, pinnatifid, and toothed
like those of the dandelion. The flowers are very small, and at first
somewhat crowded near the end of the branches, but in age becoming
much separated, and forming a long, leafless raceme. The flowers
have the same general structure as those of pepper-grass and radish,
and the plant belongs to the same natural order, Crucifere. The
pods are on slender pedicels, which are half to three-fourths of an
inch long. They are about one-fourth of an inch long, of a peculiar
form, flat, broad at the top, and notched at the apex, then narrowed
to the base, presenting somewhat the appearance of a purse, from
which appearance comes the common name of shepherd’s-purse. The
pods consist of two lobes or pouches, fixed on opposite sides of a flat
thin partition, to which the seeds are attached. Although this weed
is very common and abundant, it can generally be easily destroyed
by careful culture. (Plate XXL) _

‘ GEORGE VASEY,

Botanist.
Hon. Norman J. CoLMAN,
Commissioner.

REPORT OF THE MYCOLOGICAL SECTION.

Sir: Appointed by you, upon the 1st of last July, to take charge of
the section of the Botanical Division, devoted to the ‘‘investigation
of the diseases of fruits and fruit trees, grains and other useful plants,
caused by fungi,” I have the honor to make the following report:

It will be seen from the very nature of the work of this section
that it is too early to expect the attainment of any definite results
from original investigations, and whatever subjects are now-discussed
can only be looked upon as preliminary to more complete and ex-
haustive studies,

The fungi which infest our cultivated plants, and not infrequently
cause their total destruction, vie with the insect tribes in numbers
as well as in the extent of the losses they occasion, and the transfor-
mations they undergo in their development are equally complex and
often even more difficult to follow. ‘They are, for the most part, so
small, and the metamorphoses they undergo so obscure, as to call for
the greatest amount of patience and the closest study in order to
obtain any satisfactory knowledge of their natural history, and in
spite of all our efforts there will frequently remain many points
which must be left to conjecture.

That these fungi, which make themselves manifest in the plant
diseases familiarly known as ‘‘rust,” ‘‘smut,” ‘‘ mildew,” ‘‘ blight,”
&c., are true vegetable parasites; that they are governed by the same
laws which control all living organisms; and that they are propa-
gated by specially developed reproductive bodies called spores, are
fundamental truths to be kept constantly in mind in studying this
subject. There is no such thing as spontaneous generation among
these parasites, and whenever a fungus appears it is as certain that
it was preceded by a spore as that the oak came from an acorn,
and, further, that the germination of the acorn and spore was only
effected by surroundings and conditions favorable to its accomplish-
ment, We have a pretty fair knowledge of what these conditions
are in the one case, but simply because those in the other are not so
well understood we must not deny their existence.

In order to make an intelligent use of remedies for checking or
preventing the ravages occasioned by injurious fungi, which is the
primary and ultimate object of the work of this section, it is mani-
festly essential to gain a complete knowledge of their nature and
habits. To accomplish this will require much time and research,
but in no other way can we hope to attain results of positive value.
Those species whine grow within the tissues of the plants they infest
demand a different treatment from those which live wholly been the
surface. Species which live only for a time upon some useful plant,
passing the remainder of their existence upon some worthless weed
or some plant in decay, can be managed differently from those that
infest only a single host, A complete knowledge of the life history
of these parasites cannot fail to bring to ight some weak point in
their development which may be taken advantage of in seeking their
destruction, as

96 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. _

No systematic experiments have been attempted in this country to
prove the general value and efficacy of the various fungicidal prepara-
tions which have been proposed from time to time by individual cul-
tivators for certain plant diseases. The general impression prevails
that sulphur is a universal panacea for all the ills, of a fungus origin,
that plants are heir to, but the value of: this substance is limited to a
small group of these parasites, and here even its action is not always
certain. There exist prejudices, however, in favor of the use of sul-
phur as a fungicide which operate against the introduction and use
of other and more active remedies. There has been also a certain
feeling of indiiference on the part of farmers and fruit-growers rela-
tive to this subject, doubtless due to the greatness of our country and
the variety of our resources, but more especially to the almost entire
absence of information respecting the nature and habits of the fungi
themselves. With increasing cost of production and greater compe-
tition the ‘producer is feeling more and more keenly the losses which
diminish his profits; he has come to realize fully the gravity of the
ravages wrought by fungi, a fact well attested by the numerous let-
ters received from agriculturists and fruit-growers throughout the
country, earnestly asking information on this subject and the assist-
ance that will enable them to prevent the depredations of these para-
sites.

The most important work of this section during the past season has
been the preparation of a special report (Bulletin No. 2) of the Botan-
ical Division, on the ‘‘ Fungus Diseases of the Grape-Vine.” In con-
sideration of the importance of the subject treated in this report,
together with the fact that the edition printed is already nearly ex-
hausted, it has seemed advisable to present here an abstract of some
of the leading topics discussed in it.

I.—THE Downy MILDEW. |

Peronospora viticola, De By.
(Plate I.)

The Downy Mildew is common to both the wild and cultivated
grapes of this country, and from the former it doubtless was conveyed
to the latter in the earliest days of American grape culture.

In some respects it may be deemed a more serious enemy to viti-
culture than Black-rot, for by its action on the leaves it affects the
nutrition of the vine, weakening the vitality of the latter and event-
ually destroying it. This action upon the leaves interferes with the
development of woody tissue in the growing shoots and prevents the
ripening of the fruit, and the wine produced will be inferior both in
quantity and quality.

The Downy Mildew attacks all the green portions of the vine—the
leaves, young shoots, and berries—and is a true parasite, closly allied
to the fungus of the potato-rot. The fungus consists of a mycelium,
which grows within the tender tissues of the vines attacked, and of
the reproductive bodies or spores.

The mycelium.—The vegetative portion, or mycelium, of the fungus
grows between the cells composing the tissues of the leaves, young
grapes, and shoots, never through them, and the threads, or hyphae,
of which it is made up, branch most irregularly and vary greatly in
diameter. These threads have no cross partitions, or septa, but are
continuous throughout their whole length, and are filled with a col-

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION, 97

orless, granular, and somewhat oily substance. At frequent inter-
vals on these threads, as they push their way between the cells; minute
lateral projections are formed, that penetrate the walls of the adja-
cent cells uf the host, from which they absorb the nourishment for
the support of the parasite. These projections have received the
name of “suckers,” or haustoria. The contents of the perforated
cells quickly turns brown, ultimately effecting the outward changes
in the coloration of the leaf or other affected part.

Upon this mycelium, at different periods and in very unlike ways,
two sorts oi reproductive bodies, or spores, are formed; one kind pro-
duced externally on short filaments, and named conidia, the other
developed by a special sexual process on the mycelium within the

issue of the host plant, and termed oéspores. The first are produced
in great numbers throughout the summer, and serve for the imme-
diate propagation of the fungus, effecting its rapid distribution; the
pce are formed later, and do not germinate until the following sea-
son. The former are often called *‘summer spores,” in distinction
from the latter, which have been named the ‘‘ winter spores.”

Summer spores.—The summer spores, or, as they are technically
called, conidia, are borne upon the ultimate branches of slender fila-
ments of the fungus, which issue through the natural openings, the
breathing pores of the leaves. Four to five, or even more, of these
filaments, called conidiophores, or conidia-bearers, issue from each
pore, and through their abundance the fungus becomes visible to the
naked eye; the downy white patches of mold, so conspicuous on the
under surface of affected leaves, being wholly of this growth.

A few hours of a single night is all the time required for the de-
velopment of the conidiophores and conidia, but the mycelium may
exist within the tissues of the leaves or other affected parts a long
time before this outward development takes place. The conidiophores
only appear under certain favorable atmospheric conditions, and, as
these conditions may only occur at intervals of considerable length,
we are in the habit of assuming that a new infection takes place each
time. That vines previously free from the mildew may become
affected at any time during the summer there is no doubt, but the
appearance of the mildew on the leaves may come from mycelium
that arose from a much earlier infection. .

The number of conidia that may be produced upon a single invaded
vine has been estimated at from two to ten millions. Their great
number, coupled with the fact that each one may produce a half a
dozen or more new individuals, explains how it is that an entire
vineyard may be ‘“‘struck” with the mildew like the sudden falling
of a cloud upon it.

In shape the conidia are generally ovoid, the smaller end being at
the point of attachment, their longest diameter being from 7>8;5 to
yosoo Of an inch. They are very thin-walled, and are filled with a
colorless, nearly transparent, granular fluid. Their formation takes
place with great rapidity, and when mature they are most easily
detached from their supports.

One of these bodies, happening to fall upon a grape-leaf where there
is moisture condensed in the form of drops of rain or dew, will germ-
inate within a couple of hours, the germination taking place in the
following manner: The contents of the spore undergoes a process of
division, separating into a number of distinct particles, which very
soon escape through an opening made in. the spore-wall; they are
then free, but exceedingly minute masses of naked protoplasm of

7 AG—’86

98 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

irregular outline. Attached to one side of each mass are two very
fine, hair-like cilia, by the vibration of which it swims about in the
water with an animal-like motion; hence these bodies have been
named zoéspores. In from fifteen to twenty minutes the cilia fall
off, the zodspore comes to rest, assumes a definite outline, takes on a
cell-wall, and immediately pushes out a prolongation or germinal
tube, which penetrates the epidermis, and, continuing its growth
within the tissues of the leaf, develops into what we have called the
vegetative or mycelial portion of the fungus.

The germination by zodspores is the most common, and perhaps we
might say the normal habit of the Peronospora of the vine; and ex-
perience in culture leads to the belief that no form of germination
will take place except in the presence of water. A damp atmosphere
is insufficient; there must be the actual presence of water, in the form
of drops of rain or dew, to effect the formation of the zodspores.

Temperature exercises a considerable influence over the germi-
nation of the conidia, that which is most favorable being between
75° and 95°F. At lower temperatures germination takes place more
slowly; but the temperature may be reduced to 32° without destroy-
ing the vitality of the conidia. Exactly how long these bodies will
retain their vitality in a moist atmosphere has never been determined,
but it is known that dry air, particularly a dry wind, is destructive
to them. Experiments have shown that in a dry atmosphere the co-
nidia contract in a very short time and shrivel up, or burst and lose
their contents.

During the summer or season of growth the Peronospora expends
its energies in the production of the conidia, whose office is the imme-
diate dissemination and propagation of the fungus. To tide over the
season of winter another spore-form is produced, which is furnished
with thickened walls, and is still further protected by being embedded
within the tissues of the host plant. These arethe result of aspecial
sexual process, and are termed odspores, or, more popularly, ‘‘ winter
spores.” Their formation begins as a slight swelling at the ends of
branches of the mycelium. This swelling finally attains a diameter
of about yo55 of an inch, assumes a spherical shape, and the cell-wall
covering it becomes thickened and pale yellow in color. At one side,
arising from the branch that bears the o6gonium or sack in which the
odspore is developed, another and smaller body is formed, which is
termed theantheridium. The antheridium, without detaching itself
from its support, comes into close contact with the odgonium at an
early period, and later on, by a special mechanism, the granular pro-
toplasmic contents of the former is doubtless conveyed to the latter,
by which means it is fertilized, and the contents of the o6gonium then
develops into an odspore.

The germination of the winter spore has never been satisfactorily
determined; but, however it may take place, it probably does not occur
until the spring or early summer following its formation,

ACTION OF THE FUNGUS.

On the leaves.—Pale green or yellowish spots of irregular size and
outline appear upon the upper side of the leaves, and corresponding
points on the lower surface soon exhibit the outside development—
the spore-bearing filiaments of the fungus—in the form of white
patches, that are very conspicuous on the smooth-leaved varieties of
grapes. Asthe disease progresses the yellowish spots of the upper sur-

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 99

face assume a brownish hue, which gradually becomes more intense,
finally having all the characters of completely dried and dead tissue.
These spots may be quite small. Late in the season the older leaves
atinaben are often covered all over with minute brown spots, which
are usually sharply defined, being limited by the nerves in the leaf:
again, they may be so large as to nearly cover the whole surface, in
which case the destruction of the leaf is quickly accomplished.
Under the final action of the fungus the leat becomes thoroughly
dried and shriveled, as if burned, and the tissues are particularly
brittle. It very rarely occurs that the mildew itself appears on the
upper surface of the leaf.

On the shoots.—In severe cases the fungus extends to the young
shoots, and, although the conidia-bearing filiaments do not appear
excepting upon the youngest and most tender of these, the action of
the mycelium checks their further development, and finally the tis-
sues are killed. The effect upon the shoots is often to produce dark-
colored, slightly depressed markings as a consequence of the sinking
away of the tissues beneath. These markings are quite distinct from
the deep and lacerated lesions of Anthracnose.

On the berries.—Berries when attacked early by the Peronospora
rarely attain more than one-fourth their full size, often remaining no
larger than small peas. They soon turn brown, or, when the fungus
fruits upon them, gray in color. There is thus produced a kind.of
“rot,” which is popularly named ‘‘ brown rot,” or ‘‘gray rot.”

The berries of some of the varieties of grapes cultivated on the
Department grounds were severely infested with the Downy Mildew
last summer (1886). In some instances the peduncle was much swol-
len and distorted through the action of the mycelial growth within,
and the fructiferous filaments or conidiophores of the Peronospora
whitened here and there with a downy coating, the berries as well
as the stalks supporting them.

REMEDIES.

Since the appearance of the Downy Mildew in France, in 1878, its
ravages have increased in that country and extended throughout
the grape-growing regions of Central and Southern Europe to such
an alarming extent as to call for the exercise of every effort on the
part of individuals and Governments to check or destroy it. Ex-
perments with remedies and preventives, begun in 1882, have been
continued systematically in European vineyards, and the results
obtained in 1885* were so satisfactory, that you considered them worthy
of trial in this country, and for this purpose distributed last May the
following circular to parties thought most likely to be interested in
the subject:

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Treatment of the Downy Grape Mildew (Peronospora viticola) and the Black-Rot
(Phoma uvicola).

In view of the fact that Mildew and Black-Rot have been so destructive to the vine
in this country that in some sections grape culture has become unprofitable and for
this reason many are abandoning the business, the importance of making special
efforts to discover effective remedies for these diseases will not be questioned.

With this object in view, the remedies which have recently been employed in

* For a detailed account of the use of these remedies in France and Italy in 1885, see
svecial bulletin No. 2, Botanical Division, on the ‘‘ Fungus Diseases of the Grape-Vine.”

100 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

France and Italy with apparent success are here given, with the urgent request that
one or more of them be tried, experimentally, and the results reported to this De-
partment, so that the one which proves to be the most efficacious and economical
may be made deat known.
Jery respectiully,
as ; NORMAN J. COLMAN,
Commissioner of Agriculture.

REMEDIES.
For Peronospora.

(1) Dissolve in 10 gallons of water 5 pounds of sulphate of copper. Soak the
stakes and whatever may be used to tie up the vines in this solution, and as soon as
the leaves are fully formed thoroughly spray them with the solution,* using for
this purpose any fine spraying apparatus. The ‘‘cyclone nozzle,” with fine aper-
ture, described and illustrated in ‘‘ Riley’s report as Entomologist for 1883,” is prob-
ably the best device for this purpose. Repeat the operation occasionally, say once
in two or three weeks. paper '

(2) Make a mixture of lime and water, as one ordinarily prepares whitewash.
Apply this in the same manner as No. 1, using a nozzle witha large aperture. After
rains the application should be renewed. ;

(3) In 22 gallons of water dissolve 18 pounds of sulphate of copper; in another ves-
sel mix 34 pounds of lime with 6 or 7 gallons of water. Pour the lime mixture into
the copper solution; mix thoroughly, and the compound is ready for use.| Placed
in conveniently sized buckets, it may be carried through the rows of the vineyard
and applied to the leaves by the aid of brooms or whisps made of slender twigs dipped
into the compound and then switched right and left so as to spray the foliage.

This remedy is very highly recommended. It is not necessary to entirely cover
the leaves. Care must be taken not to get any of the compound on the berries. t

(4) The powder of Mr. Podechard. This powder contains the following ingredi-
ents, in the proportions given: 225 pounds of air-slaked lime, 45 pounds of sulphate
of copper, 20 pounds of sulphur (powdered), 30 pounds of ashes (unleached), and 15
gallons of water. A |

These ingredients are compounded as follows: Dissolve the sulphate of copper in
the water ; when thoroughly dissolved pour the solution upon the lime, which is
surrounded by the ashes to keep the liquor from spreading ; after twenty-four hours
add the sulphur, thoroughly mix the compound, ashes and all, and when dry sift
through a sieve with meshes of one-eighth of an inch. This preparation may be
made several months before it is required for use. Its application is made simply
by dusting it upon the foliage of the vines after a heavy dew or rain with any spray-
ing or dusting device, that figured and described in the report of the Entomologist
for 1883 being well adapted to this purpose. The convenience of application renders
this powder especially well suited for use in the larger vineyards.

(5) The ordinary milk-kerosene emulsion (see Report of U. S. Entomologist, 1884,
p. 331), with the addition of from 2 to 5 per cent. of carbolic acid and the same per-
centage of glycerine, and then diluted in 20 to 50 parts of water to 1 of the emulsion.
Spray on the under surface of the leaves by means of a cyclone nozzle of small
aperture. This is known in France, where its use has been attended with satisfac-
tory results, as the ‘‘ Riley process,” having first been proposed by Dr. C. V. Riley.

For Black-Rot.

The free application of the sulphate of copper and lime appears not only to act as a
preventive against Mildew, but Black-Rot also. Asa further protection against the
latter disease it is recommended that Podechard’s powder be scattered over the
grounds in the vineyard, especially where all the trimmings and fallen grapes and
leaves of the previous year have not been removed.

Three thousand of these circulars were distributed, and I have rea-
son to believe that many made a trial of one or more of the remedies
proposed, but I regret to say that few responded to the request that
the results of these trials be reported to the Department. It is hoped

* The solution for spraying the vines here given is too strong. One pound of sul-
phate of copper to 20 gallons of water is strong enough.

+ This is the copper mixture of Gironde, or Bordeaux mixture.

} This precaution is uncalled for, except at the approach of the vintage.

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 101

that another season there will be a more hearty co-operation between
the vineyardists and Department in this work.

One correspondent, George M. High, Middle Bass, Ohio, in a letter
under the date of December 28, says:

Early last spring I received a circular from you, asking me to make some experi-
ments with remedies for the destruction of Mildew and Black-Rot.

On the 13th of June I sprinkled lime water, as directed in No. 2 of instructions,
upon 1 acre of Catawbas, about 1,000 vines. There was a heavy rain on the 24th,
washing the lime from the foliage. The weather became quite hot, so on the 28th
I again sprinkled the vines. No perceptible advantage over vines alongside not
treated. Also upon 400 vines, both upon foliage and on ground under vineyard
rows, I sprinkled air-slaked lime June 7, 14, 22; July 5, 23; and August 9, with but
very slight beneficial results, if any. I imagined the wood ripened somewhat better
than upon untreated vines.

Sulphate of copper and lime were applied as directed in remedy No. 3 with results
that convince one that, with proper application, this remedy will prove more
beneficial than anything yet known here for Mildew and Black-Rot. Fourteen vines
were selected—8 together, the balance in different parts of vineyard, 12 Catawbas
and 2 Noahs.

The first application was made June 14, spattering the foliage very thoroughly.
There was considerable rain on 20th and 21st instant, not entirely washing the leaves
clean. On 22d made a second application. First Mildew was observed 22d of July;
on the 28d I again put on the sulphate of copper and lime mixture, although the
previous application was yet quite perceptible upon the foliage. Of the vines so
treated not one was affected by either Mildew or Rot, the foliage holding its natural
color long after that on other vines had become brown and seared; the wood and
grapes ripened thoroughly. A Noah vine, upon which for several years the berries
had rotted more or less and dropped from the cluster about the time of ripening,
bore this season over 40 pounds of grapes of good quality.

The coming season I will give this remedy a more thorough trial, feeling satisfied
that it will prove effectual if applied in time. My impression is that two appli-
cations would be ample, the first soon after bloom or first indications of Mildew,
the second about the middle to last of July.

T also treated 60 Catawbas with a preparation made as follows: Dissolve 1 pound
of sulphate of copper in 2 gallons of water; in another vessel slake 4 pounds of
lime in the same quantity of water; then mix these together thoroughly. The ad-
vantage was the preservation of the foliage in a healthy condition in a marked
degree over vines untreated.

Bush & Son & Meissner, of Missouri, say:

We have tried all the remedies recommended in your circular and find that desig-
nated as No. 3 to be the best. We are continuing to apply this mixture of lime
with dissolved sulphate of copper (not too strong) with confidence in its good results.

Another correspondent states that he has used Podechard’s powder
(No. 4) with marked benefit.

MILDEW REMEDIES IN FRANCE IN 1886,

The results obtained in France in 1886 by the use of cupric fungi-
cides for Peronospora viticola fully confirm previous statements
and experiments. Those detailed by Mr. Millardet in Journal d’Ag-
riculture Pratique, November 25, 1886, are especially interesting.
The experiments at Dauzac and Beaucaillou were conducted either
by himself or by Mr. David. _Highteen remedial mixtures, dry or
fluid, were tried very carefully with the necessary control experi-
ments, and full memoranda were made from time to time of the con-
dition of the various plots. The experimental fields covered in all
about 5 acres. The most important results are given in the follow-
ing tabular abstract, compiled from the report in the Journal. It
will be seen that the most completely protective substances were:
The copper mixture of Gironde; David’s powder; Podechard’s pow-
der; mixture of sulphate of copper and plaster; cupric steatite (a
bluish-white unctuous powder, composed of steatite and sulphate of

102 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

copper); and sulphatine (a secret mixture of sulphur, lime, sulphate
of copper, and plaster).

Table showing results of experiments of Millardet and David with Mildew remedies
in France in 1886.
[In the second and third columns the scale is 10, zero indicating total destruction of foliage and 10
entire preservation. The small figure at the right and above denotes the number of times the
remedy was applied.]

Results.

Kind of remedy. Remarks.

es all gath-
er 1, 1886.

ira

G
ered Octo

Beaueaillou, October 11,

from plot of Cabernet-

Sauvignon, at Beaucail-
:

1886.

October 14, 1886.
of Cabernet-Frane, at

lou.

Condition of foliage in field

Condition of foliage in field
of Malbees, at Dauzac
Sugar, per liter, in must,

INO EPCREMIGHS, §-).)2')12000s\-saeesedes 0 0 113.6
Copper mixture of Gironde.... ..... 93 83 196. 08
Copper mixture of Gironde, differ-
Olt LOLMIUUA esa eee wes sei Sroerae 98 98 192. 28
Copper mixture of Gironde, with ad-
CHMOMOP EINE se casce aes nese: fesse 32 3t 9 187. 08
Eau erik is anecy Ente ote Je - x et a
Eau céleste. Mr, Gayon’s formula... 138. These remedies were used onl
3 ; : Yi
oe of sulphate of vopper, $ per a pi Scena on ne oe % Ye at Baan aillou,
1 Seeman g3;hscro 9 lar seaer ReneoUee ; ecause of great injury done
ie of sulphate of copper, 1 per “ s saa te foliage Gt tha vinta) Th e
NE PIRSA SPOR SOY EY Sot eee . vines at auZac, upon w ic
See ae of sulphate of copper, 2 per Z Po a) these were repeatedly use a.
VRBO 20208 SOUR Eee ees Oe * were in some cases so muc
Soluloniee sulphate of copper, 3 per * a sega | injured that the grapes did not
Solution of sulphate of copper, 4 per ae
(CRs 3o Se Se Bee eee ee 47 5l 153. 8?
Milk of lime, 15 per cent............. 14 3 153. 83
Milk of lime, 3 per cent.............. 04 Ww 135. 23
Quick-lime, slaked and sifted........ 14 05 156. 25
Davis Mp WOer tc. c6c.-. 2 seas dee 84 96 200. 05
Podechard’s powder ..............--- 5a 86 196. 08
Mixture of plaster and sulphate of
eourels RSPR Pose. ae ie Heise ees 44 fe 188. 6°
Sulpho-steatite, or cupric steatite.... 7 8 187. 08

Sulphatine (secret compound)....... | Lb g& #10. 6°

*For formula of Eau céleste, see p. 103, under ‘“‘Audoynaud process.”

+David’s powder is made as follows: Slake 66 pounds of lime in the least possible amount of water,
and dissolve 174 pounds of sulphate of copper in the smallest quantity of water necessary to effect its
solution. Mix the latter with the lime when it is completely cooled. Let the compound dry in the sun,
then crush and sift it, when it is ready for use.

+The plaster and sulphate of copper remedy is composed of 66 pounds of ponter and 17 pounds of
sulphate of copper. The copper salt is dissolved in the least possible amount of water, and then poured
upon the plaster. Mix thoroughly, dry in the sun, crush, and sift. t

In a letter to Prof. C. V. Riley, U. 8. Entomologist, M. G. Foéx,
of the National School of Agricu ture at Montpellier, France, under
date of November 30, 1886, having reference to the results and conclu-
sions reached at the International Congress mentioned below, says:

The most interesting portion of the meeting at Florence was the discussions rela-
tive to the treatment of the Mildew. The efficacy of the salts of copper was boldly
proclaimed.

The best formule given are:

(1) Bordeaux mixture.*—The vines are sprinkled during their vegetation with a
mixture of sulphate of copper and lime, prepared as follows:

In 100 liters p, of water dissolve 6 to 8 kilograms } of sulphate of copper; in another

*The same as the ‘‘ Copper mixture of Gironde.” Equals No. 3 in the circular of
remedies above quoted, with a slight reduction in the quantity of sulphate of cop-
per used.

{One liter =1.76 pints. }One kilogram or kilo=2,2 pounds.

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 103

vessel 15 kilograms of air-slaked lime are mixed in 30 liters of water. When the sul-
phate of copper is completely dissolved and the lime forms a homogeneous mixture,
the latter is poured into the sulphate of copper solution, the mixture being stirred
in the preparation. There is thus obtained a clear blue precipitate, which settles to
the bottom of the vessel. This precipitate should be stirred up at the time of using,
to put it in suspension in the water.* F

(2) Audoynaud process.—M. Audoynaud, professor of chemistry in our school, has
proposed to sprinkle the leaves with ammoniacal sulphate of copper. This liquid is
made in the following manner: In a stoneware or glass vessel 2 or 3 liters of warm
water are poured upon a kilogram of sulphate of copper, which is stirred with a wooden
or glass rod to hasten solution. When cooled, a liter of commercial ammonia is
added. This liquid is finally mixed in a suitable cask with sufficient water to make
200 liters, which serve for the treatment of one hectare.t The application of this
liquid is made by means of the Riley sprayer.

(3) Sulphated sulphur.—M. Theophile Skawinski, at Chateau Laujac, in Gironde,
and M. D. Cavazza, director of the school of viticulture at Alba (Piedmont), have
used successfully mixtures of pulverized sulphur with 8 to 10 per cent. of sulphate
of copper finely triturated.

These three remedies have shown themselves efficacious, but the one which ap-
pears thus far to have given the most security from the Mildew is the second. Te
has the advantage of adhering strongly to the leaves, remaining upon them until
their fall. The salts of copper, thus applied to the leaves, act by preventing the ger-
mination of the conidia, and consequently the development of the Peronospora.

By referring to the table showing the results of the experiments of
Messrs. Millardet and David, it will be seen that the Audoynaud
liquid (Haw céleste) did not give good results in their hands, and,
besides, its application injuriously affected the foliage.

_ In October last (1886) there was held at Florence, Italy, an inter-
national congress for the ‘‘exhibition of machines and apparatus for
the preparation, transportation, distribution, and application of reme-
dies against fungi and insects.” At the same time there were held a
number of special meetings for the discussion of the fungus diseases
of the vine and the remedies to be employed against them. Accord-
ing to an official report of these meetings, the conclusions in respect
to remedies were: (1) That gaseous remedies applied against the Pe-

*In respect to this remedy Professor Foéx, in an article in the June number (1886)
of La Vigne Américaine, says:

‘*Tts action is due to the copper which it contains. The presence of this metal,
even in a very minute quantity, in drops of dew or rain on the upper surface of the
leaves, prevents the germination of the conidial spores which may have been brought
ae by the wind. Thus forestalled, the disease cannot establish itself upon the

eaves,

“* Mode of application.—The copper mixture should be distributed by sprinkling in
little drops on the upper surface of the leaves. Two or three spots thus produced
suffice to completely preserve a leaf, and they become sufficiently adherent and co-
herent, as soon as they have dried, to remain until the leaves fall.

‘‘The sprinklings were made in Gironde, in 1885, with a simple broom of heath,
which was plunged into a bucket or watering-pot containing the mixture. This
plan of operating, gives satisfaction so far as the distribution of the substance is
concerned, but it has the inconvenience of being somewhat slow, and it requires
much hand labor; therefore apparatuses have been devised which permit more rapid
operation at a less expense of muscle. The one which gave the best results at the
trial held in Montpellier, in February, 1886, was that of Mr. Delord, 9 Rue St.,
Gilles, Nimes. ;

“* Time when the treatment should be made.—The salts of copper having the effect,
as we have seen, of preventing the disease from becoming established, their use
should be preventive. The vines should, therefore, be treated before May 15, at
which date the Peronospora has sometimes made its appearance in certain places in
the Department of Herault. In operating at so early a date only a small portion of
the leaves can be reached, the greater number developing between this period and
the ist of June. In practice, therefore, it is better probably to sacrifice, if need be,
some of the first leaves, and make the treatment only when the vegetation has
reached a sufficient development, say, in Herault from the 1st to the 15th of June.”

+One hectare = about 24 acres,

104 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ronospora have not given any useful results; (2) that among the
remedies in the form of powder thus far tried the most efficacious are ~
those in which sulphate of copper is used; (3) that the mixture of lime
and ashes and of lime and sulphur have not as yet given results suffi-
ciently satisfactory to enable us to recommend their use; (4) among
the liquid remedies, the milk of lime, prepared so as to make it con-
venient for application, has proven quite satisfactory. However, its
use from a practical and economic standpoint encounters In many
places serious difficulties; (5) that the remedies most successful in
the results obtained are the mixed liquids or solutions containing sul-
phate of copper. : Aas

It was further concluded that the action of the remedies is prevent-
ive; therefore only the preventive application can check the invasion
of the Mildew, and repeated applications act only in so far as they pre-
vent future invasions of the disease. In localities much subject to
the Mildew it is necessary to apply the remedies to the vine before the
season of bloom, and in all places it is needful to apply them with the
greatest thoroughness as soon as the Mildew appears, and to repeat
the application according to the necessities and the nature of the
remedy.

No evidence was adduced showing that the applications of the salts
of copper to the vine had resulted in injury to the public health.

A simple solution of sulphate of copper, 300 to 500 grams to the
hectoliter* of water, has proved in some instances to be equally effect-
ive in warding off the Mildew as the copper mixture of Gironde. As
its application is attended with much less inconvenience and expense,
further trials should be made to determine its relative value. This
solution, like all others, should be applied preventively, say about
June 15, unless the Mildew appears earlier ; a second apphcation being
made about the Ist of August.t

SKAWINSKI'S POWDER FOR COMBATING THE MILDEW ALONE, OR THE
MILDEW AND THE OIDIUM TOGETHER. {

Having determined the value of sulphate of copper as a remedy for
the Mildew, Mr. Skawinski, a viticulturist of Chateau-Giscours,
France, experimented, with the view of discovering means for fixing
the particles of this salt upon the leaves of the vine. He discovered
that coal dust or calcined alluvial earth, added in proper proportions
to the finely triturated sulphate of copper, gave to it the quality of
adherence desired.

The compound for the treatment of the Mildew alone consists of
sulphate of copper, finely powdered, 10 kilograms; soot or alluvial
earth, 15 kilograms; coal dust, 75 kilograms.

For combating the Mildew and the Oidium: Sulphate of copper, 10
kilograms; sulphur, 50 kilograms; coal dust, 32 kilograms; soot or
calcined alluvial earth, 3 kilograms.

The first treatment should be made when the shoots are about 6
inches long; a second may be given at the time of flowering; a third,
woen phe berry is formed; and a fourth, at the time of ripening of

e fruit.

*One hectoliter = 22 gals.

{The application of the sulphate of copper compounds for preventing Mildew
should be made in cloudy or rainy weather, for at such times the danger of corrosion
from a too rapid evaporation of the solutions is avoided. and they will also be more
evenly and thoroughly distributed over the surface of the leaves.

¢ La Vigne Américaine, November, 1886.

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION, 105

Five kilograms of the powder is about the quantity required for
an acre of vines. It is applied with an ordinary sulphuring-bellows.

The value of the Bordeaux mixture, or, as we have come to term
it, the copper mixture of Gironde, has been settled beyond dispute,
but there are certain factors which may determine the degree of the
success in its use which ought to be considered, These are, the care-
ful preparation of the mixture; the time of its application; the more
or less intelligent manner in which the spraying has been made; the
atmospheric conditions of rain or dryness existing at the time or
which may follow the operation; the number of treatments made;
and the purity of the sulphate of copper used.

These are all points which should be carefully noted in experi-
menting with this and the other remedies proposed, especially in de-
termining their relative value as fungicides.

In the hands of some grape-growers a remedy may seem to give
excellent results, but before it receives unqualified recommendation it
must be tried in many localities and during a series of years, in order
to eliminate all sources of error. Many cases of apparent benefit
from the applications may be solely due to accident, such as changes
in the weather or some other cause not within the control of the
Salt If applications are made to the vines in years when, from

ryness or other natural cause, fungi of all sorts are unusually scarce,
then, unless very carefully conducted control experiments are made
at the same time, it is easy to see how results due solely to the season
or location might be ascribed to the remedy, and false conclusions
arise. Hasty generalizations from a few observations and experi-
ments are very common, but the careful investigator will not be de-
. ceived by them. In reference to all proposed remedies, it may be
said only when the disappearance of the fungus uniformly follows
the application of the remedy are we warranted in attributing this
to its use.

II.—THE POWDERY MILDEW.
Uncinula spiralis, B. and C.
(Plate II.)

Like the Downy Mildew, the Powdery Mildew of the vine is a
native of this country, and attacks the foliage, young shoots, and
berries of both the wild and cultivated varieties of the grape, show-
ing a decided preference to those of the Vinifera class. Here the re-
semblance ceases, however, for the Uncinula is a fungus of a very
different habit of growth from the Peronospora, and belongs to an
entirely distinct group of parasites—a group embracing what are
familiarly referred to as the White Mildews or Blights, of which the
common Grass Mildew (Erysiphe graminis), the Lilac Mildew (M?-
crospheria Friesit), and the too well known Mildew of the Hop-vine
are examples. The diversity extends even to the climatic conditions
favoring the growth of these two fungi; for, while a liberal supply
of moisture is necessary to the full development of the Peronspora,
the Uncinula likes a comparatively dry atmosphere, and always oc-
casions most injury during seasons of protracted drought. It has
long been known as a serious pest in California, and is nowhere en-
tirely absent in the region east of the Mississippi. In the average
season, however, it does comparatively little injury in the open vine-

a

106 REPORT OF 'THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

yard—at least the injury is slight as compared with that wrought by
the Downy. Mildew.

This season I have observed it in all its phases of development, both
upon vines in the open air and upon those cultivated under glass here
at the Department. Upon the foreign varieties in the grapery it was
most abundant and its injurious effects most apparent.

The term ‘‘ Powdery Grape-Vine Mildew” was first applied to this
fungus by Prof. C. V. Riley,* and as it is descriptive, and at the same
time clearly distinguishes this mildew from Peronospora viticola, to
which‘the same author has applied the name of ‘‘ Downy Mildew,” it
has been employed here, with the hope that it may become generally
adopted by those who prefer English to Latin names,

It has frequently been discussed in our agricultural and horticul-
tural journals for many years past under the name of ‘‘ Oidiwm
Tuckeri,” or simply ‘‘ Oidium,” it being supposed that our fungus
was the same as the European vine mildew of that name, but whether
the Huropean Oidiwm is the same as our Uncinula or not is yet a
matter of question, owing to the fact that the mature or fruiting form
of the first named has never been discovered, the conidial stage alone
being known. De Bary has suggested that the Kuropean Oidiwm is
an importation from America. He says: +

Concerning its first appearance and spread in Europe, it can be accepted as certain
that it was transported suddenly from some other flowering species introduced into
our vineyards from abroad. Most probably its immigration is from America. [The.
italics are mine.—F. L. 8.] In spite of its destructive spreading over the whole
vine-growing portion of Europe, the most careful investigations in this country
have nowhere led to the discovery of any indication of perithecia; the entire inva-
sion takes place by means of the conidia, produced in great abundance, the form
of which has procured the fungus the name of Oidium (O. Tuckeri). The perithecia
are probably found in North America on the native sorts of Vitis, and have been de-
scribed as E. (Uncinula) spiralis, Berk. and Curtis; yet this is not certain.

The Powdery Mildew consists of a mycelial growth, that rests wholly
upon the surface of the parts of the vine supporting it, and the repro-
ductive bodies or spores, of which there are two kinds. The threads
or hyphe of the mycelium have a uniform diameter of about gis of
an inch, are much branched and interlaced, and are provided with
frequent septa or cross-walls. Where this mycelium is applied di-
rectly to:the epidermis of the supporting plant there are developed
at short intervals irregular protuberances or suckers, by which the
fungus fastens itself to the host and through which it imbibes its
nourishment.

If the fungus be examined early in the season, say in June or early
in July, short branches will be seen arising from the threads at right
angles, or nearly so, to the plane of their growth. The branches are
dividéd into several oblong cells by cross-walls. The uppermost cell
is slightly larger than that immediately below it and is rounded at
its upper extremity. If this terminal cell be watched we will soon
see its lower end becoming rounded like the upper, forming thus a
stricture between it and the next cell below, from which it is soon
completely separated and falls off. The next cell of the branch
quickly passes through the same changes noted in the first, and in
this way a number of conidia are formed in rapid succession. Like
the conidia of the Peronospora, those of the Uncinula serve for the
immediate propagation and dissemination of the fungus; but damp-

*Proc. Amer. Pom. Soc., session of 1885, p. 49.
¢ Verg. Morph. u. Biol. der Pilze, &c., pp. 244-245,

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 107

ness, or a moderate amount of humidity only, is sufficient for their
germination. They do not require water condensed in the form of
drops of rain or dew, as does the Downy Mildew, and they germinate
by the immediate production of germ-tubes and not by zodspores.
The conidia are thin-walled, oblong cells, filled with a transparent
granular matter. One of these bodies falling upon a grape-leaf will,
under favorable conditions of temperature and humidity, push forth
one or more germ-tubes, which first send haustoria, or suckers, into
the epidermal cells and then grow into the thread-like branched my-
celial formation (thallus) diffused over the surface. By their multi-
tude these threads now become visible to the unaided eye, and we
have pet has been familiarly termed ‘‘ Mildew,” ‘‘Hrysiphe,” ‘* Oid-
aum,” &c.

When the mycelial growth has attained its full development a spore
formation of an entirely different character from that above described
takes place. Perithecia, or what we may be allowed to term “‘ fruits,”
are formed, within which spores are produced in a number of little
sacs called asci. These ‘‘fruits” are especially abundant on the in-
vaded organs of the vine during the months of September and Octo-
ber. To the naked eye they appear as minute dark-brown or black
points, thickly dotting the mildewed surface. (One of these bodies
is figured in Plate II. The appendages which surround the perithe-
cium usually stand up at quite an angle to the plane of their attach-
ment; they do not lay out flat, as represented in the figure. )

In their growth the perithecia are at first quite colorless, then pale:
yellow, and finally very dark brown or black. The appendages are
clear and transparent at their extremities, but have a brownish color
towards their bases. They are divided into several cells by transverse.
walls, and are sometimes, though rarely, branched or divided above.

The asci, developed within the perithecium, are delicately walled,
transparent sacs that contain the ascospores or sporidia. These are
oblong bodies, rather more rounded in outline than the conidia and
somewhat smaller. They are the true winter spores of the fungus.
Closely incased within the hard, compact walls of the perithecium,
they are well protected from injury and the severe weather of winter. .
In the spring the walls of the perithecium decay or crack open, allow-
ing the sporidia to escape, and bring about a new infection of the
vines. Doubtless a sufficient number of these fungus fruits remain.
adhering to the vines through the winter to bring about a recurrence
of the disease as soon as the conditions favorable to the germination
of the sporidia prevail.

ACTION OF THE POWDERY MILDEW ON THE VINE.

The Powdery Mildew makes its appearance usually during the
early days of June and continues its development late into the autumn.
It appears in dull, grayish-white patches, most conspicuous on the
upper surface of the leaves, and when growing thickly on the young
shoots or berries its mycelium imparts to these organs a similar hue.
It never has the bright, lustrous, or frosty appearance that charac-
terizes the Downy Mildew, and the livid brown or seemingly scorched
blotches on the leaves that the latter fungus occasions are wanting,
although in thin-leaved varieties of foreign vines a discoloration.
takes place through thé whole thickness of the leaf, visible at the
points below the patches of fungus growth on the surface above. In
a few instances I have seen the mycelial growth so dense upon the

108 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

leaves as to give them the appearance of having been spattered and
blotched with whitewash, the spots being a pure dead white. This
mildew is also found on the lower surface of the leaves, but never to
the same extent as upon the upper side; and as it is only in the latter
part of the season that it has been observed there at all, its presence
is doubtless due to an extension of growth from other parts, as from
the petiole.

Upon the young and tender shoots the fungus is often particularly
abundant, its action being to check their growth. Its presence on
the older and half-ripened shoots is indicated by distinct but irregu-
lar brownish blotches in the epidermis. Sometimes the Uncinula
appears during the season of bloom, and, coming on the newly ex-
panded flowers, causes them to abort. Attacking very young berries
when these are no larger than shot or small peas, their growth is
permanently checked. Cases have come under my observation where
the Peronospora, the Uncinula, and the fungus of the Black-Rot were
all engaged in their work of destruction upon a single bunch of:
grapes. It is needless to say that the destruction was complete.

Upon the older berries the presence of the Powdery Mildew is made
evident before the mycelial threads have obtained sufficient growth
to become conspicuous themselves by the minute brownish spots
produced by the action of the suckers on the epidermal cells. These
spots eventually become confluent, the epidermis dies or is so affected
that it will no longer expand with the growth of the berry and con-
sequently bursts, first forming tiny, then gaping tears, the result
being the death and decay of the berry. Oftentimes the fungus
spreads over only 8 small portion of the berry; this part ceases to
grow, and a much distorted or imperfectly formed fruit is the result.
The distortions are often carried so far that the berries crack open,
exposing the seeds. We sometimes find nearly full-grown berries
completely overgrown with the mycelium of the Uncinula, so that
the brown specks above mentioned, if present at all, are completely
hid from view. These berries eventually become dry and shriveled
and finally drop off.

REMEDIES.

The flowers of sulphur is an efficient and the usual remedy employed
for this form of Mildew.

It is not necessary to bring the particles of sulphur into immediate
contact with the spores and fungus threads to effect their destruction;
the fumes which this substance emits at elevated temperatures will
accomplish this. The knowledge that heat favors the production of
these fumes makes it obvious that the best time to make the applica-
tion is when the thermometer stands the highest. The fumes are
given off rapidly when the temperature ranges between 75° and 95° F.
The higher the temperature the more abundant are these fumes, and
consequently the more rapid will be the destruction of the parasite.
In latitudes where the soil temperature reaches 110° to 120° during the
day it has been found that spreading the sulphur on the ground under
the vines is sufficient to accomplish the destruction of the mildew,
and a like result is obtained by dusting the sulphur over the hot-water
pipes in the grapery, providing these be sufficiently heated.

If the sulphuring be delayed until the formation of the perithecia it
is not likely to do much good, for although it may destroy the myce-
lial threads, the ascospores are too well protected within their hard
coverings to be caparedt by the application.

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 109

The time when the sulphur should be employed is in early summer,
at the first appearance of the Mildew, and the application is most
effective when made on a warm, bright day, after all dew has evapo-
rated. However well this application may be made, it is almost cer-
tain that some of the fungus threads and many of the conidia will
escape destruction. Krom these, or from spores brought from other
vineyards, a new infection may appear in from twenty to thirty days,
when a second sulphuring should be made.

In districts particularly subject to this disease it is recommended
that the vines be sulphured—first, when the young shoots are about 4
inches long; second, at the time of blossoming; third, some days be-
fore the turning of the berries. In bad seasons the mildew may make
its appearance between these periods, when of course additional sul-
phurings should be made. Particular emphasis is placed upon the
sulphuring at the time of bloom, for the flowers are almost certain to

-be rendered sterile if attacked by the Uncinula, and every precaution
should be taken to prevent, if possible, the development of the Mil-
dew at this time.

III.—Biacxk-Ror.
Physalospora Bidwellit, Sace. °
(Plate III.)

The Black-Rot of the grape is adisease familiar toall grape-growers
of the Middle Atlantic and Central States. It is known to prevail
with greater or less severity—in some instances causing the total de-
struction of the grape crop—in Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana,
Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, South
Carolina, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and
Kansas.

It is now more than twenty-five years since Dr. George Engelmann,
in a paper communicated to the Saint Louis Academy of Sciences,
clearly pointed out the characters of this rot and described the active
stage of the fungus which produces it. A great deal has been writ-
ten and published concerning this disease in more recent years, but
very little additional information has beenacquired. The atmospheric
conditions favoring its development had already been pointed out,
and the fact that certain varieties were more subject to it than others
had already been noted, while to-day we are yet looking for an efli-
cacious remedy.

The first manifestation of Black-Rot is the appearance of a livid
brown spot on some part of the berry; this spot gradually increases
in size until the entire grape is uniformly discolored, so that it appears
to be rotten, although its original contour and firmness are retained.
It usually happens that before the completion of this change the part
first affected becomes darker in color, and minute black pimples are
developed over the surface. At the same point the berry now begins
to lose its fullness, an irregular depression appears, which soon extends
into a poner withering of the berry, the pimples meanwhile having
multiplied so rapidly as to cover its entire surface. The destruction
of the berry is now complete; it is hard, dry, shriveled to one-half or
one-fourth its original size, the folds of the skin being closely pressed
upon the seeds and raised into strong, prominent, and irregular ridges.
These last and the little pimples, which are easily seen with the naked

wae SES

110 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

eye, are characteristic of this form of rot. The rotted berries remain
firmly attached to their supports for a long time, sometimes even till
the following spring. .

The maniaktanione of the Black-Rot do not always appear as de-
tailed above, for not infrequently the first evidence of the disease is
the sudden appearance of one or more circular, slightly depressed
spots, of a bluish-black color, in the center of which there soon ap-
pear a few of the little pimples or pustules above referred to. These
spots increase in size, the pimples in number, and ere long the berry
exhibits the black and shriveled appearance already described.

These changes are effected in from one to five days, varying with
the atmospheric conditions. ne

The fungus of the Black-Rot is figured in detail in Plate III. It
consists of a vegetative or mycelial growth, which pervades the tis-
sues of the berry, turning them brown and ultimately destroying or
absorbing their contents, and of several distinct forms of reproduct-
ive bodies or spores.

During the earlier stages of the disease, the mycelium is most
abundant near the surface of the berry, and here, at frequent points,
just beneath the cuticle, it makes a condensed growth, resulting in
the formation of the perithecia or conceptacles destined to contain
the spores. In their development these conceptacles raise and finally
burst through the cuticle, imparting to the surface of the berry the
pimply or pustulous appearance mentioned above. At the apex of
the exposed part of each conceptacle there is a minute opening or
osteolum through which the spores escape at maturity.

The spores are pushed out, probably by the absorption of water, in
the form of minute worm-like threads, being held together by a kind
of mucilage. (See Fig. 1, Plate III.)

The conceptacles found upon a newly diseased berry are of two
sorts; one contains oval or oblong spores, named stylospores, and the
other contains much smaller cylindrical spores, called spermatia.
These two sorts may form distinct pustules or they may be united in
the same stroma,* as illustrated in Fig, 2, Plate III.

The stylospores germinate freely in water within a space of three or
fourhours. They throw outaslender tube, which soon provides itself
with septa, branches, and quickly develops into a mycelium in every
way like that seen within the tissues of the berry. How long these
stylospores may retain their germinative power is unknown, but it is
not likely that they hold it through the winter season. Their office
is undoubtedly to effect the immediate propagation of the fungus.

What may be the réle of the spermatia in the economy of the fun-
gus is a matter of speculation. Their very small size and consequent
lightness have suggested to the minds of some that their office is to
more certainly effect the wide distribution of the fungus. In speak-
ing of these bodies in general, in the order Pyrenomycetes, Cornu
says: ‘‘ They are true spores, since they germinate and give out fila-
ments, having all the appearance of mycelial threads.” He regards
them as very small conidia, of a spebial ftoren, borne upon particular
arbuscles in protecting conceptacles. They do not in general ger-
minate in pure water, and they have a rather slow development.
Their physiological réle appears to be determined by their very small
size and the circumstances which their germination requires,

If the exposed surfaces of the conceptacles above mentioned a:

* Stroma, the substance in which the perithecia of some fungi are immersed.

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION, 111

carefully examined, especially after a period of very damp weather,
one will often find arising from them short stalks or conidiophores,
bearing very small oval conidia. This growth is illustrated in Fig.
4, Plate III.

The discovery of the mature or ascigerous form of the fungus of
the Black-Rot is recorded in the ‘‘ Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical
Club for August, 1880.” It appears that Dr. E. C. Bidwell, of Vine-
land, N. J., made this discovery in the early part of May of that year
(1880) in grapes which had been diseased with the rot the season pre-
vious. At about the same time Mr. J. B. Ellis, the well-known my-
cologist of Newfield, N. J., found the same form in theold and shriv-
eled grapes gathered from the ground in vineyards at his place. This
mature or ascigerous form of the fungus of the Black-Rot is shown in
ie . 6, Plate III, drawn from specimens very kindly sent me by Mr.
Ellis. :

Within the conceptacle or perithecium are seen a multitude of little
sacs, named asci, in which are developed spores that are technically
called sporidia or ascospores.

The walls of the asci are very transparent, and it is difficult to de-
termine their outline, except they be separated and viewed singly.
(Figs. 7 and 8, Plate III.) Except for the sporidia they contain they
are perfectly transparent.

The perithecia containing the asci are in all respects like those
that inclose the stylospores, and they have every appearance of being
developed from the same mycelium, which doubtless retains its vital-
ity through the winter months within the diseased berries.

To sum up the life history of the fungus of the Black-Rot we have:
(1) The stylospores, inclosed in conceptacles, the Phoma uvicola of
authors; (2) the spermatia, produced at the same time and inclosed
in similar though smaller conceptacles; (3) the conidia, externally de-
veloped on short conidiophores; and (4) the sporidia, which are
formed in asci that are inclosed in a protecting perithecium. The
stylospores, and possibly also the spermatia, are undoubtedly de-
signed for the immediate propagation of the fungus. The conidia
probably serve the same purpose, and by their tardy development
may help to continue the fungus from year to year. The sporidia,
without doubt, are the special reproductive bodies for the latter pur-
pose, being analogous to what have already been named ‘“‘ winter
spores.’

Fwien the mature form of this fungus was discovered, Mr. Ellis
named it, in honor of the discoverer, Spheria Bidweillii. A more
recent system of classification has placed it in the genus Physalo-
oe and itis now known to mycologists as Physalospora Bidwellit

acc. ;

REMEDIES.

It is plainly evident from the nature of the fungus of the Black-Rot
that alt remedies must be preventive. When the mycelium is once
established in the tissues of the berry the destruction of the latter is
certain.

It is now known that the fungus passes the winter in the diseased
and withered berries of the previous season, and possibly also in the
young shoots. Hence, by gathering and raking together in the au-
tumn all the fallen berries and trimmings from the vine and burn-
ing them, just so much infectious material will be destroyed. The
washing of the vines in early spring, before the buds have commenced

142 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

to swell, with a strong solution of sulphate of iron may assist in this
work of prevention by destroying the disease germs, and it is quite

ossible that the remedies advocated for combating the Downy Mil-
the copper mixture of Gironde or David’s powder—may prove
of value in preventing this Black-Rot. _

For many years it has been the practice among vineyardists to pro-
tect certain varieties of grapes, designed especially for exhibition,
from the depredations of birds and insects by inclosing the young
bunches in paper bags. It was observed that grapes thus covere
escaped the Black-Rot, when those exposed were entirely destroyed.
From this discovery the *‘ paper-bag remedy” soon came to be gen-
erally advocated, and to-day we know of no more economical and
certain means of preventing the Black-Rot than that of inclosing the
half-grown bunches in paper bags. Two-pound brown-paper bags,
costing about $1.25 per 1,000, may be used; these are drawn over the
bunches and tied or pinned arotnd the stems.

ANTHRACNOSE.
Sphaceloma ampelinum, De By.
(Plate IV.)

In so far as we have any evidence, this isa comparatively new dis-
ease in this country, and one which is likely to seriously affect the
grape interests in the Middle and Central States, if not held in check
by prompt treatment. It has already become distributed over a wide
extent of territory. Specimens exhibiting this disease were received
at the Department the past season from South Carolina, Michigan,
Tllinois, Delaware, and New Jersey. Prof. T. J. Burrill, of Cham-
paign, IIl., first observed it in Central Illinois in 1881, and afterwards
in many localities in that State; also in Indiana, near Indianapolis;
in Michigan, at Lansing; and in Ohio, at Cleveland. All the samples
received affected with this disease were of white or light-colored va-
rieties. The berries of the Elvira, in one instance, were entirely de-
stroyed by it.

In Europe it has been known for many years, and has received va-
rious names, as ‘“‘Charbon,” ‘‘Brenner,” ‘‘Schwarze Brenner,” ‘‘Pech,”
&c., but that which has come into most general use is ‘‘Anthracnose,”
derived from the two Greek words, for ‘‘ coal” and ‘‘ disease.”

Anthracnose, like the Black-Rot, is caused by a minute fungus, the
habit of which, however, is radically different from the fungus of
that disease, as are also the external changes which it induces. All
the green parts of the vine are subject to its attacks from the begin-
ning of spring vegetation until the close of the growing season, and,
when very abundant, the injury occasioned to the young shoots is
quite as serious as its action on the fruit.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS,

The external characters of Anthracnose are determined by the
growth of a special fungus, as has been demonstrated by inoculations
or sowings of the fungus spores upon healthy shoots and berries.

On the shoots.—There first appear minute brown spots, a little de-

ressed in the middle, with a slightly raised dark-colored rim or bor-
er. These spots increase in size, elongating in the direction of the

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 113

strics of the bark, the central portion becomes more evidently de-
stroyed, and in severe cases the woody tissues beneath appear as if
burned or corroded, so deeply sometimes as to reach the pith.

On the leaves.—The action of the fungus on the leaves is similar
to that upon the stems, and it is certainly very evident that where
the diseased spots are numerous and the development of the fungus
proceeds without interruption both shoots and leaves must succumb
to the parasite. The intensity of the disease upon the shoots may
cause the destruction of the young leaves even when the latter are
not directly attacked.

On the berries.—So far as my own observations are concerned, the
severity of this disease has been especially marked upon the fruit.
In order to appreciate the full extent of the injury occasioned to the
berry one has only to consult Plate IV, Fig. 1, which represents a
bunch of Elvira received from Mr. Wanner, of South Carolina, af-
fected with Anthracnose. The progressive stages of the malady are
fully illustrated; a little to the left of the center is a berry showing
the first external manifestations of the disease. There is a small spot,
grayish in the center, where the cuticle of the berry has been de-
stroyed, with a dark-brown border. Previous to the bursting or
rupturing of the cuticle the entire spot is of a deep brown color.

hese spots enlarge, retaining a more or less regular, rounded out-
line, and between the light-colored central portion and the dark
border-line there often appears a well-defined band of bright vermil-
ion. Finally, under the action of the disease the berries begin to
wither and dry up, leaving nothing apparently but the skin and the
seeds. There is no browning of the tissues of the berry, asin the
case of the Black-Rot, nor does the skin shrivel, as in that disease,
leaving prominent and very irregular ridges, but the circular spots
first formed are easily seen and the colorings characteristic of the
disease are retained, imparting a striking appearance which has given
rise to the local name of ‘‘ Bird’s eye rot.” A berry may be attacked
upon one side when it is not more than half grown; it then becomes
irregular in shape, the diseased part making no further development,
and it sometimes happens that this side cracks open, exposing the
seeds, which are gradually forced out by the unequal growth.

THE FUNGUS.

The fungus of Anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelinum) doubtless
belongs to the same class as that which includes the fungus of the
Black-Rot, but the several stages of its development have never been
satisfactorily made out. We only know it in its active or disease-

roducing form, the various details of which are illustrated in Plate

V. The spores of the Sphaceloma germinate readily in water, and
if these germinating spores are sown upon the green and healthy parts
of the vine the characteristic spots of Anthracnose avill appear in
about eight days. In often-repeated experiments the disease has
ae itself at the points where the spores were sown, and nowhere
else.

REMEDIES.

The Sphaceloma grows very near the surface, and as soon as it has
burst through the epidermis it is practically exposed in all its parts
to the direct action of fungicides. Much mischief to the vine may

8 AG—86

114 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

be done before this exposure of the mycelium and spores takes place,
and consequently, here as elsewhere, prevention 1s more valuable
than cure.

Certain varieties of grapes are more subject to this disease than
others, but if we attempt to avoid Anthracnose, Black-Rot, and the
Mildews by a system of selection based upon this principle, we will
have to discard grape culture entirely, or at least all those varieties
which are most highly prized. The kinds that usually escape the
Mildew are, in some cases, the very ones most “‘susceptible” to the
Black-Rot, and those which may “‘resist” the latter malady may be
the first to succumb to the Anthracnose.

Anthracnose is most prevalent in wet seasons and in low situations
or where the vineyards are poorly drained; and too heavy manuring,
especially with fresh stable manure, is said to favor its development.

ater in a condensed form is necessary for the diffusion and Dee
agation of the fungus of Anthracnose, and any appliance that shall
prevent deposition of rain or dew upon the foliage or other parts of
the vine will secure immunity from the disease. Inclosing the half-
grown bunches of grapes in paper bags will doubtless be as useful a
rotection of the berries against Anthracnose as from Black-rot, and
or the same reasons. This system of vine protection, excepting for
the berries, is hardly practicable in vineyards of any size, and other
remedies must be sought.

In districts in Europe where the vines are subject to this disease
the practice is quite general to bathe or wash the vines in early spring,
before the buds have commenced to expand, with a strong solution
(50 per cent.) of sulphate of iron, applied with an ordinary mop or
large sponge, fixed to the end of a stick 2 or 3 feet long. This wash-
ing should be done when the atmosphere is damp, in order to prevent
a too rapid evaporation of the iron solution, which otherwise might
result in injury to the vine. When the young shoots have attained
a one of 5 or 6 inches they receive a good dusting with the flow-
ers of sulphur, whether the disease has appeared on them or not.
The new growth is then carefully watched, and at the first sign of
the malady the vines are again treated, this time with sulphur, to
which has been added one-third to one-half its bulk of powdered
lime. If the progress of the disease is not checked by this treatment
the sulphur is omitted in subsequent applications, which are of finely
pulverized lime.

Where this treatment of the vines with sulphate of iron, followed
by heavy and frequent use of sulphur or sulphur and lime, has been
adhered to for several years, Anthracnose now rarely appears, or has
ceased to be injurious, even in locations where before it was exceed-
ingly destructive.

From recent experiments it appears that quicker and more positive
results may be obtained with the aid of sulphate of copper. ‘To the
iron solution (500 grams to the liter of water), with rch the vines
are bathed just before the buds begin to expand in the spring, sul-
phate of copper is added at the rate of 50 grams to the liter; and in
the sulphurings which follow add to the sulphur one-tenth its weight
in sulphate of copper, very finely powdered.

A correspondent in La Vigne Américaine, December, 1886, states
that he treated his vines for Anthracnose, by liberally washing them
with the Bordeaux mixture. This application was made during the
season of growth, for the writer goes on to say that ‘‘in a short time
the disease disappeared, vegetation started up again with vigor; the

/

MYCOLOGIOAL SECTION. ~ 115

clusters which still remained at the time of treatment took a normal
development, and in autumn the vines were finer than they had ever
been.” He had often used sulphate of iron for the treatment of the
same disease, but never with such a result.

It is greatly to be hoped that those having vines subject to this
disease will give these remedies a thorough trial, both to determine
their value and quickness of action.

DISTRIBUTION AND SEVERITY OF THE GRAPE MILDEWS AND BLACK-
Rot IN THE UNITED STATES.

With the Circular on Remedies for Mildew and Rot, given in full
on page 99, there was sent out a circular of inquiry, having for its
object the obtaining of a more definite knowledge as to the distribu-
tion of, and losses occasioned by, Grape-vine Mildews and Black-Rot
of the grape. :

‘Nearly 400 of these circulars were returned filled out, in the ma-
jority of cases with evident care; and the information thus acquired
forms an important chapter in my special report on the Fungus Dis-
eases of the Grape-vine, from which I extract the following:

THE MILDEWS.

Of all who reported, 202 had neither observed nor heard of the
Mildews in their county, or did not know them, or did not state.
One hundred and eighty persons, in nearly as many localities, stated
the presence of Uncinula spiralis or~Peronospora viticola, or both,
with varying degrees of injury to the vineyards. The reported loss,
depending upon the locality and the season, ranges from ‘‘slight” to
“total.” Nearly one-third of all who reported stated the loss in the
vineyards of their section to be in bad years from 25 to 50 per cent.
of the crop, and in some instances, in particular vineyards or upon
certain varieties, the entire crop. If the reports received can be
taken as fairly indicative of the loss from Mildews throughout the
grape-growing regions of the United States, then it may be positively
stated that during the past ten years this has been as much as 10 or
15 per cent. annually. uteri.

Almost without exception, Uncinula spiralis is reported to do
serious injury only in dry districts or during severe drought, and
chiefly to foreign grapes and a few natives, such as the Delaware.
In a few cases a loss of from 10 to 50 per cent. or more is ascribed
solely to Uncinula. This fungus is widely distributed in the United
States, ranging from Massachusetts to Georgia, and westward across
the continent to the Pacific; but the losses occasioned thereby in the
country as a whole appear to be trifling.

Peronospora viticola occurs in nearly all parts of the United
States, on wild as well as cultivated sorts. Even the Pacific coast,
which long enjoyed perfect immunity, isnot nowfreefromit. During ©
the last year at least 8 different counties in California reported its
presence, with losses on certain varities ranging from 5 to 100 per
cent. Itis found also in Utah, and probably occursin Oregon. It is
relatively most prevalent from the mid Atlantic coast district west to
the Mississippi and southwest into Texas. This fungus everywhere
injures the vineyards, often attacking fruit as well as leaves. It
occurs on the vines throughout the growing season, but is usually
worse from June to August. All report its growth to be favored by
warm and wet weather, particularly by hot weather following pro-

116 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. —

tracted rains. In bad seasons all varieties, without exception, are
subject to itsattacks. Those esteemed as particularly hardy and free
from it in one locality succumb to it in another, or even in the same
locality another year. On the whole, the varieties reported most free
from it are Scuppernong, Norton’s Virginia, and Ives’s Seedling.
Almost the entire loss from Mildew must be attributed to Peronospora
viticola, since, as above stated, Uncinula spiralis does serious in-
jury only ina few restricted districts. _
(for distribution and severity in United States, see map.)

THE BLACK-ROT.,

Two hundred and twenty-eight persons reported the presence of
Black-rot.

The territory over which Phoma wvicola is reported includes the
chief vine-growing regions of the United States, and coincides with
the Mildew district, save that no rot is reported west of the Rocky
Mountains, except doubtfully in one instance, and but very little
north of latitude 43°. In some districts this fungus has been under
observation for more than twenty years, and in many, during the last
decade, it has done serious and increasing injury. It usually at-
tracts attention about the time the grapes are beginning to color, or
a little earlier, and in very warm, wet seasons may within a week or
ten days destroy the whole product of a vineyard. As in the case of
Peronospora viticola, its growth is said to be greatly favored by
warm and wet weather, and entirely stopped by a protracted drought.
The Concord, Catawba, Isabella, Hartford Prolific, and Rogers-
hybrid varieties seem most subject to this rot, and the Delaware and
other light-colored or white varieties least; but no variety is entirely
free from its attacks, unless it be the Scuppernong, which is said to
be harmed by nothing. Many persons report all varieties equally
subject. Often those reported ‘‘iron-clad” and ‘‘rot-proof” in one
locality are said to be very badly affected in some other.

(For distribution and severity in United States, see map.)

SHRINKAGE OF YIELD IN OHIO.

(See diagram.)

The enormous shrinkage of the grape crop in 1881, 1883, and 1885
was due principally to three factors which cannot be separated—Rot,
Mildew, and the effect of the previous severe winter. That freezing
was the factor least important may be assumed from the fact that
the winter of 1883-84 was also severe, and killed or froze back many
vines, even hardy varieties, but did not prevent a good crop in 1884.
In 1882 the late summer and the autumn were dry. In 1883 it was
’ cold and wet in the spring, and there was long-continued wet weather
in June and July. Im the summer and early autumn of 1884 Ohio
experienced one of the most widespread, prolonged, and severe
droughts ever recorded. In 1885 in Northern and Central Ohio the
spring was backward. June and July were warm and wet; August
and the first part of September were cold and wet.

Mildew and Rot were unusually prevalent and destructive in the
wet seasons of 1883 and 1885, taking the greater part of the crop in
many vineyards. In the dry seasons of 1882 and 1884 there was
comparatively little Rotor Mildew. The total product was 27,503,000

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. hel ¢

pounds in 1882, 6,191,072 in 1883, 20,895,563 in 1884, and 9,043,216 in
1885.

Ee

Bale

= == = as Be
CELERY-LEAF BLIGHT.

Cercospora Api Fries.
(Plate V.)

Celery-leaf Blight is a common disease in Europe, and one which
seems to be widespread in this country, samples having been received
from Louisiana, Missouri, and from about Washington. Some va-
rieties of celery are more subject to it than others, and in seasons
favorable to the development of the fungus these are greatly damaged
by its attacks.

Prof. 8. M. Tracy, of the State University, Columbia, Mo., has
made a study of this disease in his locality, and in reply to inquiries
on the subject he writes as follows:

The Celery-leaf Blight (Cercospora Apiti), was first noticed in 1884, when it dam-
aged the crop to a considerable extent. In 1885 it appeared again soon after the
plants were put in the open ground, about July 10, or as soon as the hot dry weather
commenced. The older leaves were the first to be attacked, but the disease spread
rapidly. and by the middle of August many plants were dead, and others appeared
as though the leaves had been scorched by intense heat. In nearly every case the
Blight developed first on the driest soil. By September 1 many lots of the plants
had been nearly destroyed, and all the celery grown in this part of the State was
seriously injured. The loss was certainly not less than half the Gop

As soon as the rains and cool nights of September commenced the Blight disap-
peared, and plants which had not been too seriously weakened then made a mod-
erate growth.

Different varieties showed a marked difference in resisting power; the ‘‘ Boston
Market” and ‘‘Golden Heart” suffering more than did any others, while the
““ White Plume” was but slightly injured. In 1886, although the season was un-
usually hot and dry, conditions which have heretofore seemed favorable to the de-
velopment of the Blight, but very little has been seen, careful and repeated search
giving only an occasional leaf which showed any injury. In the latter part of July
i noticed this Blight as quite plentiful about Davenport, Iowa; also at Plattsviile,
Wis. Various remedies were tried, but no good results followed their use. Salt,
ashes, lime, and sulphur were dusted over the leaves without effect.

Mr. T. F. Baker, a successful and well-known vegetable gardener
and seed grower of Bridgeton, N. J., relates his experience with this
disease as follows:

I regret tosay that I am only too familiar with the appearance and effects of

7885 | 7582| 7883| 7882, 7881 | 1880

118 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

the Celery-leaf Blight. The past season (summer of 1886) I cultivated two separate
plats of 10,000 plants each. ;

(1) After radishes.—On. this plat fifty loads of stable manure had been applied the
fall previous, and in the spring fertilizers were applied at the rate of one ton per acre.
After the crop the ground was again plowed and harrowed and furrows opened 6
inches deep, in which night soil (privy manure and marsh mud) was applied heavily.
This was slightly covered and the celery plants set 6 inches apart in the rows,
July 16. The state of the weather was so favorable that during the next month the
celery made a strong and vigorous growth. So rapid was the growth that “ hand-
ling ” was commenced, the first operation previous to blanching. No change oc-
curred until September 20, when, after several hot and muggy days, the small
pale spots, or blotches, appeared, and these in the space of a few dsay enlarged so
as to embrace the entire leaf, which consequently turned brown. and appeared now
to be covered with a white or powdery mildew. The stems and leaf stalks turned
yellow, after which they shriveled away, and they also turned brown to black above
ground, the portion under ground remaining yellow, and showing brown streaks in
the cells of the stems extending to the junction of the stem and crown of the plant.

These stems and leaves were pulled off and cleared away as fast as time would
permit, but the same conditions continued. Stem after stem succumbed, following
in quick succession, leaving nothing but the heart of the plants, I now despaired
of my crop, but about the middle of October cooler weather set in, with more rain,
and the plants began to revive, and I again commenced to cultivate and to hope.
The result was a fair crop at harvesting; short, though particularly crisp and tender
from quick growth.

(2) After early cabbage.—This plot had received 25 loads of stable manure broad-
cast, and 100 bushels of ashes per acre the year previous, and to which 35 bushels
of lime were added in the spring and all plowed under together; then there was
applied, broadcast, 1 ton of fertilizer, which was harrowed in. After the crop of
cabbages was removed, in July, the ground was again plowed and prepared, fur-
rows were opened 6 inches deep and a liberal dressing of hen manure applied in the
furrows. The celery plants were set July 21, and an uninterrupted growth contin-
ued until September 29, when the Blight made its first showing in the pale and
brown spots and blotches on the leaves. I commenced at once to remove all such
stems by pulling off and taking out of the patch. I had no further trouble from
the Blight, but whether this treatment produced the result, or whether it was due
to a change in atmospheric conditions, I cannot say. Plat No. 2 resisted the attack
longer than No. 1, and recovered without material damage. The heart and roots
do not seem to be affected by the Blight, and where the soil is strong and rich in
plant food, and the weather cool and moist, the plants may possibly outgrow an
early attack and mature a fair crop.

The past season was the first that I have noticed the pale spots on the leaves, or
the powdery appearance upon the upper surface. I am inclined to believe from the
season’s experience that manure in the rows, as in Plat 1, is conducive to the devel-
opment of the Blight.

The variety known as the ‘“‘ White Plume,” was the first to be attacked, and suf-
fered most; the ‘‘ Half Dwarf” variety resisted the attack longest and suffered least.
The ‘‘ White Plume,” however, recovered soonest from the disease, and developed
the largest and fullest heart.

This disease is quite distinct from any general yellowing, or what
might be properly termed “blight” of the leaves, which may arise
from some injury to the roots, to the lack of proper food-elements in
the soil, or from an excess of rain or drought, and is undoubtedly
due to the direct action of the fungus. The result of this action is
the partial or complete destruction of the leaves, which are at once
the lungs and digestive organs of the plant, and it is needless to speak
of the gravity of any cause which may effect injury to organs of such
vital importance. ‘The period when the fungus is most active is from
early in July to the latter part of August, but I have found upon
celery in the markets during the latter part of October leaves that
were strongly infested with the disease.

Heternal characters.—The first evidence of the Celery-leaf Blight
is the appearance upon both sides of the leaf of pale vellovisimenaaal
spots, irregular or somewhat rounded in outline, and varying from
one-sixteenth to one-fourth of an inchindiameter. These spots soon

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 119

turn brown, a central aia sometimes becoming lighter colored,
- and, if the disease is allowed to progress, they increase in size until
the entire leaf becomes browned and dried up.

The fungus.—The fungus of the Celery-leaf Blight (Cercospora
Apii, Fries) belongs toa genus numbering over 230 species, all of
which attack the living leaves of plants, and many do serious injury
in this way to our cultivated crops.

Our knowledge of these fungi is very imperfect. We only know
them in their most active state, when they do the most harm by feed-
ing upon the foliage of the plants they infest. We have, however,
sufficient reasons for believing that the species now included in the
genus Oercospora represent only a state in a metamorphosis that
leads to some higher or more perfect, but as yet unknown, form ; in
other words, they are comparable to the larvze of destructive insects
that are only known in their larval state. In each of the stages in
the development of these fungi we may presume that there are pro- .
duced special spores or reproductive bodies, which serve to multiply
the species, and it is very likely that if we had a complete knowledge
of these forms we would find the task of remedying the evils they
inflict much easier than it now is. These remarks are applicable to
the species of many other recognized genera which we will have to
discuss, and indicate in a brief way the line of investigations that
must be made and their importance and magnitude.

The spores, or, more definitely speaking, the conidia, of the Cer-
“cospora in question are from 20 to 80u* in length, straight or slightly
curved, and somewhat club-shaped, being about 44 in diameter at
their thickest part; they are colorless, transparent, and are divided
into from 3 to 10 cells by cross-walls or septa (See Plate V.) One of
these spores falling upon a celery leaf where there is an excess of
moisture will in a few hours develop one or more germ-tubes—each
cell composing the spore is capable of thus germinating—which soon
find their way into the interior of the leaf, probably by direct pene-
tration of the cuticle, and there make a considerable growth in the
loose tissues near the back or lower surface. This growth, which we
term the vegetagive growth of the fungus, destroys the contents of
the cells surrounding it, turning the latter brown, and thus producing
the characteristic external appearance of the disease. After a time
the mycelial threads composing the vegetative part of the fungus be-
come particularly abundant just beneath the stomata of the leaf, and
through each of these it pushes outward a number of short; irregular
threads or hyphe, upon the tips of which the spores or conidia are
borne (See Plate V, Vig. 2.) The hyphe vary in longth from 30 to
80 and are between 4 and 54 in diameter; they are usually provided
with one or two septa near the base.

Remedies.—The conidia will retain their vitality some time, at least,
after they have been thoroughly dried, for I have succeeded in mak-
ing them germinate in pure water after they had lain in the herba-
rium for several months. Whether these spores will retain their vi-
tality through the winter, when exposed out of doors, is unknown,

_but it isnot at all likely that they will. They are doubtless designed
for the immediate propagation and dissemination of the fungus;
therefore any means which may succeed in preventing their forma-
tion or hinder their germination will check the disease which this
develops. We may accomplish this, in part at least, by watching

*w is the sign for micromillimeter, One yw equals .000089 of an inch,

120 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

the leaves and removing and destroying all those that show any sign
of infection. The fungus cannot be destroyed when it has secured a
development within the tissues of the leaves without destroying the
latter, and the sooner those that are diseased are removed the better.
What fungicide may be found useful in preventing the germination
of the spores must be determined by experiment. Any ordinary ap-
plication of lime or sulphur will have little or no value for this pur-
pose. I would hesitate to recommend the application of solutions
containing the salts of copper on this vegetable for hygienic reasons.
A solution of penta sulphuret of potassium, or liver of suiphur, 1 to
2 ounces to a gallon of-water, sprayed upon the plants at the first ap-
pearance of the blight, may arrest its progress. This preparation
deserves atrial in this case. A shelter of cloth over the plants is
said to have preserved them comparatively free from blight in local-
ities where plants not so shaded were badly diseased.

ORANGE-LEAF SCAB.

Cladosporium sp—.
(Plate VI)

The following notes on a disease affecting the leaves of sour orange
and lemon trees, which I have named Orange-leaf Scab, are essen-
tially those read before the Botanical Club of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, at the Buffalo meeting, and
published in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club for October,
1886. Since then no new light has been thrown on this obscure dis-
ease, and it is not likely that more will be discovered until it can be
studied in the field.

So far as I am aware there is no published account of this disease
other than that referred to above, and there is a probability that itis
of recent origin; it is at least of recent appearance in Florida. The
statements of correspondents and the samples which have been sub-
mitted for examination show but too plainly its serious character.

Mr. Charles W. Campbell, writing from Ocala, Hp. July 29, 1886,
says that ‘‘the disease first made its appearance last summer, and
seems to be increasing the present season, particularly on young trees
making vigorous growth. It seems to be confined to sour stocks, al-
though this season it has appeared on lemon trees. No sweet-orange
trees have been affected, nor the sweet buds on sour stalks, even when
growing side by side with trees badly affected. Itis very destructive
to the growth of trees and ruinous to young nursery stocks, so that
fears are entertained that it will seriously affect the orange interest
unless means are discovered for checking it. Last season and this
have been exceedingly wet, and the appearance of the fungi may be
due to this fact.”

From letters received from Mr. C. F. A. Bielby, of De Land, Fla.,
we draw the following conclusions: (1) That the trees most severely
affected with this leaf disease last season suffered during the winter
more than those not affected; (2) trees affected last season are the ones
first attacked this spring, although the foliage of these is entirely new >
growth; (3) so far as observed sour trees alone are affected; (4) loca-
tion and nature of the soil or of the fertilizers used have no influence
on the disease; (5) the most vigorous as well as the “‘sickly” trees
are alike affected; (6) if a tree is diseased in part, the tendency is for
the whole tree to become so; (7) the malady does not appear to spread

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 12%

in the grove, but may occur at several points simultaneously. The
evidence of these facts points to a fungus origin for the disease.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DISEASE. ©

There first appears upon either the upper or lower surface of the
leaves, more particularly upon the latter and upon the young shoois,
small, light-colored, wart-like excrescences. These excrescences 1n-
crease in number and size, the approximate ones often running to-
gether until the whole surface is covered, destroying of course the
vitality of the leaf. When young leaves are.attacked they become
more or less distorted and their full development is prevented. The
top of the older warts, if one may so term them, are dark brown or
nearly black, due to the presence of a dense fungus growth, which
exhibits under the microscope a multitude of irregularly developed
conidiophores, bearing oblong, oval, one-celled conidia. (See Plate
VI, Fig. 3.) Such low forms as here represented are difficult to deter-
mine or classify, and it is just such forms which are often the most
injurious. Further investigations in its development will doubtless
reveal its true character. From what is now known it seems best to
place it in the genus Cladosporium.

Upon some diseased specimens recently received from Ocala there
was discovered a species of Fusarium, which Mr. J. B. Ellis,* to
whom samples were submitted, believes to be identical with #. sar-
-cochroum, Desm., and he expresses the opinion that the tubercles are
caused by the mycelium of this fungus, these being the first outward
manifestations of its growth.

It may be going too far to advance any opinion at this time, but I
will say that after making many careful examinations of the samples
in hand I am disposed to think that the injury in question is occa-
sioned by the first fungus referred to above, the hyphae and spores of
which are present in greater or less abundance on all the more devel-
oped excresences.

Remedies.—The application of the following are recommended for
trial as having fungicidal properties: First, a solution of bisulphide of
potassium, one-half ounce to a gallon of water. Second, “‘liquid gri-
son,” prepared by boiling 3 pounds each of the flowers of sulphur and
lime in 6 gallons of water until redyced to 2 gallons. When settled,
pour off the clear liquid and bottleit for use. For use, mix one part of
this clear liquid in 12 gallons of water. Third, to 10 gallons of
strong soap-suds add about a pound of glycerine and one-half pint
of carbolic acid.

These solutions should be applied in the form of a fine spray to the
diseased trees. As satiated: what action they may have towards
arresting the malady remains to be determined by experiment.

THE POTATO-—ROT.

Phytophthora infestans, De By.
(Plate ViI.)

There is no vegetable more widely or generally used by all classes
than the potato, and any disease affecting a product of such universal
importance is of interest toevery one. Although there are a number

* I desire to take this occasion to acknowledge the many kind favors received from
Mr. Ellis in the naming of specimens of fungi submitted to him by me,

122 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

of fungus diseases that affect the potato in one way or another, the
disease most to be feared, and which has caused greater losses to this
crop than all other sources of injury combined, is the Potato-rot.

There are very few farmers in the principal potato-growing States
who have not suffered to some extent at least from this evil, and in
seasons favorable to the development of the disease many there are
who have lost one-half or even their entire crop on account of it.

This was one of the first plant diseases investi,ated by scientists
with a view of obtaining some efficient remedy. These investigations
have settled the direct cause of Potato-rot beyond question, but a
practical and efficient remedy remains yet to be discovered. Indi-
viduals may have secured their crops from this disease by various
practices, some of which may possess merits that will eventually bring
them into general use; but however valuable these methods really are,
a prejudice exists against their general adoption which would, in
some degree at least, be removed if they were based on other anthor-
ity. Itis the purpose of this division to institute a series of experi-
ments to prove to the public the real value, if any, of the treatments
that appear to have been successful in the hands of some cultivators
and to try others that may give promise of success.

With a view of learning the experience of practical men upon mat-
ters pertaining to this subject, and at the same time to ascertain, as
far as possible, the actual range and the amount of the losses occa-
sioned by the disease in question, a circular of inquiry was sent to the
officers of all the agricultural and horticultural societies and granges
throughout the country, as well as to many individuals supposed or
known to be able to give the information desired. That nearly 2,500
replies, coming from every State and Territory, have already been
received is significant of the general interest and importance attached
to this subject. With the force available it is practically impossible
to compile and arrange the material thus accumulated for publication
in this report; but this work will be done as soon as the facilities at
command will permit, and the results, together with a more complete
account of the nature and habits of the fungus that produces the dis-
ease, will appear in a special bulletin of the division.

This report is limited to the following brief account of the disease,
prepared by my assistant, Mr. Erwin F. Smith, who has also ren-
dered valuable assistance in preparing other parts of this report.

Numerous fungi are found upon the potato, but Phytophthora
infestans De Bary appears to be the most widely destructive one.
Many of the others are only such as feed upon vegetable matter
already in part or wholly disorganized. This seems to be the case
with most of the bacteria and with all of the various molds which
abound in rotting potatoes, though not more than in other decaying
substances. A common ascomycetous fungus, one form of which is
known as Musisporium solani Mart., has been described as parasitic,
and stated to be ‘‘sometimes equally damaging to potatoes with the
Peronospora [Phytophthora] itself,” but of this there is no good
evidence. Phytophthora infestans is exclusively parasitic, though
not entirely confined to the potato. The external appearance of this
fungus isshown in Plate VII.

The brown or black discoloration of the tubers and the blight of the
leaves have been thought by many growers to be different diseases,
but they are only two phases of one disease, being due to the same
fungus. During the growing season the mycelium of the Phytoph-
thora may be found in the diseased stems and leaves; and, if there be

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 123

sufficient moisture in the air, the conidia or summer spores (see plate)
are produced by myriads upon the diseased vines. These spores,
blown about by the wind or carried by insects, birds, or other ani-
mals, find lodgment on healthy plants. Dry air soon destroys them, |
but in drops of dew or rain they germinate readily, so that many
thousand new centers of infection may begin in the course of a single
day. The sudden rot of the green tissues of the plant, so often ob-
served when the weather is warm and wet, is due tc the rapid propa-
gation of the fungus by means of these summer-spores, although the
direct breaking down of the tissues is generally accomplished by bac-
teria and Ascomycetous fungi.

Undoubtedly the mycelium of Phytophthora may grow down
through the stalks and thus reach the tubers, but this has never been
proved. The tubers are ordinarily infected by the conidia, which
may be washed into the soil by rains or carried down by small ani-
als, A wet rot of the tubers does not always follow their infection.
Very often the only indications of disease are some superficial dis-
colorations of the tuber. These brown or black spots contain the
mycelium of the fungus. At first these spots are scattering and near
the surface of the tuber, but during the winter they may increase in
number and size as the mycelial threads penetrate farther and
farther into the sound tissue. I have found the minute threads of
this fungus penetrating the sound tissues for some distance (one cen-
timeter or more) beyond the discolored parts of the tuber, and, by
exposing these white and apparently sound portions to moist air for
some days, have obtained conidiophores and conidia (see plate) with
which I have caused the rotin other tubers previously sete hisis,
however, no new experiment; others have obtained the same results.
That in damp, warm cellars or pits the summer spores may be devel-
oped on the surface of infected tubers, and that the neighboring
sound ones may thus be infected, is no longer a matter of specula-
tion, but has been settled in the affirmative by observation.

The Phytophthora lives from year to year by means of its peren-
nial mycelium lodged in the tuber. It is possible that the fungus is
also propagated by winter spores, odspores, but this not certain.
Spores have been figured and described as the winter spores of this
fungus, but the evidence cannot be accepted as conclusive. The
parasite finds its way into the fields‘ along with the planted tubers,
either concealed as mycelium within their tissues or adhering to the
surface of the tubers in the form of recently developed conidia acci-
dentally lodged thereon. It has been shown that the mycelium may
grow from the tuber in the growing shoots and reach the surface
and fructify in this way, or may develop conidia in the soil upon the
surface of the tuber, whence the spores may be brought to the surface
and find their way to the leaves and stems by the aid of earth-worms
and various burrowing insects. In favorable weather the propaga-
tion of the fungus by summer spores is so rapid that only a few
original centers of infection are requisite in order to speedily infest
& whole field or district.

Certain conditions favoring rot are beyond control of the farmer.
He cannot prevent warm, wet weather; but, by planting upon dry
ground and by using the greatest care in the selection of tubers for
pang he may greatly diminish the severity of the rot. No tubers

aving dark spots or blotches upon their surface, or which look brown
or black in places when cut open, should be planted. Whether early
or late sorts will rot worse depends chiefly on the character of the

124 REPORT OF TH COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

season, 7. e., whether the rainy weather is early or late. However,
other things being equal, quick-growing varieties are probably safest.

It is thought that something may be done to check the rot by the
careful use of fungicides. As soon as brown or black specks begin
to appear upon the vines they may be dusted with Podechard powder,*
which treatment should be repeated as often as necessary.

David’s powder,+ a remedy which proved very useful in the vine-
yards of France in 1886, for the destruction of a fungus similar to the
Phytophthora, may also prove useful in combating this fungus. It
is recommended for trial.

As these remedies are only tentative, parallel strips through the
field should be left untreated, that the treated and untreated strips
may be compared at the close of the season. Only in this way can
any definite results be reached.

PHAR BLIGHT.

A glance atthe back volumes of the Annual Report of this Depart-
ment will show that this subject of ‘‘ Pear Blight” has frequently
been discussed. Theories without number have been advanced as to
the cause of this malady and numerous remedies have been recom-
mended for trial or stated to effect a positive cure. Inthe report for
1854 blight is attributed to high culture, causing the tree to grow late
in the fall, thereby preventing the wood from being well matured.
In the report for 1851 the opinion of one writer is to the effect that
“‘too much trimming, too much moisture, and too rich soils are some
of the causes of blights in pear and apple trees.” In the report for
1862 we find it stated that one form of ‘‘ blight” in pear trees is in-
duced by evaporation from the leaves at a time when the roots are
unable to absorb moisture. The blight is attributed to insects in the
report of 1863. In the report for 1868 we have the statement that ‘it
is now fully established that the active agent in this disease is fungoid
growth.” In the report for 1872 it is affirmed that ‘‘Pear Blight is
a local fungus fermentation of the genus Torula.”

Remedies.—in the report for 1849 ‘‘Amputation of the diseased
limbs far below the least appearance of disease, having care to keep
the knife clean, so as not to inoculate healthy trees with the poison-
ous juices of diseased ones, and apply crude iron filings to and around
the roots,” is the recommended treatment.

In the report for 1851 it is stated that ‘‘the best and only remedy
for blight of pear and apple trees is a full and unsparing use of the
knife. Cut below the blight some distance; if you lose the limb you
save the tree.” In the report for 1870 mulching the trees is recom-
mended to prevent blight.

Through the recent investigations of Professors Burrill and Arthur
the true cause of Pear Blight has been demonstrated to be due toa
bacterium, To Professor Burrill is due the honor of first having dis-
covered the real nature of this disease, and the experiments made by
Professor Arthur have not only verified those of Professor Burrill;
but have been extended so as to settle the question beyond dispute.
These gentlemen are now recognized authorities on this subject, and
Professor Arthur was engaged to prepare a report upon it, as a part
of the work of this section, which is here submitted.

*See page 100. +See page 102,

“ MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 125

PEAR BLIGHT.
Micrococcus amylovorus Bur.

By J. C. ARTHUR.

No introductory description of the disease called Pear Blight, or Fire
Blight, is needed in order to distinguish it or call it to mind. For
nearly a century it has been the most prolific theme for discussion by
horticultural writers and speakers among the whole range of plant
maladies. Horticultural societies have talked themselves weary over
it, and editors of horticultural periodicals have found it necessary to
put a brake on the blight writers. The Western New York Horti-
cultural Society several years ago passed a resolution that the subject
should not be discussed in its meetings unless there were new facts
and additional information to be given. The acting president of the
American Pomological Society once cooled the ardor of discussion on
- this subject. by observing: ‘“‘1 confess I have nothing to say except
what is pure speculation, and I have got tired of speculation and of
hearing it on this subject.”

One need not be at a loss to account for this perennial activity.
The warm and repeated discussion which the subject has received is
evidence in itself, and corroborates the fact that the disease is a
serious evil, while the failure to reach conclusions that a majority
can subscribe to shows how obscure and beyond ordinary scrutiny
the cause lies, and how even to trace the external changes in the
course of the disease has taxed the full powers of observation. It
was with some appreciation of the intricate nature of the problem
that different societies at various times offered, or talked of offering,

rizes for the discovery of the cause of the disease and of a remedy.

hey often contented themselves, however, with the appointment of
a committee from their own number, with instructions to study up
the matter and report at a subsequent meeting. The accompanying
map will show in a general way how wide an extent of country is af-
fected. It has been compiled from such data as could be gleaned
from horticultural journals and reports of horticultural societies.

How the cause of blight was finally discovered by Prof. T. J. Bur-
rill, and additional verification worked out by the writer, need not
be narrated here; it is much more to the point to state the results
and practical deductions, and leave the steps by which they have
been reached to be learned by reference to the original publications.

The cause of Pear Blight, as established by the last seven years of
research, is connected with the activity of germs, and the malady be-
longs to the category of germ diseases, now definitely proven to occur
both among animals iad plants. The germs causing blight are of
extreme tenuity ; they are borne from place to place and from tree
to tree by the atmosphere, which is never so quiet but that its move-
ments are sufficient to keep such impalpable bodies afloat. Upon the
germs finding entrance to the juices of the plant the disease is set up
in a more or less virulent form.

At the present time it is very well understood by all that bacterial
germs are in the greatest abundance everywhere, and we may well
inquire why all trees, at least all pear trees, are not speedily extermi-
nated. The chief safeguard from such a calamity is the fact that but
one specific kind of bacteria (named Micrococcus amylovorus Bur.)
is able to thrive in the tissues of the pear tree, and in consequence all

126 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

other bacteria, whatever may be their capacity for inciting disease
in other plants or animals, are debarred and harmless so far as the
pear tree is concerned, Why it is that only this one kind can suc-
cessfully overcome the forces in the tree and break down its structure
is not definitely known, but it is usually accepted that the acidity of
the plant juices, being in general unfavorable to bacterial develop-
ment, but not affecting this species, is to be accounted one reason,
although it may not be the principal one.

Knowing that but one kind of germ can set up the disease, it be-
comes evident that its discontinuous appearance in the same locality
is explainable on the same grounds that govern epidemic diseases of
animals. It requires a conjunction of favorable circumstances not
likely to be maintained long at a time, to permit maximum develop-
ment, thus giving rise to occasional severe visitations, with interme-
diate years of feeble manifestation or total ive fay Ee

It is also found by means of inoculation tests that not all trees are
susceptible to this disease, but only those embraced in the Pome fam-
ily, such as the pear, apple, crab-apple, quince, hawthorn, and sev- °
eral other thorns, mountain ash, &c., and of these the pear is so much
the greatest sufferer that the disease is usually called Pear Blight,
although the descriptive term Fire Blight is also in common use.

Besides the safeguards already mentioned, each tree is shielded
against the invasion of germs by a dry cuticle or bark which envelops
the aerial portion, and when fully mature and unbroken proves an
effective barrier. As the roots are protected from air infection by the
soil, the tree in winter, under ordinary circumstances, is abundantly
guarded at every point. In summer, however, the leaves, with their
innumerable open stomata and tender watery tissues, would naturally
be supposed to offer ample opportunity for the entrance of germs from
the air, if such came in contact with them. Itis acurious fact, how-
ever, that has yet received no explanation, but which is substantiated
by both experiment and observation, that the blight bacteria will not
grow in the leaves, whether naturally or artificially introduced ; the
death of the leaves on a blighting tree is brought about by want of
nourishment, the supply being cut off when the conducting power of
the limb on which et are seated is destroyed by the disease.

While the tree is well protected over most of its surface, there are,
nevertheless, certain vulnerable points, and none more so than the
inside of the flower cup. The surface at the base of the styles is
moist and uncuticularized, and the germs which touch it are securely
held, find no difficulty in penetrating and developing in the soft tis-
sues of the thickened base of the flower, and by passing along the
pedicel convey the disease to the twigs and branches. The short
period that the flowers are open is time enough to seal the doom of
many limbs, and even whole trees. The symptoms of the disease are
not observable for days, or more usually weeks, and frequently the
first knowledge of impending danger is seen in the blackening leaves
near the flowers. If an early examination is made, the dead flowers,
or flower-sets, no larger or but little larger than when they first
opened some time before, will usually be sufficient evidence, if taken
in connection with the time that has elapsed since flowering and with -
the present development of the foliage, to show that the germs passed
in through this channel. We have in this fact a satisfactory explana-
tion of the common observation of orchardists that trees are far more
likely to succumb to the blight when they come into bearing than at
any previous time.

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 127

Another vulnerable point for the attack of blight is at the growing
tips of the branches, or at any point where there are developing buds.
_ At such places the tissues, including the epidermis, are tender and
filled with nutrient sap, while the outer surface of the organ is not
yet cuticularized and rendered impervious. As the shoot ceases to
elongate and approaches maturity the chances for infection become
less and less. The early part of the season is consequently the most
dangerous part, and allowing for the incubation period, during which
the disease is inconspicuous, its strongest manifestation naturally
falls in June and July. Asthe growth at the extremities is more
vigorous or more protracted the possibilities of infection are corre-
spondingly increased, and a ‘“‘ growing season” is likely therefore to
be a blight season. A connection between immaturity and blight
has long been suspected, but explanations of the matter have hereto-
fore been erroneous.

Besides the two vulnerable points already mentioned, there may
now and then be another, brought out by cracking or other injury of
the bark, and occurring on any part of the tree, but more commonly
on the trunk. Through these cracks, however minute, the germs
gain access to the interior of the tree, and the disease is started. The
after progress is usually slow, on account of the solidity of the tis-
sues, and progressing about equally in all directions, forms a patch of
’ dead bark, which becomes dry and hard, often somewhat sunken, and
usually separated from the living bark by a well-defined outline or
erack. Such injury is commonly known as sun scald, and has been
specially studied by Professor Burrill, to whom we are indebted for
our knowledge of its origin. The spots occur most abundantly on
the southwest side of the tree, being the side which is most affected
by the heat of the sun. The cracks through which the germs first

in access are the result of the drying out and contraction of the
Banik, and in so far the injury is due to the sun, although in no sense
a “scald.” Blight wpon the trunks and larger limbs is also often
contracted from arauall ehort spurs with a few leaves, which admit the
germs at the time the spring growth is taking place.

Preventives and remedies.—W hatever form Pear Blight assumes,
it is started by germs gaining access to the tree in one of the three
ways described—through the flowers, the growing shoots, or injuries
of the bark. No method is known or has yet suggested itself of ren-
dering the tree insusceptible to the disease, and a direct prevention
must be sought in some means of excluding the germs. There are
three ways by which germicides may be applied to trees—by fumiga-
tion, by spraying, and by washing. The first method offers a pos-
sibility of at least partial success, and appears to be the only means
by which one can hope to protect the flowers.

The trials made so far have been with sulphur mixed with lime, and
fo ate as a wash to the trunks. IJtis claimed by careful orchardists
that the odor of the sulphur can be detected for weeks after treatment,
and that it has proved satisfactory in warding off the disease. Whether
more thorough and extended experiments will substantiate this con-
clusion, or show that the supposed immunity comes from other and
accidental causes, there is yet no firm basis for an opinion.

Spraying offers little more hope of success than fumigation. The
inner surface of the flowers are so well protected by the stamens and
other organs that the antiseptic used does no service. The growing
shoots have their tenderest parts partially protected with the terminal
cluster of leaves, and a frogh surface is continually forming which it

128 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

would be hopeless to expect to keep fully disinfected. An experi-
ment tried during last season in spraying with a solution of hypo-
sulphite of soda, applied several times during the period of expansion
of the buds, gave no evidence of beneficial effects.

The application of washes cannot, of course, be made to the flowers
or growing shoots, but excellent results may reasonably be expected
when made to the trunks and larger branches. Sufficient study has
not yet been given to the matter to say what will prove the most
effective application, but linseed oil has been advocated as forming
an elastic coating, and to it might be added some sulphur, and at
least 1 per cent. of carbolic acid. This would seem to answer every
requirement for an antiseptic, and for the exclusion of atmospheric
germs from the cracks in the bark. To decrease the amount of crack-
ing the body of the tree may be shielded from the sun’s fiercest rays
by a low trimmed head, or by leaning the whole tree toward the
southwest, or by boards, matting, or other protection, on the sunny
side of the trunks.

Among the indirect methods of fighting the disease none are more
important than those which secure slow growth and early maturity
of the shoots. This has been recognized from the first agitation of
the subject, but until the present time there has been no unanimity
of opinion as to the exact objects to be accomplished. Hrom the pre-
ceding account it is apparent, however, that the chief aim should be
(a) to keep the amount of tender surface of shoots at a minimum, in
order to diminish the chances for the penetration of germs, and (6) to
make the tissues as solid as possible, as the progress of the disease
and the chances of its entire cessation are in inverse ratio to the suc-
culency of the parts attacked.

The means for producing uniform growth and early maturity which
have found favor from time to time are various, and their value for
special cases is usually conditional. One of the most generally appli-
cable methods is to convert the orchard into permanent meadow after
the third or fourth year from setting, to be treated with an annual
dressing of chemical fertilizers or a moderate application of stable
manure. Experience shows that this method considerably reduces
the percentage of blight while maintaining fruitfulness at nearly or
quite the usual standard. The cultivation of some crop during the
season, such as oats or buckwheat, is less effective. Restricting prun-
ing as much as possible has some value. Root pruning has been
warmly advocated, but is only advisable when there is strong proba-
bility of a severe attack of the disease, and is not applicable to all
situations. Certain varieties, e. g., Duchesse and Seckel, are less in-
jured by the disease than others; and the selection of varieties in
their relation to the disease is therefore to be borne in mind.

Of genuine remedies there are none; but as the disease is local,
and spreads through the tissues slowly, it is possible, as has long
been known, to effectively check its progress by amputation. The
smaller limbs are to be cut off a foot or two below the lowest mani-
festation of the disease, and the spots on the trunk and larger limbs
are to be shaved out, cutting deep enough to remove all discolora-
tion. A careful operator will keep the knife disinfected with car-
bolic acid or otherwise; if this is not done the disease will be con-
veyed in a small percentage of instances to the freshly cut surface,
necessitating a subsequent excision. The beneficial effects of this
treatment are least apparent during periods of epidemic, when the
tree is attacked at almost every vulnerable point. At such times -

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 129

@ more radical method has been found serviceable, which is to cut
off the whole top to within a foot or two of the ground. It can be
practiced to advantage upon trees that are as much as ten years old,
or even older.

GRASS FUNGI.

The grasses are especially subject to the attacks of fon gi, every
part—the stem, leaves, flowers, and grain—being exposed to their rav-
ages. They are the prey to members of nearly every order of the
class of fungi, but those of the Ustilaginee—the ‘‘ smut”-producing
Species—are the most destructive of all. Ergot, produced in the flow-
ers of many grasses valued for hay or forage, is caused by a pyreno-
mycetous fungus (Claviceps purpurea). This is the most notable
among the grass fungi on account of its effect upon stock that may
feed upon hay affected with it.

All these fungi that do more or Jess injury to our grass crop are
of interest to the farmer and stock raiser, and as material can be
collected and observations made they will be severally treated.

Last year Prof. William Trelease, of the Shaw School of Bot-
any, furnished for this division a report on the ‘‘smut of timothy,”
which was published in the annual for 1885. This year, at my re-
quest, he has very kindly contributed an original paper on the leaf-
spot disease of orchard grass.

A SPOT DISEASE OF ORCHARD GRASS.

Scolecotrichum graminis Fckl.

(Plate VIII.)
By WILLIAM TRELEASE,

The drought at. Madison, Wis., and through the West generally,
was extreme in the summer of 1886. For months there was not a
shower sufficiently heavy to wet the ground. Pastures parched up so
as to appear completely dead. Lawns were kept green only by daily
sprinkling, and even then there was no use for the lawn-mower. In
the latter part of August an abundance of rain fell, enough, indeed,
to bring the average for the summer up to the normal amount. Stim-
ulated by this, and the prevalent warmth, grasses of all descriptions
made a rapid growth, even the browned turf starting into vigorous
vegetation. ‘

Soon after this change, when the basal leaves of orchard grass
(Dactylis glomerata) had reached their full length, my attention was
attracted by a very abundant discoloration of this species, sometimes
confined to the extremity of the leaves, sometimes extending nearly:
* to their base. So far as my observations went nearly every stool of,
orchard grass was affected. j

The characteristic appearance of the diseased leaves is shown in Fig.
1, Plate VIII. Elongated dark-brown or purplish-brown spots, visi-
ble on both surfaces of the leaf, appeared in greater or less profusion. '
Frequently, and as a rule when old, these spots were gray or whitish
at the center, where they were marked by very minute black dots,
barely visible to the naked eye, that occurred, in more or less regular
rows, parallel to the nerves of the leaf. The tips of leaves that had
- been diseased for some time were dead and brown, but paler than the

9 AG—’86

130 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

spots. This discoloration proceeded downward, until ultimately
many of the leaves appeared to be dead nearly to the base of the blade.

Under a slight enlargement, the black points on old spots appeared
as velvety tufts of dark threads, protruding from the leaf. When
enlarged sufficiently to show the epidermal cells of the leaf, they were
seen to come from the stomata. As these occur in parallel lines, the
regular arrangement of the dots is explained by their occurrence over
the stomata.

A section through a leaf in one of the discolored spots shows that
the epidermal cells are not much changed; but the parenchyma of the
leaf-pulp is much altered, its cells having lost their plump form, and
being consequently more separated than in the healthy leaf, while
their normal green color has entirely disappeared, and yellow or
brown oil-drops are more or less abundant in them.

These changes in the leaf are shown by such a section to be con-
nected with the presence of a colorless mycelium of branched, occa-
sionally septate threads running between the pulp-cells. Under the
stomata the mycelium collects in a more compact form, as a sort of
false parenchyma, the upper cells of which assume a smoky-brown
color, and ultimately emerge through the stomata as a tuft of slightly
wavy, more or less knotty, dark hyphe, constituting the dark points
that have been already referred to. When these tufts are small they
merely crowd the stomata open to their fullest capacity, but in most
cases they enlarge so as to tear the epidermis open.

The hyphe which have emerged into the light in this way produce,
as a rule, a single smoky-brown conidial spore each, which is borne
at the apex. Occasionally a spore is also found at one of the knots
along the side of a hypha. The spores originate as enlargements of
the contracted tips of the hyphs, and at first are globular, then
obovid, and finally somewhat spindle-shaped. When partly grown
they are separated from the ends of the hyphe by thin walls, which
split across when they are ripe, allowing them to fall, The center
of each tuft of hyphe is the oldest,and sheds its spores first. As the
tuft enlarges new hyphe are crowded through at its margin, so that,
forming spores, others which are ripe and old hyphe that have shed
their spores, may be seen in a single section, as in Fig, 2. When
fully mature the spores are typically two-celled, by a partition at or
below the middle; but many of those which fall from these stalks
and are apparently ripe are only one-celled.

The disease is propagated by these bodies, which germinate by
emitting slender, flexuous, or contorted colorless mycelial threads
(Fig. 2A.) These make their way through the stomata of the grass
leaf and develop between the leaf cells, forming the mycelium that is
seen in section of diseased leaves, which nourishes itself at the expense
of the cells it grows between, and which are ultimately destroyed,

The appearance of many of the older diseased leaves suggested that
the fungus may have first attacked the dead tips of the short leaves
parched by the drought. That it also causes the disease of otherwise
fresh and healthy leaves is shown by the occurrence of the charac-
teristic dark spots, bearing tufts of fertile hyphe on green parts of
these leaves, and on younger leaves that were only partly developed
and entirely uninjured, except for the fungus. ;

The parasite which caused this spot disease of orchard-grass is
Scolecotrichum graminis, a species which occurs on various grasses
in Europe, and has been collected once or twice in this country. It
1s one of the so-called imperfect fungi, and may be only a form of

- MYCOLOGICAL SECTION, \ 368

one of the graminicolous Pyrenomycetes. Fuckel* considers it to be
the conidial state of Sphaeria recutita, but I do not know that this
has been proved. Atany rate, it is not improbable that it passes the
winter in some such form, but its summer propagation is effected by
the conidial spores that I have described.

ADDITIONAL NOTE ON ANTHRAOCNOSE.
(Sphaceloma Ampelinum, De By.)

Since the report on this subject was in type the following note has
been received from Mr. G. Onderdonk, of Nursery, Tex. After re-
ferring to the statement of Mr. A. W. Pearson, in Bulletin No. 2 of
this Division, to the effect that he had seen no appearance of Sphace-
loma ampelinum on any of the Aistivalis class and that it was mostly
observed on white grapes, Mr. Onderdonk says:

The first that I ever saw of this fungus was about the year 1867, This was in this
county, Victoria, Texas. A few berries of Catawba were affected. Soon after it
developed freely on some Lenoir clusters, and in 1884 I knew a vineyard in whicha
very promising crop of Lenoir was entirely destroyed by it, The Herbemont of the
same vineyard was entirely exempt. Sometimes for years we saw nothing of the
work of this fungus on any variety of the grape, and then there is a sudden inroad
upon some neighborhood. But the scourge has never become widespread.

There is one important contrast between our experience and that of observers in
New Jersey. In New Jersey none but white varieties suffered seriously, while in
Southern Texas none of the white varieties became affected at all, and the variety that
suffered most was the darkest color in our lot of grapes. This leads to a suggestion
that there is some condition besides color that governs in the case. Perhaps a mi-
croscopic examination may reveal that the structure of the skins of some varieties
is more favorable to the propagation of the fungus than in case of other varieties.

TABULAR LOCAL REPORTS.

Prof. J. C. Arthur, botanist of the New York Agricultural-Ex-
periment Station at Geneva, was engaged to prepare a brief report on
the condition of certain crops in his vicinity in respect to the prin-
cipal fungous diseases affecting them, At my suggestion he reduced
his observations to a tabular form, as given below: A similar table
for the vicinity of Washington, and another for certain points in
Michigan, are added.

*Symbole, Myc., 107.

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

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135

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136 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE I.
THE DOWNY MILDEW OF THE GRAPE, CONIDIA, CONIDIOPHORES, ETC.

Fia. 1. A conidium, or ‘‘summer spore.”

Fig. 2. A similar conidium, in which the contents has commenced segmentation or

division into zodspores.

Fic. 3. A similar spore, representing a more advanced stage in the segmentation.

Fia. 4. Zodspores escaping from the conidium.

Fia. 5. A zodspore more highly magnified, showing the two cilia.

Fig. 6. Same as Fig. 5, having lost its cilia and assumed a definite shape.

Kies. 7 and 8. The same, pushing out germ tube.

Fig. 9. The shaded portion reprensets a fragment of mycelium of the Mildew grow-

ing between the cells of the host plant. a, a, suckers or haustoria (after
Farlow).

Fia. 10. A group of fructiferous filaments or conidiophores, which have grown out
of the leaf through one of the ‘‘ breathing pores” (after Cornu).

Fig. 11. Fecundation of the odspore from a sample found in the tissue of a mildewed
leaf. a, the antheridium when about to emit its protoplasm into the
odgonium (after Viala).

Fig. 12, An odspore, or ‘‘ winter spore” (after Cornu),

EXPLANATION TO PLATE II.
CONIDIA, ASCUS-FRUIT, ETC., OF UNCINULA SPIRALIS, B. AND C.

Fic, 1. Mycelium from surface of grape leaf, showing two haustoria and three up-
right conidiophores in different stages of growth. At the right above are
two mature conidia, one of which is represented as just detached from its
support.

Fid. 2. A germinating conidium, or summer spore. The spore may give rise to one |
or several germ tubes. 'These spores serve for the propagation of the fun-
gus through the summer and autumn.

Fia. 8. Epidermis of grape-berry upon which the mycelium of Uncinula has grown.
Much enlarged; to the unaided eye the effects of the mycelium on the
berry are visible as brown lines, dots, or blotches.

Fia. 4. Perithecium, or ascus-fruit, showing pseudoparenchymatous structure; the
coiled arms, or appendages; and three escaping asci with the inclosed
spores—winter spores, thecaospores, or ascospores, as they are variously
called. The normal number of spores is six. The conidia occur throughs
out the season; the perithecia are formed in autumn.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE III.
VARIOUS STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSALOSPORA BIDWELLII, SACC.

Fig. 1. A fragment of epidermis of a diseased berry, showing five of the black pus-
tules formed by the development of the pycnidia. From four of these,
slender, contorted, worm-like filaments are being extruded; these are the
stylospores held together by a kind of mucilage.

Fig. 2. A section through a bit of the berry, including an immature pycnidium (P)
and spermagonium (S). At O is the osteolum of the pycnidium, through
which the spores escape at maturity. mm are dark-brown, septate my-
celial threads from the conceptacles.

Fig. 3. A section of a portion of a pycnidium, more highly magnified, showing the
basidia, or the stalks upon which the stylospores are borne, and several
detached spores.

Fia. 4. Section through the exterior portion of a pycnidium, showing conidiophores
and conidia growing from the surface.

Fia. 5. Three stylospores germinating.

Fig. 6. A section through the perithecium or conceptacle of the ascosporous form,

showing the asci, &c.

7. Two separate asci, showing the eight sporidia in each.

8. An ascus, inclosing eight sporidia, found June 2, 1886, in grape (destroyed
in 1885 by Black-Rot) kept for a week in moist air. From camera-lucida
sketch made by Erwin F. Smith in the laboratory of the University of
Michigan. Mr. Smith notes that the ‘‘receptacles containing the asci are
numerous, and the asci themselves abundant.”

Four of the sporidia that have escaped from an ascus.

Fia.
Fia.

=

FIia.

MYCOLOGICAL SECTION. 137

-EXPLANATION TO PLATE IV.
THE ANTHRACNOSE OF THE GRAPE (SPHACELOMA AMPELINUM, DE BARY). |

Fia. 1. A bunch of Elvira grapes partially destroyed by anthracnose. Received
from G. Wanner, Walhalla, S. C., June, 1886.

Fia. 2. Vertical section (enlarged) of diseased berry, showing epidermis and sub-
epidermal tissue. The basidia develop large numbers of spores (conidia),
which lie immediately beneath the epidermis, a, and finally rupture the
latter and escape, b.

Fig. 3. Section similar to b of Fig. 2, but more enlarged. Here we have a mass of
basidia differentiated into spores, and resting upon a bright-colored
stroma, b, beneath which e is a dark layer of diseased tissues, which grad-
ually passes into the deeper sound tissue, d. The ruptured epidermis is
seen at a. :

Fig. 4. Mature spores, much magnified. These are usually thin walled and trans-
parent, with one or more bright spots.

Fig. 5. Sameas Fig. 4, but germinating. This fungus probably exists in other forms,
yet unknown. De Bary ha’ found spermagonia associated with Sphace-
loma, but has not been able to determine whether they belong to it.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE V.
CONIDIA, CONIDIOPHORES, AND INTERNAL MYCELIUM OF CERCOSPORA APII, FRIES.

Fig. 1. The usual appearance of a leaflet of celery when attacked by blight.

Fic. 2. A much-magnified transverse section of leaflet, showing mycelium travers-
ing the loose tissue to pass through a stoma on the lower surface and de-
velop linear, clavate, septate, colorless conidia.

Fic. 3. A group of conidiophores pushing out of a stoma, as in Fig. 2, but more en-
larged; conidia attached and separated.

Fia. 4. Another and older group of gonidiophores with conidia.

Fig. 5. Germinating conidia.

Fia. 6. Internal, transparent, branching, septate mycelium.

Fie. 7. A new growth from a conidiophore (two months dry in herbarium) after
soaking twelve hoursin water. The infected leaves were brought in from
the market in October, and this drawing was made in December.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE VI.
THE ORANGE-LEAF SCAB—CLADOSPORIUM SP.
Fig. 1. Diseased leaves and twig. Received from Ocala, Fla., June, 1886.
Fig. 2. Small portion of a leaf, considerably magnified to show the wart-like ex-

crescences in various stages of growth. :
Fig. 3. A vertical section through one of the older excrescences, showing stroma,
conidiophores, and conidia—of the fungus growing upon it.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE VII.

CONIDIOPHORES AND CONIDIA OF PHYTOPHTHORA INFESTANS, DE BARY.

Fie. 1. A luxuriant hypha filled with granular protoplasm, and bearing four imma-
ture conidia. The entire hypha, a considerable portion of which is not
here represented, consisted of a single cell. Camera sketch, February 5,
1886. The specimen was grown from sowings of conidia made in moist
air one week previous on the cut surface of a sound potato. At a later
stage of growth the conidia are partitioned off by cross-walls, and the
protoplasm largely disappears from the branches. In old conidiophores,
at irregular intervals a few cross-walls are occasionally to be found. No
septa were observed in the internal mycelium.

Fig. 2. A conidiophore with mature conidia in place. The spores fall off easily
when mature, especially if in contact with water. This conidiophore grew
from a solid white portion which was cut from the interior of a diseased
tuber (one somewhat brown-spotted only), and placed in moist air, the
mycelium having been previously detected in this part of the tuber. The
figure shows the characteristic flask-shaped swellings of the conidiophores
and the manner of attachment of the conidia. The specimen was exam-
ined dry, with a low power. The figure has been enlarged from a camera
sketch, December 16, 1885.

138 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Fig. 8. Conidiophore and ripe conidia from a growth on the cut surface of a tuber.
Three conidia have fallen off at points indicated by the flask-shaped swell-
ings. The conidia vary somewhat in size, as shown. The one still at-
tached shows by comparison the average size. Examined in water.
Camera sketch, December 4, 1885,

EXPLANATION TO PLATE VIII.
SPOT DISEASE OF ORCHARD GRASS.

Fia. 1. A portion of a leaf of Dactylis glomerata, showing the characteristic spots,
of the disease. ;

Fia. 2. A section through the leaf at one of the spots, showing the fungus causing
the disease. : ;

A. Spores of the fungus, germinating.

=
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wo

Report of the Mycological Section, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1886, Plate iT.

a
;
t

DOWNY MILDEW OF TIE GRAPE (Peronospora viticola, B. & C.),

Report of the Mycological Seetion, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture, 1886.

—————
50f-

POWDERY MILDEW OF GRAPES ( Uncinula spiralis, B. & C.),

F.L.S., del.

Plate II.

4 ban al : Ye ay
Sy Pee ee ae

Report of the Mycological Section, U. 5. Dept. of Agriculture, 1886. Plate ITI.

Lif
ty
9.

eee 5s, el.

FUNGUS OF THE BLACK-L0T OF GRAPES (Physalospora Bidwellii, Sacce.).

_

Report of the Mycological Section, U. S. Dept. of Agricrlture, 1886. Plate IV.

¥.L.S.. del.

ANTHRACNOSE (Sphaceloma ampclinum, De Bary).

Report of the Mycological Section, U. 5. Dept. of Agriculture, 1886. Plate V.

ae

F.L.S., del.

CELERY-LEAF BLIGHT (Cercospora Apii, Fries).

p/

Report of the Mycological Section, US Dept of Agriculture 1886

Plate VI

meas

GILES LITHO S LIBERTY PRINTING CO NY

: ORANGE-LEAF SCAB

j, Report of the Mycological Section, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture, 1886.

i. F.S., del.

Frnevs or Tum Potaro Rov (Phytophthora infestans, De Bary).

Plate

VII.

at

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55
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vaslocicnl Section, U. s. Dept. of Agriculture, 1886,

Plate VIII.

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MAP SHOWING
DISTRIBUTION OP
PERONOSPORA VITICOLA
ty THE
UNITED STATES

COMPILED FROM DEPARTMENT RETURNS
by

Erwin F Smith
LEGEND

The color indicates teritory presumably infected
The circles denote districts trom which the mildew:
has been reported

The numerals represent degrees of severity in
bad. seasons

|. Slight losses uno case over 25 %

2. Qnsiderable losses especially in certain
vaurteties

3. Severe lasses. ue no case lassthan 75%

Julius Bien & Co bith

MAP
HOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF

ACK ROT OF THE GRAPE /*

UNITED STATES

iPILED FROM DEPARTMENT RETURNS
BY

Erwin F: Smith. A
31 23

LEGEND
rundicates the territory presumably untected
les denote districts trom which reports have been

p represer degrees of severity UL SEASONS
ag't-fle to the Trot

jt Losses. ranging from slight to 25 %
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Report of the Mycological Section,Dept.of Agriculture, 1886,

Tr,
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SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF

BLACK ROT OF THE GRAPE

IN THE

UNITED STATES

COMPILED FROM DEPARTMENT RETURNS
BY

Erwin F. Smith

LEGEND
The color indicates the territory presumably infected.
The circles denote districts Fore which reports have been.
recered
The numerals represent degrees of severity te seasons
fierorable to the rot.

I Losses ranging from slight to 25 %

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COMPILED BY
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3 & aa eee “2 he : el pA

REPORT OF THE MICROSCOPIST.

Srr: I have the honor to submit herewith my fifteenth annual re-
port. In consequence of an increasing demand for information regard-
ing the characteristics of butter substitutes, I have found it necessary
to devote most of my time during the past year to the further inves-
tigation of the polarizing properties of animal and vegetable fats, as
determined by the use of the microscope, and to devising such other
ready, sure, yet inexpensive methods of distinguishing oleomarga-
rine from milk butter as may be readily employed by microscopists
and others.

The recent enactment by Congress of an oleomargarine law, which
is severe in its penalties, has rendered it all the more important that
the methods employed in the detection of butter substitutes should
be of the most reliable character, so that on the one hand no one may
be unjustly punished for a violation of national or State law, or on
the other allowed to escape its penalties.

Pending the appointment of a microscopist in the Bureau of Inter-
nal Revenue and the fitting up of a laboratory in that Bureau, I have
made a number of examinations of suspected butter, at the request
of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, some of which proved to
be oleomargarine.

TI have devised during the present year a new and reliable method
of detecting cotton-seed oil, benne oil, and ground-nut oil in oleomar-
garine or other butter substitutes. I have also detected borax in but-
ter, oleo, neutral lard, oleomargarine, and butterine, not observed
heretofore. I have found borax in each of twenty samples of butter
recently received from the State of Illinois. In December last a but-
ter dealer of this city received from a New York firm ten tubs of
what was represented as fresh butter. The lack of butter odor led
the merchant to suspect that he had received oleomargarine. At his
request I examined samples of this butter under the microscope, but
failed to discover in them crystals of fats common to oleomargarine,
while well-defined crystals of borax (polarizing bodies) were present
in abundance. On boiling these samples the atmosphere of the room
became highly charged with the odor of butter. Repeated experi-
ments satisfied me that all the samples were old butter deodorized
with borax and by other means.

The following paragraph from the columns of the New York Sun,
republished in the Farmers’ Review June 23, 1886, may give a clew
to the reason for adding borax, a deodorizing salt, to old butter:

A process of renovating old and rancid butter, now being worked at New Hamp-
ton, Orange County, New York, as follows: The rancid stock is purchased in New
York City and in Western markets, and costs the concern an average of 10 cenis a
ek pe At the renovating works it is placed in large vats and surrounded by boil-

g water. When the butter is heated to the right degree all impurities rise to the
surface of the melted compound. They are skimmed off, and the remaining liquid

(139)

140 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

butter is run from the vats to a big circular churn. There the milk and cream are
added, and the ingredients are churned until the whole is thoroughly mixed and
the new milk and cream have been formed into butter. The fresh butter is a small
proportion of the whole, but it seems to leaven the lump, so that when it is treated

_with butter coloring and salt it is turned out as an apparently prime product of
Orange County. The dairy inspector did not seem to regard this manufacturing of
new-style butter as objectionable.

I am not prepared to say from personal experience what the physi-
ological effects of the constant use of borax may be, but the follow-
ing extract from the United States Dispensatory will throw some
light on this question:

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF BORAX.

In the case of six drams borax has no unpleasant effects except a temporary
sense of oppression in the stomach, or, at most, nausea and vomiting. Continued
large doses produce the same consequence as the prolonged use of other salts of
sodium; liquefaction of the blood and scorbutic symptoms, and sometimes an impe-
tiginous eruption of the skin.

For the accompanying photographic illustrations I am greatly in-
debted to the late Dr. Bernard Persh, and to Mr. W. H. Walmsley,
of Philadelphia, Pa., well known and expert microscopists, Fellows
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. These
gentlemen gratuitously devoted time, material, and skill to the work
of photographing all the specimens of butter and fat crystals with
which I supplied them. For beauty of execution and truthfulness of
delineation these illustrations cannot be surpassed, and fully corrob-
orate all that I have heretofore written on this subject.

Much interest in these investigations has been expressed the past
year by men of science, among whom are some of the foremost biolo-
gists, microscopists, and chemists of the universities and scientific
schools of this country. In some cases, on request, I have forwarded
them mounted specimens of crystals and photographs of same. The
representatives of several foreign powers, resident in this city, have
also expressed their personal interest in these investigations, and have
requested that copies of all bulletins issued by the Department relat-
ing to the microscopical investigation of butter and fats be forwarded
to their respective Governments.

IT have also made a number of examinations of foodstuffs which
have been brought to me personally or sent from a distance.

Examination of fibers from India has also occupied a portion of
my time, but these latter investigations are incomplete, and not yet
ready for publication.

ARRANGEMENT OF MICROSCOPE, ETC.

For the purpose of microscopic examination of butter and fats the
instrument should be so constructed that Nicol’s prisms, consisting
of a polarizer and analyzer, may be readily attached,* the polarizer
below the stage and the analyzer between the objective (one-half inch)
and lower end of the tube. By this arrangement a much larger field
is obtained than when the analyzer is placed in the upper end of the
tube, as is often the case. Having thus adapted the instrument to
the work, place a green selenite on the stage and focus the objective
to it, when an even green color will be seen. Next place a drop of
pure oil on the selenite, focus again, and a green color is again seen.

*TI always use a condenser over the polarizer,

REPORT OF THE MICROSCOPIST. 141

Now place a mounted slide of fresh butter, free from salt, over and
in contact with the selenite, and you see the same green color. These
experiments go to show that polarized light in passing through pure
oil and butter does not suffer depolarization. If "ve now combine a
few particles of tallow with oil or butter, and mount the specimen
with a glass cover in the usual way, every particle of tallow will ex-
hibit prismatic colors, the butter or oil being represented by the pure
green color. In this illustration lies the foundation of my method
ee eaating butter from oleomargarine or other butter substi-
utes,

CRYSTALLINE FORMATIONS OF BUTTER.

In earlier papers I have stated that if fresh butter is boiled, strained,
and cooled slowly, at a temperature of about 60° F., mounted in the
usual way, and viewed by polarized light, crystals will be seen, as
represented by Figs. 1 to 4, inclusive, Plate I.

Butter which has been improperly kept, subjected alternately to
high and low temperatures, will, if treated as above, show crystals
represented by Figs. 5 to 8, inclusive, same plate. If kept for a longer
period, say from two to three months, stellate crystals appear, which
in turn change during the process of fermentation to amorphous.

These varied transitions can only be observed by keeping on hand
the original samples for a long period of time.

CRYSTALS OF FATS.

In preparing animal and vegetable fats for the purpose of develop-
ing their normal crystals their natural consistency must be sora
ered. Some fats contain a much larger proportion of olein than
others, that of fish, fowl, and swine, for instance, while the fat of the
ox, sheep, and deer contains a smaller proportion of olein. The first
named may be rendered, cooled, and examined without the addition
of oil. The last mentioned will require oil to bring them to the con-
sistency of butter. For this purpose I use pure cotton-seed oil. It
is always desirable to simmer fats slowly, as by so doing they are not
so liable to scorch. If cooled at a temperature of about 60° F. for
about ten hours a perfect crystallization results. If quickly cooled,
say at a temperature of about 32° ¥., the crystals will not form prop-
erly, and in some cases will not be observed.

HOW TO MOUNT CRYSTALS OF FATS.

Describe a varnish ring, by means of a turn-table, using copal or
other varnish. In the center of this ring place some lard in quan-
tity about the size of a small pin’s head. Place over this a corre-
sponding amount of cotton-seed oil, mix with a point, place a cover,
corresponding in diameter with that of the ring, over and in contact
with the soft varnish, and press gently. The specimen may thus be
viewed by plain or polarized light. Other fats having very small
crystals may be mounted in this way. Globose crystals of butter or
of other fats of large diameter require deep rings of a permanent
character.

Owing to a diversity in the size of butter crystals and the crystals
of other animal fats, | have found it necessary to use powers varying
from fifty to five hundred diameters.

142 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

BEEF-FAT.

Crystals of beef-fat are very unlike those found in what is known
commercially as ‘#oleo.” Manufacturers of oleomargarine generally
prefer oleo, because it is more digestible than beef-fat and approaches
nearer the character of pure butter. Rendered beef-fat, when cooled,
shows crystals of a branched and foliated character, radiating from a
common center and very distinctly marked. Plate I represents crys-
tals of the fat of the omentum, kidney, marrow of femur, and round
of beef. (See Figs. 21, 22, 23, and 24.) Generally each group of
branches is imbedded in a mass of translucent fat (see Fig. 23, Plate I),
imperfectly represented by photography, yet distinctly seen by the
microscope.

OLEO.

“‘Oleo,” an extract of beef-fat, is used very extensively in combi-
nation with neutral lard, which gives the substance toughness, pre-
vents it from crumbling, and produces a closer resemblance to but-
ter. Butter substitutes thus made cut and spread on bread like
butter. As sold, oleo is not unlike butter. It has a slight taste of
butter when fresh, but is much-firmer to the touch. It has also a
slight animal odor. Every specimen I have examined has contained
borax, used, as I am informed, for the purpose of destroying the ani-
mal odor. This it accomplishes toa great extent. When oleo is
heated to a temperature of about 300° KF’, and cooled slowly, it yields
crystals of a globose form, which exhibit a cross, asin Fig. 17, Plate I.
These break up in course of time into highly stellate forms, the spines
of which resemble thorns and proceed from a common center (see
Fig. 18). The primary oleo crystal is generally of a rich orange color,
although it sometimes appears pure white and very small, say about
the one-thousandth of aninch in diameter. (See description of oleo
crystals, PlateIV.) I have produced oleo crystals as large as the one-
hundredth of an inch in diameter by boiling Armour’s oleo with yel-
low oxide of lead. These have a dull orange color and appear very
smooth. They also break up into highly spinous crystals, but as
thus far observed do not show such forms as Figs. 5, 6, 7 and 8, com-
mon to butter, PlateI. See the spinous crystals of oleo, Plate IV, as
compared with tertiary crystals of butter, 9, 10, 11, and 12, and with
those of lard, 19 and 20, Plate I. Compare also crystals of beef-fat,
21, 22, 23, and 24, with those of oleo.

I have found in all my experiments, using fresh material, that
when oleo is boiled in cotton-seed oil, say one-third oil to two-thirds
oleo, the globose crystals are invariably small as compared with those
of butter. In color the butter crystal is either yellow or pure white,
while the oleo crystal is of a deep’ orange or white. In butter the
small immature secondary crystals, Fig. 2, Plate I, represented by
small white globose bodies, differ from the very small crystals in Fig,
17, which show a cross, however minute they may be. Compare
also the butter crystal, Fig. 1, Plate I, 110 diameters, with the oleo
crystals, Fig. 17, 140 diameters. Oleo crystals, Fig. 2, Plate IV,
are also 140 diameters, and represent the largest crystals of oleo I
have seen, produced without the aid of chemicals. In Plate IV,
Figs. 1, 2, 4, and 11, represent globose crystals of boiled oleo as seen
by polarized light; Figs. 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 their first change in proc-
ess of decay. Fig. 12 represents a crystal of oleo and neutral lard
compounded with salt and water and boiled after the fashion proposed

REPORT OF THE MICROSCOPIST. 143

by Professor Weber. The photograph is a reproduction of one sent
by Professor Weber with the statement that he could not distinguish

the crystal thus made from real butter, represented by Fig. 10, as pho-

tographed by Professor Detmers. Boiled butterine (Figs. 13 and 15),
he said, was equally indistinguishable, whereas 13 and 15 are simply
poor representations of the oleo crystal. Fig. 14 is a photograph,
by the late Doctor Persh, of a crystal of boiled butter. On contrast-

_ing the butter photographs of Plates I, IJ, and III with those of the

oleo (Plate IV), the difference is seen to be great. But it should be
borne in mind that in the practical work of detecting a butter sub-
stitute by the microscope the suspected substance must be examined
first in the unboiled condition. 'The oleo crystals alluded to are ab-
sent in all commercial. butter substitutes.

NEUTRAL LARD,

Neutral lard is a product of leaf-lard rendered at the lowest possi-
ble temperature. It is said that soda or a small portion of potash
added in the rendering facilitates the maceration of the adipose tissue
and secures a greater amount of the product. The remnants of tissue
are generally observed in the lard thus treated by means of trans-
mitted light, and appear as brown bodies frequently enveloped in
globules of oil. Neutral lard in bulk is whiter than common lard or
“‘oleo,” and contains less stearin than the former, is firmer to the
touch, and is deodorized with borax. The crystals, when immature,
are small as compared with butter crystals, measuring about one two-
thousandths of an inch in diameter, sometimes showing a faint cross,
but when large and well formed they do not exhibit a cross. These
crystals are composed of acicular spines, proceeding from a common
center, as seen in Fig. 5, Plate VI.

OLEOMARGARINE.

In some cases freshly made oleomargarine, in consequence of being
suddenly chilled in the final stage of manufacture, shows no fatty
crystals when examined under the microscope.

I have lately discovered that a small portion of oleomargarine of
this character, mounted on a glass slide 3 by 1 inch, under a cover-
glass, heated over aspirit-lamp until the oleomargarine melts, and then
cooled slowly, or until the fatty compound appears whitish (a process
of about five minutes’ duration), is seen on examination under the
microscope inthe beautifully crystallized forms common to artificial
butter. Should the specimen prove to be largely composed of stearin,
the crystals will be quite large and well defined, and may be observed
in the act of crystallizing. Figure 10, Plate V, represents specimens
of this character. Several samples of oleomargarine containing large
quantities of stearin reduced with oil to the consistency of butter, col-
ored to imitate butter, have been forwarded to this Department dur-
ing the present year by the Hon. J. K. Brown, dairy commissioner for
the State of New York.

Thus far I have not found any commercial oleomargarine that has
not, on examination by plain or polarized light, exhibited at once
well-defined crystals of fats.

EXTRACTION OF COTTON-SEED OIL FROM OLEOMARGARINE.

I read a paper relating to the detection of oleomargarine before
the chemical section of the American Association for the Advance-

144 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ment of Science, August, 1886, at Buffalo, and exhibited about half
an ounce of cotton-seed oil which I had drained, by a simple method,
from a sample of cleomargarine.

When I test for cotton-seed or benne oil in oleomargarine or other
butter substitute I boil about six ounces of the sample and allow it
to cool and granulate, the object of which is to facilitate the escape of
the oil through the interstices formed by the fatty granules. Having
thus secured the most favorable conditions for drainage, I remove the
oil by meansof a Bunsen filter-pump. (See Plate VII.) Bythismeans
I have procured within a few hours, at a temperature of about 78° F.,
about a gill of cotton-seed oil from three-fourths of a pound of oleo-
margarine. When the oil is in excess it may be drained at a lower
temperature. The oil of butter may be removed in this way to a
great extent, but requires a higher temperature to operate well.
About 78° F. is suitable for some varieties of butter. Butter oil,
cotton-seed, benne, and other oils may be readily distinguished one
from the other by well-known tests. At 65° F. oil of butter is fluid.
Cotton-seed and other oils used in oleomargarine are liquid at a much
lower temperature than oil of butter. When a foreign oil is found
in a substance sold as pure butter the substance thus compounded is
an oleomargarine under the law.

THE BUNSEN FILTER-PUMP.

Plate VII represents the ordinary Bunsen filter-pump. The pump
at A is firmly attached to a faucet which has a good flow of water.
The water flows through to B, thereby exhausting the air from the
bottle C, through the tube H, and in turn from the bottle D through
the connecting tubes F. The oleomargarine, previously boiled and
freed from water by decantation and cooled, is put into the funnel G,
into which a coarsely perforated platinum cone, filled with absorbent
cotton, has been fitted, The water is now turned on and the appa-
ratus set to work. As the air is exhausted from the two bottles the
oil in the oleomargarine is forced through into the bottle D. The
identity of the oil is then tested. Two bottles are used, so that in
case of any inequality in pressure or flow the water backs into C and
not into D, thus preserving the oil resulting from the operation free
from water or any foreign substance.

COTTON-SEED OIL USED IN OLEOMARGARINE.

The United States Dispensatory thus describes cotton-seed oil,
which is used as a constituent of oleomargarine in some factories:

Bleached cotton-seed oil is perfectly transparent and has a pale straw color, a
bland, nut-like taste, and a neutral reaction. Itsspecific gravity at 15° C. (59° F.) is
.925—.927 (.920—.930, U. S. P.); that of crude oil .980—.932. It is very sparingly
soluble in alcohol, but dissolves readily in ether, chloroform, benzine, &c. Near 5° C.
(41° F.) the oil begins to deposit palmatin, but it does not congeal until cooled to —1°
or —2° C. (380° or 28.4° F.). Exposed to the air the oil gradually thickens, but it does
not solidify. Cotton-seed oil consists chiefly of olein and palmatin.

BENNE OIL.

The following characteristics of benne oil, used in the manufacture
of oleomargarine, are also from the United States Dispensatory:

_ Benne oil has a yellow color, usually of a deeper hue than expressed almond oil,
is thinner at ordinary temperatures than most other fixed oils, is nearly inodorous,

REPORT OF THE MICROSCOPIST. 145

and has a bland and agreeable peculiar taste; and the specific gravity, .923° at 15° C.
(59° F.). Near the freezing point of water it becomes opaque, and congeals usually at
about —5° C, (23° F.), while the oil extracted by solvents congeals at about 5° C. (41°
I’.), forming a yellowish-white mass. It is a non-drying oil, and on exposure to air
does not readily turn rancid. Oil of benne is obtained by subjecting benne-seeds to
pressure. The yield is in the neighborhood of 50 per cent. of the weight of the
seeds. About 14,000 gallons of this oil were imported into the United States in 1876
and 126,271 gallons in 1883,

PEANUT OIL.

This oil, so much used in the manufacture of oleomargarine, is thus
described by the same authority:

It is prepared from Arachis hypoge, Linne (Bentley and Trimen Med. Plants, p.
75), an annual herb indigenous to tropical America, and now cultivated throughout
the tropics. It is known in Brazil as amendoim or mandobim. The seeds contain
about 40 per cent. of oil. This is pale yellow, thin, has the density .920, and a pe-
culiar nutty flavor, becomes turbid at about 3° C. (37.4° F.), and congeals near—5° C,
(23° F.). Nitrous acid causes the oil to congeal to a whitish mass; nitric acid colors
it reddish, and sulphuric acid grayish-yellow, then green-brown. It consists of the
glycerides of palmitic, arachic, and hypogeic acids. The latter crystallizes in
needles, which melt near 35° C. (95° F.) Under the name of katchung oil this oil is
largely used in India in the place of olive oil.

BUTTER TESTS CORROBORATED.

The Iowa State Register, of the 9th of January, 1887, corroborates
these tests in the following words:

The correctness of butter tests isa matter of interest to every citizen of Iowa, and
the course of the Government officials in this matter has been closely watched. The
result of the recent tests made in this city had a very beneficial effect upon public
sentiment, which will be emphasized by the knowledge that Dr. Field, of this city,
has made a careful microscopic test of the same samples and fully corroborates
every one. In conversation with a Register scribe yesterday, Mr. Schermerhorn
made the following statement of these last tests: ‘‘In view of the fact that the re-
liability of butter tests have been brought into question, I desire to state that I fur-
nished to Dr. A. G. Field, of this city, eight packages of butter and mixtures for
microscopical testing. They consisted of various mixtures of lard, salt, butter, but-
terine, and also pure butter of various ages and modes of manufacture. With the
exception of one package of gehuine butter four years old they all had the ap-
pearance of good butter. They were numbered and the composition of each re-
corded, but of which Dr. Field knew nothing before making the examination. In
every case his report was correct. He stated that he followed the method of Dr.
Thomas Taylor, of Washington, D. C., relying principally upon the form of crystal

and the use of polarized light.
THOMAS TAYLOR,
Microscopist.
Hon. NorMAN J. CoLmam,
Commissioner.

10 AG.—’86

146 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

PLATE I,

CRYSTALLINE FORMATIONS OF BUTTER AND FATS.

Fics. 1, 2,3, AND 4. Represent primary crystals of butter. x 80 to 110.

Fias. 5 AnD 6. Secondary crystals forming within primary crystals.

Fias. 7 AND 8. Secondary crystals which have separated from the primary forms,
x 80 to 110.

Fics. 9, 10, anp 11. Tertiary crystals of butter. x 80 to 140.

Fic. 12. Tertiary passing into the amorphous. x 140.

Fras. 13, 14, 15, AND 16. Represent oleomargarine. x 80 to 110.

Fia. 17. Oleo x 140. This crystal is not found in unboiled oleomargarine.

Fia. 18. Oleo in its second stage, as seen in oleomargarine as sold.

Fias. 19 Anp 20. Common lard. x 140 to 400. ;

Fias. 21, 22, 28, anD 24. Crystals of beef-fat from various tissues of the ox. (Omen-

tum, kidney, marrow of the femur, and round.)

PLATE II,

CRYSTALLINE FORMATIONS OF BUTTER AND FATS, AS SEEN BY POLARIZED LIGHT AND
SELENITE PLATE.

Fias. 1, 2, 8, AND 4, Represent primary crystals of butter. x 80 to 110.

Figs. 5 AND 6. Secondary crystals forming within the primary.

Figs. 7 AND 8. Pe ae crystals which have separated from the primary forms.
x 80 to 110.

Fias.-9, 10, AND 11. Tertiary crystals of butter. x 80 to 140.

Fia. 12. Tertiary passing into the amorphous. x 140.

Fias. 18, 14, 15, anp 16. Represent oleomargarine, x 80 to 110.

Fig. 17. Oleo. x 140.

Fic. 18. Oleo in its second stage. x 140. e

Figs. 19 AND 20. Common lard. x 150.

Fias. 21, 22, 28, AND 24. Crystals of beef-fat from various tissues. (Omentum, kid-
ney, marrow of femur, and round.)

PLATE III.

CRYSTALLINE FORMATIONS OF BUTTER.

FIGs.

1, 2,
Fias. 4, 7
i
5

3, 6
, 7, AND 10. Primary crystals showing ‘‘ secondaries” forming.
3 AND 15. Secondary crystals of butter. x 80 to 140.

FIGs. 1
AND 11, Tertiary crystals of butter. x 80 to 140.
.

FIGS.
PLATE IV.

CRYSTALLINE FORMATIONS OF OLEO AND BUTTER,

Fias. 1, 2, 4, AND 11. Crystals of boiled oleo (Armour). x 70 to 140.

Fias. 8, 5, 6, 7, 8, AND 9. Crystals of boiled oleo in process of decay. Such forms
are frequently observed in oleomargarine, x 140

Fig. 10. The butter crystal as photographed by Detmers.

Fia. 12. A crystal of oleo and lard made by Professor Weber, which he says cannot
be distinguished from that of the pure butter. (See Figs. 10 and 14.) ©

Figs. 13 anp 15. Crystals of boiled butterine as prepared by Professor Weber and
photographed by Professor Detmers, representing the butter crystal accord-
ing to Professor Weber.

Fia. 14. The true butter crystal, photographed by the late Dr. Bernard Persh.

Compare the above plate with the transition stages of butter crystals, Plate I.

PLATE V.
CRYSTALLINE FORMATIONS OF OLEO AND OLEOMARGARINE.

Fic, i. Boiled oleo by plain light, exhibiting spines. x 140.

Fig. 3. Boiled oleo by polarized light, showing a cross. x1 40.

Fias. 2, 4, 5, 6, 9,11, 12,18, 14, AnD 15. General appearance of oleomargarine as sold
in the market. x 75 to 110.

REPORT OF TILE MICROSCOPIST. 147

Fic. 7. Armour’s oleomargarine boiled and cooled. x 140.

Fig. 10. A specimen of oleomargarine composed mostly of stearin and cotton-seed
oly x10)

Fic. 8. Boiled butterine (Armour’s make), showing the oleo crystals. x 110.

The above crystals were all photographed by polarized light, except in the case of
Fig. 1, which was photographed by plain light.

PLATE VI.
CRYSTALLINE FORMATIONS OF VARIOUS FATS.

Fias. i AND 3. Respectively, primary and secondary crystals of loon fat. x 110.

Figs. 2 AND 8. Primary and secondary crystals of musk-rat fat. The primary (No.
2) are always very small, measuring about three one-thousandths of an inch
in diameter.

4, Crystals of oleo. x 140 diameters. (Extract of beef fat.)

. 5. Crystals of common lard by plain light. x 400.

Fig. 6. Secondary crystals of butter. x 110.

. 7. Crystals of beef fat. x 140.

Fig. 9. Crystals of deer fat. x 140.

Fid. 10. Lard by plain light. x 140.

Fie. 11. Crystals of the solid fat of cotton-seed oil. x 110.

Fie, 12. Neutral lard crystals, immature. x 140.

“wilharte She lneteeane ie ihis PP sat se hg MOEN
oh Seni) ett ich ead a 8

hat) ‘ A ii iF ‘ee REL ay
‘ ‘ : wae

pine ae

Pay nee a bine ut i pat, Kiet He dioi}
eh bltee f rao aia aia
ith, ay yin a ae) wsbitgoe I
avd ae tas tke rae oa ew | pati
ph tatier thet meh Ce Sia RS Oae y Lied hes

(tet Aue tay Hoergiet) eee) Poet an ieheidty "hee
AO ) ial tie hh’ BAG, Govier, + Lad a

ay Ae i

PuatTeE I.

CRYSTALLINE FORMATIONS OF BUTTER AND FATS.

MOSS ENG. CO., N. Y,.

Photographed by

Plate ll CRYSTALLINE FORMATION OF BUTTER AND FAT

as seen by polarized iight and selenite plate

7. TAYLOR. e/ ais ‘sage uae Doe

PratEe Tit:

CRYSTALLINE FORMATIONS OF BUTTER.

3 ; Photographed by
MOSS ENG. CO., N. Y- Persh, Waliscy and Gascoyne.

PLATE IV.

CRYSTALLINE FORMATIONS OF “OLEO” & BUTTER.

MO8S ENG. OO., N. Y- B. Persh and Detmers, Photogs.

PLATE V.

CRYSTALLINE FORMATIONS OF ‘‘OLEO” & OLEOMARGINE. BOILED AND RAW

MOSS ENG. CO., N, Y.

PLATED Viz
CRYSTALLINE FORMATIONS OF LARD AND OTHER FATS.

2

MOBS ENG. CO., N.

Report of the Microscopist, Department of Agriculture, 1886

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The Bunsen Filter “Pur.

ek i eee Sop esr Lega im
ER meg ar a» een Decrctae antes all -

V

REPORT OF CHIEF OF FORESTRY DIVISION.

Srr: I have the honor herewith to transmit my annual report for
the current year, embracing in its first part, besides the outline of
work pursued in this Division, a brief review of the questions which
underlie the consideration of Government action in regard to a forest

olicy, and also an account of the present condition of forestry in the
Timid States. In the second part I have attempted to state briefly
the elementary principles which must be understood before we can
hope to establish a successful forest management. In this part the
often-asked questions, ‘‘ What to plant” and ‘‘How to plant” have
received a broad consideration, such alone as can be given to them in a
report of limited size and for a country with such diversity of soil,
climatic, floral, and economic conditions.

I beg leave to report that with the studies of the biology of our
timber trees, just inaugurated, a new and important line of work has
been begun, which, if continued in the same spirit as undertaken,
may eventually form the basis of future American forestry; teaching
us the life-history of our important forest trees and the conditions
upon which their development in the forest depends; deducing from
observations made from practical rather than botanical points of
view rules of management directly applicable to the forester, a work
which has not heretofore been systematically attempted. This most
necessary work will naturally require a series of years of patient
labor and observation before the results can be generalized upon and
practically applied. It can only be expected to progress satisfacto-
rily if liberal provision is made for those engaged in it, who should
be persons of special fitness, with ample means to supply needed
elementary knowledge.

With its present appropriation the Division cannot, in my opinion,
satisfactorily undertake extended forest statistical inquiries, and
should, therefore, confine itself mainly to the work of establishing the
methods upon which forest planting and forest management can be
carried on in our country with our native timber trees.

The distribution of seedlings, the only satisfactory manner of sup-
plying plant material, would be of great benefit to the Western tree
Poe especially, and would enlarge the area of forest planting;

ut without facilities to grow the supply, without the means of satis-
fying the demand of every applicant, and in the absence of a discrim-
inating system of distribution, this mode of encouraging forestry has
not yet borne the results which might be expected from it.

As will appear from the wording of the Act, instituting its work in
the year 1876, the Forestry Division was originally intended to fur-
nish data upon which a true conception might be formed of the con-
dition and importance of our forests and forest supplies, and by pre-
senting the methods of management pursued in other countries to aid
the legislator in formulating a forest policy for this country.

This work, mainly of statistical or historical character, so far as
general information goes may be deemed concluded, and although

(149)

150 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

the forest statistics relating to our own country, even assupplemented
by the excellent work of the Tenth Census in Volume IX, cannot be
said torepresent more than approximations, owing to the insufficiency
of funds annually allowed for the difficult and elaborate task of such
statistical collection; yet the information embodied in the four vol-
umes of forestry reports issued from this Department, in addition
to the annual reports and other similar forestry publications, official
and unofficial, must be considered sufficiently extensive to fairly show
the deplorable condition of our forestry, the importance and need of
a systematic forest policy, its bearings upon national economy, and
its requirements at the hands of legislators as well as of wood con-
sumers.

That a more general and practical application of this preliminary
knowledge cannot yet be recorded, may be due to the difficulty of
extracting from the mass of matter accumulated in these reports the
important facts upon the consideration of which action must proceed.
It may be desirable, therefore, at the end of the first decade of for-
estry investigations, to summarize briefly the results, and to present
a concise picture of our present forest and forestry conditions.

SIGNIFICANCE OF FORESTS.

" It is a generally recognized fact that forests have always been im-
ortant factors in the national life, the civilization and the progressive
evelopment of the human race. 7

Their influence is of duplex character—direct and indirect.

As sources of a raw material which enters into almost every branch
of human industry and manufacture, substitutes for which are not
easily found, their direct importance and the need of their perpetu-
ationisobvious. In this respect the forests of the whole world might
be considered tributary to our markets; but not only would the im-
portation of a bulky material from distant parts be exceedingly ex-
pensive and almost impracticable for the enormous quantities re-
quired by us, but other nations are awake to the danger of diminished
forest products and are restricting their wood exports.

The question of a home supply of raw material is nowhere more
important than in the matter of forest products,

While for more than a century alarmists have prophesied a dearth
of timber, and by their clamor have induced more careful husbanding
of forest resources in Europe, apparently their prophecies have not
been fultilled. But there can be no doubt that the conditions favor-
able for a fulfillment of such predicted danger are growing with the
increase of the world’s population and with the greater requirements
of an advancing civilization. While in many cases wood is success-
fully supplanted by other materials, yet the substitutes do not seem
to come in proportion to the increased demand and decreased supply.
There can be no doubt that wood is a convenience which ought to be
preserved in sufficient quantity for the use of the human race.

The tendency of nature to clothe waste places with wood growth
has been claimed as sufficient to restore the ravages made upon the
timber resources by man. At one time no doubt the unaided produc-
tions of nature were sufficient to provide man with food without much
trouble, making the use of plows and fertilizers unnecessary. But
the present era, it seems, cannot find methods intensive enough to feed
its multitudes. Nobody would deny the need of agriculture. In the
same manner, with the increasing need of agricultural lands, the

‘DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 151

‘relegation of the forest to the poorer soils and the decrease of its area
will necessitate intensity in methods of its production and a careful
management—a system of forestry.

MECHANICAL INFLUENCE,

The mechanical influence of the forests on mountain slopes and.
crests, as regulators of the water supply in springs and brooks which
feed the rivers of the plain, and in counteracting the destructive ten-
dency of these waters, is abundantly proved and well understood. *

The amount of rain which reaches the soil is naturally smaller in
the forest than on the open field; but in the forest the moss and leaf-
mold act as a sponge, absorbing all the rain or snow which reaches
them, and only gradually giving up the same to the soil, while the
open field, and still more the denuded hillside, allow the water to
flow off rapidly, retaining but little and evaporating a large amount.
_ The forest is the great reservoir of agricultural lands, giving up
gradually throughout the season, when they are most needed by agri-
culture, its stores of the waters falling over its area, Rain and snow
to a large extent penetrate the forest soil down to the impenetrable

* Owing to the short time since methodical observations have been inaugurated
(mainly in Germany), and the complicated nature of the investigation, the numerical
data relating to forest influences are still exceedingly incomplete.

The most notable figures, so far more or less definitely established as general aver-
ages, are given as follows: ,

The temperature of the soil in the forest (always meaning a well-stocked dense
growth) is lower than that of the open field; in spring, by 28:per cent.; in summer,
by 24 per cent.; in autumn, by 16 per cent.; in winter, by 10 per cent.; in the aver-
age during the year, 21 per cent.

The temperature of forest air (interior) is lower than that of the fields, the differ-
ence being greater in proportion ta elevation, and less in the region of the crown
than nearer the ground. The difference in absolute temperature degrees is greatest in
spring and summer, from 15 to 20 per cent.; in falland winter the difference is small,
the temperature in the forest being somewhat cooler during the day, but warmer
during the night. On an average a reduction in temperature of 10 per cent. from
that of the open field prevails during the year.

In the case of Kansas, for instance, this would mean a reduction in summer tem-
perature of 10 to 15 degrees in a supposed forest, with all the consequences of reduced
evaporation, cooler winds, and increased precipitation. The thermometrical range
is from 5 to 20 degrees less in the forest than in the open, the greatest difference oc-
curring in the hot months.

The relative humidity of the forest air has been found to be from 8 to 10 per cent.,
and in pine forests in summeras high as 13 per cent. greater than in the open. Ob-
servations in France place the difference at 1 to 3 per cent. in favor of deciduous, 7
to 13 per cent. in favor of pine forest, the greatest difference occurring in the sum-
mer months,

Kvaporation in the field is greater by 57 per cent. in spring, 64 per cent. in sum-
mer and winter, and 66 per cent; in autumn.

Transpiration through the leaves during five months of vegetation, for a field with
vegetable cover, has been estimated at. 500,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of water per acre. -
Forest vegetation requires several times (probably three times) this amount.

Amount of precipitation over forest was found to be from 4 to 1} inches (1.4 per
cent.) greater in deciduous, and from 14 to 2% inches (8 per cent.) in evergreen forest.
(These figures are probably too low.)

The amount of precipitation reaching the soil is dependent on the greater or less
force of the rain, fine rain often being entirely intercepted by the crowns, while 80
to 90 per cent. of very heavy rain may reach the ground. When falling at the rate
of + inch in 24 hours, spruce forest intercepted 78 per cent., beech 27 per cent.; when
at the rate of 4 inch in 24 hours, spruce intercepted 95 per cent., beech 62 per cent.
Yet observations in France through 11 years in a 40 to 57 year old beech forest show
that only from 8.5 to 17 per cent. of the precipitation was intercepted. Last year’s
observation at the Prussian stations show the precipitation decreased under forest
cover by 28 per cent,

152 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

subsoil, where the water accumulates and reappears elsewhere as:
springs; the less inclined the surface the more water penetrates, as-
sisted by the deep and far-reaching ramifications of the roots and the
permanent vegetable cover. While this beneficial action is especially
noticeable in the mountainous regions, the forest of the plains also
acts as a Water reservoir; which will appear from the observed fact
that in deforested localities the ground-water level has sunk and
aridity is increasing.

Under the forest cover of the mountains the melting of snows is re-
tarded, and thus the flow of streams is more gradual and continued
evenly through a longer period. While the large floods are proba-
bly to a great extent due to cosmic causes, their aggravation through
deforestation at the headwaters of streams cannot be denied; and that
local floods, especially the ravages of mountain streams, can be obvi-
ated by proper forestry has been proved practically in France and
_ the Tyrol] within the last thirty or forty years.

The mechanical action of forest beltsin breaking the force of winds,
alleviating the effects of hot and cold blasts upon crops, and in ame-
liorating the severity of the climate of a neighboring district is well
known to every prairie settler. .

CLIMATIC INFLUENCE. ®

The influence claimed for forest areas upon the local climate of a
neighboring region must be considered as mainly due to a difference
of insolation and consequent difference of temperature and evapora- ~
tion over the forest and the open field. This influence, therefore, is
appreciable only when sufficiently large and dense forest areas alter- ©
nate with open grounds.

In consequence of the difference between the temperature of the
forest and that of the surrounding region, local currents of air are
established, so that the forest acts like a large sheet of water as a
starting-point for diverging local winds.

The cooler and generally moister air over the forest promotes the
condensation of the lower layer of clouds and the condensible strata
of air, so that, while the forest may not positively cause rain to fall,
yet it does not at least prevent it, as the heated bare ground or field
often does.

The climatic influence of the forest upon its neighborhood may be
said to consist in the communication of its own climatic characteris-
tics, 7. e., shorter range of thermometrical extremes and more perma-
nent moisture in its atmosphere. These characteristics are more pro-
pounced in summer than in winter; their degree is proportionate to
the extent and density of the forest, and their communication to the
surroundings is graduated by the distance from the forest. The for-
est, in short, is a regulator of climatic, as it is of hydrologic extremes,

Our present knowledge of forest influences, based on experiment,
observations, and logical inferences, allows us to summarize the fol-
lowing facts:

A.—EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION ON THE CLIMATE.

(a) On the climate of the deforested area.

(1) Extremes of temperature of air as well as of soil are aggravated.

2) The average moisture of the air is lowered.

3} Whether the moisture of the soil after deforestation will be
greater or less depends on the nature of the soil.

~

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 153

4) Thetotal atmospheric precipitation is not necessarily diminished,
unless clearing has been made over very extensive regions, but the
distribution throughout the year will be disturbed; the amount, how-
ever, which reaches the soil is largely increased.

(b) On the climate of the surrounding country.

(1) The areas that were situated near the forest lose their protec-
tion against drying and cold winds.

(2) The force of the winds is unbroken; a change more detrimental
where the configuration of the ground does not fulfill a similar func-
tion, in large plains more than in hilly and mountainous regions, and
at the sea coast more than in the interior.

(3) The unfavorable consequences of deforestation are more marked
the more the climate of a locality has a continental character, and the
less marked the more it approaches the character of a coast-climate.*

B.—EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION ON WATER SUPPLY.

(1) After deforestation the soil is deprived of very much less water
by the process of vegetation than before. ’

(2) hare a superfiuity of moisture used to be removed by this proc-
ess, deforestation often induces a formation of marshes, and, in con-
Beanenee unfavorable sanitary influences on the surroundings are

ossible.
(3) In consequence of deforestation, evaporation from the soil is
augmented and accelerated, resulting in an unfavorable influence on
soil humidity and on the size and continuity of springs.

“) With the disappearance of the forest the retarding influence of
soil cover and of trunks on the superficial flow of water ceases.

(5) This circumstance, in conjunction with the augmented evapo-
ration from the superficial springs and rivulets and from the soil,
i ope the unfavorable influence of deforestation on the flow of brooks
and rivers.

* From this it will at once appear how futile must be the attempts to name a cer-
tain percentage of forest cover as necessary for a country to preserve favorable
climatic and hydrologic conditions, and another percentage for the requirements of
raw material. As the latter must depend upon the number of inhabitants, the pro-
ductiveness of the forest, and several other variable factors, so does the former de-
a. on conditions the bearing of each of which we have not yet been able to calcu-

ate ; it must certainly vary according to geographical location and configuration of

soil. England, with its moist and cloudy climate, in a temperate zone, can well
dispense with a large per centage of forest cover—it has only 3.23 per cent.—while
poor thirsty Spain suffers from drought with 16.30 per cent. of forest, and Austria,
on account of the configuration and character of her territory and the great number
of water-sheds, feeis the need of more than 30 per cent. of forest cover. For a coun-
try like the United States it is impossible to pronounce upon a required forest area
for climatic reasons, as its parts must so widely differ in this, that no meaning could
be attached to any percentage expressed for the total. (See table on page 185.) From
the table on page 169, on which the percentage of forest cover in different sections is
noted, it will appear that, if the forest areas exist as reported, it can hardly be said
that the percentage of forest is dangerously out of proportion on the Atlantic coast,
the Gulf States, or even the Central and the lake-surrounding Northern lumbering
States; on the other hand, the Western agricultural, prairie, and mountain regions
appear decidedly deficient. While, therefore, local hardships, due to injudicious
clearing of hillsides, may be brought about in the first-mentioned sections, the
climatic aspect of the forestry problem concerns most nearly and immediately the
central and western half of the country, where a continental climate and the inter-
ference of high mountain ranges with moisture-laden winds, call most strongly for
the modifying influence of the forest,

154 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

(6) How much and to what extent the forest cover contributes to
regulate the amount of precipitation over a given area or the flow of
water through a given period of time, so as to prevent or ameliorate
floods and droughis, in opposition to disturbing causes, cosmic or pro-
duced by human agency, cannot yet be stated, though the existence
of such influence is sufficiently proved.

C.—EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION ON THE CONDITION OF THE SOIL.

(1) In the mountains deforestation causes torrents, carrying débris
into the valleys; land-slides, snow-slides, and avalanches are induced
more or less, according to the profile and nature of the rocks.

(2) On light sandy soil, especially near the coast, where winds are
strongest, the shifting of sands and formation of dunes is facilitated.

The importance of considering these influences is greatest for the
western half of the United Statés, especially for the exposed prairie
regions and the arid and semi-arid districts, which depend largely for
their agricultural development on the water supply from the adjacent
mountains, and also in Southern California and in the Rocky Mount-
ain States and Territories.

Common interest and the simplest prudence demand the preserva-
tion of these mountain forests in perpetuity under most conservative
management.

Less urgent, but not to be underestimated, is the weight of these
considerations for the eastern half of the country, notably the coast
lines and the Alleghany Mountain ranges.

CONDITION OF FOREST SUPPLIES AND FORESTRY IN THE UNITED
STATES.

The forest area of the whole United States, excepting Alaska, at
the present time has been reported by the Forestry Division as less
than 500,000,000 acres (489,280,000).

There is reason to believe that much of this area is waste brush-
land, and that even the timber forest often hardly deserves the name,
being only thinly stocked with trees.

Leaving out of consideration the forests of the Pacific slope, esti-
mated at 60,000,000 acres, and said, though little known, to cut large
amounts per acre, the balance of forest land in the United States, it
is believed, cannot long meet the enormous demands on its resources.

No reliable statistics exist from which the stock on hand could be
even approximately computed for the whole extent; but wedo know
tolerably well the quantity of lumber and wood annually used or re-
quired by our present population. In round numbers this amounts to
ec like 20,000,000,000 cubic feet, made up of the following
items: |

Cubic feet.
(umber market and manutaccures.. caters cece cree pee nerconsice es * 2,500, 000, 000
allnOaAG COMBUUCTION | cc ae rote core cite te tote ce nett sed eaeicis 860, 000, 000
OMTAT COD Fars cree ices ok lee ee RE Ete CETTE ote srctatots eketerorele reels 250, 000, 000
ICT OS tte ee eee os aa Re Te, alee rae Lain Oe Rr ene Sa 500, 000, 000
MENTO Herero ee eo ee, AAA OLAS RR De TIM AST <a Wane ed. hd § 17, 500, 000, 000

*Computed from figures of the Bureau of Statistics.
Latest estimates of the Forestry Division.
Computed on the basis of a careful investigation by the Department in 1871,
Computed on the basis of census statistics of 1880,

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 155

There is also to be added an item requiring yearly a considerable
amount of wood for a use to which no other civilized nation puts its
forests. LI refer to the 10,000,000 acres or so of woodland burnt over
every year, intentionally and unintentionally, by which a large
amount of timber is killed or made useless; and, what is worse, not
only is the young growth destroyed by these fires, but the capacity of
the soil for tree-growth is diminished, as they destroy the beneficial
physical qualities of the leaf-mold; and if occurring on recent clear-
ings, inferior kinds of timber, capable of thriving under the altered
conditions, occupy the ground and diminish the value of the area.

The present reckless method of turpentine-orcharding also deteri-
orates large quantities of timber unnecessarily.

The wasteful methods which are employed in lumbering, especially
by the tie-cutter,* often avoidable without financial loss to the lum-
berer, hasten the reduction of visible supplies.

What amount of forest products will be required by the country by
the next centennial it is idle to attempt to compute; that it must in-
crease with the growing population and development is self-evident,
and that, too, in spite of substitutes for wood in many branches of
industry. +

AREA REQUIRED.
So far we have lived upon our forest resources without consider-
ing whether we were using up the interest or the capital.

Assuming that we shall need a continuous supply of only the
20,000,000,000 cubic feet computed above, it would be of interest to
ask ed area in forest will be required to furnish the amount contin-
uously.

With our present knowledge there is no possibility of calculating
the average yearly growth that can be expected upon the entire pres-
ent forest area of the United States. While I am inclined to think
that the capacities of the soil, climate, and indigenous species of our
country are greater than those of Europe, yet in their present con-
dition our forests do not compare favorably in regard to annual yield
with the well-cared-for and well-stocked continental forest areas.

The average yearly accretion per acre in German forests has been
computed at 50 cubic feet, or on every 100 cubic feet of standing tim-
ber 2.3 cubic feet of new wood yearly. Applying these figures to our
present requirements, and assuming as close a use of material as is
the European practice, it would appear that an area of not less than
400,000,000 acres must be kept in well-stocked forest to give us a con-
tinual supply for our present needs.

We are nearing therefore, (if we have not yet reached), the time
when increased drain means a squandering of capital, and a time when
regard to the husbanding and the careful management of our forests is
required for the purpose merely of furnishing raw material. This fact
will appear still more clearly if we inquire into the supply of certain

*It is computed that in the California redwood forests to produce a railroad-tie
worth 35 cents timber to the value of $1.87 is wasted.
_ tit is significant to note that other nations are aware of our deplorable condition
in regard to future forest supplies. The Government of Bavaria last year sent an
expert forester to study the timbers of the United States, who explained the pur-
pose of his mission in these words: ‘‘In fifty years you will have to import your
timber, and as you will probably have a preference for American kinds, we shall
a begin to grow them, in order to be ready to send them to you at the proper
ime.

156 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

kinds of timber. Numerous expressions in regard to the growing
scarcity of desirable hard-wood supplies for manufacturers will be
found in the report of this Department on the exhibit of wood manu-
factures at the New Orleans Exposition. No better indication of the
state of forest supplies can be given than the trade reports in lumber
yapers.

j he the accuracy of the statistics and estimates in Government
reports has been questioned and their value doubted, it may be of
interest to publish the following extracts from a letter recently re-
ceived from Mr. G. W. Hotchkiss, for many years Secretary of the
Lumbermen’s Exchange at Chicago, recognized as an authority in
lumber statistics,

He says:

So far as White Pine (Pinus strobus) is concerned, it occupies to-day a position in
forestry analogous to the Indian in the body politic, practically a thing of the past.
Of course there are sections which ‘will last for many years (not so very many either),
but the great bulk is gone, and, like the straggling tribes, but a remnant of former
strength and power remains, and but a few decades more and they will be known
only in history as a thing of the past. One hundred years ago Maine, Vermont,
New Hampshire, New York, and Pennsylvania could boast vast forests of White
Pine. West of the lakes, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, so late/as fifty years
ago, were unbroken in forest resources, and the White Pine predominated. To-day
Maine gives us some spruce and a little small sapling pine, such as would hardly
have been sent for firewood in her palmy days of lumbering. Vermont, New Hamp-
shire, and New York may still boast an occasional clump of trees, but have lost all
pretensions as lumber-producing regions. Pennsylvania has a few hundred million
feet on the sides of the Alleghanies, but has dropped out of the list as a lumber pro-
ducer. East of the great lakes nought remains (excepting the spruce forests of
Northern and Eastern Maine) save hemlock and hard wood, and these in very lim-
ited quantities, insufficient to supply the home demand in a majority of localities.
Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota are the last remaining resorts for lumbermen
east of the Rocky Mountains. Originally there was probably 150,000,000,000 feet B.
M. in Michigan, but fifty years’ work has reduced the supply to probably not over
twelve to twenty billion feet, with an annual average cut for the past five years of
not far from four and a half billions; and the cutting is so close as to exterminate
all the pine timber on the tract operated upon. Wisconsin can hardly be estimated
at over thirty to thirty-five billion, little more than would suffice to supply the con-
sumption of the United States as a whole for one year. Minnesota, set down in the
census of 1880 as having 11,000,000,000 feet B. M., an amount disputed by some as
too high, by others as too low, if allowed to-day at 10,000,000,000, could furnish but
one year’s supply for the mills of the Northwestern pine-producing States. In fact,
if the mills of these three States were run to their capacity for six years there
would be but little pine left for the seventh year’s production. And these estimates
of timber include the red or Norway pine, which forms a noticeable percentage of
the whole. In Michigan and Wisconsin there are still large quantities of hard wood,
but it is not being cared for with that appreciation of its value which is desirable.
It has, however, this advantage, it can be reproduced. Pine cannot.* The future
timber supply of the East must be largely from the hard woods. ‘The vast forests
of the Pacific slope will supplement this with such soft lumber as may be needed.
Before many years the forests of Alaska will swarm with enterprising timber seek-
ers. Already those of California, Oregon, and Washington Territory have been the
subject of research, and vast amounts of Eastern capital are already invested there.
British Columbia, west of the mountains, will supplement the supply, but our
children will bring their pine and fir from Alaska. Meantime the supply east of the
Rockies once denuded will be known no more, except through wise Government
action in protecting and encouraging timber culture. Our present laws in this re-
spect, so far as they relate to taking up land, are a farce, falling little short of
tragedy, as the Government parts with the land without accomplishing the purpose
of the grant in one case in a hundred, until it has lost control of all sufficient areas,
which might be made a blessing to our successors in life’s race.

Ihave not for some years given the subject of Southern production so much
pL Is i lo A VTE Sy Oe A II

*This can mean only reproduction from the stock. Reproduction of White Pine
from seed is as easily effected as that of a other conifer, but of course requires
special management, as will be outlined further on in this report. B. E. F,

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 157

thought, so far as statistics are concerned, and can speak only generally. There has
been a great impetus to trade in the South during the past five years. You will be
safe in computing the consumption of all kinds of wood at 500 feet per capita of the
population, and at 8,000 feet per acre, it would take about 4,000,000 acres per year
for its supply. In Southern timber both the Long-leaved and Loblolly Pine grow
and can be reproduced in their native soil, so that the statement above that ‘ pine
does not reproduce itself” applies only to the White Pine of the North. I know of
no good reason why Government endeavors to foster and perpetuate large areas in
the South would not be eminently successful. But it should not be delayed, as the
wastefulness which has brought the White Pine resources of the North so near to
their extinction is rapidly doing the same for the Long-leaved and Loblolly of the
South. It is to me a source of surprise that some of the lumbermen of the country,
rmaen who are or have been for scores of years tramping through the forests, are but
now awakening to a perception of the true condition of our forests. That they have
opened their eyes to the truth is made evident to those who, like myself, are in posi-
tion to know of the search which is being made for desirable bodies of timber, by
men who six years ago set down the Government estimates and statements as veriest
bosh, and loudly asserted that no diminution in present annual supplies would be
seen for a generation to come.

BUILDING MATERIAL.

A most unbusiness-like manner of calculating has been practised in
order to ascertain how long the Pine timber supply may be expected
to last in the several States at the present rate of cutting, asif each
State were surrounded by a Chinese wall or a prohibitory export
tariff. Evidently we can come to practical conclusions only by cal-
culating for the country as a whole, and by keeping in view the
aggregate supplies of at least the White Pine, Spruce, Hemlock, and
Southern Pine areas and the demand upon them; as practically they
are used interchangeably and in the future will be still more so to fill
our immense requirements for building material, other soft woods like
Whitewood, &c., supplying only a small addition.

Taking the estimates of the census of 1880 as a basis, and, to avoid
any danger of an underestimate, adding one-third to the amount
of the above-named timbers reported as standing, we find thatin
round numbers 600,000,000,000 feet B. M. might be considered then
standing to supply a yearly demand of not less than 12,000,000,000
feet, making the exhaustion of Hastern-grown building timber sup-
plies appear reasonably certain within the next fifty years.

That the additional supplies of Redwood and other Pacific coast
timbers will hardly compensate for timber destroyed by fire, as well
as for the drafts on Northern Hemlock for tan-bark and on Southern
Pine for turpentine orcharding, and for the additional requirements
of the growing population, may also be confidently asserted.

However much these calculations may differ from the actual state
of affairs, they are sufficiently near to call for more than a passing
consideration on the part of those who have any interest in the future
welfare of the country.

The second growth of White Pine, pointed out as coming to use
in the New England States, is cut mostly when only fit for box-
boards, and will not figure much in the great market for building
materials. It may be mentioned here that, according to experiments
made in Germany on Scotch and White Pine, the requisite quality
for building purposes which the Scotch Pine attains in seventy years
is hardly attained in ninety years by the White Pine, while, accord-
ing to Dr. Mohr, the Long-leafed Pine requires two hundred years’
growth to furnish timber of good quality. The new spontaneous
growth of this class of material, left to Nature’s kind but slow methods

158 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE,

of providing for it, is infinitesimal when compared with the needed
supply.

Fie haed-sood forests, though in some localities diminished beyond
desirable proportions, owing to their natural reproductive power are
in less danger of extinction, or even of deterioration, than the more
useful, more necessary, and at the same time less easily reproduced
pine forests, Yetevenin regard to these, complaints of the deficiency
of suitable supplies for manufactures are plentiful.

The enormous yield of the forests on the Pacific slope, though prob-
ably overstated for le ate amounts, will perhaps furnish timber for
many decades; but attacked under the same conditions as the once
<‘inexhaustible” timber areas of the Northwest, and under the same
methods of treatment, we cannot expect better results than we have
witnessed in connection with these Northwestern forests.

Of the Rocky Mountain forest area as a whole not much can be ex-
pected in regard to lumber supply, except for local purposes. But the
existence of these forests on the mountain-sides serves a much more
important purpose in holding snow and water for the use of the agri-
cultural lands below during the dry seasons to which they are liable,
and in preventing or lessening torrential action, A large part of the
forests of Southern California and of other mountainous regions
belong to the same category (important chiefly on account of their
position), and should be managed and utilized with a view to the best
interests of the lower agricultural lands.

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS.

The following tables are compiled mostly from the reports of the
Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Department. An indefinite
amount of wood in manufactured articles not enumerated would in-
crease these amounts.

The imports of forest products from Canada form naturally the bulk
of our importation, amounting to $9,355,736 for the year ending June
30, 1885, equal, perhaps, to round 75,000,000 cubic feet. Almost the
entire cut of the Province of Ontario, amounting in value to $7,371,028
for the year 1884, comes to the United States. Thisshows that the duty
of $2 a thousand feet does not prevent competition, and also that from
its abolition little hope is to be drawn for the preservation of our re-
sources. In Canada there can be little doubt that all the possibilities
of production are even now strained to the utmost.* The exportation
of forest products from Canada used to go entirely to Great Britain
and the West Indies; but since the pine lands of the Northwestern
States have become gradually depleted, Canadians have successfully
competed with the lumbermen of Michigan and Wisconsin, till to-day
their exports to Great Britain and the United States are almost equal
in amount. The expressions of the Hon. H. G, Joly, member of the
Dominion Council of Agriculture, show that the visible supplies of
white pine in Canada are almost in the same deplorable condition as
those in the United States, and that the prospect of supplying our
needs by importations from Canada is altogether not very encourag-
ing.

* For the year ending June 30, 1886, the trade and navigation returns of the Do-
minion show the total exportation of forest products from Canada to the United
States as amounting to $8,500,000, or 40 per cent. of the total lumber export. On-
tario exporting to this country to the value of $6,500,000; Quebec, $1,300,000; Nova
Scotia, $270,000; New Brunswick, $438,000. aes:

159

DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

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162 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

GOVERNMENT TIMBER LAND.

In 1883 the area of timber-land remaining in the hands of the Gen-
eral Government was estimated in round figures at 73,000,000 acres,
(probably an underestimate). The greater part of this is situated in
the mountain regions of the West. Neither its condition nor its exact
extent and location are ascertainable from the records of the General
Land Office, no efforts having been made to note sufficiently the con-
dition of the public domain when surveys were platted. No attempts
are made at forestry management, and in the disposal of land no
adequate distinction is made with a view to aiding in the development
and settlement of the country.

The efforts to prevent depredations, amounting yearly to many
million dollars, are mostly frustrated for lack of means or organi-
zation. The laws relating to the protection of the forest domain are
either inadequate, or ineffective for want of execution. This is often
made practically impossible by the existence of ‘‘servitudes” or priv-
ileges fiikee those which hamper the forest administrations of Europe,
2. é., rights of certain corporations or persons to cut timber on the pub-
lic domain for specified uses, such as railway construction, mining
operations, charcoal burning, domestic use, &c.. These privileges
were granted by the Government to stimulate and aid development,
but their abuse causes continued depredation on this valuable prop-
erty of the people.

The General Government should of course protect such puplic prop-
erty until disposed of, as well as any private owner would protect his
own, and should dispose of it only to subserve the fundamental idea
of our land policy, in the development of the country.

But from the foregoing exposition it would appear that a broader
consideration of this property, a more distinct policy in regard to it,
should prevail than the mere consideration of the best manner of
parting with it.

It may be confidently asserted that—

(1) The remaining public timber domain would not be best dis-
posed of by sale, nor is it needed for settlement.

) It is principally more valuable for the timber on it than for agri-
cultural purposes.

(5) It is likewise more valuable, by its position on mountain slopes
rand crests, for other objects than for its material.

(4) Its retention and administration, under Government control, is
demanded by the best interests of the adjoining territories as well as
of the country at large.

Though it cannot be expected that, by the withdrawal of such
lands from sale and their administration by the Government, much
will be contributed towards warding off scarcity in the lumber sup-
ply of the future, the area being insignificant, it would to some extent
tend toward accelerating a wholesome change in the methods of the
lumber industry, curtailing the area for speculative enterprises. The
lands thus reserved would form anucleusand an example for American
forestry, making possible the organization and economical working of
a Forestry Department, to which we must ultimately come. The
necessity of such Government forestry has been ably discussed in a
report to this Division by Mr. K. J. James, professor of economics
in the University of Pennsylvania. But most of the forest area re-
maining in the hands of the Government is of greater importance for

/
DIVISION OF FORESTRY, 163

the purpose of preserving intact the headwaters of mountain streams
and regulating their flow than for the timber on it.

Inquiry into the experiences of settlers on the eastern slope of the
Colorado mountain range, where the supply of water for irrigation
ditches is a necessity for agricultural pursuits, and where, therefore,
special attention is paid to water-flow, reveals the fact, that many
mountain streams which used to have a constant, more or less even
flow, have at times given place to dry beds, while at other seasons
precipitating a torrential mass of water into the plain below. In
Greeley and its surroundings the deficiency of water in the irrigation
ditches has become alarmingly serious, and the cattle interest all along
the mountain ranges begins to experience the inconvenience of dimin-
ished watering facilities, going hand in hand with the destruction by
fire and ax of the forest cover on the adjacent mountains. From relia-
ble sources of information we hear of similar complaints in Southern
California,

The safety of water-reservoirs, which by engineers are considered
the ultimate requirement for the development of the agricultural

ossibilities of these regions, whatever we may think of the practica-
bility of such storage systems, will be subserved by securing a more
gradual and less destructive discharge of atmospheric precipitations
into the reservoirs, a result naturally produced by the spongy forest
-cover. Nor should it be overlooked that the water slowly draining
through moss and vegetable mold carries with it for the use of agri-
cultural crops no meah amount of fertilizing matter.

In regard to the relation of forest destruction to water-flow and
agricultural deterioration we might again cite the often-repeated ex-
perience of older nations in Asia and Europe; but as the conditions
in our country differ in important particulars from those prevailing
elsewhere, exception to inferences drawn from that source might rea-
sonably be taken.

erie thanks to our more favorable conditions of configuration
and our less closely worked soil—we are by no means anywhere near
such conditions of devastation as those experienced by Southern
France, Switzerland, and the Tyrol, where, to preserve the agricultu-
ral lands below from devastation by water, many million dollars have
been expended, and are still expended yearly, for the costly building
of dams and for difficult reforestation, yet such conditions are merely
dependent upon time and continued negligence; and we had better de-
cide now whether the policy of unconcern shall be abandoned, and
whether by simple protection and preservation of the existing forest
cover great loss and the expenditure of millions in the future shall be
saved to the nation. That such important interests may safely be
intrusted to the care of the private individual, whose life is short and
whose cencern is for to-day, nobody can reasonably assert. That
such use of the forest can be secured only if kept in the hands of the
whole nation (2. e., the General Government or the individual State
governments) lies in the nature of things, as the State alone will be
found capable of managing a large property for other purposes than
to realize its direct money value. The objection of expense raised
against such measures as have been proposed for the preservation and
protection of Government timber lands 1s frivolous in view of the mag-
nitude of the interests at stake, and the practicability of organizing a
service to prevent spoliation of these forests and to manage them as
shelter forests in the interest of the regions in which they are situated,
may be made apparent by a sketch of such an organization in detail.

164 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

PLAN FOR A FOREST DEPARTMENT.

I may be allowed to quote here from a letter recently written by
me on this subject at the request of a special agent of the Department
of the Interior:

* * * As preliminary to the discussion of what should be the policy of the Gen-
eral Government, allow me to state a few points of forestry which must be under-
stood :

(1) Not more than what grows yearly or during certain periods should be cut ina
forest which is to be kept in perpetuity.

(2) No clearing, unless followed by immediate planting, is admissible in mountain
forests; nor is it advisable in the plain.

(8) The cutting of timber must be done with a view of renewal above all other
considerations. The method, time, and duration of cutting over a given tract de-
pend upon the kind of timber and the locality. To be continually successful in
keeping a desirable forest cover requires more care than the simple method of selec-
tion practised by the luambermen.

(4) What the average yearly accretion in the forests of the public domain amounts
to is still more uncertain than their extent. Assuming that the 70,000,000 acres
probably owned by the Government produce yearly, at an average. only 10 cubic feet
per acre, which by correct management could in a short time be doubled, and reck-
oning 1 cent per cubic foot on the stump as a low estimate, the domain at present
represents a capital of at least $280,000,000. The annual expenditure for the pres-
ervation and improvement of such property of a sum equal to the value represented
by the annual growth may not be considered extravagant. To this add the larger
part of $8,000,000, the value of timber destroyed by fires, which would probably be
prevented by proper organization.* If, therefore, the importance of these moun-
tain forests did not justify a larger expenditure annually upon their preservation,
the application of the value of their annual product for their protection and man-
agement would be admissible simply from a business point of view.

The following features in the organization of the public timber domain appear
desirable and practicable :

(1) To withdraw from sale or other disposal all timber lands.

(2) If the expense of a survey—a simple running of outside boundaries—appears
too great to warrant such survey, the withdrawal may be gradually effected by
a process of exclusion whenever entries for land are made. The exact location,
too, may be established gradually from the notes of local land offices and the obser-
vations of the forest guards, as hereinafter suggested. But in the more settled
districts a boundary survey at least will soon become necessary.

(8) The organization of the service should include a central bureau, traveling and
local inspectors, and forest guards.

(4) The organization of the forest area should proceed gradually, as required, by
dividing it into reserves of ten to twenty thousand acres each, twenty to thirty of
such reserves to be formed into a district, the size and number of reserves and dis-
tricts to be dependent on local needs and the greater or less difficulty of inspection.
Unorganized territory to be divided into districts only.

(5) Functions of officers :

The rangers, or forest guards, act as local police, under general instructions and
regulations from the central bureau, and under direct supervision of local inspect-
ors, to whom they are responsible for their reserves and upon whose recommenda-
tions they should be appointed. Assistants may be required during the dangerous
season, and sheriff’s power to call upon the aid of any citizen should be conferred
upon these.

*The acres burned over and values destroyed during the census year 1880 were
reported as follows:

States and Territories. Acres. Value. States and Territories. Acres. Value.
@alifOrnia: .) se. Netcie. ees, -:0 356, 895 $440,750 || Wyoming ................ 83,780 | $3, 255,
WiaSHINSTONN,. Se. coho bcs 0 37,910 FAIS = 2000l| INGVAGS ten -itle s/c 00s eis s!s's 8,710 19, 000
ORGROOPECRE case ck. oh stme 132, 820 BOS" S50 Al MW bellaeed ove amerete rare occ ts 2, S65 1,042, 800

, —— || Colorado........-.....-.- 113, 820 935, 500

Total Pacific slope ..... 527,045 5] Ware SOON ||) AMIZOA eilele miseries 5s 10, 240 56,000
ING WaNLOSI CO seers a «cae ns ss 64, 084 142, 075

MI Ra9e Ch a ee ee 88, 020 1, 128, 000 ae
ORR 5 Sewer a. oss 214/SigeeiSeascienace 21, 000 202, 000 Total Rocky Mountains. 452, 464 6, 780, 871

\
DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 165

The district inspectors, who must live within their district, appointed upon recom-
mendation of the chief of division, and placed under bonds, are responsible for
their districts and the acts of their rangers, and report to and advise with the cen-
tral bureau ; they superintend and regulate in detail the cutting of timber and other
necessary or prescribed work, see to the execution and observance of laws and
regulations, and act as intermediaries between the public and the central bureau.

The central bureau, under a commissioner, with three division inspectors or
chiefs of division, as a council, m&kes the regulations for district Inspectors and
rangers, has disposition of the funds, according to the yearly budget, fixes price
and conditions for the sale of timber, and grants privileges from year to year, de-
termines manner, method, and time of cutting, &c., and, in connection with the
Land Office, prepares the mapping of districts and the legal work.

The chiefs of division ought at least once a year to make an inspection tour over
their division, composed of a number of districts, and so laid together as to facilitate
their inspection. One for the Pacific slope, one for the Rocky Mountain region, and
one for all other timber lands might suffice in the beginning.

(6) The disposal of timber to be cut under the regulations of the central bureau,
with a view to natural reforestation, should be made on the stump, and in the first
place for the requirements of the local demand only.

The localities and areas to be cut over, also the lowest selling price for timber, if
even only nominal, must be established yearly upon the report of the district in-
spectors as to applications and local requirements, revised by the chief of division;
so that in proper season the places where cutting will be aliowed, the conditions of
sale and other regulations, the Government rate, &c., can beadvertised. and at stated
days in each district, the timber may be disposed of at public auction to the
highest bidder, who must deposit the amount of his bid with the central bureau be-
fore cutting. Where local supply is the main object of such sales, they should be
in small parcels to suit. Where lumbering is to be considered above local need,

larger parcels may be disposed of.

- Permission to erect saw-mills, &c., should in every case emanate from the central
bureau, which acts as the administrator of a valuable property, and should be given
the greatest latitude in the division of the territory, the use of its forces, and in ar-
ranging for the co-operation of local and State authorities. Such an organization
would require, besides the head of the bureau, only three thoroughly trained forest-
ers as chiefs of divisions. The district inspectors are best chosen from men convers-
ant with lumbering operations and woodcraft and with some knowledge of and inter-
est in forestry. The guards may be simply reliable men of discretion.

(7) The cost of the total service depends of course on the number of districts to be
formed. Take Colorado alone, which we will assume contains about 5,000,000 acres
of public domain; for this we may require three hundred rangers and ten inspectors,
and the expense may be placed in round figures at $300,000. This amount could be
saved by preventing only one-third of the forest fires, which seem to destroy over
$900,000 worth of public property in that State yearly, and the 50,000,000 cubic feet or
so of timber, which may be cut to satisfy the needs of the country for its development,
would certainly, without hardship to any one, yield enough to help pay the expense
of less favorable localities and of the central bureau. The expense of the latter,
with the necessary staff of clerks, &c., could certainly be kept within the sum of
$50,000. Even if the whole forest area were as thoroughly organized as proposed
for Colorado, the expense of the service would not be more than 30 per cent. of the
income which might be derived from this domain, or, which could be saved, by pre-
venting one-half of the fires that yearly destroy about an equal amount.

Thus the matter of cost appearsas nothing. But I repeat that if the total income
from the domain were spent upon its preservation and improvement it would not
be an extravagance, and future generations of farmers, miners, builders, nay, of lum-
bermen, would extol the wisdom of the legislature which thus preserved the needful
forest cover of the mountains.—B. E. F. ;

GOVERNMENT PLANTATIONS.

That the operations of such a forest department might be prop-
erly extended to the creation of new forests, so as to produce benefi-
cial effects upon the agricultural conditions of the arid and semi-arid
regions of the Western States and Territories, suggests itself. It has
been shown that the climatic influences of the forest must be largely
dependent upon its size and density; therefore no considerable change
of the unfavorable climatic conditions of the plains can be soon

166 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

expected, unless large tracts be covered with forest growth. The
military reservations in the hands of the General Government form
a most desirable basis for such extensive plantations. Covered with
a dense tree growth, such oases in this bleak but fertile ‘‘ desert”
would better subserve the objects of our land policy in regard to the
development of the country than the disposal of them directly to
settlers.

If properly managed such Government forests would serve most
admirably as practical schools of forestry, as object lessons, as forest
experiment stations, and would afford aid where most needed to the
forest planter of the plain, an example and incentive worth more than
any Gite UN ag or grants in behalf of forestry which the
Government could make.

It is not the control of the Government over private property, it
is not the exercise of eminent domain, it is not police regulations and
restrictions that have produced desirable effects upon private forestry
abroad, but simply the example of a systematic and successful man-
agement of its own forests, and the opportunity offered by the Goy-
ernment to the private forest-owner of availing himself of the advice
and guidance of well-qualified forestry officials,

That similar considerations should prevail and that similar organi-
zations should be inaugurated by the individual States is evident, and
some of the States, recognizing the value of their forest domain, have
taken initial steps toward preserving it and preparing the way for
better management.

How much forest property is held by the individual States or is
under their control as school lands it has not been possible to ascertain
for this report. It can be, however, only an inconsiderable portion
of the total forest area, as the principles of our policy are opposed to
the holding and managing of landed property by the State. As we
learn to recognize not only the money value but also the general
economic importance of forests, whatever forest soil reverts to the
State or is still held by it will have to be managed on a different plan
from that hitherto in use, by which it is often disposed of at inade-
quate prices and only atemporary benefit accrues to the community
from the sale. The first step in this direction has been taken by the
State of New York, as will appear further or

PRIVATE FORESTS.

The bulk of the once endless forest areasis held by private per-
sons and corporations, such as the railroad companies, to whom the
land was granted by the General Government, by mine owners, by
charcoal-iron works (holding about 3,500,000 acres*), tanneries, and
other industrial establishments. The largest amount isin the hands
of lumbermen, speculators, and farmers. This last class of forest own-
ers must be considered the most desirable, since they probably form
the most stable class of our population, and can devote the most care
and attention to the management of their wood lots. It is a hopeful
fact that nearly 39 per cent. of the reported forest area, comprising
190,255,744 acres, seems to have been in the census year in the hands
of farmers. By the planting of trees and groves this area is receiving
yearly additions in which the farming communities, especially those in
the Western States, are almostexclusively concerned. Itis to be hoped

*Report of Forestry Division on Charcoal Manufacturers’ Interests.

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 167

that the farmers will pursue the most conservative policy in regard
to this kind of property, which will shortly increase in value as never

before, and will therefore offer great inducements to part with it pre-
maturely.

DIFFICULTIES TO BE OVERCOME.

The difficulties in the way of a change of forest policy are the same
which have produced the unsatisfactory state of affairs now existing
over a large part of the United States. They are greater and of a
different nature from those which European nations had to encounter,
and therefore call for different methods of treatment.

In the first place, the peculiar and unique conditions under which -
the country has been settled have brought within reach of the mar-
ket distant forest areas, where, in order to make lumbering profitable,
in the absence of a near-by demand for inferior material and leav-
ings, wasteful and destructive methods of utilization had to be em-
ployed. The phenomenally rapid development of our railway system,
while it has aided more than any other enterprise in building up and
settling this vast country, has also in many cases done ipnomietnile
damage to its future by inducing forest destruction.

Other conditions which have produced a tendency to wastefulness
in regard to timber resources have been the necessity of clearing
_ wood lands for agricultural purposes without a market for the tim-
ber; instability of ownership in real estate, together with a spirit of
speculation, and therefore decreased interest in the future conditions
and welfare of a particular locality, besides the prevailing ignorance
of the importance of the forest interests and of forest management
and the seeming inexhaustibility of existing natural supplies.

To this add that the enormous profits made by those to whom the
Government sold her fair timber domain at nominal prices have in-
cited such competition in the lumbering industry, that while the price
of stumpage has been kept at profitable rates, the prices for lumber
have been so reduced that many mills can be made profitable only
when driven to their utmost capacity of production; and therefore
little or nothing can be expected from the lumber industry in the way
of voluntary restriction or in assuming additional expense for proper
forest management.

The difficulty of protecting large forest areas in thinly settled re-
gions against depredation and fire makes this class of property pre-
carious to own, and holds out an inducement to dispose of it as quickly
as possible.

he prices at present prevailing, due to the conditions just stated,
do not represent the true cost of production of the raw material, and
tend to make forestry for lumbering purposes ‘appear unprofitable.

While small groves comprising timbers of certain kinds and sizes in
the prairie States, and woods of spontaneous growth in New England.
or near large cities may yield profitable returns, we must not blind
ourselves to the fact that, upon the basis of present prices for lumber,
forestry for the production of building timber cannot be considered
profitable in all localities. A considerable change in prices, how-
ever, may be confidently expected at an early period, and will no doubt
place large forestry operations, begun at the present time, among the
most remunerative enterprises for the future, provided that the objec-
tions arising from the present insecurity of such property are removed.

The necessity for husbanding supplies and for a proper division and

168 ~ REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

appropriation of forest and agricultural soil has not yet appeared

ressing. There are still millions of acres of unoccupied agricultural
and. But this is being settled at the rate of nearly 17,000,000 acres
per year; and thus we may go on till the end of the present century
before the readily available farm lands are disposed of. Then only
will the necessity for a more careful use of our soils and agricultural
resources become fully apparent, and the need and true value of sci-
entific forestry make itself felt.

The ideas underlying our proprietary system are decidedly unfor-
tunate with respect to the requirements of forestry as understood
abroad and to some extent as conditioned in its very nature. The
prevailing public sentiment which is opposed to the holding of land by
Government, except for the purpose of national defense, &c., and the
popular aversion to restrictive legislation in regard to the use of pri-
vate property, conspire with other causes to interpose great obstacles
to the adoption of any known forestry system, or, indeed, of any
conceivable system possessing the characteristics essential to an effi-
cient prosecution of the great public ends which forestry is designed
to promote.

Forestry proper—that is, an industry contemplating a continuous
production of wood to furnish material for the lumber supply of a
nation, an industry which, like any other well-conducted business,
aims to reap only the yearly or periodical interest, 7. e., in this case
the yearly accretion on the forest area—involves—

1) Large contiguous areas stocked with forest growth.
(33 A capital, represented by such area, tied up for a considerable
time before paying accumulated interest.

(3) A Pisohabmenagement, yielding full results only after a term of
many years.

(4) Considerable risks in sparsely settled countries from fires, which
are liable to destroy capital and interest alike.

(5) In conclusion, a business in which the inaugurators have less
interest than their successors, and which, therefore, according to
human nature, will be neglected longer than any other, unless Gov-
ernments or other continuous corporations engage in it or foster it.

Whatever the laws of supply and demand may do to regulate pro-
duction in other directions, forestry as an industry is an exception,
which needs the fostering care of a far-seeing governmental policy
whenever demand begins to equal the supply from natural sources; for
the adjustment of these economic forces in the production of lumber
requires too long a period of time to be left entirely to itself. Mean-
while we should not disregard the hopeful view of forestry presented
in the following table, showing the percentage of forest area held by
farmers. While in Europe the-small farmer is rightly considered
the least desirable forest owner, in America we can proudly show
that the mainstay of our country is in the conservative class of farm-
ers, and that in their hands forest property is at least safer than in

those of large holders or even of corporations.

To the farmers, holding nearly 38 per cent. of the total area of
forest and much of the waste land capable of reforestation, we must
look, therefore, for forest preservation and improvement, and their
interest in forestry matters it will most benefit us to study and to en-
courage.

In the following table an attempt has been made to arrange the
States in groups representing as far as possible an average of similar
agricultural, forestal, and climatic conditions. It is to ‘be regretted

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 169

not only that our statistics for each State are of the roughest, but also
that a separation of the same for localities of similar forest conditions
or requirements is utterly impossible. Yet the following division will
allow us to form in a general way an idea of the prospects of differ-
ent localities similarly conditioned in regard to forest conservancy.

The farmers’ interest in forest property.

2 E lage les |
| 2 = /e= | 58 Be | 25S
3 las | "a jas = & | sas
£ qe esl a | oO | w2 cs | aa
3 oa a Se ioe: =o Sae
= = oe Sa iaesil See os
3 Es 25 | Sea] see | BOO ee hes
LY oe Bs of3sd | of | Sia So
5 | =o) Ce SHO |seS) Se. ise
& Fossil . l\BeslbSea| See | Ss
Serge Pete z ea5138 6! ens | ger
€ 5 z e838 | ese] 258 | as
= > = ry > < ¥
| Acres | Per ct.| Acres. | Per ct.| Per ot.| Acres: Per et.
United States ..............+. 489,910,000 | 26.5 | 185,794,219} 37.9 | 34.3 | 61,055,049| 11.4
.. oo ee 12,000,000 | 62.7 2,682,296 | 22.4 | 40.9 | 385,37 5.88
New Hampshire ...........-- 3,000, 000 52.0 | 1,296,529 | 4.2 | 34.8 116, 532 5
Massachusetts ...........-.-- 1, 000, 000 19.6 | 1,004,099 | 100.0 | 29.4 226, 669 6.7
Rhode Island..............--. 200,000 | 46.6 182,666 | 91.3 | 35.3 33, 661 6.5
Connecticut ............- -+-- 650,000 | 21.0 646,673 | 99.5 | 26.3 164, 680 6.7
VE. 2 Tobe: A ee 1,900,000 | 32.5 1,508,467 | 79.1 | 31.2 | 92, 660 1.9
New England States ..... 18,750,000 | 47.0| 7,315,730} 39.0 | 344 | 1,019,576 4.7
MR 2 a sche s cestase 8,000.000| 26.2| 5,195,795 | 64.9 | 21.8 | 867,097| 3.6
Pennsylvania ..........-...-- | 7,000,000 | 24.3 5,810,331 | 83.0 | 29.3 | 558,003 2.8
he (ly: 2) GaSe Pee eee } . 2,330,000 48.8 708,092 | 30.4 } 24.2 | 125,384} 43
1 A eee 300,000} 23.9 279,099 | 93.0 | 25.5 64,188 | 5.8
Maryland and District of Co- 2,000,000 | 31.7 1,637,330} 81.9 | 31.8 145, 305 2.8
lumbia.
eeewealgy ee
t al 19,630,000 | 27.4 | 13,630,647 | 69.4 | 25.8 | 1,759,977| 3.3
it. 5 See 13,000,000 | 50.6 | a 70.2 | 46.0 | pe 11.1
North Carolina ............-. 18,000,000 | 57.9 | 13,868,086 | 77.0 | 62.0 | 2,014,281 9.0
South Carolina............--- 9,000,000 | 46.6 | 7,255,121 | 80.6 | 53.9 | 2,070,442 | 15.3
Co. Dee | 18,000,000 | 47.7 | 15,269,225 | 84.8 | 58.6 | 2,569,327 | 9.8
Southern Atlantic States.| 58,000,000 | 52.4 | 45,519,083 | 78.5 | 55.7 | 8,853,181 | 10.8
Atlantic coast...........+. 96,380,000 | 43.4 | 66,465,410 | 69.0 | 42.6 | 11,632,684| 7.4
Whine) .2 3 Sec x2... 31 20,000,000 | 57.6 | 2,186,601 | 10.9 | 66.3 163,083 | 5.0
VAlaateh oe eto. carb x5 17,500,000} 53.1| 10,430,727 | 59.6 55.3 | 2,048,901} 10.8
Mississippi ................... 13,000,000 | 44.0 9,144,323 | 70.3 | 57.6 | 1,494,202 9.4
es eee 13,000,000} 44.6| 4,557,332 | 35.1 | 55.2 976,202 | 11.8
Gulf States............... 63,500,000 | 50.2| 26,318,983 | 41.4 | 56.8 | 4,682,388 | 10.1
Bil) els BR saa eee 40,000,000 | 23.2 | 15,851,365 | 39.9 | 43.6 | 7,790,540) 21.5
1 ° . ae a 14,000,000 | 38.1| 4,452,265 | 31.8 | 31.5 | 1,058,113| 7.6
Waseornnd ts 67 Feet 17,000,000 | 48.8 4,768,046 | 28.0 31.0 | 1,422,544 9.3
Winds 2). 5.8 icc ecn es 30,000,000 | 59.3 2,030,726 | 6.8 | 15.1 | 4,125,600] 30.8
Northern lumbering
Te eee 61,000,000} 49.9} 11,251,037 | 18.3 | 26.4 | 6,606,257} 15.5
ORIG Heep eased ahs loa ekg 4,500,000} 17.3| 4,436,641, 98.6 | 24.0 | 585,282/ 22
Tne eae ee nS 4,500,000 | 19.6 4,379,759 | 97.3 | 29.0 551, 937 2.7
Titi CUE ca ss 3,500, 000 9.8 3,575,445 | 100.0 (15.5 622, 916 2.0
Northern agricultural | |
eit. a) ee 12,500,000 | 14.7] 12,891,845} 99.1 | 22.0 | 1,710,135] 2.2
r : ‘ ‘
"Bake States. c. 0 te 73,500,000 | 35.5 | 28,642,882 | 32.2 | 23.6 8,316, 392 6.97
West Virginia ................ 9,000,000 | 57.0| 6,180,350| 68.7 | 60.6 221,102} 2.2
Konttticy ...i0et As de. 12,800,000 | 50.0| 10,106,072| 782 | 47.0 657, 485 3.06
MPGMIPAREO . 2x. .0ics 8a 0 e5 hs 16,000,000 | 60.2) 11,282,876 | 70.2 | 54.3 937, 483 4.5
ARERINRS. 5 J a f 58.9 7,861,409 | 39.3 | 65.2 604, 535 5.0
Wises: «50.44: RSS 16,000,000 | 36.4 | 10,137,790 ea | 32.8 , 455 3.6
Central States............ 73,800,000 | 50.5 | 45,518,497 | 61.6 | 49.3 | 8,417,060/ 3.56

170

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

The farmers interest in forest property—Continued.

is q a2 |.ag yr LP.
Bo} So ge gh | Ge ee
oS as c g. | oe aw BSs
z z o og os ors S
E 35 Ag 188 (83 | S99 eae
» = ag ° os TPE os
o 6 Be Bea | So gee, | eee
iB BS ia Buf | Sh nea | Ses
= So a ofS log peas SES
4 o x Saw i|Seae| $89 | Sis
x wo ‘Ss a=) >
a om = a Ay bat <4 a,
Acres. Per ct. Acres. Per ct.| Per ct Acres. Per ct
NOW ep deas declicite vet +. sistestees 2,300, 000 2.7 2, 755,290 | 100.0 11.0 2,130, 869 |
Dakota ..... SIERO sie cigionast oleve's 3, 000, 000 3.2 80, 264 hed baal 2,569, 979 67.6
IN SBRHAIRA TS see ten = tearaue'caie os 1, 500, 000 3.1 321,566 | 21.4 3.2 4, 118, 558 41.4
OTIS D 7 GSA ANS itr See ee aeeoe 3, 500, 000 6.7 991,187 | 28.3 4.6 9, 686,715 | 45.2
Prairie States ............ 10,300, 000 4.4 4,148,307 | 41.0 6.9 | 18,506,121 | 32.97
Interior States......... .. 84,100,000 | 22.3] 49,666,884 | 59.0 | 32.6 | 21,923,181] 14.4
Loe en Ree 25,000,000 | 26.9 3,678 | 0.014| 0.9 | 189,394| 34.4
UAV GNIIN cet. 5, cies 0.0.8 dale): 7, 800, 000 12.5 510 | 0.007 0. 41 40, 801 32.8
COIGIROO ss ua Seco tie ots ae 10, 630, 000 16,0 44,117 0.44 3.7 505, 087 43.3
INE WANIERICO .sctho5s.3 ce Bene ac 8,000,000 | 10.2 219,224] 2.74 | 34.7 174,515 | 27.65
51, 430, 000 aleal 267,529 | 0.52 11.6 859, 797 36.9
10, 000, 000 18.5 11, 892 0.12 3.6 118, 499 36.1
2, 000, 000 2.8 18, 697 0.93 3.5 167,742 31.6
‘ : , 000 7.6 2,305 0.06 0.3 237,114 36. 2
ATIZOVA oiaceerpysicarelss piararersie eters 10, 000, 000 13.8 13, 399 0.13 9.8 66, 103 48.8
Western Rocky Mountain
FOLIO: aj luictercceinciesies 26,000, 000 10.4 46, 293 0.17 X 589, 458 35.7
Rocky Mountain region....| 77,430,000 | 14.1 318,822 | 0.4 9.7 | 1,449,255 | 986.45
COAIPONTIA A cckcerdetensocnens 20,000,000 | 20.0 1,672,810 | 8.3 | 99.08] 4,251,284] 25.6
Oregon Ger eee. cc. eee 20,000,000 | 33.0 1,424,417 | 7.12] 38.08 591,650 | 14.04
ashing boner atesateenseee 000, 44,3 437,696 | 2.19} 31.05 487,379 | 34.6
Pacific coast :.....0..6.5+ 60, 000, 000 34.0 8, 534, 923 5.9 15.9 5, 330, 263 23.99

New England, with the exception of Maine and New Hampshire,
has nearly its entire forest area in the hands of farmers, and Maine
lumbermen having begun a more conservative working of their re-
maining forest, that State may be considered equally safe.

_. The Northern Atlantic States, with the exception of New Jersey,
show a quite satisfactory percentage thus safely owned; the pro-
pan of such ownership in New York is increased to 75 per cent.
by State lands now under management, and charcoal-iron interests
in New Jersey will increase the safe percentage there also.

It is to be hoped that farmers in the Southern States, who have
more than 50 per cent. of their farms in forest, will not part with
this portion of their property to speculators as easily as developments
of the last few years have led us to anticipate.

It is likely that the area of forest held by farmers is considerably
less than it was in 1880, especially in the Gulf States, where Northern
millmen have been buying up large tracts of pine and cypress lands.

The figures of the three States classed as Northern agricultural
show some discrepancies, which may be explained by assuming that
what was reported as forest in farms contained much that, as waste
and useless brush, had been excluded from the total estimate.

In the prairie States much land is still unsettled, and all the forest

—

| Maine

a

5
an
|

| HH ial ] New Hampshire

i a TU) Fermont

CAPTURE EERE HERE T] Meas etts
i ETRE TET an pee

Pennsylvania

a i Maryland
NTI Se ener

PDBATUREGRGRANERHUEOBRBE USED INU EIR De! To,

——
SE eed

oved land in farms (not in
n entire section.

loutside of farms.

in farms.
|
ices represent equal areas-)

}
} |
|

Geo. B. Sudworth, Del.

s of of the Forestry Division, Department of Agriculture, 1886. THE FARMERS’ INTEREST IN FOREST PROPERTY :

T

fH. q :

a i = tense
A i io.

a ‘Wh
= i
4 Lin

hod

—————————

==)
5

| TT ri Ho

is = | q --
i a _ oe it a —

ST

2 oe ee
3 7c New Jeney

5 Le ETT Ty olay; are

iis

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. — 171

will ultimately belong to the farmer, greatly increased by the artificial
plantations which are more and more spreading over the treeless plain.

The-danger appears greatest in the mountain regions, and unless
the State or National Government adopts a conservative policy little
hope can exist for the forests situated there. They are mostly so far
removed from agricultural lands as not to be easily included in farms,
and while, as shown before, their existence is almost a question of life
- for the agriculture below, yet at present the agriculturist has little

power for their control.

On the Pacific slope the danger is not less pressing. The possibility
of getting small parcels of timber land (160 acres), under the timber
ea stone acts, having opened a more ready means of speculation in
the timber of these important mountain forests, their destruction, re-
gardless of consequences and new growth, is almost certain, unless
checked by a changed Government policy.

The unimproved land in farms, but not in forests, can be said, at

. least in the eastern half of the continent, to represent soil of little value
to agriculture but upon which forest growth is possible, and where
farmers should begin their artificial forestry. In the prairie States
this class of soil represents about 30 per cent., and while much of it
might no doubt be used for agriculture, it may well be asserted that,
if properly put into forest, this area would increase in prospective
value, and improve the conditions of the neighboring fields far beyond
the cost of such reforestation.

The accompanying chart represents at a glance the interest which
the farmer has in the forest area still remaining, as well as the quan-
tity of unused soil in each section which can be devoted to forestry
as a profitable investment. Equal spaces denoting equal areas, the
total quantities, as well as the proportion to other forest areas, are at
once indicated to the eye.

FOREST PLANTING AND MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES.

_So far as known in this office but very few extensive forest planta-
tions exist. These are notably the often-cited plantation of the Fort
Scott and Gulf Railroad and that of Mr. Hunnewell, near Farling-
ton, Kans., of about one section (640 acres) each; a plantation of Mr.
Burnett Landreth, of 300 or more acres, in Virginia; and those of
the Messrs. Fay and others, along the sea-coast of New England.
From Southern California also are reported plantations of consider-
able extent.

Small groves abound in the Western, especially the prairie States,
and are found less frequently in the Eastern States, notably in Massa-
chusetts. In the aggregate these plantations must amount to quite
a considerable area, affording a hopeful prospect in respect to the
creation of new forests. This hopeful prospect does not exist in re-
gard to the remaining natural forests. With the exception of more
carefully conducted lumber operations in Maine, where there is less
recklessness than formerly in the destruction of young growth, and
beyond the rarely enforced rules in regard to cutting on Govern-
ment lands, recited in another place, no attempts at management, so
far as known at this office, have been made; orif any have been made,
they are so isolated and primitive as hardly to deserve mention or the
name of management.

The fencing out of cattle from newly cut deciduous forest, or even
from single stumps, to preserve the new growth—a precaution which

172 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

is taken by careful farmers in Pennsylvania and elsewhere—is the
first step toward management; the farmers, again, are also the ones
first to appreciate the value of thinning natural growth for the pur-
pose of improving the remainder. But all such attempts still seem
exceedingly isolated.

There should also be mentioned a few experimental plantations at
several agricultural colleges, which, though not extensive, nor in
most cases started with any special purpose or systematic plan, will
be exceedingly valuable by and by as ready means for instruction in
forestry when this shall form a part of their plan of studies; and
even now, often by the very mistakes that have been made, they are
rendered most instructive, affording means for the observation of tree
growth and the interdependence existing between it and the many
varying conditions in the artificial forest. The experimental railroad

lantations have been discussed to some extent in my report on
Western tree planting.

GOVERNMENT ACTION IN REGARD TO ITS OWN LANDS.

To protect its timber domain the General Government, through
the Land Office, appoints ‘‘special timber agents,” ‘‘with the duty
of enforcing compliance with the several laws relative to protection
and preservation of public timber and the rules and regulations pre-
scribed thereunder by the Department of the Interior.” ‘They
should remember that it is not the purpose of the law to prohibit the
use of so much of the public timber as may be actually needed by
the bona fide settlers for agricultural and domestic purposes, but to
prevent it from being made an article of speculation for the pecuniary
gain of afew individuals to the detriment of the many, or from being
wantonly wasted or destroyed.”

Lawful taking of timber from the public domain includes:

**¢ Cutting on homestead and pre-emption entries before final proof for purposes of
clearing and for buildings, fences, or other improvements, also cutting and selling
any surplus of timber on lands to be cleared.

**On mineral lands, all citizens of the State in which the lands are situated are per-
mitted to fell or purchase and reserve for building, agricultural, or other domestic
purposes any timber, provided (1) that the same is not for export from the State
or Territory where cut; (2) that no timber less than 8 inches in diameter, is cut or
removed; (3) that it is not wantonly wasted or destroyed (the failure to utilize all of
the tree that can be profitably used and to take reasonable precaution to prevent the
spread of fires will be regarded as waste).

“‘The timber on military, naval, Indian, and other Government reservations can
only be cut by persons employed by the Government for that purpose.

** All land-grant railroads are authorized to take timber from the public land adja-
cent thereto for construction purposes. (The Denver and Rio Grande Railroad is also
authorized to take timber for repairs). The term ‘‘ adjacent” is, or used to be by con-
struction, extended somewhat indefinitely, as also the purposes for which the timber
was taken.

** All right-of-way railroads are authorized to take timber from the public lands ad-
jacent to the line thereof for construction purposes only. The persons cutting such
timber must be in the actual employ of the railroad, and cannot cut and sell timber
to the railroad at a piece-price.

‘* Trespassers are liable to both criminal prosecution and civil suit, as well as pur-
chasers of timber unlawfully cut; but compromise is admissible in both or either
actions if the evidence indicates that the trespass was not willful but unintentional,
or if there are other extenuating circumstances.

“In the Pacific States and Territories the sale of timber land (unfit for agricult-
ure), in parcels of not more than 160 acres, for the express purpose of benefiting the
ese sss eT

* From various reports of the Commissioners of the General Land Office. |

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 173

Sige and for his own use and not for speculation, is permitted by the act of
une 3, 1875.

‘* Instructions to the special timber agents require of them to ‘ use all possible means
to check the progress and extinguish forest fires in their respective districts,’ and
‘to employ assistance and, if necessary, expend areasonable sum for such purpose.’”

For the purpose of preventing or bringing to notice such trespasses
as are possible under the foregoing privileges and otherwise, and of
preparing the evidence for legal prosecutions, attending courts as wit-
nesses, &c., during the last year, a service in the aggregate equiva-
lent to that of twenty-one agents for twelve months, was employed,*
over areas amounting in the aggregate to more than 70,000,000 acres. °

Twelve hundred and nineteen cases of depredations or timber tres-
passes have been reported, involving a value of $9,339,679 recoverable
to the United States; the amount recovered by settlement, sale of lum-
ber, and through legal proceedings, as actually on record, amounted
to $101,085.44, with perhaps an equal amount recovered but not yet
reported.

As the agents are not clothed with police powers, but simply act as
informers and legal attorneys, they moreover lack the desirable co-
operation of the resident population, which makes the arduous duties
of agents still more onerous and renders their services less efficient -
than they otherwise might be.

Of the individual States but few hold or control any lands, unless it

be school lands granted by the General Government. Some of the
States have taken decided action for the purpose of protecting their
remaining forest property.

FOREST COMMISSIONS.

The State of New York, holding 715,267 acres of forest land in the
Adirondacks, instituted in 1885 a Forest Commission with extensive
power, and appropriated $32,500 for the work of the same. The first
report of the Commission would indicate that this work has been begun
with good intent and encouraging results, at least so far as securing
the property against depredation by theft and fire; and the Commis-
sion 1s ‘‘receiving a hearty and intelligent support from the lumber-
men and land owners of the Adirondacks and the Catskills.”

It being recognized that protection against fire is the first consid-
eration in any attempt at forest management, the Commission has
vigorously undertaken to secure this protection.

The State of California has recently created a Forest Commission,
with a moderate appropriation ($15,000), its attention being primarily
directed to preventing forest fires, bringing depredators to justice,
aiding forest planters with seed and other material, and making a
forest map of the State. +

Of the Forestry Bureau of the State of Ohio it cannot be said that it
was created with any definite policy in view, 1t having been appointed
and provided with a small appropriation for the purpose of gather-
ing information in regard to the forest condition of Ohio and making
recommendations for legislation calculated to develop a rational sys-
tem of forestry.

From the report lately issued it appears that in the thirty years
from 1853 to 1884 the forest area of the State was reduced from 54.19
to 17.39 per cent. of the total area; a decrease which cannot have been

*Annual Report of the Commissioner of the Land Office for 1886.
_ t The first report, containing a very valuable account of the Redwood forests, has
just appeared,

174 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

without serious influence upon the climate and water supply of the
State and its river systems. The horrors of the last flood, still in our
memory, may with good reason be connected with the rapid denuda-
tion of the tributary hillsides.*

The State of Colorado, too, ordered the appointment of a forest com-
missioner, but omitted to make any appropriation for him. Therefore
the authority conferred upon him, giving him ‘‘the care of the wood
lands of the State, and requiring him to make and publish reasonable
rules and regulations for the prevention and extinguishment of fires
thereon and for the conservation of forest growth,” &c., could not
be of much avail. In this emergency this Department enabled the
commissioner appointed by the governor of Colorado to devote his
time and energy, at least to some extent, to the interests of forestry,
by employing him to report upon the forest conditions of the Rocky
Mountain region. His valuable report is just completed. +

FORESTRY DIVISION.

The attention of Congress having been called repeatedly to the ne-

cessity for a definite forest policy for the United States, the Commis-
sioner of Agriculture was required by an act of August 15, 1876, to
appoint—
‘some man of approved attainments, and practically well acquainted with the
methods of statistical inquiry, with a view of ascertaining the annual amount of
consumption, importation, and exportation of timber and other forest products; the
probable supply for future wants; the means best adapted to the preservation and re-
newal of forests; the influence of forest upon climate; the measures that have been
successfully applied in various countries for the preservation and restoration or
planting of forests; and to report upon the same to the Commissioner of Agriculture,
to be by him transmitted in a special report to Congress.”

After two reports had been prepared upon the subject by the late
Dr. F. B. Hough, the work became in 1881 the object of a Forestry
Division, as part of the organization of the Department, for the pur-
pose of ‘‘investigating and reporting upon the subject of forestry.”
In 1884, without increasing the appropriation, the duty of making
experiments was added to the functions of the Division ; and in 1885
«the collection and distribution of valuable economic tree seeds” was
also required, to which ‘‘ plants” has been added for the present year.
No record of experiments is at hand, and the distribution of seeds
has been very limited. On account of our large extent of country and
its differences of requirement as to kinds of trees, this provision must

*The value of the property in the Ohio Valley destroyed by the flood of 1888 has
been estimated at $60,000,000. Nor will this seem an unwarranted estimate, large
as it is, when we consider that the area drained by the Ohio River is not less than
214,000 square miles, or twenty-two times as large as that drained by the Connecti-
cut. The Ohio Valley drains portions of thirteen States.

+The reappointment of Col. E. T. Ensign as forest commissioner, with enlarged,
powers and suitable appropriation of means, places the forestry interests of Colorado
on a safer basis.

tIt is worthy of note that this mode of encouraging forest growing is quite ex-
tensively practiced on the Continent and elsewhere.

During the last year the Bohemian Forest’ Department and forestry associations
distributed 4,600,000 seedlings, of which nearly 4,000,000 were coniferous. Double
the amount is prepared for distribution next year. The same isdonein Styria. The
Hungarian Department of Commerce distributes plant material free on board cars.
In 1884 the Prussian Forest Department distributed over 25,000,000 seedlings. The
large subventions in material and in money granted by the French Government
for reforestation have been often pointed out in former reports,

’ DIVISION OF FORESTRY, 175

remain practically nugatory so long as only inadequate means are at
its disposal. The result of the work of the Division as such has been
published in two special reports, in addition to the two previous
made by Dr. Hough, and in the annual reports of the Departmnet of
Be ioulhanes In addition to this collected information, many letters
of inquiry asking for instruction in regard to forestry matters find
replies through the medium of the Division.

STATISTICAL INQUIRIES.

It has become a recognized fact that incomplete, and, therefore, un-
reliable statistics are harmful rather than helpful. While good re-
sults in statistical work can be expected only from a large and well-
organized force of correspondents, conversant with and interested in
the subjects of inquiry, and with some certain benefit to themselves
resulting from their labor, the Forestry Division has not the means
to employ such aforce. It may be added that in this country forestry
statistics are most difficult to obtain, both on account of the large
area of sparsely-settled land and the lack of competent observers.
Even in such a country as Germany, so densely settled and well ad-
ministered as regards forests, a recent writer on the question of forest
statistical inquiries finds it necessary to say:

“The Government lacks greatly a sure basis for the realization of the purposes of
its forests. When deforestation may be admissible, where required, where it has
done damage, where reforestation is required and to what extent for the security of
agricultural conditions, are all questions for the answer of which the data are lack-
ing.”

Most of the statistical work, then, of the Forestry Division, and the
same will be true of other forest statistics, represents only an uncer-
tain approximation to the actual condition of affairs.

A thorough statistical research in certain definite directions is a most
urgent necessity. First of all, it would seem desirable to locate the
timber domain still in the possession of the Government, and to de-
termine its value as a source of lumber, or its economical importance,
in order to furnish a basis for establishing a desirable policy in regard
to its disposal or maintenance. The condition and present extent of
the white-pine forests of the North should be ascertained as accurately
as possible. The need of such investigation into this, the most im-
portant branch of our lumber industry, is apparent from the many
expressions of lumbermen in their special papers.

An attempt to ascertain approximately the extent and conditions of
the forest cover of the Northwestern States has been instituted by this
Division by enlisting the school organizations of the States in the work.
By this means it was thought that while securing an intelligent force
of correspondents, the interest of the teacher in the cause of forestry
might at the same time be engaged. The invitation to such co-opera-
tion has been cheerfully accepted in most cases by the school authori-
ties. Whether by this means acceptable statistical results will be
obtained remains to be seen. One of the agents of the Division, Mr.
James Byars, of Covington, Tenn., is engaged in an exhaustive statis-
tical research into the forest conditions and lumber resources of his
own State.

A report on the dependence of railroad construction upon forest
supplies by Mr. M. G. Kern, of Saint Louis, agent of the Division, has
just been completed, giving in a number of Appendices important
practical information to railroad managers regarding possible econo-

176 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

mies in the use of timber. Among these will be found the original
investigations into the structure and use of certain railroad ties by
Mr. P. H. Dudley, C. E., of New York; experiments in regard to the
adhesion of spikes and the economy of different methods of fastening;
a review and practical elucidation of different methods for the pres-
ervation of timber, by Col. H. Flad, C. E., of Saint Louis, and Mr. H.
Constable, C. E., of New York, and an exhaustive report on metal ties.

A report on the relation of charcoal iron works to forestry has been
prepared by Mr. J. Birkinbine, secretary of the Charcoal Iron-Work-
ers’ Association. Reports on the use of timber in mining enterprises
and on the state of wood manufactures are in preparation.

It was thought that by such reports those interested in these indus-
tries might be aroused to the necessity of securing a continuance of
supplies, and as many of the industries are carried on by owners of
forest lands, their action leading to an economical and systematic
management of these might be secured.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

The desirability of interesting our educational institutions in the
work of forestry reform, which has been so strongly emphasized by
some forestry advocates, hasnot beenignored. To bring the agricult-
ural colleges and their students into active sympathy with the work
of the Division, schedules for observations of plant development, re-
lating notably to the date of the flowering, leafing, and fruiting of
trees, were sent to the professors of botany for distribution among
advanced students. To enlarge the class of observers, the members
of the Agassiz Association, at their request, as well as private appli-
cants, were supplied with schedules, so that quite a large corps of ob-
servers were engaged upon this work. By thus inviting students to
personal and methodical observation of tree-life, under the direction
of and in connection with the Forestry Division, it was hoped that such
an interest might be incited as is thought to be essential to our future
forest policy.

The principal aim of such observations, to be carried on through a
series of years under certain prescribed conditions, is to arrive at
some practical points of climatic comparison, or, as stated on the
schedule:

(1) To note the progress of local development in tree life, for the purpose of en-
larging the knowledge of biological conditions.

(2) To arrive at conclusions as to relative climatic conditions expressed by phases
of plant development, and also, vice versa, as to dependence of such developments
on such conditions.

(3) To determine the period of vegetation of different species (time from appearance
of first leaf to general change of foliage).

(4) To ascertain the relative dependence of different species on climatic conditions,
determining relatively the time for planting.

(5) To furnish comparison of the behavior of the same species under the climatic
conditions of different localities, thus allowing preliminary estimates of the capacity
of the species for acclimation..

It cannot be denied that the complex factors which we designate
under the comprehensive term ‘‘climate” find most readily a satisfac-
tory expression in the development of plants, and therefore, if by
observations continued for many years on the same individual plants
in different parts of the country we can establish the average occur-
rence of a certain plant phase, for instance the flowering, we shall
gain pretty safe points for comparison between the climatic conditions

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. LEC

of different localities. Such observations were carried on through a
series of years by the Smithsonian Institution thirty years ago, though
not on asystematic plan. Yet by comparison with these data we shall
get additional opportunity to judge regarding the change of climate,
if any has taken place, since that time, and thus contribute to the
settlement of the mooted question of forest climatic influences.

Even from one season’s observations, made simultaneously in sev-
eral places, deductions of comparative climatic conditions may be
made,

BIOLOGICAL STUDIES.

Though many helpful notes may be found in the writings of botan-
ists and horticulturists, yet no special studies of the nature of our tim-
ber trees, their life history, or the influences and conditions upon which
their growth and reproduction in the natural forest depend, have been
made or published in collected form with a view to the particular
requirements of forestry. All or most of the facts which would enable
us toapply, or to modify in applying, the principles of forestry estab-
lished oe long experience on the Continent are lacking, and in order
to be able to give advice as to methods of forest management the sys-
tematic study of the biology, the life history, of our timber trees must
precede the formulation of specific rules.

This work the Forestry Division has begun this year, and anumber
of able observers and botanists, with a practical turn of mind,
have been engaged to make and compile in ready form the studies
and observations on the life and behavior of our native species upon
which the forester may proceed intelligently in his management.
These studies will naturally require years for their satisfactory com-
pletion, as observations must be made in a great variety of localities
and through several seasons. ‘*We must gather and compile the expe-
riences of many, through many years, from many localities, under
many circumstances, derive principles therefrom, form rules, and
learn to modify these.” Besides, the forest flora of the United States
is very extensive, and the number of capable botanists who are willing
to engage in such a task, for which only the scantiest remuneration
is allowed, is small, and thus this preliminary work will be unduly
prolonged unless better facilities are granted.

As the coniferous trees are to-day, and will be for some time to
come, the most important factors of our present forest wealth, and
as their reproduction and management, especially with the unfavor-
able conditions under which our forests are worked, are among the
most difficult tasks of forestry, attention has been first directed to
the study of the most important of these, namely, the White pine of
the North, the Long-leafed pine and the Cypress of the Sonth, the
pitch pines of the Western mountain ranges, and the fast-disappear-
ing Hemlock, so important for our leather industry, soon to replace
more largely the waning supply of White pine. The monographs on
the White pine, by Prof. S. V. Spalding, Ann Arbor, Mich.; on the
Long-leafed pine, by Dr. Charles Mohr, Mobile, Ala.; and on the Bald
Cypress, by Prof. A. H. Curtiss, Jacksonville, Fla., have been com-
pleted. Itis proposed to take up gradually the other important coni-
fers and deciduous trees. In order to establish this work upon a uni-
form basis it was found necessary to formulate the subjects, and the
follcwing arrangement was prepared in this office to serve as far as -
possible as a schedule for studying the biology of our timber trees:

12 AG—’86

178 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

SCHEDULE FOR STUDYING THE BIOLOGY OF TIMBER TREES.

(a) Introduction.

Significance of the tree in the forestry of the country; short statement justifying
the investigation; historical remarks; sources of information and acknowledg-
ments of aid; statement of methods of inquiry.

(b) Statistical.

1. Geographical distribution and habitat; (in general by regions, where best de-
veloped, most abundant, covering large or small areas, continuously or only mixed
in, associated with what other species, &c.).

2. Economical importance, utilization, trade, former and present supply, acreage,
amounts used, available, &c.

3. Value and uses of the wood,

(ce) Biological.

1. Short botanical exposé; name, size, form, root, crown, habit.

2. Life history; development from seedling; leaves, flowers, seeds, seed crops.

8. Influences, on form and development, of climate, soil, site, surroundings, and
light and shade as compared with other species.

4, Measurements: rate of growth in height and in diameter, in natural forest or
under cultivation ; at different periods of life; on different sites; time necessary to
produce merchantable timber; yield of wood per acre.

5, Structure of the wood and mode of its development; influences upon quality;
illustrations.

6. Dangers and diseases:

(a) From mechanical forces, human agencies, cattle, wounds, winds, snow,
frost, drought, floods.
(b) Occasioned by influences of the soil.
(c) Occasioned by phanerogamic parasites.
(d) Occasioned by cryptogamic parasites,
(e) Occasioned by insects.
(d) Forestal.
_1. Essential demands on climate, soil, and growing conditions.

2. Associates found naturally with the species and their relative behavior.

8, Opportunities and requirements for natural renewal (especially considering
seed crops, seed years, germination, and the need of light or shade for young plant);
difficulties for practical and economic reasons; for natural reasons.

4, Methods of management suggested.

5, Artificial renewal.

6. After treatment: Thinning; when and how much.

7. Rotations.

8. Profits under different treatment.

(e) Conclusions.

Stating in the briefest manner, in a few precise sentences, results of investigation

in regard to economic and forestal questions.

ea

INSPECTION OF WESTERN TREE PLANTING.

Under your direction, I made in September a very brief and hur-
ried journey through Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, to inspect
tree planting and its conditions in the once treeless regions. My
observations have been embodied in a special report, from which to
some extent may be gleaned the needs, the causes of failure, and
remedies for the same, with hopeful views as to the possibilities of
further extension of the tree planter’s work into the arid regions,
That the utilization of the military reservations for forest planting
by the Government would be a most desirable encouragement for
Western tree planters, and at the same time would enhance the
value of agricultural lands near such extensive forest belts, has been
pointed out and finds ready indorsement among those most convers-
ant with the condition of those localities.

_ he need of aid by a systematic and rational distribution of suita-
ble plant material, either gratuitously or at nominal rates—a work
which could most readily be done from such experimental forests—

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 179

has been generally acknowledged by persons who are not themselves
applicants for such aid. i

At your request, I also attended the meeting of the American For-
estry Congress in Denver during the month of September, when the
presence of representatives from the States and Territories afforded an
excellent opportunity for ascertaining from those best fitted to judge
the prevalent feeling and opinions in regard to forestry. Though
many diverging views as to the most desirable manner of procedure
were advanced, the necessity of a change of policy at least as regards
the use of the forest domain of the Government was unanimously
declared to be urgent.

During the course of the year, as your representative, I have also
delivered several addresses on forestal subjects before Forestry and
other Associations. :

LEGISLATION.

Legislation in regard to forestry may be considered under the
classification of restrictive, protective, and stimulative legislation.
Laws of the first and second class have been passed from an early
period, and have been designed to prevent the indiscriminate cutting
of timber, especially of live-oak, and to prohibit the unauthorized cut-
ting or the injury of timber whether growing upon private lands or
upon those belonging to theGovernment. The efliciency of these laws,
however, depends, even more than that of other legislative acts, upon
the greater or less ease with which the laws can be enforced. At pres-
ent no laws restrictive of the use of forest property by the owner
exist in any of the States.

Protective laws, directed against theft or the destruction of timber

by man or cattle, and against incendiarism, are found in every State
' and Territory. These laws, however, have not exerted much pro-
tective influence. The law of a single State may be taken as a speci-
men of the whole, for there is a general similarity among them:

‘Any one willfully or negligently setting fire to any woods, prairies, or other
grounds not belonging to him, or willfully or negligently permitting fire, kindled on
his own land by him or by his permission, to spread to the injury of other persons,
is liable to a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars or imprisonment not over one

year, or both, at the discretion of the court. The party injured may recover double
damages for the injury sustained.”

While such laws may have some salutary influence, the difficulty
of establishing willfulness or negligence must ever prove a great ob-
stacle to the enforcement of them. Other difficulties also tend to
make such laws ineffective.

Particular attention must be called to the salutary effect of stock
or herd laws, existing in a few States (chiefly Western), by which not
only young growth is protected against the incursions of cattle, but
also the firing of the woods, which is practiced mostly to produce
fresh herbage for the cattle, is restricted, and incidentally a large
saving in the construction of fences is effected.

But even were the firing of woods made a criminal offense, as it
certainly should be in view of the evil consequences it entails upon
the country at large, it would be almost impossible to render the laws
effective over the vast areas of timber land in private hands and in
thinly settled regions, unless the spirit of the people were bent upon
enforcing them.

Where private interests require protection private co-operation will

180 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

be the most effective protector, and where, as in the case of forest
property, the State has an economic interest in its preservation be-
yond the mere protection of private rights, co-operation of the State
authorities with the private interests is necessary. ‘The adoption of
what may be called the Canada plan is therefore recommended for
such States as have large lumbering interests to protect. ;

The substance of this plan is given in the following paragraph.
taken from the recent report of the Commissioner of Crown Lands:

‘Tt is proposed that during the dangerous period, say from the ist day of May to
the 1st day of October in each year, there shall be placed on such limits as are ex-
posed to danger a man or men who will be empowered and instructed to use every
endeavor to prevent and suppress fires in every way possible, and the ranger who is
placed in charge of a limit will be authorized to engage whatever help may be nec-
essary to cope with a dangerous fire when prompt action is necessary. These men
will be supplied with copies of the ‘‘Fire act” and instructed to post them up in
public and conspicuous places, to visit each person resident on the limit and give
them, if thought advisable, a copy of the act, explaining to them its provisions,
penalty for its infraction, &c., and to endeavor to enlist their assistance and sym-
pathy to make the act effective.

‘The Department will leave the limit-holder to suggest the number of men who
shall be placed on his limit, and, as it is of all things necessary that practical bush-
men of good judgment and well acquainted with the limit should be selected, he,
the limit-holder, will nominate the man to be placed in charge of the limit and his
subordinates, if any, the Department reserving the right to limit the number of men
to be employed on any limit and also to reject or remove any man whom it finds
unfitted to discharge the duties of the position.”

As to the expense incident to the working of the plan, the Govern-
ment proposed to assume one half, the other half to be borne by the
limit-holders.

So far as timber-limit holders agreed to bear their share of the
expenses connected with the experiment a trial was made in 1885.
Thirty-seven men were placed in the field and kept on duty from June
to October. The effect of their presence was excellent. Fires were
suppressed which otherwise might have become vast conflagrations,
causing incalculable losses. Persons wantonly violating the provis-
ions of the fire act were promptly brought to justice and fined, anda
general and strong interest in the direction of preventing the start and
spread of bush fires was created and kept alive.

At the close of the season the timber owners expressed their great
satisfaction with the experiment and urged its continuance and ex-
tension.

Passing over the early measures for the encouragement of tree plant-
ing of the New York and Massachusetts societies for the promotion of
agriculture, which date back to the beginning of this and the end of
the last century, we find bounties of from $2 to $10 per acre for planted
forest provided since 1868 by the State legislatures of Massachusetts,
Kansas, (repealed), Wisconsin, Missouri, Minnesota, Illinois, and Ne-
vada. Exemption from taxation to an amount reaching from $100 to
$200 for every acre planted to forest is granted in Iowa, Nebraska,
Maine, Connecticut, Dakota, Rhode Island, Washington, and Wyom-
ing.

TIMBER-CULTURE ACT.

To encourage forest planting on the treeless prairies, the General
Government made tree planting, under certain regulations, the con-
sideration for the acquisition of public lands. One quarter-section,
or an equivalent fraction, was to be planted and kept in growing con-
dition for eight or more years, and to show 675 living trees per acre at

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 181

the time of proving up, in order to give title to the whole. According
to the report of the General Land Office, the lands taken under this act
at present comprise 30,998,855.52 acres, of which 652,001.49 have been
finally entered for proof or have passed into the hands of settlers.
According to the law, four years were allowed for the final planting
of the quarter-section. There should, therefore, be found planted to
forest at least one-quarter of the entries made up to 1882, or 4,414,289
acres. But as the time for holding lands entered under this act, as
against other comers, ‘‘may run for thirteen years,” and commuta-
tion to other classes of entry or relinquishment (for valuable consid-
eration) is not prevented, this result is far from having been accom-
plished. The proportion of entries made under this act without
securing the intended result of its provisions has been estimated by
the Commissioner of the General Land Office at 90 per cent. The
organic faults of the act have been indicated from the standpoint of
a forester, in the report on Western tree planting.

ARBOR DAY.

Among the encouragements of forestry the establishment of what
is known as Arbor Day deserves to be mentioned.

The credit of the inauguration of a day specially devoted to tree
planting, from which it takes its name, belongs to Nebraska, in
- which State, by a resolution of the State Board of Agriculture, in
January, 1874, the second Wednesday of April in each year was
dedicated to the work of planting trees. The resolution was wel-
comed by the people of the State, and as a result it has been claimed
that on the first Arbor Day, and during the year 1874, more than
12,000,000 trees were planted, and that there are now 100,000 acres of
planted forest in the State.

- The example of Nebraska was quickly followed, especially by those
States most lacking forest growth. In lowa, Arbor Day was adopted
in 1874 by the State Horticultural Society. Since then it has been
established by legislative enactment. In Michigan the governor pro-
claimed Arbor Day in 1876; and in 1881 it was formally established
by the legislature. In Minnesota it was proclaimed by the State For-
estry Association in 1876, and 1,500,000 trees were reported as planted
that year. The day is now established by law. In Ohio, Arbor Day
was established in 1882 by the legislature. In West Virginia it was
extensively adopted in 1883, under the lead of Hon. B. L. Butcher,
superintendent of public schools. In accordance with an act of the
legislature, it was proclaimed in New Jersey in 1885. It was adopted
the same year in Massachusetts and New Hampshire by the action
of the State Granges of the Patrons of Husbandry, and has been
adopted more recently by the legislatures of these States. In 1886 it
was adopted by New York, Maine, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Penn-
sylvania, and Florida. It has been adopted also in Vermont, Geor-
gia, Wisconsin, Colorado, and Indiana.

_ Recently the scope of Arbor Day has been widened and its interest
increased by engaging the pupils of the public schools in its observ-
ance. The way has thus been opened for getting the facts relating
to tree-growth and the practical uses of trees before the minds of old
and young alike, and for creating and diffusing through the com-
munity a sentiment which promises much good to the cause of for-
estry. Itis this educational aspect which makes Arbor Day a specially
desirable means of forestry Perorcn,

182 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS.

The first Forestry Association formed in this country seems to
have been that of Minnesota (1873), which, with State aid previously
granted, did much, especially by the publication of its Forest-Tree
Planter’s Manual, to encourage tree planting not only in Minnesota
but also in other States. In 1875 a National Forestry Associaticn was
formed under the auspices of that well-known forest enthusiast, the
late Dr. Warder, which, however, did not become active. The
American Forestry Congress, in which the Forestry Association was
also merged, was formed in 1882, and since then has met yearly, in
different and widely-sundered localities, for the purpose of arousing
public interest in the subject and promoting the formation of loca
torestry associations, as well as to forward any measures of desirable
legislation looking to the protection and preservation of forests, and,
by publishing from time to time its proceedings, to diffuse informa-
tion on the subject. The disinterestedness of its comparatively few
members in urging forestry reforms cannot be too highly extolled.

Following in its wake, and to some extent as an outgrowth of the
work of this Association, local or State Associations have been formed
in Ohio, Colorado, New York, and Pennsylvania, the Gulf States
being represented by the Southern Forestry Congress, with the same
object of forwarding, by discussion and publication, the interest of
forestry in their particular localities.

In other States, where such associations have not yet been formed,
the horticultural or agricultural societies have devoted much atten-
tion to the subject of forestry, and by their discussions and publica-
tions have done much to advance its interests. Among those deserv-
ing special mention are the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and
the Societies of Michigan, Iowa, and Kansas.

The most recent action of associated interests in forestry is reported
from the State Grange of Maine, embracing a membership of 15,000
farmers, which, by the appointment of a committee on ‘“‘arbor day
and forestry,” has committed itself to the subject.

As the farmers hold nearly 38 per cent. of our forest area, this move
must be considered highly important, and it is to be hoped that the
granges all over the country will follow and bring their best efforts
to bear upon the needed reforms in the use of our forest resources.

INSTRUCTION IN FORESTRY.

There are no schools of forestry in this country,* nor are there reg-
ularly appointed chairs of forestry in any of the colleges or universi-
ties. In some of the agricultural colleges the professor of botany has
the title ‘‘ and forestry” added, but instruction, if given at all, is only
incidental. Occasional lectures on forestry subjects have been given
at the University of Pennsylvania from time to time, in accordance
with the provisions of the ‘‘ Michaux fund.” A conception that for-
estry is a distinct branch of economics and not identical with arbori-
culture, or simple tree planting, has not yet found entrance into our
institutions of education.

*The recent report of the California forest commission mentions that a forestry
school is being inaugurated at Los Angeles in connection with the University of
Southern California.

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 183

LITERATURE.

There having been no attempt at artificial or scientific forestry
until very recently by the tree planting of the West and in a few
instances elsewhere, the literature of the subject in this country is nat-
urally very limited. The largest part, to be found in magazine arti-
cles, essays, the proceedings of associations, and other papers, is of a
general nature, dwelling upon the importance, value, or history of
forestry, or is a recital of Kuropean methods.

Forest floras and descriptive forest botanical works are met in suf-
ficient numbers, some giving necessary instruction in regard to the
propagation of trees; but an exposé of the principles which underlie
forestry proper is, for the most part, not even presented by those who
profess to write on forestry. It is to be regretted that the only
periodical devoted to this subject, the American Forestry Journal,
edited by the late Dr. F. B. Hough, had to be abandoned after one
year’s issue (1883) for lack of support. The English Jowrnal of
Forestry having also been abandoned, no forestry periodical in the
English language is in existence except The Indian Forester, which
deals specially with tropical conditions. A Forestry Bulletin, issued
by the American Forestry Congress, had also to be abandoned for
lack of interest. The Pennsylvania Forestry Association has recently
issued several numbers of leaflets, Forestry Leaves. The Agricul-,.
‘tural press, and the daily and weekly newspapers also, are beginning
to introduce forestry matter liberally into their columns.

A pretty full collection of works on forestry, published in Great
Britain, together with some continental publications, may be found
in the Congressional Library at Washington and in the public libraries
of Boston and New York, and a few elsewhere.

FOREST POLICY.

Recognizing the importance of the forests, on account of their
direct and indirect bearing upon the development and continuous
productiveness of a country, almost all civilized nations have devised
systems of forestry, at least so far as government holdings of forest
areas are concerned, and encourage and protect similar systems of
management by private holders, in some cases even enforcing such
systems upon them. Enforcement, however, is as yet practised only
in very rare and urgent cases (contrary to the conceptions prevalent in
this country), the necessity of forest police regulations having been
recognized abroad only in recent times. j

All Governments, however, are gradually awakening to the need
of such forest policy, and, further, to the desirability of preserving
certain forest areas in the hands of the Government, which alone can
have a sufficient interest in the future conditions of the country
dependent on forest cover. Thus, in Austria, where, since 1825, finan-
cial straits of the Government have necessitated the sale or mortgag-
ing of more than 50 per cent. of the public domain, a new policy was
inaugurated in 1868, by which were rigidly excluded from sale—

(1) All forests which, on account of climatic considerations—for the protection of
water-sheds and for the conservation of favorable agricultural conditions of extensive
regions or particular localities—ought to remain in the hands of the Government.

(2) Such forests as are needed for carrying on salt-works and similar Government
establishments.

(3) Such forests as promise so insignificant a yield or profit at present as to make
their preservation for future requirements desirable.

184 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

In Australia, the conditions of which, politically, economically,
and often climatically, are somewhat similar to ours, systematic for--
estry has been introduced lately, and in such a manner and with such
success as should invite imitation. ;

The report of the Woods and Forests Department (J. Ednie Brown,
Conservator of Forests) for 188586 shows that since 1876, 7. e., for
ten years, the expenditures for this department were, in round num-
bers, $284,000; the revenue, $287,000; and in addition to the balance
of revenue the approximate value of permanent improvements secured
is estimated at $729,000.

Among the expenditures appears, for raising of trees for free dis-
tribution during the last four years, $8,000. The trees reported alive
cost the government 1} cents each. The area reserved by the gov-
ernment, at first comprising 239,368 acres, has been increased to
257,324 acres, of which, however, 92,000 acres are not intended for
permanent forestry. Six thousand six hundred and eighty-five acres
have been inclosed and planted, mostly in the arid regions and under
trying circumstances.

The revenue is derived chiefly from leasing lands for grazing or
agricultural purposes and from timber licenses. The success of this
modest experiment undoubtedly lies in allowing one competent man
to remain in charge of the work from its inception, and granting him
- liberty to administer the property according to his best judgment.
The effect of the good example of the government upon the public
is commended in every annual report, and in that of the present year
in the following words:

The results which will accrue to the colony at large will be boundless in their
utility and embellishment. In a treeless country such as ours the planting of trees
becomes a national necessity, and not merely an individual hobby, to be taken up
or abandoned as caprice may direct. The Government cannot compel a man to
plant, but it may persuade him to do so.

NoTE.—To enable us to form an idea of what forestry means in the household of a
nation the following figures are given, based upon the results of ten years of govern-
ment forest management (1870-79) in the fourteen prominent states of Germany,
assuming that the same conditions prevail in private forests :

The Government forests embrace 12,000,000 acres, or 35 per cent., and the private
and communal forests 22,000,000, or 65 per cent. The total forest area is 84,000,000
acres, or 25} per cent. of the total area of Germany.

Amount of wood produced yearly, 1,870,000,000 cubic feet (55 cubic feet per acre),
which may be considered the yearly accretion, of which timber wood (above 3 inches
diameter) forms 27 per cent., or 6,000,000,000 feet, B. M. Total gross income, mostly
for wood, amounts to about $95,000,000, the total expenditure being about $38,000,000;
making a net yield of $57,000,000. Of the expenditures, 16 per cent. goes for culti-
vation, improvements, roads; 32 per cent. for lumbering ; 42 per cent. for adminis-
tration or protection. The bulk of this expenditure is almost entirely for salaries
and wages, in which the laborer receives 15 per cent. more than the officials, The
price per cubic foot of wood averages about 5 cents, costing 0.7 cents to cut. The
expenditures, amounting to $1.12 per acre, or 2 cents per cubic foot, represent 40
per cent. of the total gross income. The net income from each acre of wood land
amounts to $1.60. This, then, represents the interest on the capital invested in the
forest area, and, reckoning 3 per cent. as rate of interest, and the rotation at whic
the forest is worked in the average at ninety years, (these figures corresponding to
German practice), the capital value of the German forests equals nearly $2,000,000,-
000, and the wood capital, of which only the yearly accretion is used, 80,000,000,000
cubic feet, or, reckoning the price of wood on the stump at only 2 cents per cubic
foot, represents $1,600,000,000, and the soil not quite $400,000,000, showing the for-
est growth to have four times the value of the soil. It is to be added that most of
this forest stands on a soil agriculturally useless.

To show the relation which different parts of a European state forest management
hold to the whole system, the budget of the Prussian forest department for the

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 185

_ yeer 1886-’87, with an area of 6,617,712 acres (of which 673,816 acres are not devoted
to wood growth), is given as follows:

Income according to average of last five years:

Hee HOP vr COMMS eee tne. shoal einen ca ot. 2 Meme stent oles «oe sees Pll 816,200

Di HOY) Wy FIROMMUR abaya) aiale silo cel taiviaiae ¢ s!) 2. fk PAM UB heal ole so slo imes 991, 000

i SUING 2 ae’ « lavat's, eaele ees cies o/c) 12s dy «) Span ateiaistss oie email A477, 320

TOGA: (asa 's Saja van’ bia py swe ei) BELEN E 365 cy iON SE Pare cis 3) dos 13, 344, 520

Expenditures :

1. Administration salaries, &c. (33.8 per cent.)....... $2,487, 380
$: Labor and material (56.7 per cent.) ................ 4,200, 525
3. Forest scientific purposes (0.6 per cent.)............ 44, 840
4, Miscellaneous (8.9 per cent.) .........00ce cece eee 660, 040

— 7, 392, 785

INVi TSN S Ue GOR nD O DIDO Dee Ota ie Oe ne So LOR aol Ss 5, 951, 735

Of this $367,000 are expended in buying off privileges and $220,000 in buying ad-
ditional forest ground. The cut of wood amounts to 272,388,390 cubic feet, or 41
cubic feet per acre, of which about 30 per cent. is inferior fire-wood.

Comparative areas of farm, forest, and other land in the United States and in

Europe.
Aa. BS yeu. 3
Se ane ae .@ et :
to @ | Bubs 3g S
ag9 2p 8°99 2. iF
LS 53 S28 | Roads, water, and| —§ 3
Countries. Areas. £28 82-3 | land incapable of | 2% S
aes &3 | a= | production. 2s o
3 5 S 2S ao BS r=} ae
ass | 88 |Gs8e z g
bp 8 53 B 2258 &D im
< 9 5 < os
¥ Acres. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Acres. | Per cent.| Acres. | Acres.
United States...... 1,750, 000, 0¢0 17.10 28.00 45.70 |160, 000, 000 9.14 6, 00 9.8
GRETA cece sioix.s « 133, 421, 492 60.7 25. 62 9.70 | 5,235,519 3. 92 1.09 0.79
AUBUONIA So 823- o.0-\. 153, 820, 044 54.70 31.30 §.00 | 9,229,311 6.00 2.35 1.33
Switzerland ....... 10, 252, 099 32.00 18.80 20.00 | 2,993,490 29.20 1.19 0.69
i 63, 546, 066 65. 00 20.00 7.78 | 4,589, 821 7. 22 1.48 0.47
130, 616, 662 63.35 17.70 13.50 | 7,108,713 5.45 2.25 0. 62
7, 278, 625 78.43 12.00 3. 20 462, 837 6. 37 1.06 0.17
8,147,710 59. 29 5.97 23. 23 937, 782 11.51 1.2 0.12
77, 692; 866 60. 55 3.23 30.35 | 4,564,121 5.87 | 1.38 0.07
9, 441, 825 67.97 4.61 17.27 958, 539 10.15 3.35 0. 22
109, 272, 783 10.50 *39.50 40.87 | 9,971,135 9.13 2.59 9.75
78, 258, 007 2.70 *30. 64 53.68 | 10, 163, 387 12. 98 Lei7 13.19
1, 336, 876, 607 30. 00 38. 00 27.42 | 61, 216, 807 4.58 5.43 6.89
130, 336, 347 20. 00 24.00 37.91 | 28,569, 351 18.09 RG 2.07
12, 385, 894 16,00 11.80 27.50 | 5,536, 252 44.70 1.36 1.01
125, 461, 700 44, 30 16. 30 25.00 | 18, 066, 459 14. 40 2.32 1.23
22, 938, 974 50. 00 5.00 30.00 | 3,440,759 15. 00 2.45 0.25
Europe ...... 2,409, 757, 701 35. 95 31.29 25.79 |168, 044, 190 6.97 2.79 2.45

*The most recent returns reduce the percentage of forest in Sweden and Norway to 24 and 25 per
cent. respectively.

The figures here given, so far as they relate to other countries, are taken from
European statistical tables, based upon the state of things existing in 1880. Nosuch
exact figures can be given for our own country. In the estimates and approxima-
tions, given in round numbers, neither Alaska, the Indian Territory, or Indian res-
ervations are included, the forest condition of these not having been ascertained.
The forest area is taken from an estimate made by the Forestry Division in 1885.
For the amount of farm land under cultivation, as well as for unoccupied and waste
land, whether capable of profitable use or otherwise, reliance has been placed upon

the census returns. The per capita estimates are made upon the basis of population
in 1880, viz, 50,000,000.

186 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

FORESTRY.

It is to be regretted that the tendency of American writers on
forestry has been to conceive of it mainly as involving tree planting
and the idea of creating new forests by artificial means, while our
millions of natural forests were permitted to be slaughtered with
entire disregard to the dictates of forestry. The application of forest
management to them has been entirely overlooked.

So littleis the nature of forest growth understood, that lumbermen
and prominent owners of white-pine mills have even asserted that the
reproduction of white pine cannot be, or at least is not, effected by seed.
Common sense and the experience of New England in its spontaneous
white-pine growth should have prevented the utterance of such state-
ments. Vast stretches of the finest white-pine forests have been
needlessly laid waste, and the presumption is that the Southern pine-
ries will be utilized with the same reckless devastation. The hard-
wood forests and coppices of the farmer, which could most easily
have been kept in an ever improving condition, have been deteriorated
unnecessarily for lack of knowledge of the first principles of forest
management.

It has been often popularly stated that what we most want to know
is: What to plant, how to plant, and where to plant. But before
answering these questions we should first ask: For what object do we
wish to plant? since the method of planting and of future manage-
ment of the plantavign, as well as the kind of timber to be selected,
separ largely upon the answer to that question.

orestry, like agriculture, attempts by correct management to pro-
duce, without exhausting the soil or favorable conditions of growth
and at the smallest expense, the best possible returns. This may
mean either the greatest amount of wood in a given time, as when
working for fire-wood or charcoal billets, or the production of cer-
tain sizes in the shortest time, as when a farmer wishes to supply
himself with posts and rails and short tool-stock, or else the produc-
tion of the highest soil rent—financial success, for which the lumber-
men will work.

Hither of these objects will of course blend with the others; yet as
one or the other object is prominent, it is but natural that the meth-
ods of management, as well as the choice of timber, &c., should vary.

On mountain-sides and on the prairie an additional consideration,
the indirect influence of the forest on water regulation and climate—
shelter forest—again modifies the method of management.

It would, therefore, be impossible to give general advice as to for-
est management applicable under all circumstances; yet, besides the
more or less well understood methods in the propagation of trees,
there are certain principles of forestry by which forest planting is
distinguished from tree planting, and which have also a general
bearing on all methods of forest management.

The arboriculturist, the nurseryman, the landscape gardener, and
the roadside planter, has for his object the faaieiinal trees, or at
best a group of trees, in their outward appearance. Into forestry »
several considerations enter, which the arboriculturist may neglect.
The forester has to do with an aggregate of trees; he must study and
take account of the relation and the influence of one on the other in
their individual development through a long series of years, durin
which each species shows changing habits and differences of devel-
opment. As he does not wish simply to grow trees, but to produce

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 187

a crop, he must consider and prepare conditions which will favor the
best and quickest development of his crop for a given purpose.
And, as his crop should be a paying one, he must consider the cheap-
est and surest methods of preserving favorable conditions for it.
While, therefore, mulching may be a very good thing for tree
growth, it will prove in most cases too expensive in forestry; and
while plowing and cultivating may be the best method for the nursery,
to keep out weeds and stimulate growth, for forest purposes other
methods might be economically substituted. Again, while turfing
under the lawn tree improves the object of the tree, viz, its beauty,
it can only injure its object in the forest, which is wood production.
In the limited scope of this report it will not be possible to do more
than indicate the most important general principles.

GHNERAL PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY.

1. A careful and constant preservation of soil humidity and pre-
vention of its undue exhaustion by surface evaporation.

2. Such choice and arrangement of species as will aid each other
and not impede their best or the desired development.

3. For financial reasons, such methods of initial and later manage-
ment as will reduce the expense of labor to a minimum.

4, For continuity of the least expensive forestry system such meth-
ods as will reproduce the forest naturally.

Regard to the first principle requires a constant and continuous
rotection of the soil against the drying influences of sun and wind.
tis mainly for this that close planting has been, or is to be, recom-

mended. ‘The war against underbrush and the notion of a ‘‘clean
grove,” in which the trimming of ‘‘superfluous” branches and twigs
occupies the loving care of the amateur planter, are two monstrosi-
ties, against which a serious protest should be made for the sake of
successful forestry.

On the other hand, the weeds which spring up under the partial
shade of the tree growth cannot be counted, as some writers have
done, desirable undergrowth. They are not ‘‘nurses” but ‘‘curses”
of forestry. In Russia, on the arid steppes, where the hot sun and
dry winds favor rapid evaporation, the first step of the forester is the
creation of an underbrush, often with a quick-growing willow (Salix
pruinosa) which prepares favorable conditions for its betters.

Therefore, where land is to be devoted to forestry—and this should
propery be such as cannot be ufilized for agricultural ee

rst object of the planter should be to cover the ground as quickly as
possible with a dense wood-growth, which by its shade will create its
own conditions of vigorous growth: increased and longer-available
soil-humidity.

In their youth most, tree plants have a more or less dense foliage,
‘but with increased age a tendency to thin out is manifested in dif-
ferent degrees by different species. The condition of the soil, espe-
cially its depth, the nature of fhe subsoil, moisture and drainage, and
also climate, modify the tendency in the different species. The wal-
nut, generally a shady tree, on thin soil soon appears with a thin
foliage. The birches, usually among the trees needing most light,
will endure considerable shade on a fresh, humus soil.

A classification of trees according to this tendency is of importance
for the forest planter, as he must keep nis ground shaded through the
long period of forest growing. The shady trees which preserve their

188 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

dense foliage are the only ones which should be planted in forests by
themselves. Such are the beeches, catalpas, hornbeams, spruces, firs,
and hemlocks, and on some soils perhaps the white and yeilow pines.
But the unmixed growth of larch can only result in ultimate failure,
unless soil conditions are unusually favorable, as the requirement of
the larch of a cool and moist soilis not aided by its thin foliage. The
practice of planting, unmixed, the thin-foliaged Scotch pines in the
northern plain of Germany is excusable only, but not commendable.

The planting of ash on thin soils, and of walnut or oak, without
some dense-foliaged companion or underbrush, can result onlyin the
deterioration of the soil and the consequent diminished wood produc-
tion, as may be noticed in many groves on our prairies. Of the cot-
tonwood plantations it is needless to assert that they present the de-
teriorating influences of a thin and constantly thinning foliage in an
aggravated manner, and that, but for some considerations other than
those of good forestry, their widespread use on the prairie, especially
in unmixed plantations, can only be deplored. Their only recom-
mendation is that they are easily produced, and fast growers; but they
are short-lived, their wood inferior, and their effect on the soil disas-
trous.

Mixed planting, then, should, once for all, form the rule. The fol-
lowing reasons for mixing or grouping forest trees have been given,
viz: The objectionable uniformity of unmixed growths, theadvantage
of a variety of material, differences in the food requirements of dif-
ferent species, and especially the difference of their root systems. But,
though some of these considerations are weighty, more cogent reasons
are, the greater ease with which the soil can be kept continuaily under
cover and its humidity preserved, and the protection from injuries
by wind, fire, fungi, and insects which is aifotded in mixed growths.
This preservation of favorable soil conditions can be accomplished
in unmixed growths only by planting those species which preserve a
dense foliage and enrich the soil by an abundant leaf-mold; but there
are only a few such species.

Admissible in pure growths only are the thinly foliaged evergreens,
like Scotch pine, under which a moss cover generally compensates for
the missing shade. As soon as grass appears, however, the deteriora-
tion of the soil has begun, and requires the correcting interference of
the forester. On deep and naturally moist soils of course the same
means for the preservation of soil humidity may not be necessary, and
less shady kinds, especially for short rotations, may be planted by
themselves; for, as stated before, in their youth all trees have a rather
dense foliage. The preference, however, must in all cases be given to
a mixed growth. The advantages of mixed growths have been more
fully described in my report on Western Tree Planting.

The mixture may be started simultaneously, or other species may
be introduced later into the originally pure plantation; it may be with
plants of the same age or of different age and size, as, for instance, by
sowing under the planted rows. It may be a temporary or constant
mixture, accordingly as we remove one kind earlier than the other
or let all grow on.

The advantages of mixtures have now and then been pointed out
before by writers on forestry in this country, as well as the reasons
for close planting, but neither the true and most important rationale
for such practice has been presented, nor, what is still more to be re-
gretted for practical application, has the rationale of a correct mixt-

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 189

ure been given; the advice having mostly been simply to mix, the
more the better. Thevariety of possible mixtures, with our rich forest
flora, enlarged by a few desirable foreign trees, is almost endless, but,
as outlined above, only a limited number will satisfy the requirements
of good forestry. With these requirements in view, after we have
determined what kinds are desirable and suitable to be planted in a
given locality, the possibility of mixing two or more kinds depends—

(a) On their relative capacity for preserving or increasing favora-
ble soil conditions;

(b) On their relative dependence for development on light or
shade; and

(c) On their relative rate of height growth.

The densely foliaged and evergreen trees are best adapted to keep
the soil in proper condition. The first named are also capable of sus-
taining a considerable amount of shade without being appreciably
_ impeded in their development, while those with a thin foliage are
easily shaded out, often even by the moderate cover of their own kind,
though differences of soil, climate, &c., modify this susceptibility. Itis
their relative dependence on light, together with their relative rapid-
ity of height growth, which are most important for the determina-
tion of the kinds most suitable for mixtures. It is this difference
of requirement and development which accounts for the variety of
vegetation in a natural, especially a deciduous, forest, and for the
alternation of species so often observed in this country, when man, b
clearing, has altered the conditions of growth. The light-seeded,
quick-growing, light-nocding aspens, maples, and birches are the
quickest to occupy the ground, until the shade-enduring and slower-
growing kinds have patiently struggled upwards, when they in their
turn crowa out the first occupants.

The careful observations and measurements which are necessary
for a more satisfactory discussion of specific mixtures, and to which
mixtures our own forest flora is best adapted, have not been made, and
even notes from which deductions are possible are scarce, because
these relations of tree growth have seemingly never been pointed out
or understood in this country.

We can at present, therefore, give only the general rules for mix-
ing which may be deduced from the foregoing remarks.

Rule 1.—The dominant species, 7. e., the one that occupies the
greater part of the ground, must be one that improves the soil condi-
tions, generally a shady kind.

Rule 2.—Shade-enduring (¢. e., densely foliaged) kinds may be
mixed together when the slower-growing kinds can be protected or
guarded against the overshading of the more rapid grower, either by
planting the slower grower first or in greater numbers or in larger
specimens, or else by cutting back the quicker-growing ones.

Rule 3.—Shade-enduring kinds may be mixed with light-needing
kinds when the latter are either quicker growing or are planted in
advance of the former or in larger specimens.

Rule 4.—Thin-foliaged kinds should not be planted in mixtures by
themselves, except on very favorable soils, as in river bottoms, marshy
soil, &c., where no exhaustion of soil humidity need be feared, or else
on very meager, dry soils, where most shady trees would refuse to
grow and one must make a virtue of necessity.

Rule 5.—The mixing in of the light-foliaged trees in single indi-
viduals is preferable to placing them together in groups, unless special

190 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

soil conditions make the occupation of certain spots by one kind
which may be better adapted to them, more desirable, as, for instance,
the ash in a wet Efoundl (slough). When a slower-growing, light-
needing kind is to be grown side by side with a quicker-growing shady
one—as, for instance, oak and catalpa—a group of oaks will have
more chance to withstand the shade of the densely foliaged catalpa
than the single individual.*

WHAT TO PLANT,

The first difficulty which besets the forester in this country is the
question, Which, in the immense forest flora, are the trees that for ar-
tificial forestry are the most acceptable, the most promising? For,
while nature in her lavish bounty has given us an almost endless
variety of arborescent plants, and while we know how to put them to
use when found, it is evident that, as natural resources are being ex-
hausted, and it becomes necessary to provide for our needs by artificial
_planting and by managing to produce on the smallest area the great-
est amount of the best material, we shall have to be careful in the
selection of the material as well as in the method of its management.
For the settlement of this question we are remarkably destitute of
reliable data, and while we may now plant some of the kinds which we
know are adapted to special localities and are useful for certain pur-
poses, yet for extensive planting it is well to confine ourselves to the
few varieties which are best known until a closer study has been
made of the capabilities of the rest. This is especially advisable
with foreign species, or those not indigenous to the given locality.
An exception might be made of European species only, as the ex-
tended experience in their cultivation abroad may serve as a guide
here. We must, however, take care not to overlook the fact that, cli-
matic conditions being different, differences of behavior are to be ex-
pected and, if possible, to be provided for. As an illustration of the
mistakes which may be made in this respect, I may refer to the un-
qualified recommendations to plant the Kuropean larch anywhere and

*Some of the above principles having been pointed out to Prof. W. J. Beal, of
Lansing, Mich., he has made some notes on the relation of undergrowth to the de-
velopment of different forest trees, and the capability of the latter for holding their
leaves, 7. ¢., thriving under shade. These observations, published in a bulletin,
have reference to conditions of a very limited locality, however, and may not, there-
fore, be generalized upon, He found under these conditions that black walnut, but-
ternut, and white ash do not preserve dense crowns when grown in the forest. He
further cites beech, sugar-maple, dogwood, hazel, blue beech and choke cherry, as
shade enduring, and adds poplars, white oak, and swamp oak (these are generally
light needing); white pine, arbor vite, red cedar, Norway spruce, of evergreens,
and black cherry, American elm, butternut, low willows (unusual!), catalpas, birches
(exceptional!), and box-elders, As the degree of shade under which these thrive is
not indicated by a statement of the conditions under which they are found, besides
relating only to the first period of life, this list is of little use. The oak, it is true,
will live under shade, but for its development requires a great deal of light, and
must, with few exceptions, be counted among the light-needing, thin-foliaged trees.

He also cites the weeds found to thrive in shade (what degree of ?): common milk-
weeds, desmodium, celandine, wild asters, golden rods, to which add black cap
raspberries, and grape-vines. June grass and some other grasses make their appear-
ance late in autumn and early in spring, when deciduous trees are without leaves.

After cultivation ceases, shepherd’s purse, annual poa, pigweeds, purslane, and
other annuals appear. These weeds cannot exactly, as it is stated, be welcomed in
the forest, but their appearance or disappearance furnishes the forester an indication
of the condition of his plantation in regard to cover, and gives him warning that
his correcting hand is needed.

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 191

everywhere and in pure growths, when it has been long a well-estab-
lished fact that this larch, a mountain tree from the highest and coolest
elevations (3,000 to 5,000 feet up to the limit of tree growth), when
transplanted into the plain cannot be expected to be grown success-
fully to a mature age unless the conditions of its home are to some
extent provided. To do this it will be necessary to assign to it the
coolest exposures, to plant it only in single individuals through the
forest, and to take particular care to shade its foot well with dense
under-growth or densely foliaged companions, while its crown is kept
in full enjoyment of the needed supply of light. If treated in this
manner no more desirable and profitable exotic could be suggested.
Its requirements for moisture being great, and at the same time its
foliage being thin, it cannot, in spite of its rich leaf-mold, preserve
the soil humidity under its deficient shade, and requires, therefore,
the assistance of a neighbor better qualified to preserve favorable con-
ditions. None better could be suggested than the densely foliaged,
not quite as rapidly growing, Norway spruce, which will thrive well
under the partial shade of the earlier-grown larch, and these in com-
bined strength will prosper for many decades, making excellent
lumber in a short time, enriching the soil for coming generations,
and defying all objections to their foreign ancestry,

HINTS AS TO PLANTING.

Concise rules as to the manner of planting cannot be given here,
this being too much dependent on local conditions. The following
considerations, however, may well be kept in view everywhere:

1, Planting in most cases should have preference to sowing. Sowing is usually
cheaper in its first cost and more quickly done over large areas, and furnishes fuller
stands without increased expense. But planting is surer, because the young plants
can be protected in the nursery against harmful influences which beset them in their
first years; and thus, in the end, planting may even prove cheaper than sowing, espec-
ially when seeds are expensive.

2. For forestry purposes use seedlings (one to three years old); young plants suffer
least from removal; they are, therefore, surer to succeed; they are also more cheaply
handled. Older plants (from 2 to 10 feet high) may be used where trees have failed,
or in ‘‘frost-holes,” or for standards in the standard coppice, &c.

3. Transplanting can be done, with care, all the year round, but best in fall or spring.
In favor of fall planting it is urged that the young plants regenerate their injured root-
lets during the winter, and that the earth packs more closely around the roots;
against it is the danger from winter cold and greater expense in the work on account
of shorter days. Spring planting, especially on dry soils, should proceed early and
be finished several weeks before leafing out, except in the case of most conifers
which will transplant well even after budding (except the Larch). Heeling in plants
in the fall facilitates planting in spring. The best time to plant is on rainy or cloudy
days and in the afternoon.

4, Commonly a distance between the plants of 8 to 5 feet is recommended; the
smallest distance for slow growers, which do not close their crowns and shade the
soil soon; the widest for quick-growing, light-needing kinds.

5. Preparation of soil depends on soil conditions: A thorough cultivation on the
prairies 1s desirable, but not decidedly necessary in the Eastern States. Place the
plants as deep as they were in the nursery, if anything a little deeper on dry soils.

6. Be chary in trimming; only trim off smoothly any injured roots and the top to
correspond.

Never expose roots of trees to the wind or sun more than necessary, but keep them
under wet moss or in a wet loam puddle during the operation of planting; this is
especially a necessity for conifers.

Press the soil firmly around the roots after these have been placed in a natural
position. Mulching, if it can be done, is better than watering.

7. The number of trees to be planted per acre is determined (a) by the need of pre-
serving the soil humidity: on a poor, dry soil, therefore, (contrary to agricultural
usage), more plants are required than on afresh or moist soil, unless to check the

192 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

weed growth on the latter, (b) by regard to the quality of the wood: dense growth
favors the development of long, straight, clean, cylindrical shafts, (¢) by regard to
amount of wood production: in an open growth the predominant trunks attain
greater dimensions, but the total amount of wood per acre is considerably dimin-
ished, (d) by regard to detrimental influences: in a very dense growth weak plants
result, which are more liable to be injured by wind, snow, and even insects, while
in a wide planting the growth of grass and weeds deteriorates the soil for wood pro-
duction.

8. Plant mainly such trees as are indigenous to the climate in which you plant,
regard being had to their adaptation to soil conditions. It is not the chemical con-
stitution of the soil, but its physical properties, and especially its depth, looseness,
and degree of moisture, which are chiefly to be considered.

9. Always mix or group different kinds together, except perhaps in the case of the
shady conifers and, perhaps, the shadiest broad-leaved trees.

SPECIALLY VALUABLE TREES.

An attempt has been made to reduce the number of arborescent spe-
cies from the 412 constituting the flora of the United States, as given
in the Census Report by Professor Sargent, to those which are likely
to maintain their position as valuable forest trees; that isto say, those
which may, according to our present knowledge, demand the attention
of the forester. Such notes of interest to the forest planter as were
available have been added.

This list is only preliminary, and may have to be considerably modified and en-
larged. I need only refer to the addition of Catalpa speciosa to our list of desirable
forest trees, which, formerly almost overlooked, was transferred from obscurity to
a place among the first order by the late Dr. Warder. Many trees, though at pres-
ent and in particular localities forming almost the only supply of timber, have been
left out on account of their doubtful value as objects of artificial forestry. I men-
tion the mesquit of the Southwestern Territories. The valuable hard-woods of semi-
tropical Florida have been entirely omitted, and perhaps some of the conifers of thee
Pacific slope might have been rightly included in the list. The object of the list
being simply to acquaint the practical man with a select number of the more im-

ortant species which seem to be of value for future forestry, any omissions may

e remedied hereafter. The grouping has not been made on botanical grounds, but
rather from practical points of view. In the names of the trees the nonpareil boid-
faced type denotes that the tree is considered of first importance; the nonpareil title
condensed denotes trees in value above those printed in nonpareil roman capitals.

In the naming, the common name has been placed first, somewhat under protest,
because the confusion in common names is even worse than in botanical. The first
name chosen, because most expressive or most commonly used, will be employed
by this Division hereafter to denote the species, in the hope that thus gradually the
road to a greater uniformity of common nomenclature may be opened. The botanical
nomenclature is that used by Professor Sargent in the census work of 1880, from
which also the columns in regard to distribution, size, quality, and uses of wood are
mostly made up, but in some cases conflicting opinions of authorities have led to state-
ments differing from those expressed in the census volume. The distribution has
been given only in general terms, which for practical purposes may suffice to indi-
cate what climatic conditions seem favorable to the development of the species. The
sizes given are either those to which under ordinary circumstances the species often
develop, or else the largest as reported in the census volume or elsewhere, the addi-
tion mark (-++) denoting that larger sizes have been observed. Heavy print or italics
call special attention to the most important qualities.

For the column of remarks the standard authorities, often diverging in their
views or opinions, have been consulted and personal observations added. This
column must naturally be largely tentative, for lack of sufficient special knowledge
on the subject. Requirements of soil have been mostly deduced from the natural
conditions in which the species is found. This, however, does not always indicate
the preference, but only the capability of the species, as, for instance, in the case of
the Bald Cypress. Shade-enduring and light-needing are terms which refer chiefly
to the capacity of the species for thriving when subjected to the influence of the
shade of other trees in their vicinity. This capacity, as stated before, is a relative
one and changeable according to site. The indication here given must be under-
stood only as expressing the general tendency, which may be modified under par-
ticular conditions.

re)
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DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

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REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

194

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195

DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

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196

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198

DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

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198

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199

DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

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DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

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207

DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

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209

DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

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211

IDIVISION OF FORESTRY,

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212

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PONUTJWOQ—saznzg paziug ay fo Saag waquag qungsodur ysout hzouru oy} fo 381) fhiamurweong

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 213

Many other trees which occasionally may form desirable adjuncts
to the forest might be added to this list, and in the end even the
study and propagation of low tree and bush forms for underbrush
will require our attention.

To these timbers may be added a number of exotics, especially for
planting on the Western plains.

The experiments in this respect need to be very careful as well as
methodical, and immediate attention to this branch of forestry should
be given. In order to deserve attention for purposes of naturaliza-
tion, it must be shown of an exotic timber—

i (1), That it furnishes better wood than the native species of the same
amily.

(2) That it will produce in a shorter time larger quantities of wood,
even if of less value.

(3) That, even if its wood production be the same or inferior in quan-
tity and quality, it excels the native timber in its frugal demands on
the soil, in its value as.a nurse, in its resistance to climatic conditions,
or in some other particular quality.

In the naturalization of foreign timbers, on account of their quali-
ties in their native habitat, due regard must be paid to the site and soil
in which their most favorable development occurs in their native coun-
try. Werewe, forinstance, to place Balsam Fir ina low, warm soil and
warm climate, the consequence would be deterioration with advancing
years; the mildness of the climate and the rich soil would induce un-
natural development, early death, and inferior lumber. Also, if we
select a soil which, in regard to its humidity, does not suit the species,
while the tree may grow and seemingly thrive, its qualities may be
changed and its life shortened.

While hardiness plays so prominent a part in the consideration of
exotics for naturalization, it is rational that great stress should be
laid upon procuring the seed from most favorable localities, 7. e., from.
the most northern andthe driest climates. Carelessnessin this respect
may often be the cause of failure and disappointment with native as
well as with exotic trees. This was the case in Germany during
the winter of 1879~80, when Douglas Spruce grown from California
seed was all winter-killed, while the seedlings from Colorado seed
were found to be hardy. Itshouldalso be insisted upon that the seed
comes from vigorous, naturally-grown trees, and it is advisable to
have the soil of the nursery similar to that of the forest ground.

The possibility of the naturalization of exotics is not yet as well
understood as some people believe. That the degree of moisture in
the atmosphere and the range of temperature in its native habitat
influence the adaptability of a species to other climes can hardly be
doubted. The precaution of getting the seed from the driest and
most northern habitat of the species is quite rational, but even with
this all the requirements which are necessary for a decision on the
hardiness of atree are not fulfilled. Thesite and the method of its cul-
tivation have also a great deal to do with the success of its growth.
I will cite only one example. The beech is certainly a native of
Germany; yet even in the most favorite localities it is almost impos-
sible to raise it in the open without the protection for several years
of its parent trees, as it is liable to be killed by late spring frosts.
It would, therefore, have to be considered not hardy, or only half
hardy, in itsnative habitat. While some trees may sustain changed
climatic conditions for ten or twelve years, and then suddenly succumb
unexpectedly to unfavorable climatic conditions, it is a well-observed

914 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

fact that other trees, if properly protected in the first years of their
existence, become less sensitive to winter cold the older and stronger
they grow and the better the last year’s shoots have ripened. Thus by
placing the tender conifers, like Cryptomerva, Wellingtonia, Cary-
otaxus, &c., among surrounding quick-growing and densely-foliaged
pines, astonishing results may be secured. | By placing the firs, most
of which are liable to injury by late frosts, in such a manner that the
rays of the morning sun in spring dq not directly bear upon them,
especially on northern or western exposures, these may be propagated
in climes in which otherwise they would not beconsidered hardy. It
must not be forgotten that trees which in single individuals fail to
answer to our climate may, when planted in forest and grouped with
other kinds, very well sustain themselves. Yet, excepting for experi-
ment, it will be well for the present to rely for forest culture mainly on
well-proved, hardy plants, and to give the preference to native kinds.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.

While we are, perhaps, still far from the time of systematic forest
management in this country, yet the statement of the requirements
of such management may not be untimely, as showing how difficult it
will be to effect any change in our present methods. The creation of
a young forest can be effected either by artificial or natural means ;
the latter where nature has provided the original forest growth.
The methods employed have reference principally to the capacity of
trees to reproduce themselves either by shoots from the mother stocks
(stumps) or else from seed of the mature trees. The former method
is called

COPPICE MANAGEMENT.

It is employed for the production of firewood, tan-bark, charcoal, and
wood of anal dimensions, and is mostly applicable only to deciduous
trees. The capacity of reproduction from the stump is possessed by
different species in different degrees, and depends also on climate and
soil; shallow soil produces weaker but more numerous shoots than a
deep, rich soil, and a mild climate is most favorable to a continuance
of the reproductive power. "With most trees this capacity decreases
after the period of greatest height-growth; they should therefore
be cut before the thirtieth year, in order not to exhaust the stocks
toomuch. The oak coppices for tan-bark are managed in a rotation of
from ten to twenty years. Regard to the preservation of reproductiv-
ity makes it necessary to avoid cutting during heavy frost, to make
a smooth cut without severing the bark from the stem, and to make it
as low as possible; thus reducing liability to injuries of the stump
and inducing the formation of independent roots by the sprouts.

It will be found often that on poor and shallow soil trees will cease
to thrive, their tops dying. In such cases it is a wise policy to cut
them down, thus getting new, thrifty shoots, for which the larger root
system of the old tree can more readily provide. This practice may
also be resorted to in order to get a quick, straight enti as sprouts
grow more rapidly than seedlings, the increased proportion of root to
the part above ground giving more favorable conditions of food sup-
ply. It must not be forgotten, however, that this advantage has to be
compensated somewhere else by a disadvantage; sprouts, though
growing fast in their youth, cease to grow in height at a compara-
tively early period, and for the production of long timber such prac-
tice would be detrimental. .

_ DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 215

CT

’ Regard to the preservation of favorable soil conditions, which suf-
fer by often repeated clearing, requires the planting of new stocks
where old ones have failed. Mixed growth, as everywhere, gives the
best results. Oaks, walnut, hickory, chestnut, elm, maples, birch,
cherry, linden, catalpa, and the locust also, with its root-sprouting
habit, can be used for such purpose.

If, when cutting off the sprouts, at the age of from ten to twenty
years, some trees are left to grow to larger size, thus combining the
coppice with timber forest, a management results which the Germans
eall ‘‘Mittelwald,” and which we may call

STANDARD COPPICE.

This is the method of management which, in our country, deserves
most attention, especially in the Western prairie States, where the
production of fire-wood and timber of small dimensions is of first im-
portance, but the production by the farmer of larger and stronger
timbers at the smallest cost should not be neglected. The advan-
tages of this method of management, combining those of the coppice
and of the timber forest, are:

1) A larger yield of wood per acre in a short time.
2) A better quality of wood.
3) A production of wood of valuable and various dimensions in
the shortest time with hardly any additional cost.

(4) The possibility of giving closer attention to the growth and re- -

quirements of single individuals and of each species.
5) A ready and certain reproduction.
te} The possibility of collecting or using for reforestation, in addi-
tion to the coppice stocks, the seeds of the standards.

If, instead ae the pure walnut plantations which have sprung up in
the Western States, such plantations had been started on the stand-
ard coppice plan, not only would more efficient ‘“‘self-supporting”
forest plantations have been secured, at less cost, but also quicker
and better results would have been attained. The under-wood or cop-
pice-wood of inferior kinds could have been cheaply procured, and
therefore more densely planted, without much extra cost, thus quickly
furnishing the necessary shade to the soil, and ina short time yield-
ing desirable fire-wood, and again sprouting to cover the soil. Then
the walnut or other valuable standards would have been permitted
to grow on, bearing fruit, and forming, under the influence of en-
larged access of light, stouter though shorter timber, of greater value,
without losing the needed protection of their foot-cover.

The objections to this mode of treatment are the production of
branches on the standards when freed from the surrounding growth,
and the fact that the standards act more or less injuriously on the
under-wood which they overtop. :

The first objection can be overcome to a certain extent by pruning,
and the second by proper selection and adjustment of coppice-wood
and standards. Theselection of standards—which should preferably
be seedlings, as coppice-shoots are more liable to deteriorate in later
life—must be not only from such species as by isolation will grow
into more useful timber, but, if possible, from those which have thin
foliage, thus causing the least injury by their cover to the under-wood.
The latter should of course be taken from those kinds that will best
endure shade. Oaks, ashes, maples, locust, honey-locust, larch, bald
cypress, a few birches. and perhaps an occasional aspen, answer well

916 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

for the standards; the selection for such should naturally be from the
best grown straight trees. The number of standards to be held over
for timber depends upon the species and upon the amount of under-
growth which the forester desires to secure. The shadier and the
more numerous the standards, the more will the growth of the cop-

ice be suppressed.* From a first plantation one would naturally
be inclined to reserve and hold over all the well-grown valuable sap-
lings. The coppice is of course treated as described above.

I have mentioned before that on account of the free enjoyment of
light which the standards have they not only develop larger diam-
eters, but also furnish quicker-grown wood (which in deciduous trees is
the best) and bear seed earlier, by which the reproduction of the forest
from the stump is supplemented and assisted. Any failing plantation
of mixed growth, consisting of trees capable of reproduction by cop-
pice, may be recuperated by cutting the larger part back to the stump,
and reserving only the most promising trees for standards.

If equally well-grown coppice and standards are desired, a regu-
lar distribution of the standards, mostly of the light-needing, thin-
foliaged kinds, should be made; if prominence is given to the pro-
duction of useful sizes, the standards may be held over in groups and
irregularly distributed specimens, in which case those of the shade-
enduring lend are best in groups.

The specific application of this method of management for Western
practice has been outlined in my report on Western Tree Planting.

THE TIMBER FOREST,

in which it is proposed to grow trees to full maturity for lumber,
is reproduced entirely by seed or by planting nursery-grown or forest-
grown seedlings. Huropean practice, with its intensive methods of
management, necessitated by a crowded population and with its ten-
dency to routine and stereotyped procedure, has developed a form
of management which prescribes a clearing of the grown forest and
its reproduction by artificial planting, (seeding only where, with less
dense population, a small supply of labor or other local peculiarities
recommend it); a method which has elicited the admiration of our
writers on forestry and our pleasure-seekers abroad, but which must
be condemned as being contrary to nature and the best interest of the
forest, not being a product of the observance of natural laws, but a
child of seeming financial necessity. The simplicity of the method
recommends it; but desiccation, deterioration of the forest soil,
enormous increase of insect pests on the large sun-warmed clearings
which the young planted seedlings are insufficient to protect against
the drying influences of sun and wind for a number of years, and
other dangers from wind and disease, with the production of less valua-
ble wood (excepting perhaps with conifers), have been the result of
these uniform growths. Thereare but few foresters abroad willing to
admit their mistake, most of them clinging to the simple prescriptions
of clearing with consequent planting, blinding themselves to the detri-
mental consequences, or patching them up as best they may. It is

*The cover which trees make at different ages varies of course with species and
site, and therefore a general rule cannot be established. From many measurements
of deciduous trees in Germany it was found that the average extent of branches of
trees 80 years old covered about 40 square feet ; of 60 years old, about 126 square feet;
of 90 years old, about 262 square feet; of 120 years old, about 448 square feet; and
of 150 years old, about 686 square feet; making the number of trees possible with
full freedom of crown at the respective ages 1,089, 845, 166, 97, 68 per acre.

‘ _ DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 217

perhaps not generally known that unsuccessful forest planting is the
not unfrequent complaint of European foresters. The same area
must often be replanted or gone over and repaired five, six, nay, ten
times. A desire toreturn to natural methods of reforestation is gen-
erally observable with the most practical men, while the scientific
pedagogues are still discussing the advantages of their pet method.

The results of this method, which found its advocates and its ex-
pansion in the beginning and first half of the century, are naturally
only now visible. At that time the forester had in view only the
technique of forest planting, and overlooked the fact that he is also
called upon to preserve the soil in good condition. _We should be wise
to learn from this experience, and not be led by the pleasing exterior
to follow the same routine, which ultimately must result in a deterio-
ration of the soil of our forest and an increase of its natural enemies.

To be sure, on the treeless plains, and on the cleared and denuded
forest areas, we have no choice but to resort to planting; but wherever
we are still possessed of natural forests our endeavor should be to re-
produce them by natural seeding, supplemented only if necessary by
artificial means.

From a financial point of view this method of working for refor-
estation by the seed from the original timber growth is the only ad-
visable one where soil and timber are cheap and labor difficult to
obtain, as is the case in our lumbering regions, and especially so as
the lumberman, after having taken what can be converted into cash,
is not likely to make any expenditure upon the soil in order to provide
for future growth.

The same regard to the principles explained above must be given in
the management for natural reproduction asin the planting of new for-
ests; the soil must be kept shaded as continually as possible, and a
rational mixture of species must be fostered. In addition, we have to
study the requirements of each species in regard to ight and shade
for their seedlings, and remove the mother trees gradually, slower or
faster as required. The idea, still largely urged by popular writers,
that a change of crop, a rotation, is as necessary in forestry as in
agriculture, must be considered entirely erroneous. The change
does often take place through fault of man, not by necessity nor as
an advantage, and is easily explained. Light-needing species will
take possession of a cleared area which was occupied by a dense-
foliaged one, unless the seedlings of the latter were on the ground
first, and vice versa; thus, if by cutting a thin-foliaged forest (oak)
an existing growth of shade-enduring species gars pine) is given
the benefit of the increased light, the latter will occupy the ground
to the exclusion of the former.

The method of selection, by which only trees of a certain size are cut
out, practiced in Canada and to some extent in Maine and in lumber
camps elsewhere, would be satisfactory were it carried on with due re-
gard to reforestation, but it is not, for the selection does not take
into consideration the requirements of the after-growth, but only
the utilization of the selected trees. This method has the advantage
at least of exposing the soil less to the drying influence of sun and
wind, and of making a natural reforestation from the remaining
trees not entirely impossible if the species is a shade-enduring one,
and conditions are otherwise favorable; and for this reason its adop-
tion in our pineries (especially those of the white pine, to a consider-
able extent shade-enduring) would mark a desirable improvement
upon the indiscriminate slashing of all growth.

2918 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

NATURAL REFORESTATION.

The methods of management for natural reforestation from seed
in vogue on the European continent can be divided into three classes.
Their characteristic is that in utilizing the timber care is taken to con-
sider the requirements of a new growth. The first method is an im-
provement on the method of selection of our lumbermen. It is the
method most suitable to the conditions of the wood lot of the farmer,
who can cut as he pleases, can pay attention to details in the removal
of the cut timber, and to the requirements of the groups of young
growth. This method is the most conservative in regard to the preser-
vation of soil conditions. It is as nearly as possible the forest man-
agement of nature, in which trees of different ages and sizes are
combined, and for shelter forests is the only advisable plan. It con-
sists in taking out the tall timber, either by single individuals or

roups, as necessary, for the benefit of the undergrowth. If old,
danaate foliaged trees, under which an after-growth is only rarely
formed, are thus removed, a large opening is made, and the condi-
tions become favorable for a good new growth from seed of neigh-
boring trees. Under smaller and light-foliaged timber is often found
a worthless after-growth. Here a group of the mother trees must be
removed, as well as the worthless after-growth, and planting of shade-
enduring kinds resorted to.

The possibility of sprouting from the stocks in broad-leaved forests
will aid in the reforestation and gradually lead to the adoption of the
form described before as standard coppice, the most desirable one for
the small forest owner.

For the lumberman and large forest operator this method is objec-
tionable, in so far as it requires the working over too extended an
area, making lumbering expensive, besides attention to detail is not
as easily given in large areas.

Two methods are applicable to such conditions.

’ MANAGEMENT IN ECHELONS.

This consists in making the clearing in strips, and awaiting the seed-
ing of the clearing from the neighboring growth. It is applicable to
species with light seeds, which the wind can carry over the area to
be seeded, such as larches, firs, spruces, most pines, &c..

The cuttings are made as much as possible in an oblong shape,
with the longest side at right angles to the direction of the prevailing
winds. The breadth of the clearing—on which occasional reserves of
not too spreading crowns may be left—depends of course on the dis-
tance to which the wind can easily carry the seed which is to cover the
cleared area. Observation and experience will determine the distance.
In Germany, for spruce and pine, this has been found to be twice the
height of the tree; for larch, five or six times the height; for fir, not
more than one shaft’s length. From 200 to 360 feet is perhaps the
range over which seeding may be thus expected. One year rarely
suffices to cover the cleared area with young growth, and it takes
longer in proportion to the breadth of the cutting. This method is
very much less certain in its forestal results than the next named, and
more often requires the helping hand of the planter to fill out bare |
places left uncovered by the natural seeding. But it is the one that
seems to interfere least with our present habits of lumbering, and with
it eventually the first elements of forestry may be introduced into
lumbering operations.

_ DIVISION OF FORESTRY, 219

To be sure it requires from three to eight times the area usually
brought under operation, but instead of going over the whole area
every year it may be operated in a number of small camps systemat-
ically placed along a central road connecting the different camps or
cuttings with the mill. An ideal arrangement of such management
may be sketched thus:

Suppose we have to supply a mill with 2,000,000 feet from pine
lands, cutting 8,000 feet an acre, trees which bear seed every two

ears, and let the period in which full reforestation can be expected
e six years. Then a tract of 2,500 acres, or an area of about 3 miles
long and 14 miles broad, must be taken together into operation.

Dividing the tract by a central road on which the mill is situated
and making the cuttings 500 feet wide by 13 miles long, each cutting
will contain 54 acres, and about 5 such cuttings will furnish one year’s
supply, with an average haulage of less than 1 mile to mill—26 cut-
tings will be located on each side of the road.

The most elaborate method, based and worked on the best scientific
principles, for which, however, I am afraid our time has not yet come,
is that which we may term the ’

REGENERATION METHOD.

This method presupposes the growing of timber to maturity, like
the former, and depends for the reforestation upon the seed from the
mature trees; but it acts upon the consideration of the conditions
under which seeds are ripened and germinate, the requirements of
the young plants during the first years, especially in regard to light
and shade and their further development as a homogeneous crop.
This method has been carefully elaborated, with much detail, for the
different species forming European forests. But as its application in
the near future in our forests cannot be expected, it may suffice to
give the rationale underlying it. In the first place, it is necessary to
know the period at which a full seed year can be expected. This
differs according to locality and kind.* One or more years before
such a seed year is expected the hitherto dense crown cover is broken
by a preparatory cutting, enough of the inferior timber being taken
out to let in some light, or rather warm sunshine, which favors a
fuller development of seed, the increased circulation of air and light
at the same time hastening the decomposition of the leaf-mold and
thus forming an acceptable seed-bed.

As soon as the seed has dropped to the soil, and perhaps, in the case
of acorns and nuts, been covered by allowing pigs to run where it has
fallen, a second cutting takes place uniformly over the area to be re-
generated, in order that the seeds may have the best chance for ger-
mination—air, moisture, and heat to some degree being necessary—
and that the seedlings may have a proper enjoyment of light for their
best development and yet not be exposed too much to the hot rays
of the sun, which by producing too rapid evaporation and drying up
the needful soil moisture would endanger the tender seedlings. This
cutting requires the nicest adjustment, according to the state of the

*In Germany such seed years occur in beech, according to locality, every three to
twenty years, and account is kept of them. In Northern New York the beech seems
to bear full seed every two years; like periodicity of seeding in the white pine
(probably triennial for most localities) and in the long-leaf pine (probably five to
seven years) has been observed.

220 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

soil, climatic conditions, and the requirements of seedlings of different
kinds. While the beech requires the darkest shade, the pine tribe
and the oaks are more eager for light, and should by the successive
cuttings be early freed from the shade of the mother trees. Beech
seedlings are more tender, and only by the gradual removal (often
Pee aied through many years) of the shelter of the parent trees can

e accustomed to shift for themselves, without liability of being killed
by frost. The final cutting of the former generation of trees leaves
any thousand little seedlings closely covering the soil with a dense
shade.

That the method of management must differ according to species
and local conditions is evident; and especially in a mixed forest is the
best skill and judgment of the forester required to insure favorable
conditions for each kind that is to be reproduced. That such seed-
ings are rarely satisfactory over the whole area, and that bare places
of Ke large extent must be artificially sown or planted, is to be ex-
pected.

CLEANING AND THINNING.

There are in such a natural growth, of course, more individuals to
the acre than can be expected to develop. A struggle for existence
soon begins, andaconstant natural thinning out is the result, requiring
the judicious aid of the forester to produce a desirable termination of
the struggle. In this the one point never to be lost sight of is, to keep
the soil well shaded. In fact, with this one general rule in view any
practical man may be expected to make few mistakes in the removal
of trees when the necessity for it appears, which does not occur until
the stems have reached the size of hop poles. Before that time the
clearings are mainly to afford protection to the slower-growing and
more valuable species by removing or cutting back the quicker-grow-
ing and inferior kinds. By no means, however, should the small
shrub vegetation ever be disturbed, unless spreading over valuable
timber-growth. So far from injuring the future trees of the forest
this undergrowth is a decided benefit, keeping the soil shaded and
sheltered against winds, and therefore moist, and adding to its riches
by the decay of its leaf-mold. On the other hand, if of two or more
valuable kinds one threatens to overtop the other and to shade it out,
the ax may properly do its work in preserving the deserving weaker
one. The question whether a more vigorous clearing out in the earlier
stages of development does not favor better development of the re-
maining growth without injury to soil conditions is still an open one
though experiments for its decision have been instituted, :

Up to a certain point the effect of the struggle between the trees of
an even-grown thicket must be considered distinctly useful by forc-
ing height growth and showing more clearly which are the individuals
of weak constitution and therefore not destined to become the domi-
nant growth of the forest. Among this class, which we may call the
over-shaded, moves mainly the work of interlucation, 7. e., the peri-
odical thinnings which are made for the purpose of stimulating in-
creased development in the dominant, fore-grown trees, and which is
due to the increased enjoyment of light and room.

How this struggle for life and supremacy, by exclusion of the neigh-
bor from the necessary factor of existence, light, proceeds in a natu-
rally grown forest is shown in the following interesting table, which

_ DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 991

was obtained by counting the trees of a naturally-grown, dense Nor-
way spruce forest at different ages.

: Standing
Age. Trees EPs Overgrown. ysier room pet
ree.
| |

Number. Per cent. | Number. | Square ft.

CORTES 4 stant eM Mere eo H3ol- alchs dale ercsaloloinuelat3 2s 9,377 49 | 4,783 | 4. 64
2D) PETITE) eooerur beeiic Ln Ober ds O00 CAD OOP OtOnp Cn OABr ae 1, 265 42 733 y

GOIVEATS: oso. cca eee cn edec sce e eee seecccetccceseees 604 82 | 410 72.11

OSs Got BB Weider dp chBebes0 Gan EDDDE ET cao GUTOOPODCaoe 393 21 | 310 110.7
UCU Re Liye: Anna addons annbe.t de COSGE ODEO eBEDOUP OB CHOoEOBE 285 13! 253 156.00
TP.) Weak ek Hee UC bP OCC On OE CUDED ULE De aeecCer Sanocanoeae 241 4 231 180.75

Such a table is most instructive inmany ways. If, for instance, as
appears, only 733 trees per acre can reach a satisfactory development
in 40 years, why plant more of a costly, valuable kind? Why not
limit ourselves to that number at first, and for the purpose of shading
the ground and stimulating growth fill up the space between them
with a cheaper material?

It shows that the struggle for dominance is severest in the period
from the twentieth to the fortieth year, gradually decreasing with
advancing age. From this we may infer that interlucations are most
effective in the earlier period. It shows us that those trees which are
now dominant, seemingly in full vigor, may yet be overshaded and
at last subdued by their neighbors. Thus we may group the trees of
the naturally grown forest into the following classes:

1. The fore-grown or dominant; which might be subdivided into
(a) predominant, (b) codominant, (c) followers.

2. The overshaded; subdivided into (d) overwhelmed and (e) sub-
dued. |

By interlucations we imitate, assist, anticipate nature in this process
of abinination, and according to the degree of our thinning we speak
of a dark interlucation, which removes only the subdued, dead, and
dying stems; a moderate one, which takes all the overgrown, and a
severe one, which attacks also the lowest grades of the fore-grown,
and even interrupts somewhat the upper crown cover. The degree of
interlucation to be practiced depends greatly on the soil and the ex-
posure; a dark interlucation is in most cases sufficient.

The necessity of a stronger interlucation presents itself in a growth
with an unusually large number of stems of uniform caliber, where
sometimes the struggle for supremacy is unduly prolonged and the
lessening of overstock is needed to secure the development of larger
dimensions. Predominant stems ought to be taken only exception-
ally, when a more valuable kind, which we want to favor—as, for in-
stance, white oak—is in danger of being overwhelmed by a less val-
uable overgrowing neighbor ; or when, on account of some peculiari-
ties of an accidentally foregrown species of tree, detrimental conse-
quences must be antibipueed., as, for instance, when the birch (which
only too easily finds entrance into our plantations), with its whipping
branches, may injure and strip the young buds of the pine or fir.

A deep, rich soil, with abundant moisture, on northern and north-
western exposures, will endure a strong interlucation with least in-
jury, because the vigorous growth due to its favorable conditions will
soonest close any gaps. On the other hand, it will almost always be
well to leave even subdued stems on thin and dry soils and those ex-
posed places where by their removal entrance would be given to dry-
ing winds and sun,

94 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

The degree of thinning depends also a great deal on the species
forming the forest. In another place I have pointed out the import-
ance of the classification of the different species with reference to
their relation to light and shade, as shade-enduring and light-need-
ing. This classification has some bearing on the degree of interluca-
tion. Those kinds which for their development require a larger
amount of light would naturally show in a dense growth a greater
amount of subdued stems, and consequently a stronger interlucation
would be indicated. On the other hand, these very species are the
ones which are least capable of preserving favorable soil conditions,
because their naturally thin foliage not only does little toward the in-
_erease of the layer of humus, but does not efficiently exclude the rays
of the sun, especially as they have the tendency with increasing age
to thin out still more their leafage. They are, therefore, the most
difficult to manage, and the continuity of their crowns must be most
carefully preserved.

The time when the first thinning should take place is generally de-
termined by the possibility of marketing the extracted material at a

rice which will cover at least the expense of the operation. This
is, however, not always possible, and the consideration of the increase
in value of the remaining growth, or rather of the detriment to the
same by omission of timely thinning, may then be conclusive.

On good soil and on mild exposures interlucation may take place
earliest, because here the growth is rankest and a difference in the
development of the different stems is soonest noticeable. Light-need-
ing and quicker-growing kinds show similar conditions to those grown
on good soil, and here, therefore, early thinnings are desirable. In
these cases the thinnings have also to be repeated oftenest, especially
during the period of prevalent height accretion. Absolute rules as to
the time for interlucations and their periodical repetition evidently
cannot be given; the peculiar conditions of each individual case alone
can determine this. The golden rule, however, is: early, often, moder-
ately. Theright time for the beginning of these regular and periodical
interlucations 1s generally considered to have arrived when ‘he natural
thinning out mentioned before commences and shows the need of the
operation. This occurs generally when the crop has attained the size
of hop poles.. At this stage the well-marked difference in size of the
Pau beesed trees will point them out as having to fall, and there
will not be much risk of making any gross mistakes. Until the trees
have attained their full height the thinning should remain moderate.
From this time forward it will prove expedient to open out the stock
more freely, without ever going so far as to thin severely.

OTHER METHODS OF MANAGEMENT.

The methods of management briefly outlined above are the princi-
pal ones and serve as the basis of all others, which are mostly modi-
cations of these. Methods are also practised by which a combina-
tion of agricultural use of the soil with forestry takes place. While
in these there is much that seems attractive, they can be considered
only in the same light as combination tools, which are generally de-
fective at one end or both—the poor man’s tool—a poverty-stricken
eae to which our rich and broad lands need not yet be subjected.
nless it were to reduce the cost of cultivation in young plantations
on agricultural soil by the introduction during the first two years of
a crop of potatoes or other cultivated crop, a practice which may be

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 923

even recommended, the combination of agriculture with forestry for
obvious reason can be considered only detrimental to both,

CONCLUSION,

As in medicine the charlatan will prescribe without diagnosis, so
in forestry he must be called a charlatan who would attempt to give
rules applicable to all conditions and under all circumstances. A
diagnosis not only of the local conditions as to soil, climate, flora,
&c., but also of the objects and the financial capacity of the would-
be forester, must precede special advice. In this report, therefore, the
attempt has been made on q to outline the first principles, from which
a thinking reader may find the application to his special case.

OSIER WILLOW CULTURE.

Many inquiries have come to the Department in regard to methods
of Osier planting; showing that this branch of forestry, applicable to
many soils, seemingly simple and promising quick returns, has at-
tracted widespread attention. The Division has, therefore, begun to

repare a manual on willow culture, as a preliminary of which the

ollowing brief instructions are here given, compiled from reliable
authorities.

It should be premised that osier growing for profit is not so simple
and easy or inexpensive an enterprise as might at first appear. The
market for the material is the first point to be considered, and in con-
nection with it the kinds that will grow successfully and profitably.
So far it seems that the climate of the United States, in most parts,
with its long, hot summers, is not very favorable to the growth of the
finer grades of osier rods, at least not of the European kinds, which,
with one exception, are pronounced unsuitable, while American wil-
lows are not yet sufficiently tested to warrant their extensive employ-
ment for osier holts.

The importation of osier rods, formerly under a duty of 30, now of
25 per cent. ad valorem, amounts annually to over $50,000 in value,
while that of manufactured basket and osier ware, under a duty of,
formerly 35, now 30 per cent., during the last five years has averaged
$243,185. To obtain the material thus imported, which cannot be
less than 10,000 tons, we might well devote 6,000 to 10,000 acres of
- agriculturally worthless soil, if we can so secure a desirable product.

Selection of soil.—To make osier holts profitable such soils should be selected as
cannot otherwise be used to advantage. Very poor soils, however, should be avoided,
unless there is a good market for inferior material. The best soil is a fresh, black
sand, but even a heavy, compact loam, and rich but sour meadow land, which pro-
duces the poorest quality of grass, is always equally acceptable.

Peaty soil, if it can be covered with a layer of sand or loam (from the drain ditches),
will produce a good growth. The Caspican willow will thrive on poorest sand.
Planted on the embankments of brooks, ponds, ditches, the osier will secure the
embankment and yield a good profit besides. Never plant on soil liable to be cov-
ered with stagnant water in summer. By making drains in such localities, how-
euic goed crops can be procured. Localities liable to late spring frosts should be
avol1daea, ‘

Cultivation of soil.—Plow or spade the ground 16 to 20 inches deep; deeper if
the subsoil brought up would improve the ground (sand or loam below peat); less
deeply if the soil is shallow and the subsoil meager. Spading offers opportunity of
burying the weedy surface more effectively. Wet ground should be formed into
raised beds of from 30 to 50 feet wide, leaving 2-foot ditches, by which the water is
quickly drained off.

The water-level should be laid at least one and a half feet deep. In spading care

224 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

should be taken .to bring the surface soil under and the subsoil on top. By this
means the roots will be benefited by the vegetable mold of the surface soil and the
subsoil at the surface will prevent a rapid running to weeds. For spring planting
the soil must be prepared in fall or early winter, so that it may be pulverized by the
frosts.

Choice of varieties.—Out of upwards of 250 species of willow, and their endless
number of varieties and bastards, only a limited number have been found of eco-
nomic value, especially for osier purposes. While for European climates the best
varieties have, by careful experiment and long experience, been established, we
cannot yet speak authoritatively for this country, especially about the capabilities
of our native willows.

Such an authority as Dr. C. L. Anderson, of Santa Cruz, Cal., states in a letter to
the Department, ‘‘Our native California willows, especially those zrowing here at
Santa Cruz and vicinity, answer very well for all purposes. Baskets, hoops, &c.,
are made from all varieties that have the habit of growing along our streams. There
is a difference, however.

** Salix leevigata, Bebb., (ao common name), Salix lasiandra, Benth. (no common
name) and its varieties, and Salix lasiolepis, var. Bigelovii, Bebb, (no common name),
seem to be preferable. On wet prairies from Illinois and Wisconsin northwest-
ward is found plentifully a variety (gracilis) of this.species, the twigs of which are
collected near Chicago by Germans and sold to dealers in that city.

“ Salix cordata (var. vestita, Anderson—Diamond willow) common clear across the
continent, twigs stout, suitable for the heaviest kinds of basket work; bronze or
yellowish green, often bright red when exposed to much sunlight; not so tough and
pliant as those of S. sericea and petiolaris.

These all grow rapidly, are hardy, and the texture is sufficiently tough. Thereisa
variety of Salix lasiandra that has not been sufficiently described. The branches
are long, slender, and drooping, and have the appearance of the weeping willow.
This variety is exceedingly well adapted to economic uses.”

Prof. M. S. Bebb, of Rockford, [ll., the American authority on willows, in a
lengthy letter on the subject of economically useful varieties, after reciting his fail-
ures with European species and varieties, says: ‘* My strong conviction is that success
in osier growing throughout the corn belt east of the Rocky Mountains will only
be attained by making good use of plants adapted to the climatic conditions, and
even then that the product will fall below the best European in quality. * * *
Salix purpurea, in some of its forms most highly esteemed abroad for osiers, is
checked also by the midsummer conditions, but not to so great an extent as the sorts
above mentioned, and one form which you particularize, viz, Salix purpurea pyra-
midalis, I should regard asa hopefulsubject. * * * Of willows indigenous east
of the Mississippi River, I would name the following as perhaps the most promising
kinds for future trial:

“Salix sericea-(common eastward), a bushy shrub 6 to 10 feet high; branches red-
dish green or greenish, at length olive; twigs long, slender, and very tough, yet ex-
tremely brittle for an inch or two at base.

“Salix petiolaris (common westward), near akin to the former. habit quite similar;
twigs usually yellow or tinged with crimson; not so brittle at base.”

From correspondence so far had with practical osier-growers in the East, the species
most successfully grown in the Northeastern States, and seemingly, too, in Georgia,
is the Salix purpurea, commonly called the red osier; but which of the several va-
rieties this is has not yet been established—probably pyramidalis. The red osiers
are of German origin, and are considered the most useful, making numerous pliant,
thin, slender, evenly-grown rods, without branches; especially adapted for binding
and wattling purposes; growing well on a moist, but also drier, sand soil, less so on
compact soils, but again excellently on mucky soils. They are least affected by
heat and cold, wet and dry. But compared with other kinds grown in Europe their
yields are somewhat inferior, giving a full crop only after the third or fourth year.

Altogether vigorous growers are to be most recommended, yet even on the best
soils, with quick-growing kinds, the growth diminishes after a few years.

In the selection of species it is not to be forgotten that while they must be adapted
to climate and soil and be good and persistent producers, the kind of material fur-
nished by them is to be kept in view, as different species and varieties differ in this
respect.

Planting of cuttings.—The best time for planting is the late fall, generally the end
of October. For such planting the soil should be prepared in spring or early summer
andleft fallow. Ifthe spading has been done in the fall or winter, the planting should
be delayed tillearly spring. The growth of the cuttings is the more assured the less
advanced the spring growth. Toretard early growth, take the cuttings before the 1st
of March and lay them in water. Take cuttings only from main shoots, and only

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 225

from the lower half of these, because the tops would yield too weak material. The
best length for cuttings is about 12 inches; on compact moist soils a length of 10 inches
will suffice, while on dry sand and peat soils 14 to 16 inches may be taken, in order to
get the larger number of roots in the first season, the number of roots being to some
extent dependent on the length of the cutting under ground. Place cuttings in the
ground so that the tops are even with the surface, but on compact and caking soil,
which would hinder the buds from pushing through, leave two or three buds above
ground. After the shoot is started it is well to draw the earth up to cover the en-
tive cutting, as many dangers beset the top when left free—inJjuries in cutting, from
drying, and from insects. Take care to pack the soil closely around the whole length
of the cutting. The practice of placing the cuttings inclined is without rational foun-
dation. Cuttings for planting are best taken during winter, when vegetation rests,
and may be taken from three, two, or even one year old wood, if of good size. The
distance at which osiers are planted varies. Two considerations must be kept in
view, the possibility of cultivating and working between the rows, and the desira-
bility of shading the ground as closely as possible, which keeps the soil moist and
free from weeds and, to some extent, from insects. <A distance of 20 inches for the
rows and of 4 inches in the row answers these purposes.

Cultivation.—In the first year this is best delayed until the middle of June, to
- avoid disturbing the small rootiets. When cultivating, first mainly subdue the weeds
and hill up the soil around the cuttings. Second and third weedings should be in
August and September. Before winter sets in the plantation should be free from
weeds. In the second, and third year thorough cultivation is required. The first
cultivation should now be given as soon as the frost is out.of the ground. All culti-
vation must be shallow, not more than 2 inches deep, so as not to injure the roots.

Manuring.—There is no doubt that by the use of manure or compost the yield can
be largely increased, but it is mostly too expensive, as the material would have to
be carried into the plantation by hand. As to fertilizers, mucky and peaty soils
should not receive an increase of nitrogenous matter, though this is desirable, how-
ever, on poor sands and meager loams. Phosphoric acid fertilizers improve the
quality of the osiers; the cheap phosphorites, which are readily assimilated, are
particularly desirable. Potash, forming a large part of the constituents of willows,
is especially effective. Fertilizers are best applied during rainy weather and early
in the season, as soon as the rods have been cut.

Insects.—The experience that extensive plantations of one kind increase the num-
ber of their enemies holds good for osier holts. Most of the injurious insects are
beetles and their larvee. The former let themselves drop to the ground from their
host as soon as this is touched. This habit allows the use of apparatus to catch the
beetles in quantity, which should be done as early in spring as possible.

The application of quick-lime, of hellebore, and of Paris green has been found
successful by Mr. L. Gieason, an extensive osier-grower in Syracuse, N. Y.

The red osier, (Salix purpurea), is especially lable to the attack of a gall-wasp
(Cecidomyia salicis), but its spread can be avoided by cutting and burning up all in-
fected rods.

Harvest.—Osiers should be cut the first year, even if no valuable material can be
got. If the cutting is delayed until the second year, branching takes place, and less
valuable material is obtained. They should also be cut in the second and third years,
but should be left uncut the fourth year to grow to hoop-poles in two to four years.
If there be no sufficient market for hoop-poles the yearly cutting may be continued
until the growth becomes too slim, which is generally in ten to fifteen years. Cut-
ting of rods should be done during winter, from November i to March 1; cut as near
the ground as possible. Keep the rods in running water, standing upright, 4 inches
of the butts under water, until they peel easily.

Hand-peeled stock is preferred and brings a higher price than steam-peeled rods;
the price last year was from 6 to 8 cents per pound. In an average of five years
the yield may be from 90 to 130 pounds per 100 stocks. Mr. I. C. Plant, of Macon,
Ga., reports one and one-half tons from a three-years’ plantation, planted 15 inches
in the rows and 5 feet apart.

Yn this report credit is due in the figuring of statistical tables to Mr.
N. H. Egleston, and in the compilation of notes for the list of timber
trees to Mr. George B. Sudworth, of the Division.

B. EK. FERNOW,
Chief of the Forestry Division.
Hon. Norman J. CoLMAy,
Commissioner.

15 AG—’86

226

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Publications on Forestry.

The following are the principal American publications on Forestry

accessible to the general reader:

Andrews, C. C.; Report to Department
of State on Forest Culture in Sweden;
pp. 48; Washington, 1872.

Allan, J. T.; Prize Essay on Forest-grow-
ing: Nebraska Hort. Soc.; 1873. :
American Forestry Congress; Bulletins
and Reports of Annual Meetings, 1882-

1885.

Barney, E. E.; Facts in Relation to the
Catalpa; pp. 26; Dayton, Ohio, 1878.
Browne, D. J.; The Trees of America;

pp. 520; 1846.

Bryant, Arthur; Forest Trees; pp. 248;
1871.

California; First Report State Board of
Forestry; pp. 238; 1886.

Cleveland, H. W. S.; Culture and Man-
agement of Native Forests; pp. 16; 1882.

Cooper, Ellwood; Forest Culture and Eu-
calyptus Trees; pp. 287; 1876. ©

Egleston, N. H.; Handbook of Tree-plant-
ing; pp. 180; 1884.

Report on Forestry, Department of
Agriculture; pp. 422; 1884.

Elliot, F. R.; Deciduous and Evergreen
Trees and Shrubs; pp. 125; 1866.

Emerson, G. B.; Trees and Shrubs of
Massachusetts, 2 vols.; pp. 624; 1878.

Flagg, Wilson; Woods and By-ways of
New England, and Studies in Field and
Forest, 2 vols.; 1857, 1872.

Fuller, Andrew §8.; Practical Forestry ;
pp. 800; 1884,

Forest-tree Culturist; pp. 188; 1869.

Hale, P. M.; Woods and Timbers of North
Carolina; pp. 272; 1878.

Hodges, Leonard B.; Forest-tree Plant-
er’s Manual; pp. 172.

Hoopes, Josiah; Book of Evergreens; pp.
435; 1868.

Hough, F. B.; Reports on Forestry, 3 vols. ;
1879-82.

Elements of Forestry; pp. 381;

1882.

Iowa State Horticultural Society; For-
estry Annuals from 1875.

Kansas Horticultural Society; Forestry
Report for .1879.

Marsh, George P.; The Earth as Modified
by Human Action; pp. 674; 1877.

Michaux, F, A.; The North American
Sylva; 3 vols.; 1865.

Northrop, B. G.; Tree-planting, Forestry
in Europe, and other papers; pp. 160;
1880-85.

Nutall, Thomas; The North American
Sylva: forest-trees not described by
Michaux; 2 vols.; 1865.

Ohio; Proceedings of State Forestry As-
sociation; pp. 67; 1886.

Ohio State Forestry Bureau; First An-
nual Report; pp. 314; 1886.

Packard, A. 8., jr.; Insects Injurious to
Forest and Shade Trees; pp. 275; 1881.

Peaslee, John B.; Trees and Tree-planting,
with Exercises for the Celebration of
Arbor Day; pp. 64.

Pinney, George; Essays on Culture and
Management of Forest Trees and Nat-
ive Evergreens; pp. 51; 1869.

Piper, R. W.; The Trees of America; 1858.

Phipps, R. W.; Report to the Government
of Ontario, Canada, on the Necessity of
Preserving and Replanting Forests; pp.
138; 1883.

Porcher, F. P.; Resources of the South-
ern Fields and Forests; 8vo.; pp. 733;
Charleston, 1869,

Sargent, C. S.; The Woods of the United
States. From the Tenth Census; 8vo.,
pp. 204; N. Y., 1885. '

A few Suggestions on Tree-plant-
ing. From Reports of Massachusetts
Board of Agriculture; pp. 35; 1876.

Small, H. B.; Canadian Forest, Forest
Trees, Timber, and Forest Products;
pp. 64; 1884.

Stearns, Robert E. C.; Forest-tree Cult-
ure in California; pp. 12; 1882.

Valles, F.; Influence of Forests upon
Rainfall and Inundations. Translated
by C.J. Allen. Government Printing
Office, Washington; pp. 19; 1872.

Warder, John A.; Forestry and its Needs;
pp. 16; 1878.

Essay on Timber-planting in Ohio;

pp. 9; 1880.

The Western Catalpa; Relations of

Forestry to Agriculture; pp. 24; 1881.

In addition should be mentioned various publications by the United
States Government, chief among which are the annual reports of the
Department of Agriculture and the special reports of its Division of
Forestry; Professor Brewer’s report, in the Census Report of 1870, on
the Woodlands and Forestry Systems of the United States; Professor
Sargent’s report onthe Woods and Forests of the United States in
the Census Report of 1880; anda translation of A. C. Becquerel on
Forests and their Climatic Influence, in the Smithsonian Report for

1869.

SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION jg)
OF THE

ENGLISH SPARROW} |

(PASSER DOMESTICUS )
at the end of the year 1886.

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION
OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST

Julius Bien &Co Lith.

MAP

SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION
or THE

ENGLISH SPARROW
(PASSER DOMESTICUS )
at the end of the year 1886

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION

OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST
by
Y.E.L. Beal.

Julies Bien &Co Lith

REPORT OF ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST.

Srr: I have the honor to submit the following report of the inves-
tigations of the Department in Economic Ornithology from the com-
mencement of the work, July 1, 1885, to the present time.

As you are aware, the Forty-eighth Congress appropriated $5,000
for the promotion of economic ornithology, and made the work a
branch of the Division of Entomology. The appropriation became
available July 1, 1885, at which time you commissioned me to take
charge of the investigations,

A year later, July 1, 1886, pursuant to an act of the Forty-ninth
Congress, the work was separated from the Division of Entomology
and made an independent division. At the same time its scope was
enlarged and its usefulness greatly increased, since the appropria-
tion of $10,000 had been granted ‘‘for the promotion of economic or-
nithology and mammalogy; an investigation of the food-habits, dis-
tribution, and migrations of North American birds and mammals in
relation to agriculture, horticulture, and forestry.”

-The work of the division consists in the collection of facts relating
to the above subjects, and in the preparation for distribution among
farmers and others of special reports and bulletins upon birds and
mammals which affect the interests of the farmer, and also upon the
migration and distribution of North American species. In this way
it is hoped to correct the present widespread ignorance concerning
the injurious and beneficial effects of our common birds and mam-
mals, and to puta stop to the wholesale destruction of useful species
now going on.

IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT.

The food of all species consists either of animal matter or vegetable
matter or both, and its consumption must be serviceable or prejudi-
cial to the interests of Rp REae Therefore, according to the food it
eats, each bird or mammal may be classed under one of two headings—
beneficial or injurious. Many species are both beneficial and inju-
rious, and it is impossible to assign them to either category until the
percentages of their food-elements have been positively determined
and the sum of the good balanced against the sum of the evil.

It is well known that certain birds and mammals are directly de-
structive to farm crops, causing a loss of many thousands of dollars
each year, and that others are highly beneficial, preying upon mice
and insects which are injurious to vegetation; but the extent and sig-
nificance of these effects and their bearing on practical agriculture
is little understood. Morever, great difference of opinion exists, par-
ticularly among farmers, as to whether certain well-known species
are on the whole beneficial or injurious; and many kinds which are
of great practical value are killed whenever opportunity offers. For
example, hawks and owls are almost universally regarded as detri-
‘mental, while as a matter of fact most of them never touch poultry,
(227)

228 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

but feed largely, and some almost exclusively, on mice and grasshop-
pers. Skunks and weasels sometimes prey upon poultry, and for this
reason are condemned and destroyed. But, in reality, fully 90 per
cent. of their food consists of mice and insects, and their occasional
depredations in the poultry yard are unworthy of mention in view of
their constant and unremitting services. In fact, I do not hesitate
to assert that a single skunk or weasel nets the farmer more in dol-
lars and cents each year than he loses from their depredations during
his entire lifetime. And yet so short-sighted is he that he rarely
lets slip a chance to killthem; and were these animals more diurnal
in habits their race doubtless would be ere now well-nigh extermi-
nated. It may be added that much of the mischief commonly attrib-
uted to the weasel and skunk is the work of the mink—the greatest
enemy to poultry-farming in this country. It should be men-
tioned in this connection that the habit of killing poultry is by no
means general among the animals that practise it. On the contrary,
it is limited to comparatively few individuals, precisely as in the case
of the domestic cat and dog. But when once the habit has been
formed it is not likely to be abandoned; hence the guilty animal
should be killed as soon as possible after the habit is discovered.

THE PENNSYLVANIA ‘‘SCALP ACT” OF 1885.

On the 23d of June, 1885, the legislature of Pennsylvania passed
an act known as the ‘‘scalp act,” ostensibly ‘‘for the benefit of agri-
culture,” which provides a bounty of 50 cents each on Hawks, Owls,
Weasels, and Minks killed within the limits of the State, and a fee
of 20 cents to the notary or justice taking the affidavit.

By virtue of this act about $90,000 has been paid in bounties dur-
ing the year and a half that has elapsed since the law went into
effect. 'This represents the destruction of at least 128,571 of the
above-mentioned animals, most of which were Hawks and Owls.

Granting that five thousand chickens are killed annually in Penn-
sylvania by Hawks and Owls, and that they are worth 25 cents each
(a liberal estimate in view of the fact that a large proportion of them
are killed when very young), the total loss would be $1,250, and the
poultry killed in a year and a half would be worth $1,875. Hence
it appears that during the past eighteen months the State of Penn-
sylvania has expended $90,000 to save its farmers a loss of $1,875.
But this estimate by no means represents the actual loss to the
farmer and tax-payer of the State. It is within bounds to say that in
the course of a year every Hawk and Owl destroys at least one
thousand mice, or their equivalent in insects, and that each mouse
or its equivalent so destroyed would cause the farmer a loss of 2
cents per annum. Therefore, omitting all reference to the enormous -
increase in the numbers of these noxious animals when nature’s
means of holding them in check has been removed, the lowest pos-
sible estimate of the value to the farmer of each Hawk, Owl, and
Weasel would be $20 a year, or $30 in a year and a half.

Hence, in addition to the $90,000 actually expended by the State
in destroying 128,571 of its benefactors, it has incurred a loss to its
_agricultural interests of at least $3,857,130, or a total loss of $3,947,-
130 in a year and a half, which is at the rate of $2,631,420 per annum!
In other words, the State has thrown away $2,105 for every dollar
saved! And even this does not represent fairly the full loss, for the
slaughter of such avast number of predaceous birds and mammals is

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. 229

almost certain to be followed by a correspondingly enormous increase
in the numbers of mice and insects formerly held in check by them,
and it will take many years to restore the balance thus blindly
destroyed through ignorance of the economic relations of our com-
‘mon birds and mammals.

A knowledge of the food-habits of our common birds and mammals
would benefit every intelligent farmer to the extent of many dollars
each year, and occasionally would save him the loss of an entire crop.
It would save certain States many thousands of dollars which they
now throw away in bounties, and would add millions of dollars to the
proceeds derived from our agricultural industries.

Hence it becomes the duty of the division to attempt to educate ~
the farming classes in the truths of economic ornithology and mam-
malogy.

Among the many subjects now demanding the attention of the
division are: The depredations of Ricebirds in the South; the status
of the so-called English Sparrow in America; the true status of the
various birds of prey in relation to agriculture; the depredations of
Blackbirds in the grain-growing districts of the Northwest; the de-
struction of small fruits by birds; the depredations of small mam-
mals, particularly in the West; and the true status of the several spe-
cies of mammals which prey upon poultry.

PROGRESS OF THE WORE.

Early in July, 1885, a circular was prepared, explaining the objects
of the inquiry and asking for information in reply to a number of
questions concerning the food-habits of several of our well-known
birds. At the same time a collection of the crops, gizzards, and stom-
achs of birds was begun, for it was clear that in a comprehensive in-
vestigation of this kind the study of a bird’s habits in the field must
be supplemented by a critical examination of its stomach-contents in
the laboratory. In this undertaking the Department has been aided
by ornithologists throughout the country, many of whom have made
large and valuable contributions, thus doubly utilizing birds killed
for strictly scientific purposes.

In collecting the facts necessary to a clear conception of the prac-
tical side of the question a very large amount of information of great
scientific value is incidentally brought together. The migration ob-
servers of the American Ornithologists’ Union have accumulated a
vast quantity of original material, the use of which has been freely
accorded the division of economic ornithology. Moreover, a large
proportion of the same observers continue to collect data and male
reports, which, through the courtesy of the Union, are now sent di-
rect tothe Department. But the study of migration and distribution
has been subordinated to the study of the more practical phases of the
inquiry, for it is the bearing of these investigations upon the avoca-
tions of the farmer and fruit-grower that chiefly concerns the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

Therefore, in order to obtain a large array of facts, and in some
cases the opinions of persons interested as well, I prepared the follow-
ing circulars, which, with the exception of the one addressed to rice-
growers, were sent to the secretaries of the various agricultural and
horticultural societies throughout the country, to the agricultural
press, and to a large number of farmers and ornithologists. The cir-
cular to rice-growers was sent to the addresses of as many rice-plant-

230 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ers as the Department was able to secure, and to the editors of news-
papers published in the rice-growing districts.

Following are copies of the circulars issued by the Division of Heo-
nomic Ornithology and Mammalogy in July, i886:

[Circular No. 1.]

CIRCULAR ON THE FOOD-HABITS OF BIRDS.

Tt is well known that certain birds are directly destructive to farm crops, causing
a loss of many thousands of dollars each year, and that others are highly beneficial,
preying upon mice and insects which are injurious to vegetation ; but the extent and
significance of these effects, and their bearing on practical agriculture, is little un-
derstood. Moreover, great difference of opinion exists, particularly among farmers,
as to whether certain well-known species are, on the whole, beneficial or injurious ;
and many kinds which are really of great practical value are killed whenever op-
portunity offers. For example, hawks and owls are almost universally regarded as
detrimental, while as a matter of fact most of them never touch poultry, but feed
largely, and some almost exclusively, on mice and grasshoppers.

The wholesale slaughter of small birds has been known to be followed by serious
increase of noxious insects ; and invasions of insects which threatened to devastate
large tracts of country have been cut nearly short by the timely services of some of
our native birds.

In view of the above facts, and many others which might be cited, it is clear that
a comprehensive, systematic investigation of the interrelation of birds and agri-
culture will prove of enormous value to farmers and horticulturists. Such aninves-
tigation has been undertaken by the newly established Division of Economic Orni-
thology of the Department of Agriculture, and the assistance and co-operation of
persons interested are earnestly solicited.

The food of all birds consists either of animal matter or vegetable matter, or both,
and its consumption must be serviceable or prejudicial to the interests of mankind,
Therefore, according to the food they eat, all birds may be classed under one of two
headings—beneficial or injurious. Many species are both beneficial and injurious,
and it is impossible to assign them to either category until the percentages of their
food-elements have been positively determined and the sum of the good balanced
against the sum of the evil. }

In a very large proportion of our small birds the food varies considerably with the
season, sometimes changing from vegetable to animal, or from injurious to benefi-
cial. Furthermore, many birds feed their young upon substances which the adults
rarely or never eat; and the young on leaving the nest sometimes greedily devour
things which are discarded as they grow older. Hence it becomes necessary to as-
certain the food of each species at different times of the year and at different ages.

Information is desired on all questions relating to this inquiry, and special atten-
tion is invited to the following:

1. Has the common Crow been observed to catch young chickens or to stea! eggs?

2. Has it been observed to eat corn or other cereals in the field? If so, how long
after planting, and how extensive was the injury done?

3. Has the Crow been observed to feed upon injurious insects? If so, what kinds
of insects were thus destroyed, and to what extent?

4, Has the Crow-Blackbird or Grakle been observed to carry off the young of the
Robin or of other small birds, or to destroy their eggs? :

5. When breeding near the house, has it been observed to drive off small birds,
puen as Robins, Bluebirds, &c., which had previously made their abode on the prem-
ises ?

6. Has it been observed to eat corn or other cereals in the field? If so, how long
after planting, and how extensive was the injury done? |

7. Has the Crow-Blackbird been observed to feed upon injurious insects? If so,
what kinds of insects were thus destroyed, and to what extent?

_ 8. What birds have been observed to feed upon or otherwise injure buds or fol-
iage, and what plants or trees have been so injured ?

9. What birds have been observed to feed extensively upon fruit? What kind or
kinds of fruit have been most injured by each species, and how extensive have been
the losses thus occasioned ?

10, The Bobolink (Rice-bird or May-bird of the Southern States) congrecates in
vast flocks during its migrations and commits extensive depredations in certain
parts of the South. The division will be glad to receive detailed accounts of these

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. 231

depredations from persons living in the affected districts, to whom a special circular
will be sent on application. 5

11. What birds are considered to be injurious to grain crops, and what kinds are
regarded as neneficial? On what facts are these opinions based? :

12. What birds have been observed to feed upon injurious insects, and upon what
kind or kinds does each bird feed?

13. Do Blackbirds (other than the Crow-blackbird already mentioned) commit
serious depredations in your vicinity? If so, which of the several species of Black-
birds are concerned, and what crops are affected ?

14. Has any kind of bird been observed to feed upon the honey-bee? If so, what
species, and how extensive has been the injury done?

When possible, the exact date should be given of all occurrences reported.

Persons willing to aid in the collection of birds’ stomachs will be furnished with
the necessary blanks and instructions.

Special circulars on the English Sparrow and on the economic relations of mam-
mals will be furnished on application,

came
{Circular No. 2.]
CIRCULAR ON THE ENGLISH SPARROW,
(Passer domesticus.)

The Departmentof Agriculture desires facts, from personal observation, in answer
_ to the following questions concerning the European House Sparrow, commonly
called ‘‘ English Sparrow” in this country.

I. Is your locality city, suburb, or country?

II. Is the English Sparrow present in your vicinity? If not, what is the nearest
point at which you know it to occur? If present, when did it first appear?

III. Is it abundant and on the increase?

IV. Is it protected by law?

V. Is it artificially housed and fed?

VI. How many broods and young does a single pair rear in a season?

VII. Do any of our non-predatory birds habitually resist encroachments of, or at-
tempt to drive off, the English Sparrow unless themselves first attacked, and with
what success?

VIII. Which of our native birds attempt to reclaim former nesting sites when
these are occupied by the Sparrows? State examples.

IX. Has the English Sparrow been observed to molest or drive off any of our
pis poe If so, what species are so molested or expelled from their former

aunts

X. Does it injure shade, fruit, or ornamental trees or vines?

XI. Does it injure garden fruits and vegetables?

XII. Does it injure grain crops ?

XIII. Has any case in which it has been of marked benefit to the farmer or hor-
ere come under your notice? If so, in what way has the benefit been de-
riveatr

XIV. Under what circumstances does it feed upon insects? What kinds of in-
jurious or beneficial insects or their larves does it destroy, and to what extent?

P XV aor means, if any, have been taken to restrict the increase of the English
parrow

XVI. What is the prevailing public sentiment in respect to the bird?

Information is particularly desired concerning the presence of the English Spar-
row in the Southern States and in the region west of the Mississippi.

[Circular No. 8.]
CIRCULAR ON THE ECONOMIC RELATIONS OF MAMMALS.

The Department of Agriculture desires information concerning the effects of mam-
mals upon agriculture, and solicits replies to the following questions:

238 ,REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

To stock-raisers on the frontier.

1. Have you personal knowledge of one or more cases in which cattle, horses,
sheep, or pigs have been killed or injured by Bears, Wolves, or Panthers (known in
the West as Mountain Lions)? If so, give full particulars,

To pouliry fanciers.

2. Have you personal knowledge of the loss of turkeys, geese, ducks, chickens, or
doves from the attacks of predatory mammals? If so, how many and what kinds
were killed on @ach occasion? In each case mention the animal by which you sup-
pose the mischief was done, and your reasons for this belief.

3. What mammals, if any, steal feed put out for poultry?

To farmers, fruit-growers, and gardeners.

4, What mammals, if any, are injurious to grain crops in your neighborhood? In
each case state whether the injury is occasioned directly by the consumption or the
trampling of the grain, or by tunnels underneath the surface. Is the loss thus occa-
sioned of trifling or serious consequence? , ;

5. What mammals, if any, are injurious to fruit, and what kind or kinds of fruit
are eaten by each species? Is the loss thus occasioned of trifling or serious conse-
quence?

6. What mammals, if any, are injurious to vegetables, and what kind or kinds of
vegetables are eaten by each species? Is the loss thus occasioned of trifling or seri-
ous Consequence?

7. What mammals, if any, are injurious to meadows and pastures? In what
manner are the injuries committed? Is the loss thus occasioned of trifiing or seri-
ous consequence?

8. Are your fields subject to periodical invasions of Meadow Mice (Arvicole)? If
80, can you give the exact dates of one or more of such invasions?

9. What mammals, if any, are injurious to forest, shade, fruit, or ornamental trees
or shrubs? What kind or kinds of trees or shrubs are injured by each, and in what
manner, and at what season is the damage done? Is the loss thus occasioned of
trifling or serious consequence?

10. Have you personal knowledge of an instance in which cattle or horses have
been injured by stepping into the burrows of Woodchucks, Muskrats, or Badgers?
If so, give particulars.

11. What mammals, if any, are beneficial to the farmer? In what manner are
these benefits derived?

To rice-growers.

12. Are rats troublesome on your plantation? If so, are they injurious by feeding
directly upon the newly-planted rice, or by burrowing in the dikes, or both? Can
you estimate the annual pecuniary loss thus occasioned?

13. Do any other small mammals affect the interests of the rice-grower? If so,
what kind or kinds, and to what extent?

To hop-growers.

14, What mammals, if any, affect the interests of the hop-grower? In what man-
ner and to what extent are these effects manifested?

Misceilaneous.

15. Is the common mouse about dwellings, barns, and out-buildings in your neigh-
- borhood the White-footed or the House Mouse, or are both present? In the latter

case, which is most abundant? If uncertain as to the species, please send a speci-
men (the head will suffice) to the Department for identification.

16. What mammals, if any, injure or deface buildings, household goods, books,
or papers?

17. What mammals, if any, injure canals or other embankments, dams, dikes, or
drains? Is the damage thus occasioned of serious or trifiing consequence ?

18. In your opinion, are Moles beneficial or injurious? On what facts is this
opinion based?

Nora.—Meadow Mice, or ‘‘ Voles,” must not be confounded with Moles,

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. 233

19. In your opinion, are Skunks beneficial or injurious? On what facts is this
Opinion based?

20. Do you know of one or more instances in which the increase of a species of
economic importance has been limited by the abundance of its natural enemies? If
80, give particulars.

In the Mississippi Valley, and-the region between it and the Pacific, numerous
small rodents called Gophers do great damage to farms and crops. There are two
principal kinds, Pocket Gophers, which live mostly under ground, and are charac-
terized by external check-pouches and unusually large fore-claws (Geomys and
Thomomys), and Gophers or Ground Squirrels, which live mostly abgve ground, and
have neither external cheek-pouches nor claws of unusual size (Spermophilus and
Tamias). “Of these the common little Striped Gopher (Spermophilus tridecemline-
atus) and the large gray ‘‘ Line-tailed” Spermophile (Spermophilus grammurus) and
its varieties are most abundant and widely distributed, and occasion the greatest
losses to grain crops. Numerous other species, more or less local, affect the farmer’s
interests very appreciably.

Detailed information is desired concerning the habits and ravages of all these
Gophers. Such information should be accompanied by a specimen (a rough skin
will suffice) for positive identification.

The above remarks apply with equal force to the various small mammals known
as Kangaroo Rats and Mice, Pocket Rats and Mice, Wood Rats and Mice, &c.

In answering this circular please mention your occupation. If a farmer, state
the size and character of your farm, and mention the principal crops which you
cultivate.

Write your name and post-office address as plainly as possible,

[Circular No. 4.]
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE COLLECTION OF STOMACHS,

In investigating the economic relations of birds and mammals it is necessary to
determine with accuracy the character of the food upon which the various kinds
subsist. This is particularly important in the case of species which are known to
exert an influence, beneficial or otherwise, upon certain farm and garden crops.
Hence the Department of Agriculture desires to secure a collection of the stomachs
and gizzards of our native mammals and birds, particularly of those which are sup-
posed to affect agricultural interests.

Method of preparation.

All specimens should be preserved in 90 per cent. alcohol.

A stout paper tag should be attached to each stomach or gizzard by means of a
strong thread or fine wire, which should be passed directly through its substance.
Each tag should be numbered (in hard pencil) to correspond with the number given
the specimen on the accompanying blank. Some birds, particularly in the breeding
Season, carry food in the gullet or crop. In such cases these portions of the aliment-
ary tract should be preserved, and should bear the same number that is given the
gizzard of the same individual.

Stomachs of the following species are especially desired:

_ Birds.—Hawks, Owls, Crows, Jays, Blackbirds, Cowbird, Shrikes, Cuckoos, Caro-
lina Dove, Woodpeckers, Quail, English Sparrow, Bobolink or Rice-bird, Kingbird
or Bee Martin.

Mammals.—Fox, Skunk, Mink, Weasels, Badger, Raccoon, Opossum, Squirrels,
Ground Squirrels, Gophers, Mice, Moles, Shrews, Bats.

In the case of Mice, Moles, Shrews, and Bats, the entire animal should be sent, in
order that the species may be fully identified.

A number of specimens may be preserved in a single wide-mouthed bottle or jar.

Persons willing to aid in the collection of stomachs will be furnished with blanks
on which to record the necessary data.

Transportation charges will be paid by the Department.

234 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

(Circular No. 5.]
CIRCULAR TO RICE-GROWERS.

The Department of Agriculture desires the co-operation of rice-growers in its
attempt to secure trustworthy information concerning the extent of the injury
annually done the rice crop by certain birds, chiefly the Bobolink or Rice-bird and the
Red-winged Blackbird; and in devising some measure or measures, consistent with
reasonable economy, for the diminution, if not the prevention, of this loss.

Information jn reply to the following questions is solicited:

1. Are you a rice planter?

2. If so, how many acres have you under cultivation?

3. What is the average yield of rice per acre?

4, What do you consider a fair estimate of the average annual loss per acre occa-
sioned by birds?

5. Please cite a few extreme cases.

6. What percentage of this loss is due directly to the value of the rice consumed,
and what indirectly to the cost of gathering and thrashing the worthless grain?

7. What is the average annual cost per acre of measures employed for the pre-
vention or diminution of this loss?

8. In addition to the use of fire-arms and whips, what measures, if any, are em-
ployed for this purpose ?

¥. How many ‘‘bird-minders” are employed annually upon your plantation dur-
ing the fall invasion of Rice-birds ?

10. How many pounds of gunpowder are consumed annually during this period?

11. Is shot now used on your plantation? If so, in what quantity?

12. What kind or kinds of birds are most destructive to rice?

13. At what time of the year and for how long a period are these birds present ?

14. What is the greatest number of Rice-birds that you have known to be killed in
a single season?

15. Does the rice crop on your plantation sustain a loss from the depredations of
ae time of planting in spring? If so, what is the average loss per acre at this
time

Any information relating to the subject, though not covered by the above ques-
tions, will be thankfully received.

In some cases the above circulars were accompanied by schedules.
The number of each distributed will appear in the following state-
ment :

CIRCULARS AND SCHEDULES DISTRIBUTED.
Circulars:

On the food-habits of birds...............0. srvcsroleite aw iaelavele es o.cts 4,000
Onithe Pmelish SpArtOW cts hs « «<a b tele whidtecatnee Bernie Es devsve:ers0 4,000
On the economic relations of mammals.............eeceeeceees 2,500
On the collection of birds’ stomachs. ..............00 Sec ore i) Shes 600
TO rice-QYTOWETS .....0.eeec00s #0) 8/a Sie:e.0i0i'e/a/anjoi0 cette areniess Riis aloe 600
11,700
Schedules:
Oi THE GETSh SPALEO W.pciis.« 09 isisces 8s’ lane tig sleet a ee te 5, 000
PI PATIO os sere oinia's,sreienaislala: £18, Skins 3 pork RE Pia ay Sar df) 6)5; 04s ive 1, 500
RARGHEION WET ota sy dies Gaeit eae at-acae atousiene raise tharavake) amie) bin s)t urcis eye's 500

7, 000
Total of circulars and schedules distributed from July 1 to December
BOT O BD oe ae lusty 5/5, meen esc hte glee CREE PRTIE 010 6" (h wa ae ove''e Oph beaall 18, 700

This number does not include circular letters, of which 2,345 have been sent out;
making 21,045 in all.

The correspondence of the division is so large that it is very bur-
densome. More than four thousand letters were acknowledged dur-
ing the six months ending December 31, 1886.

At the outset it was seen that two birds pre-eminently claimed the
immediate attention of the division, namely, the so-called English
Sparrow (Passer domesticus), and the Bobolink or Rice-bird (Dol-
chonyx oryzivorus). These birds, by their numerical abundance, the
extent of the damages they were said to cause at certain times of the

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. 935

onl

year, and the widespread difference of opinion in regard to their eco-
nomic status as a whole, demanded searching and systematic investi-
vation; hence they have been made subjects of special research,

Cock Sparrow. (From Yarrell.)

THE ENGLISH SPARROW (Passer domesticus).*

Questions relating to the English Sparrow were contained ‘in the
first circular on economic ornithology issued by the Department (in
July, 1885). Subsequently these questions were amplified, and dur-
ing the current year a special circular and schedule were prepared,
upwards of five thousand copies of which have been distributed. To
date, replies have been received from about thirty-two hundred
persons. They contain a vast amount of valuable information, which
is now being collated for publication. In order to be able in future
years to determine the rate of spread of the Sparrow over regions
whichit does not now occupy, the Department has ascertained, with
as much precision as possible, the exact limits of its distribution at
the present time, and has shown the same by means of the accom-
panying colored map. In addition to the material collected by the
Department of Agriculture, the American Ornithologists’ Union has
turned over to the division the results of its investigations, begun in
1883, on the eligibility or ineligibility of the European House Spar-
row in America. This material has been since collated and arranged
by Dr. F. H. Hoadley, who, from interest in the subject, kindly volun-
teered his services.

In advance of the publication of the special bulletin on the English
Sparrow question, which will contain in detail the evidence on which
the following statements are based, it is thought desirable at the

* The true name of this bird is the ‘‘ House Sparrow.” °The name ‘“ English Spar-
row” is a misnomer, as the species is not confined to England, but is native to
nearly the whole of Europe’ The fact that most of the birds brought to America
came from England explains the origin of the misleading name by which it is now
so widely and universally known that any attempt to change it would be futile,

236 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

present time to set forth some of the results of the investigation for
the information of the general public, and to make certain recom-
mendations to the legislative bodies of the various States, in order
that they may enact, at as early a date as possible, such laws as are
demanded for the protection of their agricultural industries.

Introduction of the English Sparrow.

The English Sparrow was first brought to this country, so far as
authentic information has reached the Department, in the fall of
1850, when the Hon. Nicolas Pike and other directors of the
Brooklyn Institute imported eight pairs into Brooklyn, N. Y. They
were artificially housed over winter and liberated early in the follow-
ing year; but they did not thrive. In 1852 a larger colony was im-
ported. These birds are said to have multiplied and spread over
Long Island and adjacent parts of New York and New Jersey. In
1858, and at subsequent dates, independent importations were made,
and colonies were planted in Portland, Me.; Peacedale, R. I.; New
York, Philadelphia, and other Eastern cities.. In most cases the
birds did well. They multiplied and spread gradually to neighbor-
ing towns. But the process of diffusion was slow at first, and it was
not until 1870 that the species can be said to have firmly established
itself throughout the Eastern States, and to have begun in earnest
its westward march. From this time to the present, the marvelous
rapidity of its multiplication, the surpassing swiftness of its exten-
sion, and the prodigious size of the area it has overspread are with-
out parallel in the history of any bird. Like a noxious weed trans-

lanted to a fertile soil, it has taken root and disseminated itself over

alf a continent before the significance of its presence has comé to be
understood. The explanation of this phenomenal invasion must be
found in part in the peculiar impetus usually given prolific species
when carried to a new country where the conditions for existence are
in every way favorable; and in part in its exceptional adaptability
to a diversity of physical and climatic conditions. This adaptability
has enabled it not only to endure alike the tropical heat of Austra-
lia and the frigid winter of Canada, but to thrive and become a bur-
densome pest in both of these widely separated lands.

. The English Sparrow is a hardy, prolific, and aggressive bird, pos-
sessed of much intelligence and more than ordinary cunning. It is
domestic and gregarious in habit, and takes advantage of the protec-
tion afforded by proximity to man, thus escaping nearly all of the
enemies which check the abundance of our native birds. Moreover,
for many years it was looked upon with favor, and both food and
shelter were provided it.

Rate of increase of the Sparrow.

Its fecundity is amazing. In the latitude of New York and south-
ward it hatches, as a rule, five or six broods in a season, with from four
to six young in a brood. Assuming the average annual product of
a pair to be twenty-four young, of which half are females and half
males, and assuming further, for the sake of computation, that all
live, together with their offspring, it will be seen that in ten years
the progeny of a single pair would be 275,716,983,698. This will ap-
pear in detail from the following:

=

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. 237

Table showing the annual increase and the total number of English Sparrows, the
progeny of a single pair, in successive seasons for ten years, assuming that ail
lived.

f |
Yy Number of pairs | Number of pairs | Total number of | Total number
Cars: breeding. of young. pairs. of birds
13 26
169 338
2, 197 4,394
28, 561 57, 122
871, 293 742, 586
4, 826, 809 | 9, 653, 618
62, 748, 517 125, 497, 034
815,730,721 ; 1,631,461, 442
10, 604,499,373 | 21,208,998, 746
187, 858, 491, 849 | 275, 716, 953, 698

Method of diffusion of the Sparrow.

“* As the towns and villages become filled to repletion the overfiow moves off into
the country, and the Sparrow’s range is thus gradually extended. Ovcasionally,
however, it is suddenly transported to considerable distances by going to roost in
empty box-cars and traveling hundreds of miles. When let out again it is quite as
much at home as in its native town. In this way it reached St. John, New
Brunswick, in 1883, on board the railroad trains from the west. in like manner
another colony arrived March 1, 1884, in grain cars from Montreal. Similarly it
appeared at Moncton, Frederickton, and Saint Stephen, in Canada, and in a number

of towns in the United States.” (Hoadley MS.)

Aside from this accidental means of wide dispersion, small colonies
have been purposely carried from time to time to various localities
beyond the limit of its regular advance, and these in turn have be-
come centers of diffusion. Prominent examples of this sort may be
seen in the large colonies now inhabiting California, the basin of the
Great Salt Lake, and the region bordering the Lower Mississippi, in
Louisiana:

The method by which the Sparrows spread without the aid of man
is peculiar. They first invade the larger cities, then the smaller cities
and towns, then the villages and hamlets, and finally the populous
farming districts.

Rate of spread of the Sparrow, and extent of area occunied at the
close of the year 1886.

In the year 1886 the English Sparrow was found to have established
itself in thirty-five States and five Territories. Of these it occupies
the whole or large parts of the following thirty-three States and two
Territories: Alabama, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Delaware,
District of Columbia, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, lowa, Kansas, Ken-
tucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Min-
nesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jer-
sey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island,
South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia,
and Wisconsin, and is found in a few towns in Florida, Texas, Wy-
oming, Idaho, and Arizona. Small, isolated colonies may exist in a
few other Territories, but if so they have escaped the searching in-
quiry of the Department. In the United States the total area occu-
pied at the close of the year 1886 is 885,000 square miles; in Canada
it is not quite 148,000 square miles; in all, 1,033,000 square miles.*

" * The data on which the computation of the Canadian area is based are insuffi-
cient, consequently the size of the area here given must be regarded as approximate
only. The United States area, however, may be looked upon as very nearly exact.

238 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Some idea of the alarming rapidity with which it is at the present
moment multiplying and extending its range may be had from the
fact that in the United States alone it has spread during the past
fifteen years at the average rate of 59,000 square miles per year, and
in the United States and Canada together at the rate of 69,000 square
miles per year. But this average rate manifestly is misleading, so
far as both extremes are concerned, for species increase in geometri-
cal ratio. The rate for some time after 1870 was comparatively slow,
while during the present decade it has progressed with astonishing
rapidity, till m the year 1886 the new territory invaded must have
reached the enormous number of 516,500 square miles, as may be
seen from the following:

Table showing approximately the extension in square miles of the English Sparrow,
in periods of five years each, from 1870 till 1885, and its extension during the year

*1886.*
Square miles.

From 1870 to 1875 it spread Over.......cesceecess cieeereamtskaepwenate Gre iee'e's s'a%.' 500
Mra 1810 tO. 1880) (iS Plead, OVER i disc. :nletem p tiyie we Selim MEM a ASTI MIST=) 4.0165 a8 » 15, 640
From 1880 to 1885 it spread over....... S,Suesa Bibushs S/S PL ELAITAREASIOERN IE © boaters 6.6, 9.6.06 500, 760
In the year 1886 it spread OVEF ......-cerserceeseesensesensresereesercnses 516, 500

The Sparrow an enemy of our native birds.

Of all the native birds which habitually make their homes near the
abodes of man, the Martin is the only species which is able to hold its
own against the Sparrows, and numerous instances are on record
where even the Martin has been beaten and forced to abandon its
former nesting-places by these belligerent aliens. It sometimes hap-
pens that the Martin is killed outright, as appears from the following
account, just received from Prof. F. H. King, of River Falls, Wis.:

Mr. H. T. Baker, of Berlin, Wis., has related to me that last summer he was a
witness of a conflict between some English Sparrows and Purple Martins, in which
the Sparrows were trying to get possession of breeding-places which had been occu-
pied for several years by the Martins. The Sparrows had congregated in a large
flock upon a tree standing near a building, in the cornice under the eaves of which
the Martins had their nests. From this point a number of Sparrows would together
attack the Martins, and then return to the tree, to be followed by a similar squad.
This method of attack was followed until three Martins had been killed, some of the
Martins having had their eyes picked out. Jt need hardly be added that the Mar-
tins were forced to leave. The same gentleman tells me that he saw the Sparrows
kill in the same manner a bird, the name of which he did not know, in the city of
Milwaukee.

The birds which have suffered most from the English Sparrow, and
whose cheery presence in the parks and lawns in the nesting season
we no longer, or only rarely, enjoy are the Robin, Catbird, Bluebird,
Wren, Song Sparrow, Chipping Sparrow, Yellow-bird, Oriole, Vireo,
and Phcebe. Not only does the Sparrow drive away and sometimes
kill the adult birds, but when it finds their nests it throws out the eggs
and young, and not infrequently feasts upon them. Dr. B, Harry
Warren, State ornithologist of Pennsylvania, writes:

Our native birds have rapidly and steadily diminished in numbers since the
Sparrows came. Former plentiful residents are rare. Even transient visitants and

migrants have been so pursued by the usurper that they now seem to avoid West
Chester as a plague-stricken spot. In 1877 I saw two Cock Sparrows attack a nest |

* This table of necessity is largely theoretical, though the ratio of increase must
be very nearly correct. Year by year much of the reproductive energy of the Spar-
row is expended in filling up the smaller towns and villages of the area which, so
far as the larger towns and cities are concerned, it covered some time previously,

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. 239

of the Warbling Vireo in the absence of the parent birds, pull out one at a time the
four half-fledged occupants, and drop them on the ground. After partly destroying
the nest the Sparrows alighted on the ground beside their victims, and, being re-
enforced by several of their kin, proceeded to enjoy the sanguinary repast.

Numerous parallel cases have been reported, and will be published
in the bulletin on the Sparrow question.

The Sparrow an enemy to the gardener and fruit-grower.

In addition to the indirect injury thus brought about by depriving
our gardens and orchards of the protection afforded by our native
insectivorous birds, the Sparrows cause a positive and direct loss to
our agricultural industries amounting in the aggregate to not less than
several millions of dollars perannum. The damage done by the Rice-
bird is limited to a single crop, and takes place during a few weeks in
spring and fall, but the ravages of the English Sparrow affect almost
every crop produced by the farmer, fruit-grower, and truck gardener,
and extend over the entire year. Indeed, it is safe to say that it now
exerts a more marked effect upon the agricultural interests of this
country than any other species of bird; and its unprecedented increase
and spread, taken in connection with the extent of its ravages in cer-
tain districts, may be regarded with grave apprehension. In theearly
spring it prevents the growth of a vast quantity of fruit by eating the
germs from the fruit-buds of trees, bushes, and vines, of which the
peach, pear, plum, cherry, apple, apricot, currant, and grape suffer
most.

‘‘ Lettuce, peas, beets, radishes, cabbages, and cauliflower are attacked in turn, and
devoured as soon as they show their heads above the ground, and in many cases the
seed is taken out of the earth before it has germinated. So extensive is the injury
thus done, that in many localities it has been found necessary to cover the garden-
beds with netting. Whenever the buds are so fortunate as to escape, the ripening
fruit appeals strongly to the Sparrow’s appetite, and different varieties are attacked,
injured, or destroyed in turn as they mature. All sorts of garden products, vegeta-
bles, berries, grapes, and even the larger fruits, are greedily fed upon or mutilated
to such an extent as to unfit them for market. The magnitude of the havoc wrought
in orchards and vineyards is shown by the melancholy accounts given by fruit-
roma) in every section of the country where it has become numerous.” (Hoad-

ey Ab,

Mr. Jabez Webster, of Centralia, I1l., writes:

I have seen flocks of fifty or more stay about my raspberries, constantly flying
backwards and forwards, taking quarts of the best fruit, and coming very close to
the pickers.

Mr. W. C. Percy, of Black Hawk, La., writes:

They destroy more tomatoes, peas, beans, &c., than any other bird. In 1884 and
1885 they ruined the peach and apple crop.

Mr. John H. Strider, of Halltown, W. Va., writes:
It nips fruit blossoms, destroys early peas and cabbages, and later in the season
garden seeds; is very destructive to sunilower seed.
Norman A, Wood, of Saline, Mich., writes:
5 They eat green peas as fast as they grow; also raspberries, blackberries, and straw-
erries.
H. H. Beeson, of New Market, N. C., writes:

They peck grapes, strawberries, tomatoes, plums, peaches, and pears, causing them
to decay. i

Mr. F. M. Webster, of La Fayette, Ind., writes:

The English Sparrow is destroying my apples. I have two or three trees in my
garden, and as soon as the fruit gets mellow the Sparrows peck holes in it, and it

QAO REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

either drops to the ground or decays on the trees. These birds are worse than all
other apple pests combined. I can hardly get a single apple fit to eat; they have
destroyed nearly if not quite three-fourths of them. A neighbor across the way is
troubled in the same manner.

An apple pecked as above described and kindly sent to the Depart-
ment by Mr. Webster is figured in the accompanying cut.

APPLE PECKED BY ENGLISH SPARROWS,

From orchard of F. M. Webster, Lafayette, Indiana, October 7,1886,

The Sparrow an enemy to grape culture.

The grape industry, which is one of rapidly increasing consequence
in this country, encounters in the English Sparrow an enemy second
only to the Phylloxera and certain fungus growths. Already in some
parts of the East it has become such a scourge that grape culture can
no longer be carried on with profit, it being necessary to inclose the
ripening clusters in bags to insure their protection. At the end of
the season of 1886 bitter complaints of damage done the grape crop
by Sparrows had reached the Department from twenty-five States
and the District of Columbia, as follows: Alabama, Arkansas, Cali-
fornia, Connecticut, District of Columbia, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana,
Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mich-
igan, Mississippi, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Penn-
sylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, and West
Virginia.

In California, where this industry is of paramount importance, the
English Sparrow has taken firm root and is multiplying and spread-

REPORT OF .THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. QAT

ing with ominous rapidity; and unless steps are taken to wipe out
the pest at the earliest possible moment the result will entail a loss
to the State of many thousands, if not millions, of dollars. In this
connection it is not reassuring to read, in the evidence collected and
published by the Australian Government in 1881, that ‘‘in the short
space of ten days the Sparrows took a ton and a half of grapes” from
the vineyard of John Chambers, of South Richland. Of the hundreds
of testimonials which have been sent the Department of Agriculture
by practical fruit-growers, the following are suggestive examples:
Mr. F. S. Platt, of New Haven, Conn., writes:

Last year, when I had a large crop of very fine grapes, I found that the Sparrows
were destroying nearly all of them. I watched the birds, and found that they would
pick out a fine bunch of fruit and peck a hole in nearly every grape. This hole
would be so very small that at first it would not be noticed, but very soon the place
would begin to decay, and then the grape would be ruined.

The postmaster at Bowling Green, Ky., writes:
Tt has ruined the grape crop almost wholly where unprotected.

Mr. Witmer Stone, of Germantown, Fa., writes:

It frequently despoils whole grape-vines of their fruit, and pecks the bunches so
that they have to be protected by paper bags.

Mr. Thomas S. Kennedy, of Crescent Hill, Ky., writes:
It eats strawberries, raspberries, and grapes. This past season it has been unusu-

ally destructive, and has torn the paper bags from the bunches of grapes. It also
eats holes in apples and pears hanging on the trees.

The Sparrow an enemy to the grain-grower.

“Annoying and injurious as the Sparrow is to the fruit-grower and vegetable gar-
dener, the loss it inflicts on the producer of cereals is even greater. Though for its
permanent residence it prefers populous localities and places of abundant traffic and
commotion, still, im anticipation of the harvest season, it gathers in enormous flocks,
and, leaving the cities and towns, moves off into the surrounding country to feed
upon the ripening grain. Its consumption and waste of corn, wheat, rye, oats, bar-
ley, and buckwheat in many parts of the country is enormous. It feeds upon the
kernel when it is in the soft, milky state, as well as when it has matured and har-
dened; and in fieids of ripe grain it scatters upon the ground even more than it con-
sumes. Instances have been reported where in the place of a full or fair crop only
the straw remained to be gathered.”—(Hoadley MS.)

Mr. Andrew Gray, of Willoughby, Ohio, in a recent letter to the
Commissioner of Agriculture, states :

This is to inform you that I drilled in the seed-wheat which you sent me. Isowed
it on rich sandy soil, and it came through the winter well and gave promise of a
splendid crop, especially the Diehl Mediterranean, which looked the most promising,
although the Martin Amber did very weil. But alas for human hopes! About four
or jive days before it was ready to cut I went to see how it was getting along, and
found that the English Sparrows had harvested the crop. Their first choice was
the Martin Amber, the next was the Dieh] Mediterranean, and the last the Clawson.
Esaved about a peck of seed. I think ican safely say that I would have got as
much as one and one-half bushels of seed from the two quarts of seed you sent me
if the Sparrows had let it alone.

_ Mr. William Holmead, of Mount Pleasant, D. C., whose business
it is to raise fruits, vegetables, and grain for the market, writes:

In 1882 I put part of my farm in wheat. After cutting and shocking it the Spar-
rows came by thousands and destroyed every head of grain exposed; after it was
stacked preparatory to thrashing they covered the whole stack. I had to shoot at
them two or three times a day to scare them away, and upon thrashing it was esti-
mated that fuily one-tenth of the crop was destroyed. One of my neighbors esti-
mated that one-half of his wheat was eaten by the Sparrows last year. This year I
had about four acres in oats. When the oats were put in the barracks the field was
filled with thousands of Sparrows, and when they had cleaned the field they attacked

16 AG—’86

242 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

the oats in the barracks and destroyed all that was exposed. Sugar and field corn
when green are very much damaged by them. They tear the ends of the ears and eat
the corn in the same manner as Crows.

Dr. B. Harry Warren, State ornithologist of Pennsylvania, writes:

The Sparrow greatly damages the corn crop, tearing open the husks, devouring
the tender part of the ear, and exposing the remainder to the ravages of insects and
to atmospheric changes. It alights on fields of wheat, oats, and barley, consuming
a large quantity, and, by swaying to and fro on the slender stalks and flapping its
wings showers the remainder on the ground.

Mr. §. M. Clark, of the District of Columbia, states:

The Sparrows stripped my entire crop of pearl millet, not leaving a kernel on the
ear.

Mr. Robert Ridgway, ornithologist of the United States National
Museum, writes:
In the summer of 1886 I saw flocks of hundreds of English Sparrows feeding on

grain in stacks in Prince William County, Virginia; have also seen the same else-
where.

Mr. Frank 8S. Platt, of New Haven, Conn., writes.

Cradled a small piece of oats, and the Sparrows gathered on the shocks in such
flocks that I shot fifty-four with one barrel and thirty-five with the other. In our
seed gardens we had to keep a boy all the time to prevent waste of turnip, cabbage,
and other seeds.

Mr. John Cordeaux, the veteran ornithologist of England, says’ he

has seen acres of grain which had the appearance of having been
thrashed with a flail after it had been invaded by the Sparrows.

Already the English Sparrow has invaded the rice fields in certain
parts of the South, where it threatens to rival the Bobolink in the
extent of its ravages. Indeed, one planter writes from Plaquemines
Parish, Louisiana, that it is more destructive now than the Rice-bird
or Blackbird.

Effect on architecture, and defilement of buildings.

‘‘ That the Sparrow exerts a very appreciable influence on architecture can be read-
ily observed in the modifications which its presence has rendered necessary in cor-
nices, gables, jutting portions of roofs, and the various devices made use of in the
elaboration and embellishment of edifices, both public and private.”—{Hoadley MS

In addition to the disfigurement of buildings by the nests and ex-
crement of the Sparrows, and the injury to ornamental trees and
shrubs resulting from the same cause, it should be mentioned that
they frequently damage and sometimes destroy the ivy and woodbine
covering the walls of churches and other edifices.

Mr. Robert Ridgway, of the Smithsonian Institution, says:

The Sparrows injure ornamental vines, &c., by chemical action of their excre-
ment. The luxuriant English ivy that once covered portions of the Smithsonian
building was thus totally destroyed by them.

Mr. Eli Whitney Blake, 3d, of Providence, R. I., writes:

The sexton of St. John’s church, in this city, took 970 eggs and two cart-loads of
nests at one time from the ivy covering the walls of that church.

Failure of the Sparrow as an insect-destroyer.

The English Sparrow was brought to this country in the belief that
it was an insectivorous bird, and with the expectation that it would
rid our cities of the caterpillars which destroy the foliage of the elms
and other shade trees in ce streets and parks. The utter futility of
this hope has been demonstrated over and over again in hundreds of

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. 943

our cities and larger towns which are overrun with Sparrows, and
where the trees have been repeatedly defoliated and disfigured by the
worms. Cases are known in which the very boxes occupied by the
Sparrows have been covered with webs, where the cocoons have been
attached to the boxes, and the larve have hatched and crawled away
within a few inches of the birds without molestation. Indeed, it is
an every-day occurrence in summer to see Sparrows hopping about
on fences and branches fairly swarming with caterpillars and meas-
ure-worms, in whose presence they rarely manifest the slightest inter-
est. It is true that they destroy some insects, particularly when
feeding their young, but it would be presumptuous to say that the
number thus destroyed is greater than the number consumed by the
truly insectivorous birds which the Sparrows have driven away.

English Sparrows cause an increase tn the number of caterpillars.

Prof. J. A. Lintner, State entomologist of New York, has made a
special study of the cause of the increase of the caterpillars of the
tussock moth (Orgyia leucostigma), which is very destructive to the
foliage of shade and fruit trees and ornamental shrubs. The results
of Professor Lintner’s investigations, extending over a period of years,
have led him to make the following unqualified statement:

_ The extraordinary increase of the Orgyia leucostigma is owing to the introduction
and multiplication of the English Sparrow,

His subsequent remarks under this head are so valuable, that I
make no apology for introducing them in full. He says:

This may seem a strange statement, in consideration of the fact that the Sparrow
was imported from Europe for the express purpose of abating the ‘caterpillar
nuisance” in New York and some of the New England cities. * * * Theincrease
of the Orgyia lewcostigma commenced and has continued to progress with that of
the Sparrow.

A remark made to me that the caterpillars had been observed to be very numer-
ous in localities where the Sparrows also abounded induced me to undertake to verify
or disprove the idea that had suggested itself to me, that the Sparrow afforded
actual protection to the caterpillars and promoted their increase,

In a locality in the city [of Albany, New York] (intersection of Broadway and
Spencer streets) which I had traversed daily during the preceding year, I had been
interested in watching the habits of a large company of Sparrows, which had estab-
lished themselves in quarters evidently in every way suited to their taste and wants,
among the vines and leaves of a large woodbine (Ampelopsis quinquefolia), which
covered with a dense matting nearly the entire side of a large dwelling. Here I
had observed a greater number of the Sparrows than elsewhere in the city. They
were still local, and far from being generally distributed.

Upon visiting this locality for the purpose aboye mentioned, I found upon the
other side of the building, and on an adjoining one, three other large woodbines not
before noticed by me, making five in all. On a tall pole standing between the two
buildings a very large sparrow-house, with many compartments, had been erected,
and many smaller ones had been placed among the branches of the trees. The
woodbines seemed alive with the Sparrows. Hundreds were issuing from them and
dropping down to their favorite stercoraceous repasts in the streets, and the air was
vocal with their chattering. It was a rare bird exhibition. Here certainly was a
test case of the insectivorous nature of the Sparrow.

On the sidewalk in front of the two buildings two large spreading elms (Ul/mus
Americanus), standing between some maples, showed every leaf eaten from them,
disclosing the nesting-boxes among their branches, and their trunks and limbs dot-
ted thickly or clustered with the easily recognized egg-bearing cocoons of the Orgyia.
Hundreds of immature caterpillars were traveling over the trees. fences, and the
walls adjoining. No better evidence of the almost perfect immunity afforded to
the caterpillars from their enemies, whether birds or insects, by the presence of the
Sparrows, could possibly be given,

A portion of Broadway, between Clinton avenue and the Central Railroad crossing,
was also known to abound in the Sparrows, the citizens resident there having fed

244 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

them most generously, not only during the winter season, but also in the summer
months. Nesting-boxes had been placed for them in most of the trees. Here the
trees presented a pitiable sight. Many of the elms and horse-chestnuts were entirely
stripped of their foliage; the naked ribs of the leaves of the latter seemed ghastly
in their suggestion of fleshless fingers. Nowhere else in the city had I seen such
ravages.

Passing thence to Pearl and State streets, the same association of Sparrows, cater-
pillars, and their destructive work was seen. Clinton Square, where the Sparrows
had, in their introduction into the city, been specially taken under the care and pro-
tection of the residents on the east side of the park, afforded another excellent
test. It was evident that the Sparrows were in full appreciation of their privi-
leges from the almost incredible numbers sporting about the trees. Their protégés
were also in full force. Caterpillars and their cocoons met the eye everywhere,
while hanging from the rails and caps of the iron fence surrounding the park were
the dead and decomposing bodies of caterpillars killed by the recent heavy rains
(often so fatal to insect larve:), in such numbers that they tainted the air in their
vicinity.

It seems unnecessary to extend this record further than to add that in other sec-
tions of the city observations made were in accord with the above.

HOW THE SPARROWS PROTECT THE CATERPILLARS.

That the Sparrows decline to eat the Orgyia caterpillar is not a charge against
them. They could not eat them with impunity. The diet would doubtless prove
fatal to them. The charge to which they are amenable is this: By the force of num-
bers, united to a notoriously pugnacious disposition, they drive away the few birds
that would feed upon them. Of these we know but four species, viz: The Robin
(Merula migratoria), the Baltimore Oriole* (Icterus galbula), the Black-billied
Cuckoo (Coccygus erythropthalmus), and the Yellow-billed Cuckoo (Coccygus Ameri-
canus), The above species seem, in the ordering of nature, to have been assigned to
us for protection from an undue multiplication of a large number. of hairy caterpil-
lars of injurious habits. * * * Oneof them, the Yellow-billed Cuckoo, is known
to shave off the hairs of the Orgyia leucostigma caterpillar before swallowing it.
The following account of the operation is from Dr. Le Baron, former State ento-
mologist of Ilinois: ‘‘ My attention was attracted to a Cuckoo regaling himself upon
these caterpillars, which were infesting in considerable numbers a larch growing
near the house. My curiosity was excited by seeing a little cloud of hair floating
down upon the air from the place where the bird was standing. Upon approaching
a little nearer I could see that he seized the worm by one extremity, and, drawing
it gradually into his mouth, shaved off, as he did so, with the sharp edge of his bill
the hairy coating of the caterpillar and scattered it upon the wind.”

Under the head of Preventives and Remedies, Professor Lintner
advises ‘‘a relentless war upon the English Sparrows,” and states that
the removal of this bird ‘‘ would also serve to diminish the losses an-
nually sustained in our orchards, forests, and gardens from the fol-
lowing well-known noxious species: The apple-tree tent-caterpillar
(Clisiocampa Americana), the forest tent-caterpillar (Clistocampa
sylvatica), the fall web-caterpillar (Hyphantria textor), the yellow-
necked apple-tree caterpillar (Datana ministra), the yellow wooly-
bear (Spilosoma virginica), and many others of the kind.” (Second
report on the Injurious and other Insects of the State of New York,
by J. A. Lintner, Albany, 1885, pp. 80-83.)

Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod, consulting entomologist to the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, in her ninth report on Injurious
Insects and Common Farm Pests for 1885, states that the Sparrows
drive off Swallows and Martins, thus permitting a great increase in
flies and insects ‘‘destructive in the garden and orchard.” Miss
Ormerod cites a case in which the destruction of the Sparrows and
consequent reappearance of Swallows and Martins resulted in the
abolishment of the insect pest.

*This bird has been seen with its head thrust into the web-nest of the tent-cater-
pillar, eagerly devouring its occupants.

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. QAR

Mr. J. H. Gurney, Jr., a well-known British ornithologist, says:

T think they do enough harm to warrant everybody in destroying them. Say one-
fifth of good to four-fifths of harm is about what they do, take the country all over,
though at certain times and places they do nothing but harm. I have striven to say
all I could in their favor, being naturalty a lover of birds.

The destructive habits of the English Sparrow in Bermuda, Cuba,
England, Germany, Austria, Russia, India, Egypt, and Australia are
too well known to require more than passing observation. In Eng-
land alone the damage it causes has been estimated as not less than
$3,850,000 per annum, and in Australia the loss is much greater. It
threatens to become a more baneful pest to the American farmer and
horticulturist than the grasshopper, caterpillar, and Colorado beetle.

Recommendations for legislation.

The following recommendations are respectfully submitted to the
' legislative bodies of the various States and Territories:

(1) The immediate repeal of all existing laws which afford protec-
tion to the English Sparrow.

(2) The enactment of laws legalizing the killmg of the English
Sparrow at all seasons of the year, and the destruction of its nests,
eggs, and young. Epes

(3) The enactment of laws making it a misdemeanor, punishable
by fine or imprisonment, or both—(qa) to intentionally give food or
shelter to the English Sparrow, except with a view to its ultimate
destruction; (b) to introduce or aid in introducing it into new locali-
ties; (c) to interfere with persons, means, or appliances engaged in,
or designed for, its destruction or the destruction of its nests, eggs,
or young.

(4) The enactment of laws protecting the Great Northern Shrike
or Butcher Bird, the Sparrow Hawk, and the Screech Owl, which
species feed largely on the English Sparrow.

(5) The enactment of laws providing for the appointment of at
least one person holding civil office, preferably the game constable,
where such officer exists, in each town or village, who shall serve
without additional compensation, and whose duty it shall be to destroy
or bring about the destruction of English Sparrows in the streets
and parks and other places where the use of fire-arms is not per-
mitted. In the larger towns and cities this office might be well im-
posed upon the commissioners of public parks.

It is not expedient to offer bounties for the destruction of Sparrows.
In fact, at the present time it is desirable, and perfectly feasible, to
bring about a great reduction in their ranks by concerted action of
the people, aided by helpful legislation, without drawing upon the
public purse.

Recommendations to the people.

The English Sparrow is a curse of Such virulence that it ought to
be systematically attacked and destroyed before it becomes necessary
to deplete the public treasury for the purpose, as has been done in
other countries. By concerted action, and by taking advantage of
its gregarious habits, much good may be accomplished with little or
no expenditure of money.

The Sparrow is a cunning, wary bird, and soon learns to avoid the
means devised by man for its destruction. Hence much sagacity
must be displayed in the warfare against it. In the winter-time, if

YAG REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE,

food is placed in some convenient spot at the same hour each day for
a week, the Sparrows will gather in dense flocks to feed, and large
numbers may be killed at one time by firing upon them with small
shot, Sometimes they may be successfully netted or trapped, but
this requires considerable skill. They may be poisoned by grain
soaked in tincture of nux vomica or in Fowler’s solution of arsenic,
but poisoning is attended with some danger, and should be attempted
only by official sparrow-killers.

Large numbers may be destroyed and increase prevented by the
systematic destruction of their nests, eggs, and young. By the aid
of an iron rod and hook, set in the end of a long pole, most of their
nests can be reached and brought down. This method promises most
satisfactory results.

They may be easily driven from their roosting-places by disturbing
them on several successive nights. A very efficacious method is to
throw water upon them when at roost. In cities where hose-pipe is
available the process is simple and certain. They may be kept out
of ornamental vines in the same manner, particularly in the breed-
ing season, when a thorough soaking not only disconcerts the old
birds and kills their young, but at the same time does much good by
wetting the vines and washing out their filth.

The Sparrow as an article of food.

In this connection it should not be forgotten that the English Spar-
row is an excellent article of food, equaling many of the smaller
game birds. In fact, at restaurants it is commonly sold under the
name of ‘‘ Rice-bird,” even at times of the year when there are no
Rice-birds in the country.

Prof. J, A. Lintner, State entomologist of New York, informs me °
that English Sparrows are now sold largely in the market at Albany,
N. Y., ‘‘one dealer reporting a monthly sale of about 2,000.”

RAVAGHS OF RICE-BIRDS.

One of the most important industries of the Southern States, the
cultivation of rice, is crippled and made precarious by the bi-annual
attacks of birds. Many kinds of birds feed upon rice, but the bird
which does more injury than all the rest combined is the Bobolink
of the North (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), called ‘‘ Reed-bird” along the
Chesapeake, and ‘‘ Rice-bird” in the South,

_Next in importance after the Bobolink is the Red-shouldered Black-
bird Aagelarie pheeniceus), which does much harm and some good,
as will appear later, Still another blackbird figures prominently in
the rice fields; it is the large Boat-tailed Grakle (Quiscalus major),
called ‘‘Jackdaw” by the planters,

The name of the ‘‘ Rice-bird” is familiar to most persons in the
North, but the magnitude of its depredations is hardly known out-
side of the narrow belt of rice fields along the coasts of a few of the
Southern States, Innumerable hosts of these birds visit the rice
fields at the time of planting in spring, devouring the seed-grain be-
fore the fields are flooded, and again at harvest-time in the fall, when,
if me ne grain is ‘‘in the milk,” they feed upon it to a ruinous
extent,

_ To prevent total destruction of the crop during the periods of bird
invasion, thousands of men and boys, called ‘‘ bird-minders,” are em-

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. QA7

ployed, hundreds of thousands of pounds of gunpowder are burned,
and millions of birds are killed, till the number of birds invading
the rice fields each year seems in no way diminished, and the aggre-
gate annual loss they occasion is about $2,000,000,

The use of fire-arms has continued for more than acentury, but has
proved an expensive and inefficient remedy. Hence it is clear that
some other means consistent with reasonable economy must be de-
vised for the relief of the enormous losses now sustained by rice-
growers from the depredations of birds.

Statistics showing the total quantity of rice annually produced in
the United States are wanting, except for the year 1879-1880, when,
according to the Tenth Census, the crop amounted to 110,131,373
pounds, worth, at 6 cents per pound, $6,607,882,38. In that year the
product by States was as follows:

Rice produced in the United States in 1879-1880.

Pounds.

Peal St IAAL ete Yk cele) 2l s) o'ele aieleveis/svevelere:e Reise Nefevelsistaisiere mYahot pial czas etna chofal lelerercetshe 810, 889
IBUOUIGee EL eanias peace é cae 5 aitedctetaatns shea tart oh Gintsbiiele Aaa a'vG AG waetelcalewaxtel MAAR eee as
Georgia.......- a6 9a Bannan sharers Pal Sincvaraloclateineints § dai Wil< Dalal d'eiopistnle seeien oly aes Oe
Louisiana...... Behe Sal etemints Leekle Go elu ale Cala k(ata kin piste We kintaterh inte late aie are a MER ee
Mississippi...... Rateivedals siete cselevalata Kiakiave tae STaTaiaiat erate: chaistet ahalelntateist ate etarstettre 1, 718, 951
OHIO OLITIO sg.) 0.0.s, 0's. 0.5/0 wie.sie cit ne\eualeeye aehsialolsforet sisichela: = eel siacelalsrersiersietercroe 5, 609, 194
South Carolina....., distelere. stain dale easalins Wace eae blakioe kulaiaals mana cele eIDE AEE LO
Same sted TN ere aera Tale, Gait ate. ala le plal ne eT MeL sickelalere elalnl staalevevets tela eathee see fae aoe 62, 152

110, 181, 378

Value, at 6 cents per pound, $6,607,882,38,

Since 1880 the rice crop of Louisiana has more than doubled in
Graal and value, but that of the other States has not increased in
the same ratio.

As a rule the annual consumption of rice in the United States is
almost double the production, as shown by the following table:

Table showing the quantities and values of the several kinds of rice imported, the
total value, and the duty, each year, from 1880 to 1886 inclusive.

Dutiable.
Years.
Cleaned, Uncleaned. Paddy.
Pounds. Dollars. Pounds. Dollars. Pounds. | Dollars.

46,314,785 | 1,212,508 53 359,668 | 9,816 48 | 249,066 | 4,707 00
41,918,444 | 7 995,098 O1 243'756 | 6,657 67 | 12,309 264 30
...| 68, 258,521 | 1,4177 467 84 618,633 | 9,994 32 2) 651 45 00
..| 63,909, 474 | 1,301,741 98 | 1,942,912 | 36,967 00| 111/375 | 1,368 57
.-| 64, 098, 827 | 1,878,263 71 | 9)158;943 | 174; 149 00 8,112 146 00
.| 58, 850, 662 | 1,242,821 68 | 10,264,604 | 209°773 00 | 559,670 | 9,502 00

43,497,928 | 870,262 93 | 5,294,005 | 110,722 50| 1447330 | 37536 00

Dutiable.
Years, oo SS Free. Total, Total duties.
Rice flour.*
Dollars. Pounds. Dollars. Dollars. | Dollars.
OR tac actcatan clomaiac aan cies tev. 68,218 44 5, 052, 645 294,185 59 | 1,586,986 04 1, 182, 442 71
be 2) BO comer iccarict: Bley aime 67,190 74 6,986,306 |. 389,016 80 | 1,457,227 52 | 1,069,320 07
1882 CURIE. OATES reir.) 5e. tht eee 239,001 38 10, 175, 578 499, 825 77 | 2,166,334 31 | 1, 668,131 21
BRBS 65d p.cte te ge Sey uae EOE, Same 463,385 24 12, 926, 951 610,323 60 |} 2,508,731 39 1,753, 907 30
1884 a leleefoye: a afoly “ipa a sla aa ae eile oie *517,851 77 12, 398, 433 558,476 00 | 2,628,886 48 1,683, 365 94
BEBO sce irce cate tts ae eee *672, 092 06 8,291,360 | 404,477 50 | 2,588,666 24 | 1,619,576 25
PEGG) i ferro RS ave vis see Oe 627,003 28 6, 892, 900 361,567 00 | 1,978,091 71 | 1,184,256 81

* Rice flour and meal.

948 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

In quality the imported rice is decidedly inferior to that grown in
this country, and the price paid for it is correspondingly lower. The
duty, however, is enormous, nearly equaling the cost. If, therefore,
the bird plague can be abolished or reduced to comparative harmless-
ness, it is evident that great benefit will accrue both to the producer
and the consumer; for, the home demand being’ greater than the home
supply, the planter will profit by increased production and lessened
expense; while the consumer will gain by securing a uniformly good
quality of rice, of much higher nutritive value than the imported.

Among the numerous letters from rice-growers which have been
received at the Department of Agriculture, asking for assistance in
the attempt to secure some practicable remedy for the destructive
‘avages of birds, the following will serve to indicate the extent of
the losses sustained in South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana.

Letter from Col. John Screven, of Savannah, Ga., President of the Georgia Rice-
growers’ Association.

in reply to your favor, requesting information concerning the depredations of the
Bobolink or Rice-bird in the rice fields of my neighborhood, I furnish such infor-
mation as I have with pleasure, hoping that it may assist in the discovery of some
effective and economical means of arresting the ravages of this chief bird pest in the
rice fields.

The Rice-bird is strictly migratory. It appears on the Savannah River commonly
about the 10th or 15th of April, and remains, perhaps, until the 29th of May. Dur-
ing this incursion it is known as the ‘‘ May-bird.” It appears again about the 15th
of August, when the early grain is hardened and is not so inviting to his appetite as
when unripe and in the milk. The planter, observing these dates, seeks therefrom
to seed the land and to have the young rice under what is known as the “stretch
flow” before the spring flocks arrive, and to have the grain ripened before the au-
tumn flocks return. If his planting is not finished before the spring flocks come, it
will be delayed until late in May or early in June, when the birds have departed for
the season. He looks to the ripening and harvesting of such late crops when the
fall ravages of the Rice-bird have either ceased or are much diminished.

These data show how the destructiveness of the Rice-bird is in some measure
avoided, and in part by taking advantage of the periodicity of its migrations; but
despite the precautions so taken its invasions are ruinous to fields on which its flocks
may settle, especially if the grain is in palatable condition and is on fields adjacent
to marshes convenient for ambush or retreat. Bird-minders, armed with muskets
and shot-guns, endeavor by discharges of blank cartridges to keep the birds alarmed
and to drive them from the field. Small shot are also fired among them, and in-
credible numbers are killed; but all such efforts will not prevent great waste of
grain, amounting to a loss of large portions of a field—sometimes, indeed, to its en-
tire loss. The voracity of the birds seems so intense that fear is secondary toit, and
they Hy, when alarmed, from one portion of the field to another, very little out of
gunshot, and immediately settle down again to their banquet.

As evidence of the numbers present of this bird and of the numbers killed in the
rice-fields, a neighboring planter informs me that in 1884 he permitted four pot-
hunters (contrary to the ordinary régime) to shoot in his fields, and in the course of
the fall season they slaughtered and accounted for eight thousand Rice-birds. On
every plantation large numbers are killed, and yet the visible supply of these robbers
of the air does not seem in the least diminished. Every year the same numbers
seem to. swarm, and with wonderful prescience of the date of the coming harvest.

The Rice-bird comes only in seed-time and harvest to prey, so far as the rice fields
ae concerned, on crops raised at more cost and peril than any other known in agri-
culture.

The preventives now in use against its ravages have been already mentioned, but
they are palliative only, applied at great expense, and without commensurate results.
No vigilance on the part of the planter can do away with the wastefulness of pow-
der and shot in the hands of careless and dishonest bird-minders. They only too
often add the cost of wasted grain to the cost of their own faithless and ill-directed
labor. In short, no effort yet tried, consistent with reasonable economy, will drive
the Rice-birds from the fields or afford any weli-founded promise of their reducticen
to harmless numbers,

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. 249

Extracts from a letter from Capt. William Miles Hazzard, of Annandale, S. C., one
of the largest rice-growers in the State.

The Bobolinks make their appearance here during the latter part of April. At
that season their plumage is white and black, and they sing merrily when at rest.
Their flight is always at night. In the evening there are none. Jn the morning
their appearance is heralded by the popping of whips and firing of musketry by the
bird-minders in their efforts to keep the birds from pulling up the young rice. This
warfare is kept up inceSsantly until about the 25th of May, when they suddenly dis-
appear at night. ‘Their next appearance is in a dark-yellow plumage, as the Rice-
bird. There is no song at this time, but instead a chirp, which means ruin to any
rice found in milk. My plantation record will show that for the past ten years, ex-
cept when prevented by stormy south or southwest winds, the Rice-birds have come
punctually on the night of the 21st of August, apparently coming from seaward.
All night their chirp can be heard passing over our summer homes on South Island,
which island is situated six miles to the east of our rice plantations, in full view
of the ocean. Curious to say, we have never seen bhis flight during the day.
During the nights of August 21, 22, 23, and 24 millions of these birds make their
appearance and settle in the rice fields. From the 21st of August to the 25th of Sep-
tember our every effort is to save the crop. Men, boys, and women are posted with
guns and ammunition to every four or five acres, and shoot daily an average of about
one quart of powder to the gun. This firmg commences at first dawn of day and
is kept up until sunset. After all this expense and trouble our loss of rice per acre
seldom falls under five bushels, and if from any cause there is a check to the crop
during its growth, which prevents the grain from being hard, but in milky condi-
tion, the destruction of such fields is complete, it not paying to cut and bring the
rice out of the field. We have tried every plan to keep these pests off our crops at
less expense and manual labor than we now incur, but have been unsuccessful. Our
present mode is expensive, imperfect, and thoroughly unsatisfactory, yet it is the
best we can do. I consider these birds as destructive to rice as the caterpillar is to
cotton, with this difference, that these Rice-birds never fail to come. If the Govern-
ment could devise some,means to aid us in keeping off these birds it would render
us great assistance. The loss by birds and the expense of minding them off in order
to make anything renders the cultivation of rice a dangerous speculation. During
the bird season we employ about one hundred bird-minders, who shoot from three to
five kegs of powder daily, of twenty-five pounds each; add to this shot and caps,
and you will have some idea what these birds cost one planter.

From Theo. S. Wilkinson, Myrtle-grove plantation, lower coast, Louisiana.

The rice crop in Louisiana, from the time the rice is in the milk till harvest time
and during harvesting, is much damaged by birds, principally the Red-shouldered
Blackbird. Shooting is the only remedy thus far resorted to which is at all effect-
ive, and it is only partially so. I have known rice crops to be destroyed to the ex-
tent of over 50 per cent., which is a loss of say $13 per acre. While this isan extreme
case, a damage and expense of from $5 to $10 per acre is very common.

The average yield per acre is about 30 bushels, worth now (March 12, 1886) about
80 cents per bushel.

Harly in the progress of the work a special circular to rice-growers
was prepared (Circular 5, see p. 234), and copies were sent to all plant-
ers whose addresses the division was able to secure. The replies
received were so startling in the magnitude ef the losses they revealed,
that it was thought advisable to make a thorough study of the whole
subject of rice culture, and to investigate on the spot the manner in
which the ravages were committed, in the hope of devising some
means, compatible with reasonable economy, for lessening their ex-
tent. With this object in view the assistant ornithologist, Dr. A. K.
Fisher, was sent on an extended tour through the rice-growing dis-
tricts of the Southern States, from Charleston to New Orleans. His
investigations were carried on in the spring, at and shortly after the
time of planting. At harvest-time in the fall I visited the rice fields
of portions of South Carolina and Georgia, and witnessed in person
the destructive ravages of the birds at the height of the season.
Furthermore, to render the investigation still more complete, the

250 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Department has employed a special field agent, Col. Alexander Mac-
beth, whose headquarters are at Georgetown, 8. C., in the very heart
of one of the largest rice-growing districts. The results of all these
investigations will be given in full in a forthcoming bulletin of the
division.

THE DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF BIRDS.

The work of the Department on the Geographical Distribution and
Migration of Birds is sufficiently outlined in the following circular,
several thousand copies of which have been distributed by the division:

(Circular No. 8.]

CIRCULAR ON THE GHOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF NORTH AMERI-
CAN BIRDS FOR 1887,

Through the courtesy of the American Ornithologists’ Union, the Department of
Agriculture has secured the co-operation of this organization, and has undertaken
to carry on the work begun by the Union on the migration and geographical distri-
bution of North American birds.

The Department wishes to ascertain the whereabouts of all our birds during the
winter season and the times of leaying their winter homes; to determine, if possi-
ble, the number and extent of the chief avenues of migration in North America, and
the average rate of speed at which the different species travel; to find out the dates
of their appearance at and disappearance from at least a thousand localities, both in
spring and fall, for a period of years; and to map out the breeding areas of every
species which rears its young in North America north of Mexico.

In order to obtain this information it is necessary to secure the voluntary services
of a large corps of observers, each of whom is requested to contribute as full data
as possible concerning the questions mentioned in this circular.

The first item in an observer’s report should be a brief but careful description of
the principal physical features, including latitude, longitude, and altitude, of the
fooutity which is the seat of his observations,

The data collected may be arranged conveniently in three general classes: (a)
ornithological phenomena; (0) meteorological phenomena; (c) contemporary and cor-
relative phenomena.

(a) Ornithological phenomena.

Fach observer is requested to prepare, at his earliest convenience, a complete list
of the birds known to occur in the vicinity of his station, and to indicate (by the
abbreviations inclosed in parentheses) to which of the following five categories each
species pertains:

(1) Permanent residents, or those that are found regularly throughout the year (R).

2) Winter visitors, or those that occur:only during the winter season, passing
north in the spring (WV).

(3) Transient visitants, or those that occur only during the migrations, in spring
and fall (TV).

(4) Summer residents, or those that are known to breed, but which depart south-
ward before winter (SR).

(5) Accidental visitants, or stragglers from remote districts (AV).

It is desirable also to indicate the relative abundance of the different species, the
terms 0 be employed for this purpose being : Abundant, Common, Tolerably Com-
mon, Rare.

if you are in a position to observe the lines of flight of birds, have you noticed
whether or not such lines are influenced by the topography of the country, and if
so, to what extent?

If a mountain intercepts the line of flight, what kinds of birds pass around it, and
what kinds pass over it?

What localities in your neighborhood are sought as resting-places by the various
kinds of migrating birds? Can you give any reason for this selection?

What kinds of birds generally move in flocks, and what kinds in pairs or singly?

Are you familiar with any kinds of birds in which the males and females, and old
and young, fly in separate flocks? In many species the males arrive in advance of
the females, hence it is important to note the sex of the first comers, and the data
at which the opposite sex is first seen. |

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. 9251

Have you observed from year to year any increase or decrease in the numbers of
any kind of bird known to you? If so, do you attribute stich change to altered
conditions in the bird’s breeding-grounds? If not, can you assign a cause?

Have you observed the increase or decrease of one species to affect the numbers
of another species? If so, can you explain the fact?

Has any kind disappeared. altogether, and if so, can you assign a cause for this
disappearance ?

Among the birds which are now common about your station is there any kind
that was formerly rare or absent? If so, can you explain the fact?

Aunong the birds which breed regularly in your vicinity have you ever observed
an individual which by some personal peculiarity (such as the presence of white or
dark feathers where they do not belong, or by some deformity) could readily be dis-
tinguished from others of its kind? If so, has this bird returned to the same place
to nest year after year?

In recording arrivals and departures, it is highly important to distinguish between
the movements of irregular stragglers of the advance guard or ‘‘ van,” and of the
principal mass or “‘ bulk” of the species. For this purpose observers are requested
to note: (1) when the species ig first seen ; (2) when it is next seen; (3) when it be-
comes common ; (4) when the bulk departs ; (5) when the last individual is seen.

Tn addition to the above data, which all observers are requested to furnish, the
Department particularly desires exact records of every increase and decrease in the
numbers of a given species over a given area; for it is only by the knowledge of the
daily fluctuations of the same species in the same place that the progress and move-
ments of a ‘‘ flight,” or ‘‘ bird-wave,” can be traced. Such data can be contributed
by experienced observers only, and in their procurement much time must be spent
in the field. During the progress of the migratory movement the observer should
go over the same ground day after day, and, if possible, both early in the morning
and late in the afternoon. He should visit wood-lands, thickets of dense under-

‘growth, and open fields, and, if possible, both swamp and upland should fall under
his daily scrutiny.

The above may be regarded as essential data. There are many other noteworthy
details that bear more or less directly upon the complicated problems involved in
the study of migration. Among such may be mentioned the bodily condition of the
bird (whether fat or lean), the molt, and the period of song, The time of mating,
when observed, should always be recorded.

The Department desires positive information concerning the food of all birds, and
will furnish, on application, a special circular devoted to this branch of the inquiry.

(6) Meteorological phenomena.

Information is desired upon—

(1) The direction and force of the wind.

(2) The direction, character, and duration of storms.

(3) The general conditions of the atmosphere, including rainfall.

(4) The succession of marked warm and cold waves, including a record of all sud-
den changes of temperature.

(ce) Contemporary and correlative phenomena.

The Department desires that the data under this head be as full and complete as
possible, and requests exact information upon—

(1) The date at which the first toad is seen.

(2) The date at which the first frog is heard.

(3) The date at which the first tree-toad or ‘‘ peeper” is heard.

(4) The dates at which certain mammals and reptiles enter upon and emerge from
the state of hibernation.

(5) The dates at which yarious insects are first seen.

(6) The dates of the flowering of various plants.

(7) The dates of the leafing and falling of the leaves of various trees and shrubs.

(8) The dates of the breaking up and disappearance of ice in rivers and lakes in
spring, and of the freezing oyer of the same in the fall.

Tt must not be supposed, because a large amount of information upon a variety of
subjects is asked for, that meager or isolated records are not desired. Quite the
contrary is true. Comparatively few of the observers are ornithologists, or even
bird collectors—the great majority being intelligent farmers, tradesmen, and light-
keepers, Those who know only the tommonest birds, such as the Robin, Bluebird,
Bobolink, Martin, Humming-bird, and Chimney Swift, can furnish important data,
and them services are eagerly sought.

252 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

In order to secure better results, a portion of the territory under investigation has
been divided into districts, each of which has been placed under the immediate
direction of a competent superintendent. Observers not living within the limits of
these several districts are requested to communicate with the Ornithologist of the
Department of Agriculture.

The districts, with their respective superintendents, are:

New England.—Superintendent, John H. Sage, Portland, Conn.

Atlantic district.—New York (except Long Island), Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina,
Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Sup-
erintendent, Dr. A. K. Fisher, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Long Island, N. Y.—Superintendent, William Dutcher, 51 Liberty street, New
York City.

Indiana and Southern Michigan.—Superintendent, B. W. Evermann, Terre Haute,
Ind.

Ohio.—Superintendent, Dr. F. W. Langdon, 65 West Seventh street, Cincinnati,
Ohio.

Light-house division of North America.—Superintendent, Dr. C. Hart Merriam,
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Light-house division of Spanish America.—Superintendent, L. S. Foster, 35 Pine
street, New York City.

Schedules on which to record the more prominent facts relating to bird migration
will be furnished on application.

The material collected in reply to this circular will be published in
special bulletins.

Prof. W. W. Cooke, assisted by Mr. Otto Widmann and Prof. D. H.
Lantz, has prepared a report on bird migration in the Mississippi Val-
ley. This report, which I regard as the most important contribution
yet made to the subject of bird migration, will appear as a special
bulletin of the division.

Mr. L. Belding, of Stockton, Cal., has prepared a report on the
ornithology of the Pacific coast region of the United States, with
special reference to its economic aspects. This report will be issued
as soon as practicable. i

EFFECTS OF MAMMALS UPON AGRICULTURE.

The influence of small mammals upon agriculture, horticulture,
and forestry is a matter of great practical interest, and one upon
which much has been written, particularly in Europe, where a knowl-
edge of the subject is a qualification of admission to the government
position of forester.

Our native mammals affect’ the interests of mankind, directly or
indirectly, in a variety of ways. Some are clearly beneficial; others
are so markedly injurious, that the question becomes one merely of
the best means of keeping them in check; while many kinds are both
beneficial and injurious, and careful study of their habits is necessary
to ascertain whether the sum of their beneficial qualities exceeds the
sum of the prejudicial, or the contrary.

_It is impossible to estimate in dollars and cents the damage done
by the commoner species, particularly by Mice and Gophers, but in
the aggregate it must amount to several millions of dollars per
annum. From the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Mexican
border to Canada innumerable hordes of Mice are constantly preying
upon the results of man’s toil. They gnaw his buildings, deplete his
granaries, make their homes in his barns and hay-mows, and even
infest his private dwellings to share the dainties of the pantry. In
the meadow and pasture they feed upon the roots of the best grasses;
in the garden, upon the roots, fruit, and seed of vegetables; and in the
fields, upon grain, both standing and in the shock. In winter they

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. 953

destroy fruit and forest trees and ornamental shrubs by eating the
bark from the rootsandtrunk. The number of Meadow Mice present
over a given area is subject to periodical fluctuations, and they some-
times become enormously abundant. At such times their runways
through the meadows and grain fields result in the loss of at least
one-fifth of the crop. ake

The depredations of Ground Squirrels and Gophers in the prairie
regions of the Mississippi Valley and in the far West are well known,
and yet the extent of the damage they do is not generally recognized.
In a fertile part of the Sacramento Valley in California a few years ago
the sudden increase in a species of Ground Squirrel which fed upon
grain caused the land to depreciate one-half in value. To be more
explicit, land which previously brought $100 per acre could not be
sold for $50, and the depreciation was due solely to the abundance
and ravages of the Squirrels.

Special attention has been given the animals which occasionally or
habitually prey upon poultry, and the results will be made public at
as early a day as practicable.

RABBITS.

The Australian Rabbit.—There has been of late a good deal of
newspaper talk about the expected introduction into the United
States of a large colony of so-called ‘‘Australian Rabbits,” and vari-
ous opinions have been expressed as to the probable effect of such an
importation upon our agricultural industries. Hence a few facts
concerning this Rabbit may prove of interest.

At the outset it should be stated that, correctly speaking, there is
no ‘Australian Rabbit,” no species being indigenous to Australia.
The Rabbit which has done so much harm in that country and in
New Zealand is an introduced species, namely, the common Rabbit of
Europe (Lepus cuniculus).

A very good idea of the magnitude of the rabbit pest in Australia
may be had from perusal of the following report of Consul-General
Morgan, of Melbourne, Victoria:

Tame Rabbits were brought to these colonies in very early years, but the common
gray variety of wild rabbit, that has so overrun the country, was, so far as can be
authoritatively ascertained, introduced by a large landed proprietor in the western
district of Victoria about the year 1860 for the purpose of sport. From the western
district they spread to the stony rises between Colac and Camperdown, in which
place the splendid cover afforded them caused their rapid increase, and they multi-
plied with such astounding rapidity as to literally overrun all that portion of country.

Some years after they were taken to other parts of the colony. The pest soon
after this was found in the neighborhood of Horsham, spreading thence into the
Mallee country, extending northeast to Swan Hill.

The country west and north of Horsham being exceedingly favorable to them,
consisting of sand hills, pine ridges, and scrub, they increased there greatly, and
have done serious damage to crops during the past few years, principally since 1874.

So great has been their fecundity, that there are now but few places in Victoria in
which they do not exist—from Point Nepean along the coast, from Queenscliff to
Geelong; in Gisborne, Ballan, Bacchus Marsh; away northwest to Nhill and north
to Swan Hill; along the Murray River; on the New South Wales and the South
Australian borders—Gippsland and the surrounding district being the only place in
which they are conspicuous by their absence. In the rangy district of Mansfield
they have made an appearance, and the Buffalo, Howqua, King, and other rivers
in the neighborhood of Bright and Myrtleford, are now invaded by the pests in large
numbers. It is, however, noticeable that in places where the soil is hard, or the
climate cold or wet, the rabbit does not increase to anything like the extent observ-
able in country more suited to them, such as sand hills, pine ridges, &c. Thereis also
ancther peculiarity observed, which will be borne out by all who have had any great

954 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

experience on this subject, viz, that where hares increase and become numerous the
rabbits do not. There may be an exception to this, such as on the Werribee estate,
but nevertheless it is the rule.

LOSSES SUSTAINED.

Tt is doubtful whether many persons are aware of the immense loss that has been
sustained in this colony through the ravages of the rabbits, but it is an undoubted
fact that as much as £23,000 has been expended to clear one estate and keep the
pests under, and in many others it has cost the owners large sums, from £15,000
downwards. j

In addition to the expense incurred by private owners, shire councils, and the
government in destroying the pests, the great depreciation in the value of land and
its grazing capabilities has to be considered. For instance, the stony rises, consist-
ing of about 20,000 acres and surrounded by some of the finest grass-land in Victoria,
have been rendered of little value except for rabbits, the owners of the land obtaining
a small rental from trappers; and about 4,000 acres were some while back disposed
of at the low figure of 10 shillings per acre. In the discussions in the colonial par-
liament on the introduction of the late ‘‘ Malle pastoral leases act,” it was clearly
pointed out that the country (12,000,000 acres) affected by the bill had been rendered
almost useless and uninhabitable through the damage caused by the ruthless invader.
Stations on which smiling homesteads, fine orchards, and other improvements had
a few years back existed were fallen into ruin and deserted by all living creatures
except the rabbits. Here, where the grass and salt-bush in 1875 were sufticient for
nearly 700,000 sheep, enough did not grow in 1882 for one-seventh of that number,
the loss during the past five years being estimated as at least three-quarters of a
million sterling, besides £40,000 decrease to government in rents and £20,000 ex-
pended in destroying the pests. To illustrate the damage here, I cannot do better
than attach the particulars given of a few stations in the above discussion.

Year 1877, Bruin Station carried 36,000 sheep, rental £500; in 1879, 10,000; run
abandoned; relet under grazing license for £56, Wanga and Nipo, once carrying
20,000 sheep; rental £400; now not a sheep on the run, which was also abandoned
and relet for £20. Lake Hindmarsh carried, in 1877, 33,000 sheep; lost 25,000 in two
years; rent £700, now £72. Corong, 1877, 36,000 sheep, now 3,000; rent £1,050, now
£150; and several others were mentioned as being in an equally bad position.

In the years 1875 and 1876 the production of wool in the Mallee country was about
5,000 baies, value £100,000. In 1882 this had fallen to 900 bales, worth, say, £18,000,
Highteen runs in this district in the year 1878 yielded 1,700 bales; in 1882 only 332
bales. Theruns wereallabandoned,and the land held from government under grazing
leases, at an almost nominal rent, by persons that trusted that something would be
done to improve the tenure under which the land could be held, and give them an
opportunity and sufficient inducement to endeavor by combined action to destroy
the rabbit pest,and render the land once more fit for profitable occupation.

Whether the lengthened tenure now given to this part of the colony will enable
the desired result to be achieved remains to be seen.

REMEDIAL MEASURES.

During the past three years the government has expended about £30,000 in Vic-
toria on the extirpation of the rabbit, the principal means used being poison, such
a eae ized oats and wheat, arsenic mixed with bran and chaff, and bisulphide
of carbon, 4

The various shire councils in the badly infested districts have also adopted similar
means, though in the majority of cases the rabbit act has not been strictly enforced,
read of the shires not being in a position to incur the extra expense necessary to

oO sO,

Im addition to the means above mentioned, the councils have arranged for the
purchase of rabbit-skins or ears and scalps, and have been assisted by the govern-
ment to the extent of a bonus of 8d. per dozen on all skins or ears and scalps pur-
chased by them. From various reports published at various times in the papers, and
inquiries made, the number of rabbits destroyed has been considerable, at least
157,000 dozen, equal to 1,884,000 scalps and ears and skins, being paid for in less
than two years; the St.Armand and Swan Hill shires being the largest purchasers.

Tn the Colac and Camperdown district a preserving factory was started some few
years back, and operations carried on with vigor, the factory working each year for
about six months, from March to October, and during that period purchasing from
750,000 to 1,000,000 rabbits, the price paid being about 2s. 6d. per dozen. These rab-
bits are nearly all obtained from the stony rises and surrounding districts, as they
cannot be sent to the factory in proper condition from any great distance.

REPORT OF. THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. 255

The sum voted this year by parliament for rabbit extirpation is £10,000, and I learn
from the Sydney papers that in New South Wales no less than £74,000 has been
voted for the same work and in South Australia the amount is £30,000; so that it
will be seen that Victoria is by no means the greatest sufferer, more especially as
she is at the expense of labor and material on crown lands in pastoral occupation
as well as crown lands unoccupied. ] :

The number of skins exported from Victoria during 1883, as near as can be ascer-
tained, was 4,000,000, and the area of land more or less infested is about 20,000,000
acres,

Having given the above sketch anent the introduction, spread of, and damage done
by the rabbits, I will now give a few particulars respecting their fecundity and the
methods and means employed to destroy them. ;

In places where the pest is numerous they can be considerably reduced by trap-
ping, hunting with dogs, and shooting; but these methods are expensive, slow, and
will never more than thin them out, leaving plenty to multiply again. It can be
asserted on good grounds that one pair of rabbits will, under most favorable circum-
stances, increase in two and a half years to the enormous number of 2,000,000; this
is assuming the district suits them, But, allowing that they only increase to one-
fourth that number, it may be easily seen how necessary it is to be continually on
the watch to destroy them. p ’

Phosphorized oats are much superior to trapping in results, and less expensive;
but tie eatin experience proves that they will not always eat this grain, and
when grass is at all plentiful the rabbit deems it a much greater delicacy. Singular
to say, phosphorized oats are not found effective in all parts, instances being well
known in which that poison has been greedily devoured in one district, whilst at the
same time in an adjoining one nothing would induce the pests to touch it—bran,
chaff, and arsenic being preferred, Neither of the latter mixtures can, however, be
used with any effect in wet or damp weather.

Arsenic and carrots, or phosphorized wheat, have also been found effective when
the other poisons mentioned fail,

I am informed by the Hon. A. Morrach, secretary for lands, that there are about
500 miles of rabbit-proof wire-net fencing erected in this colony of Victoria, at an
average cost of £80 per mile.

The estimated damage by rabbits would be difficult to ascertain, but it may be
safely stated that during the last ten years the loss caused by the pest through de-
crease in carrying capabilities of land, destruction to crops, loss of rents, &c., would
amount to at least £3,000,000 sterling.

JAMES M. MORGAN,

Consul-General,*
UNITED STATES CONSULATE-GENERAL,
Melbourne, October 5, 1886.

In New Zealand the legislature took the matter in hand in 1876
and began the enactment of a series of stringent laws for the sup-
pression of the rabbit scourge.

Owners and occupiers of land are compelled, under a penalty, to take efficient
steps to clear their property of rabbits on receiving notice to that effect from the
inspector of their district; and continued neglect of such notice gives the inspector
a right to take whatever steps he may deem necessary for the destruction of the rab-
bits, and to recover the cost summarily from the defaulting owner, in addition to
the penalty. The statute, moreover, exempts from taxation all dogs certified to by
an inspector as kept solely for the purpose of destroying rabbits; and imposes a pen-
alty for the destruction or capture of ferrets, weasels, or such other animals as may
be officially proclaimed to be the natural enemies of the rabbit,

In 1881 more than 500,000 acres of sheep runs were abandoned
on account of the rabbits, and the loss to the exports of the colony
was calculated to be $2,500,000 per annum; and it was estimated that
upwards of 180,000,000 rabbits were killed in New Zealand in little
over three years.

Many cases might be cited, prominent among which is that of the
English Sparrow, to show that the transplanting of a naturally pro-
lific species to a country where the conditions for its existence are

*U.S. Consular Reports for December, 1886, Vol, XX, No, 72, pp. 482-484,

956 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

favorable gives it a peculiar impetus and enables it to crowd out and
supersede the indigenous related species. Hence, while there is no
positive evidence to show that the European Rabbit would become
the curse in this couniry that it 1s in Australia and New Zealand, yet
there is no proof to the contrary, and its introduction here would be,
to say the least, an unnecessary and hazardous experiment.

The Rabbits of the United States.—We certainly have enough
rabbits of our own—at least a dozen native species—and the injury
they inflict upon our agricultural industries is by no means insignifi-
cant. In the grape growing districts of California rabbits do so
much damage by gnawing the vines that in many cases it has been
found necessary to inclose the entire vineyard with rabbit-proof wire
netting, the cost of which is very great.

In the San Francisco (Cal.) Weekly Bulletin of February 16, 1887,
it is stated that for a number of years Messrs. Grimsley and Miner
have been in the habit of poisoning Jack Rabbits “‘ by thousands”
on their places near Tulé River, thus averting the loss of thousands
of dollars. Mr. Miner estimates the number of rabbits he has killed
in ‘this way ‘‘at not less than twenty thousand, and he thinks that
during this season not less than two thousand dozens have been
killed by dogs and hunters along the river, many of which have been
shipped to game dealers in San Francisco. From this statement,
which is fully sustained by others, some idea of the magnitude of the
evil can be formed. Mr. Dewey, near Tulare, has had a hunter in
the early part of the season who killed usually four or five dozen a
day and shipped them to the city. He says he has twenty acres of
young alfalfa of last year’s sowing, the growth of which the rabbits
got away with almost entirely during the winter months, causing a
loss during the whole season of not less than $500.”

Mr. Willson G. Nowers, of Beaver City, Utah, writes to the De-
partment, under date of February 1, 1887, as follows:

In regard to mammals, the most common, and by far the most destructive, is the
hare, or, as it is usually denominated, rabbit. At times its ravages are enormous,
as it sweeps down from the bench-lands and sage-plains in myriads, devouring en-
tire fields of cereals. This was the case last year in this and adjoining counties,
where its depredations amounted to several thousand dollars, and some farmers in
this county lost from this source alone their entire crop of small grain. At Miners-
ville, this county, not more than one-third of the crop was harvested. At Adams-
ville nearly the total crop was taken; at Greenville about one-half, and here (at
Beaver) about the same proportion; and the crops in Iron County, on the south of
us, were damaged to about the same extent.

Our mode of destroying these pests is to select two captains, who choose their asso-
ciates from the community, and form two attacking parties, and raid the country
with fire-arms, clubs, and dogs, killing every rabbit caught sight of. In some cases
the slaughter has amounted to nearly one thousand by each side. These raids are
made on every favorable opportunity, after a snow-storm, if possible, or monthly if
no snow falls.

About nine years ago the country was overrun by these rabbits, but after two or
three seasons’ ravages they became so scarce that hardly a representative was to be
seen. They were infested with large grubs in the head, resembling those sometimes
found in the backs of cattle. These grubs invariably put an end to their victims,

If this enemy had not attacked the rabbits it is probable that the latter would have
produced a dearth in the land.

K. C. 8. Foster, M. D., of Russell, Kansas, writes:

Rabbits are very destructive to fruit trees; they eat off the bark during the winter
months, The damage done is serious.

Mr. W. Head, of Bristow, Iowa, writes:

Rabbits ave injurious to fruit trees. During the winter they gnaw the bark, very
often completely girdling an apple tree, which of course kills 1t. J consider the loss
serious, as I have seen a great many apple trees killed in this way.

REPORT OF, THE ORNITHOLOGIST AND MAMMALOGIST. 257

Mr. William J. Howerton, of Florence, Ariz., writes:

The little cotton-tail rabbit of this country occasions some damage by barking the
young growth, but the damage is of comparatively little consequence and is chiefly
done in the winter months.

Mr. John 8. Harris, of La Crescent, Minn., writes:

Hares often do serious damage to trees and shrubs. Some seasons acres of young
forest trees are barked by them. Maple and apple trees suffer most from their dep-
redations.

Mr. J. W. Johnson, of Meriwether, S. C., writes:

Gardens are sometimes injured to a great extent by rabbits. They are particu-
larly fond of young cabbage, collard, and pea-plants; they also gnaw the stalks of
cabbage and collards in the winter. They are more injurious if the winter is severe
than when the weather is mild. They are very injurious to fruit trees in the win-
ter; they gnaw the bark from the ground up, as far as they can reach. Unless the
trees are protected they will often ruin a whole orchard of apple trees.

Mr. J. O. Linville, secretary of the Agricultural and Horticultural
Society of Gap, Pa., writes:

Rabbits are very destructive during deep snows. They gnaw off the bark above
the snow line, and cut off small trees as thick as a lead pencil. They seldom girdle
peach or cherry trees, unless apple trees are not at hand. The loss is very great.

Mr. Thomas Mikesell, of Wauseon, Ohio, writes:

Rabbits peel small apple trees and also eat off thetwigs. They peel other trees and
shrubs, the elder in particular. The damage is sometimes very serious.

Mrs. A. L. Peabody, of Denver, Colo., writes:

In the vicinity of Grand Junction the rabbits have injured young fruit trees to
quite an extent. It was done during the winter.

Mr. F. M. Powers, of Angola, Ind., writes:

Rabbits are destructive to vines and to small fruits, such as raspberries. They
injure young fruit trees by girdling and eating the bark.

Mr. William H. Madison, of East Enterprise, Ind., writes:

Rabbits destroy many young trees, especially apple trees, by gnawing the bark and
thus girdling them. This is done in the winter when snow is on the ground, They
do some damage to corn in the field, but not to a serious extent.

Mr. E. L. Reynolds, of Westville, Ind., writes:

The gray rabbits make their home along the hedges, in thickets, and in the tim-
ber; they increase rapidly and are the pests of young fruit trees. They are very
plentiful in this part of the State, but their numbers are kept within bounds by the
hunters.

Mr. N. W. Wright, of Farmland, Ind., writes:

Rabbits gnaw the bark from apple and pear trees in the fall and winter. The
damage has been serious in many instances.

Mr. E. 8. Beach, of Valparaiso, Ind., writes:

Rabbits injure trees in the winter, when there is a heavy fall of snow on the ground;
loss sometimes quite serious.

Mr. J. C. Donaldson, of Gilbertsville, N. Y., writes:

Rabbits are injurious to grain crops, both by consuming the grain and by tramp-
ling it down.

Mr. F. Eveland, of Ferry, Iowa, writes:

Rabbits are injurious to trees. They are most destructive in winter.
Mr. George R. Prescott, of Galt, Canada, writes:
Rabbits do some injury to vegetables, but not to a serious extent.
Mr. R. Elliott, of Plover Mills, Canada, writes:

Rabbits eat herbage, chiefly clover. They girdle and bark all sorts of young trees
during the winter.

17 AaGc—’86

258 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Mr. L. W. Suilot, of Salem, Ohio, writes:
Rabbits eat apples and the leaves of the Swedish turnips; loss trifling.

Mr. I. H. Shank, of Hickory, W. Va., writes:
Rabbits sometimes eat fallen apples, but the loss is trifling. They gnaw the trunks
of young apple trees, thus killing quite a number.

Mr. William West, of Chehalis, Wash. Ter., writes:

Rabbits occasionally injure apple trees by eating the bark during the winter, but
the loss is trifling.

Mr. J. C. Cavener, of Gainesville, Tex., writes:

Rabbits.are very destructive to English peas; they like cabbage also, They are
liable to damage nearly all kinds of fruit trees, and all soft-rooted forest and shade
trees, by gnawing their roots in two. They girdle or gnaw the bark from the collar
of young peach, apple, pear, and plum; and sometimes Bois d’ arc hedges are dam-
aged by them. They are worse when the ground is frozen or covered with snow,

Mr. H. W. Buckman, of Glenwood, Cal., writes:

Rabbits eat squashes, melons, and cucumbers, both the young plant and the fruit,

Mr. David H. Herman, of Willows, Dak., writes:

Hares and rabbits gnaw young fruit trees in winter.

Mr. W. R. McDaniel, of Faceville, Ga., writes:

Rabbits eat garden peas. The loss is serious,

THE IMPORTATION OF EXOTIC SPECIES SHOULD BE GOVERNED BY
LAW.

The great calamity that has befallen our agricultural industries in
the importation of the English Sparrow, and the threatened danger
from the introduction of the European Rabbit, should serve as timely
warnings to an intelligent people and lead to legislation restricting
the importation of foreign birds and mammals.

It seems desirable that a law be enacted conferring upon the Com-
missioner of Agriculture the power of granting or withholding per-
mits for the importation of birds and mammals, except in the case of
domesticated species, certam song and cage birds (to be specifically
enumerated), and species intended for exhibition in zoological gar-
dens, menageries, and museums, which may be brought in without
special permits.

The question of the desirability of importing species of known
beneficial qualities in other lands is one which sooner or later must
force itself upon our notice; and it is highly important that when
such experiments are made they should be conducted by or under the
control of the Department of Agriculture. And it may be suggested
that isolated areas, such as islands of suitable size and character, be
selected for this purpose, so that the spread of the species may be
prevented if the result renders this course desirable.

WASHINGTON, D. C., February 20, 1886.
C. HART MERRIAM,
Chief of Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy.

Hon. NorMAN J. COLMAN,
Commisstoner.

REPORT OF THE POMOLOGIST.

Sir: I have the honor to hereby present the report of the Division
of Pomology, giving a synopsis of its work from its establishment un-
til the present time. The act of Congress which created it took effect
on July 1, 1886, and my appointment as chief dates from that day:
As this work is new and untried, so far as the Department is con-
cerned, except that which Mr. William Saunders, uperintendent of
‘the Gardens and Grounds, has done voluntarily, and without the aid of
an appropriation, there has been no precedent to follow or established
line of action to which I might conform my. labors. IJIcannotsay less
than that I feel highly honored in having been chosen to conduct this
work, and its responsibilities are deeply felt by me. The fruit-grow-
ing industry of the United States, from all that we can gather by the
crude and inefficient means at hand, amounts to between two and
three hundred millions of dollars annually. It is estimated by sev-
eral careful observers that there is at least as much more in value
lost by insect depredations, by mistakes made in planting unsuitable
varieties, and in ignorantly caring for the fruit-bearing trees, vines,
and plants of the United States, a great share of which might be saved
by our people with comparatively little outlay of means and labor if
intelligently applied. To gather such information and distribute it
4S certainly within the legitimate province of this division, and is one
of the main points towards which we hope to make progress. It is
with pleasure that I have begun this work, which accords so well with
my feelings and my chosen life-work, because I find the pomologists
and horticulturists all over the country bidding me good cheer. Very
many of the leading fruit-growers and life-long experimenters in
practical pomology, as well as those of a more scientific turn, have
given me much encouragement by offering their grounds and personal
labors to help on the work.

The heads of the experimental departments of all the agricultural
colleges visited or corresponded with, have been equally favorable and
generous. The various rural papers of the country have also offered
their services.

Considerable work has been done in the way of gathering speci-
mens of fruits and making drawings and accurate descriptions of the
same for future use by the Department. Many orchards, vineyards,
and experimental grounds have been visited, and information gath-
ered by myself from personal observation. .

THE FUTURE OF THE DIVISION.

Now that the division has been established, it is hoped that some-
thing of Ps beescee value for the fruit-growers of the entire country
may be done, although the present appropriation will not permit the
consummation or even the introduction of plans that must be carried
into effect if the division shall fully serve the purpose for which it
was instituted. )

(259)

260 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

A system for the collection of statistics should be inaugurated by
which might be learned the real facts as to the magnitude of our pomo-
logical industry—its progress and its possibilities. The production
and consumption by our people of fruits, both fresh and preserved,
is in value and extent scarcely less than that of the cereals; and it
seems proper that similar attention be given to the collection and
dissemination of information concerning fruits.

, EXPORTS VERSUS IMPORTS.

The United States contains some of the largest and best-adapted
fruit-producing regions of the world, and foreign markets should be
investigated, with a view to the benefit of the home producer. This
is especially applicable to that best of all fruits, the apple. And now
that the evaporation of fruit has become so successful, it is highly
important that we avail ourselves of every means to increase our
exports of fruit products. Already a considerable advance has
been made inthe production of citrus fruits, and as this branch of our
pomological industry is only in its infancy, it is hoped that we may
in time be able in a great measure to avoid the necessity of import-
ing these fruits. There are also many other fruits, such as the
guava, olive, pineapple, and cocoa-nut, which need the special atten-
tion of our Government to encourage and advance their culture.

COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF VARIETIES,

Many of our choicest fruits have been found in obscure parts of
this country and some in foreign countries, and no doubt there are
others of equal or better qualities that remain unknown to our people
because of the lack of proper investigations. All such fruits should
be sought out and at once placed in the hands of the people for trial,
and this work can be successfully done by this division, provided
means are allowed. This would add considerably to work of this
kind now being. performed in a limited way by the Department and
add greatly to its usefulness,

eee

SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS.

In accordance with your orders, on the 6th day of August, 1886, I
proceeded from my home at Geneva, Kans., to attend the meeting
of the Central Texas Horticultural Society at Fort Worth, and to
visit such other places as I thought best in that State in making
pomological investigations. I there found assembled a good’, num-
ber of the workers and thinkers who are interested chiefly in
pomology. Although this was just at the close of a drought of
exceptional severity in that State, there were shown upon the ex-
hibition tables many fine specimens of luscious peaches, pears,
plums, grapes, and berries. From the statements made by those
present I learned that in Texas peaches can be eaten fresh from the
tree from May to December if care is given in the selection of varie-
ties. Indeed, the peach is one of the most popular fruits grown in
that State, as it nearly always bears a good crop, and the fruit is of the
very highest quality. The choicest variety grown, and the one that
brings the highest price in market, is the Chinese Cling. Itis very

REPORT OF THE POMOLOGIST. 961

large, of a creamy white color, often slightly blushed, and of a very
sweet and delicate flayor. Of grapes there was a very fine exhibit.
Judging from the specimens upon the table, from what was testified
in the meeting, and from what I saw in vineyards visited in several
parts of the State, itis safe to say that nearly ail varieties of native
American grapes and some foreign varieties do remarkably well.
Rot and mildew are prevalent to some extent, but not to such a damag-
ing degree as in many other States. This is owing to the drier condi-
tion of the atmosphere. In several vineyards the Triumph, which
is avariety that usually succeeds poorly in the North, was seen bear-
ing very large clusters in abundance. Here the Herbemont, which
is too tender for the Northern States, seems to be at home. Among
the plums, Kelsey’s Japan is perhaps now attracting more attention
in Texas than any other variety. It has been planted there in a
limited way since 1885, but in only one or two cases has fruit been

noticed; indeed, it could not be expected on trees so young, although
it is anearly bearer. In some cases, towards the northern line of the
State, the trees were reported tender. Special notes upon this fruit
will be found in another part of this report.

Prunus Simonii is another new variety that was well reported by
all who had experience with it. I saw it growing in several portions
of Texas, and for that matter in many other States, and in all cases
it has proven a hardy and a thrifty grower. However, its very recent
introduction has prevented the bearing of fruit so far, except in a
very few cases. Perhaps the best information that can be given is
to quote the words of Prof. T. V. Munson, of Denison, Tex., on whose
grounds Isaw the largest trees:

It fruited with me in 1889 for the first time, probably the first in the United
States. The fruit when ripening shines like apples of gold, becoming a rich ver-
milion when fully ripe. It ripens shortly after Wild Goose, and showed no defects
from attacks of curculio or rot, which were very abundant in 1885 and destroyed
all my blue plums. It is very firm and meaty, equal to any blue plum I have
ever eaten, and will carry any desired distance. Tree very thrifty, upright; early
and an abundant bearer; hardy in lowa, and endures Texas drought to perfection.

The Blackman Plum, which has been very generally planted for
several years, has not, in any case reported, been known to bear fruit,
although it has often bloomed. It 1s now quite well proven that it
is a hybrid between the peach and plum, and, like many hybrids, is
sterile As a fruit-bearing tree it is a failure. and should not be
planted by any one.

The Japan Persimmon, where it is hardy, seems to be steadily win-
ning its way into the favor of planters. The trees are often tender
when young, but when several years old wili stand rather more cold
than figs. In the southern part of Indian Territory I saw a tree
some ten feet high which the owner told me had the year before
borne about a bushel of fruit, and which then had on it several large
yaaa ket The Japan Persimmon is unlike our native species in
that its flowers are perfect—that is, have both stamens and pistils in
one flower—while ours has the two sexes on different trees. Apples
seem to do moderately well in a great many places in the northern
part of the State, but late keepers are very scarce. The Ben Davis
seems to be one of the best for that section. As the center of the
State is approached the climate becomes too warm, and apple culture
has to be abandoned. Dallas is the name of a new blackberry that
originated near the city of that name, and is grown quite largely and
very successfully in that locality,

262 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRIUULTURE.

The Olive is growing at Mr. Nat. Stephens’s place, at Forney, Kauf-
man County, and so far with every prospect of success. I had the
pleasure of seeing the Post Oak Grape, or, as itis scientifically known,
Vetis Lincicumit, growing and bearing in its native habitat. By
many this species is confounded with V. estivalis, but itis now gen-
erally conceded to be distinct. It is found growing in the same local-
ities and soils as the Post Oak, and hence its name. It is confined
to high and often rocky lands, but develops the finest fruit along
little ravines near small rivulets. It is never, or very rarely, seen in
the low bottom-lands. Its roots are very deep, and a severe drought
has little effect on its growth. The territory in which it is found
comprises Northeastern Texas, Eastern Indian Territory, Western
Arkansas, Southwestern Missouri, and a small portion of Southeast-
ern Kansas. On the higher lands of this region it spreads its thrifty
branches and runs over low bushes, and is sometimes found climbing
to the tops of trees. This latter, however, israther rare, asits growth
is generally low. It isoftenseen growing in open forests where there
is grass enough to feed the annual fires, and these frequently kill the
vines to the ground, but their hardy nature enables them to survive
and throw out numerous sprouts from the base, much like a stool of
the Black-cap Raspberry ‘The fruit varies in color from deep black
to pale red, and even green. Sometimes the clusters are very long
and loose, and others are as compact as the Elvira. The berries also
vary in size and shape, but are usually about like the Clinton. Their
taste is often rather sour and astringent, but occasionally a variety is
found of mild and delicate flavor. ae that I gathered were about
equal to the Concord, and many of them better than the Clinton. One
very promising feature of their flavor is the entire freedom from the
foxiness that is so objectionable in all the ‘varieties of V. labrusca.
The season of ripening of the different varieties is so varied, that at
least six weeks elapse between the earliest and latest.

Strange as it may seem, it is true that until within the last few years
no one of the great army of horticultural experimenters has attempted
to cultivate or improve the varieties of this species, and it seems the
more particularly strange when we consider that of all the known
species of the V2tis family this is the most productive of wild vari-
eties of high quality, To this any one who knows our native grapes
and has traveled through the forests within the territory named will
bear me witness. But now we have a gentleman of the most emi-
nent ability, both scientific and practical, inthe person of Prof, T.V.
Munson, who hastaken the matterin hand. He has not only trans-
planted to his vineyards vines of the best wild varieties he could find,
but he has with wondrous care cross-fertilized these with some of our
finest cultivated varieties, and has grown seedlings from this fruit.
I might say that Professor Munson is raising a new iace of grapes,
and with the most promising results already. He has several seed-
lings of excellent quality, and has hundreds more that are yet too
young to fruit. We certainly have much to expect from this race,
and especially when it is in such good hands. It is really worth a
trip to Texas to see Mr. Munson’s rows of young seedlings and to
enjoy the benefit of his intelligentexplanations. We are quite likely
to gain from this species and its crosses much in the way of a hardy
constitution of vine, giving it ability to withstand both drought and
cold. Norton’s Virginia is the nearest approach to this class of grapes,
it being a pure V. esteval’s. Mr. Hermann Jaerger, of Missouri, has
also been experimenting with varieties and crosses of Vitvs Linci-

REPORT OF THE POMOLOGIST. 263

cumit for some few years. He has grown a few varieties from cross-
fertilized seed that produce fruit of good character, These two pomo-
logical experimenters are working each with an understanding of
what the other is doing, and it is to be expected that something
good will result.
Soon after my return to my home near Geneva, Kans., that being
my headquarters at that time, I was directed to attend the meeting of
the American Horticultural Society at Cleveland, Ohio, and to visit
such other places in Ohio and Michigan as might be desirable in
my pomological investigations.
In compliance therewith, on the 3d day of September I started
for Ohio, and after spending several days at the old home of our
beloved and lamented Dr. John A, Warder, examining his orchards
and pomological notes, I arrived at Cleveland, where the meeting was
held. As the proceedings of that meeting have been quite generally
published in the papers of the country, and a full report is in process
of publication by the secretary, W. H, Ragan, of Greencastle, Ind.,
it is not deemed desirable to give more than a few of the principal
points of interest.
Mr, J. M. Smith, of Green Bay, Wis., read a paper showing the
efficiency of drainage and thorough cultivation as a remedy for
drought. He is one of the most successful growers of strawberries
and other small fruits in the United States, and during the drought
of the past summer, which was one of the severest ever known, by
the application of these two principles his plants retained their vigor
and bore heavily. Too much stress cannot be laid upon these two
points in prpciucel pomology. Underdraining not only carries off a
surplus of water, but retains the soil in a comparatively uniform
state as regards moisture; and every thoughtful farmer knows that
frequent stirring tends to the same end. Jn other words either, or
better yet both, of these methods together make a dry soil moister
and a wet soil drier.
In the discussion of the strawberries it was clearly seen that
the Crescent had the greater share of praise as a practical market and
family berry nearly all over the United States and Canada. In the
South, Neunan is one of the leading kinds. Among the newer ones,
Jessie 15 DOTRADS the most promising. It is a seedling, originated by
Mr. F. W. Loudon, of Janesville, Wis. The Jewell was also well
spoken of by nearly all who had tried it.
Among blackberries the Snyder seemed to be as well spoken of
as any, its extreme hardiness (for the colder Western and Northwest-
ern States especially), productiveness, and good quality offsetting its
small size. Kittatinny holds a good place yet in public esteem.
Among the newer kinds, Minnewaska, from Mr. A. J. Caywood, of
_ New York, is likely to receive favorable notice. It is large and very

robust in STOW even more so than Kittatinny, and much the same
infruit. Lucretia Dewberry is very early, large size, and productive,
but it is said to be very difficult to pick because of its trailing habit
and ugly prickles. It is also not of first quality when compared with
good blackberries.

In the face of all the discouragements from Mildew and Black-Rot,
the grape elicited much discussion. Leaving all the older sorts, be-
cause of their generally well-known characters, both good and bad,
I will mention a few of the newer ones. Niagara and Empire State
seem to be making a rather even race for the leadership among white:
grapes. Indeed, they seem, from what I have heard others say and

264 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. ©

from what I have seen and know from observation, to be an advance
upon the varieties heretofore grown. Worden is likely to supplant the
Concord, as it is several days earlier, a little larger and better in qual-
ity, and in all other respects fully equal to that old standard variety.
Ulster is a red grape of high quality, vigorous in vine, and a re-
markable keeper. Poughkeepsie is also a red grape, the product of a
cross between Iona and Delaware, and of fine flavor. It is, however,
a little below medium size, and is not a strong grower. These last
two seedlings were originated by Mr. A. J. Caywood, of Marlborough,
NY:

The two pears that seemed to engage the special attention of the
members were Keifer and Le Conte. Specimens upon the tables
showed both these varieties to be large and handsome, and although
their flavor was not equal to such standards as Sheldon and Bartlett,
yet they were passably good. Those grown in the Southern States
have much lessof that peculiar and unpleasant astringency so common
to the Chinese Sand Pears than is found in those from the north. In
the exhibit from North Carolina were many fine specimens of the Le
Conte that would challenge the admiration of any one. The discus-
sions elicited the fact that neither of these is exempt from blight, as
some have claimed.

Apples were of course shown in profusion, though there were no
new varieties of peculiar interest. It was a surprise to a great many —
to see such fine displays of apples from the South as were shown by
Mississippi and North Carolina. It has been usually thought that in
‘ede especially, apples could not be grown profitably, but this
is certainly a mistake. Perhaps in a commercial sense it may be true,
but for home use they can and should be grown. The higher lands
of Western North Carolina and Virginia are especially well adapted
to apple culture. There sthey may be grown commercially quite as
well as anywhere in the United States. The Yellow Newtown, which
is a precarious bearer in very many sections, does remarkably well
on these elevated lands.

After the meeting had closed I had the pleasure of visiting the
famous vineyards about Euclid, some 10 miles east of the city of
Cleveland. No locality surpasses this for the production of Catawba
grapes. The vineyards are planted principally on the slopes facing
Lake Erie, but many are on the plateau between the foot of the hills
and the beach, and on the table-lands above and_ back of the steeper
slopes. From the summit of the hill above the village of Euclid could
be seen fully three thousand acres of vineyards. The greater part of
these vineyards are set to Catawba, Concord, and Delaware. The
Niagara is growing here, and I examined one vineyard in its third
year that was heavily loaded with fruit. The clusters were large and
well formed, and impressed me fully as wellas a vineyard of the same
variety that I had seen near Fort Worth, Tex. This is perhaps the
best variety of white grapes to plant for the States east of the Rocky
Mountains, unless it be the Empire State.

The Michigan State fair, held at Jackson, was next visited. A large
and very fine display of fruit was exhibited. The apple can be seen in
its glory in this State, but the show of plums was particularly fine.
They were mostly from the northwestern counties of the southern
peninsula. Many of them were equal in size to those grown in Cali-
fornia, and of the highest quality. Peaches, pears, and quinces were
also shown that were both beautiful and delicious. There were sev-
eral new varieties of grapes on exhibition. Notable among these was

REPORT OF THE POMOLOGIST. 265

Woodruff. It is of the species V. labrusca, and somewhat resembles
Dracut Amber, but is much better in quality. Indeed it is very finely
flavored and is of a clear amber color. The berry is large and the
bunch medium sized and compact.

Mr. GC. P. Chidester, of Belleview, showed several seedlings, and
among them one of very superior quality, that looked much lke Ca-
tawba and tasted like Brighton. It was named Lyon by the exam-
ining committee in honor of Mr. T. T. Lyon, the noted pomologist of
Michigan. It is well worthy of further trial.

I visited several places of interest at Grand Rapids. One mile
north of the city, on a high hill, I saw one of the finest vineyards that
it has ever been my pleasure to see anywhere. It was ina high state
of tilth, and the vines were loaded with fruit. Worden was the most
profitable variety grown there. The fruit of that variety was mostly
marketed, but some of the vines were yet loaded, and afforded oppor-
_ tunity to see howitdid. Certainly it is all that the Concord can claim
to be in every respect, and more in some particulars. The Concord
in this vineyard was barely fit to market when I was there (Septem-
ber 21), but the Worden was nearly gone. Besides, the fruit was
larger and better flavored.

A peach orchard covered the crest and slopes towards all points of
the compass. On the south and west sides and on the crest the trees
were either dead or injured by the winter of 1885~86. The greatest
damage was on the southern slope. On the northern and eastern
slopes there was a heavy crop of fruit then on the trees.

At the fair then in progress at Grand Rapids I saw a grand display
of quinces, mostly from the western counties of the State. Plums
were also shown equally as fine as those seen at Jackson. These were
mostly from the region of Traverse Bay, to the northward, and near
Mackinaw Straits. The apples, peaches, and pears were also large
and luscious. Making my way porilimontarand about 100 miles far-
ther, [ spent some days in examining the fruits of the Grand Traverse
region.

Here quite a different state of things was manifest. The condition
of all fruits was much later than that in the regions South. The
plum crop was about gone at that time, September 24, but I could
see from the bent and broken branches something of their departed
glory, and here and there was to be found a belated specimen. I
took much pains to determine, if possible, the cause of their success.
examined the orchards and questioned the owners. Some had used
the jarring process to catch the curculio. Others had sprayed the
trees with Paris green and some with London purple. Occasionally
one had tried all these plans. Many had done nothing to prevent the
ravages of this little pestiferous insect. In all cases, including those
in which no remedy had been tried, a crop of plums had been gathered.
I came to the conclusion that nature had by some means cut short
the numbers of this insect, and an abundance of fruit had been the
result. But I was assured by many that this was an unusual cir-
cumstance, for nearly every year they have suffered a considerable
diminution of the yield by reason of the curculio. All the orchard
fruits seemed to be flourishing. Apple trees were bearing a full crop.
Near Manistee, and in the region of Bear Lake, Frankfort, Benzonia,
and Traverse City this fruit was comparatively free from insect or
fungous affections. Some varieties, such as Fameuse or Snow and
Swarr, were troubled with scab. Butthe lighter fungous disease, that
give the apples a dirty appearance in the South and West, was not

266 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

sees It is too cool for its natural development. The apples of
this region are especially good keepers. The very late and mild
falls enable them to develop size and color and yet not hasten their
ripening. Indeed, the climatic conditions of this section of our coun-
try are very peculiar, and I may say very favorable for many kinds
of fruit. I gathered Carolina June, and Primate apples from the
trees in the first week of October near Benzonia, and Grimes Golden
and Colvert were quite eatable at the same time. The Baldwin does
finely, but the Ben Davis and Winesap are out of their latitude.
Pears grow luxuriantly. Some Sheldon trees that I saw were loaded
with specimens that would grace any exhibition table. Peaches also
do quite well. It seemed strange to gather peaches within fifty miles
of Mackinaw, when six hundred miles south of there the cold of the
previous winter had killed every peach-bud. The secret of the
whole matter is the influence of the great lakes in tempering the
atmosphere in winter, so that it 1s not so cold nor so dry as it is for
many miles south of such influence. Grapes were just beginning to -
ripen when I left, about October 10. However, I saw some very
fine little vineyards of Delaware and Agawam, in which there was
no sign of mildew, black-rot, or any disease. The vines and fruit
looked as clean and bright as if they had been washed every day.
However, it is rather too far north for successful grape culture, except
in very peculiar situations on southern and eastern slopes.

Before returning to my headquarters, I proceeded, under direc-
tions, to Springdale, Ark., where was being held a fair of the Ar-
kansas State Horticultural Society. This place is in the northwest-
ern portion of the State, and in the midst of the best apple-growing
counties.

In size and beauty the apples of this section can rarely be equaled,
because the soil and climate are well adapted to their growth; and
much attention is now being given to this branch of pomology by
the farmers. One thing that interested me particularly was the
large number of seedling apples of high quality. I think fully fifty
varieties were shown that were entirely new. Some of these are
worthy of further trial by experimenters, and a very few of these are
described and illustrated in this report, as well as some already some-
what known.

A meeting of the State Horticultural Association of Pennsylvania
was held January 19 and 20, 1887, at which the Department was pt
resented by the Pomologist. At that meeting there was a goodly
number of the horticulturists of this great State, and the tables were
covered with fruits. Notable among the apples shown was York Im-
perial, which is a native seedling of the vicinity of York, in that State.
Although not a new variety, it is not nearly so well known as it should
be. The fruit is of a bright red color and excellent fiavor and keep-
ing qualities. It also succeeds remarkably well both Hast and West
as a profitable orchard variety. In Kansas and Missouri I have seen
it doing remarkably well, and itis worthy of general cultivation. Its
only defect is, that it is often of an irregular, or rather a diagonally
inclined form, which is found objectionable when paring it on a
machine.

The subject of ‘‘Nut Culture,” and especially the chestnut, was
discussed with much interest. The rough and worn-out fields of this
State seem peculiarly suitable for nut trees. There are a few im-
proved kinds of chestnuts, which are far more desirable as to size of
the nut and early bearing than the common native varieties. Mr. H.

REPORT OF THE POMOLOGIST. 267.

M. Engle, of Marietta, Pa., has one of special merit. It is much
regretted that the pressing character of duties at Washington at this
time did not permit a more extended visit and to different parts of
the State.

On the 26th and 27th of January the Western New York Horti-
cultural Society held a winter session, at which this division was
represented.

This is one of the oldest and most active horticultural societies in
the United States. ‘The membership is large, and the attendance at
this time was quite full. The eg of fruit was especially fine.
Messrs. Elwanger & Barry, of Rochester, were the principal exhib-
itors, and their show of pears was very choice. Such specimens of
Anjou are rarely seen, even from California, and their flavor was of
the very highest quality.

The show of apples was not large, but the varieties were mostly
new and rare. Sutton Beauty and Belle de Boskoop were among
’ them, and seemed to be in good keeping order. The Niagara grape
was in excellent condition. This seems to be a grape of good keep-
ing qualities. The Empire State was there, too, and its flavor even
at that date (January he was very good. A new plum was shown
by Mr. 8. D. Willard, called the Stanton, which is a freestone and of
most superior quality. It is worthy of further trial. The Jessie
strawberry was discussed at length, and generally thought to bea
variety of much promise.

NEW FRUITS.

The following rules are copied from the proceedings of the Ameri-
can Pomological Society and are most earnestly indorsed and urged
upon the people as desirable to put in practice:

SECTION 1.—NAMING AND DESCRIBING NEW FRUITS.

Rule 1.—The originator or introducer (in the order named) has the prior right to
bestow a name upon a new or unnamed fruit.

Rule 2.—The society reserves the right, in case of long, inappropriate, or other-
wise objectionable names, to shorten, modify, or wholly change the same when they
shall occur in its discussions or reports, and also to recommend such changes for
general adoption.

Rule 3.—The names of fruits should preferably express, as far as practicable, by
a single word, the characteristics of the variety, the name of the originator, or the
place of its origin, Under no ordinary circumstances should more than a single
word be employed.

Rule 4,—Should the question of priority arise between different names for the
same variety of fruit, other circumstRnces being equal the name first publicly be-
stowed will be given precedence.

Rule 5.—To entitle a new fruit to the award or commendation of the society, it
must possess (at least for the locality for which it is recommended) some valuable
or desirable quality or combination of qualities in a higher degree than any previ-
ously known variety of its class and season.

Rule 6.—A variety of fruit having been once exhibited, examined, and reported
upon as a new fruit by a committee of the society, will not thereafter be recognized
as such so far as subsequent reports are concerned.

THE ORANGE.
Bahia. Synonyms: Washington Navel and Riverside Navel.

This orange is attracting the attention of the growers in Florida
and California, and is being sought after by their customers in the
Northern States. It was first brought to this country by importa-
tion jrom Bahia, in Brazil,in 1870, by Mr. William Saunders, of this

968 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. ©

Department. There were twelve trees in this first and only importa-
tion, which were secured for him by a lady then traveling in Brazil.
It was sent out by this Department under the name Bahia, but was
by some changed to Washington Navel. Two of the first trees to
bear, aside from the orange house of this Department, were on the
grounds of Mrs. L. C. Tibbetts, at Riverside, Cal., and as buds were
taken from these trees it got the name of Riverside Navel.

The accompanying colored illustrations were made from a specimen
grown by Mr. E. H. Hart, of Federal Point, Fla., and are exactly
life size. It is rarely that even one seed is found in a specimen, and
the flavor of the fruit is par excellence. By some it is said to be a
rather shy bearer. The investigation of this subject is now occupy-
ing my attention, and it is hoped that by another year we may have
the matter quite conclusively settled. There is also such a wide di-
versity of opinion as to whether the name Bahia or Washington
Navel Shoal supersede, and it may be found best to accept the latter.

THE PEAR.
Le Conte.

This pear is now attracting much attention, especially in the South.
In answer to a letter of mine, making inquiry as to the early history
of this variety, the following was received from Mr. John L. Harden,
of Walthourville, Ga.:

Maj. John Le Conte, of New York City(and afterwards of Philadelphia), in the
year 1850 had a number of fruit trees and other plants put up for his niece (Mrs. J.
L. C. Harden, my mother), of Liberty County, Georgia, at a nursery in New York
or Philadelphia (most probably New York), and among them was a rooted cutting
of what was marked ‘‘ Chinese Sand Pear.” Major Le Conte was informed by the
proprietor of the nursery that the pear was only fit for preserving, as it never ma-
tured in this country. Contrary, however, to expectation, it matured in Liberty
County, and proved to be a fine and productive pear. The original tree is now
owned by my mother’s heirs, and is still vigorous, although not cultivated in any
way, and produces from 10 to 20 bushels each year.

So far as I know, there is no disease to which it is liable. I have known one of
my own taken from the mother tree that died partially, but I allowed it to remain
the whole season through, pruned off the dead branches in the fall of the year, and
it is still living and is vigorous.

Size, large; shape, roundish, conical, se towards both ends;
surface, smooth, yellow, no russet, no blush; dots, very numerous,
small; basin, narrow and deep; eye, small, open, segments often drop
off; apex, very slightly sunken; stem, medium length and stout; core,
large, closed; seeds, large, light colored; flesh, very tender, juicy, rots
at core; flavor, not rich, but pleasant, somewhat astringent; quality,
medium, not equal to Flemish Beauty.

THE APPLE.
Arkansas Black.

This is a variety that has been making a favorable impression both
in the region in which it is grown and upon pomologists who have’
investigated its qualities. Although I have not seen the tree, and do
not know of it from personal experience, it is reported on good au-
thority to be productive. There is scarcely an apple that is more
brilliantly colored. The specimen here described and illustrated was
grown in 1886 by H. B. Woolsey, of Bentonville, Ark.

Size, medium, 24 to 3 inches; shape, round or slightly conical, reg-

“REPORT OF THE POMOLOGIST. 269

ular; surface, smooth, glossy, yellow where not covered with dee

crimson, almost black; no stripes visible; dots, small, light colored,
shown through the dark over-color; basin, very shallow; eye, small,
closed; cavity, rather shallow, narrow, russeted; stem, medium,
slender; core, inclined to be loose or open, clasping the calyx tube;
seeds, small, short, plump, light brown; flesh, very yellow, firm, fine
grained, juicy; flavor, subacid, pleasant, rich; quality, very good; sea-
son, December to March in Arkansas. :

Elkhorn.

The Elkhorn is an apple which originated on the old battle-ground
of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, near Elkhorn tavern, and was given the name
from thatfact. It was brought to notice by G. F. Kennan of Bright-
- water, Ark., in the fall of 1886, and promises well.

Size, large to very large, often 4 inches in diameter; shape, flat,
not conical, regular; surface, yellowish, well covered with rather dull
mixed red and darker stripes; handsome but not brilliant; dots,
numerous, very large, light gray, on distinct and lighter bases; basin,
large, closed or nearly so; cavity, wide, deep, heavily russeted; stem,
very short, slender; core, large, clasping, open; seeds, large, flat, dark
colored; flesh, yellowish, firm, a little coarse, juicy; flavor, subacid,
mild, ieasant, rich; quality, very good; season, December to spring
in Arkansas,

Crawford.

This is an apple that is worthy of trial. It originated with James
Crawford, of Boonesborough, Ark., and the specimen from which I
made the accompanying drawing was from him.

Size, large, 34 to 4 inches in diameter; shape, flat, very slightly con-
ical, very regular in its outlines; surface, smooth, yellow, often beau-
tifully blushed; dots, very prominent, numerous, large, light gray;
basin, very deep, large, regular; eye, large, open; cavity, deep, wide,
regular, heavily russeted; stem, medium length, slender; core, very
small, compact, outer line indistinctly marked; seeds, short, plump,
light brown; flesh, yellow, tender, fine grained, jucy; flavor, sub-
acid, rich; quality, very good; season, December to March or later
in Arkansas.

Siloam.

This is another of the new varieties that has been brought to no-
tice in Arkansas. It originated on the farm of Mr. James Carl, of
Siloam Springs, and is quite likely to prove a winter apple of excel-
lent keeping qualities.

Size, medium, 24 to 3 inches; shape, flat, regular, almost like
Rawle’s Genet; surface, smooth, yellow ground about half covered
with rather dull red stripes and splashes; dots, numerous, small, light
gray; basin, shallow, regular; eye, small, closed; cavity, shallow
russeted; stem, very short; core, wide, nearly closed, clasping the
calyx tube; seeds, small, plump, dark; flesh, yellow, fine grained
juicy; flavor, subacid, rich; quality, almost best; season, December
to spring in Arkansas.

Shannon.

There has been so much said lately about this variety that a de-
scription is here given, although it is not new. For many years

270 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

there has been some confusion of this variety with one known as the
Ohio Pippin. But after carefully studying the specimens that I have
received under both names, and examining the trees, I think they
are distinct. The specimen from which I made the accompanyin
illustration and written description was grown by Mr. Garrett Wik
liams, of Hinesville, Ark.,in 1886. It was a fair average specimen
in all respects, and came from near where the variety originated in
that State. _

Size, large to very large, 3 to 4 inches; shape, flat, conical, regular,
or appearing a little elliptical when viewed from the end; surface,
very smooth, yellow, occasionally faintly blushed, with a dull over-
cast of whitish blotches and streaks; dots, small, indistinct, white or
light gray; basin, shallow, waved a little; eye, large to medium, open;
cavity, shallow, regular, russeted; stem, very short, often fleshy;
core, wide, open, clasping the calyx tube; seeds, short, plump, dark;
flesh, yellow, rather coarse, juicy; flavor, mild, subacid, not rich;
quality, good only; season, October to February in Arkansas,

Pilot.

This new seedling has been brought to notice in Albemarle County,
Virginia. It grew up where some rotten Yellow Newton apples had
been thrown out,and is supposed to be a seedling of that variety.
As this occurred on a farm near the base of Pilot Mountain, it has
been given the name Pilot. Iam much pleased with its character,
but it is yet to be proved valuable in other localities. It has been
planted in some of the orchards in that locality, but seems to have
the fault of being a very tardy bearer. Some trees have not fruited
until over fifteen years old. This may prove a bad fault, but it is
‘worthy of further trial.

Size, medium to large, 34 inches; shape, round, 2 ie surface,
smooth, the yellow under-color is almost hidden by dull mixed red
and brighter splashes, over which is a grayish coating; dots, numer-
ous, large, gray, often star-shaped; basin, deep, regular; eye, rather
small, closed; cavity, shallow, narrow, slightly russeted; stem, short;
core, closed or slightly open; seeds, plump, light brown; flesh, yel-
low, fine grained, firm, juicy; flavor, mild subacid, rich, aromatic;
quality, very good or best; season, January to spring in Virginia.

Burlington.

One of the most richly colored and flavored = ne that I have met
with is a seedling of Grimes’s Golden, originated by H. R. Teller (now
deceased), of Albia, Towa.

Size, small to medium; shape, round or truncate, regular; surface,
rough, mixed red and russet on yellow ground; dots, small, gray, on
large russet bases, especially those near the stem; basin, deep, folded,
and very uneven; eye, medium, very widely open, segments short;
cavity, narrow, shallow, much russeted; stem, very long and slender;
core, small, narrow, closed, almost meeting the calyx tube; seeds,.
rather few, small, but very full and plump, light colored; flesh, very
yellow, very fine grained, heavy but tender, juicy when fully ripe;
flavor, very mild subacid, almost sweet, rich, aromatic; quality, best;

season, December to spring in Iowa.

' REPORT OF THE POMOLOGIST. 271

Northwestern Greening.

This apple is of Wisconsin origin, where it is being sought after on
account of its fine appearance and reputed hardiness, although the
latter is doubted by some who have grownit. However, itis worthy
of trial.

Size, large, 3 to 34 inches; shape, nearly round, very regular; sur-
face, very smooth, often green, but yellow when fully ripe; resembles
Lowell; dots, scattering, mostly dark, with some very light; basin,
wide, shallow, a little folded or gathered; eye, rather large, open;
cavity, medium, regular, a little russet in bottom; stem, medium,
rather slender; core, large, nearly closed; seeds, small, plump, gray-
ish brown; flesh, yellow, rather coarse, juicy; flavor, subacid; qual-
ity, good; season, December to February in Wisconsin.

Wolf River.

This variety will be remembered by many as one which is being
well spoken of for the Northern part of the country. It originated
in Waupaca County, Wisconsin, and was brought to notice by W.
A. Springer, of Fremont, in that State. It is almost identical with
Alexander in nearly all respects, and I have sometimes thought it is
that variety. But the origin of Wolf River asa seedling is quite well
established, the fruit seems to keep later, and the trees seem to have
a different look, and prove hardier. It has been grown in several
other States, where it has almost universally proven valuable. I
made this drawing from a specimen received from Mr. Springer.

Size, large to very large, 3 to 4 inches; shape, flat, conical, regular;
surface, smooth, mixed and splashed bright red on whitish-yellow
ground, very showy; dots, scattering, light gray, large; basin, shal-
low, small; eye, medium, open, segments reflexed; cavity, deep, wide,
very much russeted; stem, medium to short, stout; core, very large,
wide, open; seeds, numerous, small, short, plump, dark colored; flesh,
yellowish-white, tender, coarse, gets dry as soon as ripe; flavor, sub-
acid, not rich; quality, medium only; season, November to February
in Wisconsin,

Waupaca.

This is another variety that originated in Waupaca County, Wis-
consin, whence it received itsname. Mr. William A. Springer is the
introducer, and my specimens are from the original tree on the farm
of Elijah Wrightman. It is said to be very hardy, and is recom-
mended for trial in the North.

| Size, medium, 3 inches; shape, flat, a little conical, irregular, an-

gular; surface, smooth, mixed, and diffused carmine, splashed with
darker red on yellow ground; dots, small, very light, prominent;
basin, narrow, not very deep, slightly waved; eye, medium size, open,
segments reflexed; cavity, medium depth, wide at top, russeted;
stem, medium to short; core, closed or slightly open, pyraform, meet-
ing the calyx tube; seeds, wide, flat, short, dark brown; flesh, yellow,
tender, juicy, coarse; flavor, subacid, pleasant; season, Decernber to
February in Wisconsin.

Scott's Winter.

We have here a variety that is a seedling brought to notice by Dr.
T. H. Hoskins, of Newport, Vt. It originated near that place, and

272 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

seems to be esteemed in that locality and in some of the Northwestern
States for the hardiness of the tree and its brilliantly colored fruit.
Although it is a little too tart for dessert purposes, it is liked for cook-
ing. Itis called one of our native iron-clads. My specimens were
from Vermont.

_ Size, small, 23 inches; shape, flat, conical, irregular; surface, smooth,
light yellow, almost hidden by bright red blotches and stripes; dots,
exceedingly minute, almost undiscernible, light colored; basin, deep,
narrow, waved; eye, small, closed; cavity, small, narrow, russeted;
stem, medium to short, slender; core, small, nearly closed; seeds,
small, plump, rather light colored; flesh, white, with sometimes a
tinge of pink, tender, fine grained, juicy; flavor, subacid, quite tart,
but pleasant; quality, good; season, December to spring in Vermont.

Antonovka.

This is one of the Russian varieties that is quite highly spoken of
by Professor Budd and others who have grown it in lowa and Wis-
consin. Others think it is not a late keeper. My drawing is from a
specimen given me by Mr. G. P. Peffer, of Wisconsin, which he ob-
tained from Mr. A. G. Tuttle, of Baraboo, in that State.

Size, small to medium, 24 to 3 inches ; shape, fiat, slightly conical,
irregular; angular; surface, rough, yellow, slightly blushed or
bronzed; dots, numerous, small, light; basin, rather shallow, abrupt,
narrow folded; eye, wide open, segments short; cavity, shatlow, nar-
row, lightly or not at all russeted; stem, very short, fleshy; flesh,
greenish white, rather coarse, tender; flavor, subacid, not rich;
quality, rather poor; season, October to January in Wisconsin.

Boardman.

A box of very handsome apples of medium size and quality was
received from Mr. EK. H. Purington, of West Farmington, Me., said
by him to be from a seedling of the Dean, and which I named Board-
man, in honor of the secretary of the Maine Pomological Society.
Below is a description of one of the specimens :

Size, small to medium, 24 inches; shape, flat, conical, but not
pointed, regular; surface, smooth, glossy, bright mixed and splashed
carmine almost entirely covering a white ground; dots, not very
numerous, gray, prominent; basin, medium, abrupt, regular, slightly
marked with russet or leather-cracked; eye. small, partially open;
cavity, deep, narrow, furrowed, but little russeted; stem, long, slen-
der; core, small, closed; seeds, broad, plump, sharply pointed, dark;
flesh, very white, tender, fine grained, juicy; flavor, subacid, not
rich; quality, good; season, December to spring in Maine.

THE PLUM. .
Keisey’s Japan.

Nhis variety is becoming quite famous as a fruit of high quality,
and an abundant and early bearer. It is from 2 to 2$ inches in
diameter, and heart-shaped. Its color is rich yellow, with a tint of
purple. But it is quite tender, and should not be planted north of
Tennessee. Mr. Munson, of Denison, Tex., says that the hard freeze

ee

sl

j ro
. a 4 , 4 ce
272 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIOWER OF AGRICULTURE. ica 2:

seems to be esteemed in that locality and in seme of the Northwestern — ~
States for the hardiness of the tres anc it; brilliantly colored fm |
Although it is a livtie too tart for dassert purpewes, it is liked for om
ing. itis called one of our native iven«ind, My specimens Wers
from Vermont,

Size, small, 24 inches; shape, flat, conica,, ‘eegmlar: surface, smooth
light yellow, almost hidden by bright *< °..ehes and stripes; dot
exceedingly minute, almost undiscernifie,, gat colored; basin, dee
narrow, waved; eye, small, closed; costs gausll, narrow, russeted;
stem, medium to short, slender; core. smal, moariy closed; seeds,
small, plump, rather light colored; “uh, "hits, with sometimes a
tinge of pink, tender, fine grained, juicy; flavor, exbacid, quitetarbh,
but pleasant; quality, good; season, December te epriag in ermont. es

ae 2 ae

Antonovka.

This is one of the Russian varieties that is quite gly spoken of
by Professor Budd and others who have grown i » “wa and Wis-
consin. Others think it is not a late keeper. “y -eering is froma
specimen given me by Mr. G._P. Peffer, of Wie a%, which he ob-

~tained from Mr. A. G. Tuttle; of Baraboo, im ‘it Siete —

Size, small to medium, 23 to 3-inches ; shape, Me, ~ acetty conical,
irregular; angular; surface, rough, yellow, @iig°‘., Diushed or °
bronzed; dots, numerous, small, light; basin, raih<> = ow, abrupt,
narrow folded; eye, wide open, segments short;« . -.., avellow, nar-
row, lightly or not at all russeted; stem, very “aga Sestiy; flesh,
greenish white, rather coarse, tender; flavex, # c+, mot rich;
quality, rather poor; season, October to Janawy im “ semsin, ©

Boardman.

A box of very handsome apples of mediut » =» set quality was
received from Mr. E. H. Purington, of West Seetgisyton. Mey, said
by him to be from a seedling of the Dean, ane # %ac: i named Board-
man, im honor of the secretary of the Maite Pmmological Society.
Below is a deseription of one of the specimes®

Sige. amall to medium, 24 inches; shape Sat, conical, but not
polated, regular: surface, smooth, glosay, ght mixed and splashed —

‘egwrmine almost entirely covering 4 whete svound; dots, not very

- gumerous, gray, prominent; basin, mediwm, abrupt, regular, slightly — -
marked with russet or leather-cracked; eye, sme:' partially ope
cavity, deep, narrow, furrowed, but litte russete?; stem, Jong; slen-
dat eore, small, closed; seeds, broad, i ump,..:erply pointed, dark;
tie, very white, tender, fine grained, jmcy, “svor, subacid, not

ric}. auelity, good; season, December to sprig ia Maine. i
THE PLUM. OE ona

see

Kelsey's Jape. ,

Vk: variety is becoming quite fans as a fruit of high quality, -
and an abundant and early bearer, [6 is from 2 to 23 inches in ~~
diameter, 2a4 heart-shaped. Its eae? is rich yollow, with a tint of ‘

urpis. fet i: is quite tender, and should not be planted north of
Tonnsanbe. Mtr. Manson, of Denison, Tex., says that the hard freeze _

FIdté Ne.

GILES LITHO& LIBERTY PRINTING CO.KY.

Report of the Pomological Division, Department of A griculture, 1886. Plate IL

LE Contr,

Division of Pomology

AKKANSAS BLAGK.

Plate NO

Ww

Report of the Pomological Division, Yepartment of Agriculture, 1886. Plate IV.

ELKHORN.

ARKANSAS BLACK.

Report of the Pomological Division Department of Agriculture, 1886, Plate V.

CRAWFORD.

aad (tan

Report of tne Pomological Division, Department of Agriculture, 1886, Plate VL

SHANNON,

Report of the Pomolozical Division, Department of Agriculture, 1886.

BURLINGTON,

NORTHWESTERN GREENING

Plate Vik

Plate VIII,

Wotr River.

’

Report of the Pomological Division, Department of Agriculture, 1886.

Scorr’s Winter.

ANTONOOKA,

Plate Lx,

~~)
ees. |

Report of the Pomological Division, Department of Agriculture, 1886.

Plate X.

JOARDMA

KELSEYy’s JAPAN PLUM.

’ REPORT OF THE POMOLOGIST. 278

of January 7, 1886, killed young trees of this variety there. Mr.
Kizo Tamari, of Japan, says that it is too tender to succeed in the
northern part of that country. To determine the botanical name of
the species to which this variety belongs has puzzled all the botanists
in the United States so faras 1 know. There are no specimens in the
herbariums of the country that give us any light, and Mr. Kizo Tamari
has repeatedly stated to me that he does not think it belongs to any
of the species native in Europe or America. This is a matter that is
now engaging my careful attention, _

Prof. HK. W. Hilgard, of the University of California, under date
of January 22, 1887, writes the following relative to this plum:

Your letter of inquiry regarding the antecedents of the ‘‘ Kelsey J: apan Plum” is
duly received. I have requested Mr. E. J. Wickson, lecturer on agriculture and
horticulture in this institution, to give you an account of the history of the fruit so
far as known to him, and I inclose herewith his remarks thereon.

I became acquainted with the fruit in 1876, when I planted my home orchard here,
for which Mr. John Kelsey, my near neighbor, supplied the trees, among them two
of the Japan plums. They were at the time badly infested with the oyster-shell
scale, a species that does not usually attack plums, and it was not until four or five
years after planting that I succeeded in freeing the trees entirely from the pest.
Since then they have done well and have borne regularly, but in their own peculiar
fashion. In this climate the tree is never entirely without leaves, to-day the ends
of the branches are leafy and green, and the old leaves will fall only when the new
buds begin to swell. The first blossoms usually open when the leaves are about half
grown and so continue for several weeks, new blossoms opening sometimes when
the first have already fruit nearly an inch long. The result is that the fruit likewise
ripens consecutively, a very convenient habit for family use, but rather objectiona-
ble for culture on a large scale. I hear that the same experience has been had by
others on heavy soil similar to mine here, while on lighter soils it seems to be more
regular in its habits.

J have not looked into its botanical relationship, nor attempted its identification
with the described species of Prunus from Japan. Of American plums it resembles
in habit very nearly the P. chicasa, for which in the absence of fruit it might readily
be mistaken. I will look into the characters of the other alleged Japan plums men-
tioned by Mr. Wickson, and communicate results to you.

Mr. Edward J. Wickson, of the Agricultural College at Berkeley,
Cal., makes this memorandum on ‘“‘Kelsey’s Japan Plum:”

The fruit was first shown to me during the last week in August, 1877, by the late
John Kelsey, of Berkeley, Cal. He informed me that the fruit was introduced to
this State through the efforts of Mr. Hough, of Vacaville, Solano County, then de-
ceased, in 1870; and that Mr. Hough secured the trees through Mr. Bridges, at that
time United States consul in Japan. The trees cost $10 each and Mr. Kelsey in-
formed me that he obtained all the stock from Mr. Hough.

It is my impression that Mr. Kelsey left the trees standing in the nursery rows
until fruit appeared. I am not sure how soon they first fruited, but I remember
that Mr. Kelsey told me that he had expected to show the fruit sooner, but it had
been taken by squirrels and intruders. The samples shown me in 1877 were picked
a little short of maturity to secure them. Mr. Kelsey was assured of the value of
the variety and propagated it to some extent. One thing which he conceived to
prove the tree of special value was the fact that in the dry summer of 1877 his J. apan
plum trees were vigorous and productive, while some other varieties (the Columbia
and Yellow Egg being specified) suffered severely from the drought. On a branch
which Mr. Kelsey showed me there were six plums wedged tightly together on six
inches length of wood. The good points which Mr. Kelsey saw in the fruit and in
the tree led him to propagate it to a considerable extent.

The name “‘ Kelsey’s Japan Plum” was not given to the fruit until after Mr. Kel-
sey’s death, and was then placed upon it by those who desired to honor his memory
and to make fitting recognition of his good work in pomology. The propagation of
the variety was undertaken on a large scale in 1883 by W. P. Hammon & Co., of
Oakland, Cal., who obtained the stock from the heirs of Mr. Kelsey. The first large
sale of trees was for the planting season of 1884. Although the stock had been in the
hands of other nurserymen and growers for some years before that time, its wide
distribution dates from that year.

There are a number of other ‘Japan plums’ in the hands of California growers.

18 AG—’86

974 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

which, however, are quite different from the ‘Kelsey,’ The Loquat is often called
a Japan plum, but I do not intend to include that fruit. Mr, A. D. Pryal, of North
Ferecat has shown at the fairs and at the meetings of the State Horticultural So-
ciety several plums of Japanese origin. They vary considerably in form, size, and
color from each other, and are all more regular in outline than the Kelsey. Mr.
Pryal has Japanese names for them. Mr. James Shinn, of Niles, Alameda County,
also has a collection of Japanese plums, varying in color from lemon yellow to dark
red, and very different in flavor; one variety I remember is of especial sweetness.

The Kelsey Japan Plum has been worked on different stocks by our nurserymen,
and there is some difference of opinion as toresults. Considerable plantations have
been made, but I am not aware that the market value and adaptations of the fruit
have yet been fully determined.

ORCHARDING IN NORTHERN NEW ENGLAND.
By T. H. Hoskins, M. D.

By request of the Pomologist of the Department of Agriculture I am induced to
give a sketch of the introduction of the culture of tree fruits into those parts of New
England adjacent to the Canadian Dominion. All of this section of country has
been settled during the present century, and most of it within fifty years. The first
considerable advent of population into Northeastern Vermont was about the period
of the war of 1812. This continued subsequently until the population in 1860 was
nearly as dense as in any part of the State.

The early settlers made frequent attempts to grow the tree fruits of their native
States, and not without success, until they got as far north as the mouth of Passumpsic
(about 44 degrees North). Up to this point even the Baldwin can be grown, top-
grafted into hardier trees, in favorable spots, but not profitably, on the commercial
scale, far above the mouth of the White River (about 48 degrees North). The Baldwin,
with the Rhode Island Greening and Roxbury Russet, but little hardier, are the great
market apples of New England ; and it was difficult to find anything to adequately
replace them, though the McLellan of Connecticut, Jewett’s Fine Red (Nodhead) of
New Hampshire, and later the Northern Spy and the Bethel (the last a native
seedling of the Connecticut Valley town of that name), were adopted as, substitutes
to some extent.

Following up the Passumpsic Valley nearly due north, and rising fast in altitude,
the last towns in which orcharding was made even moderately successful, until
within the last twenty years, were Barnet, Peacham, and Danville, in Caledonia
County. Those who pushed over the divide and settled Orleans County, south of
and around Lake Memphremagog, though they planted many seedling orchards,
occasional trees of which maintained a struggling existence, never were able to pro-
duce marketable fruit to any appreciable extent, and until the advent of the rail-
road, about 1862, good eating apples were about as much of a rarity as oranges there,
It may as well be noted here that the apple-producing region of the Saint Lawrence
River extends not far below Montreal and only a few miles up the tributary valleys
of the south bank. The altitude of Lake Memphremagog is about 800 feet above the
sea, but the country around it rises from that to 1,500 feet, at which last-named
height are found many of the best dairy farms. In the same latitude, 50 miles
west, on Lake Champlain, less than 100 hundred feet above the sea, in a low valley
extending from the Atlantic at the mouth of the Hudson to Montreal, all the tree
fruits of lower New England, except the peach, are successfully grown. This dif-
ference in altitude is fully equivalent to three degrees of latitude in its effect on
orchard fruits.

About the year 1864 a number of improved Siberian crab seedlings—most of them
evidently a cross with the Fameuse, so extensively grown about Montreal—were in-
troduced from Canada, and planted in Orleans, Essex, and Caledonia Counties.
These were the first apple trees genuinely successful in that section, They were
peddled at $1.50 each, and were eagerly bought. One dealer claimed, I have no
doubt truly, to have sold $42,000 worth in a single year. Three years afterwards
the writer planted on his farm, near Newport, on the lake, an orchard, in which
were set the Tetofsky, Duchess of Oldenburgh, Red and White Astrachan and Alex-
ander—all Russian apples, which had been grown many years in Eastern Massachu-
setts, from whence he had removed the previous year. ‘To these were added many
of the crab hybrids, and an apple from Montreal, some time before imported from
Normandy, in France, and now known to pomology as the Peach of Montreal, Be-
sides these, thirty other varieties, called the hardiest in Maine, New Hampshire, and
Canada, were planted. Among these the only true iron-clad found was the Bethel
of Vermont, though Fameuse, Ben Davis, and Sops of Wine have proved sufficiently

‘REPORT OF THE POMOLOGIST. 275

resistant to the climate to yield a little profit.. Both Red and White Astrachan and
Alexander have proved unprofitable, the first and last being not quite hardy, and
the other not productive enough for profit.

None of the successful apples in the above list are keepers except Bethel, which,
like Northern Spy, is very tardy in coming into full bearing. In 1870 a large num-
ber of scions from Russian trees, imported by the United States Department of
Agriculture, were sent into Vermont for trial. The only persons who seem to have
taken any pains to test these were Aaron Webster, of Roxbury, Vt., and the writer.
Mr. Webster received by far the larger assortment, and, having a large orchard, he
was able by top grafting to get fruit from most of them ina few years. My own
were root-grafted, and did not come to bearing so soon. It was soon found that
these Russian apples were to make most valuable additions to our list of summer
and fall varieties, but among them all (I refer to those sent to Vermont) only two
genuine all-winter apples were found. These are the Borsdorf (341) and Little Seed-
ling (410). The chief merit of the latter is in its remarkable keeping quality, so rare
among the Russians. It will ‘‘ keep until apples come again” with little care, and
being quite iron-clad, ought to be utilized asa mother-tree to grow crossed seedlings
from. The Borsdorf, though only of medium size with good culture, is of nice ap-
pearance and excellent quality. If it had not been for the advent of the Wealthy it
would have received much more attention than it has.

The purpose of this paper is not to give a detailed description of hardy fruits, but
merely to outline the history of their introduction, and of their successful culture,
in Northern New England, Though the writer came to Vermont from Massachu-
setts, he is a native of Maine, and as soon as he had solved the problem of apple
culture for Northern Vermont, his thoughts turned to the vast and fertile Aroostook
region of that State, covering an arable territory as large as the whole of Vermont.
Iiven the southern boundary of that section is 100 miles north of the north line of
Vermont, but its much less altitude (scarcely anywhere more than 300 feet above the
sea) and its proximity to the ocean prevent the winter's cold from being greater thcre
than here. A nurseryman in Woodstock, New Brunswick, had distributed some of
the early imported Russian apples and the Fameuse in Southern Aroostook, as wellas
some of the hybrid Siberians, about 1868, and these were the only apples grown there
when, in 1872, I began to send scions to the addresses of Aroostook farmers whom
I found mentioned by the Maine agricultural press as attempting to grow apples.
This I have continued, and twice, at the invitation of the secretary of the Maine
Board of Agriculture, I have visited Aroostook and taken part in the discussions in
the board’s meetings on the subject of orchard culture. In this way I have become
somewhat acquainted with the resources of this, by far the finest, as well as the
most extensive, agricultural region of New England. For dairy, stock, and fruit
farming Aroostook is inferior to Western New York and Ohio only in its colder win-
ter temperature. It is now being settled with considerable rapidity, and everywhere
the planting of orchards of iron-clad apples keeps pace with the opening of farms.

New Hampsbire tapers northward as Vermont tapers southward in territory, only
more sharply; yet its northern county, Coos, possesses a large amount of excellent
farming land, much of which is already improved. Here, too, the iron-clad apples
are being extensively planted, and already the home market is being supplied, as in
Northern Vermont, with home-grown apples. The upper Connecticut Valley is ad-
mirably adapted to orcharding, and will in the end contribute largely to the fruit
supply of the large towns and villages of that State.

The Wealthy apple, originated in Minnesota by Peter M. Gideon, is not only the
leading triumph in this line, but its appearance has taught us the most hopeful line
of future advance in growing seedlings for the cold North. It has shown the rapid
the improvability of the Siberian and Russian class of apples under crossing and with
careful selection of seedlings. Although in the Upper Mississippi region of Northern
Iowa and Minnesota the heat of autumn makes the Wealthy only a late fall or early
winter apple (as Southern New Jersey in the same way transforms New England’s
long-keeping Baldwin), it is found in Northern New England that with early gather- .
ing and proper handling it keeps and preserves its quality until the last of March
where it is grown. But it will not do this when exposed to the contingencies of
transportation; and for shipment, wherever grown, it cannot be classed with the
long keepers. The only genuine long-keeping iron-clad, possessing the necessary
productiveness, along with other qualities of a shipping apple, which I am yet ac-
quainted with, is a native seedling of this town, scions of which I have distributed
widely under the name of Scott’s Winter. But the future leading winter market
apple of the cold North must surpass Scott’s Winter in size and in dessert quality,
and I am anxiously looking to Mr. Gideon’s extensive seedling orchards, produced
under his system of crossing, for the desired apple. He has already announced a
seedling of the Wealthy almost duplicating its other qualities, witha longer season,

276 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

which he calls the ‘‘ Peter,” and I believe he, or some other Northwestern experi-
menter, proceeding on the same principle, will soon give us a Northern equal (or
superior) of the Baldwin. This is alone needed to give the cold North the lead in -
orcharding, for it is a well-ascertained fact that the long days of our Northern sum-
mers are in the highest degree favorable to that combination of high color, delicate
texture, and fine aroma which sells an apple at sight in every market of the world.
Already the Wealthy is being shipped to England from Canada with profit, and a
long-keeping Wealthy is all that is now required to become the leading commercial
apple of America.

NEWPORT, VT., January 14, 1887.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the kind and helpful spirit which
has been manifested by every one with whom I have had to do in the
work of practical investigation and in the preparation of this report.
Among these may be mentioned Prof. T. V. Munson, Mr. and Mrs.
J. R. Johnson and J. R. Howell, of Texas; Profs. EK. Hilgard and
George Husmann, of California; Prof. W. H. Ragan, of Indiana; Mr.
F. W. Loudon and George P. Peffer, of Wisconsin; George W. Camp-
bell and W. N. Irwin, of Ohio; G. F. Kennan, of Arkansas; E. H.
Hart, John Anderson, and C. B. Magruder, of Florida; E. B. Engle,
of Pennsylvania; S. M. Wiggins, of Louisiana; T. H. Hoskins, of
Vermont; C. W. Garfield, T. T. Lyon, J. W. Van Deman, and W. G.
Voorheis, of Michigan. Many others might properly be added to the
list of those who have done what they could to help carry on the work.

Respectfully submitted.
H. E. VAN DEMAN,

Pomologist.

Hon. Norman J. Cotman,
Comnisstoner of Agriculture.

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST.

Str: I have the honor to submit the following summary of the
work done in the Division of Chemistry during the year 1886.

DAIRY PRODUCTS.

A careful study has been made of the best methods of determining
the foreign fats which are used in the adulteration of butter.

The expressions “‘fats” and ‘‘oils” designate those natural products
of animals and vegetables known as glycerides. Chemically consid-
ered they are the normal propenyl ethers of the fatty acids, or, in
other words, compounds of the triad alcohol, glycerine, with the fatty
acids. The term ‘‘fat” is applied to such bodies when they aresolid
at ordinary temperatures, and ‘‘ oil” when they are semi-solid or liquid.
Those which are most important are:

Tri-stearin, C3Hs(CizHs5O2)s, occuring in natural fats. It may be ob-
tained in a considerable degree of purity by repeated crystallizations
from ether. It crystallizes in plates of a peal luster. Its melting
point is 55° C. rey

Tri-palmitin, C3Hs(CisHs102)3, is found in animal fats and palm-oil.
It crystallizes with a pearly luster from ether. The crystals have a
melting point of from 50° to 66° C,

Tri-butyrin, C;H;(C,H7O2)3, occurs chiefly in butter. At ordinary
temperature it is liquid, and has a distinct and peculiar odor and
taste.

Tri-olein, ©3H5(Ci3H3302)3, occurs in animal fats and in almond and
olive oil. At ordinary temperatures it is liquid, neutral to test pa-
pers, and has neither taste nor smell.

Minute quantities of tri-myristin, tri-caprin, and tri-caprylin are
also found in butter.

Pure butter fat is supposed to contain:

Per cent.
CTT) 200 ELTON es OS a Bere ee a eae A LR Ro 42.5
Rate Ne ree TSE ANSEL Sasi asta l s sinsaedajaste aN Sine Sle » cla UIAAaIs Rade aR PRE 51.0
OO) Tetra r= Uday MOLE tee aisus, Yok is. Shes. dE cya cieeasyo yaar therePpiete ish Ov) LANE eho abet ee Se 6.3
Gey CU TOERIIOUD. 6 oo nce sce «50.0 50.0 4 «/ 40's, gpanie.cie nie nid « orerera deny axbin et om eee 2
100.00

Olive oil is composed chiefly of tri-palmitin and olein. Tri-stearin
is the chief constituent of mutton fat, it having only small quantities
of olein and palmitin. Beef fat has somewhat more palmitin and
stearin than mutton tallow. Lard has more olein. It is thus seen
that in dealing with butter fats and their substitutes we have to con-
sider chiefly tri-olein and stearin, and, in smaller quantities, tri-pal-
mitin, butyrin, &c. It follows, therefore, that the chief differences
in the general characters of these substances will be due to the dif-
ferent Tad oak Pe in which these glycerides are mixed and to such
other physical differences as the various sources of the substances

(277)

278 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.’

under examination would produce. These differences, however, hap-
pily appear greater when subjected to the analysis of polarized light
than the foregoing résumé of their chemical properties would indi-
cate. In other words, the physical differences in the various natural
fats are as important as the chemical. Advantage has been taken of
these differences of physical structure to discriminate between fats
and oils of different origins. The specific gravity and the melting
point furnish two valuable points of discrimination, but both of these
are perhaps inferior in value to the evidence afforded by the crystal-
line structure of the fats. The observation with the microscope of
the crystals obtained in various ways furnishes valuable data for dis-
crimination, andif polarized light and a selenite plate be used, these
data become still more valuable.

The first account of the use of the selenite plate in such examina-
tion was given by Dr. J. Campbell Brown in the Chemical News,
Vol. 28, page 1. He gives the following directions for the polaro-
microscopic work:

Examine several portions of the original samples by means of a good microscope,
using a one-quarter or one-fifth inch object glass. In butter made from milk or
cream nothing is seen except the characteristic globules and the granular masses of
curd and the cubical crystals of salt. The hard fats of butter are present in the
globules in a state of solution, and are not recognizable in a separate form.

If stearic acid, stearin, or palmitin be present in separate form, they will be recog-
nizable by single fusiform crystals, or star-like aggregations of acicular crystals.
They indicate the presence of melted fats.

Other substances, such as starch, flour, palm-oil, corpuscles, Irish moss, coloring

matter, &c., may also be distinguished by the microscope, as distinct from butter
or fats.

Examine the same portions with the same object glass, together with a polari-
scope, consisting of two Nicol’s prisms and a selenite plate. The crystals referred
to polarize light, and when viewed by the polariscope are distinctly defined. Par-
ticles of suet and other fats which have not been melted may also be distinguished
by their action on polarized light, by their amorphous form, and by their membranes.

The value of this deportment of fresh butter fat with elliptically
polarized light did not meet with the appreciation its merits deserved
until attention was again called to it by Dr. Thomas Taylor, of the
Department of Agriculture.

Any fat or oil which is homogeneous and non-crystalline will
present the same phenomena when viewed with polarized light and
selenite plate; in other words, will have no effect on the appearance
of the field of vision. It is only, therefore, fats which are in a crys-
talline or semi-crystalline state that can thus be distinguished from
fresh, amorphous butter. Naturally it follows that a butter which
has been melted and cooled, or butter which has stood a long time,
would impart a mottled appearance to the field of vision. For a sim-
ple preliminary test, however, the procedure is worthy of more atten-
tion than its discoverer, Dr. Campbell Brown, accorded to it.

>

FORMS OF FAT CRYSTALS.

The forms of fat crystals differ greatly with the kinds of fat and
the proportions in which they are mixed. It would be idle to attempt
a description of all these modifications.

Husson (Ann. d. Chem. et d. Pharm., 5, 12, 469) has published an
illustrated description of some of the more important fat crystals.
Suet crystals, according to Husson, are very characteristic of stearin.
They are small rounded or elliptical masses, formed by stiff, needle-
like crystals, and resemble a sea-urchin or hedge-hog.

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 279

In lard are seen polyhedral cells, arising from the compression of
the fatty globules. In impure lard are also seen the remains of cells
and adipose tissue. Fresh butter shows some long and delicate
needles of margarine (?), united in bundles and grouped in various
ways. When the butter is melted these needles diminish in length
and become grouped round a central point. I have mentioned these
descriptions especially for the purpose of calling attention to the fact
that in the illustrations of the microscopic appearance of butters and
other fats emphasis is often gyven to one particular phenomenon and
the real appearance as seen in the microscope is not reproduced.

The only reliable representation is found in the actual photomi-
crograph or its exact graphic reproduction.

When the crystals of certain fats are prepared in a special way
they show, with polarized light, a distinct cross, the existence of
bee is explained by the laws of elliptical polarization already men-
tioned.

This cross was first described by Messrs, Hehner and Angell in 1874,
in the following words:

If some of a fat containing crystals be placed on a slide and a drop of castor oil or
olive oil be applied and pressed out with a thin glass cover, the depolarization of
light is much enhanced; a revolving black cross, not unlike that in some starch
grains, is seen in great perfection. These crosses are most clearly defined in the
oes obtained from butter, and these thus mounted form a brilliant polariscopic
opject.

They add further:

Thus far, and no further, as it seems to us, can the microscope assist us in this mat-
ter; but even such indications are valuable, especially when subsequent analysis
proves the sample to be an adulterated article. The microscopic evidence in such a
case frequently serves to clinch together the whole superstructure, and thus certainty
is made doubly sure.

Dr. Thomas Taylor has further called attention to this phenomenon
in a paper read before the American Society of Microscopists at its
Cleveland meeting, August, 1885. On page 2 of the reprint of this
paper he says:

Since the publication of that paper I have experimented largely with butter, and
have made the discovery that when it is boiled and cooled slowly for a period of
from twelve to twenty-four hours at a temperature of from 50° to 70° F., it not only
becomes crystallized, but with proper mounting and the use of polarized light it ex-
hibits on each crystal a well-defined figure resembling what is known as the cross
of St. Andrew. In course of time, the period ranging from a few days to a few
weeks, according to the quality of the butter used and the temperature to which it
is exposed, the crystals, which at first are globular, degenerate, giving way to nu-
merous rosettelike forms peculiar to butter.

On page 5 he says:

' About ten years ago, while making some experiments with boiled butter, I first
observed it exhibited small crystals somewhat stellar in form, but gave no, further
attention to the fact until May last. For the purpose of determining the real form
of the crystal of boiled butter I procured a sample of pure dairy butter from Ohio.
I boiled it, and when cold examined it under a power of 75 diameters. To my sur-
prise I found globular bodies. When I subjected them to polarized light a cross,
consisting of arms of equal length, was observed on each crystal.

Prof. H. A. Weber, of Columbus, Ohio, has made some interesting
experiments with the microscope on fats, which, in the main, bear
out the conclusions of Messrs. Brown, Hehner and Angell, and Tay-
lor. As was to be expected, however, he has shown that the appear-
ance of the crosson a crystal of natural fat does not show that it was

280 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

derived from pure butter. He says, in Bulletin No. 13 of the Ohio
Experimental Station, Experiments 7, 8, 9, and 10:

Experiment 7.—The difference between the behavior of the tallow fats in Experi-
ment 3 and the last three experiments could only be ascribed to a difference of con-
ditions. It is well known that table butter normally contains 4 to 6 per cent. of salt
and 5 to 20 per cent. of water. These ingredients constitute the most marked dif-
ference between butter and the rendered animal fats, as tallow and lard. In order
to test the effect of this mixture upon the tailow fats, about half an ounce of the
oleo oil used in Experiment 3 was mixed in a porcelain mortar with a small quan-
tity of salt and eight or ten drops of water. Ag'ter the water was thoroughly incor-
porated the mass was transferred to a test tube and boiled for one minute, as in the
case of butter. It was then poured into a wooden pill-box and allowed to cool as
before. The cooled mass presented quite a marked difference in appearance from
that obtained from the same substance in Experiment 3. It retained to a great ex-
tent the yellow color of the oleo oil, was of a more granular nature, and in fact
resembled boiled butter in every respect. Whena small particle was stirred up with
olive oil on a glass slide it separated readily. When covered and viewed with a
pocket lens it revealed a mass of globules resembling insect eggs. Under the micro-
scope these exhibited essentially the same characteristics as those obtained from but-
ter in Experiment 1. The crystalline mass of the oleo globule seemed somewhat
coarser, and to this condition was ascribed the fact that the cross, as well as the
colors produced by the selenite plate, were Jess sharply defined than in the globules
obtained from butter. The slides prepared from this material were remarkably free
from the small detached crystals of fat observed in Experiment 3.

Experiment 8.—Having thus discovered that these globular masses may be ob-
tained from pure yellow fat by simply observing the conditions which obtain in but-
ter making, the following test was made: Nine grams of oleo oil and one gram of
lard were placed in a small beaker, and eight or ten drops of a saturated solution of
salt in water added. The mixture was then gently heated to melt the fats. After
shaking violently for a few moments to mix the salt solution with the fats, the
mixture was boiled gently for one minute, and then allowed to cool, as before, in a
wooden pill-box. The microscopic examination of this preparation revealed globular
masses which could in no wise be distinguished from those obtained from pure but-
ter. The crystalline texture was dense, the cross of St. Andrew plainly marked
and the colors produced by the selenite sharply defined.

Experiment 9.—A mixture of one part of lard to five parts of oleo oil was treated
as in the last experiment with like results.

Experiment 10.—In this test a mixture consisting of 20 per cent. of lard and 80
per cent. of oleo oil was employed. Whether the consistency of this mixture was
peculiarly adapted to the formation of the globules or whether possible variations
of conditions in manipulations were more favorable the writer is unable to judge
from a single experiment, but the fact is that in this case the individual ‘ butter
crystals ” were exceedingly large and characteristic.

In Bulletin No. 15 of the Ohio Experimental Station, Professor
Weber shows that the conclusions in respect of the origin of fat crystals
and the behavior of butter and other fats under polarized light con-
tained in his Bulletin No. 13 and in this paper are correct in every
particular.

Specific gravity.—The specific gravity of a fat is a physical prop-
erty of considerable importance in determining its character. For
instance, the specific gravity of butter fat is uniformly higher than
for any of the common fats used as adulterants therefor. Since the
fats used for butter substitutes all melt at about 40° C. or under it is
convenient to select that temperature for the determination of specific
gravities. Many investigators, however, make the determination at
100° I’. Wehave found that a pure butter fat has a specific gravity
A of .909 to .912, water at the same temperature being taken at

On the other hand, butter substitutes show a comparative density
of .900 to .905.

In these conditions it would be reasonable to suppose that a butter
having less than .909 for specific gravity is adulterated, and the degree

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 281

of adulteration would be indicated by the number expressing the rel-
ative weight. In order that these numbers give reliable results it is
necessary that the manipulation whereby they are obtained be made
with the greatest care.

Melting point.—The melting point of a fat is also a physical prop-
erty which is of value in determining its character. Unfortunately
the methods heretofore in use for determining the melting point have
not been reliable.

The difficulty has been to fix upon a point that really represents
the passage of the fat from a solid to a liquid state. Since, however,
in his transit the fat passes through all the grades of solid, semi-
solid, and liquid, it has been found impracticable to fix the point with
any degree of definiteness.

I have sought to overcome this difficulty by fixing on some definite
physical phenomenon which can be observed with a considerable de-
gree of accuracy.

Since fats pass gradually from a soft solid to a mobile liquid, it oc-
curred to me that the point at which the molecular attraction of the
perce overcome the molecular adhesion might be determined.

n order to do this, however, it was necessary to subject the particle
of fat to be observed to conditions in which it would be affected by
-no other force except itsown molecular stress. For this purpose the
fat was raised to a temperature a few degrees above the ae point,
and in this condition dropped onto the surface of ice or water cooled
to a degree which would enable it to fix the thin film of fat before it
could recoil into a spheroid state.

The diameter of these fat disks should be about 1.5 centimeters, and
each of them should weigh about 200 milligrams.

To free these disks from all external force I submerge them in a
mixture of alcohol and distilled water, each recently boiled, to free it
of all air bubbles.

The distilled water is first poured into a large test-tube until it is
one-third full. The alcohol is now added, pouring it in rather care-
fully until the tube is nearly full. After standing for an hour all
parts of the liquid are of the same temperature, but the heavy liquid
remains at the bottom of the tube. One of the disks of fat prepared
as above is now placed in the test-tube. It sinks until it comes to a

oint where the liquid of the tube is of the same specific gravity as
itself, and there remains stationary. (The fat disks are kept on the
cold water until they are to beused. They are moved by lifting them
with a metallic spatula).

The test-tube is now placed in a tall beaker of water, and the bulb
of a delicate thermometer is brought near the disk of fat. (These
thermometers should indicate tenths of a degree. They were made
especially for this work by Emil Greiner, of New York.) The water
in the beaker is now heated very slowly, and constantly stirred either
by blowing into the beaker with a rubber bulb, or by a paddle. The
thermometer is also gently moved from side to side in order to secure
a perfect uniformity of temperature in the liquid in contact with the
disk. A thermometer is also placed in the water in the beaker, the
temperature of which is not allowed to rise more than 2° above the
melting point of the fat. As the temperature approaches the critical
point the disk is observed to roll up into a rod, which gradually
shortens until the mass becomes a perfect sphere. The movement of
the thermometer imparts a rotatory motion to the globule, and thus
enables the observer to determine the exact point at which it becomes

282 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

a sphere. The rate of the rise of temperature during the last degree
should not be greater than two or three tenths of a certs a minute.
By this method agreeing duplicate or triplicate determinations can
be made and the melting point of fats be determined with far greater
accuracy than by any method heretofore proposed.
Pure butter fat is found by this method to have a melting point of
about 33°.5C.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.

Of the chemical methods employed there are only three which have
been found reliable by long experience. The first of these consists
in the separation and determination of the insoluble acids of the but-
ter or fat under examination. It is generally known as the method
of Hehner and Angell, but has undergone many modifications in the
hands of different analysts.

The following is a description of this method as practiced in this
laboratory:

HEHNER AND ANGELL’S METHOD, MODIFIED.

About 4 to 5 grams of filtered fat are weighed into a patent rubber
stoppered bottle, by means of a pipette and weighing bottle, and 50
cubic centimeters of an approximately semi-normal alcoholic potash
solution added. Duplicate blanks, ¢. e., alcoholic potash without any
fat, are also measured out and all placed in the water-bath. When
saponification is complete they are taken off, cooled down, and the con-
tents run into large Erlenmeyer flasks of 300 to 400 cubic centimeters
capacity, the liquid adhering to tne bottle being rinsed into the flask
with small successive portions of boiling water. The flasks are placed
on the steam-bath and the alcohol evaporated. Then the amount of
semi-normal acid required to set free the fatty acids is ascertained by
titrating the blanks. Afterwards about 1 cubic centimeter more
than this amount of acid is run into the flask containing the sample,
which is fitted with a cork furnished with a glass tube about 1 meter
long. It is then heated on the bath until the fatty acids form a clear
stratum on the surface of the liquid, when it isremoved, cooled with
ice water as rapidly as is consistent with the safety of the flask, the
tube rinsed out, and the contents carefully poured off from the cake
of solidified acid through a dry filter into a liter flask. After being
rinsed with a little cold water, about.20 cubic centimeters of boiling
water is poured in on the cake, the cork and tube replaced, the con-
tents thoroughly agitated with a circular movement, so as not to get
any of the contents on the cork, and the flask again placed on the
bath. When heated to the full temperature of the bath it is taken
off again, shaken well, and cooled and filtered as before. This wash-
ing is repeated three times, using in all about 600 to 700 cubic centi-
meters of water, when the filtrate is made up to 1 liter, an aliquot
part taken and titrated with deci-normal soda. The excess of sem1-
normal acid used in separating the fatty acids is deducted, and the
remainder calculated as butyric acid.

The flask containing the insoluble acids is carefully inverted on a
stand, and allowed to dry for twenty-four hours in the air, together
with the filter paper, the funnel-shaped neck of the Erlenmeyer flask

reventing the cake of acid from dropping out. The paper and flask
eae quite dry, so that the acid does not stick to them, the cake in

nm REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 283

the flask is broken up with a glass rod and allowed to drop into a
weighed dish, together with whatever is readily detached from the
filter paper. The funnel with the filter paper 1s then placed in the
flask, a hole made in the point of the paper, and the remaining par-
ticles washed into the flask with absolute alcohol delivered from a
small wash bottle. After dissolving up all the particles left in the
flask by the same solvent, it is poured into the dish containing the rest
of the insoluble acid, and the dak rinsed out with another small! por-
tion of absolute alcohol. This dissolves the fatty acids nearly as
rapidly as ether, and is not so volatile, besides serving the purpose
of aiding in driving off the water from the acids, when drying. The
dish is now placed in a steam-jacketed air bath and kept at a temper-
ature of 100° C. for about 2 hours after the alcohol has been all
driven off. After cooling and weighing, it is again dried for two
. hours longer. If not over 10 to 15 milligrams have been lost it is
not dried further; otherwise it is dried for another hour. The dish
is then weighed, the original weight of the dish subtracted, and the
percentage of insoluble acid determined by dividing its weight by the
weight of the fat taken. The percentage of insoluble acid in a pure
butter is about 88. In someraresamples it may reach 89, but in such
a case there are grave grounds for suspicion. Lards, tallows, &c.,
on the contrary, have from 92 to 94 of insoluble acid.
The second chemical method in use is known as

KOETTSTORFER’S PROCESS.

About 2.5 grams butter fat (filtered and free from water) are weighed
into a patent rubber-stoppered bottle, and 25 cubic centimeters apy~¢x-
imately semi-normal alcoholic potash added. The exact amount taken
is determined by weighing a small pipette with the beaker of fat, run-
ning the fat into the bottle from the pipette, and weighing beaker and
pipette again. The alcoholic potash is measured always in the same
pipette and uniformity further insured by always allowing it to drain
the same length of time (30 seconds). The bottle is then placed in the
steam bath, together with a blank, containing no fat. After saponi-
fication is complete and the bottles cooled down, the contents are
titrated with accurately semi-normal hydrochloric acid, using phenol-
phthalein as an indicator. The number of cubic centimeters of the
acid used for the sample, deducted from the number required for the
blank, gives the number of cubic centimeters which combines with the
fat, and the saturation equivalent is calculated by the following form-
ula, in which W equals the weight of fat taken in milligrams, and
N the number of cubic centimeters which has combined with the fat:

le SWE
Sat. Equiv. =a

For pure butters the mean value of N is about 17 when 2.5 grams of
butter fat are taken, and the saturation equivalent may vary from
230 to 255. On the other hand, for lards, tallows, and other fats com-
monly used for adulterants the equivalent rises to 270 to 290. These
numbers, therefore, give a fair idea of the purity of a butter, or, if
an adulteration has been practiced, of its extent. . .

The third chemical process used has for its object the determina-
tion of the volatile acids present in a fat. Although not an absolute
method, yet it has met with great favor among analysts.

284 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

REICHERT’S METHOD, AS EMPLOYED IN THE DIVISION LABORATORY.

About 2.5 grams of filtered fat are weighed into a rubber-stoppered
bottle, as in the previous methods, 25 cubic centimeters approxi-
mately seminomal alcoholic potash added, and the bottle h cated on the
water bath until the fat is saponified. It is then rinsed with boiling
water into an evaporating dish and the alcohol evaporated. ‘The resid-
ual mixture of soap and alkali is dissoved in 25 cubic centimeters —
water, which is poured into a flask of about 200 cubic centimeters ca-
pacity, and the dish is rinsed out with another portion of 25 cubic cen-
timeters water, and this also added to the contents of the flask, 20
cubic centimeters of a 10 per cent. solution of phosphoric acid (specific
gravity 1.07) are added to separate the acid, the flask fitted to a con-
denser, and the volatile acids distilled off. "When 50 cubic centime-
ters have distilled over, the process is stopped and the distillate
titrated with deci-normal soda.

To prevent the liquid from carrying over non-volatile acid mechan-
ically, the tube which connects it with the condenser runs up straight
about 12 to 16 centimeters above the flask before it bends, and is also
enlarged into a bulb, which is filled with broken glass or glass wool.
A coil of platinum wire is placed in the flask to prevent bumping,
and the distillation is carried on at a sufficiently low temperature to
avoid violent ebullition. The total quantity of soluble acid in a pure
butter amounts to about 5 per cent. It may rise to 6 or sink to 4 per
cent. in some cases.

In conclusion, I will say that with the aid of all the methods men-
tioned on the preceding pages the chemist is reasonably certain of
beinsuable to distinguish a pure from an adulterated butter.

Iv'appears further that the microscope with polarized light affords
one of the best means of qualitatively examining a butter for impu-
rities when the samples are fresh, while the estimation of the extent
to which an adulteration has been carried is best discovered by de-
termining the specific gravity and melting point of the fat, and by
subjecting it to the chemical processes just described.

SIMPLE QUALITATIVE TEST FOR ARTIFICIAL BUTTER.

The quantity of stearin in cow butter is small compared with that
in lard, tallow, &c. On this difference of constitution Professor
Scheffer (Pharm. Rundsch., 1886, 4, 248) has based a method of analy-
sis. A mixture is made containing forty volumes of rectified amyl
alcohol and sixty volumes of ether of .725 specific gravity at 15°C. One
gram of butter fat is dissolved by 3 cubic centimeters of this mixture
at 26° to 28° C. On the other hand, 1 gram of lard required 16 cubic
centimeters of the solvent, 1 gram of tallow 50 cubic centimeters,
and 1 gram of stearin 350 cubic centimeters.

For the experiment take a test tube of 12 cubic centimeters capacity
and place in it 1 gram fat, add 3 cubic centimeters of the fusel-oil
ether mixture. After tightly corking the tube put it in a water bath
at 18° C. and with frequent shaking bring the temperature to 28°C.
If the butter is pure the solution becomes perfectly clear at this tem-

erature.- If not clear, more of the solution can be run in out of a
Panaite, and the additional quantity required will be some indication
of the quantity or quality of the adulterant which has been used.

' REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 985

According to Scheffer, mixtures of pure butter and lard gave the
following data:

A trial of this method has shown that it is capable of giving valua-
ble qualitative indications in respect of the purity of the sample under
. examination.

The best method to secure a sensibly uniform weight of fats is to
melt them and measure out from a pipette one cubic centimeter of
each. The fats which do not melt easily should be stirred up thor-
oughly with a wire, while the temperature is raised from 18 to 28° C.

ANALYSES OF BUTTERS AND BUTTER SUBSTITUTES.

In the following tables are found the analyses of—
1) Butters which are shown by the analyses to be genuine.
2) Butters which are doubtful on account of low specific gravity
and a low amount of soluble acid.
(3) Oleomargarines, butterines, oils, and lards.
The following methods of analyses, not already described, were
employed:

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
Preparation of the sample.

About half a pound of the butter is melted in a beaker in the
water bath, stirred occasionally, and when the whole has melted and
the water and curd have settled to the bottom the clear fat is poured
on a ribbed filter in a jacketed funnel. If the filtrate is not perfectly
clear and bright it must be refiltered after being reheated. A tem-
perature of 45° to 50° C. will be found most suitable to effect the melt-
ing; a higher temperature should be avoided, as otherwise the density
may be largely increased. For this reason the fat is kept in a melted
condition as short a time as possible.

DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

The filtered fat is melted on the water bath at 45° C. and poured into
an ordinary 25-cubic-centimeter specific-gravity bottle. The bottle,
with its contents, is then placed in a shallow glass dish full of warm
water and kept at the temperature of 40°C. for ten minutes. The water
in the dish should be nearly on a level with the top of the bottle. The
bottle is kept full by the addition of more fatif necessary. Attheend
of the specified time the stopper is inserted, the excess of fat wiped off,
and the bottle withdrawn from the bath, wiped thoroughly, and al-
lowed to cool before weighing. The increase in weight is equal to the

286 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

weight of the fat, and this divided by the weight of an equal volume
of water at the same temperature will give the specific gravity.

If a specific-gravity bottle with a thermometer stopper, is used, the
temperature is obtained more readily, as the bottle is withdrawn from
the bath as soon as the desired temperature is observed.

DETERMINATION OF THE SALT.

Weigh out 5 grams of the butter in a tared beaker, melt and pour
into a bulb-separating funnel, and wash out beaker thoroughly with
boiling water. Shake funnel and contents and allow to stand and
settle. Run off the water and repeat treatment with about 50 cubic
centimeters boiling water. From 4 to 5 washings will remove all
traces of thesalt. The solution is then titrated with a standard solu-
tion of silver nitrate, using a few drops of a saturated solution of po-
tassium chromate as an indicator, From the number of cubic centi-
moters of silver solution used it is easy to calculate the amount of salt
contained in the butter.

Analyses of butter substitutes.

: b b b Ce
be P<} s : m
5 2 ue} Os | , - iter
ab BS @ |38/35 g ee [34
:. foe o 3 = fs} ~~ g/S
2 Articles =] 3 a | 3 S| $2 ag
e.fiu| 3 |34|as EI RE gS
3 e7)2| 2 |22/88) 214/212 88 \a¢
i Ss = | aI
5 Be] 8 leP le yas) a8 | eee
P.ct,| Per ct.| P.ct.| P. ct:| P, ct,| P. ct.| P, ct.| P. ct
ABO IGANG e. <.21s 212.5 sie ier ieee . 90588 | 0. 08 92.59 | 0.41 | 0.08 | 0.00 | 0.00 |. 0875 | trace 30 .20
1751" | Beek suet........- 04.4. - 9018 | 0.25 92. 59 0.22 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.00 |...... | .00 | 296,90 .10
1753 | Oleomargarine...... . 9u4y0 | 9.34 93.59 | 0.12 | 0.25 | 3.64 | 8.66 |. 3500 .63 | 274.00 .70
1754 | Neutral lard ........ "90309 | 7.42 | 90.00 | 0.20 | 0.10 | 0.40 | 0.00 |...... .02 | 270.50 | 30
1755 | Creamery butterine*| .90569 |11,69 | 92.90 | 1.1 1.53 | 2.39 | 2.71 |. 3063 74 | 274.80 | 4.30
1756 | Oleofatt............ . 90287 |14.28 | 98.35 | 0.10 | 0.08 | 0.97 | 1.07 |...... 286. 20 20
1787 | Country print....... . 90561 [14.45 | 98.72 | ONO Gi arcrane’s 2.42 | 2.35 |.8750 | 1.82 | 281.10] 1.90
*40 per cent. butter fat, 15 per cent. oleo fat, 30 per cent. neutral lard.
+Average, 40 pounds per fat steer.
Analyses of doubtful butters.*
> , > b
c= Ko ela, : 2
ao aS 5 3 5 S z E eS :
the aw | ee = = 8p
Serial number. 23 if 3 ia : od 5 BE | on
mg g = fe) ae & . ; $3 g i)
2 8 A 2a as = | 3 + 8 e 3 By
SE | d eee ded: doleo) Boe
Per ct.| Per ct.| P.ct,| P.ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| P, ct
90968 7.45 | 89.45 | 8.61 | 4.60 2. 64 2.69 . 7443 | 1.41 | 252.80 13.10
90964 | 11.80 | 80.44 | 3.54] 4.25] 5.28] 5.34] .5688 | 1.63 | 253.60] 12,10
90987 | 12,12] 87,60) 4.71 | 4,54 0,00 0,12 | .4875 98 | 251.50 12. 90
90974 | 10.90 | 88.68 | 4,73 | 4.45 2.16 2.29 | .4818 | 1,38 | 249.70 12.60
90972 | 20,84) 87.82 | 4,84 | 4.27 0, 00 0,12 | .9625 | 1.86 | 260,10 12.10
90947 | 11.59 | 88.01 | 3,16 ]...... 5.00 5.00 8750 | 1.56 | 250.60 12.50
90964 | 10.06 | 88,42} 8,02 ]..,... 5,40 5. 66 750 | 1,58 | 250.7 11.60
90938 8,50 | 88,00 | 3.34 |,..... AU ON ie A eee 1.12 | 258.50 12.30
90965 9.06 | 88.50 | 3.44 |...... 2. 84 8.43 437; -98 | 252.00 11.70

* These samples were bought for pure butter,

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 287

Analyses of butter.

|

i cad cal aw S 7
. a ae bed 4 wa |S 2
8T) 8 mo | aS 3 a
boo © 3 op 3 S © S a jFl= 77
Seria] number. og = od | oF 4 AS | has
Be 3 & |e (Selo. Ela | BS |B es
a" | 3 | & |Se/S5/3]/4)2|8 | 2 lag
n eS SG la’ |e a7 4 4 o) lp o

Pr. ct. | Pr..ct. |P.ct.| P: ct.| P, ct. | P, ct. P, ct..| P..ct
Eitri ienat dacice cre 0 4.< ees 91046 13.33 88.64 | 4.01 | 4.50 | 2,84 |......|. 7875 | 1.46 | 254.20 | 12.50
arent e he's sit 6 sv 3 cis op se 91119 8.53 87.85 | 4.14 | 4.57 | 3.69 | 3.43 |.8312 | 1.31 | 250.60 | 13.10
ae ene a Sivie del cisitces'< 91032 8.57 | 88.65 | 3.52 | 4.7 2.81 | 2,97 |.8750 | 1.30 | 268.50 | 13.50
ae cease il sctec ce cenes 91067 6.14 &8.08 | 3.68 | 5.48 | 2.04 | 2.02 |. 5688 | 1.25 | 264.90 | 15.30
(RP feta agate o 2.6 6's1s-)s o's bo 0! 91029 16.82 | 88.91 | 3.00 | 4.56 | 3.79 | $.97 |.7488 | 1.56 | 252,70 | 12.90
i Ce ARABS IGE aI 91244 | 4.59 86.60 | 5.02 | 5.51 | 3.41 | 2,97 |.5250 | 0.83 | 244.30 | 15.60
bd 11.46 87.50 | 5.49 | 4.61 | 1.48 |-1.55 |,8812 | 1.14 | 250.10 | 13.10
17.38 | 88.07 | 8.70 | 4.54 | 0.00 | 0.06 |,4875 | 0.68 | 238.60 | 12,80
18.965 | 87.47 | 4.78 | 4,80 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 4375 | 0.81 | 249.70 | 13.60
22,12 | 87.84 | 4.98 | 4.70 | 0.00 | 0.06 |.1750 | 0.49 | 248.70 } 18.40
23.46 7.47 | 5,27 | 4.99 | 0.00 | 0.05 |.1750 | 0.59 | 243.00 | 14.10
21.02 | 87.38 | 5.15 | 4.93 | 0.00 | 0.00 |.2188 | 1.01 | 248.80 | 14.00
11,89 7.71 | 4.69 | 4,98 | 2.61 | 2.84 |. 2625 | 1.30 | 244.90 | 14,10
21.96 | 86.65 | 5.34 | 4.74 | 0.00 | 0,11 |.4375 | 1.21 | 244.00 | 18.20
31.55 88.09 | 4.45 | 5.02 | 0.57 | 0.13 |.6125 | 1.83 j 252.00 | 14.30
AD Ng al fieteta ales 5.81 | 4.52 | 2.56 | 2.45 |.4375 |} 1.11 ; 247.00 | 12.80
7.68 | 87.24 | 5.08 | 5.21 | 5.62 | 5.61 |.2625 | 0.71 | 247.00 | 14.80
9. 68 7.30 | 5.94 | 5.05 | 4.09 | 4.41 |.5280 | 1.37 | 244.10 | 14.80
7.35 §8. 14 | 5.05 | 4.47 | 5.28,) 5.16 |. 4875 | 0.91 | 252.10 | 12.70
UT ecehialea oy | ioe shee 9107' 12. 28 7.60 | 5.87 | 4.93 | 3.69 | 4.87 |.4813 | 1.08 | 246.40 | 14.00
TTCR eek csupes PRA AAR AIS 91093 8.89 | 87.21 | 5.47 | 5.26 | 3.18 | 8.49 |.3063 | 1.03 | 245.10 | 14.90
TTS 3 See sie a'e OCD OSoe JAE . 91064 18.75 | 86.68 | 4.75 | 4.08 | 0.00 | 0.13 |.7000 | 1.41 ae 70 | 11.40
Diipish tei da cs cients bibs oe 50> . 91084 9,87 | 87.58 | 5.17 | 4.56 | 4.83 | 5.51 |.4875 | 1.12 .80 | 12.90
TUR eae s tele ay ss ue rete, Se Se . 91239 10.84 | 86.61 | 5.42 | 4.45 | 3.12 | 2.48 |. 4875 | 0.97 | 250.90 | 12,70
ACL niccinlcelvaikwid'ste/a's' chy. «iver . 91031 12.28 | 88.48 | 4.66 | 3.92 | 5.79 | 6.20 |.7 1.43 | 236.50 | 11.10
Dr becte ctotuse Wine tr so (oraiiis «hve . 91010 TARO as seinicnte 2 fae SR EH 6.42 | 6.53 |.4875 | 1.48 | 247.10 | 13.20
TOTS ase silacc atelt o's eisties 91112 12.80 WiSi eo 4 22s. dacs 6.53 | 6.76 |.5250 | 2.02 | 245.40 | 18.60
De Relic sissies sieminrcies vis,e.seee es 91082 6.93 | 87.59 | 3.92 |...... 3.92 | 8.99 |.5250 | 1.83 | 248.40 | 12.50
APSR a tet te ay ol ehas,e'nsa,oje\e.esie 91186 8, 2! ye Ui: | 5,11 | 4.71 |.4875 | 1.16 | 247.50 | 14.50
UISU capca candi ess oes cease 91061 8.44 | 87.78 | 8.91")... .:; 8.15 | 4.73 |.7000 | 1.42 | 246.60 | 12.60
MER ccteytee Re GO nls « Saisie tgs 91080 4.44 | 87.85 | 4.41 |..... 1.81 | 2.24 |.7000 | 1,02 | 251.50 | 18.90
DAD cieteceeeasieaiaih «ass ys <6 vip ~91106 | 18,67 |} 88.25 | 3.47 |...... 7.10 | 7.56 |.4875 | 3,10 | 240.20 | 12.30
AMEE AAA ae trdics te Lite ogee . 91136 Br 22) (BAS) 4208)|%- 2. 4.37 4 4.79 |.5125 | 1.34 | 240.70 | 14.50
Die cite cere viene awe 2 Ses SOLD care afeassta lip ste: ete eareia\ fee’araiah [incerel dats De ZGs lave aratetel bein siete-e! | athaters =i late ianterae 12.93

ESTIMATION OF FAT IN MILK.

The percentage of fat in milk is one of the best indications of the
presence or absence of added water, Various methods of speedil
and accurately estimating the percentage of fat have been proposed.
One of the most successful of these is known as Soxhlet’s areometric
method. The principle of this method is based on the fact that if the
milk first be rendered slightly alkaline and then shaken with ether
the fat passes into solution, and when the mixture is allowed to rest
for sometime the etherial solution of the fat will collect at the top.
The specific gravity of this solution will vary according to the con-
tent of fat which it contains, and by the determination of this specific
gravity the percentage of fat is determined.

The great objection to the use of this method is found in the diffi-
culty with which the ethereal fat solution separates. Various theo-
ries have been proposed to account for this peculiarity of milk in
refusing to allow the ether solution to separate. Caldwell and Parr
have supposed it to be due to the bran in the cow’s food; Liebermann
ascribes it to failure of manipulation; Schmeeger, that it is caused by
the milk standing on ice; Soxhlet thinks it is the result of deficiency of
fat; and others attribute it to differences in age and breed of the cows.

Therefore the method, in order to be of general application, must
be subjected to some radical modification. In this direction were the
attempts to secure a more prompt separation by varying the amounts
of caustic potash solution aatple red. These attempts, as the record

288 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

has shown, were entirely unsuccessful. Even if the different kinds
of milk would permit a prompt separation by varying the quantities
of alkali employed, the amount for each sample could only be deter-
mined by numerous and tedious experiments.

I therefore turned my attention in another direction. It seemed to
me that a centrifugal machine might be used to secure this separa-
tion, and accordingly I had a cast-away drug-mill, formerly used in
the laboratory, modified so as to serve for this purpose. The machine
was so arranged as to hold four separatory flasks and impart to them
a high speed of rotation.

At this point of my investigations this apparatus was finished, and
I immediately jen et it to a trial.

Four samples, which had not separated at all at the end of 3 hours,
were placed in the ERD sie and whirled for 10minutes. At the end
of this time 3 of them had completely separated and the fourth
nearly so. The apparatus was set in motion again for 5 minutes, at
the end of which time the separation of the fourth sample was ac-
complished.

The number of revolutions per minute of the machine was about
200.

It will be seen from the above that the very first trial of the ma-
chine was completely successful, securing a perfect separation of the
ether-fat solution in a few moments in samples which previous trial
by the usual method had failed to separate in several hours.

The next determinations were made on a sample of milk purchased
at the Department restaurant.

Duplicate flasks were treated in the usual way to secure the separa-
tion, and only at the end of 24 hours was enough clear solution ob-
tained to get a reading: No. 1 gave 2.40 per cent. fat; No. 2 gave 2.30
per cent. fat.

The first set of samples of the same milk separated by the centrif-
ugal gave the percentages below: No. 1 gave 2.52 per cent.; No. 2
gave 2.32 per cent. fat.

The separation took place perfectly in 10 minutes with a rate of
revolution of about 300 per minute.

The second set of 4 samples was treated in the same way and
separated completely in 8 minutes. The following readings were ob-
tained: No. 1 gave 2.36 per cent. fat; No. 2 gave 2.34 per cent. fat;
No. 3 gave 2.31 per cent. fat; No. 4 gave 2.30 per cent. fat.

The third set of samples separated by the centrifugal showed the
following percentages: No. 1 gave 2.23 per cent. fat; No. 2 gave 2.30
per cent. fat.

The volume of the clear ether-fat solution in each case was about
40 cubic centimeters.

The next trial was with milk also purchased in the Department
restaurant. It proved to be one of the rare cases in which a reason-
ably prompt separation was secured by the old method. After 30
minutes about 25 cubic centimeters of the ether solution had sepa-
rated, which was enough to get areading. Duplicate determinations
were made: No. 1 gave 2.08 per cent. fat; No. 2 gave 2.04 per cent.

fat.
_ Four separations of the same milk were also made with the cen-
trifugal. Separation took place promptly in 8 minutes at a speed
of about 300 revolutions per minute, and the volume of ether fat in
each case was about 40 cubic centimeters: No. 1 gave 2.01 per cent.
fat; No. 2 gave 2.01 per cent. fat; No. 3 gave 2.00 per cent. fat; No.

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 289:

No. 4 gave 2.04 per cent. fat; which is an agreement as close as any
one could expect.

Having thus shown that the centrifugal method was capable of
making the areometric method applicable to almost every sample of
milk, I undertook a new series of experiments. In all 155 samples
were subjected to treatment.

Of the 155 samples examined only 57 gave a good separation by
the Soxhlet method in 30 minutes. Of the remaining 98 about half
did not separate at all so as to permit a reading, and the other half
only after several hours. Compare this with the centrifugal method,
in which only 6 samples out of the whole lot required over 15 min-
utes for separation and only 1 was abandoned as entirely inseparable,
and the more general application of the process is at once apparent.

Of the 6 samples mentioned above 3 were from the same cow, a
grade short-horn, 4 years old, weight about 800 pounds, in milk since
July, 1885. She gave 6 quarts of milk a day; was milked at 5 a.m.
anddp.m. The samplesof milk sent were taken at 5 p.m. on April
13, 17, 23, 1886, respectively. The food received by this cow was the
same as for all the others (36) from which samples were taken for analy-
sis. They received at 5 a.m. 3 pounds of wheat bran and the same of
hominy chops, and then as much corn (maize) fodder as they could
eat. The bran and chops were fed dry. In pleasant weather the
cows were out until3 p.m. They were then fed 10 pounds each of
unthrashed oats. At 5 p. m. they got a half peck of chopped tur-
nips and a repetition of the morning’s feed of bran and chops.

The hominy chops used showed on analysis the following compo-
sition :

Per cent,
SIVA tS ry 5) shes cl 5 2's acdva “chan Bina aL atone Gin: oPthar Cal nile AUST Gey pre aT tere eeath revane Sena aes %, 13
BAS) 96 oo CORROSION tei Dich rbatn ah ee Phe Mob D sly Wie dh gar gk ea Rr wy Ce 2. 53
IGM EERG ECC Of OL LA tis Solari ¢ yee viel Shel arate were tetavane a) aera ta ehe a Ae a ato anata Aeeete aha 9. 03
ED REEDOS!. 1 5)./4)5's. cecal oes Ua Slale, «els sida sle Melerspoualsievereopetend sisi eneneleretel at ctcistcl ae etre 69. 32
MOTE CM UAE alate, Ne HT 4 Lis spake adel sieles a desienrevckcb ar ace clsuchc lal a ad Wavelic trates ot Saco 2. 86
PAM DRTTERUET OTC See aise sy «} clalev el SyevenedeveecRiehsueetersveevatels miaver ores CH AOC BISINE Der otod amas 9. 63

Two of the other samples were received April 27 and 30 from a thor-
oughbred Jersey, 4 years old, weight about 600 pounds, in milk since
July 1, 1885, giving at the time about 5 quarts daily. On the 29th
of April samples of milk were also treated from the same cow, but
after dilution the centrifugal separation, although more than usually
difficult, did not require so long atime as on the occasion mentioned.

There is nothing shown by the analysis, by the breed of cow, nor by
the food which gives any definite idea of the cause of the peculiarity
in these milks which does not permit a speedy separation. It cer-
tainly is not the quantity of fat present, for other milks having the
same, more or less, amounts of fat separated without difficulty.

In all, 90 samples were compared by the usual method of separa-
tion and by the centrifugal. By the former method the mean per-
centage of fat obtained was 4.01, and by the latter 3.88, It thus ap-
pears that the numbers obtained by the centrifugal method must be
iereased by .13 in order to correspond to those of the old method.
This discrepancy is readily explained when it is remembered that by
the centrifagal motion the percentage of ether left in the emulsion
would naturally be less than with the former process of separation.
The ether-fat solution thus becomes more dilute, and consequently
has a lower specific gravity. When, therefore, the percentage of fat
in a milk determined areometrically is calculated by the tables given

. 19 AG—’86

990 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

for the old method of separation, it should be increased by .13 in or-
der to represent the actual quantity present.

I think it safe to conclude, from the data which have been obtained,
first, that the method of Soxhlet cannot be applied to the determina-
tion of fat in American milks, especially if they be from individual
animals. It works somewhat better on mixed milks from a large
dairy, but even in this case it is a rare thing to secure a prompt sep-
aration, and in most cases the method would be very difficult of ap-
plication. __.

Second. That by the use of the centrifugal machine described a
prompt separation of the ether-fat solution can be obtained in all
cases, even in those in which after 48 hours no separation whatever
takes place by the usual method.

Third, That the estimation of the fat in milk by Soxhlet’s areometer
can only be accurately secured when standard volumes of aqueous
ether and caustic potash are employed, when the volume of the ether-
fat solution separated is sensibly constant, and the time employed in
separation sensibly the same. These conditions can only be secured
- by the use of the centrifugal machine described.

I propose to use a centrifugal apparatus also for assisting in the
separation of the ether-fat solution in the lactobutyrometer; and it
has already proved its usefulness in separating precipitates which sub-
side very slowly.

I am of the opinion that such a machine would prove of great value
in every chemical laboratory aside from its utility in determining the
fats in milk.

The process just mentioned was first used in May, 1885, at the De-

artment of Agriculture, and a full description of it was given at
Buffalo in August, 1886, before the chemical section of the Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science.

A machine resembling this has lately been patented in Germany by
Laval under the name of Lactokrit. The disk of this machine is so
arranged as to be capable of a high rate of revolution, viz, 6,000 per
minute.

The milk in which the fat is to be estimated is first treated with an
equal volume of a mixture of 20 parts concentrated citric acid and 1
part of sulphurous acid. After shaking, the test-tube containing the
milk mixture is warmed to 30° C., or above, and the tubes which fit
into the revolving disk are filled with the mixture and put in posi-
tion. The temperature of the tubes is kept at 50° C. by means of a
bath of hot water.

In 5 minutes the fat is separated, and the percentage thereof read
off by the graduations on the tubes containing it. (Chem. Central-
blatt, No. 42, October, 1886, pp. 797 et seq.)

ADAMS METHOD FOR THE GRAVIMETRIC ESTIMATION OF FAT IN MILK,

This method was first described in The Analyst, Volume 10, pp. 46
and following. Five cubic centimeters of the milk are placed on a
strip of blotting or filtering paper, previously exhausted with ether,
and rapidly dried. The paper may be cut into strips 2 inches wide
and 20 inches long. After the drying is complete the strip of paper
is rolled into a coil and extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus with ether.
This method has been proved by careful experiment to be very exact,
and gives a slightly higher percentage of fat than any other gravi-

metric method heretofore proposed.
: z=

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 291

ADULTERATION OF SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
By CLIFFORD RICHARDSON.

The class of substances, including mustard, pepper, cayenne and
chillis, ginger, cloves, nutmeg and mace, cinnamon and cassia, and
allspice, which are commonly designated as spices and condiments in
the discussion of foods and dietaries, are probably more largely sub-
ject to adulteration and with less attempt at concealment than any of
the foods proper. Fortunately the sophistication is simply the addi-
tion of material of a harmless nature for the purpose of diluting the
more expensive spices and making it possible to reduce the price in
accordance with the demands of the dealer and eventually the con-
sumer.

These substances were originally luxuries and not regarded as an
essential part of the diet of even the richer classes; now the poorest
man is not satisfied without them, and pepper is as well known and
as much employed as salt. All this has had much to do with the in-
troduction of adulteration as a means of catering to the demands of
the lower classes for cheap spices, and increasing step by step its
extent until the adulteration has become so gross in many Cases as
to expose itself or bring about the enactment of laws for the repres-
sion of thesale of such substances. At the present time in several of
our largest cities the price to be paid for a spice is named by the re-
tail dealers, and he is then supplied from the spice-mill with a mixture
containing the largest amount of pure material which can be supplied
for the money, the necessary weight being made up of diluents of
some cheap but harmless substance. As an example, the fact that a
New York firm in a short time used and put into the market in their
spices more than 5,000 pounds of cocoanut shells shows how far the
custom has been carried, and it is easy to see how difficult it would
be to bring this state of thing’ to an end without some governmental
action, it being improbable that by any means of agreement among
themselves the grinders of spices could unite in doing away with the
practice, or that any education of the masses would teach them to
_ refuse to purchase a ground spice at a price which is far below that
of the unground article.

This alone, the relation between the prices of ground and unground
spices, is often sufficient to point out the fact that a ground spice
must be largely diluted, and on the other hand, when purchasing
from a reliable dealer, a slight increase in cost over that of the spice
in its original form is evidence of the purity of the powder. Those
who desire pure ground spices can alway obtain them by paying
their value; they are by no means uncommon in the market, but as
long as there are those who do not know that it is for their interest
to buy the best rather than a cheap article for its low price, such
people must suffer or be protected by legal enactments, which shall
preren and prohibit the existence of such mixtures. Until this is

one the supply of a demand which certainly exists may be considered
to be at the least justifiable on the part of the spice millers, and ed-
ucation of those ignorant of the state of the trade must be the pre-
liminary to legislation upon the subject. When proper legislation has
found a place on the statute-books the manufacturers will find them-
selves in a position where, without detriment to themselves, they can
all unite in giving up the practice,

992 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Under the laws for the prevention of the adulteration of foods,
which have been in operation in Germany, England, France, Canada,
and a few of our states during a longer or shorter period of time, a
large share of attention has been given to the adulteration of spices
and condiments and the means of detecting them. Fortunately the
latter are not difficult, and the results have been an awakening of the
communities in these countries to an appreciation of the advantages
of pure spices and the placing of the method of detection on a more
certain basis.

EXPERIENCE IN COUNTRIES HAVING PUBLIC ANALYSTS.

In England the public mind had been so far educated by the pub-
lications of private investigators, such as Hassall, that in 1860 laws
were passed for the prevention of the adulteration of food and drink.
These have been ch ea and modified, so that the present law dates
from 1875 and amendments of 1879.

Unfortunately there is no government report upon the results of
the scientific work done by those employed under the act, and we are
indebted to the Society of Public Analysts for a large portion of the
information which is at our disposal in regard to adulteration in Eng-
land. We have also in the publications of Hassall, Blyth, and Allen
volumes which give the most recent scientific data as to the best
method for the detection of adulteration and illustrations of the
forms in which foreign matter occurs. On Dr. Hassall’s work is
founded many of our present methods of examining foods micro-
scopically, and especially spices and condiments. In The Analyst, the
publication of the Society of Public Analysts, will be found, in the
proceedings of the society, in papers of individuals, and in reports of
prosecutions, much information in regard to the status of adultera-
tion in England during the last eleven years, including the material
used for adulteration of spices and the means of detecting it. The
lack of an official publication of the results and all, that has been
done, both in regard to particular samples and methods employed for
their examination, is, however, much to be regretted. There is the
same difficultyin Germany. The law of the Empire of 1881 provides
for the prevention of the adulteration of the substances which we
have under consideration, but no reports on the execution of the law
or of the results, scientific or otherwise, have been available to us.
Much, however, has been published in the technical and scientific
journals on the method of detecting adulterants which is of the
greatest value.

In France the laboratory of the prefecture of police of Paris, which
has control of the investigation of the food supplies of that city,
makes an elaborate report annually, of which, however, but a small
portion is devoted to spices, although they are recognized as being
largely adulterated; pepper, for example, being mixed to an aston-
ishing extent with ground olive-stones. Other cities of France have
municipal laboratories, whose reports, if any there are, have not
reached us.

In this country Canada makes a much better statement of the re-
sults which have followed the enforcement of the adulteration of food
act of 1876 than is done anywhereelse. The commissioner of inland
revenue has published annually a statement showing the entire num-
ber of samples analyzed, the persons supplying them, and their com-
position and adulterants. Spices occupy a prominent position in the

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 293

reports, and a collation of the results of the investigations of the
several public analysists is of interest. In 1878, when the reports
first became available to us for reference, the summary of the spices
analyzed showed:

Perc sat“) fe | Adulterated.

Co G2

Articles,

Unadulterated,

Surtees

This enormous amount of adulteration, amounting to nearly a
universal custom, was followed in 1879 by a similar report:

Articles,

Unadulterated
| Adulterated.
Adulterated.

oa there were reported, as the results of the public analysts’
work:

3

$ bo |

q £ 8

Articles. 2 = =

STP are

e/3/8

Pp < <
PACE.
CADIS ICG Yar ete ets ee Trail o ich lana wo Sid la hale Pe wnyeiape Seal Paes aa R EMSS Sales ale bie Suid eet 15 6| 31.6
Cloves 22.4 ofa 12 10 5.5
Cinnamoag.... 6 16 | %2.7
Ginger ...... yen Rds ae ty 5 9 8| 47.1
IMR Stay, Baise laren cette tere PMc, Leto Rae alow diane wiah.c bees i Ae CaS ha SERIE SANS SoMa alien woke eee 16 | 100.0
POD ROP cata s sic divi oc eee siiae Nae oflbiake oles diame auyace sho dai aa claa dao tte ret ei eee 24 18 | 42.9

There isa very slight improvement apparent, but it must be remem-
bered that in examinations of this description the specimens selected
are always of a suspicious nature, those which are already known to
be pure being omitted, so that year by year the list of brands which
are excluded from examination increases.

294 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

In 1881 and the following years the results were tabulated as fol-
lows:

1881. 1882. 1883.

1884 1885
s o Aa a 1 }o ' o A Ps F
Articles, §|\85| 2 /8u| 4 | 8a] § | Sa) 3 | oe
a |B8| a |/52| 6 | BS] & | BS] & | Bs
(0) 33 oO eo -~] o bes o | U8 ® 33
Suiles SR o |< Dials o 4
AMISIIGD orn cidpioe thaws ewintas susie veces 8 (6 | SaoGhel Meoac| BeSeisel Geeta ARERR Iara Prac 3. | rae oer
(B12 TARA Se SNE Oe eae oe Ste 6 CONS SAGE a) ISG COC) OACR Beier Stise cr. 12 10
CUMATHON OF CABBIE 0s oo ses cc00 osice ons 12 AD cisidieie a |s:0°s.c10'6|(cs'n © 0.0)| ree ssc] «ane ee eee ee
(ETD: ye) Bead Sao B Oa Coe EOE See SORE ai 5 th aN Jel ces | CS Cease |aeiorcta 37 29
VEER Oat tecechtetas stor tari 4 bio, i/sibze ian Sieeiw cS ieiwielesa 1 Hh Nestea. e eiliscctstay dell nelote’s [ote .ase-c's\| cia ove aif ieleye 5 che) ieee ea
Mustard ..... Pe R's awe SRR ae atc s 2 Never asl ner ctaleeeeeeleeees closet olevtente 11 *39
ICM PEE Os facn toe) occeeereebor bows AA lieve ceibereail'ss = 9 Gre: lorssecsseoll ihe s74 QYelf ofsseya)-ye'| oo» 2!l cnet eee
ROD BON eci de Mina cist tices seewede ceup cic 16 29 14 RB ileseude (doen llesie/atelanccies 31 29
GIGI ES) 3656 SOR i BER Nan ER too sae aol peccet) Shae Iseecee Hearn! ctetac| [hs sed |Aisiaaa IER = 1

* Many labeled ‘‘ Mixtures.”

It is seen that several years after the enactment of the law the
adulteration of spices is as enormous as at first. This arises, how-
ever from lack of prosecution and non-enforcement of the law. Of
the occurrence of adulterants in spices the chief analyst says in his
report for 1885:

During the year considerable attention was paid to spices and condiments. View-
ing the fact that in the past a very large amount of adulteration had been reported
as prevailing in these substances, and with a view to ascertaining whether the
adulteration was practiced by the manufacturer or by the dealers, a systematic vis-
itation was made of all the spice-grinders in the Dominion (or all that could be
recognized as such), and their factories and stores were inspected, under sections 7
and 8, with the results as shown in the appendix.

The examination of 19 samples of ground cinnamon resulted in finding 7 genuine,
4 consisted of a substitution of cassia; 1 was adulterated with cassia, and 6 with
other inert matter; 1 consisted of cassia adulterated with foreign vegetable matter.

Of ground cloves, 22 samples were examined. Twelve proved to be pure and 10
adulterated, the adulterant chiefly used being clove stems, pea meal, roasted and
ground cocoanut shells.

Of 66 samples of ground ginger, 29 were reported as being adulterated, almost ex-
clusively with wheat flour, non-injurious to health, doubtless; but unless the pur-
chaser be duly warned of the nature of the compound his pocket would be seri-
ously prejudiced, if not injured, as this sophistication was practiced to the extent of
from 10 to 15 to from 25 to 40 per cent., the pungency being imparted by the judi-
cious admixture of Cayenne pepper.

Fifty samples of mustard were examined, and many of these were properly sold
as ‘‘compound” or mixtures, but one of the worst samples was sold with a label
guaranteeing it to be ‘‘ ground from finest English seed and free from adulteration.”
Of the 50 samples, 9 were reported genuine, 2 of excellent quality, and 39 were all
more or less admixtures of mustard-seed or mustard cake (from which the natural
fixed oil had been expressed), with wheat flour and turmeric, and in some cases
with corn-starch or bean meal, in varying proportions up to as high as 50 or even
60 per cent. It was formerly contended that the addition of wheat flour or other
inert matter was a necessity, to give the ground mustard keeping qualities and make
the condiment palatable by softening its natural acridity. But the most reputable
manufacturers have demonstrated the fallacy of this contention by the production
of an absolutely pure mustard, which has received public acceptance an apprecia-
tion; and two, at least, of our home manufacturers are happily following in their
steps. It is a question yet to be decided how far the use of mustard cake, deprived
of the natural fixed oil, is permissible in the manufacture of this condiment. Dr.
Ellis’s observations on this matter are very much to the point, and have received
confirmation by similar experiments in my laboratory, and doubtless when next the
analysts meet in conference this question will be settled in a manner favorable to
the use of mustard cake.

Twenty-four samples of Cayenne pepper were examined, of which 14 were re-
ported adultered, but 3 of these were appealed to the judgment of the chief an-
alyst, and the decision of the public onintyet was not sustained, as will be seen on

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 295

reference to ‘‘appeal cases.” The remaining 10 were reported adulterated with
wheat flour and colored earth, in one case to the extent of 50 per cent. The other
10 samples were reported unadulterated, save 1, which was doubtful, it apparently
having been artificially dressed with a fixed oil. ; :

Sixty samples of ground pepper, black and white, were examined, of which 31 are
reported as unadulterated, 1 doubtful, and 28 all more or less adulterated, the gen-
erality of them to the extent of from 10 to 20 per cent., but the more flagrant cases
from 30 up to even 75 per cent. in one case. The adulterant is chiefly farinaceous
matter, also mustard husk, pepper hulls, clay, sand, and, not the least conspicuous,
ground cocoanut shells—doubtless an innocent admixture, so far as health is con-
cerned, but decidedly not a material of a character to improve the flavor or value
of the pepper as a condiment.

As stated, these samples of spices were all obtained from either the actual pro-
ducer or wholesale distributer, and the results prove that, whether or not the retail
vender still further ‘‘improves” his spices, &c., before retailing them, his demand
for a cheap adulterated article is amply provided for by the manufacturing dealer.

For the most part the producers of these sophisticated goods expressed themselves
anxious for the enforcement of the law for their suppression, but objected to the re-
quirements of the law that if sold they should be distinctly labeled asimpure. Some,
on the other hand, contended that the public was benefited by a slight admixture;
that a really better article could be supplied at a lower price if the finest and fresh-
est spices were ground with an admixture of inert matter than a thoroughly pure
article but ground from old or perished spices—a specious contention, utterly un-
tenable in the true interests of the public.

But have not the producers of these sophistications some justification? Is not the
supply of a demand which undoubtedly has existed a justifiable enterprise, what-
ever that demand may be, so long as it is within the law? Ignorance does un-
doubtedly demand cheapness, and a demand thus ignorantly made is only too surely
supplied, and hence the need for costly legislation to protect an ignorant and
thoughtless public against itself, for it does demand the very goods which the ana-
lyst must condemn and the vender be prosecuted and fined'for selling; whereas the
public’s reckless ignorance is the chief cause, and should suffer some measure of the
penalty. Itis time that, through the operation of this act, such ignorance should be
cleared away and the public be enlightened and awakened to its own true interests.

These remarks apply equally well to much of the spice sold in the
United States. Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and Michigan
alone have laws of any value in regard to the adulteration of food,
and it is easy to see in what condition the spices and condiments sold
in other parts of the country must be. In Massachusetts, where
investigations under the law have been going on since 1882, it has
been shown, as in other localities, that the adulterations of spices are
numerous but harmless. Dr. Sharpless, in his report of 1882 upon
this subject, remarks that he agrees with the opinion expressed by
Dr. Leeds, of New Jersey, in his report of 1880, to the New Jersey
State Board of Health, that there has been much sensational writing
upon the subject. This is perhaps the case with some few writers of
that stamp, but it can have done no harm, for it has not produced
sufficient effect upon the public to create a demand for any purer
spices, as appears from the figures of Dr. E. 8. Wood in 1884, who
reports in regard to the samples he examined as analyst of foods for
Massachusetts :

Articles, Genuine, | Coe: | Seer
BAGH DOBDCL nen wens ante Jesh oiaicy ok STS eo acaads SUR yee 20 rhe re
UN TMA Sat a RE ates, oe snidaane adh apd cw MAUR WR 18 31 70.45
1 Cole) HSA WARS Oe SBE A so gS CRESS Se ee oe ee Be 5 ;
Fe gt Ne A BRE GE oa ae A RR I RN Se 29 el ib 61.84
SECUNG CLOVES 172 Meise Pamtnoe ee Lede a Kel thers adecaes oon. cate te Ae 0 11 100. 00
SNERSESSL ER s 055s aps, a! thoie|n|uh vo ottlus hv a iat jaan slop eote Wael SN ra where atte ata ish ste ONG TNS 0 2 100. 00
WERAELE TLE ys ctnlal oie selon oucre craelelecet tetmied Ladle MEIN Gs coo o's c,6, o,f. colo aks. STROSS 2 0
CUDROR Lect ond 2. Aor Ma meh tac te et eee ed Pee 1 O;|e:écceuee

996 ° REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

This is nearly as serious a condition as was found in Canada, but
again in 1885 Dr. Wood reports:

Adulter-| Com- | Adcuiter-

Articles. Genuine.| “ated. | pounds.| ated.

|Per cent.
AVIS MEL Seles eters ce eicis OR tote siciols soe slcree ties Piovere ote al etapa nate hs ae as 31 ar 2 64.8
MIGWeSi2 Hen Hed hee a MOE L (ielh nb Ch letohala S eiele cua e ain ate Ree cha teteiaie oie il tie 15 GW Sees eee 83.5
Cassie ard CMNAMON 4, 2.022 vsisialed + Sek Cosel Sees bop hee 48 26 1 36.0
RADEON or sieht le iets e ele o'c's cays rtetalei outs wisi in tects et eee eT © Vee 5D 1 | ee 23.6
SAIISINICO et Risener cians so elec sic barelepa s era clajeniee pee ee eeteis ite mie 30 ep spect sc A Oi |
Gronnainnges 725. aa. k . OSES AIR ee sites Seeissiton temas oe 9 OM Akad. ae eee 50.0
IRC O TD OL as ara aioe oi daw sate setae ale ape ne bee SIMEON <veie ele tis 6 19 3 78.6
NV ECD IC asc cals ba <isio,00 lols mp eniaiai mes Olisk molsloliee mister ale leis see 21 BO cl ocetas oferta 65.0

—

which is little or no improvement. He found the common adulter-
ants of mustard to be flour, turmeric, and sometimes a little cayenne.
Cloves suffered from extraction of the volatile oil and the addition of
clove stems, allspice, burnt shells, and other cheap substances. Cas-
sia contained ground shells and crackers. Ginger was in many cases
colored, and in some instances wheat and corn flour and clove stems
were present; allspice is too cheap to be often adulterated, but in
eight samples mustard hulls, ground shells, clove stems, and cracker
dust were found. In mace, flourand corn-meal were diluents, and for
the peppers, crackers, mustard hulls, pepper dirt, powdered charcoal,
rice, corn, and buckwheat.

Under the New York law of 1881 Prof. 8. A. Lattimore investigated
a number of spices and spice mixtures submitted to him.

The result of his examination of the commercial ground spices are
commented on, after giving the proportions which were found adul-
terated, in these words:

The spices present an inviting field for the exercise of fraudulent arts. They are
almost universally sold in the form of fine powder and in opaque packages, which
do not admit of easy examination on the part of the purchaser. Consequently any
cheap substance which may be easily pulverized to a similar degree of fineness, and
which possesses little distinctive taste or color of its own, answers the purpose ; so
that the list of adulterants for this class of articles is naturally very large. The
adulterations found in the samples now under consideration may be classed into
four groups: first, integuments of grains or seeds,such as bran of wheat and
buckwheat, huils of mustard seed, flax seed, &c.; second, farinaceous substances
of low price, such as are damaged by the accidents of transportation or long storage,
such as mididlings of various kinds, corn-meal and stale ship-bread : third, legu-

_minous seeds, as peas and beans, which contribute largely to the profit of the spice

mixer; fourth, various articles, chosen with reference to their suitableness for
bringing up the mixture as nearly as possible to the required standard of color of

the genuine article. Various shades, from light colors to dark browns, may be ob- |

tained by the skillful roasting of farinaceous and leguminous substances. A little
turmeric goes a great way in imparting the rich yellow hue of real mustard to a pale
counterfeit of wheat flour and terra alba, or the defective paleness of artificial black
pepper is brought up to the desired tone by the judicious sifting in of a little finely
pulverized charcoal. Enough has been already given to show that the field for
sophistications of this sort is a wide one, and offers large scope for the development
of inventive genius, so that each manufacturer of articles of this class would be
likely to possess his own trade secrets. It will be observed that the adulterating
materials just mentioned all belong to the class claimed to be harmless. In no in-
stance has any poisonous substance been discovered. The proportion of foreign and
genuine substances in the spices varies between wide limits, in some instances the
former being slight ; in others, the latter seemingly present in just sufficient quan-
tity to impart faintly the requisite taste or odor. Even this small proportion of the
professed article is occasionally further diminished by the substitution of other sub-
stances ; as, for example, in imparting to corn meal finely ground a pungency sug-
gested by real ginger by the additlon of a little salt and red pepper.

It is probably not so widely known as it should be that the demand for the ma-

7

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 297

terials for adulteration has called into existence a branch of manufacturing industry
of no insignificant magnitude, having for its sole object the production of articles
known as ‘‘ spice mixtures” or ‘‘ pepper dust.” The use of ‘‘ pepper dust,” or, as the
article is commonly designated in the technical language of the trade by its abbre-
viation ‘‘ P. D.,” is a venerable fraud.

The manufacture of ‘‘ P. D.” is now a regular branch of business, and the original
and specific term ‘‘ pepper dust” has expanded with the progress of inventive art to
generic proportions, until now we have as well known articles sold by the barrel,
*P, D. pepper,” “ P. D. ginger,” “‘ P. D. cloves,” and soon through the whole aromatic
list. When it is considered that these imitations, lacking only such flavoring with
the genuine article as the dealer thinks necessary to make his goods sell, are sold at
at from 8 to 4 cents a pound, and the retail price paid by the consumer is com-
pared with it, the strength of the temptation to engage in such pvyactices is
clearly seen. When manufacturers openly advertise themselves as assorters and
renovators of merchandise, and openly propose to cleanse musty and damaged
beans by a new and patented process, it is full time that its significance should be
considered by the public.

From these investigations which have been quoted it appears that
the adulterants which are met with in this country are very numerous.
Under the head of spice mixtures, or ‘‘P. D.” much refuse of all de-
scriptions is used up, and there are such changes in the character of
the material from time to time as the sources of damaged material or
refuse at hand may suggest. The diluents used in Baltimore are
quite different from those in New York, and inthe District of Co-
lumbia, in consequence, some of the adulterants which are mentioned
most commonly in the reports from the North are never found.
While it is possible, therefore, to give a list of substances which have
been used as adulterants, itis quite out of the question to say in what
directions the ingenuity of spice mixers will extend in the future.
The following contaminations in the various spices have been already
noted in this country: é

’ Spices. Adulterants.

AUMISMIG RNase ston esec sss cceecesse ss Spent cloves, clove stems, cracker dust, ground shells,

Cavern e ere ete ta ais ois o's/ojorsiowres 2 22 Rice flour, salt, and shipstuff.

(OER GIL) Wo sate 38 oho ot dc ph sOse BDO OSge Dee Ee Ground shells and crackers,

CIOMAINGIN Serotec ee cic racicsc ewes clsjetssche Cassia, peas, starch.

GIOVeS eee aa nomen tel osaiine te deniedatetss Spent cloves, clove stems, allspice, roasted shells, wheat flour,
4 peas.

GION a ane te eresie Seca. «6s, seis ieee Cereals, turmeric, mustard hulls, cayenne, peas.

MS GO) is ahardealers cera tcaee dol gee elede skier Cereals or starch, buckwheat.

Leib ite Se ecre oa a etter he ects avalos aydiajas Suny Corea and starch, turmeric, peas.
WIE Yes tiie Foose earns Teelex 0.

BODPOUE cnc aictelaisis aa tsoavekie es oases - Refuse of all sorts, pepper dust, pow crackers or Ships

yellow corn, rice, mustard hulls, charcoal, cocoanut shells,

cayenne,

The materials in italics have been identified in spices examined in
the laboratory of this division, but some of the commonest adulter-
ants have not been found.

Of the means of detection of adulteration, details will be given in
a special report of this division (Bulletin No. 13, Part 2), but they
are of too technical a nature for reproduction in this place.

_ It will suffice to repeat what has already been said, that fortunately
it is not difficult to detect the presence of adulteration with the means
at our command, so that with a proper board of analysts the practice
may be prevented under the enforcement of a carefully drawn law.
_ Microscopical examination alone will in most cases reveal the qual-
ity of a ground spice, and when a careful study has been made of the
normal character of the various spices and of the usual adulterants,

298 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. .

it is not only easy to detect the presence of foreign matter, but to
identify the source. In the peculiar form and properties of the vari-
ous starches we find a great aid, inasmuch as many of the spices con-
tain no starch, and the presence of any at once shows that some for-
eign substance containing it has been added. Other spices contain
starch, but of such distinctive form and character that it is not easily
confused with that of adulterants. The elements of which the
structure of the berry, the bark, the pod, or whatever part of the
plant may be used as a spice, are composed are also distinctive, and
the arrangement of the different kinds of vegetable cells more or less
characteristic of each spice and distinct from its adulterants. For
all this examination it is of course necessary to have for reference
specimens of well-authenticated spices, whole and ground, and of the
common starches and adulterants. In our special bulletin an attempt
has been made from our own experience and that of others to describe
the most characteristic points in the structures which are met with.

Although the microscope is the most convenient and ready means
of determining the character of a ground spice, in all cases of impor-
tance, where a question of the sale of adulterated articles is involved,
resort for confirmation should be had to chemical analysis. Unfor-
tunately, this method of investigation is not as available as the micro-
scope, requiring greater facilities and skill, and consuming much
longer time. It has not, in addition, received that amount of atten-
tion which it should have done, and in consequence the standards of
purity are not as well fixed as they should be.

The results of a study of this side of the subject will be presented
in the special bulletin of this division which has been referred to.

Considering the spices individually as they are met with, both pure
and in the trade, there are certain peculiarities which should not be
overlooked.

MUSTARD.

Mustard, as sold in the ground state, should be the farina or flour
of the black or white mustard seed; that is to say, the flour from the
interior of the seed, bolted or separated from the hulls. The two
kinds of seed, although derived from plants of the same genus, are
somewhat different in their chemical composition. The black seed
is much the most pungent, and develops on mixing with water a vola-
tile oil which gives this condiment its penetrating character. There
is also present in the seed complicated organic substances of a bitter
nature, to which is due also some of the peculiar flavor, and while the
white seed forms no volatile oil with water, it contains more of this
bitter substance. It is, therefore, very common to mix the two in
grinding. The sources of the seed are various. In our markets at
a there are quoted California black and white, Dutch, Trieste
»lack, and English, the last being the most valuable.

In the manufacture of the seed into flour for the market two cus-
toms have arisen which change the nature of the original substance,
and therefore would commonly come under the head of adulteration.
One is extremely old, the addition of flour for the purpose of making
the condiment keep better. This necessitates the restoration of the
yellow color by turmeric. Both of these diluents are harmless, but
there seems to be no reason for their use, and it is gradually becom-
ing commoner to find mustard free from them in English brands.

The other custom is the abstraction of the fixed oil by pressure be-

’ REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 299

fore grinding the seed. The percentage of thisoilisover 30. It adds
nothing to the flavor of the mustard, probably injures its keeping
qualities, makes the seed more difficult to mill, and its removal is
therefore a benefit. Itis a nearly universal custom at the present day
in nena and is not considered as fraudulent by the Canadian
analysts.

Palais cations of mustard other than those mentioned are not com-
mon. The hulls, bolted from the flour in the process of manufacture,
are preserved, and form the basis of the adu teration of many other
spices.

PEPPER—BLACK AND WHITE.

Pepper is more in demand than any other spice, and in consequence
is more adulterated. Its appearance in the ground form, especially
of the black, is such as to make it possible to use all sorts of refuse
for this purpose, and almost everything that has been used as an adul-
terant has been found in pepper. White pepper, whichis simply the
black deprived of its outer black coats, is of course less easily falsified,
but in. France is diluted to an immense extent with ground olive
stones, which bear a striking resemblance. Among the samples from
Washington grocers, pepper sweepings—that is, husks and dirt, rice,
cayenne, yellow corn nd mustard hulls—were the commonest ad-
mixture. Sand is said to be very commonly added abroad, but has
not been met with here.

In Canada and New York ground cocoanut shells are a cheap source
of adulteration, but they have not extended so far South.

The quality of a ground pepper can be told by an expert from its
weight and an examination with a lens of low magnifying power.
The particles are not coarsely ground and it is not difficult to pick
out pieces of husk, shells, and rice, and, if necessary, a more careful
investigation under a microscope of higher power will serve for con-
firmation. Black peppers, in our experience, are much more liable to
adulteration than white, although it is perfectly easy to dilute the lat-
ter with broken rice, corn, or beans, which areinexpensive. All these
materials fortunately, owing to the grossness of the adulteration, are
readily recognized, and there is hardly the necessity for recourse to
chemical analysis. There has been, however, considerable investiga-
tion in this direction, so that there are means of confirming the optical
examination which are of great value. Determination of the amount
of starch is one of the methods which is in use, for if under the
microscope foreign starch is not detected, then the addition of P. D.
or other starch-free adulterants will diminish the percentage found.
In this way, too, one is able to arrive at an approximate conclusion
as to the proportion of adulterant added, which can only be estimated
within wide limits under the microscope. In spite of the immense
amount of adulteration it is possible from the best shops to obtain
pure ground peppers, but it is at the same time safer, with a family
spice-mill, to grind the whole berries as they are needed. The sources
of our pepper supply are Tellicherry, on the west coast of Hindostan,
which is graded high, and Penang and Singapore for the Kast, Suma-
tra, Java, &c. The importations are principally through London,
and not direct. The supply of ground pepper from England will
usually be found more pure than our own Bratide and at the same
time is naturally more expensive.

\
300 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

CAYENNE OR RED PEPPER.

The condiment should consist of the ground pods of any of several
species of capsicum, known as chillis, or peppers. It is said to have
been adulterated with many substances—brick dust, red lead, and
coloring matters—but in Washington only rice has been detected, but
that quite frequently. Inferior material is no doubt often ground,
but the small value of the foods and the small quantity consumed
do not tend to increase adulteration.

GINGER.

Ginger is the root, or, technically, rhizome, of a plant somewhat
similar to our iris and flag. It is grown in various parts of the world
and prepared with great care and great carelessness, being at times
scraped and bleached, at others simply cut in any condition, and
dried, so that there is a large number of varieties and qualities to
be found in the market. They all, however, retain sufficiently the
marked peculiarities of the starchy fibrous root to make the detec-
tion of Paalterarite easy. The common ones are the addition of wheat
flour or some starch as a diluent, or the coloring with turmeric, to suit
a popular fancy, for ginger-bread. Mustard hulls and Cayenne are
also found in some States, but have not been detected here. They
are added to give pungency and make up for the addition of flour.
Their detection is easy. The sources of our supply are Jamaica and
the West Indies, Cochin China, Africa, and India. That from Ja-
maica is the best and most carefully prepared.

CLOVES.

The flower buds of the clove tree, carefully picked and dried, consti-
tute the spice known by that name. Their valuable properties are
due to the volatile oil which they contain, the best having as much
as 20.0 per cent.

The removal of this oil is so very easy, that it is the commonest
method of deception to do so before grinding the spice and to then
dispose of it as pure. We have ready means of determining the loss
chemically, but the microscope gives no indication. The addition
of the cheaper clove stems is also practiced, as they cost but 6 cents,
when the buds cost 27. The microscope reveals their presence by
certain cells which they contain which are absent in the buds. Pim-
ento is sometimes substituted in part or entirely, as it has a clove-
like flavor, but only 4 or 5 per cent. of volatile oil. It is worth less
than one-fifth the price of cloves. Its chemical composition and its
structure—that of a berry—revealsits presence. The addition of the
coarser adulterants—cocoanut shells, flour, peas, and the like—have
not been observed, but no doubt frequently occur, as has been found
in Canada.

The sources of our supply are the East Indies (Amboyna), African
(Zanzibar), and American, ranking in value in the order named.
Cloves should, if possible, be always purchased whole, as they dete-
riorate less readily in that form.

CINNAMON AND CASSIA.

These spices are the barks of several spices of the genus Cinnamo-
mum, the true cinnamon being a native of Ceylon, where it is largely

- REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 301

cultivated, and the cassias being derived from several spices growing
in China, India, and the East Indies. Cinnamon as it reaches the
market is very thin, the outer and inner coats of the bark having been
removed. Cassia, on the other hand, is thick, as it consists of the
entire bark, and can be distinguished by its retaining its natural
outer surface. Cinnamon is by far more valuable than the cassia, as
there is a smaller supply, and intrinsically, since it contains a much
greater proportion of volatile oil and that of higher and more deli-
cate aroma. In consequence cassia is largely substituted for cinna-
mon, and in fact not a particle of ground cinnamon can be found in
the market. It can be found in the whole condition in good quality
only in drug stores. Cassia exists in many forms and qualities, and
sells at wholesale at from 7 to 40 cents a pound. That known as
Saigon is the best, and that exported from Batavia the poorest. Cas-
. sia buds also hold a small place in the market.

The detection of the substitution of cassia for cinnamon, since the
barks are of trees of the same species, is more difficult than is usually
the case, and may prove troublesome to a novice. The presence of
more woody fiber in the latter and the aid of chemical analysis serves,
however, as reliable distinctions. In the samples which have come
into our hands not a particle of material labeled ‘‘ ground cinnamon”
proved to be anything but cassia. The spice-millers appeared, how-
ever, to be satisfied to stop at this point, and no addition of cheap
stuff to the cassia was detected. Should it be added there would be
no difficulty in noting it, as has been done in Canada, where peas,
starch, ground shells, and crackers have been found in powder
labeled both cassia and cinnamon.

The barks can in most cases, and especially the cinnamon, be used
nearly as well in the whole condition, and should at least be so pur-
chased and then ground. A slight acquaintance with the appearance
of the different qualities will teach one the proper selection to make.

NUTMEG AND MACE.

These spices are different portions of the fruit of a tree, known as
the nutmeg tree, Myristica fragrans, the nutmeg being the kernel
and the mace one of the outer coats or arillus. The tree grows prin-
cipally in the Banda Islands, and the spices reach us through Lon-
don. They can always be obtained in their original condition, and
should be so purchased. When ground they are mixed with diluents
of various descriptions, principally cereals or their refuse, which are
easily detected. Owing to the infrequency of the sale of the pow-
er ee and mace their adulteration has attracted but little
attention.

CHARACTER OF THE SPICES IN THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

The spices found in Washington are from various markets. The
first-class grocers carry the best English and some good American
brands. Adulteration is infrequent, except among the mustards, pep-
pers, and cinnamon, the former having lost its oil and added flour, and
the latter having cassia substituted forit. Among the cheaper dealers
adulterated spices are nearly universal, the supply being obtained
largely from Baltimore, and to a small extent ground in Washington.

802 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Of aseries of samples collected impartially from all classes of shops .
the ratio of adulterated to non-adulterated was as follows:

. Adulter- | Substi- .
Variety of spice. Pure, ated. tuted, | Inferior.
QOSEIB ac dy. Cobtetttinettat ae.cisie's slonaa Ati cp den eebtaameatiaatstas iat =: srs.4 Bi) |i i ncle he petal | arctan eee 1
CHBIANON sists c calcio pine’ o3 lew cieleice rite Siaciee bo CRI oIeE eis nice eal ook histevs @ ore 1 1¢ 3
QUINTET TAL aehopaban saad nn SoeanEGODOUCUU ROS Oe 5606 S000 nadcaaeaan|| 4 CR EBA ary tities =~
Gis oriey. Srabiiescistais piss 5 lcreleloppicie epic ediaje gate oe okeiistoetdinetelas pe @ ee 4 @) |. 5 tes etep pees
MRR rad siete sralate sicis oleic > s.eieimecinie ein « palate bie atalelniettalale is c/a alate 4 3 1 Re era nt on cice ea.
Westend horn teers c Rov avs otuteinadiumree POEs aad claw eto temab amr ee crihen eit ce Rt bis wth #10) |),..5'.2 40) See eee
OR ass ee eer aieis »anicidateh ve aien\eonmpingdewee SER Eat aur y's t is BO l adore sees |... donate eee
Pepper:
(SROs 43 Gee BBR onmancca rbosddadpdcanss e564 467ebpnAage 1 |} Qo). ici lacle all pntea mean
WWNSRES Won ce a ua cde ies Ciro eee itis ass ae eae eee se basiat = 3 1, | ssid seed ee eee
i ev2's pe A ee On Se ne ic) Se ee 1 4 [2044.85 Sees
PE ETbO vo heii Ce ea Se Ao cre ois OTe Sle eapials aik we Ba tele meter we jctele ids ig ER Pe eel (cece. ac

* Oil expressed in one case and turmeric added, and oil expressed in all American brands,

Details of the peculiarities found in the above samples, with the
methods employed in investigating them, will be found in the special
bulletin of this division on food adulterations, together with chemi-
cal analyses of these and other samples, which cannot well be pre-
sented here, where it is intended merely to call the public attention
by aaa examples to the extent of adulteration of spices at the pres-
ent day.

EXPERIMENTS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR FROM SORGHUM.

The results of the experiments made at Ottawa last year gave en-
couragement to the friends of the sorghum sugar industry, and led
to the undertaking of a new series of experiments at Fort Scott.

The diffusion battery consisted of fourteen cells, arranged in single
line, with calorisators and apparatus for use of compressed air in
discharging the water from each cell before dropping the exhausted
chips. The working of the battery was entirely satisfactory.

Each cell had a capacity of 75 cubic feet, and would hold 1,900
pounds of sorghum chips, moderately packed. Each cell was con-
structed from the drawings obtained from the Fives-Lille Company,
and the detailed description may be found in Bulletin No. 8.

The cutters used were those employed at Ottawa last year. With
very sharp knives, and with cane fresh and green, they did reasonably
good work, but after a frost had killed the leaves of the cane it was
found almost impossible to make the cutters work. It often required
half an hour to fill a single cell. When it is remembered that the
rest of the apparatus could easily have worked a ton of chips each
eight minutes, the disastrous effects of this delay can be appreciated.

From this cause great trouble was experienced in working the bat-
tery. When all the cells were in use each one was often under pres-
sure three or four hours. The cane was unusually acid, and from
this there followed a large inversion of sucrose in the battery. If,
to avoid this, the temperature of diffusion was lowered, fermentation
would set in. There was nothing left for us to do but to work a
smaller number of cells. Often only six or seven cells were under
pressure, and consequently the degree of extraction was far less per-
fect than it would have been otherwise.

The style of cutter used furnished a chip well suited to diffusion,
but I am convinced that these cutters are more costly and require
more power for operation than is necessary.

‘REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 303

With a view of correcting these defects I purchased a beet-root
cutter formerly used by the Portland Beet Sugar Company, and had
it rebuilt by the Colwell Iron Company of New York, for an experi-
mental cane-cutter.

This apparatus hada horizontal disk, and was so modified as to
take a multiple feed, the cane being delivered to it through six hop-
pers inclined 40 degrees to the vertical. With perfectly clean canes
this cutter gave promise of success, but with,the sorghum cane as it
came from the field it proved a total failure.

This leads me to believe that the cutters used at Java and other
places so successfully with sugar-cane would not serve the purpose of
slicing sorghum for the battery. Any question of cleaning the canes
before delivering them to the cutter must be negatived on the score
of economy.

For the further study of the problem I tried the system of cane
slicing invented by Mr. H. A. Hughes, of Rio Grande, N. J.

The principle of this system consists in first cutting the canes into
lengths of 3 or 4 inches by means of an ensilage-cutter, and after
passing them through acleaning apparatus deliver them toa shaving-
machine, constructed on the principle of a board-planer.

This latter part of the apparatus was kindly loaned to the Depart-
ment by Mr. Hughes.

The canes were first cut by a Belle City ensilage-cutter into pieces
about 2.25inches inlength. These pieces were run though a fanning-
milland nearly all the blades and sheaths were thus removed. The
clean pieces of cane were next delivered to a slicer built on the princi-
ple of an ordinary board-planer. Thecylinder was 6 inches in diame-
ter and 30 inches in length, and carried two knives projecting one-
eighth to one-sixteenth inch beyond the surface. This was driven at
a high rate of speed, over 3,000 revolutions per minute. The canes
were shredded rather than sliced by this procees, so that the extrac-
tion of the sugar was rather a maceration than a diffusion.

Even with this small machine it was found possible to prepare
nearly as much cane for the battery as with the three ponderous cut-
ters described. It was found, however, that the ensilage-cutter was
not strong enough to do the work, and hence this most promising
system of cane-cutting, practiced successfully at Rio Grande, was dis-
continued. The experiment, however, led me to believe that the prin-
ciple was the right one; especially is this so because it permits of the
easy cleaning of the canes by first cutting them into small pieces.
This seems to be the only practical way of accomplishing what is of
prime necessity to diffusion, viz, the removal of all deleterious sub-
stances from the chips.

Having demonstrated the practicability of cleaning the cane in the
manner already described, my attention was next directed to the con-
sideration of the best method of cutting the short pieces of cane into
chips suitable for diffusion. For this purpose I had constructed by
the Fort Scott Foundry a centrifugal slicer. The theory of this appa-
ratus was that the knives, being carried in a revolving frustum of a
cone, and the short pieces of cane being fed from the inside of this
cone, the chips, as soon as cut, would fly off by centrifugal force. A
trial of this apparatus showed that the fiber of the cane would clog
the knives and thus stop the work. The close of the season prevented
any modification of the apparatus. Ithinkthe principle of the appa-
ratus 1s promising enough to warrant further trial.

304 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

As a result of the experiments with cutters the following conclu-
sions can be drawn:

(1) Whatever the form of the ee aun employed may be,
it is necessary that the cane be cleaned. This cleaning should not
consist of the removal of the blades alone, but also the sheaths,

(2) The slicing of the canes obliquely by means of a vertical cut-
ting-machine with a forced feed is not an economical method of pro-
cedure.

(3) The use of a cutting-machine with a horizontal disk and multi-
ple feed is impracticable for sorghum canes unless they are perfectly
clean.

(4) The preliminary cutting of the canes into short lengths promises
the easiest solution of the problem of cleaning the cane.

(5) The subsequent slicing of these sections by some form of appa-
ratus is a mechanical problem which can be solved.

THE APPARATUS FOR DELIVERING THE CHIPS TO THE BATTERY AND
REMOVING THEM THEREFROM.

The working of the chip elevators and the apparatus for removing
the exhausted chips was exceedingly unsatisfactory.

The chips falling into the pit below the cutters were carried by a
screw conveyer toa bucketelevator. Thence they were dropped onto
a belt conveyer, which delivered them to the apparatus for blowing
out the leaves, &c. The screw, the elevator, and the belt frequently
became choked, and occasioned a great deal of trouble and delay.

The apparatus for removing the exhausted chips gave still greater
trouble.

In discharging acell the whole contents, weighing aton, were thrown
at once on the conveyer. This load was too great, and many days’
delay were experienced in making the alterations necessary even to
moderate efficiency.

The elevator for taking the exhausted chips from this conveyer was
avery complicated and inefficient piece of apparatus, and many tedious
changes had to be made before it would do the necessary work. Fi-
nally its use was abandoned altogether. Thelessons taught by these
unfortunate delays show that the proper method for removing the ex-
hausted chips from the battery is by means of a tramway and dump-
cart, as practiced at Almeria, and described in Bulletin No.8. A great
deal ot apparatus and power will be saved by this method of disposin
of the aioe The conveyer for filling the cells worked in marke
contrast with the rest of the chip-handling machinery, and gave per-
fect satisfaction. This conveyer extended the entire length of the
battery, and was placed directly above it. Over each cell was adoor
in the floor of the conveyer. When a cell was to be filled the door
above it was opened and the chips fell through onto a funnel, which
directed them into the cell. The bottom of the conveyer at Fort
Scott was too near the top of the cells. It should be not less than 6
feet above the top of the cells, so as to allowample room for tamping
the chips as they fall into the cell, thereby greatly increasing the ca-
pacity of the battery. Ido not think a better contrivance could be
devised for filling the cells of alinebattery. I am still of theopinion,
however, that the charging of a circular aida as described in Bul-
letin No. 8, would be a more simple method. The disposition of the
battery, however, is not a matter of vital importance.

I am further of the opinion that it will not be difficult for an ingeni-

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 305

ous mechanical engineer familiar with elevating apparatus to build
the machinery which will elevate the cuttings to the battery without
any difficulty. By the employment of the centrifugal cutter already
described, which can be placed directly over the battery, the eleva-
tors will only have to carry the short pieces of cane—a very easy task.

MACHINERY FOR HANDLING THE CANE.

The apparatus for taking the cane from the carts and delivering it
to the cutters was designed by Mr. W. L. Parkinson. The carts for
bringing the cane from the fields are provided with a rack of peculiar
construction. On this rack are placed ropes in such a manner that
when the cart arrives at the unloading station the ropes can be brought
together, inclosing the whole load of cane. By means of a power
drum the entire load is drawn from the cart onto a weighing-truck,

running on a tramway.

As soon as the weighing is completed the truck is moved along the
way until it comes opposite the cane-carrier. It is drawn from the
truck by means of a power drum, and is dragged down an inclined
plane in large armfulsto the carrier. Thecarrier runs at right angles
to the length of the cane and to the elevators which deliver the canes
to the cutters. As the cane is carried along this feed-table the heads
are cut off by a circular saw running at a high rate of speed. The
heads which escape the saw are afterwards cut off by hand. The
canes then pass to a point midway over the three elevators leading to
the cutters. Thence, by means of an ingenious contrivance, it can
be dropped into either carrier at will. The apparatus worked well,
but aside from the removal of the tops I doubt whether so compli-
cated a piece of machinery is necessary.

CARBONATATION APPARATUS.

This apparatus consists of a lime-kiln, washer for the gas, carbonic-
acid pump, and carbonatation tanks.

LIME-KILN.

The lime-kiln was built by Mr. G. L. Spencer, with castings and
plans from the Hallesche Maschinenfabrik. The pump was built by
the same firm, but was purchased, as well as the castings just men-
tioned, from the Portland Beet Sugar Company. After the workmen
learned how to conduct the operations at the kiln we had no trouble
with its manipulation. It furnished an abundant supply of gas, and
an amount of lime in large excess of the quantity required.

The limestone at first furnished contained a large quantity of ce-
ment, and was unfit for use. In all, several days’ delay was caused
by this imperfection.

After reasonably good limestone was obtained all worked well.
The analyses of the limestones employed will be found among the
analytical data. The drawings and detailed description of the lime-
kiln are found in Bulletin No. 8.

THE PUMP.

The pump was delivered to us in that state of imperfection which
three months of very hard usage and six years of disuse produce.
Nevertheless, after a proper adjustment it worked with perfect satis-
faction. In all not more than half a day’s delay was caused by the
adjustment of this apparatus.

20 AG—’86

306 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

THE CARBONATATION TANKS.

These tanks were built by the Pusey & Jones Company, accord-
ing to the drawings and specifications in Bulletin No. 8, and gave
perfect satisfaction. I can suggest no improvement in them, unless
it be the insertion of revolving paddles, to keep down the foam.

THE FILTER-PRESSES.

These, four in number, and of thirty chambers each, were con-
structed by. the Pusey & Jones Company, on the general plan of
the Kroog filter-press, but with certain modifications suggested and
patented by Mr. Swenson. Their work gave perfect satisfaction.
The only fault discovered in them was the weakness of the plates, a
great number of them breaking under the ordinary pressure.

THE SULPHUR APPARATUS.

This apparatus consists of an air-compressor, two sulphur furnaces,
three sulphuring-tanks, and three Kroog’s twin filter-presses, The
whole apparatus was built by the Sangerhiuser Maschinenfabrik,
and its work gave entire satisfaction. The apparatus is described in
detail in Bulletin No. 8.

The whole of the machinery, with the unimportant changes noted,
was constructed according to the drawings and specifications printed in
Bulletin No. 8. Their reproduction is not considered necessary here.

ANALYTICAL DATA.

The analyses of canes, chips, waste waters, purified juices, &c.,
were made at the factory chiefly by Dr. C. A. Crampton, assisted by
Mr, N. J. Fake. The limestones, masse cuites, press cakes, &c., were
examined in the laboratory at Washington.

The analyses of the gases from the lime-kiln were made by Mr. G.
L. Spencer.

The full details of these analyses are given in Bulletin No. 14,

Mill juices before October 1.

; S)
eens elses
5 sE “ss oO Oo *7) 2-2
2 S = 2 g z Z 5 Index to mill juices,
HH Oo
Bel # | emilee |e 2
A 1c R RR R o A
IEA TEN AM EA Ca (PENA

i Neel SAAB 5d. 26 | 1.0773 | 18.7 | 18.25 |...... Aug. 30 | Early amber cane from west field.
Reacts 58.33 | 1,0669 | 16.3 | 11.46 | 1.88 | Aug. 31 | Harly amber cane from east field.
Beicaes 57.14 ; 1.0529 | 13.1] 7.20 | 8.46 | Aug. 31 | Link’s hybrid.
aeerr 58.82 | 1.0574 | 14.1 | 7.50 | 4.85 | Aug. 31} Early orange.

WTS oc Maaee oe | 1.0710 | 17.2 | 14.73 |......| Sept. 3] Early amber cane, juice extracted by hand.
2 ARE 60.60 | 1.0770 | 18.6 | 9.47 | 4.95 | Sept. 15 | Early amber cane from east field, cut two days.
Sha: ss 60.00 | 1.0788 | 19.0 | 7.04 | 7.80 | Sept. 16 | Early amber cane, cut three days.

We Efile, sie 51.60 | 1.0794 | 19.2 | 4.92 | 8.42 | Sept. 17 | Orange cane from wagons.

4-H RE Sie hee 1.0688 | 16.7 | 10.83 | 2.49 | Sept. 18 | Cane from carrier.

Bose es sis 45.16 } 1.0832 | 20.0 | 13.54 | 2.97 | Sept. 19 Do.

(Gy Aare 47.15 | 1.0734 | 17.8 | 11.48 | 3.58 | Sept. 20 | Amber cane from carrier.

105% ue 68.68 | 1.0770 | 18.6 | 12.11 | 2.44 | Sept. 21 | Amber cane from carrier, cut yesterday.
Glee sinse 56.10 | 1.0750 | 18.2 | 11.82 | 2.73 | Sept. 21 | Orange cane from carrier,

Fora ai 55.27 | 1.0818 | 19.5 | 11.02 | 4.20 | Sept. 22 | Amber cane from carrier, cut two days.
BA aici 58,62 | 1.0888 | 21.2 | 14.50 | 2.77 | Sept. 22 | Amber cane from carrier, cut one day.
Oto re 53.12 | 1.0848 | 20.3 | 3.60 [11.36 | Sept. 23 | Amber cane from carrier, cut three days.
oS ee 61.77 | 1.0718 | 17.4 | 9.49 | 5.33 | Sept. 23 | Cane from carrier.
hts seat 58.44 | 1.0638 | 15.6 | 9.74 | 2.16 | Sept. 23 | Link’s hybrid from field.

Seas 46.43 | 1.0776 | 18.7 | 13.53 | 2.41 | Sept. 24 | Came from carrier.

fect 56.56 | 1.0675 | 16.4 | 11.50 | 2.80 | Sept. 24 | Gane like preceding, except badly lodged.
102.....3 59.87 | 1.0578 | 14.2} 8.20 | 2,86 | Sept. 25 | Cane from carrier (from lodged lot).
TOR: 59.18 | 1.0678 | 16.5 | 10.17 | 8.47 | Sept. 25 | Orange cane, cut to-day.
106}....| 53.00 | 1.0726 | 17.6 | 12.40 | 1.90 | Sept. 28 | Cane from carrier,
terest. 51.51 | 1,0684 | 16.6 | 10.41 | 4.08 | Sept. 2 Do.

WAG. ee 56.10 | 1.0764 | 17.8 | 12.39 | 3.76 | Sept. 30 Do,
Aviage.! 55.79 | 1.0723 | 17.56) 10.49 | 4.01
Coefficient purity...... 59.73

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 307

Mill juices after September 30.

Rowwanwo
RSZSERES

RO EO NTA DO ROLOR OLS

99 STU 20 09
3
]

=
pe ais
i
par

str OF
&

; 3)
a & a me
® > ‘on
a he | ee

% = 5p
a A mM
P. ot

1 61.76 | 1.0634

12 ee ep) Seen 1. 0842

138. 54.54 | 1.0866

WAT occ 51.72 | 1.0680

TOO os: 51.35 | 1.0740

159. . 51.35 | 1.0710

169. 56. 00 ; 1.0818

snes cre 7.70'| 1.0778

Views. 52.94 | 1.0801

ie Reeee 53.85 | 1.0748

TBOn?. + 3 55.55 | 1.0698

1S iss. 53.12 | 1.0828

199. 31. 60.10 | 1.067:

Ui wares 59.63 | 1.0640

PAS) 353. 58.08 | 1.0758

222. 2s 48.82 | 1.0596

Reduee. 61.54 | 1.0556

pd ae 60.00 | 1.0506

pe 59.37 | 1.0766

pa ee 62.07 | 1.0764

alee 57.90 | 1.0676

PAR soon cllecien tare 1.0618

PAON aces 61.90 | 1.0632

258..... 62.16 | 1.0588

3 Rape 57.14 | 1.0718

2600. E55 58.83 | 1.0736

267..... 59.09 | 1.0592

0B eas 61.54 | 1.0832

vo Beiee 63.41 | 1.0672

BGeccee 53.63 | 1.0956

ikweins 57.25 | 1.0846

Pareles axe 59.46 | 1.0656

62.07 | 1.0646

60.71 | 1.0654

2.94 | 1.0618

62.50 | 1.0608

ail terararar ste 1.0621

50.00 | 1.0626

60.00 | 1.0678

56.52 | 1. 0684

62.86 | 1.0629

Setar 1.0580

sagan 1.0400

61.58 | 1.0560

60.00 | 1.0550

Av’age.| 58.01 | 1.0680
Coefficient purity......

g\ i
2) =]
nm m
'P. et.| P. ct.
15.5 | 8.37
20.2 | 14:50
20.7 | 14.87
16.6 | 10.50
17.9 | 12.39
7.2 | 10.65
19.7 | 13.20
18.8 | 9.95
19.3] 2.11
18.11 6.67
17.0 | 10.69
19.9 | 12.46
16.5 | 9.10
15.6 | 9.07
18.3] 4.55
14.6 | 8.57
18.7 | 7.72
12,5 | 7.22
18.5 | 7.02
18.5 | 8.66
16.5 | 10.29
15.1] 8.60
15.5 | 8.86
14.4] 6.65
17.4| 8.54
17.8 | 10.51
14.5 | 8.83
20.0 | 14.11
16.4! 9.53
21.5 | 5.71
20.3 | 12.05
16.0 | 7.68
15.8 | 7.27
16,0 | 10.09
15.1| 4.15
14.9 | 4.64
15,2 | 5.88
15.3 | 9.51
16.5 | 9.77
16.6 | 8.51
15.4} 7.88
14.3] 7.45
10.0 | 3.66
13.8 | 5.87
13.6 | 7.60
16.60} 8.70
52,41

Date.

SUI ST OUOT OTR Bo 2D

weomon=2

Index to mill juices.

Cane from carrier, stripped.

Cane from carrier.

Cane brought in cars from Hammond.

Amber cane from carrier.

Orange cane from carrier.

Cane from carrier.

Cane, amber, on car from Hammond.

Same, orange.

Amber cane from Hammond.

Same, orange.

Cane from car, same as two preceding, but better
averaged samples taken from center of car,
while the first samples were taken from the
outside, amber.

Same, orange.

Orange eane from carrier (juice very red).

Cane from carrier, p. m.

Cane from carrier, a. m. (qld cane).

Link’s hybrid from field.

Orange from field.

Amber from field.

Cane from carrier, cut several days.

First fresh wagon-load lot in to-day.

Link’s hybrid cane from Professor Swenson’s,
still green and not hurt by frost.

Cane from carrier, freshly cut, a, m.

Cane from carrier, p. m.

Cane from carrier.

Cane on car from Hammond, orange.

Cane on car from Hammond, amber.

Cane, amber, lot from Hammond by Dr. Wiley

and Professor Swenson.

Same, orange.

Same, orange, No. 2.

Cane for experimental run, orange, taken from
same cars as yesterday's samples.

Same, amber.

Sample from other two cars from Hammond,
orange.

Same, amber.

Orange cane from Professor Swenson’s.

First mill juice from experimental run, taking
sample every hour, orange.

Same, amber, taken ‘at same time as above.

Second sample, orange.

Second sample, Link’s hybrid, from-Swenson’s.

Third sample, orange, from Hammond.

Cane from carrier, amber.

Cane from carrier, or, ange.

“‘Denton” cane, analyzed for Mr. Parkinson.

Green cane from w. agon.

Cane from field across railroad, amber, still

green

cgne from field south side railroad tr ack, amber.

308

These chips were taken from the cells of the batter
Renienl was taken from each cell until 10

filling. A
led

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ANALYSES OF JUICE OF CHIPS FROM CUTTERS.

h

as they were
ad been sam-

The determinations were made by passing these chips through the
mill and then subjecting the juice to examination in the usual way.

Mill juices from chips taken from circuit of cells.

Number. Date
BOS SUS Tee Oct. 15
iD) aentckaew ap sienna c Oct, 15
BO Ws Aieiatele ate iere’p(otejerare! Oct. 16
BAO iereiole is (aicsexelajeiate erent Oct. 17
DB een iieclaea\iantelaie Oct. 18
Bie oseouaspaddodddd «| Oct. 19
BOO ie accolevolnicieleferviciene .-| Oct. 20
GATED ei eleleve oteleloieiale sas} Oct. 21
g Oct.
445

Specific
gravity
1.0624 5
1.0610 14.9
1.0670 16.3
1.0648 15.8
1. 0584 14.3
1.0596 14.6
1.0648 15.8
1.0590 14.5
5 16.1
12.6
14.2
14.2
14.8
13.17

Purity coefficient of juice, 49.

Glucose per 100 sucrose in juice, 51.07.

Diffusion juices to October 1,

Number. Date. Solids. | Sucrose. | Glucose.

Per cent. |Per cent. | Per cent.

ib Kas scoured Sept. 9... 6.8 8.29 1.39
A Gaincicitleccisincs Sept. 11... 8.5 3.94 1.99
Pay SOK ABICE Sept. 13.. 9.3 6. 50 1.66
OB tls eiaisieisies Sept. 14.. able 7.47 1.53
Pal teeieite nese Sept. 14.. 11.2 6.17 1,42
2S aghooceds Sept. 15.. 12.6 6 36 2.84
Die kieran Sept. 16.. 10.8 5.71 1.82
Bete Eee Sept. 17... 10.4 5.62 1.66
AB). Soe ce Sept. 18... 11.9 6.59 3.18
Fb BOOS SIC Sept. 18... a es 6.94 1,82
Bi eisteleeinere sre Sept. 19... 11.8 5. 66 2.85
(OY BGoescenns Sept. 20... 10.8 4.37 3.36
COS Maes Sept. 20... 12.3 5.59 3.46
ie dgielarweyaieiste Sept. 21... 11.8 5.76 | 2.89
We gucancous Sept. 238... 11.8 6.78 2.19
AS are ietels/=\2 Sept. 24... 9.2 4.81 | 1.84
LN opr sacnioe Sept. 24... 10.7 4.53 2.23
1015 ww aa Sept. 25... 9.6 6.06{ 1.52
TD a Se Sept. 25... 8.9 4.13 1.28
1OSe Boek ak Sept. 28... 9.7 5. 68 1. 67
114 ete eis Sept. 29.. 12.6 6.76 2.92
5 bi fs Oe yeaa Sept. 29.. 12.0 6.37 2.65
Deve dxcintsye esc Sept. 30.. 14.8 7.22 4.16
verses 2:|srsceeeece 11.77 | 5.5 2.32

7,84
9.29
8.17

~
vo
=

SEITESS

SHI] AMO HAIN:
RB

Purity coefficient of juice, 48.93.

Solids. | Sucrose. | Glucose.

Lee oe

Per cent.|Per cent.| Per cent.
15.3 9.02 2.61

o

3.42

' REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 309

Diffusion juices October 1 to close.

Date. Solids. | Sucrose. | Glucose.

Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.

pets ds « Oct t:. 14.8 8. 60 3.25
cea ae Oct. 2.. 13.7 7.01 3.32
Meee Oct. 2.. 13.9 7. 68 3. 10
sae Oct. 2.. 13.2 7.18 2.7
S855 952, Oct. 3.. 12.9 5.89 3. 96
pity eae Oct. 3.. 12.7 6.51 3.65
ae eae Oct. 3.. 12.9 6.47 3.52
ess x 2 Oct. 4.. 9.8 4.80 2.38
Be Oct. 4.. 9.6 4.71 2.47
Err et £6 Oct. 4.. 11.5 5.42 3.28
Wate 89s Oct. 5.. 12.3 6.21 3.34
Hebe eee Oct. 5.. 13.0 6.44 3.58
ee th 2 Oct. 5.. 12.2 5.78 3.40
minh Ae Oct. 5.. 12.2 6.03 3.23
el dre Och te 13.3 6.13 4.41
OY Anan We Oct. 7.. 12.7 5. 46 4,23
eee ahs Oct. 7.. 12.2 5.19 4,23
eee Oct. 7.. 12.2 4.50 4.41
See Oct. 8.. 12.5 5.40 4.12
IB oe Oct. 8.. 11.8 5.29 3.98
eaeee ee Oct. 9.. 12.2 4.04 4.65
ie ee A Oct. 9.. 11.3 4.08 4.07
PR teal Oct.10... 10.8 4.06 3.45
ca eee a Oct.10.. 11.2 4.86 3.30
ie aes Oct.11.. 10.3 4.10 3.43
2 ae ea tat, Oct.11.. 10.3 4,32 3.15
5, STPebe, Oct. 11... 10.9 4.53 3.09
eee: Oct. 12... 13.1 5.76 3.96
Mirena ks Oct.12... 12,2 4.82 4.06
Oct. 12... 11.9 5.44 3.41
i oe Oct.14... 12.7 5.30 2.14
as Reece Oct.14.. 11.6 4,92 3.54
yet aera Oct.15.. 9.1 3.24 2.32
Be Ae RN Oct.16.. 11.6 5.14 2.98
See ae Oct.16... 11.2 4.96 2.94
RSS ai Oct.17... 11.7 5.51 3.08
Fitna Oct.18... 10.8 4,38 2.90
Lear Oct.18... 9, 3.64 2.96
wh ae Oct.19... 9.9 4.08 2.53
sn 5 eo Oct.19... 10.4 4.38 2,94
peter ae Oct. 20.. 10.9 | 3.72 3.91
Sit or oe Oct. 20... 7.2 3 2.33 2.08
NS apse Oct. 20.. 9.5 | 3.58 2 71
pe ea Oct. 21 .. 11.2 3.97 3.98
eed Oct.21.. 11.8 3.77 4.44
A ae Oct. 22.. 10.6 4.41 S31
Sed Ke 2 Oct. 22... 10.1 3.95 3.87
iy. SRS Oct. 22.. 10.3 3.91 3.43
ier ni Oct. 22.. 10.3 3.82 3.76
Bos Sta Oct. 23 .. 10.1 3. 67 3.77
EE Pats, Oct. 23 .. 10.1 3.41 3.63
PE AG Oct. 26 8.8 2.93 2.97
RA ek i Oct. 27 ms 2.94 2.55
pee Oe a: 11.34 4,90 3.39

After September 30 the determinations are as follows:
Per cent.

Glucose im mill JUICES. 2... cece cence cede vcenersevnsecccccsceocceerceses 4.15
Not sugars in mill juices...... 0... cece cece eee eee eee eee e eee neeeeeeneeeeeees 3.75

Ratio 1 glucose to .90 not sugars.
Glese 1ill CHEE Pot Rie ooo a ne a cin a cds ce vaee gms chen gaeteeces aeata« toon hee (oe

Not sugars in chips Cane oF Seage Hoe Choc cininten SSL SP La toes seteaide 3.74
WHEFONGS:.: ied coe wks Behe oe ootsic. cre de cater Os SLM: CES ty et Ege

Sireabsca ASR ee id 3 2h feats wo 5+ < ip, «inion on Ainge ea as cide diay ea
Purity of chips before October 1..........-. ORL Aaa cet eeae as tele estes als OURO

Purity of chips after September 30......... Aviaries pte, eae Reha cracls i 2). atk Ree

310 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

JUICE FROM CHIPS PASSED THROUGH EXPERIMENTAL MILL.

rom the analyses of the juices it is seen that the chips entering
the battery from October 15 to the close of the season contained—

Per cent.
Sucrose...... Usa tee Te EL ETRE ES Lia ha AAEM ter eee eae A 8. 6.48
GTC ORC: t1N tee a Goh sbeettere sae Sea Om PR aos A oe 3.31
Glucose per hundred OF Sucrapey 2.) indmee shed aches sleek 2d ae vealed eae eae 51. 07

Leaving out of the computation the analyses of the chips in closed
bottles, the following average character of the cane for the entire sea-
son is obtained:

ae Sucrose, | Glucose.

Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.
15. 68

Before October .....,.......% 9.34 8.57
After September 80............ 14.77 U4 3.7
| After October 14,5......21.4).. 13.17 6.48 3.31
| MGans: $224 aoc. Wa ne 14. 56 7.85 8.52

Mean purity, 53.9; mean glucose per 100 sucrose, 43.84.
Available sugar, calculated by taking difference between sucrose and all other solids, viz, 1.15 per
cent. = 23 pounds per ton,

It will be interesting to compare these numbers with those obtained
at Magnolia Station, Louisiana, in 1885, and recorded in Bulletin No.
Aap, LL, 12.

Per cent.
Total solids in cane, /2ii...3 40a... ded BRE aA Ae PONG ha ENTS bp os om cob ‘14, 22
Total sucrose in cane...... UEC Me fer CP Se IE ictovce catficyes OR REE Rett ch Rae EERE = 10.90
Fotal glucose in canh@aig. shines oes hPa e eA ea Pee 1 ae 92
Mean purity... . $2 Vale. bowel. sete Sl, nada de MOOR ORE dEES co. canoe 76.6
Mean glucose per 100 sucrose.......... “oes fe ARETE MRAM ER ew oe cee 8.44

Available sugar calculated as before, viz, 7.58 per cent.—151.6 pounds per ton,

It thus clearly appears from a careful study of the analytical data
that the sorghum canes entering the battery at Fort Scott were totally
unfit for sugar-making.

No known process, save an act of creation, could have made sugar
successfully out of such material. :

If nothing better than this can be obtained, then it is time to de-
clare the belief in an indigenous sorghum-sugar industry a delusion.
This subject will be mentioned again in the summary.

A general review of the data connected with this interesting problem
shows that with fresh chips of fine quality the natural acidity is eapa-
ble of producing no appreciable inversion during treatment in an ex-
traction flask or while under pressure in the battery. With the dete-
rioration of the cane, however, and consequent increasing acidity, this
inversion becomes very great. In other words, the natural acids of
the cane, such as malic and aconitic, are incapable of producing any,
appreciable inversion ; but the accidental acid (acetic) which comes
from deterioration may cause an inversion of the sucrose in a most
marked degree. The most practical method of avoiding this danger
appears to me to be a mechanical contrivance which will sprinkle
evenly over the entering chips 2 or 3 pounds of fine slaked lime or
double that quantity of fine calcium carbonate to each cell of chips.

As has already been noted, every other attempt to neutralize the
dangerous acids of the cane in a practical way has failed.

’ REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 311

DIFFUSION JUICES.

The ratio of glucose to sucrose (per 100) in the diffusion juices was
as follows:

Per cent.
Peaynanuas Ovetral oer e The cero re bec Gbce te aa eI en tee Cor cL ea eIEE re Ba ocorae ACL,
marrer Menvemiber GO. HU I eee creek TAU EE Oa le ae ae 68.15

These results show that before frost the inversion of the sucrose in
the battery was nil, but that after frost this inversion was very marked.
The fact is also emphasized by another, viz, that before frost the full
battery of 14 cells was used, but that afterwards 8, 10, and 12 cells only
were employed. Thus before frost the chips in the battery were longer
under pressure than afterwards, and I may add that the temperature
was also higher. These facts corroborate the statement already made,
that when once the process of inversion has commenced it goes easily

‘and rapidly forward under the combined influence of time and an ele-
vated temperature. Before such deterioration begins a temperature
of even 100° C. can be maintained for an hour without notable injury.

A further fact which is illustrated by the analyses of the diffusion
juices from uninjured canes is that the diminished purity is produced
solely by the extraction of gum and chlorophyll, chiefly from the
bladés and sheaths, and that this injury can be avoided by a proper
cleaning of the canes.

With clean canes and those in which the sucrose is still uninjured
no alkaline substance will have to be used in the battery. When,
however, deteriorated canes are used, some such application will be
necessary to save the sucrose from further inversion. As has already
been ea out, finely powdered lime or calcium carbonate evenly
distributed over the chips offers the simplest solution of the difficulty.

WASTE WATERS AND EXHAUSTED CHIPS.

The amount of waste water was very small, compressed air having
been uniformily used to drive the water from the cell next to be dis-
charged. |

In the estimation of the sugar the sucrose was first inverted and
the whole sugar estimated as glucose. The mean percentage of both
sugars in the waste waters after September 30 was .17 per cent.
Since the mean glucose per 100 of sucrose for the season was nearly
44, the respective quantities of sucrose and glucose were as follows:

Per cent.
RUIGEOSGE tre hele ties ci cra Bere ten ie: a4 sie 3, noe: syd bo. 4:4, 6:8 acne @ Siem dain hoe Tia tel a'S syn. oes sala!
GTSSE tee PREIS ee ees See ee ee Ee eee es becca siete sae eek . 06

In the exhausted chips before October 1, by the same method of
calculation, there was of—

Per cent.

PUGCEOSG ed cielo cee ciaiecid cheb eGR oc s oh s occ devah sioiS Bare cece od ccna tyre MMe sl wales .16

GIGOSO NSE Eh cate ig WR oe ec wrake Pihs, «acca ode ace scream mots Wem A apU Tames enctobs . 08
After September 30 the numbers are as follows:

Per cent.

SUCTOSG) 4 .c'ah Aorer atne Pee e ee athissiscalds win oN 4 aptiseadterels SESE MIING e toate eed pera dees . 30

GU COSC: ENA S tts ne ee Maio ecievte ciate. iSbBia oso aid oa SE cei taher canter meer raN mDMNE a ohare ce male

This increase in the sugar left in the chips was was due to cutting
out a large portion of the battery, especially during the first week in
October. At this time often only six cells were under pressure, but

312 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

the result is seen in the large quantities of total sugar left in the
chips, amounting in one instance to 1.52 per cent.

After the 6th of October nine or ten cells were kept under pressure,
and the content of sugar left in the chips was correspondingly dimin-
ished.

Sorghum, however, lends itself to diffusion more readily than any
other sugar-producing plant, and a battery of ten cells properly man-
aged would give good results as far as extraction is concerned.

PRESS CAKES.

The mean weight of the press cakes was 24.3 pounds. The mean
content of moisture was 46.45 per cent.

Since considerable time elapsed from the time of sending the cakes
from Fort Scott until they were analyzed at Washington a consider-
able inversion of the sucrose took place.

The mean total sugar in the ealye press cakes examined was 4.42

per cent.
Dividing this, as before, between the two sugars, we find, of—
Per cent.
SIECEOSCH a Shs 5 baie inks ofa aakotanets mustoMralere Glave, oo sce los) agovolore We isiaia\@ sons 0) 0 «leiseyeejetmeneees 2.97
(GinVaeey Rye ieee ina ee Bee AO teal dues 8 Mae ke a ey ae Sees ORS AS fi.5 oc . 1.45

When extra care was taken in washing the cakes, as in the case of
the Louisiana experiments, to be later described, only a trace of sugar
was left in them.

A glance at the composition of the cake will show its value as a
fertilizer.

The quantity of lime used was nearly 14 per cent. of the weight of
the cane entering the battery.

RESULTS OF WORK.

The average weight of chips in the cells was 1,900 pounds.

From the beginning of the first attempts to run the machinery
(September 13) until it was found possible to save the product (Sep-
tember 29) 499 diffusions were made, amounting to 948,100 pounds.
After beginning to save the product (September 29) until suspen-
sion of work (October 26) 1,945 diffusions were made, amounting to
3,695,500 pounds. The total weight of cane, seed, and blades received
from the field after September 19 was 3,120 tons.

The weight of chips diffused was 2,322 tons. The weight of seed,
Hops, blades, and cleanings (by difference) was 72° tons.

ollowing is the number of cells of chips used each day after Sep-
tember 19. Before that date no separate daily account was kept:

Number of Number of Number of
Date. cells cut. Date. cells cut. Date. cells cut.
Sept. 20.. 80 Oct ee iken 69 Oct. 14. 80
Sept. 21.. 59 Oty 48-56 56 Oct, 15". 75
Sept. 22.. 44 |" Oct wae 7 Oct. 16. 100
Sept. 23.. 67 Oebin Dene 55 !! Oct. 17...1 85
Sept. 24... 89 || Oct. 6... 53 | Oct. 18.. 55
Sept. 25... 63 | Oct -bvsph 66 | Oct. 19. 53
Sept. 26... 66 Oct. 8...| 59 | Oct. 20.: ot
Sept. 27... 41 Oct. 9...| 7 Oct. 21:. 102
Sept. 28... 33 |.Octs 105% 7 Oct. 22... 106
Sept. 29 "5 | Oct. 11... 92 Oct. 23.. $9
Sept. 30 66 Oct. 12 Oct. 26 42
Oct. 1 7 Oct. 18 66

' REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 313

About one-third of the cane received was partly stripped of its
blades. It appears from the above figures that the seed tops, blades,
and sheaths of the cane will amount to nearly 30 per cent. of the en-
tire weight. It must also be remembered that much of the blades,
sheaths, &c., was not removed by the very imperfect cleaning appar-
atus employed, and this weight is included in that of the “clean
chips.”

STATEMENT SHOWING RATIO OF SEED HEADS TO WEIGHT OF CANE, RATIO OF CLEAN-
INGS FROM BLOWER, AND QUANTITY OF CLEAN CANE CHIPS PER CELL.

Weight of cane taken...........cccsecec cee cccececccrececncees pounds.. 118,480
Weight of seed tops......5.. 2c cece see e cece cece ecto ee cceccenceces do.Ji;. #203878
Weieht. Gb CleamIN gs. (3... oi. wins tin desiveccn se ces scree vine ce mamemslans dO..:2. 7,580
Weight of clean cane Chips...............e.eceeceseeeeeeceeeeees do.... 89,025
Weight of each cell full of clean chips............-..--++-eeseees dG2i 43 1, 894
: Seed! heads to total weight of cane......0...0...2-2605se000-- per cent. . 18.47
Cleanings total weight of cane...........-..- cere reece eee e eee eee do:ty: 6.40
Clean chips on total weight of cane........... eee eee eee eee eeeee GGin 33 75.13

The cane used in the above ues was stripped in the field.
The ‘‘cleanings” comprised the blades not removed and sheaths, &c.,
blown out by the fanning-machine. Much of these impurities was
not removed. Thesugar obtained was of a fair marketable kind and
ee aready sale. The molasses was of a dark color and a poor
quality.

The weight of masse-cuite was determined on a portion of the prod-
uct by Mr. Swenson. He placed it at a mean of 12 per cent. of the
weight of the chips entering the battery. The weight of melada
qe from the 2,322 tons was therefore 557,280 pounds, or 46,440
gallons.

At the present writing (November 15) all of the sugar has not been
swung out, but the product will be about 50,000 pounds. This is in-
deed a discouraging yield, and quite in contrast with the phenomenal
quantity obtained from sugar-cane from Louisiana, to be mentioned
further along. If a ie crystallizing room had been provided by
the company the yield of sugar would have been much larger. On
November 2 the different parts of the crystallizing room were found
to be of the following temperatures :

Degrees F
MVOGUHEABUICORTMICIMN eid oats oe eons. ccecre chine alain tlererens aeioretaaarerbientoace AP totrop ec 84
PRORGHRCOMUCT MINS CTA Go ciale caret ols coches Peas IO eee e othe ie Selaccisiae were eetiean days 84
Three feet above floor, under north steam drum........... cc. cee eee ee eee 72
INCH TAN eT; (COMTI On Ar SAEED COOL DIGG AR CTOR OTIS fais ted AEAHCIeE Ie 2 rac Cet 75
In upper layer of sirup in wagon, under south steam drum................-- 105.8
PES RAU TA TEEN REE EAERLOS WUERENOUL Toy ctu sisiiw alas earn ajc acne) 0.0 ofalp are aiGie.ape iM akarwicl ade eajenyaliaae <i 17
MOUG MRE OMUCE Dears ment rare oie oa Sts ee tacse a oe leh tie oles obec eit Gicioeeioeieadtee a
SOUphWestyCORHeCEN OVEL GIG 22% och. FESR. Saketad coos cen Sele e dante 6 ga wae 7
Between steam drums...........e..0.5 wo fev dsforte intend Ste arePD Rates fe. olatar Ome etetoees: he erat ote $0.1
Temperature of air outside in shade...........e.e000. SS ECS Coe OR CHOOT 64.4

At such alow temperature a masse-cuite poor in sucrose and boiled
to string proof cannot crystallize to advantage.

Before beginning the experiments with sugar-cane about to be de-
scribed I obtained permission of the company to provide a special hot-
room. With such material and with such unfavorable conditions of
crystallization the yield of over 20 pounds of sugar per ton is a con-
vincing proof of the efficiency of the process employed.

314 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

DISPOSITION OF THH EXHAUSTED CHIPS.

The problem of the disposition of the exhausted chips is one of
great importance. By the failure of the machinery which was de-
signed to remove the chips to a considerable distance from the build-
ing the chips had to be taken away by scrapers. When it is remem-
bered that these chips have slightly increased in weight in passing
through the battery the great expense of this proceeding is at once
eee
: ra percentage of water in the discharged chips was found to be as

ollows:

Per Per
Number. cet Number. \) eat
5 Ed Eek Rte at a ly a 84.89 / ee tiers vi ee ee | 89.68
By bleso.s coe we eae fh bees BEETHUINROPeat |. tetas chee Remote. oe | 88. 87
epee tate Sic. cit th Selene vine @, wiiaheijers TT aall| « Discs s PAGER EAE ER ROHN Ete ot 88. 94
ES Jon OD ote OTB O CAD OURE aaa SGrar IO... 2.5. AR ee oats 88. 86
erie dcvetea oe ieiou e merieeereene 88. 6 —
proc acddpeeetisercidarakytisc 90. 43 WGA Soe ema cores 88.10

Since the mean of former experiments shows that sorghum contains
about 11 per cent. fiber and matters insoluble in water, the composi-
tion of the waste chips, as indicated by the above determination, is:

Per cent:

UMHS eRe Bacis SiSie Reena G cia Ca GS iwi doe Ze oalée diaivia le Gis wa be 6 AOR hn cas os 0c 11. 00
ICS RS Nee Sete OR 20m A CA ee EET - 88.10
OT MICAENIOURIECOS ee ets Te Soc hen tt cave cits 6 cote CREE ok vate Tee ‘ , 90
Potalene sete pay cere sR EA ER PERRO. SN. 100. 00

After passing the waste chips through the mill they had the fol-
lowing percentage of water:

Number. | Per cent.

| Saal 66. 57
Bi ckecsck 68.74
Oerprae s.- 63. 06
A RRAEL 67.73 |},
Mean... 65. 28

At 70 per cent. extraction the bagasse therefore contains 1 part of
fiber to 2 of water. By a short preliminary drying this bagasse would
readily burn. At any rate, it presses so readily, requiring so little
power, that in my opinion it would be a matter of economy to pass it
through a three-roll mill.

The percentage of extraction obtained with the spent chips in
small experimental mill will be seen by the following numbers:

_ The first column represents the per cents. calculated from weigh-
ing the bagasse and the second from weighing the expressed water:

Number. | From bagasse. | From water.

Per cent. Per cent.
AP at Seis 73. 06 79. 65
Dis Mirae wen 72.16 68. 31
Osis haeeed 80. 00 64.35
a srtc chap cte 72, 80 69, 20
Deiter eis 70. 80 65. 38

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 315

Since it is difficult to accurately collect and weigh the fine bagasse
which the spent chips afford, the mean of the second column will be
found to represent more accurately the real extraction. It is certain
that with a good three-roll mill each 100 pounds of the spent chips
can be reduced to 30 pounds, one-third of which is combustible mate-
rial. Evenif no attempt is made to use the bagasse as a fuel, the pres-
sure is to be recommended on the score of economy. There appears
to be no difficulty whatever in passing the chips through a three-roll
mill, and their soft and pulpy state renders the pressure exceedingly
easy.

Further reference to this point will be made in that part of the re-
port devoted to sugar-cane.

MODIFICATION OF THE PROCESS OF CARBONATATION.

In order to avoid the discoloration of the sirup, which is the chief
- objection to carbonatation, the following modification of the process
was adopted:

The juice used was obtained from sugar cane sent from Fort Scott
to Washington, and the experiments were made after my return from
Kansas.

Tothecane juice was added 1 per cent. of its weight of freshly burned
lime, and the carbonatation was continued until the juice was almost
neutral. After raising to the boiling point to decompose sucro-carbon-
ates the juice was filtered, and then enough phosphoric acid added to
precipitate the lime remaining in solution.

Since a slight excess of the acid will redissolve the precipitate and
form acid phosphate, sodium phosphate was substituted for the phos-
phoric EEE

Much of the red color of the carbonatated juice was discharged by
this process. After the precipitation was complete the juice was
again boiled and filtered. It was then bleached with sulphurous acid
and evaporated to 40° B.

In every instance the sirup made in this way was very light in color,
perfectly transparent, and of the finest flavor. So pure was it, indeed,
that it was found unnecessary to use any acetate of lead or any other
defecating material to prepare this sirup for polarization. The quan-
tity of phosphate of soda required to precipitate the lime in 5 liters of
juice (11 pounds) was 100 cubic centimeters of a 10 per cent. solution.
Therefore 10 grams of the sodium phosphate are sufficient for 5,000
grams of juice. About 4 pounds of sodium phosphate or 3 pounds of
phosphoric acid would be sufficient for working a ton of cane.

The whole cost of treating cane juices with phosphoricacid or sodium
phosphate will not be over 15 cents per ton of cane. The phosphoric
acid, however, isnot lost. It will reappear in the press cakes, having
lost only half its value. Hence the actual cost of using this method of
removing the lime is not probably over half of the estimate given above.

I made every effort to get phosphoric acid at Fort Scott, but could
not succeed in time.

I believe the modification of the process here suggested will make
a noted improvement in the molasses over any other procedure now
in use.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

In a general review of the work, the most important point sug-
gested is the absolute failure of the experiments to demonstrate the
commercial practicability of manufacturing sorghum sugar. The

316 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

causes of this failure have been pointed out in the preceding pages,
and it will only be necessary here to recapitulate them. They were:

(1) Defective machinery for cutting the canes and for elevating
and cleaning the chips and for removing the exhausted chips.

(2) The deterioration of the cane, due to much of it becoming over-
ripe, but chiefly to the fact that much time would generally elapse
after the canes were cut before they reached the diffusion battery.
The heavy frost which came the 1st of October also injured the cane
somewhat, but not until ten days or two weeks after it occurred.

(3) The deteriorated cane caused a considerable inversion of the
sucrose in the battery, an inversion which was increased by the delay
in furnishing chips, thus causing the chips in the battery to remain
exposed under pressure for a much longer time than was necessary.
The mean time required for diffusing one cell was twenty-one minutes,
three times as long as if should have been.

(4) The process of carbonatation, as employed, secured a maximum
yield of sugar, but failed to make a molasses which was marketable.
This trouble arose from the small quantity of lime remaining in the
filtered juices, causing a blackening of the sirup on concentration,
and the failure of the cleaning apparatus to properly prepare the
chips for diffusion.

A modification of the process, which will prevent this trouble, has
already been explained; but, although an earnest attempt was made
to introduce this method, it was found impossible to accomplish it
before the end of the season.

In the preceding report I have endeavored to lay before you all the
facts noted in the recent experiments. If I have not interpreted them
correctly, I have at least given the data for a correct interpretation.

I should, indeed, be glad to leave this industry in a more promising
condition. All admit that the process of diffusion has been success-
fully worked out, and to this opinion I subscribe, with the reservation
that a proper mechanical method for distributing over the chips a
substance to prevent inversion of the sucrose has not yet keen dis-
covered.

Honest differences of opinion still exist in respect of the best
method of treating the diffusion juices, but it has been shown at Rio
Grande that the diffusion juice from clean cane can be worked with-
out any purification whatever.

Whether this purification is to be accomplished by carbonatation,
filtering with brown coal, or in some other way, can easily be decided
without menacing the future of the sorghum industry.

The problem of successfully cutting and cleaning the canes does not
appear to me to be incapable of solution. It should have been solved
the first thing, without leaving it for the last.

Last of all, the chief thing to be accomplished is the production of a
sorghum plant containing a reasonably constant percentage of crystal-
lizable sugar.

I cannot emphasize this point better than by quoting from some of
my previous reports. In Bulletin No. 3, pp. 107, 108, the following
words are found:

IMPROVEMENT BY SEED SELECTION,

Tam fully convinced that the Government should undertake the experiments which
have in view the increase of the ratio of sucrose to the other substances in the juice.
These experiments, to be valuable, must continue under proper scientific direction for
a number of years. The cost will beso great that a private citizen will hardly be
willing to undertake the expense,

' REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. ry) by

The history of the improvement in the sugar beet should be sufficient to encourage
all similar efforts with sorghum. ;

The original forage beet, from which the sugar beet has been developed, contained
only 5 or 6 per cent. of sucrose. The sugar beet will now average 10 per cent. of
sucrose. It seems to me that a few years of careful selection may secure a similar
improvement in sorghum. f

It would be a long step toward the solution of the problem to secure a sorghum that
would average, field with field, 12 per cent. sucrose and only 2 per cent. of other
sugars, and with such cane the great difficulty would be to make sirup and not sugar.
Those varieties and individuals of each variety of cane which show the best analyti-
cal results should be carefully selected for seed, and this selection continued until
accidental variations become hereditary qualities in harmony with the well-known
principles of descent. ‘ aad

If these experiments in selection could be made in different parts of the country,
and especially by the various agricultural stations and colleges, they would have ad-
ditional value and force. In a country whose soil and climate are as diversified as
in this results obtained in one locality are not always reliable for another.

If some unity of action could in this way be established among those engaged in

- agricultural research, much time and labor would be saved and more valuable re-

sults be obtained.

In Bulletin No. 5, pp. 185-187, are found the following conclusions:

A careful study of the foregoing data will not fail to convince every candid in-
vestigator that the manufacture of sugar from sorghum has not yet proved finan-
cially successful.

The men who have put their money in these enterprises seem likely to lose it, and
intending investors will carefully consider the facts herein set forth before making
final arrangements. The expectations of the earlier advocates of the industry have
not been met, and the predictions of enthusiastic prophets have not been verified.
It would be unwise and unjust to conceal the facts that the future of the sorghum-
sugar industry is somewhat doubtful. The unsatisfactory condition is due to many
causes. In the first place, the difficulties inherent in the plant itself have been con-
stantly undervalued. The success of the industry has been based on the belief of the
production of sorghum with high percentages of sucrose and small amount of re-
ducing sugar and other impurities.

But the universal experience of practical manufacturers shows that the average
constitution of the sorghum cane is far inferior to that just indicated. Taking the
mean of several seasons as a sure basis of computation, it can now be said that the
juices of sorghum as they come from the mill do not contain over 10 per cent. of
sucrose, while the percentage of other solids in solution is at least 4.

It is needless to say to a practical sugar-maker that the working of such a juice is
one of extreme difficulty, and the output of sugar necessarily small.

The working of sorghum juices will be found as difficult as those of beets, and true
success cannot be hoped for until the processes used for the one are as complete and
scientific as for the other. It is not meant by this that the processes and machinery
are to be identical.

The chemical as well as mechanical treatment of the two kinds of juice will doubt-
less differ in many respects. And this leads to the consideration of the third diffi-
culty, viz, the chemical treatment of sorghum juice. It has taken nearly three-quar-
ters of a century to develop the chemistry of the beet-sugar process, and even now
the progress in this direction is great. The chemistry of the sorghum-sugar process
is scarcely yet ascience. It is only an imitation of what has been done in other
fields of work. Sorghum will have to develop a chemistry of its own. This will
not be the work of a day or a year, but it will be accomplished sooner or later.

Careful study of climate and soil, jomed with experience, will gradually locate
those areas most favorable to the growth of this plant and its manufacture.

This is an all-important point in the problem, and is now occupying seriously the
attention of the thoughtful advocates of the sorghum-sugar industry. One thing is
already clear, 7. e., that the area of successful sorghum culture is not nearly so ex-
tensive as it was thought to be a few years ago. I would urge a further investiga-
tion in this direction as a work peculiarly within the province of the Department,
and one which would prove of immense benefit to the country. Five million acres of
land, suitable to the purpose, will produce all the sugar required for this country for
several years tocome. It is therefore certain that the sugar industry will be con-
fined to the most favorable localities. If a thorough, scientific study of all the soil
and climatic conditions does not point out this region, bitter experience and the loss
of hundreds of millions of dollars will gradually fix its boundaries, Last of all, the

318 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

sorghum industry has suffered from the general depression which has been felt by
the sugar industry of the entire world. Low prices have caused loss where every
other condition has been favorable. It is hardly probable that the price of sugar will
rise again to its maximum of the years past. Only war, pestilence, or disaster
would produce this effect. It is best, therefore, for the sugar-grower to accept the
present price as final and make his arrangements accordingly. But low prices will
produce increased consumption, and thus, even with a smaller profit, the sugar-
grower, by increased production, may find his business reasonably remunerative, if
not as enriching as before. The sorghum-sugar grower will be injured or benefited
with the growers of other kinds of sugar by these economic forces. Hence there
should be no enmity between the grower of the sorghum, the sugar-beet, and the
sugar cane, but all should work in harmony for the general good.

It is true the present outlook is discouraging. But discouragement is not defeat.
The time has now come for solid, energetic work. Science and practice must join
improved agriculture, and all together can accomplish what neither alone would
ever be able to achieve. It is not wise to promise too much, but this Division would
fall short of its duty were it either to suppress the discouraging reports of this in-
dustry or fail to recognize the possibllity of its success. The future depends on the
persistence and wisdom of the advocates of sorghum. The problem they have to
solve is a most difficult one, but its solution is not impossible.

It must be confessed finally that the chief object of this last series
of experiments, viz, to place the industry where private capital would
see ine way clear to its extension over a large area, has not been at-
tained.

It is now seen that much of what has been done is useless, and were
the work to be gone over again these necessary mistakes of a first
attempt would be avoided. ‘Time, labor, and money could be saved.

What encouragement is just is offered to those who are willing to
take up this work here and extend it.

The great difficulties in the way of extracting the sugar from the
cane have been removed. The fact that sorghum, in certain circum-
stances, becomes a fine-sugar producing plant has been incontestably
established. A suitable soil and climate have been found for grow-
ing the crop and manufacturing the sugar. Remaining difficulties
in the way of success have been fairly and candidly pointed out.

Since the present appropriation was made for continuing and con-
cluding these experiments, I consider that my connection with the
development of the industry has ended. I leave the work with only
one regret, and that is that the future of the sorghum-sugar industry
is still in doubt.

EXPERIMENTS WITH SUGAR CANE.

On the Ist of October I received instructions from you to purchase
afew tons of sugar canein Louisiana and make some experiments
with it at Fort Scott.

he cane was cut early in the season, viz, October 25 to 30, and was
brought as quickly as possible to the factory.

CUTTING-MACHINE.
The cutters which worked so poorly with sorghum did well with
sugar cane, and no trouble whatever was experienced in producing
chips suitable to diffusion and at the rate of 6 tons per hour.

CHIP-ELEVATOR.

The same trouble was experienced with the elevator that we had
had to contend with so long with sorghum, and to an increased ex-

. REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. . S19

tent. The chips being heavier than sorghum easily overweighted
the elevator id caused it to clog. Considerable delay was caused by
these annoyances.

THE DIFFUSION.

It was found at once that the temperature used for the diffusion of
sorghum, viz, 70° C., was entirely too low to effect: the extraction of
sugar from sugar cane.

The temperature was gradually raised to 90° C. before a satis-
factory extraction was obtained. The chips lying closer together
in the cell caused the circulation of the liquid in the battery to take

lace more slowly. It was clearly evident that the pressure afforded
by the feed-tank of the battery, viz, two-thirds of an atmosphere, is
not great enough to work a battery rapidly when twelve cells are
-under pressure.

On November 6, all the cane having arrived and a preliminary
trial having been made, the second trial was made. The experience
of the first attempt had shown how the great loss of sugar in the
chips, especially in the beginning, might be avoided. The second
run was, therefore, made with an initial temperature of nearly 90°
©. The quantity of juice withdrawn at each time was also increased
by 100 liters.

Weight of cane used.—The weight of cane used in the second trial
was 83.25 tons.

ANALYSES OF THE CANES.

The samples of chips were taken as described before:

ae Sucrose. | Glucose.

Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.
15. 06 11.30

HMITSHSAMpPIO’-, eieeslels ve cleanses 3 89
Second sample... 0.2.2.5... 14. 68 10. 86 1.62
AIC SAT PIO. 5 <.5.s.0p5 a) ove (essicisieieie’s 14. 93 10. 46 1.66
Fourth sample 13. 47 10. 43 1.89
ITEP RU SATE DIC . 0.0 d55 b0 tmeis oa9 4: 14,59 10. 62 1.88
fteth sample ..5.5.55..05...4.- 13.55 10. 05 1.75

MMB AMS ee ne leas ack «ig gna 14.38 10. 62 1,78

ANALYSIS OF DIFFUSION JUICES.

The samples were taken as before described:

soy Sucrose. | Glucose.

; Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.
HPAL SAMPIE 3... ae gps + 2 10.11 7.33 1.18
pecond sample ..........2...5. 10.15 7.95 1.20
Mbird SAMplOn: «de> gee 22 oo 10. 08 7.15 1.17
Hourth sample . 2.5 15g 052... 10.05 6.96 1.29
ITCH SATIS e555 Sie eels oo 9.83 7.08 1.29
PSIPEDID SAMI as ask wate is e.cre «oy 8.96 6.55 1, 22
1.23

320 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

EXHAUSTED CHIPS.

The samples were taken as described in the preliminary trial:

3 : |
a Sucrose. a

Per cent.| Per cent,| Per cent.

FRITS SAM PIO 1.) fo, 0)<,c:</er-tefor ear eee 1.56 50 12
Second sample... .)...5.. sc... 1.21 .38 07
Thirdisample: £2 cee eee ee at .38 .10 |
Hourthisample).;j.5: \ssehe kee. 1.11 .37 09 |
Hifth’ SAIMPIO). aacr ss cus se tesee 1.06 2 -10 |
Sixth) sample. yell ce e-iteee ene 30 18 05
Means i idstai states, cave sicheustets s 1.14 .37 .09

CARBONATATED JUICES.

The samples were taken in such a way as to represent the same
body of juice corresponding to the same numbered samples of diffu-
sion juice. Each carbonatation tank held three charges of diffusion
juice. A measured sample after carbonatation was taken from each
series of four tanks.

Eni | Glucose.

Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.

MIPStiSamMplel. ceo cjacris es sinisir ven 10.11 20 1.09

Second sample................. 10. 25 7.91 1.14

Thirdisamploue ee cces ccc citemuns 10.14 7.25 kag

Hourth sample t..... cc. es ses 9.72 7.00 1.21
Hifth samplers ce saeiticile- scree 9.72 7.10 1.22 -

SEXbH SAM PlO kc cre cieietclnicislematals = 9.55 6.50 1.12

IMOATIS Sc a crclelesieisotineiioe c's = 9.92 pal edo

SULPHURED JUICES.

The samples of sulphured juice were taken in a way to represent
as nearly as possible the same body of juice as indicated by the cor-
responding numbers under carbonatated juice. Since, however, the
juices after carbonatation had to fall into a receiving tank before be-
ing sent to the ep ‘esses, some mixing of the different bodies of
juice was unavoidable.

Thus the analyses below are not strictly comparable with the same
numbers under diffusion and carbonatated juices:

Total

ealiay Sucrose. | Glucose.

Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.
9.88 7.6

irstiSam ple peri. niet 68 09
Second sample...............-. 11.12 §.09 1.14
Third sampler. . 25. see eee 10. 35 7.39 1.23
Mourth SanMples .2 1.) pecreenise rete 9.89 7.02 1.26

| Fifth sample.........-....-.-.. 10.15 6. 93 1.28
Sixthisample s.r tei cles 9. 34 6. 44 Ubi
MCAS Sitter steiner ee 10. 12 7.18 1.20

Te!

‘REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 321

SEMI-SIRUPS.

The semi-sirup from the juices was put in two tanks. Samples
were taken from each tank:

ae Sucrose. | Glucose.

Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.
Ans SAIMNDIOS, «| .cclecisalctelatele ex sis a’e 42.9 32.0 5.95
Second sample: ......cssecesss 41.9 30.8 6.45

The first sample represents the first third of the run, and the sec-
ond sample the second two-thirds.

FIRST SUGARS MADE.

The masse-curte stood in cars two days.

Pere MEO Coa: sins, 5)o ols, ads Gsisia cs 0 0\e Sie e.cicles na dsiquee Ce ges pounds.. 11,185
Etre REC ONCS* WAS’. 0510. Sint Maree ee clia laletae wnfelal duratelsierdictelstnltne dog2i% 805
Total weight produced ..... aerergete sone saoede o syeleral stakaya/aictal saints doy... E990
DUPARIPCEUOMs cnicitis cic se cele ees Aganoncochocjcer aictetatavalevaetelslste’tevelaialatais ae do.... 144
Sugar to weight of cane .......... aiafeloieipiatdlal> alesis) sie islevsietsisisialele ayers DON COL Uae 7.2
PERCENTAGE TOTAL SUGAR OBTAINED,
Per cent
SE CURIE ORMITANTIO( 5 6.6 o'c.s occ edu s 4.0.05 6adsle cess couse vale Alain otavelcieys! eicieainia rotere - 10.62
JIGS) SB. 3 SS Sa BU OOOOH Oo Uate do rcIC DoADoODODAL Siotelalaiwicie ofa atarsisteis 9.56
Percentage sucrose obtained ..... aris altiatatale «| sisteaialealis d wale micialeiel siulelsiciaicie\w aie: « oth) bibs eb

COMPOSITION OF THE FIRST SUGARS.

The sample was taken from each barrel as it was filled. 'Thesamples
were all mixed well together and placed in a tight bottle, which was
not opened until the sample for analysis was taken. Itis therefore
as fair a avuple of the product made as could possibly be obtained.
It gave of—

Per cent
WEGISGURG Den eraetertn ec ccs ecssc ccs aaces Ae eae arc C a wite chats . YG)
DNS a ee Be cine tic ACO lr us et cha eter eh obeh otea) exetar ehabeahelota ataielepetags aesvctehe die Seteraers 14
GUUICOSER eines eden a heise lovee ars Se Meera ete Haare evehetnae: ceharains avepoyeiete vie tate 52
Siered CRE MMIMRV CON pe RN opal erence) cia ce ojaah ato: vive: hel avhasiel aan hai aieraie oyoteverare Molcveinverse a1Gts 61
SEGRE ALY Gore Boer Beene eee wiareter Sat cious eve ake wate ce cléne seta cake ake 98.00

Compare this result with the work on Magnolia plantation last
year, as found in Bulletin No. 11, p. 26;

Pounds.
OG TTSTNODD jo. 05 5.65.0 0:0 0'® ns conv Mia's wiahgraiela aid. 0,46 ainlnmas seth’ ule tee aL

Weight second SUCaTEPEE FON ...ovcecccresoncscencecesours sio.n\s\2,s\0 siaistata die emo er aeAa
Total first and second .......... os Sahayesdtdpeie atayevelorelela elelielicy sissaeNetenelay aie cheteians 148.75

Per cent.
Perecentars OUbAIME See. sc c)s!s sic’s aes aivec'es vee sees’ eats beeen cee 7,44
PUNELCSS APU TUCO meiner Tae, Sas Cre dhe sos a e'sc.e wesiere Hodes Gem batabadameceucuas’ 12.11
DHELOSO IM CANG See tena Ys cs iciec wed i.e dials s's weld ale aiaid aleve stctalsicvarateste Behe sree oi 10. 90

Percentage) Obbaimed gene a the'a)sicis:d/s da sce. cele Sate stalaie ae aeldieveleteala a «/ste'siersneteve 68.3
Sucrose.in canelatiMaomoua . 2. deceit eos cece alalavetsleysishe stele} dale steflaiotatere 10.90
BUICTOSO' 1D): CAG ity HOLE EMRE. s oss a co ae's «0 ee.csice tate ene edad atte onic 9.56
DHRCVERCEN a Prater ee tes 5 aikes ac oh eg sw oan eewe Gatewrante ated argo tl us 1.34

322 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

The increase in the yield per ton at Magnolia, had the cane been
worked by diffusion, would have been, therefore, 26.8 pounds.

The yield of seconds at Fort Scott was surprisingly low. The mo-
lasses as it came from the centrifugals was full of crystals. About
one-third its volume of warm water was added to this molasses and
the crystals all dissolved before boiling. This may have diminished
the yield.

The ‘‘thirds” have been placed in cars and set away until next fall.
The * thirds” fill 5 wagons, each containing 23 cubic feet, or in all
125 cubic feet, weighing approximately 10,000 pounds. Of this
amount, 6,189 pounds are from the second run.

Pounds

Whe total product Thererore 15 Sugars: cove dae wuts » ene F444 sie ae, hlete aheasle 11, 990
BETVE CLS 877ECLSSE=CUULE share e's ois ei eie-aho ula aloranehenenetiene Panatess tra we eeees lerstilee eevellepecorsie rena eae 6, 189
PGS GaaL says dia wine’ ok sp 0) afebeye lati eae arenes eo cRNA Ue p Sib a (ajo 9 18, 179

Or 218.3 pounds per ton of cane worked. This is nearly 11 per cent.
of the weight of cane used.

But calculated on the original masse-cuite, which filled 9 cars, there
would have been 9 x 23 = 207 cubic feet, or 18,837 pounds = 226 pounds
per ton, or 11.3 per cent. ;

But the method of reckoning the increased production which has
just been used is not a fair one, since it rests on the assumption that
the sucrose in each case is equally available. But amoment’s con-
sideration will show that this is not the case.

The term “‘available sugar” is not a precise one. It may have
many interpretations. In France, for instance, the rendement is cal-
culated by deducting from the total sucrose twice the glucose and
from three to five times the ash. This is a good rule for beet sugar,
but in cane juice the ash, being mostly calcium salts, is far less me-
lassigenic than that of the beet juice, made up chiefly of potassium
compounds.

Another method of calculating ‘‘available sugar” is to diminish the
percentage of sucrose by the difference between it and all the other
solids in solution. This method is apt, however, to give results too
low. In this uncertainty the term ‘available sugar” should always
be accompanied by an explanation of the manner of making the cal-
culation.

The yield of sugar obtained at Fort Scott being the highest ever
got from sugar cane may be taken as the true amount of “available
sugar” until some better yields are reported.

Notice for a moment the relation of this yield to the respective
quantities of sucrose and glucose present:

’ Per cent,
SUCLOSOTT JUICE: sat ih olde Vea ss es HONLNA WE Ie sleepy ean suse TOM eR TERA 10. 62
PUGCOSCHT) GANG 4 4 cc aiawe sow dws wtee a7 Svib Gaelic gw .\oahate hye hEM fo ATENG SU. RVn One 9. 56
BRST ES TOLER TL CE OSGi i756 fais ala, ss winds ele leafs Seetioe Oe oI Siete sissies. shes 6,4.» fe moon 7.20
Difference between sucrose in cane and yield. ......... cece cece eee cee g eens 2.36
REM MR GSC LTL STURGES a's folie Oates gia ofa Sieve PERSIA ERE Pete Sis ose fa, Fhe Ol ayn aie sleet aS Fi
MEMEO WEN GALIO: 9 035 Dive ein Shaun yarns SR Rape S ch w ae clr ss «lee eae ae 1.60

Ratio of percentage of glucose to percentage of sucrose lost 1.5 nearly.

It appears, therefore, that the rational way to calculate ‘‘ available
sugar” when the quantities of sucrose and glucose in the canes are
known is to diminish the percentage of sucrose by one and a half
times the glucose.

4

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 323

Applying this method we have the following results:

AT FORT SCOTT.

SIRE EVE CORTE fata so che Peres ccs Cue acsiss co deemmnels es 35 o¢ per cent.. 9.56
One and a half times glucose in cane ........... cee cece certs ees dor... 2.40
TANG OTeMGalia VallaMlO MOAT « Vaie ces oie 6 Soalsle(Sslouabu diet terete laratete. lores wlohe doy si: 7 .16
NIUE a6 ohh loin apne aa vane + able (6 5 tice seh s oF pee ae Ae slelo <a'so[ty Geele 143.2
IPR De CO COURITIO ou ciara chevelle ed cletien cise va spr teas ban swans» twidimes 144

Sucrose Im CaN© ....eeesee ces eeeceeenee seieih.« Pkinwstiele eo ui iae teste percent.. 10.90
Ome anid 3 balt times Glucose IN CaN! 2... ooo dew nee we weie sue dujacines BOs, « are 1.38
Theoretical available sugar........... Geis se ds a Pe ad ia acaba Bit aie (3 Cone 9.52
Pa SNR AEM PO TE terres a WeToit cc Fie simiare hota cies cle gt oa eteys era cine pals aicumieus olarareleners hers 194.4
rere Por OO ONUAINOG: ).).53 puis w kal ed vieSd 34 ties epovus cet du vate veWee ty 148, 75
RUN sta lociey s,x5 024d GAGS aE Mse:d € buy Riate'a/ M9 «A Ve Wa LEN pounds.. 41.65

This shows in the most convincing manner that by the process of
diffusion and carbonatation the yield of sugar from sugar cane can be
increased fully 30 per cent. over the best milling and subsequent treat-
ment of the juice which has ever been practiced in this or any other
country.

If thes be true of the best milling, it is easy to estimate the increase
over the average milling of Louisiana. Itis not extravagant to sup-
pose that this increase will be fully 40 per cent.

But the problem may also be approached in another way. It has
just been shown what the product would have been had the Fort
cott process been applied at Magnolia. It may now be asked,
*“ What would have been the yield had the Magnolia process been ap-
plied at Fort Scott?” . |

The process used at Magnolia produced 148.75 pounds sugar from

cane in which the aecilanle sugar was 190.4 pounds, The percent-
age of available sugar obtained was

148.75 X 100 + 190.4 = 78.1 per cent.

The available sugar in the cane at Fort Scott was 7.16 per cent.
Multiply this by .78 and the product, 5.58, will be the yield of sugar
which the Magnolia process would have given at Fort Scott, or 111.6
pounds per ton. Deduct this from the quantity obtained, and the re-
mainder will represent the increased yield, viz, 32.4 pounds. Thus,
in whatever way the calculation is made, it is seen that the processes
of diffusion and carbonatation give a largely increased yield.

Another important question which arises is this, ‘‘Does this in-
creased yield come wholly from the increased extraction, or is it
partly due to the method of purifying the juice?” Iwill try to give
a rational answer to this question, based on the data of the analyses
and the respective rendements give by the two processes.

The percentage of extraction at Magnolia was 78. Reckoning the
Juice at 90 per cent., the loss in juice was 12 per cent. The percent-
Bee of juice, and consequently of sugar extracted, was 86.6 per cent.
The mean loss of sugar in the chips at Fort Scott was .38 per cent.,
and the quantity of sugar present was 9.56. The percentage of ex-
traction was therefore 96 per cent. The gain in extraction by dif-
fusion is therefore 9.4 percent. It is thus evident that the large gain

394 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE,

in yield, as established at Fort Scott, cannot be due wholly to the
increased extraction of the sugar. It must therefore be largely due
to the processes of depuration employed.

The process of carbonatation tends to increase the yield of sugar
in three ways: ints, sneha

(1) It diminishes the content of glucose. This diminution 1s small
when the cold carbonatation as practiced at Fort Scott is used; yet,
to at least once and a half its extent, it increases the yield of crystal-
lized sugar. ;

(2) By the careful use of the process of carbonatation there is
scarcely any loss of sugar. The only place where there can be any
loss at all is in the press cakes, and when the desucration of these is
properly attended to the total loss is trifling. 'The wasteful process
of “skimming” is entirely abolished, and the increased yield is due
to no mean extent to this truly economical proceeding.

(3) In addition to the two causes of increase already noted, and
which are not sufficient to produce the large rendement obtained,
must be mentioned a third, the action of the excess of lime and its
precipitation by carbonic acid on the substances in the juice, which
are truly melassigenic. Fully half of the total increase which the
experiments have demonstrated is due to this cause. It is true the
coefficient of purity of the juice does not seem to be much affected by
the process, but it is evident that the treatment to which the juice is
subjected increases in a marked degree the ability of the sugar to
crystallize. This fact is most abundantly illustrated by the results
obtained.

Not only this, but it.is also evident that the proportion of first
sugars to all others is largely increased by this method. This isa
fact which may prove of considerable economic importance.

It thus appears that the yield of sugar would be greatly increased
by the application of carbonatation to mill juices. Since a complete
carbonatation outfit can be erected for about $4,000, it woald be well
if ce planter or syndicate of planters should give the process a
trial.

These facts are worthy of closer consideration, inasmuch as the
process of carbonatation has been fiercely and maliciously assailed as
one which destroys both sugar and molasses.

WEIGHT OF DIFFUSION JUICE COMPARED WITH WEIGHT OF CANE
WORKED.

Number of cells filled, 83.

Weight chips in each cell = 83.25 + 83 = 1.003 tons = 2,006 pounds.

Weight juice drawn from each cell of chips, 1,100 liters. Specific
gravity 1.04=2,516.8 pounds.

The weight of normal juice in 2,006 pounds of cane is 1,805
pny The additional weight of water added by diffusion is 711.8
pounds.

The percentage of increase over normal juice 711.8 x 100+ = 39.4
percent. This increase represents what is often called the ‘‘ dilution”
of the juice. The quantity of water to be evaporated to produce a
given quantity of sugar is therefore 39.4 per cent. greater for such
a diffusion than for anormal mill juice. In practice this amount
could easily be reduced to 25 per cent.

. ' REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. -, » $35

‘COMPOSITION OF PRESS CAKE.

The defecation and filtration of the juice from 83.25 tons of cane
gave 197 press cakes.

The mean weight of these cakes was 24 pounds each, and the total
weight 4,728 pounds. A sample of the cake taken directly from the
press and dried contained of moisture 45.37 per cent. The total
weight of dry matter obtained in the press cakes was, therefore,
2,582.9 pounds.

Analysis of the dried cake gave the following results :

Per cent,
SNL AERYERULICOT OL SPM aE Heretic sh ss shereicia teal ates chatacn: evecare ace caver cee bee ater elermenay Meds emia uae usher 9,585
eee L ESM eEe ate PRP Reh oro) os. Ta fala ia: at's ails) a) wBiay cs a) o/-w aleve d visi wievayeranarererarn heme tenes f saCatee Trace.
CAM CSR ok Seb d 8 bio F/T RES AE EO Ce aD Er anSD mien ti ie-cie wer souniain omrch ee Trace.
OP HermOn penile MIMa ULE ratty al. ciefarie sTalsia/ele:s cis ce, aVele ofa a slolels ereiecereraye obetaaalinns ccs cloheetets 17.45

QUANTITY OF LIME USED.

As is seen under sorghum experiments, it required 1.5 per cent.
lime to produce a good filtration.

I felt sure that the juice from the sugar cane would not require as
great a quantity. At the preliminary trial 1 per cent. of lime was
used, and the cakes formed were perfect, firm, and hard.

In the second run only .75 per cent. of lime was used, and the cakes
were equally as good. There is little occasion for using less lime than
this, for with this quantity the carbonatations were easily finished in
fifteen to twenty minutes.

COEFFICIENT OF PURITY IN SECOND TRIAL.

Per cent
Of themmalignices the: cochiciont) Was. . ..'.2 «ikea 2.3 «:jpa.a sive eleaiche aisteianyeleieya ele «ee 73.8
OPine Gitusion JUICES the COeMICIENt, WAS... 65.5 o's « sarsen vce oe ai snd mals o tim ais 72.6
Of the carbonatated juices the coefficient WaS.........cc cece cere eer en eeeees 72.3
Of the sulphured |juices the coefficient was... i... csc cece cess seodcecdsouedes 70.9
Of the first semi-sirup the coefficient Was. .......5...ceccceccccccccecenccsccs 74.6
Of the second semi-sirup the coefficient WaS....... ccc ccc cee cence eeeeeeees 73.5

In both trials it was seen that the coefficient of purity was increased
during the process of evaporation. This was doubtless caused by the
precipitation of some of the lime salts held in solution by the juices.

DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED.

A number of unfavorable conditions was encountered during the
prosecution of the experiments. The water supply was from a stag-
nant pond. The water had been greatly improved by the applica-
cation of lime a few days before the experiment was made, but it
was still black and putrid, emitting a nauseating stench.

WATER FROM LAKE PARKINSON, FORT SCOTT, KANS.

The following table gives the results of the analysis of the sample
of the pond water from the Parkinson Sugar Works, Fort Scott,
Kans., taken October 13, 1886, and of a sample of Potomac water
taken from the laboratory faucets November 19, 1886, for compari-
son,

™’

326 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Analysis of Lake Parkinson and Potomac waters.

[Grains per United States gallon of 281 cubic inches.]

Bug 00: map
RES =
BSEe | 2
Found. Bn 8 SRS
PS BeOS
i] EE 62 °
ae ES BFA
4 &
Birigeyus Casieed cgantbar ee af prinanan 8, 569 1
1 SSR aS 8 aera nae), Sa on Sa8eeen 1.189 169
BS sralaiat stalera/stalatte ehciaied es cater ptelelerametetiate 2. 280 128
BOs)... ccetapedee ns seater eernos . 120 889
GAO LCE AS etek dase inte haas ete 10. 142 2. 821
MEO Gor adrncose case tne weeee ne tase 1.330 412
RG PR AS ae PARR PE Rr isc r co APbonprces 2,001 449
WOiOat-AlsOg sis cs'ac'cs seneubtieen cree st . 609 184
ALi ahectstinisais evel cle coe nce eine ie ginea «els CEU ites rcs
Volatile and organic matter......... 20. 761 093
Probably combined as:

NaCl 5 .4..ceoges ase eee eee ce. 1.961 278

ed errere perree

3+ AlsOz

56,796 |
58. 271

The sample of Potomac water was taken after a period of long-
continued drought, and was unusually clear and free from all clay
held in suspension.

The Parkinson water contained so much organic matter, that it was
found impossible to estimate the free and hea Fite ammonia by.
the usual process, though a dilution of 1:1000 was tried.

The presence of copper in the water is remarkable, and probably
exists in a state of combination with some organic acid.

The strike-pan used was quite unsuitable for boiling to grain, Its
base was once the bottom of a much smaller pan, and a shelf several
inches deep had been added to support the enlarged top. All the
large steam-coils were above this shelf, and it took eight hours to
bring the contents of the pan above this point, We had no sugar-
boiler, but my assistant, Mr. G. L. Spencer, took charge of the pan
and did remarkably well;

The sugar dried slowly in the centrifugals. These were not well
set, and could not be run at a very high speed on account of shaking,

It took nearly forty-eight hours with three machines to dry the
sugar from the 83,25 tons.

This difficulty in drying was due either—

(1) To the process of diffusion; (2) to the process of carbonatation;
(8) to the fine grain produced in boiling; (4) or to the poor quality
of the cane.

Which one of these causes was most potent only future experi-
ments will decide. Iam not wise enough to place it, as has already
been done by some premature critics, on one of them alone,

It seems most reasonable to suppose, however, that the poor qual-
ity of the cane and the extreme fineness of the crystals were the chief
causes of the difficulty mentioned. The process of carbonatation has

j

- REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 327

been practiced for ten years in Java on mill juices and no complaint
has ever been heard of difficulty in purging the sugar, With the
fresh ripe canes of Louisiana worked promptly as they come from
the field, and with the juice in the hands of an experienced sugar-
boiler, I do not believe this difficulty would be encountered.
With the improvements in the process of carbonatation already
ointed out in hs discussion of the experiments with sorghum even
etter results may be expected,

BAGASSE.

The disposition of the exhausted chips is a question of great eco-
nomic importance, Three uses 9 a to be possible; (1) For paper-
stock; (2) for manure; (3) for fuel, A

A good article of both wrapping and print paper can be made of
the gy of the cane. The economic discussion of this use, however,
can only be properly given by a paper-maker.

The value of the bagasse for a manure is undoubtedly great. This
problem has already been discussed in Bulletin No, 8, page 46.

By referring to the table of analyses of the chips it will be seen
that with a small hand-mill 63.72 per cent. of water was extracted
from the exhausted chips; on the same mill the percentage of extrac-
tion of the fresh chips was only 56.31 per cent. Thus in similar con-
ditions the percentage of extraction with a given mill will be 7.31 per
cent. higher for exhausted chips than for fresh canes. A mill, there-
fore, which will give a 78 per cent, extraction with cane will give 85
per cent. with exhausted chips. ;

The exhausted chips contained 90 per cent. water. Of this quantity
63.72 per cent. were extracted, leaving 26.28 per cent, water to 10 fiber.

A given quantity of the bagasse, therefore, contained 72.2 per cent.
water and 27.8 per cent. fiber. A mill which would give 80 per cent.
extraction with the exhausted chips would furnish a bagasse composed.
: ae parts of water and fiber, and this would prove a most exellent

uel,

The power required to drive such a mill would only be about one-
third as great as for the same weight of cane.

The attempts to dry cane chips on the presses used for beet cuttings
have proved failures, but the experiments made at Fort Scott show
that a properly arranged mill will solve this problem at once.

It must be remembered, however, that even if the exhausted chips
be made as dry as ordinary mill bagasse, they will not afford so much
fuel. They contain little but the fiber of the cane, while mill bagasse
a holds large quantities of sugar, which itself is a most excellent

uel.

The loss of the bagasse as a fuel has been the principal objection to
the introduction of diffusion into tropical sugar districts.

_It now remains to continue these experiments at some favorable sta-
tion in Louisiana. Such a station should be provided with a first-.
class double or triple effect and other apparatus for evaporating the
juice and separating the sugar.

It should also be a station purely experimental. The attempt to
carry on experiments and manufacture a large crop of cane at the
same time would only end in the disastrous manner, economically
considered, of the sorghum work just concluded at Fort Scott.

These experiments can only be successful ata station where perfect
freedom of action and plenty of time are at the director’s command.

"328 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

It is the proper province of the Department to demonstrate in Lou-
isiana just how much increase in sugar yield can be produced by the
application of the methods named in the act making the appropria-
tions. This done, and all the processes for doing it accurately pointed
out and logically discussed, it will not be difficult for the intelligent
planter to determine the economic value of the new methods.

To this task should be brought a careful study of the chemical prob-
lems involved and the best apparatus which this country or Kurope
can afford. -From this task should be eliminated all prejudices for or
against any particular process, and especially all tendency to misrep-
resent or misinterpret facts.

At least the Department will be able in subsequent experiments to
show the Southern sugar-raiser whether the promises which these
preliminary experiments ltave made shall really be performed, or
whether the practice of the process of diffusion for sugar cane is a
mistake and the prospects it has offered of aiding the sugar industry
a delusion.

It is certain that with the fierce rivalry between the European beet
and the tropical cane industry, producing an enormous surplus of
sugar and sending the prices down almost below the cost of produc-
tion, the indigenous sugar-cane industry of this country will languish
unless the Department of Agriculture be able to lead it into a life of
renewed vigor.

EXPERIMENTS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR AT MAGNOLIA
STATION, LAWRENCE, LA.

By GuILForD L. SPENCER.

The manufacturing season at Magnolia commenced November 7%,
1886, and ended December 20. This completes the third season’s work
of the Department at this station.

I shall give in as few words as possible a brief comparison of the
growing seasons of the past three years.

In 1884 the weather was favorable until the 1st of June; then
followed a period of very wet weather, lasting until August, which
was avery dry month. The conditions in September and October
were favorable to the maturing of thecane. During the rolling sea-
son heavy rains were frequent.

SEASON OF 1885.

The early part of this season was exceptionally wet. From April
1 to July 1 the rainfall was limited to but three or four showers; in
August and September the rains were frequent and heavy ; from Oc-
tober until the end of the season the weather was exceptionally dry
and cool, the mean temperature being considerably below that of
1884, In September the cane was prostrated by a heavy wind-storm.

SEASON OF 1886.

February, March, and April were cold and wet, consequently the
cane obtained a late start. May was dry and cool. June and July
so wet that it was impossible to properly cultivate the cane. August
was dry and exceedingly hot; September and through the rolling
season the weather was very dry. The dry weather probably saved
the cane from being blown down in the severe storm of October,
when the lower coast of the Mississippi, near Pointe & la Hache, was

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 329

so badly damaged. There was a killing freeze November 17. This
is the earliest freeze, with one exception, noted in the plantation rec-
ords, extending over along period of years. December was cold; ice
formed several times.

It may be seen from the above statements that these three seasons
differed very materially from one another. That of 1884 might be
considered very favorable. The tonnage was fair and the cane rich.
In 1885 the conditions were also favorable, with the exception of the
wet weather in September and the damage by the wind-storm. The
fence? was large, but the proportion of sucrose low and the giucose

igh.

In January, 1886, there was a severe freeze, perhaps the most severe
on record in Louisiana. At the time of this freeze it was feared that
the stubble had been damaged by the frost, but such did not prove
to be the case. It is the custom at Magnolia to burn the trash in the
- fields soon after the cane is all harvested. There is a general impres-
sion among planters that this exposes the stubble to danger from
frost. The experience of the past season demonstrates that such is
not the case.

The tonnage this season has been unusually small, but the cane has
been a little richer in available sucrose than at any time since this
station was established.

In comparing the work of the sugar-house it is probably better to
compare this season’s work with that of 188485. The same grades
of sugars were made these seasons.

The yield per acre in 1885-1886 was 2,988 pounds of first, second,
and third sugars. In 1886 the yield of first and second sugars was
1,963 pounds. In 1886 a decrease of 6.66 tons of cane per acre resulted
in a decrease of 1,024 pounds of sugar per acre.

The yield of sugar per ton of cane the past season has been exceed-
ingly satisfactory, but nevertheless it is anticipated that a few changes
in working of the house will materially increase the output of sugar.

This season only first and second sugars were made. The firsts
graded as ‘‘choice off white.” The yield of first sugar would have
been larger had it been possible to boil the masse-cutte stiffer, but
the strike-valve of the pan would not admit of this.

As large a proportion of sugar as possible should be obtained in the
firsts, not only on account of the higher price of first sugars, but be-
cause less sugar is left to be reboiled for lower grades, and conse-
quently the loss from inversion is diminished.

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE SUGAR-HOUSE AND PLANTATION.

Very few changes were made in the house, and those only for im-
proving the work of machinery already in place. The tanks for skim-
ming were provided with a better arrangement for decanting the clear
juice. The lowest outlets from these tanks are about 2 inches above
the bottoms. They should be provided with outlets so located that
the tanks could be drained, effecting quite a saving in sugar at an in-
appreciable expense.

Perhaps the most important improvement was in the work of the
doubie effect. The substitution of a larger sweet-water pump enabled
it to concentrate all the juice and obviated the necessity of employing
an open pan.

Among other improvements in progress at Magnolia, the most im-
portant is a better system of drainage. The entire estate is being tile-

830 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

drained, This improvement will necessitate an expenditure of about
$40,000,

Aside from the benefits to be derived from better drainage, there
will be important advantages gained from closing the ditches. The
amount of tillable land will be increased about 70 acres; the large an-
nual expenditure for keeping the ditches and quarter-drains open will
be stopped; the cultivation will be easier and less expensive, and the
steam-plows can be handled at a considerably better advantage.

Should the work of the station be continued, very interesting and
valuable data can be obtained next season.

ACCIDENTS TO THE MILLS,

The mills were stopped several times on account of small pieces of
iron getting into them. Some of this iron passed through the shred-
der; other pieces were introduced after the cane left the shredder, It
was evident that the iron was put into the carriers maliciously, This
trouble finally culminated in the breaking of the shell of one of the rolls
of the supplemental mill. A few changes were made in the disposi-
tion of the men detailed for work at the mills, and the work was fin-
ished without further accident than the breaking of three couplings,

The average extraction, and consequently the yield of sugar, would
have been larger had the supplemental mill not been damaged,

THE BAGASSE-BURNER AND THH CONSUMPTION OF FUEL,

The burner, as improved last season, worked very satisfactorily.
The consumption of coal was reduced very considerably.

The amount of coal consumed was determined by weighing it for
half the season and basing the total consumption on these data. The
result was.as follows:

Coal consumed in 21 days = 486,338 pounds, or 20,778 pounds per
day. From the time the fires were kindled until all the work was fin-
ished was 45 days; hence the total coal consumption was 45 x 20,778
= 935,010 pounds. The total weight of sugar made was 1,159,768
pounds; therefore the consumption of coal per 1,000 pounds of sugar
was 806 pounds, or 4.42 barrels.

This house could be worked almost entirely without coal if the fol-
lowing improvements were made:

(1) Substitute copper coils for the iron ones in the clarifiers.

(2) Introduce a condenser, employing juice to condense the vapors
from the double effect. An illustration of such apparatus is given
opposite page 114, Bulletin No. 5, and is termed a Calorisaleur a con-
tre courant.

The question of economical engines is of less importance, since the
exhaust steam is employed for evaporation.

COMPOSITION OF THE JUICE.

The chemical work at Magnolia Station was not begun until the
24th November., Although the work of the sugar-house nominally
commenced November 7, but little cane was rolled before the 18th.
The analyses, therefore, show the composition of the juice for all but
eleven days of the season, in which time 2,113 tons of cane were
rolled. This cane yielded 8 pounds less sugar per ton than the next
2,000 tons, consequently it is fair to presume that it contained less
SUCTOSE.

-. REPORT OF THE CHEMIST, ' 331

Table I shows the composition of the raw juices:

TABLE I.—Analyses of juices.

[When two analyses are given the same date, the first was sampled in the morning and the second in
the afternoon.]

‘ ° a ‘
[o} .
ae ea g or
eI He | ¢ e| BS | ge [3
3 2 bb fa hes $s | #8
Date, K 3 As % g g : 4 R oR
ol us) me] (Ss)
2/6/68 | 2/8 |e) 8 | Bele
B lala Be on oe ee ee
1886. Per ct. Per ct.| P.ct.| Per ct.
INGUERIBOR Od sec eseigy veeyacinr ees Bet Qidh lt 27 1.0700 | 18.50] .57 | .2488 1.80 "9.41
Arrearage enna gweee sine t Bleeds 16,3 | 1.0669 | 12,84] .66) .2063 1.61 78.77
95... 3] 9.2] 16.66 | 1.0682] 13.90] .82 0625 45 88, 43
26.. 4/ 8.6) 15.55 | 1.0634} 12.28 87 1625 1,82 78,97
Bearer pete relals ot o% is 0: grs" e103 5 | 9.1) 16.87 | 1.0674] 18.60] .74 5 . 64 83.08
7... 6] 8.6] 15.55 | 1.0684) 12,00) .73 2250 1.88 77.17
CUR PaTEN aa Coes air isis eicieva(aja'sie avs 7| 9.5} 17.21 | 1.0709 | 14.86 46 1500 1.04 83. 43
i setae sie a ialnlavar occas nna 8] 9.5] 17,07 | 1.0704 | 14,21] ,40 1625 1.14 83. 24
MD ete Meee Tele Si giarals.s sisletatere 9; 9.9) 17,88 | 1.0739 15. 04 43 1375 AOL 84.11
24 JA ODUAG ICED EES 10| 9.6) 17.38 | 1.0713 14. 54 BGT al dacmeercl te repre te 83.90
Bieoartvstaaeicar acess ii 9,4 | 16.90 | 1.0695 | 13,91 46 1188 , 85 82.30
Biri phates aiels’ vais ae! sists’ 6)s1a's 12; 9,2) 16,69 | 1.0687 14, 21 2B cee Sala | atgigrachee 85,14
December les ceae4 ctgincwesipasas 13} 9.5] 17.14; 1.0709 | 13.95 . 1875 99 81.29
il goa déebgareuAmeneeeoee TAO OR A NeTGnGsh | 110682 I) LeuO7: lle reteey |e mat eeeye | ets tes ae 84. 00
Bias 15 | 8.9] 16,00 | 1,0656 | 14,04] .40 1313 94 87.68
Pe lll pate 16.29 | 1.0669 | 18.00 .58 1250 96 79. 80
3 LF \0 8 16,23 | 1.0665 18.76 | .69 1875 1.00 84,78
Beers sie cs 15 7|| sae 16,17 | 1, 0665 13.01 t7 | 1500 VIS 80.45
4, 19} 8,6] 15,59) 1,0689 | 12.75 | .49]| .1813 1.42 81,7
4. 20} 8.8] 15.78 | 1.0647 | 13.12 AL? Un eR eee el apices eis 83.14
Biz 21 8.9 | 16.05 | 1, 0656 13. 33 51 , 2063 1.55 83. 05
6.. Bl Osos |) LardOn 1 OROOn Asi GOite sess aleurone = bbabiosO 86. 01
6 Bp Oct TGS BI NORAT I BOM Woes le ce declined acme 83.39
q RA BR | 146 150604) 167 toc. 2813 2.41 79.06
8 25] 8,5] 15,86 | 1.0680 | 12.88 Pople aricites il ectemetre A 83. 85
8 8 B85 | Aa FSO LOGS 2 AB LOB uI ae ate ete el ales 85.7
9 RO} Ob} We OF 1.07 14, 97 a a tclewar te allies lepheyse 87.69
10 28 | 8,6) 15.47 | 1.0634! 18.19] .48] .1318 99 85. 26
10., 29) 8.9] 16,11 | 1.0660 | 13.84 45 . 2063 1.49 85, 90
5 i 30] 89; 16,09 | 1.0660] 13.45 -46 . 2000 1.49 83.59
pu 31] 9, 16,17 | 1. 0665 13.7 .46 | .2000 1.46 84.72
12. 82) 8.5} 15.39] 1.0680] 12.32] .91| .1500 1,22 80. 05
12 83 | 8.6 | 15.47 | 1.06384] 13.56) .64] .10638 79 87.65
13 ,. 34) 8.5) 15.40 | 1.0680] 12.91] .72] .1625 1.26 83. 83
18,, 35! 8,6] 16.57 | 1.0689 | 12.97] .51]| .3000 2.31 83. 30
oe GAR AFORE EIS e Tape Te 36 | 8,5 | 15,27 | 1.0626 13, 04 51 . 2500 1.92 85. 39
TE LATS CEA Bee COA 37 | 8.8) 15.87 | 1.0652 12. 92 Wey Nhe -ate grove ty eats arate 81.41
1b, 88 | 9.1] 16,73 | 1.0674] 13,77] .55 |] .1938 1,41 3. 62
dene 39 | 9; 16,18 | 1. 0665 18. 85 .68 | .18138 95 85. 59
NOES a aheia.ace 40) 9,2) 16,62) 1.0682; 14,87 -65 |] .1568 1.05 89. 47
hi 41 91 16.46 | 1.0678 14, 81 AT , 1250 89.97
Gris 42) 9, 16.19 | 1.0665 13,76 | .60 . 1625 1.18 84.99
Wa tae aks 43 | 9.2] 16,69 | 1.0687] 14,84] .52| ,1313 91 85. 91
Bee poet 4] 9, 16.29 | 1.0669 13, 60 65 | . 1625 4,19 838. 42
A re ashe Steels octyl, 45 | 8.4| 15.19 | 1.0621 DAL Emnlstecd diniale ste eceuce alta tants §2. 29
LOPES arek “each ad ano Br 46) 8.5 ian 2 Me As WBE, 21 | Lh Sta oh | pte 82. 06
Means....... Bratere’s\e\yial oly /alebanare 16,20 | 1.0665 | 18,50] ,61 . 1669 1.24 83.33
MB AINIET ciao se teeipittteany oe - 17,88 | 1.0739 |} 15.04] ,91 . 8000 2.41 89. 47
Minima ,..,.... Daicie siatalal 14,76 | 1.0604 | 11,67] .89] ,0625 45 Viel?

RESUME SHOWING THE MBAN COMPOSITION OF THE RAW JUICH FOR THE CAMPAIGN
OF 1886.
[November 24 to December 20.]

Total number of analyses..,,...
GP CPMNINR iaiialele etn a c'55's sels") 54 yb e's Fad CRT RS ue leh e Cache we ee: i O66
Uo EL Oh 1 SA Bet a A A CT NS SN

Dazree Brix (per cent. total golds)... . .: 5 5.. +100 aves s sles ae Chale aumuc,« a 16020
Sucrose .,.,.. ese ke ten esc ecu clessos ert ccorescvenssnsceszenpeess spar cent. 13.50
Pracucine WGAT A (GINGA, (GA) bos. sacs sles ecg ean ee hacnsione, Hot. L6L
Pees Lin ot Wao Mealy oils Hees 4 eye > dvds | Tene Ha. ke GES
Albuminoids (per cent. sucroge)
. Coefficient of purity...

sree sooner eee ae P Reet ee Es esgereenenreneeprnese 4

PUTTER ee ee geese esscen ne gperesopanveaesececce 1, 24

MMO MPa TTX tR Dba vases sep a MSG peee ge deae cee MEER

_

‘Boe REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Maxima.
BSHECINC ATAVILY -. ayes ons so tele > See peiemtb ie bial, <r opiate =y > 9 cogs ones
Pascarae AWraG wl isny + Bisefe cigs os its See mene le Spay leipyee gine o ace Sint canted to Sane 9.9
Desres Brix (per ‘cent. total solids). 9 oer st sete eee ene ene eae wee 17.88
BATTERS oar icic ee repelled se nh above acdsee PRER epeRarsp craic hel to fois pero eh ae ke ome per cent.. 15.04
PECUCTNM SUCALS (GIMCOSC, 'GUC:)\> . nee eee orien ses cis’ clot pte 2 iar eee dé. .s.75 ae
PA bwrmmOrdst: 5 AO Ps ek Cie oneal ten bie bicis Gir witiale elle osstenntens doz ter . 8000
AlPMINnoids! (PeL/Cen bs SUCKOSE)-<ic5).\+/Hecueeiest wile sje\s cts veleade ois ele ey otele ol ayale aaa 2.41
COARCIeDb OL PUIALY ic 5. 55.2 Ljare So HAle aie ite Minded pls fab ld cen sie lese's. 09 a) die fe 89.47

Minima.
Specific gravity ........... su’s kB cchoge ace tone ome fe PA Se Stal s be SWin' so ee .. 1.0604
Pierce sae. si i..s pminiave winnole ais Ae eine teaniceer mite hah haere fae i stoi win aes 8.2
Degree Brix (per cent. total solids)................. Biyojiia’ss oi ses ate Rae Alege 14.76
ST GROSGEGE ani einai < brine c+ Sha dels of-eiee efoe aeyette: h bs "ais ole vohe (shes ssasa, eben per cent.. 11.67
Reducing sugars (glucose, &C.) ..........66. bia dhets & Meleielemaio se ile slate GOs sce .39
Zvi ornireoOE Bails Ole 3 ee Sead o sce aio aolo 004.010: Ge Ola Gn odo. 0 Dae dose . 0625
DHbIMIHOldSs {per CORT, SUCEORE)) si). ccmlelet ote siclo ule 6 ste ni cain yan e » aera eae .45
Coeticione Of PUIIby-./h:.,<| Mee oo comes et eeteie wie teow eels ee isles ot oo 2 RON Adon

COMPARISON OF RAW AND CLARIFIED JUICES.

In the following table analyses of the raw juices are only given for
those days when the clarified juices were also examined:

TABLE II.—Comparison of raw and clarified juices.
[When two analyses are given the same date, the first was sampled in the morning and the second in

the afternoon.]
Raw juices. Clarified juices,
: fe zu - th y
: Bi agi 2 |< 5, |g] 2
Date. El y 21 5e| 3 E ri S |3e|3
= BRAY >) eae HES) Ye a ; u =Olp..
xia | «2 g |#)22| 28/48/81] 5 | 2 lea) 58
ee 2 ot nets |. oO 2 2 “3. | Weaeaal eves
a) OB Sool 2 bee tee (a Bel 2) 8 |e ie
a/ 3) o Silt) ly Ae |e e| 3s S | cies
a|A =) mn ae) <q S) A a 1) 2 a é)
——— ed ———|| | ————
1886. Per ct. |P.ct. | Peritt.\ Ech
November 25 .. ) 9:2 |° 16.166). 18290 135825). ee. 83.43 | 10.2 | 18.37 | 14.92] .85}..... 81.22
26... 4/}8.6)| 15.55 12.28 ; .87 | 1.32] 78.97 | 9.9 | 17.87 14.82 | .7' -51 | 82.93
Dee 5 | 9.1 16. 37 13.60.) 7 64] 83.08] 9.6 | 17.8 14.38 | .79 | .52 | 82.98
Pet aoe 6 | 8.6 15.55 |. 12.00 | .78 | 1.88 | 77.17 | 9.1 | 36.37 12.95 | .82 /1.01 | 79.11
28... TO eae peal geal 14,36 | -46 | 1.04 838.43 | 9.3 | 17.79 14.98 | .61 71 | 84.20
28.. 8 | 9.5 17.07 | 14.21 | .49 | 1.14] 638.24 | 10.0 | 18.04] 15.17 | .50)| .74 | 84.09
29 .. 9|9.9} 17.88} 15.04 | .8 91 84.11 | 10.5 | 18.98 16.01 | .68 | .47 | 8&4
29 ....| 10) 9.6 | 17.88 | 14.54 |'.53 |:..... 88: 90n 10ST | 18:19 | 15.71 | .68aiesere §6. 37
30 ....| 11] 9.4] 16.90] 18.91 | .46 85 32.30 | 10.3 | 18.7 16.04 | .61 55 | 85.7
BO Seis | O21 16560) SALE OO alsrem in. 85.14} 9.7 °) 17.47 14.63 | .46 |..:.. 83.74
December 1....| 13 | 9.5 | 17.14] 18.95 | .68 99 | 81.89 | 9.7] 17.46 | 14.11 | .84! .71 | 80.81
ieee ia KONO 1B (Bp | wis. 90 [is OONlbecsa. 84.00 | 9.7 | 17.5: 14.59 | .42| ....] 82.94
2....|15| 8.9] 16.00| 14.04] .60 | .95 7.75 | 9.9 | 17.87 | 14.27) .46| .88 | 79.85
2....| 16 | 9.0] 16.29} 138.00) .58| .96} 79.80 9.4 | 16.89 | 14.85 | .55)} .58 | 87.S2
Bios allio | Ol 16. 23 13.76 | .69 | 1.00; 84.78 | 9.6 | 17.27 14.56 | .48 | .69 | 84.31
37. .22)-18 |'9:0 16.17 13.01 7711.15 | 80.45 | 9.7} 17.47 14.86 | .71 | .59 | 85.06
FE aed DRO R s yl 15.59 12.75 | .49 | 1.42] 81.78 | 9.9 | 17.79 14.64 | .49 | .56 | 82.29
bcs OO ORO 16.7 gS P28 At Bl lado 83.14 | 9.4 | 16.89 14518} 46" Foxes 83.96
CS Se be 7 0 Da 17.07 14:97) \WOtee eee 87.69 | 9.1] 16.40 14:20") ..60) 122 86.59
10 ....| 28 | 8.6 15.47 ABMOP 48 ee 85.26 | 9.5 | 17.07 14557) W820 ie eee 85. 35
10.......| 29 | 8.9 16.11 18.84 | .45 | 1.49] 85.90 | 9.5) 17.19 15.07 | .49 | .87 | 87.67
Dt es \30" |) B29) 16.09 13.45 | .46 | 1.49 | 83.59] 9.6) 17.39 15.15.|..50 | .88 | 87.40
1 Pogo Al lc 7a Pato St) 15.39 12.32 | .91 | 1:22 80.05 | 9.5 | 17.09 14.56 | .70 | .86 | 85.20
12 loo: BAG: 15. 47 13.501 sAOAel aren 7.65 | 8.8 | 15.87 13.48.) 62.) come 84.94
Sie vot | ono 15.40 | 12.91 | .72 | 1:26] 83.83-| 9.0 | 16.31 14.07 | .65 | .98 | 86.14
352 cops| Bab 15. 57 12.97 | .51 | 2.31 83.30 | 9.6 | 17.39 15.09 | .63 | .79 | 86.7
14.....| 36 | 8.5 15. 27 18.04 | .51 | 1.92) 85.389 | 9.7} 17.47 14.94 | .50 |1.09 | 85.52
14. BAST BIS 15. 87 12. 92 Fp aie as 81.41 9.4 | 16.94 140310). AS $4. 47
Die | 8804) Dial 16.43 13.74 5 aise | 83.62 9.6 | 17.33 14.91} S62 Oo. ae 86. 04
1b) 2. .43) 69.11 9.0 16.18 13,85 |..58 | 1.26} 85.59 | 10.5 | 18.93 16.35 | .43 95 | 86.37
ape. a2 | O80 16.19 13.7! 60 | 1.18 84.99 | 10.1 | 18.17 15.91 41,45 63 | 87.56
Vf... 2.) 4319.2 16. 69 14.34 | .52 91 85. 91 9.7 | 17.47 15.23 | .55 | .57 | 87.18
18.. 44 | 9.0] 16.29 13.60 | .55 | 1.19 | 838.48 | 9.4] 17.00 14.90 | .64 | .59 | 87.65
MGS. .<:5|s-010% 9.0 | 16.26} 13.58 vn 1.24} 83.52] 9.7] 17.46] 14.80] .59 | .72| 84.76

: é' REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 333

The increase in the coefficient of purity, as shown by Table IT, was
1.24. There was but little change in the relative proportions of
sucrose and reducing sugars. In the raw juice the average quantity
of reducing sugars per cent. sucrose was 4.41; after clarification this
proportion was reduced to 3.98. This slight reduction was probably
due to the formation of a glucosate of lime, which was subsequently
decomposed, leaving the products of the decomposition in solution.

In order to render the percentages of albuminoids more readily
comparable they have been expressed in terms of the sucrose. To
obtain the actual percentages oi albuminoids based on the weight of
the juice, multiply the percentage of sucrose by the number given in
the column marked albuminoids pelcenwige of sucrose.

In the raw juice the albuminoids per centages sucrose were 1.24 and
in the clarified juice .72, showing that 58 per cent. of the total albumi-
noids were still retained by the juice. In 1884 the processes of defe-
cation and clarification removed 45.71 per cent. of the total abumi-
noids; in 1885-1886, 45.01; and in 1886, 41.93.

COMPARISON OF RAW, CLARIFIED, AND FILTERED JUICES AND FIL-
TERED SIRUP.

Analyses were conducted for a period of sixteen days, to determine
the effect of the filtration through animal charcoal on the juice.
These analyses are given in Table III.

TABLE JII.—Comparison of raw juices, clarified juices, filtered juices, and filtered
sirups for a period of sixteen days.

Raw juices. Clarified juices.
a p ‘
¢ ele | 3 alee
Date. al 6 y 1s = 4 2 | %
2 | & a Wee | 40 Wei ay ae
be a 4 Ps S ox A |} A 3 50 Ea]
D 2 C) Q “3 3) 2 2 a 3 oie
epee 2 2 3 |e z zg 2 3 |e
ie) a eee be: Bo rials Boh) Sunken he
a|aAa a 7) io e) A =) 2 fe 6)
1886. Per ct.| Per ct. Per ct.| Per ct.
November 25... <.<,<<: 3} 9.2 | 16.06 | 13.90 82 | 83.43 | 10.2 | 18.37 | 14.92; .85} 81.22
Bis Gicasee 4) 8.6 | 15.55 | 12.28 .87 | 78.97 | 9.9 | 17.87 | 14.82 -79 | 82.93
DO Saran 5 9.1 | 16.37 | 13.60 .74 | 83.08 | 9.6 | 17.34] 14.38 a 82. 98
hte aseaiele Sie 6; 8.6 | 15.55 | 12.00 “bow pitiely | PO dy | 16s8%, |. 512.95 -82| 79.11
Bases ees MY OL5 W728 14.36 -46 | 83.43 9.3 | 17.7 14,98 | -61 | 84.20
ROE srwissanpees 8} 9.5 | 17.07 | 14.21 -49 | 83.24 | 10.0 | 18.04} 15.17 -50 | 84.09
Wgae ances 91 9.9 | 17.88 | 15.04 43 | 84.11 | 10.5 | 18.98 | 16.01 -68 | 84.35
OO ets fsa LO SGN AT Bee 14.64. .53 | 83.90 } 10.1 | 18.19 15.71 | .53 | 86.37
WSS ice Seno. li | 9.41] 16.90} 13.91 .46 | 82.30 | 10.3 | 18.70 | 16.04 -61 | 85.78
eo memeueee 12; 9.2) 16.69 | 14.21 39 | 85.14 | 9.7 | 17.47 | 14.63 46 | 83.7:
Decentber ch i ascasesce 13} 9.5] 17.14! 13.95 68 | 81.39 | 9.7117.46| 14.11 84! §0.81
2 5 8.9 | 16.00] 14.04 60 | 87.7 9.9 | 17.87 | 14.27 46 | 79.85
9.0 | 16.29 | 13.00 +58 | 7 9.4 | 16.89 | 14.85 55 | 87.92
9.0 | 16.28 | 13.76 69 78} 9.6 | 17.27 | 14.56 43 | 84.31
8.6 | 15.59 | 12.75 49 | 81.78 | 9.9 | 17.79 | 14.64 49 | 82.29
8.8 | 15.78 | 138.12 60 | 83.14 | 9.4) 16.89 | 14.18 46 | 83.96
9.1 | 16.52 | 18.67 .60 | 82.75 | 9.7 | 17.64] 14.76 62 | 83.62

334 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE ITI.—Comparison of raw juices, clarified juices, &c.—Continued.

Filtered juices, Filtered sirups.
: Be eee kad | ¢ | 8
: Seam | Ble
Date, I 4 Ba | 8 a | ee tae.
li Bees ep | ge | a| & , | bee
Pa o & =
ape e) bee 1 bl bb) ae
3) oS a) bo 3) 3
Oo
Sas bam) Rp Bek Role g 8
1886. Per ct.| Per ct. Per ct.| Per ct.
November 25........... B.| 9.0 | 16.17 | 12.48 .61 | 77.18 | 24.3 | 44.53 | 36.10 1.88 | 81.07
Dees Hea eis 4] 9.8] 17.67 | 14.44 U7 | 82.86 | 23.4 2.79 | 85.93 2.29 | 83.97
PRA ne Sic aieate 5; 9.2 | 16.61 18.71 (7 | 82.54 | 21.7 | 89.56 | 33.22 2.35 | 83.97
}-fepdehiadado.s 6} 9:5 117.10) 14.28 .89 | 838.51 | 22.3 | 40.7 33. 56 2.61 | 82.46
DReaeackine te 7 {| 9.6 | 17.33 | 18.60 .87 | 78.48 | 23.3 | 42.59 | 84.84 3.00 | 81.80
Peace iaidietacieists -| 8 | 10.6 | 10.14 | 16.19 .60 | 84.59 | 22.6 | 41.86! 38.01 2.19} 79.81
ROA we wivinciteias 9 | 10,2 | 18.58 15. 34 48 2.56 | 19.8 | 86.09 | 28.00 1.67 | 7.58
ODOR TARO 10 | 10.7 | 19.29 | 16.24 55 | 84.19 | 23.6 | 48.15 | 36.10 1.96 | 83.66
BO ean gixeiceiie 11 ,| 12. 3 | 22. 22 18. 52 67 | 88.35 | 23.4 | 42.92 | 35.75 1.90 | 88.29
BU Peat aoe 12 | 10.2 | 18 37 15, 27 44 | $3.12 | 28.7 | 48.40 36. 54 1.88 83. 96
December, | Ace sj-cc6508 18 | 10.7 | 19.3 15. 63 66 | 80.61 | 23.6 | 48.22 | 385.49 1.67 82. 11
ass Macate where tes 16) 9.7 | 17.47 14. 20 51 | 81.28 | 21.4) 89.10 | 32.58 1.98 | 83.82
De Ritieleisistnarere | 16} 9.4 | 16.89 14, 45 2 | 84.96 | 24.8 | 45.388 | 37.23 1.65 82. 04
SPA see kc Soke 17 | 10.6 | 19.07 14. 95 Bi 78.40 | 24.1 | 44.10 | 86,24 1.70 | 84.44
ete SMe fercaie’s 19} 9.5) 17.19 | 14.56 .58 | 84.70 | 24.3 | 44.60 | 36.91 1.48 | 82.76
ea acriode 20] 9.1 | 16.49 | 14.08 .44 | 85.26 | 20.8 | 38.00} 31.80 1.64 | 83.68
Means foi 0. ieee. .-.-| 10.0 | 18.06 | 14.87 .64 | 82.14 | 28.0 | 41.97 | 384.58 2.00 | 82.39
: i |

The results of these analyses are not surprising when we conside
the quality of the bone-black used. Mr. O. B. Stillman, a Boston
refiner, examined this char, and pronounced it to be in a very bad
condition. Jt weighed nearly 70 pounds to the cubic foot. This is
nearly twenty pounds heavier than good char should weigh.

The decolorizing properties of this bone-black were good, but as it
was already laden with impurities it did not improve the purity of
the juice, but, on the contrary, reduced it. This was due to the im-
purities in the charcoal being redissolved.

_ The sirups, being heavier and already nearly saturated with soluble
matter, yield their impurities more readily to the action of the bone-
black and are improved in purity. Reference to the first * report of
this station giving analyses of raw and filtered juices will show this
same result. The charcoal in use at that time was even worse than
last season.

I do not believe that the benefit from the mechanical filtration and
the decolorization will balance the damage to the juice resulting from
the use of spent bone-black.

THE FILTER-PRESSES.

The use of the filter-presses was continued this season with even
greater success than in 1885 and 1886.

Very few analyses were made of the press cakes, except to deter-
mine loss of sucrose. However, the few analyses that were made are
presented in the following table.

* Bulletin No. 5, p. 49.

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 335

TABLE 1V.—Analyses of press cakes.

Sucrose.

No record was kept in house of the quantity of juice recovered by
the presses. In fact it would be quite difficult to determine just the
proportion of the juice flowing from the presses that would be lost in

_ ordinary work.

This season we found it necessary to erin one press once for every
2,889 gallons of juice expressed by the mills. The total amount of
juice was 1,271,205 gallons, hence the number of presses of press-
cake was 1,271,205+2,889=440. Theaverage weight of the press-cake
per press was 330 pounds, 330 x 440=145,200 pounds of press-cake for
the entire season. The amount of press-cake per ton of cane was
20.15 pounds.

In the work with the experimental* press in 1884, on thoroughly
drained ‘‘ blanket” scums, the yield of Juice was 80 per cent. The
average skimmings and settlings after long standing and decantation
of the clear juice are much thinner than the blanket, and would yield
from 85 to 90 per cent. juice by filter pressing. In order to under rather
than over estimate the work of the presses, I will base my estimates
on the actual yield obtained with the small experimental press. It
may be well to state here that the work on a small scale was no better
than with the large presses.

On the above basis the press cake forms 20 per cent. of the total
weight of skimmings filtered; hence 145,200+20 x 100=726,000, the
total number of pounds of skimmings. These figures show that even
on. a low estimate 64 per cent. of the juice is usually lost in the skim-
mings.

As the presses save at least 80 per cent. of this, the saving of juice
at Magnolia this season was 580,000 pounds.

As I have repeatedly stated, I consider this estimate a very low
one. Lhaveno doubt but that carefully conducted experiments would
show a saving of 970,000 pounds of juice. With the filter-press ar-
rangement at Magnolia it is impossible to keep a separate account of
juice recovered,

COMMERCIAL VALUE OF PRESS CAKE.

The average value of the press cake as given in last season’s+ re-
port was $10.64 per ton; the value of the nitrogen being $4.35, and
the phosphoric acid $6.29. ;

Considering $10.64 an average valuation, the press cake this sea:
son would be worth $772.46,

~

* Bulletin No. 5, p. 59.
+ Bulletin No. 11, p. 16.

336

ANALYSIS OF SUGARS,

TABLE V.—First sugars.

Date. \ Lot. | Sucrose. Date
1886. Per cent. 1886.
INOWORIDEN: Cenc ine ete cinislelatelere's ielele. pleco 13 99.0 || December 6
2 ; 14 99.3
15 98.8 9
16 99.1 10
17 99.3 2
18 99.5 13
19 98.5 15
20 97.8 17
21 98.9 17
22 98.9 z
23 98.8 20
24 97.8 21
25 97.8
26 99.2

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Lot. | Sucrose.
Per cent.

27 99.1
28 98.7
29 98.0
30 98.2
31 98.8
32 99.0
33 99.2
34 98.7
35 99.2
36 98.9
37 98.8
38 98.9

98.78

Sa

Date.

1885,
November 223252)... ccebscneneys eaten
Oya

TABLE VI.—Second sugars.

Lot. | Sucrose. Date.

Per cent. 1886.

1 90.6 || December 9

2 91.4

3 92.6

4 85. 2

5 88.1

6 90.5 22

fil 89.2

i a

i iy

|
Lot. | Sucrose.
Per cent.

8 89.
9 91.3
10 91.5
11 91.6
12 92.8
13 90.8
90.3

The first sugars were ‘‘off white,” the seconds yellow. But two

sugars were made.

ANALYSES OF MOLASSES,

TABLE VII.—Analyses of molasses from first sugars.

Date.

886,

. Movember 25. vcs. ssvcs seseccwheace
26

[1. Molasses.]

s| 3 a | Me | Sys =

S| 4 & |e | Be Bl 3

3 3 a ba Bs 6 8 Pe :

»|2| 8 | 5s | & | Be | Moa] Be

2| 8 3 5 S Zo | oe | 3B”

Ble | ibbeedte ee]. S. )ORS peeeea ae

2 ) a) Ss ® 55 Sak &

ea 1S A wa ia na a )

Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.

oe terarayerate 16 | 30.9 | 57.08 | 385.00 5.88 | 30.66 5.15 61. 32
ae avabas ere 17 | 29.9 | 55.20} 35.70 6.251, 482) 34 5. 66 64. 68
SAAeee 19 | 28.8 | 58.24 | .33.00 6.45 | 31.02 6.06 62. 04
ra fete tahaicve 20 | 29.2 58, 84 34, 00 5. 00 oil By¢ 4, 64 63.15
SO ooe 21 | 28.9 58. 80 34, 20 4,00 82. 08 3.7 64. 16
A Nee ehe a 22 | 30.3 56. 00 36.70 5.40 32.85 4.88} 65.54
i Srerete: sya 23 | 26.8 49, 20 82.00 5. 00 $2.51 5.08 65, 02
Meera 24 | 29.6 54.70 85. 00 6. 37 31.99 5. 82 63. 98
Pie one ere 28 | 29.7 54.90 36. 20 5. 40 82. 96 4,92 65. 92
SOAS 31 | 29.1 58.70 38. 80 4.63 36. 12 4,31 72, 24
Bio ieleteteieie 32 | 29.6 54. 7 7’. OO 5. 62 oe.62! 5.14 67. 63
eevee dene 803 | 29.1 53.71 37.10 4.83 | 34.54 4.49 69. 08
Saitavenals 34 | 30.1 55, 50 39. 80 4.83 35. 86 4,35 71.72
aya aret 35 | 30.1 55, 50 38. 50 4.44 34. 69 4.00 69. 38
areal Ns 86 | 29.5 | 54.50 | 38.40 3.97 | 35.23 3. 64 70. 46-
eioveie wigtae 37 | 28.7 | 52.80] 33.7 5.71 31.91 5. 40 63. 83
Ghee laterers | 29.4 | 54.24] 385.94 5.24] 33.13 | 4.83 66. 26

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 356

Taste VIII.—Analysis of molasses from second sugars.
[III. Molasses.]

4 4 4. pr) ane
| a | 8 Be)» | Seveshean | ae
| S © i oe one | y™ am
¢ &.| 22 | # |ace|eee las |o8
5 : bh 63 wee | 588 | & OG
Date. | 3 # fs | 3 a Bos | tam 4. | 288
| 3 R : bo aS 3 wea | BOS
| fa Q ~e a = fQ wr OD eo Oni
| | ®* gs A=| om OSo° aa ios) a3e
(2; Bl 2 |B | 8 |e32)e88| 8.8 | eas
x | & Pa 5 a 28 =
oad f 60 (3) (3) =) o8S | o8xn }] a0 Ole
~ to} o o Nw Ss Di- Sa
eae en. I B a | a” |e 8
: 1886. Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ot.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.
November 26.............. 1 | 40.8} 76.92} 382.80) 389.90 19.75 82. 41 39.42 | 19.51 42, 64
2 | 40.3 | 75.92 2.30 | 40.07 19.60 | 82.46] 40.20] 19.67 42.71
December 8| 41.5 | 78.51] 383.40 | 41.21 | 18.90] 82.28| 389.78 | 138.41 42.41
4| 40.5 | 76.41 82.80 | 40.39 13.15 82.66 | 40.21 13. 09 42.97
5 | 40.5 | 76.43} 32.90 | 40.62 13.90 | 82.75 | 40.44] 13.84 43.09
SAL Bh 64, 850) 28280) asec oe 11242 | VBBN TAN | eece ne 13. 36 44,35
40.1 75.48 | 31.20 | 39.08 13.80 | 31.30 | 389.24] 13.94 41.18
42.2 | 79.91 82.50 | 40.61 15.74 | 31.62] 39.40] 15.31 41.61
41.9| 179.3 33. 7 40. 68 14.04 | 32 27] 388.95 13. 44 42.46
41.7 | 78.86] 35.00 | 42.20] 138.80] 33.78] 40.7 13.31 44.46
IMAG in sc arctesess ce cs 40.5] 76.26) 82.54) 41.18} 14.91] 38.52] 39.62] 14.89 42.79

I have adopted a plan for stating analyses of molasses by which
each analysis can easily be compared with the others. Each per-
centage has been reduced to the basis of a molasses of a stated de-
gree Brix or Baumé, 50° Brix for molasses from first sugars and
76° Brix for molasses from seconds. Fifty and seventy-six degrees
Brix were selected as standards of comparison, since they represent
approximately the average densities of the molasses from first and
second sugars.

SUMMARY OF DATA COLLECTED AT MAGNOLIA STATION, SEASON OF
1886.

Governor Warmoth kindly gave me free access to the records of
the sugar-house, from which the following data were obtained:

TABLE IX.—Showing tons of cane worked, weight of juice extracted, percentage of
extraction and the weight of first and second sugars and molasses per ton of cane
for the four* pertods into which the season was divided.

a First Second Third Fourth Total
period. period. period. period. out
9 ———— EE ———+*
DWaMOnWOLkeds «tarsi ae tatyeniie's Selcins sis tons..| 2,113.76 2, 410. 72 920. 47 1,758. 35 7, 203. 30
UIC OXTLACLOM 945 «<n Secinere's dese pounds..} 3,225,385 | 3,848,740 | 1,430,881 | 2,757,387 11, 262, 876
Percentage of extraction.................- 76. 29 79. 82 UC02 78. 42 78.17
First sugar, per ton ............. pounds..| 116.40 124.56 111.57 124. 43 120.47
Second sugar, per ton .............. dows: 36. 27 43.75 34.16 44,59 40.53
Molassessper' ton’... 2.045 -fow dae sn 8 Gora: 54. 05 63.12 48.53 61.06 58.17

*The divisions of the seasons into periods were arbitrary, and were made when bad weather or other
cause of delay permitted a thorough cleaning of the sugar-house.

Percentage or yreldiysumarsist tis 2). 485 Sas de scleiete wiskevaiclaleustala oieeels che 8.05
PERCeniace OF WIE MISG SUCRE oo 5. 5)... cess oe « ofsistetelen da sinaysraepeediate ae 6.02
‘Percentace Of yield pecan Saran 2). 0 s,<-s/s,./aies/e shee re Mate sremi alert gale 2.03
Pounds first sugar (polarization 98.78) per ton of eane................ 20. 47
Pounds second sugar (polarization 90.3) per ton of cane .............. 40.53
TotalisuUsar Per LONAOk CANS Ey psy ts iccs cis lsc s(x s acteht dete IOeree eiatola cares 161.00
Percentage of total sugar obtained in first product.,................. 74, 82
Percentage of total sugar obtained in second product .......... event 25.18

22 AG—'86

338 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Total number Of SCFOS OT GANG FOUEE 2.00. ke ec cee cece eee 590. 81
Total tons Of Cane TOME ja. cis « <aielerestoneMe ote eis aie Ese /s «le e\esolalwintel eNoreloliaie 7, 203.8

MiGtis Of .CANGC ‘PEF ‘ACEO. /s sas tm ysis os es REN I s cite siete @ nie Sista a oie eae sie 12.19
TOtal POUHGS OF GUPAT MAGS ii ce ecg t ie sc ee se eerebecbesegene 1, 159, 768. 00
POWHOS Of SUPA MEE ACES ioc oe ds. ah oe thd ce ss cc Sees see cunnue ols 1.962.6

Total pounds molasses made (11.6 pounds per gallon) ................ 418, 563. 00
Pounds WAIOLESSES Per BCLS. 1.5. 2h. Bape kc He cieds sieve eed eact seereee ame 708. 45
Poutids molasses per Pow Cane .....8ivs bo Fe dds. fae ect te ces cennes 58.17

TABLE X.—Comparison of yield of si ag ont molasses, seasons of 1884~’85, 1885-86,
an

1886. | 1885-'86. | 1884-85.

Yield of first and second SUgATS 2.65. ccc k cess eet eee eee an ine per cent..| 8.05 48 6. 87

Waeld Of BU SUPATS) iste siaids detente cade dee deeteede. canker. aon GOs Teg egcas|eaamemegks "7,92
Yield of first and second sugars per ton Of Cane .1..:..45..-0 560s. pounds. .| 161.00 148, 75 187,39
‘Yield of molasseS per tof OF CANS iii ieeis ees c ici be cet eedeneees Oi s55)) OBA. | sareskeemee 58, 25

* In 1884-"85 three sugars were made,
EXPERIMENTS IN FILTRATION,
When in New Orleans, in November, I received an invitation to

visit the experiment station and witness a test of the Kleemann proc-
ess for the filtration of the juice. This test on a small scale was

‘very successful, and demonstrated clearly that all the juice coula

easily be filtered through presses.

This process was invented by Fritz Kleemann, of Schoeningen, |

Brunswick, Germany. It has been patented in all sugar-producing
countries.

This. process was first tested on a large scale with cane juice in
Demerara at the following sugar-houses: Nonpareil, Lusignan, Hn-
more, and others. The Nonpareil house filtered the juice from 400
long tons of cane per day, through 8 presses of 18 chambers each.
These tests were made in May, 1886, since When the process has been
introduced into Porto Rico and Cuba.

The following is a description of the process as employed in cane
sugar-houses, brown coal or lignite being the filtering medium. The
raw juice is treated in the defecators or clarifiers with lime, as usual,
except that a smaller quantity is required. The juice is then heated
to a temperature between 160° and 180° F., and finely ground lignite
ot brown coal is added. The lignite or brown coal must be reduced
to as fine a state of division asis practicable. The quantity of lignite
to be added varies with the amount of sugar contained in the juice,
and ranges from 5 to 10 per cent. of the weight of the sugar. The
temperature of the mixture is maintained at from 150° to 170° ¥. fif-
teen or twenty minutes, and the juice is then pumped to the filter-
presses. The filtered juice passes directly to the evaporating-pans,
and the sirup, without further clarification or settling, can be imme-
diately boiled in the vacuum-pan. }

The juice left in the press cake in the filter-presses is obtained by
displacement with cold water.

One 30-chamber Kroog press will filter 20,000 gallons of juice
treated by the Kleemann process in twenty-four hours, ample time
being allowed for displacement of the juice left in the press cake and
for cleaning presses, changing cloths, &c. An ordinary laborer can
manipulate the presses.

REPORT OF THH CHAMIsT. 8389

The amount of precipitate retained by a 30-chamber press will aver-
age 770 pounds. This precipitate contains 50 per cent. of its weight
of juice, nearly all of which can be recovered by displacement.

The amount of press cake per ton of cane is approximately 46
pounds. Half of this contains an average of about 13 per cent.
sucrose. Were this juice thrown away with the press cake it would
result in a loss of 46x.50x.13®3 pounds sugar per ton of cane
worked.

Even at alow valuation per pound for sucrose, this loss, amounting
to 30,000 pounds of sugar for a crop of 10,000 tons of cane, would be
alarge item. These figures are based on an extraction of 78 per cent,
of juice from the cane.

TEST OF THE KLEEMANN PROCESS AT MAGNOLIA.

Early in December, at the request of Mr. ). D. Colcock, secretary
of the Sugar Exchange, Nei Orleans, tlhe Commissioner of Agri-
culture directed me to make a test of this process,

A sufficient quantity of ignite could not be procured, so, 1n accord-
ance With the stiggestions of Mr, Ernst Schulze, representing the
owners of the process, finely ground charcoal was substituted. Ex-
periment on a small scale showed that a slight modification of the
process must be made where charcoal, bituminous coal, or certain
other stibstitutes for lignite are employed.

The clarifiers at Magnolia are of the ordinary form and have a ca-

acity of 533 gallons. The filter-presses were manufactured by the

allesche Maschinenfabrik, of Halle, Germany. An ordinary pis-
ton-pump was used to force the juice through the presses. The juice
was limed, as usiial; 7. @., to neutrality. In order to determine the
amount of charcoal required, experiments were made with varying
quantities: (1) 10 per cent. of the weight of the sugar in the juice;
(2) 74 per cent. ; (3) 5 per cent. .

Any difficuly in filtration would indicate too little charcoal. Asa
result of this experiment it was found that the juice filtered equally
well with 5 per cent. as with.10. _Five per cent. is probably as little
as could be successfully employed.

The juice was rapidly heated to the boiling-point, after liming, be-
fore the addition of the charcoal. The charcoal having been added
to the mixture, was boiled and stirred thoroughly for ten or fifteen
minutes and then forced through the presses.

One 21-chamber press filtered 2,670 gallons of juice in three hours,
at the end of which time it was opened and the press cake removed.
The chambers of these presses are not as large as those of the Kroog

presses.

: The filtered juice was perfectly clear and bright. It was immedi-
ately converted into sirup in the double effect. This sirup was as
bright as the filtered juice. A portion of the sirup after standing
several days in a glass vessel did not show the slightest sediment.

Analyses were made of the juice at frequent intervals during this
work. A portion was taken from each sample for the determination
of the albuminoids.

The proportion of albiminoids is expressed in the table, both as a
percentage of the weight of the juice and in terms of the sucrose.

The sample No. 1 of the juice was taken from the first clarifier,
and the first sample of clarified juice from the first portion of the
filtered juice; consequently these samples represent the same juice

340 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

before and after clarification. The rest of the samples were taken at
intervals from the presses and from every third clarifier of juice.

The average of these results will represent, as nearly as possible,
the same juice before and after treatment.

TABLE XI.—Showing analyses of juices before and after treatment by Kleemann

process.
‘Ay . B
ary . no re na - p>) w te
oo sue fle 2 Sel a. | Ze f 32/2. | Rg
Number. Se S) ° ° i) OE : °
Le Ree ae ee se | #2) ¢ | § |88| 82 | ag
a4 S S| ol ee ae 3 =| qi | es | 3B
Beale} do Bed taal 22 | psoas Sol Sade ee
a La} Loos i Pl i =
eevlie | 4 |aeyo0 1's | ia 4 a7 See lee
Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.
SL Peet eioje sielate rare stots * 16.01 14.89 | .2500) 1.68 | 93.00 15. 31 14.89 | .1563 | 1.05 97.25 10.0
3.54 | 1625 | 1.20 83. 64 14.29 12.27 . 1438 | 1.17 85. 86 10.0
2188 | 1.62 €4, 24 16. 66 14.53 . 1313 . 90 87.21 10.0
t 21875 |) d32 | 65.27 | 16.938 14.7 . 1869 .93 87.30 10.0
cies peceieel loot ; 64.02! 16.16 18.1602 2222S 2.8. 22) SRIETG (a)
2188 | 1.601 84.59; 16.76 14. 60 1625 | 1.10 | 87.11 7.5
2625 | 2.01 64.29 | 16.81 14. 62 1625 | 1.10 86.97 (G5)
. 3002 | 2.29 H 88.53 | 17.56 14.90 1613 | 1.08 84. 85 ih)
. 2938 | 2.48 ; 81.389 | 17.01 14. 43 338 | 1.27 84. 83 aa)
. 2063 | 2.06 | 81.40 | 17.47 14.75 1875 | 1.27 84. 43 5)
Danie aoa sweats | 84.28 17.44 AA NGOA SSS. Oe co. aces 84. 00 7.5
.2375 | 1.80] 83.88] 17.30] 14.76 1762 | 1.19 |} 85.382 5.0
Means ,.... 15.75 | 13.31 . 2394 | 1.81 84.46 | 16.47 | 14.40 1562 | 15105) (86560) |seeece

Average increase in coefficient of purity =2,14.

In the preceding table, column A represents raw juices; column B,
juices treated by Kleemann’s process. Referring to table, we find the
average increase in the coefficient of purity by the ordinary process to
be 1.24. Table XI shows an increase of 2.14 by the Kleemann process,
This large increase in the purity of the juice would give a decided
increase in the yield of sugars.

THE ALBUMINOIDS.

The reduction in the percentage of albuminoids was not as large as
by the ordinary process. By the Kleemann process an average of
35.17 per cent. of the albuminoids were removed; by the ordinary
process the reduction was nearly 45 per cent. I do not know to what
extent this difference in the albuminoids would affect the working of
the sirup. The sugar-maker reported that the sirup made by the
Kleemann process in this test worked as easily as by the ordinary.

_ ADVANTAGES OF THE KLEEMANN OVER THE ORDINARY PROCESS.

The increased coefficient of purity is not the only advantage this
process has over the ordinary. There is an increase of sugar from
the rapidity of working both juice and sirup. The quantity of
sugar lost in the scums is reduced toa minimum. The expense for
labor is less and the value of the press cake is greater, since itis in a
better condition mechanically for use as a fertilizer.

This process certainly merits a thorough test by our sugar planters.
Lignite of a good quality is abundant near the sugar area of Louisiana
and can be obtained at a small cost.

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 341

CONCLUSION.

The results of this season’s work at Magnolia have been very satis-
factory. The yield of sugar per ton was the largest in the history of
the plantation. The yield per acre was exceedingly small.

The results of the work of the sugar-house were very encouraging,
and were such as to warrant a large expenditure for improvements
in the plantation.

ANALYSIS OF SUGAR BEETS.

A large number of samples of sugar beets have been received from
various parts of the country grown from seed sent out by the Depart-
ment. ‘The great variation in the content of sucrose in these samples
. shows the wonderful effect of soil, climate, and method of cultivation
in the quantity of sugar which the beet contains.

From the appearance of the samples received it was evident that
the greater number of those who had grown the beets were ignorant
of the principles of agriculture on which the growth of a beet rich in
sugar depends. The object in view seems to have been to produce a
large beet, and many of the samples received were of a size far above
that which indicates the production of large quantities of sugar.

To secure the best results the number of beets grown on each square
yard should not be less than seven or eight. By judicious crowding
the overgrowth of the beet is prevented, and the sugar is stored in
the tuber instead of being used up in the life processes of the plant.

The beets sent by Joseph M. Hart, of Oswego, N. Y., have the ap-
pearance of having been grown in accordance with the above princi-
ples, and they afforded the only sample which reached the standard
of a profitable sugar-making plant.

The low percentage of sucrose i: samples sent from the Middle
and Southern States shows the folly of trying to grow the sugar beet
in any parts of our country except those pointed out in Bulletin No. 5
of this division, viz, the Pacific slope and along our Northern borders.
Following are the descriptions of the samples analyzed and a table
of the results obtained:

DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES.

Serial No.
Sugar pecs frome. Pe Phinn: Woodville; Miss... o.2222 a. et odes ware ce 4486
Sugar beet from M.S; Douglas, Fort Smith, Ark... .0...6.0.00.000see cee wee 4488
Sugar beet grown on stiff clay soil, from J. T. Henderson, Palmetto, Ga..... 4490
Sugar beet grown on red clay soil, weight 841 grams, from Mrs. T. F. Astin,
iPebmen@. GA oe we odin OSD ce RC IRE BIO Aor At As MBln ie Deane ictHEnoreivesc 4491
Sugar beet grown on stiff red soil, weight 472 grams, from J. M. Terry, Pal-
WRAUO (Ceo prod AS GS LS CORSE II De Eos Cot eRe RCE nr APIA IEE 5 ir 4492
Sugar beet grown on clay soil, weight 973 grams, from J. H. Watkins, Pal-
BREE OTER Pat ep NRT Sia tice tha clue a de, acts mae eho e st coma Hans dhecerg 4493
Sugar beet grown on clay soil, weight 972 grams, from J. H. Watkins, Pal-
ERE ULE Meche te Pera A ck N ee es) ora uy Laces co Gaalehcle ad te evs eee Ae ae Der aac emilee 4494
Sugar beet grown on clay soil, weight 648 grams, from J. H. Watkins, Pal-
FAC LCRA ae Ee MR sat A Grace a ARs ap sins 0.6 pe ake teke Sees aimions cal ots a sa 4495
Sugar beet grown on sandy loam, weight 872 grams, from Thomas Varnes,
(rn 600 TRO CP Ons coc ictus CoRR Ree ROE Nau Naf, Pcie Attic EE are 4496
2 sugar beets grown on fine loamy clay, weight 688 grams, from Mr. Milles,
REIL BOO 7 Gk rays os eR ete c os ule deen wn. tins tha seevala es abameenttane, @ eterna ahsies visa, 5 4497
White sugar beet from William Cleveland, Thornton, Tex ................-- 4571
White sugar beet from William Cleveland, Thornton, Tex. (beet short and
SEIU] Oh A MGI Bolebena rab OGtO.e lic \lodad bio eR En Ral eer hab lichens eam Aa Ee 4572

Sugar beets, very large, short, from V. D. Hannah, Weiser, Ind............ 4645

342 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

; Serial No.
Small sugar beet from William Gill, West Point P. O., Dak..............0.: 4655
2 sugar beets from William Sache, Plano, Tex............seseseeee ee eeeeees 4678
White Imperial sugar beet from F, E. Hurd, West Haven, Mich ..........-- 4679
2 sugar beets from E. B. Cochran, Parma, Mich............-seeeeeeeeeeeees 4687
White Imperial sugar beet from W. J. Sweet, Clay Brook, Tenn ............ 4688
Sugar beet, large, from H. F', Harbaugh, Concord, Kans ..........++.+-.+++ 4689
12 sugar beets, very fine and fresh, from James M. Hart, Oswego, NM Stee 4690
2 large beets from F. C. Smith, Portland, Oreg., raised on Ladd’s farm...... 4691
2 large beets from F. C. Smith, Portland, Oreg., raised on Ladd’s farm ...... 4692
Large beet from F. W. Smith, West Haven, Mich .................s0.+-000- 4696
2 large beets from M. Nelson, Menomonee, Mich. ,..,......+.-++ss+eseeeeees 4736
2 large beets from E. B. Cochran, Parma, Mich............0.eeeseeeeeereees 4737
8 sugar beets from H. P. Simmons, Paterson, N. J.........eeeeeeeeer eevee 4739
3 sugar beets from J. Browen, Bismarck, Ohio. ........ cece eee eee ere eeeee 4776
Sugar beet from A. M, Smith, Climax, Morrow County, Ohio.............-. ATT7
7 White Imperial sugar beets, grown by David Oldhaven, Paterson, N.J.... 4781
‘" ANALYSIS OF SUGAR BERTS. ee
}
. Per cent.| Per cent. |, . Per cent. | Per cent.
Serial number. water. | sucrose. || Serial number. water. | sucrose.
Aaa Teatmaicterate pictae'sistilnie’g wiacs'eie ele 86. 65 GPL TARE 5 cists’ etpiolaloieaigahi atlitenes/> 84, 86 5.04
agdrinoadoon Aann too dartade 89.10 4,80 || 4670. .....-. ce ceccesepeescecs 81. 63 9.76
Ee) oda Gadd ooabncipniahte eta 5e 86, 86 BOTs AGA e loieip: caaiavsecteleaotalstaietelg ¥ie 86, 27 8,35
AOU Rre eretare vaiveiaseloisiar axeievatere 01 Orta 86. 95 iO ||| Atlee c «sm csralstore stemietatetersiste’eie ere §3. 99 7.86
BADD eG eealgaue peek a vielen He svete 83. 91 AGS Ob Hi MABBEL Si. OAS ie fetoticte ote gitree brats 7, 84 8. 03
AA lies Sika is = Sea ce 88, 34 BA08 iABOO. cet ce eens ane e7 85.11 11.71
Biber en me Chane, Se 89. 07 G34 ||PARO 1) cat eee ee oe §3. 23 8.58
AAG LPR y Pry, sys see 22 71% 88.14 5. BB | (4608 4 55. eee mee ah? §3. 07 8, 22
CHCA Se ee Pete te Oe 87. 83 7TH |W AN OSS abc orcas aR 80. 88 18.84
LI Te oR SAAR Ae eS 85. 62 RBit || Aon. teen See een oe 87.7 10.30
Apel Rip ae kB.. tox. ea pa gel 86.71 11. 41)|| AREO 2 5c. nce pede eee ene 85.71 11.15
4572 85.53 GIT ||| Pisce cca Nema ee oe 82. 37 9.35
5 86.11 SE KE |GET OG com siecle atacenetetetaterelete ce Sateforsie's 80. 80 10. 09
AND aa rogige osidigtgi cot (4 Fait oes ae 80. 26 LO Tall) GUL ws crrere aimee prams ee aie tae 84,08 8.18

SOILS SUITABLE TO THE CULTURE OF CELERY,

The culture of celery in this country, especially in Michigan, has
grown to be an industry of conaffierable importance. In the neigh-
borhood of Kalamazoo in Michigan I found some of the finest celery
gardens of the world. To determine the character of the soil in
which this celery grows a carefully selected sample of it was ob-
tained from Mr. Frank Little, of Kalamazoo.

ANALYSIS OF THE SOIL.
This soil gave, on analysis, the following results:

Substances. Per cent. Substances, Per cent.

NEGISEUNG fociae aia cule em eid ten see ein oaan Ore EMAL OIG) BEUICS ew cin einis:s ininia’sieip'emioigaealnnigte Pa hed)
EUV OLALCM SHIGA in. .'</ecins ovis cicisis vse sacs 1 Seat || PAI MATTIAS seme ya aie aes © c)e.c\s sioiwiote Megane ete 8. 2387
ARIES ONAL G Of cin Caer Uae setae shee tiv oe e De RSO RGD fc cote arace sin ove weiss deco. wee eviews eae ’ 4.574
Phosphoriciaridvs:, a, 20. Se testa, Pilg Wibacaplennmeeetare ce cristo clan p= air a -(oretaisievaa . 463
RAUABL sleiniete siansoceie. nee cee ae oe e 206 || Sulphuric acid... .......2...00cs-.sen8 . 601
OMLOMINO SS pansies acy le teiciecpae > eee ae ce SOOT || MOA DOMCIACIO 2.6% <i. scar ceweweanes 408
Volatile and organic matter........... OSs ae a PN TURCSOTL "yo feicinio'e's/4.c s'se v see's clots oc o saeele 2. 660
INEEDLZIBANG eth ak pHiere pecwentonnee eee 28, 845

The great percentage of nitrogen in this soil will be noticed, which
leads me to the conclusion that soils containing a large quantity of
ee matter are particularly adapted to the growth and culture of
celery.
‘It seems appropriate, in this connection, to insert the following
very interesting account of the culture of celery, by Mr. I'rank Little,
of Kalamazoo, Mich.:

’ REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 343

CELERY CULTURE AT KALAMAZOO, MICH.

By FRANK LITTLE.

Kalamazoo Township, 6 miles square, is the county or shire town of Kalamazoo
County. The city of Kalamazoo, 24 miles square, is located in the geographical
center of the township, which is also, approximately, the center of the county, and
is situated on the line of the Michigan Central Railroad, running east and west, and
the Grand Rapids and Indiana,and Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, running
north and south, midway between Detroit and Chicago, and at the great bend of the
Kalamazoo River. :

The valley of the river at this point is fully 100 feet below the general level of the
table-land above, and averages 24 miles in width.

The city of Kalamazoo, which is in the valley of the river, is built upon a burr-
oak plain, which is slightly elevated above the bottom or marsh land that skirts the
stream and its tributaries, the Portage, Arcadia, and Axtell’s Creek, which all empty
in within the city limits. The soil is a dark sandy loam, resting upon a substratum
of coarse gravel and sand, in which is found an inexhaustible supply of pure water

‘at a depth varying from 6 to 25 feet,

The upland timber consists of the several varieties of oak, hickory, maple, linden,
elm, and other varieties.

The celery gardens of Kalamazoo are located upon the bottom or marsh lands that
skirt the river and its tributaries. It is estimated that there are in the city and
township 8,000 acres of bottom-land, a large portion of which is adapted to the cul-
tivation of celery. This marsh soil is of inky blackness, peaty; in some instances
strongly impregnated with iron, and in others with marl or carbonate of lime.

The saturation is copious as a rule throughout the season, owing to porosity of
soil, and the elevation being but slight above the river level.

In 1875, or thereabouts, a native Hollander by the name of Lendert De Bruyn,
who had carried on a small upland garden and tried to raise a little celery, ditched
and spaded a narrow strip a few feet wide and two or three rods long of marsh at
the rear of his lot on South Burdick street, and set out a few plants of celery as an
experiment. His success was so marked that the next spring three or four other
Hollanders in like manner prepared a few rods of ground with like results.

Stimulated by the uniform success that had attended these efforts, and a market
being opened abroad by some enterprising dealers, a large number of Hollanders
soon embarked in the work. Large tracts of marsh-land were ditched, subdued,
and planted out to celery up and down the valley. Marsh-lands advanced rapidly
in value from a nominal average price of $30 per acre to three, four, and five hun-
dred dollars per acre.

At the present time (July, 1885) the total area of celery lands under cultivation
within the city limits and suburbs is estimated at 1,200 acres, furnishing employ-
ment in this special industry to upwards of 2,000 laborers, besides a great number
of women and children.

Notwithstanding this remarkable expansion and wonderful success attending the
growth of celery in Kalamazoo, notably so within the past five years, the possibili-
ties of the future have only been half realized. While the annual acreage is rapidly
increasing, stimulated by a brisk, profitable demand for shipment, large areas of
land—probably 1,200 acres more, suitable for the cultivation of the plant—are still
unoccupied.

It is no genteel, light, clean work or child’s play to grow celery, The drainage
and subjugation of the natural soil, fertilization, planting out, and subsequent cul-
tivation and gathering the crop—almost entirely hand work from the commence-
ment to the close—is laborious in the extreme.

At first narrow open ditches are dug at right angles to the stream or principal

drain at intervals varying from ten to thirty rods, as the case may require. The
intermediate spaces between the ditches is then thoroughly dug up by hand or by
plowing in some instances, covering underneath the wild coarse grass, weeds, flags,
and rushes, preparatory to setting the plants.
_ Horses shod with broad wooden shoes made of 2-inch plank are sometimes used
in plowing drier portions; also, sometimes, where too wet and miry for a team, a
capstan set on the upland, with a long cable attached to a plow, is used, and a
wooden tramway is laid for a light car to take the plow and cable back to the start-
ing point, and for the transportation of manure, boards, tools, plants, &c., onto the
field ; but this is not the common practice now, as the marshes are drier than for-
merly.

Most of the labor in the celery gardens is done by Hollanders—men, women, and
children—who, in wooden shoes, bid defiance to malaria and diphtheria, and seem

344 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

to be perfectly at home as they dig in the mud and water and plod over the moist
celery fields.

In winter, when the marshes are frozen, large quantities of straw and stable ma-
nure are drawn out to the celery fields for spring and summer use. Manure—which
has appreciated in value largely within the city limits since the development of this
enterprise—is an essential feature of success. It is used liberally at each successive
planting to promote the growth of the crop; and it is found that artificial fer-
tilization here cannot be profitably dispensed with.

Celery seed is quite small and slow to germinate. Some growers raise their own
seed, but a large number purchase it each year at a reliable seed agency.

There are many varieties, with scarcely essential differences. ‘The most popular-
named varieties at Kalamazoo are the Golden Dwarf, White Plume, and White
Walnut.

Seed is sown in March in hot-beds; later on, in shallow boxes, and a finely pre-
pared seed-bed outdoors. The seed should be sown in straight rows, so that the
young plants may be kept free from weeds. When about 2 inches high they should
be thinned out and, transplanted 2 inches apart, and when 4 inches high, the tops
should be cut off,, which will cause them to grow stocky. may ote

Thorough cultivation is implied where celery has been raised upon any given
tract the previous year.

In planting out, well-manured, broad, shallow trenches about 7 inches deep, par-
allel to each other and 5 feet apart—in some instances these trenches are only 3}
and 4 feet apart—are usually prepared; and the young plants are set in the trench at
intervals of 6 inches; the outer leaves cut off, and the soil pressed closely around the
roots.

Early plants are set in May, as weather permits; second crop in June; and third
and last planting, for winter use, last of August and first of September.

Onions, peas, and potatoes are extensively planted between the trenches of the
first crop, to be harvested before the celery needs hilling.

In about six weeks from setting out the plants may be ‘‘ handled,” one man gath-
ering the leaves together tightly, while another draws the earth from between the
rows about the plants one-third their height. The process is repeated in dry weather
every few days until ready for use. Care must be taken that dirt does not fall be-
tween the leaves in hilling, as rot may ensue.

The hilling of the first crop excavates a trench, along which the second ‘‘ planting
out” is set before the first is harvested.

The first crop is usually ready for market by the 10th of July, and all gathered by
the 1st of August. The soil is then taken from the first row for hilling the second
crop. If the season is favorable, a third crop is planted out the Ist of September
upon the first line of trench.

Blanching in the field is done either by hilling up the plants with earth, as previ-
ously described, or by boards placed each side of the growing plants, and held to-
gether by iron hooks or clamps. Where boards are used there is less liability to rust,
but the celery is said not to be equal in quality to that which is hilled with earth.

At maturity the celery is dug, trimmed, washed in sluices running through the
fields, securely tied in bundles of twelve heads—boys and girls being usually em-
ployed in this work—and delivered promptly at the shipping agencies, fresh from
the field every day, just prior to departure of express trains.

At the agencies the celery is immediately packed in thin wooden boxes of uniform
size—ten bundles of twelve heads each—duly branded ‘‘ Kalamazoo Celery,” and
sent at once to the express trains.

In the height of the season 40 tons have sometimes been shipped from Kalamazoo
of celery thus packed in a day. y

It is important that celery reaches its destination in as fresh and crisp a state as

ossible. The utmost celerity is therefore requisite, from the moment the plants are

ifted in the field, to hasten them to market in an attractive form and good condi-
tion. There are nearly thirty business firms engaged in the shipment of celery
from Kalamazoo. These agencies buy the celery outright at a certain price per dozen
heads, and it is then sold in quantities to fill orders or consigned for sale to comunis-
sion dealers.
_ As the season advances and freezing weather sets in all the plants that remain
in the gardens are lifted from their original bed and stored carefuily away in winter
cellars, or ‘‘coops.” These winter repositories are built to exclude the frost, and
have facilities for lighting and for heating inextreme cold weather. They are built
usually 24 feet wide, and are 100, 200, and 300 feet long, as the case requires.

In constructing these ‘‘ coops,” which are built on dry land near the gardens, the
earth is excavated about 2 feet below the natural surface for the entire area to be
inclosed, The sides are boarded up above the natural surface 2 feet to the eaves,

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 345

making side walls 4 feet high inside. A ridge-pole, 6 feet high, is duly supported
through the center, and 14 ft. boards are used for roofing, occasional openings
being made in the roof for windows and ventilation. The outside is well banked
up with earth to the eaves, and the roof covered with straw and manure to exclude
the frost.

In housing the celery for winter, beginning at the back end of the ‘‘ coop,” the
plants which are green and small as they are selected from the field are first
packed away at the farther end, standing closely and upon their roots, slightly
sprinkled with earth, and moistened, to keep them growing. To prevent heating,
the plants, as they are stowed away, are divided into narrow sections by boards set
edgewise. Green and immature plants are always placed at the back end, so as to
be the last to come out in the early spring, when the season closes, while the large
mature heads are saved to go in last near the door.

In this manner the “‘ coop” is filled to the entrance with one or two hundred thou-
sand dozens of plants, more or less, as the case may be.

The proper management of these winter cellars is a very important feature of the
enterprise; and requires constant vigilance and excellent judgment to regulate th

light, heat, ventilation, and steady successful bleaching of the!plants.
’ Another method of winter storage is sometimes practiced by digging a trench 2
feet deep, 2 feet wide, and any desired length. The plants are then packed up-
rightly upon their roots in the trench as closely as they will stand, and covered with
straw, earth, and manure to exclude frost.

While celery thus secured is said to be preferable, there are serious objections to
the method in this latitude. For the plants, long excluded from the air, would
smother and decay, tnere would be danger from frost, and they would be inaccessi-
ble many winters in case of protracted periods of very cold weather.

The winter demand for celery for shipment, especially during the holiday season,
is constant and unabated; and the ‘‘coop” system enables the grower to obtain ac-
cess to his stock every day, even in the coldest weather, and note its condition and
prepare it for market, until the crop is exhausted.

Kalamazoo celery is now shipped to nearly every State inthe Union. The regu-
lar season commences about the 1st of July, and, being prolonged by the practice of
winter storage described, lasts until the succeeding March or April.

The annual product of celery at Kalamazoo is now estimated at upwards of
1,200,000 dozens, and valued at $250,000.

Kalamazoo celery takes high rank in the various markets where offered. It is re-
markably uniform in size and quality; of luxuriant, rapid growth; crisp, aromatic,
nutty flavor; and is generally sound and free from rust. Large, thrifty heads are
generally more salable, but a medium size is to be preferred as being more tender
and solid. As an esculent. it undoubtedly requires a cultivated taste to relish cel-
ery, but this taste is readily acquired: and as a condiment and appetizer, to say
nothing of its valuable medicinal properties, celery stands unsurpassed.

The foregoing sketch of the rise and progress of celery culture in Kalamazoo but
imperfectly delineates the development of an industry that has proved of great prac-
tical value not only to this locality, but the success and fame of the undertaking
having gone abroad elsewhere in this State and in other States, the more extensive
me at of celery has been stimulated in view of what has been accomplished

nere,

Land, much of it heretofore considered comparatively worthless, the original home
of venomous reptiles, noxious weeds, swamp fever, and malaria, has been drained,
pee under cultivation, converted into arable fields and luxuriant celery gar-

ens.

While some of the drier portions of the Kalamazoo marshes were available for
pasturage and meadows in dry seasons, yielding a coarse marsh grass of inferior
quality, many large tracts that have been reclaimed were but a few years since wet
and miry, almost impassable for either men or animals: and the idea of converting
these lands to any practical use in the direction indicated would a few years since
have been deemed visionary and absurd in the highest degree.

COMPOSITION OF WATER AND MUSK MELONS.

Many inquiries having been received at this office concerning the
possibility of making sugar from water-melons, I was led to under-
take an investigation of the content of crystallizable sugar in this
fruit. At the same time a study was made of the other important
constituents. The analytical processes employed were those usually

846 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

used in such estimations and it is not necessary to repeat a descrip-
tion of them here. The melons were bought in the open market
and of several different varieties. In the case of water-melons, sep-
arate investigations were made of both the meat and the rind, the
separation being made as nearly as possible at the junction of the
red and the white portions. The localities where the melons were
grown are mentioned in the table, and also the varieties. The analyses
clearly show that in no case could water-melons be used for the man-
ufacture of crystallized sugar. The highest percentage of sucrose
found in any case was 4.19, The mean for the whole number of an-
alyses of sucrose was 1.92, and of glucose, or reducing sugar, 4,33 in
the meat. In the rind the numbers were .34 and 2.47 respectively.
A table of the analyses of musk melons is also given. For further
information respecting the composition of water and musk melons
the following tables may be consulted: -

AT

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST.

69° 6 P
Or” cc’s
StL" 66°F
689° 60°S
804° Gok
129° PD a)
29P° 6L°S
gLP° 80°
CEP” Vard
POP * 98°F
Feg° 18"¢
968° ice
Ser ~ LL °8
SIP’ 1 SL P
so" PRP
98g * 98°¢
OOF’ ce 2
AS a PLY
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REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

348

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850 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ANALYSES OF APPLES.

By EpGar RICHARDS,

During September to October, 1885, an investigation was unde-
taken by the force in this Division to study the changes undergone by
apples in drying. Some 22 samples of apples bought in the local
markets were analyzed, and the results will be fotind in the annexed
table.

METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

From 5 to 10 apples were taken for analysis; the fruit was weighed,
then pared in an apple-parer, and reweighed. ‘The pecledbapples were
cored by the ordinary culinary instrument for that Ped bee) then sliced
up, a weighed quantity taken for drying, and the remainder used
for the analysis of the fresh fruit. The sliced fruit was thoroughly
mixed, so as to obtain a good average sample.

The drying was conducted in the large steam-oven at a tempera-
ture of 60° to 70° C. for twenty-four hours, care being take to ave
a good circulation of air passing over the wire-gauze trays in which
the samples were kept, in order to conform as nearly as possible to
the usual method pursued with commercial fruit-evaporators. By
this treatment an average of 96.03 per cent. of the total moisture
contained in the sample was driven off.

After drying the fruit was reweighed and placed in glass-stop-
ered bottles, to prevent the sample from abaorbtn moisture, as the
ried fruit was found to be quite hygroscopic if exposed for any

length of time to the atmosphere. '

On the fresh sample the following determinations were made:

3 Loss on drying to constant weight at 110° C.

2) Sucrose by extraction.

Glucose by extraction.

4) Fiber.

ts Total solids and ash. :

6) Albuminoids by drying at 110° C., but not to constant weight,
and combustion with soda-lime.

(7) Malic acid with # soda.

(8) Specific gravity of the entire apple. .

There was much difficulty in obtaining a suitable solution for the
determination of the sugars by polarization or with Fehling’s solu-
tion, as digestion of the sample with water in & closed bottle was
found to dissolve the pectin, which rendered filtration, either under

ressure or through paper, almost impossible. Glass wool, asbestus,
nen, and charcoal were also tried, but unsuccessfully, The follow-
ing method was finally adopted:

A weighed quantity of the sliced apples was digested for an hour
in stoppered bottles, cooled, and the bottles then filled to the mark,
250 cubic centimeters ; 20 cubic centimeters of the somewhat gumniy
solution was taken with a pipette and diluted to 100 cubie centimeters,
and with this latter solution the determinations were made with
Fehling’s solution as usual.

The use of the polariscope was given up, as it was found extremely
difficult to obtain a clarified solution, and when obtained the malic
acid contained in the apples introduced a cause of error into the

“REPORT OF THE OHEMIST. 351

analysis, as, according to Allen, it exerts when in dilute solutions a
leevo-rotatory power.

Different results were obtained with the same lot of apples when
worked on consecutive days, though the analysis done on the same
days agree as fairly well as might be expected from the variation of
the samples.

Inquiries were made of four fruit-evaporator manufacturing com-
panies in regard to the method of procedure with their machines, and
the following is a summary of the answers received from them:

What varieties of apples are used?

(1) All kinds. Acid apples best: A farmer’s orchard of many
varieties—acid or sweet, summer, fall, or winter apples—if evaporated
as they come in season, and previous to packing for market are
mixed, make a prime article.

(2) Nidé white-flesh apples are the best.

3) The better varieties make the better product.

ta For evaporating, the Maiden’s Blush, Smith Cider, Rome
Beauty, Ben Davis, Baldwin, and Northern Spy are recommended.

How are apples prepared for the evaporator ?

(1) Almost entirely by machines. (These machines will pare, core,
and slice the apples in one operation, and in the catalogues sent b
the companies several varieties are illustrated.) The fruit is pared,
cored, and sliced at one operation, and done very expeditiously and
cheaply. The apple is thus divided into uniform pieces, or rings,
dries uniformly, and the trade in evaporated apples is almost exclu-
sively in this kind.

(2) Either by machine or hand. Machine pared are the best, as the
machine will slice the apple all the same thickness,

(3) The apples are prepared with a machine; pared, cored, and sliced
into rings in one operation; then the rings are cut through with a
knife and spread on a tray. When they come from the parer and be-
fore they are cut apart, they drop into a solution of salt and water,
say, 1 pint of salt to 10 gallons of water. This cuts the gum on
them and cleans thei, and also prevents fermentation, and aids the
bleaching also.

(4) The best machines are made with adjustable knives, and pains
should be taken to adjust them so that they will not slice or ring the
fruit too thick. Trim all bruises or specks; bleach as quickly as pos-
sible after they are prepared, and get into drier as quickly as _possi-
ble. If not convenient to bleach as fast as prepared, fruit will keep
.brighter by throwing it into a tub of salt water until ready to bleach.

(The bleaching is done either in a wooden box or in a special machine
for the purpose; the object being to subject the fruit to the action of
sulphur fumes; care being taken that this action is not too prolonged. )
Evaporated fruits, especially apples and peaches, command a better
orice in the market when bleached, and it is conceded by all that the

leaching process not only improves the fruit in appearance, but in
flavor and quality. The Biesdhing process consists in subjecting the
fruits toa bath of sulphur fumes beforeevaporating. Fruit, especially
apples, when cut and exposed to the air, becomes discolored or ox1-

dized; the object of bleaching is simply to bring back the natural
color. Thesooner this is done after the fruit is cut the better: in fact,
if we could put the fruit in the evaporator as soon as cut it would
not be necessary to bleach it. The process not only brings back the
natural color to the fruit, but also fixes the flavor. There is danger
of overbleaching, in which event the smell and taste of sulphur can

352 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

be detected readily. Care must be exercised as to the quantity of
sulphur used and the time the fruit remains in the bath.

What is the temperature at which they are dried?

(i) Averages between 180° and 250° F. Either extreme will do
about the same class of work. The higher temperature evaporates
very much faster.

(2) At about 180° F.

(3) 95° to 110° F. .

(4) The temperature of about 200° F. will be sufficient amount of
heat. Fresh fruit will stand 250° F. without burning or scorching.

How long do they remain in the evaporator before they are dried?

(1) At 180° F., about 3 tod hours. At 250° F., about 2 to 3 hours.
This supposes the evaporator to be full of fruit and working full
capacity. In experimental work, with but little fruit and moisture
in machine, in absence of full charges of fruit the slices will dry in
30 to 60 minutes, but this would not be the case in practice when
working for profit or on a business basis.

(2) This depends upon the kind of fruit that is used; some apples
are more susceptible to evaporation than others. The average time
would be 3 hours.

Z (3) They remain in the trays in the evaporators about 2 to 24
ours.

How much weight do the apples lose in drying?

(1) Varieties differ considerably. Summer and early fall apples
ordinarily yield in evaporated product 4 to 5 pounds. An average
for winter apples would be 5 to 6 pounds. Some varieties of winter
apples will yield 7 pounds, a few varieties, among them the russet,
as much as 8pounds. In this connection the degree of dryness enters
as an important factor. Briefly stated, a fair average winter apple,
economically trimmed, 7. e., pared, cored, and sliced, will eld 64

ounds of evaporated fruit dry enough to pack and keep with safety

or years. Many packers sprinkle their fruit with water before
packing and considerably increase the weight. This practice is not
commendable. Ihe following experiments have been made:

Data obtai ied on one half bushel medium-sized peaches evaporated.

Pounds,
Wieiht.olone-na.7.a bushel peaches... 22.0.5 «len sieeiaeie vc. ele's b's'+'s ois afeagle aE 224
MEISE OF ALOR STE ot. 2c ib os aloo tap on Maing ce Cee eineiee esis 6s ,5i00-s «ne en 19
Nye Of seeds ind pairings). LI % ase tee eee ee elie te ls sss ess see ot
Evaporated product of above.
Pounds
Let ite hi 100 ee a ee es GARE SAGO bon titices Dao OOD OO ORO IGOe ior ha ois oc a ic 33
ESS aNd PAINS’ bre age ater were overt uct ts cites exche’s ie, sie sjers) 018; chs wiki ee 14
Data on one half bushel medium-sized fall apples.
Pounds
WWieiehtot one-half bushel Apples -\) fewer sos ve aii sss seeaye +s a oe a ss eee 194
Weieht'of pared, cored, and sliced fruxo} <2). s.92 3c ee siclen. st ee eee 134
Wereht of cores, parings, and trimmings. 2% 220 ek os we. sok without 6
Evaporated product of above.
Pounds
SO EPAI SE Er (ow 5s 55 class ace Oph ot eee SEE PE CERT wh ioe so. sndls Soca eRe 24

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 353

Data on one fourth bushel of apples, small, pared, and quartered.

Pounds,
ee OGL POC w eam nena fi tive ts). y's 5 SA aaa EO vias saci 0A Sidhe oldies era & 114
SeeErtiOh CVA OPAbEM MMs ie vel Sicv'-)s oo 0 cine esidaidtin tae scresosecsiacdecesae ct 14
SGIGhb Of CVAPOPALCR TEINS 0). ass eve cea bee eee ean daeeensacere >

(2) One bushel of apples will make from 6 to 7 pounds evaporated
apples. The average is about 6 pounds to the bushel.

(3) Green apples weigh from 56 to 60 pounds, and the evaporated
yroduct about 6 pounds when done. The loss in actual weight would
be about 50 pounds. They would weigh, after being peeled, sliced,
and cored, about 35 pounds to the bushel, losing in the evaporation
about 29 to 30 pounds; this is all water. By this process we save
the saccharine qualities of the fruit.

(4) The time required to evaporate the different kinds of apples
' varies. In the following table each variety of apples was kept sepa-
rate, and the result is as near an average as can be obtained on a
large quantity evaporated. The difference in weight of any one
variety is owing largely to the difference in the state of maturity.
We also give the average time required to evaporate.

ah .
o

sf | Eg

23 ge

Varieties. tS 3 ne

om rods 6 Oo

See || Be

eo roalphtesy |

Pounds

Roxb MIMS Tey eae tes 2s fol enh cls sie Seis (a 0/0 ats wislels a8 bio.e' eiyininis slaimreterateleie ties eit/cie vi o'sia ocalortare.oye 84 to 2.80
[Suen ELS oo cHt qt SQUCODeODEanOcdn tMOCods GOCOCHAUOOE Cone copopodaneod ceacucer nbac 64 to 7 3.00
GUMGYLGIE . > = ocdécatot SOIC DOHIEC OD DU DOOIACOEOCOBUCDOLOanE sare DATO CB OOHCeCr Cetera 54 to 64 3.00
PEGA ELUNE MITT erctet stars) aicTelelats ic) slo's s claip si eielete ciel wie e e'elaisegie.cyele wae wale a alaisie.o @ veg Giu/diolesore 6 to7 3.15
TEE odcac sc On (ko OR DOD OOD RODUOOGROTDE OOD DO DRUIDS CACC CD COnOROACUC HEE OR ODOne Got 54 to 6 4.00
AE AUN Sea aCe etete crcl csv = nol oir a cial ictoiavexeie/siatoinie erm leciers ofa. ccate cinietela.cic\s/s06 c,0.0abaclejevnla,slaxelessicsminie 54 to 6 3.00
rE I aeiarer cele cee wrcrcve cle the acleie sia mi dic Gera alclayelasme'w evere ere Ob alae sian a ates ’d @bidvarovoluye 5t to 6 2.45
INVRTDIR UTES S oAecedégo SoD OOOBDO BOSC ODEO CUDUC DUODE OAC EDT Oct CU BBE Oar AMEE ae ae amie 4 to 5} 3.00
MUU RRE LCST NNO ott Oe CPN crc ray wo arsvctone% arava Ipvaye-s 7a are Yola/ae Staicva vison oroieiersiarcle arenes close el 4 to5 2.45
Holland pipk BELA hes tara ates ciara tea/a\ bile s 2isia' e's lavarevavala, ole le ictaselipe ele cidislecese eo oisinalcwiec eee ow 4 to 5s 8.00
Seek no Tet atta taletnievaleraols oiclolvio'elslercisisve(Giniatar win lolpctaiete sipieie «oie wiaieve qataeia aleis\aratole 4 to5 3.00
ESCA LPL CREM e areca iayarayacn so ofctntass ores iaie\cia:0/6:0je\ sei nyo xyure oynsprai are Stempel e\2’sysipieiais ieee oetele enlace 6 5 to 6 3.15
BAN VSN Ee STP Ts eres «vino xialnjele sie foie: ola; o'cielayesa sVeispe lobia cist de ateia se 5 vinreiecsiorn wee te 5} 8.25

It will be seen from the above extracts that the actual methods
adopted by the different companies do not differ very much, being
more or less modified to suit the requirements of their own machines.

In drying the apples in the laboratory no attempt has been made
to bleach, as we are not making any commercial article, but wish to
conform as nearly as possible with the general practice in regard to
temperature used in drying, &c.

23 AG—'86

854

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Analysis of cored and peeled apples.
GENERAL DATA.

gs Weight in grams.
“4 | ol
Se : ; (
B\2 3 Ei 2
aR er eg ee Be uiZh he
Variety. Date. | =| 2B| 8 & g 5 a “i gs
we) 'S) 8) eB] eB) e | Bee ee
i B | 2 eee ay | ee = | # | opie
2/2 1. 2 So | ol gl 2 lw. ee
g | BLEUE ae 2B lobe (oS hae
: fle |e je l|si2)e)é ange
A |} | wD Ra Ah Yeas) ee AAT dice \
| | Pate
3870 | Smokehouse...... Sept. 22 | 12 |. 8832 | 1,620 | 1,882) 1,107} 207 | 220) 532 83 | 449) $4.40
3871 | Smokehouse...... 23 | 10 |. 8684 | 1,456 | 1,270) 1,028) 216 | R40} 501 115 | 386 | 17.05
3872 | New York pippins. 24 | 11 |.7888 | 2,095 | 1,845 | 1,708) 250] 116] 802] 110] 692! 86.29
8873 | New York pippins, |
GAMO ec crecs- 25 | 10 |. 7838*) 1,842 | 1,590 | 1,471) 252] 109 | 749} 190] 6559 | 74.68
8874 | Smokehouss,..... 26 | 10 |. 8678 | 1,464 | 1,244] 1,150| 208 83 | 553 | 147 | 406 | 73,42
8875 | Fallpippins....... 28 | 5 |. 8383 | 1,289 | 1,122 / 1,050 | 157 BY | 538 86 | 452] 84.02
3876 | Fall pippins, same
es Pet cuts ene 29 | 5 |. 8225 | 1,447 | 1,264/ 1,180) 17 67 | 564 86 | 478 | 84.75
77 | Smokehouse. .... 30 | 5 |.8636 | 768) (+) BIB SIGE ls ws 171 26 | 145 | 84,80
8878 | Smokehouse,
same lot........ Oct. 1) 4 |.8723 548 | 467) 423 80 89 | 204 32 | 172 | 84.81
8879 | Maiden’s blush ... 2) 5|.7789 609 | (+) 460 | $149 |...... 225 35 | 190 | 84.45
3880 | Northern spy..... 3 | 10 |. 8346 | 1,910 | 1,681 | 1,524| 267 | 101 | 730] 112] 618] 84.66
8881 | Ben Davis ........ 5 | 10 |.8118 | 1,466 | 1,266 | 1,161 | 200 94 | 560 83 | 477 | 85.18.
SAGAN Marg 5 aes aces 7 | 10 |.8302 | 1,363 | 1,163) 1,063} 200) 100 | 537 84 453 | 84.36
8883 | Smith’s cider .... 8 | 10 |. 7919 1,301 | 1,108 | 1,004) 186 96 493 75 418 | 84.79
3884 | Rambo........... 9 | 10 |. 8461 | 1,221 | 1,049 960) 166 8 | 458 7 383 | 83.62
3885 | Blush pippins..... 10 | 5 |.7649 | 1,022| 877] 826] 160| 47] 412| 60] 352 | 85.44
3886 | Paradise sweet ... 12 | 10 |.7915 | 1,416 | 1,260] 1,166 | 208 92 588 101 487 | 82.82
3887 | English redstreak. 15 | 10 |.8260 | 1,698 | 1,430 | 1,334] 276 | 196 | 638 | 109] 529 | 82.92
3888 | Winesap ......... Le AO octets 954) 782) G71) T72| dil 341 64 | 277 | 81.23
8889 | Nonesuch ........ 19 | 10 | 8905 986| 816) 721; 170 95 | 350 5@| 293 | 83.71
8890 | Golden pippins aie 20 | 10 |. 8164 | 2,004 | 1,703 | 1,584) 3801 | 119 | 725] 125] 600 | 82.76
3891 | Lobster white .... 21 | 10 |. 8084 | 914| 727| 615| 187 | 112| 314| 44] 270 | 85.99
8892 | Virginia crab-
SpPplo, noses 22 | 20 |. 9197 943) 770) G05} 173} 165 287 47 | 240 | 88. 62
AMOFASA Veal ese ee 8808 aR he) Ses al OR I £3.00
ORIGINAL SAMPLE.
Sa| 3 | : a :
w| @. = A fa
AF oe eS) | 3 2 a < si 3
8 \ Variety. Date. (27, S23 | @ 3 g & 8 Ba
Shy ears on a ‘ 2 2 ;
2 pee ea ee | 82
w Aa = | a io} 4.) a| & | Ge
P. ct. | P. et iP. ct,| P, ct. | P. et, |P. et,
3870 | Smokehouse ...............- Sept. 22 | 12 | 86.47 | 18.53 } (§) (§) . 640 ‘
3871 | Smokehouse ............-.- 23} 10 } 86.07 | 13,93 (s) (9) |b. 242 eee
3872 | New York pippin.......... 24 | 11 | 87.88 | 12,17 (§) (§) . 480 . 04
3873 | New York pippin, same lot. 25 | 10 | 86.14 | 13.86 (S) ($) | *,480 ] 1.00
3874 | Smokehouse ............... 26 | 10 | 85.60 | 14.40 (8) (§) . 670 . 80
Sao | Wall pippin...........20s055 28 | 5 | 86,18 | 13.83 1,78 |} 8.62] .640 86
3876 | Fall pippin, same lot....... 29 | 5 | 87.19 | 12,81 2.60 | 7.40] .?eu 87
Soe | SMORCHOUSE...... ci cecaue 30 | 5 | 86.87 | 18,18 -84) 8,62] .500} 1,09
8878 | Smokehouse, same lot ..... Oct. 1] 4) 87.74 | 12.26 -40 | 10.30 | .640/ 1.08
3879 | Maiden’s blush............. 2| 5 | 88.00 | 12.00 .%4 } 8.80 | 1.050 . 86
8880 | Northern spy .............. 3 | 10 | 86.57 | 13.43 | .15 | 10;25.| 840 .o7
Seta OOOH AVIS)... ceiscmie Naor cae 5 | 10 | 85.86 | 14.14 | 2.50 | 8.00] .540 94
3882 MTL PA etalon (ays 2 oa, oe chao es 7 | 10 | 8.89 | 14.11 | 98 | ¥.55 . 480 . 81°
8888 | Smith's cider............... 8 | 10 | 86.51 | 18.49 G4] 8.382) .6: . 84
slob) IRENA 005 SER SeGHeH peo Ienpne 9 | 10 | 84.60 | 15.40 | 1.98 | 9.671 .400 15
3885 | Blush pippin......... 10} 5 | 86.83 | 13.17 .22 | 8.43 | 1.180 . 84
3886 | Paradise sweet..... 12 | 10 | 85.32 | 14.68 2.94, 7.52) .190 96
8887 | English redstreak...... 15 | 10 | 86.57 | 13.43 2.29; 8.63] .540| 1.19
Gleisiep |[ MyEeveSS) ie eee aa 17 | 10 | 83.45 | 16.55 2.38 | 9.40) .670} 1.00
8889 | Nonesuch.................. 19 | 10 | 85.42 | 14.58 Lo16!) 10:80 ceases . 98
8890 | Golden pippin.............. 20 | 10 | 87.05 | 12.95 2.2 7.69 | .880| 1.24
8891 | Lobster white.............. 21 | 10 | 89.40 | 10.60 2.81 6.89 . 390 .70
8892 | Virginia crabapple......... 22 | 20 | 86.35 | 13.65 2.538 | 10.24 | /.560 | 1.29
Per aOn!S cieicscvuis:|, Mas toll een 86.43 | 13.65 | .288 | 111] 1.53| 8.73| .619 | .96

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST, 355

Analysis of cored and peeled opples—Continued.
DRIED SAMPLE.

oH | a |
°8 1 ea
. , ig o z | co) |
3 Variety, Date. jo z =| ° 4 | Z | §
fe a 3 nen need eal
5 Sel Bs meted: fod ob oak
a A oS | a } & < + wm! So
é Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct
3870 | Smokehouse ..... web aes ceseees| SOpt. 22) 12} 18.63] 81,47] 1.768 . 838 (8) (§
3871 | Smokehouse ..............-.-+.- BA WO. oo gean taste aaleeannes 419 (§) 8
3872 | New York pippins .............. 24111) 12,483) 87.57] 1.697 - 663 (§) (§)
3873 | New York pippins, same lot .... Ba AO) | eccaiars atl a fainted everalae ors 594 | (§) (§)
3874 | Smokehouse .................... Hn Al Ee ee BA Che ee 313 (§) (§)
3875 |) Hall pippins....2....... .2.css0- : 231} 5] 19,31 | 80.69} 1.901 . 838 7.80 | 44.40
3876 | Fall pippins, same lot........... 29) 5| 15.22) 84.78] 1.858 -875 | 10.85 | 54.05
SE7E | BIMOMGHOURG wi .55 ccs cece esas 30} 5 | 13.73 | 86.27] 2.066] 1.280 3.08 66.13
,8878 | Smokehouse, same lot.......... Oct. 1/ 4] 11.18} 88.82] 1.709! 1.500] Lost. 58. 60
8879 | Maiden’s blush..,.. ............ 2| 5 | 14.18 | 85.82) 1.275 525 8. 30 59.10
3880 | Northern Spy .ecccecreceseecccce 8/10] 18.14| 86.86] 1.554 419 | 14,77 54.06
CUS 2c PLD a So a 5 | 10 7.30 | 92.7 1.518 . 700 8.02 54.16
3882 MATE aid da dieldia cole 8 oie oiaig Se ess 7110) 10.49; 89.51 1.508 944), 14.12 51.07
S8e8 | SMith's Cider ..........ccegeeees 8 | 10 16.11 | 83.89 1. 587 - d25 9.77 5b. 67
ares ERIRPPRENCV EE ai clears cleigte eae 2 s 010, 0,0 «15,6 sue 9|10| 14.54) 85.46] 1.534 . 594 4,47 58. 82
8885 | Blush pippin ..........-,e0eeeess 10) 5| 18.25 | 86.75] 1.795) 27 4.41} 62.34
8886 | Paradise sweet........sesecseeee 12} 10) 16.63; 83.37} 1.404 .488 | 12.80 48, 54
3887 | English redstreak .............. 16 | 10; 17.45 | 82.55] 1.755 . 663 7. 67 52. 35
SBN | NMIHCSED sete cie'siocsc'sivssilecs secces 17 |10| 14.42| 85.58] 1.305 .806 | 12.41 47, 61
8889 | Nonesuch........ Saadddase apece 19 | 10) 16.48 | 88.52) 1.571 | 1,050; 11.88 44, 92
8890 | Golden Pippin Re Ditpade tenet ot 20 | 10 8.13 | 91.87} 1.603 a ELE rotlcrtig Pete d ate arma
S8905 | ORStAN WHILE over esstaecevenes 21|10| 15.44] 84.56] 1.350 p SUES |, ea brasecra ear occa
8892 | Virginia crabapple ............. cee oO) | BS Oon GO,Ueeh F260.) 1.019" |. oceans:
PRRLER ENE ot atal a /2°Ss'u' «© ae oje </s, aes fo.ea kes a dys 13.90 | 86.04 | 1.601 750 8.91 | 54.12

*Same sample. + Not taken. t¢ And cores. § Not enough filtered solution for estimation,

The average composition of the original and dried samples of the
cored and peeled apples is as follows:

Constituents. Original.| Dried.
WARREN RMT i reer lalaisreisrcinire co ceieve 101 cjsjeisveia c'e a c1010.c cin.e.c'n'c cmpea(s isiaiere socciialocigie oes Per cent. 86. 43 13.90
Albuminoids..... PERO NE. ae iba RAS GA ae oleh Mtaeeee eae onde eae Per cent. Biba! 7.50
SUCHIN natant cota alate Skis 9 calaiy «gia pchle acine nod co pale ace ad ea’eciaaty Per cent.! 1.538 | 8.91
CEES ae OC INES Sia cies was ko 8 cate ob do BS THe Ste aeehs Does coacee ns Fer cent. | 8.73 | 54.12

{ |

Calculating these results to moisture-free substance we obtain:

Constituents. Original.| Dried.
Matec tentinmeee teh EU ete 2's sy. 20s 12) Ld Haddad Badd .Per cent. .82 87
SHGTUISG wraccettaants GA tea re ce cielis otra aroied se 2b ees FSck Se ya's Homigige seus abicds Per cent. 11, 28 10. 35
GI COSS race an cee IIAP SPRL oe AG bicveree dd orcs aed ee ae bs sled. alone ot Per cent. 64. 33 62. 85

This comparison shows that there is practically no change under-
gone by the fruit in drying beyond expelling the moisture.

EXAMINATION OF MEATS,

By A. E. KNORR.

The samples of different kinds of meats were obtained in open mar-
ket, and therefore represent a fair average of the home consumption
of this most important article of food.

In order to prepare the meat for analysis the fat, bone, gristle, and

356 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

flesh were carefully separated and the weight of each ascertained, in
order to show the relative proportions of each of these constituents
in the different kinds of meat and different portions from the same
animal. The flesh was then put through a sausage-grinder, care be-
ing taken to get as little of the tendons and fascie in as possible.

Of the meat thus prepared a sample was taken for analysis, which
was made in the following way:

Total solids.—Five grams were weighed out in a light glass cap-
sule and dried over night at a temperature of from 100° to105°C. The-
difference between the original weight taken and the total solids ob-
tained represents the total water.

Fat.—The dry sample of meat was then extracted in a Soxhlet
apparatus over a weighed flask with ether.

Alcohol extract.—The alcohol extract was obtained from the resi-
due of the fat determination in the same manner. This extract con-
tains the non-albuminoid nitrogen, as kreatin, kreatinin, sarrkin, xan-
than, inocenic acid, and urea; acids of the fatty series, as lactic, bu-
tyric, acetic, and formic, and giycogen and inosit. The quantity of
most of these constituents is extremely minute, and some of them,
like glycogen, are normally found only in certain organs, as the liver,
&e.

Nitrogen in extracted meat.—The extracted meat was then burnt
with soda-lime, and the nitrogen thus obtained represents all the
albumen and the albuminoids from the sheaths and fibers of the
muscle.

Total nitrogen.—A sample of .5 gram of the meat was also burnt,
giving the total nitrogen, amide, and albuminoid.

Total ash.—Another sample of 5 grams was dried in a tared. plat-
inum dish and weighed, in order to check the first determination of
total solids. It was then incinerated, the ash weighed, and the total
phosphoric acid determined therein by the ordinary molybdate of
ammonia method.

Glutin.—Another sample of 5 grams was crushed to a fine pulp in
a porcelain mortar and repeatedly percolated with cold water on a
tared filter. After complete exhaustion the filter was dried and the
residue weighed as glutin. This represents the nitrogenous principle
of the muscle fiber, and the sheaths of the same. The fiber of the
muscles is soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid and in the digestive
fluids of the alimentary canal, whereas the muscle fiber-sheaths are
soluble in boiling water, yielding gelatine.

Soluble albumen.—The filtrate from the glutin was heated to boil-
ing in order to precipitate the albumen, which was filtered through a
tared filter, washed with hot water, dried, and weighed.

Katract.—The filtrate from the soluble albumen was evaporated
to dryness and weighed. This extract, on the whole, would approxi-
mately represent the same principles as the alcohol extract.

Ash in extract.—This was determined in the usual manner by in-
cinerating the extract, and finally a determination of the phosphoric
acid in the extract was made.

These examinations were begun with the expectation of making a
thorough study of American fresh, salt, and canned meats; but more
important work compelled the abandonment of the plan, at least for.
the present.

The analyses, however, show some of the more important nutritive
values of the ordinary meats exposed in our markets.

357

REPORT OF THE CHEMIST.

‘O[AUIS [VULSLIO Ul OSLO IEg «

ote (ieee egean | die (eeo'e Mey |e -|-aort.| Gace | sere (davon [laps | wre dnacae [2c<tco| eee se] esc e |S oe [ae ee alias < tess aca: lee eso
GL°@e | $9°S | WAL | 98% eS | STL S8e 86° 66°% | SOS |B TE | eo" CLT 18°86 196 1Tx|68 ST OF PLe|Sl ESx -
48°Te | G'S | 89-AL | €8°S 66° | GL” | oe" | HE" 10° | #6°S |28"Or | OS" | ALT lege [ste ists |zce loso‘r |Tor‘e | fo 03 T 00d | 9266 | SJePnO TeoA
PSs | GL°e | 9 '6L PLS Ta°S | S&T | OF” CT | SL‘ | 00'S [06 TE | eg" TOT |88°S6 |68‘STal' NPR dx [OL Td ,
T8 "es | 18'S | G9°6E | FI'S 99'°E | 68'T | OF | OST | 68°S | 68'S |GP TT | OS" | GST \64°Ga |TeG | 906 |St0°6 12408 6 | 9 &T 83 G66 | AKOAS punoy
48°13 | GP'S | OL ST 89% 86'S | 89°F | SP° GOT=| Obie) |MO9ET | se serena 80°T |8L°SS |FeOTx/28 “OL4|88 “BSxIGE “SPx ;
28°13 | Gh'S | SPOT £9°% 166 | 90°S | TS° 66° ST ’€ | 62°T |S0°SE |-68° O08 “TE |88 "Se 166% 206 938 |29E'T |Se8°o | 9 ia GB PEGS | MO4S QUI yn Js
GG 0G | FES | ST OL 896 Té°G | 098 | &e" 06° SPs | 10'S 149 FL | FF” COT |82°86 |00 6x |Ch 6x [99 “Le%/T9 ES
GBS | FEE | SOL | 89% 6% | 96°L | 18° 6° 0S’ | 06 T \S6 "ST | OF° GO'T |I8 "86 [ATS 8G ogo G68 'T ITF | 9 oT to S063 | F"ISBOT QIt Jopuey,
9°03 | 08'S | ZE°SI | FOG 91'S | 80'S | Le" {RS OW OG ee ach rote SIT JOP SS [699% |09 6x 199 “Olx/0L OL
001% | 98°E | ST'ST 16% 29°36 | §8°@ | 88° 80°T | OS'F | °° |F6 FE | cS” OTT |Sh Sc | EST 96 . |0G8 106 ‘T |892°6 | 9 cr 13 GEEG | F—gSVOT punoey
Ge '03 | FES | T89F 69'S 96°3 | 983 | &8" GOL | 16'S | OL'L (6S°SE | °°] HEE 90 SS |S "Se [20 CTx/60 OLe/6E “OL ‘
Ge '0S | FEE | SLA pac 96°S | SF’ | 248° 06'L | FPS | 89'T [48 FL | 19° | SEE \60 Se jOFT 068 go «469 |The | £9 €T 06 Te66 | SS Se seOr gry
248 °T@ | GP'S | 99ST 166 48°S | 86'S | GE" cot | 19°@ | RBS || BS" | OLE FO 2S [2S TTx69 Ss 106 FEx/08 29%
48°13 | G'S | 99ST 46°76 60'S | 91'S | FE" @L'T | G4°E | T0°S IGE ST | GG" | ST LT 1240 °26 |See sat 09g |eee‘t jcse‘e | & €T 61 0666 | Faseor qr
Ga '0G | PoE | T8 20 C86 92°E | 03'F | FS" COL | G&S | 9°S jSL “AT | oS" GIT |68 9 PB "Bx [88 TS+/G0 9Gxl4G "CPx
GS 03 | P'S | O92 086 46'S | 83'9 | GS" 6L'L | 24°S | OLS |SL°ST | 6h” | FET JRE 2G JOST 98E 6SP Ich |POLT | FP 8T 8T 6163 | °° “98vOr WIOLepuey,
C206 | FBS | SL6L | 20'S OLS | SG'TL) 6F° GI‘L | SG°@ | 2h°S 28S | SG° | 9ST [80 'EE |68 "Sx [G8 LEx/@9 “Cox/26 Thx
GG '0G | 2° | SS] '6E | 80'S 20° | S8°@l| SP* CLL | #9°S | G9°G 66ST | IG" | GET |SP Ss |s2 wee letg jeFa 900‘s | fF €T at SIGs |°° °° °° 7° sdoyo yAog
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358 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

MISCELLANEOUS WORK OF THE DIVISION.

Among the large number of substances examined and analyzed
for the information and benefit of the agricultural classes there are
but few which are of such general interest as to make their publica-
tion and preservation in this place desirable.

Since the publication of our last report over one thousand samples
have come into the hands of our chemists for examination, and have
been reported on with undoubted advantage to the farming commu-
nity; this, in a large number of cases, being of a negative sort, pre-
venting many from indulging in schemes which possessed no basis
in reason, information in regard to minerals, mineral springs, coal,
waste products, &c.

In addition to this miscellaneous work, a systematic study of the
methods of detecting food adulteration, conducted in the manner de-
scribed under “‘ Dairy Products” and ‘“‘Condiments and Spices”, is now
making with baking-powders, teas and coffees, ciders, beers and native
wines, fiour and meal, &c,

These studies are not sufficiently completed to be described in the
present report.

The work of the division is constantly increasing, and both the
necessities of a large laboratory and the comfort of those engaged in
other parts of the building require that a new building should be
provided for the chemical work.

Respectfully,
By We WILEY
Chemist.
Hon. NorRMAN J. COLMAN,
Commissioner.

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN.

Sir: I have the honor to submit my eighteenth annual report as
Statistician, the first reporting the operations of the Division of
Statistics for 1865—the series running to 1878, inclusive, and from
1881 to the present time.

The past year has been one of progress in the direction of com-
. prehensiveness and thoroughness in statistical work, The need of
accuracy and reliability in original data is more and more accepted
as a necessity, and the completeness in statistical exposition is more
generally acknowledged. ‘The overwhelming volume of transpiring
facts, accumulating daily, and the haste and necessary superficiality
of their treatment by the publicists of the time, suggest the desira-
bility of closer analysis and more accurate deduction in statistical
work. There is possibly an ampler opportunity and better facilities
for progress in this direction, under official auspices, than under the
limitation of personal effort and private means. An especial respon-
sibility, therefore, attaches to Government statisticians, and requires
at their hands the largest and best attainable results. They are,
however, subject to the limitation, due to the imperfections, not to
say abuses, which inhere more or less in all civil-service systems.
There is probably a higher degree of impartiality in official statis-
tical work than in private investigation, which is so apt to be under-
taken for a specific object, to support some hypothesis for personal
or corporate gain, or in attempted establishment of a foregone con-
clusion. It is true that official work may be tinged with parti-
sanship or warped by personal prejudice, though the tendency of
scientiiic co-ordination of living facts, which bear upon human des-
tiny and progress, is towards the truth, in all its clearness and depth,
unbiased by extraneous and comparatively unimportant considera-
tions.

The agricultural statistics of this country represent an annually
increasing volume of production and a constantly widening variety
of product, rendering the collection of current data difficult and labo-
rious, The difference in rapidity of settlement and agricultural de-
velopment of the several States and Territories also complicates the
question of comparative areas and products,

The corps of county reporters is larger than at any former time,
including one chief correspondent and several assistants for each of
2,258 counties, comprising all but an insignificant portion of the pro-
ductive territory of the United States, The State agents have alsoa
separate staff of local assistants, making reports parallel with those
of the correspondents reporting direct to the Department, and local
investigations as required.

The work of Mr. Edmund J. Moffat has been continued at London,
with the aid of consuls at continental commercial centers, with dis-
cretion, energy, and efficiency. Monthly reports have been made in
season for publication simultaneously with domestic crop statistics,

359

860 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

showing the crop prospects, probable surplus or deficiency, of such
Huropean products as suffer competition from the surplus of the
United States.

SPECULATION AND CROP REPORTING.

With increased public appreciation of the utilities of statistics. and
resulting enlargement of statistical facilities, come organized efforts
to turn to personal account the information, and practical benefits of
statistical collection. This is natural and proper if legitimately done.
A trade guild, a company, or an individual has a natural and moral
right to obtain early, even exclusive, information, to use as buyers or
sellers rather than for general or for public use, but not the right to
distort, color, or falsify the apparent or obvious truth for purposes
of deception, mystification, and robbery of producers or others. Yet
such selfishness will be exhibited in the use of crop-reporting ma-
chinery, and attempts to mislead and plunder the public will follow,
while greed of gain and crooked dealing have foothold in the marts
of trade.

The false estimates of approaching harvests are put forth with
more than the energy of conviction, which brooks no denial or ques-
tion; and unfortunately they readily gain publicity through promi-
nent daily and weekly journals. They serve their purpose like any
stock-jobbing canard, and are apparently forgotten by the public.
They may live through one season by persistent assertion, but never
till the next. Careful and intelligent people are not deceived by
them, but the great masses are not experts, and often accept a state-
ment that is vigorously uttered, and are thus deceived. There is
no necessity for such self-deception, as the official reports of this
Department, and those of the State statistical organizations, and of
newspapers and other crop-reporting agencies, that are honesily seek-
ing accurate information, are sufficiently uniform, while unequal in
facilities and accuracy of interpretation, to give substantially correct
views. These several sources of information would be much more
uniform if the returns were properly averaged with reference to
quantity represented in each return. An average made from the
number of returns, without regard to the great difference in the
quantity of product represented by each, is worthless, and in ex-
treme instances may be 50 per cent. out of they way; and yet most
of the averages published are inaccurate and a misrepresentation of
the reports of which they are a consolidation.

The efforts of speculators to profit by crop reports assume various
phases. In some cases they claim to have superior or exclusive in-
formation by some prescience or system of crop researches of their
own, and so large a philanthropy withal that they hasten to make it
known with telegraphic celerity. In others they seek authoritative
information in advance of its promulgation. Another class, with
ereater facility and at less expense, invent estimates, claiming them
to be official and exclusive, for instant use at the exchange. Rarely
they may be good guesses; generally they bear little resemblance to
the results they assume to present in advance; always they are con-
scienceless falsehoods in their pretense of origin. Not unfrequently
on the 9th of the month some one in speculative circles attempts to
trade on data assumed to represent the tenor of the report of the
Statistician of this Department on the 10th. Never have any such .
data been obtained from this office within the knowledge and belief

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 861

of the present incumbent. It would be quite as practicable to guess
successfully the result as to obtain it of any subordinates of the office.

There is also a class of speculators whose estimates of crop condi-
tions are supposed to coincide with their interests, who are constantly
seeking to impress their views upon the Statistician, and sometimes
upon the Commissioner. Some may be unconscious of the bias which
self-interest inevitably gives their views, and sincere in their depre-
ciation of the estimates which they deem so viciously destructive to
the farmer’s income (if they want high prices), or so inimical to the
welfare of the great body of consumers (if they want prices low); but
it exists, as is evident at the time, and proved triumphantly when
the records of crop distribution show, as they usually do, that the
estimates of the Department are very nearly correct.

WHAT DOES 100 MEAN ?

Inquiry is often made, by persons who have given little attention
to crop reporting, as to the basis or unit of percentagereturns. It is
simply the application of the decimal system used in the United States
as the measure of money, and in France in the metric system, to the
accurate expression of crop estimates. In comparisons of area with
that of the previous crop, 100 represents the acreage of the previous
year. In product, the present may be compared with that of the pre-
vious year, or with an average yield, 100 being the basis in each case.
In reports of ‘‘condition” of growing crops, 100 is the standard of
full condition, representing perfect healthfulness, exemption from
injury from insects or drought or other cause, with average growth
and development. Condition of a crop can never go above 100, ex-.
cept from one cause, unusual or extraordinary development and vigor
of plant which more than counterbalances any deficiency in the stand
or other loss.

As a rule, the existence of local drought, destruction by storm or
floods, insect injuries and blights, one or more of those various causes
of reduction of yield operates to reduce the average of condition in
the latter part of the season. Some crops are more liable to injury
than others. Cotton, for instance, in the most northern latitude of
its production, as in this country, has many enemies. It is a plant
that needs much sunshine and high temperature, with a moist but
not saturated soil, and therefore an evenly-distributed rainfall. It
is also liable to destruction by several distinct species of insects.
Therefore the averages are quite sure to fall after the June and July
investigation, as the results of fruiting are developed sometimes as
lone 66 in October in the worst years. The average of ten years
past is 80.

What does the condition 100 mean in bushels or bales? This is
often the impatient question of one who wants a prediction of the
harvest, who is determined to know what the fruit will be before the
blossom has appeared. It is easy to say, for any region or State, what
a full crop as represented by 100 should produce, as ascertained by
records of past production compared with the harvest averages of
each year. It is easy to calculate the present expectation from any
reported average. But the crop does not remain stationary, causes
of loss are developed from month to month, and the final result is
below 100, perhaps much below ; and instead of comparing the prod-
uct with the latest average, inconsiderate persons often insist on com-
paring it with the reeore of an earlier month. There is no need of

362 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

this unfair comparison ; it comes from haste and want of considera-
tion. Experts in crop statistics find no difficulty in making accurate
comparisons, Mr. Kllison, of Liverpool, the commercial authority
as to the cotton movement, has said that he is always able to deter-
mine quite accurately the extent of the cotton crop trom our record
of averages of condition; and yet cotton is the most difficult of all
the crops to forecast, because it isa plant that retains in cultivation
something of its natural perennial character, and continues to grow,
blossom, and fruit till it is destroyed by frost, the aggregate result
thus depending on the length of the season.

We answer the inquiry as to what 100 means in reports of condi-
tion, that in a county where a full crop of corn is 30 bushels, 100
means a prospect for a crop of 30 bushels; 90, an expectation of 27
bushels; 70, of 2i bushels; and in similar proportion with other per-
centages. If the county is one in which 20 bushels is a full crop, 90
means a prospect of 18 bushels. There are districts where 40 bushels
may be taken asa full crop; in such lands 75 would mean 30 bushels.
In wheat there are regions where 8 bushels may be indicated by 100,
and other districts where it may promise 20 bushels. In these in-
stances 75 would mean 6 and 15 bushels, respectively.

The equivalent value of 100 in a general crop average must, there-
fore, be calculated with painstaking accuracy and thoroughness from
the local equivalent values which are elements of this national aver-
age, Should the acreage of one year contain a larger proportion of
poor lands than another, 100 would mean less in consequence. It
seems almost trivial to dwell upon a point that a school-boy in pri-
mary mathematics should plainly see; yet there are persons who
cannot apparently understand why 100 should not mean as many
bushels for wheat as for corn, or why it should have a different
measure in different States. Occasionally a newspaper writer, with
only slightly bucolic leaning, meets with the same imaginary diffi-
culty, and proceeds to criticise what he fails to understand through
a fault all his own.

Some have suggested a report in bushels, tons, bales, &c. Aside
from the incongruity of reporting results of the harvest, when only
condition of an immature crop is intended, it would be impracticable.
The direct estimates of yield per acre, even when made at the time
of the harvest, are usually inaccurate, being almost invariably too
high, whether from pride in local fertility or from undue prominence
given to the areas of the best cultivators. There is less of inaccu-
racy, less of unconscious bias, in the percentage returns of condition
on the basis of perfect healthfulness and medium growth. The ex-
perience of this office is opposed to the substitution of bushels, ar;
for percentage of full condition in the reports of the status of grow-
ing crops.

THE OLD-FASHIONED PLAN.

The old method, the newspaper plan of cro ne in vogue so
long and still practiced in some quarters, has little of system or
science to recommend it; yet it assumes to have a standard of com-
parison which is an ‘‘average” crop. Really an average crop is a
true average of the actual crops of a series of years. Ten years
ought to suffice as a basis of average, though probably a truer aver-
age would require fifteen or twenty. In this Department the average
of any ten years is found to be very close to that of any other similar

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 363

period, In wheat it varies little from 12 bushels per acre, usually a
fraction above in any period taken. Corn varies little from 26
bushels. Yet there is a confusion of ideas of this term ‘‘average.”
Some, instead of reporting the average of all crops, good and bad,
refer to an ideal standard of production; a full crop, represented by
100, as in our basis of condition. In the course of time averages may
change with improved cultivation, but the constant enlargement of
area, by extension of settlement, prevents much change in the United
States.

Having decided on what is an average, the old-style reporter makes
his returns. Instead of precision of expression, capawle of exact
mathematical rendering, he reports in language like this: Barely
average ; fairly good ; moderate; middling; light; variable; very

oor; indifferent; promising; much above average; very good;
.heavy crop; and every imaginable form of expression, utterly im-
possible of formulation in figures, because nine men out of ten might
give a different percentage value to nearly all of them. If every re-
poe were infallible in judgment, his form of expression can never

e interpreted by others, and therefore what is true in his judgment
is false as rendered.

This is so notably the case that, unless the compiler makes a false
retense of an ability to interpret language that is inexpressible in
igures, he contents himself with arrangement of returns in three

classes: one an ‘‘average,” one above it, and one below, All that such
returns can show, therefore, is whether a larger number of persons
report ‘‘above” than the number reporting below. Should 80 per-
sons, for instance, report a prospect above average and 70 a lower
condition, it would popularly be assumed that the crop was slightly
above average. It might be, unless the 70 below average represented
a larger area or rate of yield than the 80, in which case the returns
would really indicate less than anaveragecrop. As there is nothing
to indicate how much above or below an average a return may be, it
is impossible to know whether the 80 returns mean as much as the 70,
So this form of return is nearly meaningless. It is not sufficiently
definite; it does not express such discriminative judgment as is quite
possible to render. Some reporters, aware of this absurdity, esti-
mate in definite proportions: half, two-thirds, or three-fourths of an
average crop, This is correct in principle, but not sufficiently close;
itis only a hittle less absurd; for any man of good judgment ought to
be able to estimate within 5 per cent. of the truth, and to discrimi-
uae more accurately than by jumps of 15 to 25 per cent. in an esti-
mate.

Such indefiniteness of expression results from these clumsy methods,
which foster carelessness and inaccuracy in crop estimates. This
loose and worthless method of reporting has had its day, and should
be discarded.

It can be demonstrated, from experience with statistical returns,
even when they are mathematically and accurately rendered and con-
solidated, that there is either tendency to makea full crop the “aver-
age” crop, or else to make the comparison with an ‘‘ average” stand-
ard somewhat too low. There is a practice out West of comparing
with a five years’ average, 7. e., the real average of the good and bad
crops of the last five years; which would be an abnormally low aver-
age in the case of corn and wheat from 1880 to 1885. As a matterof
fact, half of such returns appear to be made on the basis of a full
crop instead of an average of several more or less crippled harvests,

864 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

making a bad showing and tending to a constantly declining pro-
duct. The State returns are from this or similar cause of declension
usually 10 per cent. too low. Thisis so in other countries and by vari-
ous methods. For instance, the Agricultural Gazette of London for
August 16, 1886, makes the following report of harvest estimates, the
figures representing the number of returns:

Returns. Wheat. | Barley.| Oats. | Beans.| Peas.
OVER AVETAL c Ration ere a's stele atlo dic ce miele ice aalololole oilete mia ier etete's niet aie 11 49 26 51 45
Average ......... BABS vcSece sos s1e imystei cop bin alan Stecosctaiaie nieces taut atn alee are 2 68 80 19 52
ROMER aor cies crciat-cicieieineiare sreiciet lala ciote stalereterteiatemmrsteorsta erevetare 149 88 100 69 Ew)
TOCA PEN OL TOhUIPIS as. sonic cietelcan came eiee lial 212 205 206 139 137

Reducing these returns to their percentage values (on the basis
of numbers alone, without reference to area represented by each re-
porter), we have for wheat 5.2 per cent. of them over average, 24.5
per cent. average, and 70.3 under average; a very bad showing, seven-
tenths being under average, and the remainder scarcely more than
average.

This for a single year. The returns of a series of years, if aver-
aged, should give a statement in which the percentage of returns
“above” and ‘“‘below” should be equal. The same paper gives the
etn for such a test, eight consecutive annual returns, of wheat as

ollows:

Years. Over. | Average.| Under.

1.0 24.0 75.0

13.5 47.0 39.5

7.6 49.7 42.7

10.8 40.4 48.8

8.8 30.8 60.4

42.4 42.4 15.2

50. 4 36.9 12.7

5.2 24.5 70.3

PUGH EBs hace OS fle fats ferctaton ua tavayeiclatonatataha’ ators orerayelanay etaie'e totale eeerwtare Saisie 139.7 295.7 364.6
LAVORA DELCONEALD jee tek «isis sgt = c'alelo slei> a ielnivie aise iolelelels eivla (eis ioe iia als 17.0 37.0 46.0

Averaging these eight years, only about one-sixth of these returns
are above an ‘‘average,” while nearly one-half of all are below aver-
age. Conceding eight years to be a period long enough to construct
an average, this result upsets the accuracy of the returns and estab-
lishes the tendency to underestimate.

The percentages of all other crops show the same tendency except
those relating to barley. The averages for the period are as follows:

Crops reported, beens Average. ae
17 37 ~ 46
28 24
23 43 24
23 37 40
20 44 33
22 QQ 86

Here the percentage ‘‘ under average” for the period is nearly double
that of the ‘‘over average” returns, when they should be equal. If

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, 365

the basis of the comparison had been a full crop (say 100 of reports
of condition) these returns would have been substantially correct.
We are therefore forced to the conclusion that the reporters regu-
larly and persistently underestimate in comparisons with an ‘‘aver-
age” crop; that the real basis of their comparison is a full crop.

In the Mark Lane Express for August 23 there is a statement of
crop returns made to that paper, accompanied by a record of returns
for ten years, making a serious under average for the whole period.
In only three years of the ten is there an ‘‘over average” in wheat,
oats, beans, and peas, and only four in barley, while there are seven
under average years in all except barley. The number of reports or
“advices” in the aggregate of the ten annual returns is 16,418, of
which 33 per cent. are average, scarcely 20 over average, and 47 un-
der average. In every one of the crops the poor returns largely out-

‘numbered the good, as follows:

Crops reported. Advices. pahrAd Be fo, | Average. aves
UMD RENE Coe Ie tn ofa cielo, oa: cha elelalo;eiaic's:Sislala ers chdlele cteie'e nile sje aie 3, 793 1,106 1,934
RANI yr eseiettten einieteieies oie oieielaleie = sia, ciete'«/<,s/ajolo lolsiaretsic cle oie 3, 763 851 1, 387 1,525
GCE ee Teen etait cleiaresin ers crciciduclels oe olsiomiatevele alee ero nre 3, 751 735 1,410 1,606
ROAYIS ene eale weveeieleo'sle sio's'e'a sets a sees ielec eee eee e seins 2,597 454 732 1,411
TEE yo oa pono bod00 CE OULD MEOUGE DORECOOUUDOcL DOG GUnOnOHO. 2,474 379 1, 295
LT. Goont UECOOBS BELO DEO DEE DOOD DGL Ono Och Odecee 16, 418 3, 212 5, 435 geek

The meaning of this is, the crops have been greatly ‘‘ under aver-
age” in the aggregate for the whole period. Hither this is an under-
estimate, or ten years is not a period sufficiently long to make an
average; yet itis a grave question whether a test of twenty years
would not show the same result.

It has been a question on this side of the Atlantic whether the
yields claimed as averages for the several crops of Great Britain are
not too high. In this country there are acres that produce over 50
bushels each of wheat, while the average for the whole crop may not
be more than 12. It is known that there has been no verification by
census of the British product. It is made from estimates of rate of
yield, and all statistical experience in this part of the world shows
that any set of returns of yield will make too high an average. It is
feared thatthe high yields of Lawes and Gilbert’s experimental plots,
and of other reported liberal yields on faticertdAt farms, have an
undue influence in estimates of averages. If a census of yield, like
that of acreage, should include every holding, and be returned from
actual measurement, it is very probable that it would seriously shat-
ter many fancied averages, as it has done in this country.

CURRENT CROP STATISTICS.
CORN.

There is a constant tendency to enlargement of the area in corn.
It has been doubled in fifteen years, increasing at the rate of two to
three million acres annually. The reduction in values has little effect
in arresting extension of area of maize. It is realized that meats,
butter, and cheese are safer and more profitable surplus products than
the bulkier raw products of agriculture, at whatever rates such prod-
ucts have been or are liable to be sold. The uses of corn are vari-

366 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ous, while wheat is restricted to the consumption of man. This dec-
ade, so far, has been a period of low productign, of yield below the
average. Since 1880 there has been only a single year (1885) in which
the crop has been anaverage one. The yield per acre has been lower,
and the price per bushel naturally higher, than in the preceding dec-
ade, as the price is made in this country, by the pressure of the home
demand, almost uninfluenced by the foreign demand, which is small,
and controlled by the economies of feeding, and therefore restricted
by high prices in this country.

: e = 7 3.] 8, {38
cs] 3 © ‘ag as a
£ d Be 5 & e a
Calendar years. es fe ao s 2 be 28 ore 3
ol nm O 3) CI bea 4
E j a” | $e | BR | bua
i= A = < < <
Bushels. Acres. Cents. |Bushels
1,717, 484, 548 | 62,317,842 | $679,714, 499 39, 6 27.6 | $10 91
1, 194, 916, 000 | 64,262,025 | 759, 482, 170 63.6 18.6 11 82
1, 617,025,100 | 65,659,546 | 788,867,175 48.4 24.6 11 94
1,551, 066,805 | 68,301,889 | 658,051,485 | 42.4] 22.7 63
1,795, 528, 000 | 69,683,780 | 640,735, 560 35,7 25.8 919
1, 986,176,000 | 73,180,150 | 635, 674, 630 32.8 26.5 8 69
1, 665, 441,000 | 75,694,208 | 610,311,000 86.6 22.0 8 06
AT OLAIN w ctatuetcls eels elgivis siars'sis/sie'ele 11, 477,587,588 |479,049, 440 |4, 767,886,519 }........[...ceeeclecoevee
Annual average .........scneeeeeeee 1, 689, 655, 368 | 68,435,634 | 681,119,503 41.5 24.0 9 95
Annual average for preceding ten
VEAUS I cere ne lice eres daseiise> 1,184, 486, 954 | 43,741,331 | 504,571,048 42.6 27.1 11 54

Thus the average value per bushel for seven years has been 41.5
cents, against 42.6 for the ten preceding years; and the average yield
per acre has been 24.0 bushels, against 27.1 bushels for the preced-
ing period.

There is a considerable difference in the average value of the crop
per acre; the comparison standing $9.95 per acre, against $11.54 per
acre,

DOMESTIC DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION.

The annual investigation of the distribution of corn is made on the
1st of March, and includes estimates of the proportion of the crop
remaining on the farm, which constitutes the main part of the invis-
ible supply; the ‘‘ visible supply,” in commercial phrase, being that
stored in public elevators. he returns also include the estimated
shipments beyond county lines, the amount left within county bound-
aries for consumption or surplus, and the proportion deemed merchant-
able, showing its comparative quality, and the average local prices of
merchantable and unmerchantable.

The crop of the past year, now'in course of distribution and con-
sumption, is one of reduced yield, producing less than the average of
26 bushels by nearly 4 bushels, though the acreage was larger than
ever before, and the product only four times exceeded in volume—in
1879 and 1880 and in 1884 and 1885. It is one of a series of six crops,
of which only one yielded slightly above the average. These were
preceded by six crops all above 26 bushels per acre.

The amount on hand at this date varies with the size of the crop,
especially in the twelve States of principal production, and with the
commercial requirement, of which the fluctuating foreign demand is

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, 367

a small element. The proportion left on the farm at this date ranges
from one-third to four-tenths of the crop in different years. After
the short crop of 1883, in March, 1884, the farmers’ surplus was 33 per
cent., and after the great crop of 1885, last March, it was almost 40
per cent. The present surplus is 36.2 per cent., almost exactly the
same as that of the 1882 crop, which was a trifle larger in proportion
to population than that of last year. The present remainder would
be somewhat smaller but for the large crop of the previous year, from
which a larger quantity of old corn than usual must enter into this
surplus. Our correspondents are directed to make the last crop the
basis of the percentage of surplus, including in such surplus all the
grain remaining, of whatever crop.

It is understood that the quantity of corn required for consumption
is not an absolute, invariable quantity, other feeding material being
used with corn, and if necessary as a partial substitute for it; and yet
the quantity used from the time of harvest to the 1st of March has
not varied as much as the size of the respective crops. The follow-
ing statement is a comparison of the amount thus used and the sur-
plus for five years:

On hand. Consumed or
March 1— Product. | Marchi. | distributed.
Bushels. Bushels. | Bushels.

Sen eT Tatas oka noc a cigs iaiele.e. ania sje.elma alate bia weavers 1, 616, 996, 100 587,465, 943 1,029, 530, 157
of Sd RMN Sc ievasasicicoyossicsa apordvarosorsbahnes 1,551, 000, 000 512,000,000 | 1, 039, 000, 600
RR ean etna so Nicg's qaseg cca ciee’s gecesisgeae ss 1,795, 000, 000 675, 000, 000 1, 120, 000, 000
SO ee TR cote era alas ogni ciaeiaialalais cis sizie'aobideustsielsielete’s 1, 936, 000, 000 773, 000, 000 1, 163, 000, 000

oe ne eae MEAG AEC a ean Met wisi a aah eetaes Se OAC 1, 665,000, 000 603, 000, 000 1, 062, 000, 000

Thus in years of nearly average crops the amount ‘‘consumed or
distributed” to this date is comparatively uniform, slightly exceed-
ing 1,000,000,000 bushels, while the large crops of 1884 and 1885, sold
at low prices, were consumed in larger proportion. The rate of con-
sumption to date is smallest in the South (58.1 per cent.), which is
nearly the same as in 1884 and 1885, and more than in 1886. The
winter feeding there is less for two reasons, climate and limited corn-
feeding for meat-making. The use of corn in the plowing and cul-
tivating season is larger proportionally than in any other section of
the country, causing a large consumption of maize for work animals
between March and July.

It is seen that 67 per cent. of the March remainder is found in the
Western States, where nearly 71 per cent. of the crop was grown.
Hor commercial purposes this section practically represents the crop.
These twelve States, from West Virginia to Nebraska, inclusive, may
be still further limited to seven, known as the corn-surplus States, as
the only States that make any material contribution to the commer-
cial supply. The quantity on hand in these States is less by 137,-
000,000 bushels than at this date last year, while the product of those
States was 240,000,000 bushels greater in 1885 than in 1886. The
quay on hand in those States has averaged for five years 378,000,-
000 bushels, or 34,000,000 bushels more than the present remainder,
As the requirement is annually increasing, the present farmers’ sup-

ly is comparatively low, and the price must be considered too low
or the quantity available, unless a large allowance is to be made for
the present depressed status of prices, The following exhibit may

368 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

be considered a fair comparative statement of the commercially avail-
able maize at this date:

States. 1884, 1885. 1886. 1887,
Bushels. P.ct Bushels. P.ct. Bushels. P.ct Bushels. Pet;

OHIO’ se. sv cle to's = 15, 447, 600 21.0 31,595,410 | 37.0 42,508,700 | 38.0 33, 671, 400 35.0
DGIANE wiciere en's 28, 686, 000 30.0 87,712,520 | 386.0 50, 157, 7% 38.0 43, 954, 150 37.0
AEN ONS 5 «, stecets. sete . 61,118, 595 80.0 80,699,520 | 33.0 107,599,200 | 40.0 77, 632, 660 37.0
TOWSia vic ece ne ck 40,710, 960 24.0 95,988,000 | 388.0 92, 148, 480 38.0 59, 654, 100 30.0
Missouri........ 48, 496, 500 380.0 65,290,500 | 33.0 70, 869,960 | 386.0 48, 112, 700 30.0
I@MSAS: W.. <cjce «ee 72,576, 378 42.0 70,770,000 | 42.0 60,188,200 | 38.0 40, 547, 840 82.0
Nebraska....... 41,524, 349 41.0 54,945,000 | 45.0 58, 241, 700 45.0 45, 635, 470 43.0

Totaleoc.. 808, 555,382 | 31.5 | 487,000,950 | 37.2 481,713,960 | 38.8 | 344,208,320 34.4

LOCAL DISTRIBUTION.

These estimates separate that portion of the crop intended for con-
sumption from that shipped or to be shipped, or the home consump-
tion from the commercial supply. ‘The aggregate distribution
always approaches or slightly surpasses an aggregate of three hun-
dred million bushels.

Stock on hand March 1, 1887, with local consumption and shipment.

Consumed in Shipped out of
States and Territories. Crop of 1886. Brock on nee the county where | the county where

grown, grown,
Bushels. Bushels. | P.ct. Bushels. P.ct.| Bushels. | P.ct.

WEAING Vy, sictareisis:e/e sj0.s:ciels 5458090505 989, 000 836,260 | 34.0 979,110 | 99.0 9, 890 1.0
INE W Hampshire i <i0\02 0110102 = cis 1,364, 000 531,960 | 39.0 1,350, 360 | $9.0 18, 640 1.0
Vermont ....... ratetaisistattetste'ets ite 2, 058, 000 884, 940 | 43.0 2, 037,420 | 99.0 20, 580 1.0
MassachusettsS.....cscccssscess 1, 922, 000 615,040 | 32.0 1, 902,780 | 99.0 19, 220 1.0
ihodepislanG esac sce ec cece « 408, 000 142, 800 | 35.0 403, 920 | 99.0 4, 080 1.0
GCOnNGChCUb ieee wleusisiccesccee 1, 992, 000 697,200 | 35.0 1,972,080 | 99.0 19, 920 1.0
ING WEY OLIG Ghd dee eelons fete 22, 426,000 | 8,746,140 | 39.0] 21,753,220 | 97.0 672,780 | 3.0
INGWHIET SCY ro 510 0'ci8 s(e\010 310, s/0j0 «, 005 rs 9,418,000 | 38,861,380 | 41.0 8,193,660 | 87.0 | 1,224,840 |) 13.0
REDNSYIVADIA g;. Acoadinea toa wrs at 40,545,000 | 15,001,650 | 37.0 86,085,050 | 89.0 | 4,459,950 | 11.0
MelawaLe ren Cee eee 3,590,000 | 1,436,000 | 40.0 2; 620, 700 | 73.0 969,300 | 27.0
Maryland, See wees Rae 15,039,000 | 6,015,600 | 40.0 | 10,527,300 | 70.0 | 4,511,700 | 30.0
SVETPIBIAN Sa cttec eitieicvoteltate s/s clsie cies 82,793, 000 | 14,428,920 | 44.0 |. 29,185,770 | 89.0 | 38,607,230] 11.0
North Carolina 27,215,000 | 11,480,300 | 42.0 24,765,650 | 91.0 | 2,449,850 9.0
South Carolina 18,318,000 | 5,327,200 | 40.0 12,918, 460 | 97.0 399, 540 3.0
Georgia, 22 .cniesete» 31,197,000 | 14,350,620 | 46.0 29,949,120 | 96.0 | 1,247,880 4.0
MIOTIOA G55, 0-0 1s 4,597,000 | 2,252,530 | 49.0 4,321,180 | 94.0 275, 820 6.0
Alabama... 28, 893, 000 | 18,001,850 | 45.0 27,159,420 | 94.0 | 1,733,580 6.0
Mississippi ..| 25,507,000 | 11,988,290 | 47.0] 24,741,790 | 97.0 765,210 | 3.0
Womisianas so. one. eet 14, 640, 000 6,734, 400 | 46.0 14, 347, 200 | 98.0 292, 800 2.0
Tema seeps ete ieee SE Se 69, 213, 000 | 24,224,550 | 35.0 | 62,291,700 | 90.0 | 6,921,300 | 10.0
PAS ATISHS RE nee ar ee 42,140,000 | 18,541,600 | 44.0} 40,033,000 | 95.0 | 2,107,000] 5.0
AIBRMORSCO eli; :o0. Ge beeen 73,314,000 | 30,058,740 | 41.0 | 57,184,920 | 78.0 | 16,129,080 | 22.0
Wiest) Varginians.. 25 tits me cesar 15, 194, 000 6, 229,540 | 41.0 15, 674, 600 | 90.0 1,519, 400 10.0
FRSITOUICUGY tet ea) aiets 6 oo sw cle icy cece 88, 758, 000 | 31,952, 880 | 36.0 75, 444,800 | 85.0 | 13,313,700 15.0
GUTOR Skee fhe ee iso ocd takimata 96, 204, 000. | 33,671,400 | 35.0 75,039,120 | 78.0 | 21,164,880 | 22.0
ICSE os SRGURE eee SANE e ee 27,635,000 | 8,843,200 | 32.0] 24,595,150 | 89.0 | 3,039,850 | 11.0
SUS CLE ERIN SA ssa vote a Vo cv ovesels \¢ cle ee’ cis deetany » 118, 795, 000 | 43,954,150 | 37.0 89, 096, 250 | 75.0 | 29,698,750 | 25.0
FIDE ASE HCY his 2 Pkt Se a 209, 818,000 | 77, 632,660 | 87.0 | 157,363,500 | 75.0 | 52,454,500 | 25.0
WHRGOUSII ests sca) ener 28, 493,000 | 7,408,180 | 26.0 | 26,498,490 | 93.0] 1,994,510] 7.0
PMIITIGSOUAIEs nak tt nck uae nee 19,905,000 | 6,767,700 | 84.0 | 19,108,800 | 96.0 796,200 | 4.0
IN NV ER acter core: = Sic, s:';0's oi ,0: yoke sscaterwcatoh 198, 847,000 | 59,654,100 | 30.0 169,019, 950 | 85.0 | 29,827, 050 15.0
VITREANITT C erviclsieicrc'c cus se sles eee 143,709, 000 | 43,112,700 | 30.0 129, 335, 100 | 90.0 | 14,870, 900 10.0
Reams) he: SaaS oat een eee 126,712,000 | 40,547,840 | 32.0 | 101,369,600 | 80.0 | 25,342,400 | 20.0
INBDradka ce chracc ices. scence ee 106, 129,000 | 45,635,470 | 43.0} 61,554,820 | 58.0 | 44,574,180 | 42.0
OPPIROUMIC cise eee tne ae 4, 262, 000 1,278, 600 | 30.0 3,750,560 | 85.0 511, 440 12.0
Orzo S ee ee oe ee 178, 000 32,040 | 18.0 172, 660 | 97.0 5,340] 3.0
IW Vadose aiaaiaic\s ovtie’s occ oyeehe ts 22,000 6,880 | 29.0 20,900 | 95.0 1,100 5.0
OGIOVARO Pena ie os ciciclte cc ceam 938, 000 337,680 | 86.0 769, 160 | 82.0 168,840 | 18.0
PPD OTA OPE Alia pois's a sss'c ce teonieee 67, 000 18,760 | 28.0 65,660 | 98.0 1,340| 2.0
TSG UC GBB Reese aaa ee 15,805,000} 5,215,650 | 33.0] 18,908,400 | 88.0 | 1,896,600 | 12.0
GENTE ameratey ofeie athe eiclewieie aid ocaiec ae 42, 000 12,600 | 80.0 40,740 | 97.0 1, 260 3.0
NWCA GALLE atrciecs Pass ccs o.cin eine oisio:eie.0\« 22, 000 7,260 | 33.0 21,340 | 97.0 660 3.0
INGWHVIERICO soc cco cc decencst 973, 000 311,360 | 32.0 924, 350 | 95.0 48, 650 5.0
NO Bee preictetareleee)-is\e <feie ls iste +s oiete 267, 000 82,770 | 31.0 213,600 | 80.0 58,400 | 20.0
WiSSENNE TON ee oe leis we'scieeisvie oe'ete 88, 000 23,760 | 27.0 86, 240 | 98.0 1,760 2.0

Rich ak A SESE SNES DR 1,665, 441, 000 |603, 344, 650 | 36.2 |1,376,800,100 | 82.7 |288, 640,900 | 17.3

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, 369

The estimates of distribution show, as usual, that little more than
one-sixth of the crop goes beyond county lines. The neighborhood
distribution to toca feeders 1s not considered. A part of the ship-
ments go to more distant individual buyers for consumption, another
portion to the cities of the West, and both city and country east of
the Alleghanies, besides that which is exported to foreign countries,
which is only about 3 per cent. of the crop. Excepting Tennessee
and Kentucky and the seven States above named, there is no State
in which the movement amounts to 10,000,000 bushels. Nebraska
stands next to Illinois in this record of distribution, and Iowa and
Indiana are next in prominence.

The following statement makes a comparison by sections of this
distribution, showing that one-fifth of the product of the West has
been handled commercially, while about one-tenth has been dis-
- tributed in the Middle and Southern States:

ey

1886. 1887.
Section. 5
Retained for county | Distribution be- | Retainedfor county] Distribution be-

consumption. yond county lines. consumption, yond county lines.
hels. P.ct.| Bushels. | P. ct. Bushels P.ct.| Bushels. |P. ct.
New England........ 8, 682,630 | 99.7 27,370} 0.3 8, 645, 6 99.0 87, 330 1.0
Ce DOGEeNEE DC 76, 196,480 | 90.8 7,711,520 | 9.2 68, 652, 630 | 90.4 7, 826, 370 9.6
BOUUHEII, vccsc cence 854, 744,310 | 90.2 | 38,581,690 | 9.8 837,425,510 | 89.3 | 40,440,490 | 10.7
WWEStErD icc cscs. 1, 140, 125,770 | 79.8 | 288, 187,230 | 20.2 942, 102,680 | 79.8 | 288,096,320 | 20.2
12) crhi (ge eae oe 3, 409, 040 | 85.5 578,960 | 14.5 3, 923, 220 | 88.4 516,780 } 11.6

Nevada, Colorado,
and Territories .... 16,019,190 | 89.3 1,911,810 | 10.7 16, 050,390 | 88.1 2,178,610 | 11.9
PPOUAN IN years ac bce 1,599, 177, 420 | 82.6 | 336,998,580 | 17.4 | 1,376,800, 100 | 82.7 | 288,640,900 | 17.3

The distribution of the erap of 1886 to date is less than the ship-
ments of two years ago by only 10,000,000 bushels, though the crop
of 1884 was much larger.

PROPORTION MERCHANTABLE.

The crop of 1886 ripened well, with very little frosted, and only
14 per cent. from any cause deemed unmerchantable. The propor-
tion of sound corn, commercially designated as ‘‘ merchantable,” was
86 per cent. Two years ago the crop was even better ripened, aver-
aging 89 per cent. merchantable. The great crop of 1885 was slightly
below average in quality, as only 78 per cent. was estimated mer-
chantable, from frost and other causes. The crop of 1883 suffered
severely from frost, only 60 per cent. being merchantable, instead of
80 in an average year.

The largest proportion of the crop consumed at this date is on the
Pacific coast and in the Territories, but the quantity is so small that
the fact has little significance.

The Western States uniformly show the highest rate of consump-
tion and the largest proportion of the crop consumed, with the above
unimportant exception. This is due to feeding for meat, mutton, and
milk. The Eastern States stand next, and the Middle States next to
the cotton belt. It is also understood that shipments eastward are
from this region.

The average consumption of the past crop to date is 63.8 per cent.;
for five years, 63.2 percent. Thustheaverage consumption to March
is ordinary; a very little less than two-thirds of the crop. The fol-

24 AG—'86

‘370

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

sbi statement shows the proportion used for five years, by sec-
ions:

Sections. 1883. 1884, 1885. 1886, 1887.
Per cent.|Per cent.|Per cent.|Per cent.|Per cent.
New PNPlAR ) ccsaptapasccecs s+ +se pe osre> Sate anime 70,2 66.2 62.9 61.6 63.
Middle ........ RLM MECC rine cos ewsa atin este ecm me Mee 2.6 68, 2 63.4 59.3 61.8
Southern.........+- epee fA bene saa calor Aer 56.5 58.6 58.6 54.6 58.1
Western ..... eae ns cob « statdas iad site SAGE ne 66.2 69.3 63.3 61.6 65.6
WACIHO eescke ce sest oe sees. peggo sat AoBae. Adnghods: 74.6 0.7 60. 4 68.4 70.5
Nevada, Colorado, and Territories ...............+.. 65.0 70.2 65.5 63,3 67.0

The following statement shows the remainder in the hands of. the
farmers each year, averaging about 640,000,000 bushels, or 37,000,000
bushels more than the quantity now on hand:

Sections. 1884, 1885. 1886, 1887,
Bushels. |P.ct.| Bushels. |P.ct.| Bushels. |P.ct.| Bushels. | P. ct.
New England............ 2,843, 390 | 33.8 8, 182,944 | 37.1 , 344, 420 | 38.4 8,208,200 | 36.7
Middle...... BIR CSASEE 21,890,705 | 81.8 | 29,712,800 | 36.6 | 384,165,780 | 40.7 | 29,045,170 | 38.2
SOUTHEIN 2s ccc cece etecee 137, 922,031 | 41.4 | 144,798,860 | 41.4 | 178, 606,340 | 45.4 | 158,354,600 | 41.9
Western..... eee es ....-| 346,771,467 | 30.7 | 490,021,950 | 86.7 | 549,084,080 | 38.4 | 405,409,820 | 34.4
22/2 res (ORR AACR NER ADE CO CeT 760, 128 | 29.3 1,965,920 | 39.6 1, 258, 400 | 31.6 1,310,640 | 29.5
Nevada, Colorado, and
Territories......-..---- 2,036, 282 | 29.8 5,578,190.) 34.5 6,587,470 | 36.7 6,016,220 | 33.0
Total’s.:.% Sache: thal ete 512, 224,003 | 33.0 | 675, 210, 664 | 37.6 | 773,046,490 | 39.9 | 603,344,650 | 36.2

ee A CT ee ee Tk | he

The proportion of the merchantable and unmerchantable, respect
ively, in recent years, has been as follows: ;

Per cent.|Per cent.|Per cent.|Per cent.
60 89 78 86
40 11 22 14

————

Proportion and value per bushel and total value of merchantable and unmerchant-

Merchantable......... ee seamaace lamers
Unmerchantable ...........++++- Siesiesralcats :

able corn.
NN
Merchantable. Unmerchantable,
States and Territories. Pric Prics
Bushels. per Value. Bushels, per Value.
bushel. she:
pais ee Se ee :
Cents Dollars. Cents. Dollars.
WRI PAE aE foe iets ois se eee Rees 761,530 74 563, 532 227,47 42 95, 587
New Hampshire............---- 1,036, 640 75 777,480 827, 360 40 180, 944
SI TOMEETETELE Pena ele is Grae Sree tele estate 1,749,300 71 1, 242, 003 308, 7 86 111, 132
Massachusetts .............-...- 1,710,580 7 1,197, 406 211, 420 33 69, 769
WATS NRIBOL oi, cleo. 8:- cle -\cleioiesialets 363, 120 74 268, 709 44, 880 34 15, 259
Connecticut...... Sine ate siemens 1, 693, 200 68 1,151, 376 298, 800 32 95, 616
BOER ODS tac as Siclcie cs es aps betes 18, 837, 840 61 11,491,082 | 38,588,160 30 1,076, 448
EOIN ciate cies << sicisjerc.w iso's niniocs 8, 193, 660 53 4, 342, 640 1, 224, 340 31 379, 545
Pennsylvania..........0-ssecse-- 34, 057, 800 51 17,369,475 | 6,487,200 27 1,751,544
WICIEWVALS Geol c cits ewsise ce ciscla cle 8, 159, 200 46 1, 453, 2382 430, 800 28 20, 624
OT FV EA CL c:2 ic. os siniors 07s + woe n des op 13, 384,710 46 6, 156, 967 1, 654, 290 27 446, 658
\Vi hE Oi eSeeoEpppeaeno senda: 26, 284, 400 52 13, 641, 888 6, 558, 600 29 1,901, 994
Nom Carolina ::.....5..---ss5. 22,316, 300 63 14, 059, 269 4, 898, 700 30 1, 469, 610
GE NCALOUTA 62-52 - « 00a ofes'b ot 11, 586, 660 64 7, 415, 462 1,731, 340 35 605, 969
Cee rh Se 27, 458, 360 64 | 17,570,150 | 3,743, 640 33 1, 235, 401
iP ECU aE Rin o's nret ale clpctelacale pc's op 4, 045, 360 V5 5, 034, 020 551, 640 31 171, 008
PEO SULUIS I o's wisic bccn rec os © «sre 26, 003,700 64 16, 642,368 | 2,889,300 30 866, 790
WHESISGIOIE tie echo cies - cr veer cs 22,956, 800 62 14, 232, 906 2, 550, 700 30 765, 210
TihiniB nae marie Seria: caine ens 0 ic 12, 444, 000 60 7,466,400 | 2,196,000 30 658, 800
STi ee te iicinicieiaic’e cis visto oa seis else 5 52,601, 880 63 83, 189,184 | 16,611,120 33 5, 481, 670
ATEBMRAS Fae. fees b= cele ein aie piete's 87, 926, 000 52 19, 721, 520 4, 214, 000 29 1, 222, 060
VPETIMCSSCON «s\cisleis sole elec cece sede 66,715, 740 43 28, 687, 768 6, 598, 260 5) 1, 649, 565
West Virginia’..........+ sorcecet 12,762, 960 45 5,748,882 1 2,431,040 25 7,760

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, 371

/

Proportion and value per bushel and total value of merchantable and unmerchant-
able corn—Continued.

Merchantable. Unmerchantable,
States and Territories. Price
Bushels. per Value. Bushels per Value
ushel us
Cents. Dollars. Cents. Dollars.
ROnticky: /.iasacavaeseadsscs ss 77, 219, 460 36 | 27,799,006 | 11,538,540 24 2, 769, 250
Peas curse dddadecieeue tess 1258 82, 735, 440 37 80,612,113 | 18, 468, 560 23 3, 097, 769
WALCEN PANT siiie sa sicnisie sisiaismsitivicin(s.as 22, 108, 000 42 , 285, 360 | 5,527, 25 1, 381,750
WTRETERTYEY alo) « aivievcigiale eleie'riaieieve.e)sie’=.2/2 106, 915, 500 34 36, 351,270 | 11,879,500 22 2,613, 490
PEIN e atlerctaisie nad deisieiets hie diaiaenc 182, 541, 660 4 58, 413, 331 | 27,276,340 22 6, 000, 795
IWHISCODBSIN 5 ocin scciceinwisicisicen cine 23, 649, 190 39 9,228,184 | 4,843,810 27 1, 307, 829

UNGEERY ate seta alsa slaigleiei=\-ieiejsie1- 10 1, 438, 446, 830 38.7 |557, 891,951 (226, 994, 170 25.1 | 57,076,145

VALUE OF THE CROP,

The value of the crop, on the basis of March prices of merchant-
able and unmerchantable corn separately estimated, is thus stated:

Merchantable, at 88.7 cents..... Bccao Sct oi oe orete oriels eveiers caccbevsns 900%, 001, O01
Unmerchantable, at 25.1 cents........... HO UEOSOEKC «ola latta’s's cle. onstatonsian wr CO e OUiCriviiay

MOGI VELUG) he. sss os Sl emiakistels co ce toler eels cclsbadviepisen sseenes 014; 4655 000
Value as estimated December 1............. Eaielsisiste srelee cevaie's at areas 5) JOLOM SI OOO

The value has slightly increased in some districts, mainly depend-
ent on local supply; while in commercial markets, Chicago notably,
the value of December is scarcely sustained, though the decline is
only a small fraction.

The value of merchantable corn is reported 2.7 cents higher than
a year ago; the unmerchantable at 3.1 cents higher.

The farm prices (reported in December) averaged 36.6 cents per
bushel. This average is higher than those of 1877 and 1878, and
also those of 1884 and 1885. The following statement includes an-
nual averages for principal States and for the United States:

States. 1876. | 1877. | 1878. | 1879. | 1880. | 1881. | 1882. | 1883. | 1884. | 1885. | 1886,
|

Kentuchty,.os.0: 2 ves $0 30 |$0 32 |g0 40 |$0 387 |$0 388 |$0 70 |$052 ($0 42 ($0 43 (80 35 (|s0 34
WHWIGs ste oeccasciscoe 38 40 33 39 4 62 47 41 | 32 35
Michigan.... ........65 p 39 38 45 46 63 59 52 40 84 3
SREDCETSR TES oh Sic) 35 20, aa ones é 34 27 34 40 60 48 41 34 29 32
WUNMOIN. oS ic. oak cme Q 29 25 31 36 58 va 40 31 28 31
Wisconsin A 33 29 39 39 54 53 48 84 34 37
Minnesota 8 38 29 27 36 53 45 43 BE 382 3
ars | heer ene oe i 25 16 24 26 44 38 32 23 24 30
TVIRSSUIIL 9, <a) 5%5 2-2) 070) oarrete Pp P14 26 25 36 65 39 35 26 25 31
PREIS AS so oia;c sie Aeee< care 21 19 27 29 58 7 26 22 24 27
Webrashkai.o ss ass dade. 18 16 21 25 39 33 24 18 19 20
LDF re Se CRRA P ERE BRERA cribs! Gocinc4| yn Sear MBSE Ste OME Cerrone 51 45 30 28 37
United States.......... 37 35.8) 31.8) 37.5) 39.6) 63.6) 48. 4 42. 4 35. 4 32.8] 36.6

372 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Compared with average farm prices the actual export prices are

given below, the years named being fiscal years following the year
of production:

Years ended June 30— Price. Years ended June 30— Price.
NY fikta\eiets cls ,etei8,0 c(e'ols'e Pe atieiain's late ole\c(eisidia sie 0) Eka LESS tic isin'e o(s «0 cleleierele(> 6]o 1c (0 v\0 o/n\aie vininintniniaelointe $0 66.8
1878 SP ae atais aint a cielsicls «eel wlsieieleisninie (54 ||) lo c5 Pees Dame twbecccevecencsacceime 68. 4
POL EE? aiid oils Rice nA Ro’ © 016.0 eco brates Sime HLA MDLGSEVL Die «)s' > ajc 0.0 » egbtate elviv' ive eicle ein eleis\eleie anette 61.1
TMM UEEL cal ene beens oo ae bine vals cule i Been BA SANGO scrote leet Bibeletae we,0 0 iv,0.s'e-eiecesesonloneeiene 54.0
Pest ce eines eineiebibitie o1e's s'sieinle sw widacletnisis siuveis'» MN EL OSO si ic e's arabe sie e bless 0 ws aleve o.0. Gulsiule'e.cepeieoee 49.8
EXPORTATION,

The exportation of cornas grain and meal amounted to only about
half of 1 per cent. of the crop in 1860. During the next ten years
it averaged little more than 1 per cent. Between 1870 and_ 1880,
especially in the latter half of the period, when the harvests of West-
ern Europe (not maize) were greatly impaired and prices of all feed-
ing-stuffs high, exports were heavy. The annual range of these ex-
ports was quite extraordinary: from about 2,000,000 bushels in 1870
to nearly 100,000,000 in 1880. This difference is mainly accounted
for by the fact that the export price dropped from 93 to 54 cents
per bushel. With an increase of exportation almost fifty fold the
price was about half as high, showing how little influence the largest
foreign demand ever enjoyed had upon prices. The following state-
ment shows how much corn and corn-meal in its equivalent to corn
have been exported since 1880:

Quantity. Value.
J EIT ets GE ES Core a
x : Corn Meal Total. Corn. Meal Total
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars.

91,908,175 | 1,739,972 | 98,648,147 | 50,702,669 | 1,270,200 | 51,972,869
43,184,915 | 1,155,768 | 44,340,683 | 28,845,830 994,201 | 29,840,031
40, 586,825 | 1,068,828] 41,655,653 | 27,756, 082 980,798 | 28,736, 880
45,247,490 | 1,011,116 | 46,258,606 | 27, 648, 044 818,739 | 28, 466,783
51,834,416 | 1,042,040 | 52,876,456 | 28, 003, 863 816,459 | 28, 820, 322
63, 655,433 | 1,174,184] 64,829,617 | 31,730,922 858, 870 | 32,589, 292

{0fo) MN | 65Gq5a0ndade 836, 417,254 | 7,191,908 | 348,609,162 | 194,687,410 | 5,738,767 | 200, 426,177
Annual average ........ 56,069,542 | 1,198, 651 57, 268, 193 32, 447, 902 956,461 | 33,404, 363
Annual average,

BT —180 weet asniss 2 =< 53, 643,470 | 1,434, 690 55, 078, 160 82,133,519 | 1,264,755 | 383,398, 274
Annual average,
POP Oiiclc\eies cinco isieisie s 10,061,108 | 1,012,701 11, 073, 809 8,205,501 | 1,266,976 9, 472, 477
WHEAT.

The area of wheat has increased 50 per cent. since 1874, when this
country passed France in wheat production, and assumed the first
rank in wheat-growing among the nations. There are wheat lands
yet to occupy, and the disposition is strong to extend the cultivation,
notwithstanding the necessary reduction in prices caused by a plethora
in international markets. There has been a halt, however, at certain
points, though not all along the line of progress. The problem of
cheaper production commands an effort at solution by many who are

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 373

unwilling to adopt a slower movement in extension of wheat-growing.
The following statement shows the status of production since 1870:

—)

Average ‘Averaze Average
Calendar years Total produc- roe area | Total value of | value yielc ‘ale
i tion, of crop. crop. per 5 yie

“| bushel. | PEF cre. per acre.
Bushels. Acres. Dollars. Cents. | Bushels. | Dollars.

TSR Beanies datan 498, 549,868} 37, 986,717 474, 201, 850 95.1 13.1 $12
oe ete RRA eee 383,280,090 | 37,709,020 456, 880, 427 119.3 10,2 12 12
TCP Oe ee Gn 504,185,470 | 37,067,194 444) 602, 125 88.2 3.6 11 99
PRSEN Sea Te catads aoe 421,086,160 | 36,455,593 383, 649, 272 91.0 11.6 10 52
MERA ospictnd veaislaiestcoc sess 512,765,000 | 39,475, 885 330, 862, 260 64.5 13.0 8 38
Uimilitaeis clels eisieicieie's jericteicic se 357, 112, 000 34, 189, 246 275, 320, 390 77.1 10.4 8 05
TBSOGilccse ve shane etaateete! eels 457, 218, 000 36, 806, 184 314, 226, 020 68.7 12.4 8 54
STOUR frariaie salem seis cies 35 18451967588+ |" 259) 689839" |2: 679,742) O44t Ne mele ae cree. ieee salar
Annual average .......... 447,742, 370 37, 098, 548 382, 820, 335 | 285.5 12.1 10 32

Annual average for pre-

ceding ten years........ 312, 152, 728 25, 187, 414 827, 407, 258 104.9 12.4 13 00

It is sometimes assumed that the yield of wheat is declining in this
country. This conclusion is not warranted by the facts. The aver-
age for six years past is 12.1 bushels sper acre, ranging from 10.4 to
13.6 annually. The average of the preceding ten years was 12.4.
Almost any period of five to eight years has heretofore made an
average very slightly exceeding 12 bushels. The older wheat-grow-
ing States make larger averages than the newly-settled regions, not
because the land is richer, but because it is more thoroughly culti-
vated. In the future, as rotation and thorough culture prevail, the
average rate of yield must be expected to increase, as it has done in
some sections already.

While the yield is unimpaired, the reduction in price has been seri-
ous, so that the value of the product per acre has been only $10.32
against $13 for the preceding decade, a reduction of more than 20
per cent., nearly, 20 cents per bushel of the farm price.

The estimates of production are made in advance of the record of
consumption, and, of course, in the absence of the requirements of
the export trade. For eight years past the consumption has been
calculated on a basis fixed by careful tests, and the distribution has
always run parallel with the estimated production, with the slightest
possible discrepancy. In the following table, including the crops
made since the last census, the aggregate production is placed at
2,178,427,620 bushels, and the distribution makes an aggregate of
2,164,034,279 bushels. This leaves an apparent surplus*of about
14,000,000 for the whole period, which has all been absorbed,\ and
pela more, by losses in the lakes and by fire, showing on this

asis of consumption that the estimates, which are often held by
speculators to be too high, are really somewhat too low, though re-

markably close. The table is as follows:

Years, Production. | For food. | For seed. | Exportation. Sfespor Hotel tsb

tation. bution.

Bushels Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. . Bushels.

UiGio) Nes ree 383,280,090 | 235,249,812 | 55,215,573 | 121, 892, 389 32 412, 357,77
i 22 Eo a 504,185,470 | 255,500,000} 52,770,312 | 147/611, 316 29 456, 081, 628
ite ee ASP EBA ele, & 421,086,160 | 259,500, 000 54, 683, 389 111, 534, 182 26 425, 717,571
Hoes a eee Bae ge 512, 763,900 | 265,000, 000 55, 266, 239 132, 570, 367 26 452, $36, 606
TESST ee eames SONNE 7,112,000 | 271,000,000 | 51,474,906 | 947565, 794 26 417, 040,700
Motaliiatasieans 2, 178, 427, 620 |1, 286, 249,812 | 269,410,419 | 608, 374,048 | ay CaS Te 2, 164, 034, 279
aievals jetaete 435, 685, 524 |

257,249,962 | 58, 882, 084 | 49, 4,610) 27.9 | 482, 806, 856

374 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

CONSUMPTION AND DISTRIBUTION.

The proportion of wheat remaining in the hands of farmers March
1, 1887, is estimated at 26.7 per cent. of the volume of the crop of
1886. This includes all on hand, whether of the last crop or any
older surplus. This is slightly less than the average proportion for
five years past. Only once has the record been higher than three-
tenths; it was 33.1 March 1, 1885, after the great crop of 1884. In
1883 it was 28.5; in 1884, 28.4; last March, 30.1 per cent. of a very
small crop. The crop record was 100,000,000 bushels more than that
of 1885; the farmers’ stock March 1, only 15,000,000 bushels more
than that of the preceding March. The ‘visible supply,” or com-
mercial stock, is 5,000,000 bushels more than last year—d7,000,000
against 52,000,000 bushels. In addition to these sources of supply
there are further stocks in flouring-mills, and en route from the mill
to the bakery and household storerooms, which are not here given.
A small amount may be on mercantile storage between the farmer’s
bin and the elevator list of the commercial authorities. Were such
stocks the same each year they need not be considered in a compara-
tive statement. As to the milling stocks, it is evident that they were
greater last year than this. Had millers stocked up as in the autumn
of 1885, the farmers’ stocks would doubtless have been lower than
last year.

These estimates have been made for seven years, and the average
in farmers’ hands has been 129,000,000 bushels; 7,000,000 bushels more
than the present stock. The figures are, in round numbers, as follows:

: Bushels. '
BR ee yom ahs have o eis ieitraiare Sainie aeiStajelbisieie) aievelsimleiele ale\vie) sree siatateiteren eletete miaisiels, sare 122, 000, 000
Merce Coc, nie Gewinte sha MRSS SA Haet GOL Be Stele BEAMS eh dee Pid MoN sh 107, 000, 000
SD ae la «sis: oh anita of aes Abd aeetese aie mash cgie > elo tapert cee. aiccr eC eaE ae ie wal Cs 169, 000, 000
MMe MRS fais ab ve iss 9,0 ois, chide tins wae de mendes ned tla eRe cree tse ema « 119, 000, 000
BOCES s oes cok. CoRR one De matlce elena ee seen reer sense 148, 000, 000
UIST I Pistaiataiers aie. bia abel lets Stilt a ae. Moci aw sip ciate pate Fhe CoC bOe OUT IAGO 98, 000, 000
MAP Visit Ciclole.micke'd ide miciialadle. glass -ctaula belt Sia’e ctaateisteitnistalcisinc eee alelctelela 145, 000, 000

Surplus and distribution by groups of States.
F Stock on hand _ /Retained for county] Distributed beyond
Sections. Crop of 1886. March 1, 1887. consumption. county lines.

Bushels. Bushels. | P.ct.} j§ Bushels. |P.ct.| Bushels. | P.ct.

New England .g............ 1, 232, 000 530, 280 | 43 1,219, 680 | 99 820} 1

IMEDGIOISR. : AUR at ek Mica ck'e 32,785, 000 11,676,190 | 35.6 19, 024, 680 | 58 18,760,320 | 42
POUGREIUG on Moe pele ets. chi 35, 534, 000 7,082, 180 | 21.2 21,074, 070 | 59.3 14, 459,930 | 40.7
GSES apa seboUs Bose 294, 244, 000 81,572,620 | 27.7 | 124,452,270 | 42.3 | 169,791,780 | 57.7
Jel clilow Se By OCC Een GUE See 7, 298, 000 9,904,920 | 20.9 12,408,810 | 26.2 34,889,190 | 73.8

Nevada, Colorado, and Ter-

RAGOTIGOS y eiccte so ects Veloce 46, 125, 000 11,050,080 | 24 15, 859, 380 | 34.4 30, 265,620 | 65.6
FROUM esi Jolneic So's eis 457, 218, 000 122, 266,270 | 26.7 | 194,088,890 | 42.4 | 263,179,110 | 57.6

A larger volume of wheat has gone into distribution from this crop
than from the last, though the proportion of the crop has been nearly
the same; about 58 per cent. of all.

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. ,

375

Stock on hand and amount retained for home consumption, March 1, 1887,

Stock on hand

Consumed incounty| Shipped out of

States and Territories. | Crop of 1886. March 1, 1887. where grown. |county where grown
Busihels. Bushels. |P.ct.| Bushels. | P.ct.| Bushels. | P. ct.
INEAINO Wei ot coi fae Hucguasaaass 600, 000 240,000} 40 594,000 | 99 3, 000 1
New Hampshire ........... 169, 000 74,360 | 44 167,310 | 99 1, 690 1
MORMONUS «2 2 .chiieddaeeade 410, 000 196,800 | 48 405,900 | 99 4, 100 1
Massachusetts .........00+5 17, 000 5,440 |- 32 16,830 | 99 170 i
DIONNE CTICUE, «6, o/,<.e:0,0\<,04.0,1016 36, 000 13,680} 38 35, 640.|- 99 360 1
UAV OLED 2, 2..'5 eieleitanteialeictee 11, 093, 000 4,215,340 | 38 6,544,870 | 59 4,548,130] 41
New Jersey’........-..50-- 2, 260, 000 §36,200 | 37 1,627,200 | %2 32,800 | 28
Pennsylvania ...........--- 18, 255, 000 6,389,250 | 35 10, 405,350 | 57 7,849,650 | 43
DAA WANOn acct Te.mae abe hes 1,177,000 235,400 | 20 447,260 | 38 729,740 | 62
Maine.) tence en acct 7, 194, 000 1,582,680 } 22 2,230,140 | 31 4,963,860 | 69
Mireiniae es i, ees: 5, 581, 000 1, 283,630 | 23 2, 623,070 | 47 2,957,980 | 53
DNOrnn Caroling). ..)-..-. <-> 8, 209, 000 641,800 | 20 2,823,920 | 88 885,080 | 12
South Carolina.... 936, 000 168,480 | 18 842,400 | 90 93, 600 10
@eovmiae oe salckehaieds:s 1, 690, 000 338,000 | 20 1, 470,300 7 219,700 | 13
/:12) 9) Ra reap Acoma ie HARE 1, 529, 000 214,060} 14 1,376,100 | 90 152,900 | 10
MUSSISSUPDL ateees cecitlaee oeis 173, 000 27,680 | 16 164,350 | 95 8, 650 5
"POXAS ». Ries oh,s Sse 5, 383, 000 968,940 | 18 8,660,440 | 68 1,722,560 | 32
Arkansas eee Nelo: 1, 815, 000 381,150 | 21 1,470,150 | 81 344,850 | 19
Tennessee oii © sislefe eis 8, 024, 000 1,925,760 | 24 4,413,200 | 55 3,610,800 | 45
West Virginia.............. 3,061, 000 918,300 | 30 1,836,600 | 60 1,224,400 | 40
UGS | el aoe ee 12, 405, 000 3,101,250 | 25 5,384,150 | 48 7,070,850 | 57
OaIO} Fels Sadek: mice Jang: 40, 362, 000 12,108,600 | 30 16,144,800 | 40 24,217,200 | 60
Michigan ......... See 26,572, 000 6,377,280 | 24 8,768,760 | 38 17,803,240 | 67
Pini Sata a!) ee ee a 40,255,000 | 10,466,300 | 26 14,089,250 | 35 26,165,750 | 65
TUN Oi a4 seetad crs o's COnccnee 27,562, 000 6,890,500 | 25 18,'781,,000 | 50 13,781,000 | 50
‘Wilsconsinteeer- sees e~--| 14,725,000 4,270,250 | 29 7,068,000 | 48 7,657,000 | 52
Minnesota.........»- wrante sia 42,856, 000 12,856,800 | 30 11,999,680 | 28 30, 856,320 | 7%
Towa caucus: MU: 5 32, 455, 000 9,411,950 | 29 18,174,800 | 56 14, 280, 2 44
IMISSOUT ronnie dicted terse 21, 986, 000 5,716,360 | 26 12,582,020 | 57 9,458,980 | 43
Wepriga sees: seu ha eels). 14, 556, 000 , 847, 23 7,569, 120 | 52 6,986,880 | 48
000 6,107,150 | 35 7,154,090 | 41 10,294,910 | 59
36, 165, 000 7, 233, 20 9, 402,900 | 26 26,762,100 | 74
11, 133, 000 2,671,920 | 24 8,005,910 | 27 8,127,090 | 73
000 15,840 | 22 54,000} 75 18,000 | 25
, 419, 000 774,080 | 32 1,136,930 | 47 1,282,070 | 53
297, 000 71,280 | 24 249,480 | 84 47,520 | 16
30, 704, 000 6,754,880 | 22 6,447,840 | 21 24,256,160 | 79
039, 000 259,750 | 25 696,180 | 67 342,870 | 33
1, 509, 000 347, 07 28 829,950 | 55 679,050 | 45
921, 000 230,250 | 25 782,850 | 85 188,150 | 15
000 589,850 | 35 924,600 | 60 616,400 | 40
7,560, 000 2,041,200 | 27 4,687,200 | 62 2,872,800 | 38
63, 000 16, 26 50,400 | 80 12,600 | 20
218,000 | 122,266,270 |} 26.7) 194,038,890 | 42.4! 263,179,110 | 57.6
VALUE OF THE CROP.
Average price af wheat for the years 1875-1886.

State. 1875. | 1876. | 1877. | 1878. | 1879. | 1880. | 1881. | 1882. | 1883. } 1884. | 1885. | 1886.
Kentucky...... -|$1 05 |§1 00 1$0 99 |$0 76 |$1 08 |$0 93 ($1 31 ($090 {$0 95 74 {$095 1g0 72
OHIO Ee. aes ee 109)114 | 1 24 86 | 120°} 1 02 |.1.29 ¥ 95 : 99 ° 75 91 74
Michigan........ 1 15°} 116, | 1 22 85) | a) 1% 97 | 1.25 90 96 74 84 73
Indiana ......... 97 | 1 02: | 1 18 [:) a a Vg 99 | 127 90 95 67 86 70
Illinois nS tarcee 91 93 | 1 04 vis) 1 07 95...|.1 22 86 92 63 81 69
Wisconsin....... 91 | 1 01 93 67 | 104 |100 |119 90 88 60 76 68
Minnesota....... 86 90 91 51 94 87 | 106 82 80 50 70 61

OWA .......-204. 71 90 87 50 92 &2 | 1 06 70 80 55 67 60
Missouri......... 95 89 | 100 67 | 1 01 89 | 1.19 85 88 62 77 63
Kansas.......... 87 86 82 59 89 “id 1 05 67 78 45 65. 58
Nebraska ....... 64 73 83 49 84 73 97 67 70 42 57 47
Dav |. 52S aed SSE es domo aie niece || TEASE teers Socceon 80 72 46 68 52
United States ...| 1 1 03.7) 1 08.2) 77.7) 110.8) 95.1) 119.3) 88.2) 91 64.5 1; 68.7

376 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

.The average export price is as follows for twelve years:

, Average Average
Years, price, Years, price.
LY CET J Rar SOC SS JORGE ne): G30 BObee Dede S12 MIBEOSS) .. . s hcmeebwes ocidses cetehceee eae $1 11
LPS Ue Seegeasepenanus4s Deagaedeaeeee LEE MUST —'BD 5, cic Stetceniatvie so weed sores teers Sielgiae es 119
ESN —1 4b iotatatalle's'nin'o\viaipi pik taieie'o’s sie'ed.olscinia’s's (aie LBL Be GO Soe ate ele wis nin, o-0 0 0:0\eIstolo eel mietenetoe 113
Neat nisidisihie eins hamn tame as sicials cclaieteisia sie DSA RRS—184:< 00 Mote kiss sens sweet hh cteem 107
ISN aigteie sicivisic see beidelals ola 'e 0:0 eecvccces OF AS —' OG |. -/afcloloiaiaa sie: 2°a(e\n.c o’e'~ oie e atosibierae tiers 86
1870-80 ir sfeivie cleisiaeisreinin’s Seccecccecceccces ATE MABOO—"OO \s/cle cl eile U sletainis + bile. 0 siewio io sIee 87

The farm value of the crop of 1885 was $275,320,390 in December,
or 77.1 cents per bushel.

WEIGHT PER BUSHEL.

The weight of the crop of 1886 surpasses very slightly that of 1884,
being 58.4 pounds per bushel against 58.3. The estimated weight of
the crop of 1885 was only 57 pounds. Counting high-grade wheat,
averaging 60 pounds per bushel, the present crop is equal to 444,000,000
bushels, or 105,000,000 bushels more than the crop of 1885, calculated

A the same basis. The following statement records this estimate by
tates:

Weight | Bushels of Bushels of 60

States and Territories. per st Weight. UES
bushel. crop. pounds,
Pounds. Pounds.

IWAETEG op na cBode BOS ROR OO DOSABaD OA Ge GUOORDOr ads 58 600, 000 84, 800, 000 580, 000
Sad Le lchpal o's lsebi eS QARANC OSEAD Saco n HOO SIOOTEey. a 79 on ay oe Moe ra me
TAR ON Gamera mole riateit lo relates Gbiatoieierie olsie/s bobs 7 , 780, 4 Be
IWASSACHUBCEDSE 5.7.2 sokisenes cnea deine ctie cose 59 17, 000 1, 003, 000 16,717
EGBTICCHICUG ans a tore dace cities Odie Ae serelat loses 58 36, 000 2, 088, 000 34, 800
AN FE REO) 3): IRR Se eit cia See ee tics 59 11,093, 000 654, 487, 000 10, 908, 117
INV CESOY coyote a a isinits =elthe ss ie iape cieteta sates cist there's 59 2, 260, 000 183, 340, 000 2, 222, 333
RENNES VIVANIA 6 ie lsihe ete bse cite sake ee eat cee 59 18,255,000 | 1,077,045, 000 17, 950, 750
Der et de cate ei neisea eaonstaje tn aveleravave inne nlaisrepaterstoreie ss 57 1, 177, 000 67, 089, 000 1,118, 150
DEA TV LAIN te Aah odds fe ah ARN ata tated s:arsta tt 58 7,194, 000 417, 252, 000 54, 200
PVE SUN IB ets eros ic-c okie eisai s orote-siufe aysvefo's:eie oieve,bra,sforeitue 5 5,581, 000 318, 117, 000 5, 801, 950
MOUS WATOLIN asses tases ester atinecie nents 56 8, 209, 000 179, 704, 000 2,995, 067

PIOUIGO OATOUNIG co essa. isjs-crsve bictetisss aloes strainers 55 936, 000 51, 480, 000
MERON STB anc atch siete inicio in velele'e inloravnee'e’ ba'sars ards 55 1, 690, 000 92, 950, 000 1,549, 167
PAU SINT ae sister coisa nts a ata sleioe ae 2 e's eelaleiateinye clea 57 1; BEN ed 8, 188, on 15 ce ere
AVIAN TO PNM bert sctoriis;oiolcinrere. ec eledeyorerozoyc\ntare ole) o) = arein = 55 73, , 515, ;
FRETS ee et eyelain eeva ornate otiale ever aeela Meats Hee 58 5, 383, 000 812, 214, 000 5, 203, 567
PASH ICEUNT SIO ee Fos axa totb io toe asmvese etajasets resets Towiale sialetics 56 1,815, 000 101, 640, 000 1,694, 000
PROMIESSEO ese c re tatate aie ake aratoretatete/ave/olai'sivisyetaraveveistersts 55 8, 024, 000 441, 320,000 7, 355, 333
OSU IVAN SIMIG, 0 S25)... Si tree decile tenia emai 58 3, 061, 600 177, 538, 000 2, 958, 967
ROMULICHV Een tioreis ole Gojoe die vines Semeekissas 59 12, 405, 000 731, 895, 000 12, 198, 250
(CLIN Ss SSG ao SHR SOREaG GEEGO CRO AARC ciate 59 40, 362,000 | 2,381,358, 000 39, 689, 300
AVETOINS OATN cr cietertyaie <ela\ ova ie srers clortre atehnte re oets Gre kieiereis 59 26,572,000 | 1,567,748, 000 26, 129, 133
RTI. SRE BNE tek ek. Lab Che oee wale meee Sets 59 40,255,000 | 2,875,045, 000 39, 584, 083
LGC 0) ee 13844 Se a eA CSA Se a ee 59 27,562,000 | 1,626, 158, 000 27, 102, 633
WARPOTISIM Eas croisle tonto ctiteieis pesttigis « cuaieameies 58 rage aren ‘ aoe Peon - re 7
NWEMASIORUOLSN We acat cs ae ais 6:0 Bere cluate Hottie etuleve eters Micise 58 2, 856, 2, 485, 648, 1, 427,
NOU taisi ciielelclcte is clole ats)eloieiole/oistalip, stelsvete te letcint=tainieie 58 82, 455, 000 1, 882, 390, 000 31, 373, 167
VELEN TUG Ei crs 5's bie. 68 aie ove Breloieta nibicllae cee tO ciety cnntne 59 21,986,000 | 1,297,174, 000 21, 619, 567
LOU TEES a8 Se a SotinnOe baa sob cucnoAcod GabodrELc 56 14, 556, 000 815, 136, 000 13, 585, 600
PSEA Its c-oiac bib vis aie tints oeten ceinaementactte oe ie 58 17,449,000 | 1,012,042, 000 16, 867, 367
eo cone Miera lols alateln(ase,cl octets (nfece’aoteteyetelalein tis iets fale na rt ey Ha 2; aa (he eh ree coal ao
MEADOR GE arate e'o ole tlele aie dele vepicteisinie Rratetetels cans , 133, 7,980, , 183,
evade Bis ciate ACRE LOCOS dace sniwalie cibistere alate, oreiars 60 72, 000 4,820, 000 72.
REGIODAGO fe ah lave o'vauisicsie coie's ecssleavaenieins Racine 61 2 oe pe 147, Peg 2, Ee os
STAC CUELEN ata evatgs Wo] asa aru 'e'ia aes ola Vara ve OIMIMR’s itera le tarate 59 29) 7, 5238, 292, 05
DRISOUA Ee eis cutis Foes chlec spots stdeloeaeacist 57 30,704,000 | 1,750, 128, 000 29, 168, 800
RGGI ne tia 'e ois s\clovs ie alcic ogre bit eB cierearistsisfenae 59 1, 639, 000 61, 301, 000 1, 021, 683
TRAE eicice Sees civics cate ccciiciteeccas eine 59 1,509, 000 89, 031, 000 1, 483, 850
NS SOU ITICERA CCS Peele tae ic ne lee leu 010)8 6 0/1010. 0/0 Slerelbrelalere sie 58 921, 000 58, 418, 000 890, 800
VO Bed Tipe ee eee lateas (eae « s)e,cisie one seein anes slams aaa 59 1,541, 000 90, 919, OVO 1,515,317
RUVARIE LOM ote ters tiaras s/0 siejae!s > nese lejsblol'asa/elninte 59 7, 560, 000 446, 040, 000 7,434, 000
WIV OMUINE i cailevwiacicscces PROCC ARE sCedapecac 59 68, 000 8,717, 000 61, 950

Total cssscssscssccesssscevesssacseeees| 68.4 | 457,218,000 | 26, 686,682,000 | ~ 444,777, 202

a ee cca a A ef ICC EA LCT CLL LE

)

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 377
EXPORTATION,

The exportation of wheat has a record as old as the Government of
the United States. In the eighteenth century and up to 1860 flour
took the lead of wheat in quantity. Since that date grain in bulk has
been greatly in excess. Recently the tendency is manifestly favora-
ble to a larger proportion of exports in the form of flour.

From 1826 to 1855 the average exportation was less than 9,000,000
bushels. After 1860 there was rapid increase in the volume of wheat
exported, rising to 20, to 30, and culminating at 33 per cent., or one-
third of the crop shipped abroad for a period of six years. The last
six years, however, mark a period of decline to 26 per cent. Itis
doubtful if one-fourth of the crop can hereafter be exported, as other
wheat-growing nations will doubtless divide the trade, which is lim-
ited by an uncertain measure of deficiency.

The following table shows the exportation of wheat, and flour in its
equivalent of wheat, by decennial periods from 1831 to 1880 and by
years from 1881 to 1886:

Quantity. Value.

(SCG0 NIE Den 00 A) ee eee

Wheat Flour. Total wheat Wheat, Flour. Total value.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars.

1631-240) 2h atte 2,456,986 | 46,674,480 | 49, 131,466 2,554,482 | 56,579, 601 59, 134, 033
1841-25098. 55 «| 18,181,506 | 92,797,625 | 105,929,181 | 15,701,878 | 100,431,897 | 116, 138,77
4851-60 25 ...3. Sets 5d, 255,528 | 144,638,930 | 199,894,458 | 75,208,680] 180,143,666 | 255, 352,346
TS61-70) Ki eee 220,115,995 | 156,246,370 | 376,362,365 | 295,998,699 | 225,713,645 | 521,712,344
187180) 4.7 667,429,799 | 186,782,602 | 854,212,401 | 830,177,921 | 250,492,748 | 1,080,670, 669

35,756,037 | 186,321,514 | 167,698,485 | 45,047,257 | 212,745, 742
26,620,587 | 121,892,389 | 112,929,718} 36,375,055 | 149,304,773
41,425,488 | 147,811,316 | 119,879,341 | 54,824,459 | 174,703,800
41,185,170 | 111,534,182 | 75,026,678 | 51,139,696 | 126,166,374
47,916,653 | 132,570,367 | 72,933,097 | 52,146,336 | 125,079, 433

?

36,806,585 | 94,565,794 | 50,262,715 | 38,442' 955 88,705, 670

OATS.

The tendency is towards enlargement of the cultivation of oats, as
in the case of corn. The other grains are used almost exclusively for
human consumption, and do not, therefore, admit of such extension.
An increase of about half a million acres occurred in 1886. The sea-
son was moderately favorable, the averages of condition being: June,
95.9; July; 88.8; August, 87.4; September, 90.9. As in the case of
spring wheat, there was a sharp decline in July; in August condition
remained nearly stationary, and on the 1st of September a material
improvement was shown. The product of oats is (in round numbers)
624,000,000 bushels, 5,000,000 less than in 1885, grown on an area of
over. 23,000,000 acres, and valued at $186,000,000. The average yield

378 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

is 26.4 bushels, against 27.6 bushels. The average value is higher—
29.8 cents per bushel against 28.5 cents in 1885.

States and Territories. Acres. Bushels, Value.
DUT sw etetes erect se AR o > ois aieic eee och an IN aca wip ‘Sine 90, 490 2,701,000 | $1,080,400
New Haimpshire..... GT Re ote sts led bads te hs od ae SRO doce ee! 32, 766 1,081, 000 443, 210
AVE 0 8 pet GRO 9 300h Qo SR naar RECUR OE 02g 10-0 >?) lac SOA 106, 656 3, 844, 000 1,422, 2
RVESERSEAGHIULSE DOS! wierctaaie aicreta Cc << s/o. u’d apelcic sieinie o.atace sis SIS REMEDIES oo wierd 24, 267 738, 000 324, 72
Rhode island: eyes ie osk .Se5 bao Ee hs Ste .. 6, 358 184, 000 80, 960
WODNOGHICIID certemeisiee sinjos sas rslels Aejeleins rutile widen einer its oon «6 39, 027 1, 123, 000 471, 660
INS WR MODES teeter tee skis cc cegsine Seca ecm ner see tetantinn es 6 os ty: 1,399, 097 40, 223,000 | 14,078, 050
ING WH OUAGV ET coos els caicjeld's ce Sate chinbice bolas teldicn ste BORE: Shai cle biaw’ 187,455 3,734, 000 1,344, 240
(E CUEAIMLV ELIE Teibiaic, ofa, «16: c/n! Shs /o.5)s «cl aisle ateieis hls Sualtie'e Mie miele Maen a2 alnleia-s 1,317,063 387,759,000 | 12, 838,.060
WODIGIVEPES getdate ct-.- Aeitiele's Se hee sibds cle ctatelataleteie wictelatla MBit Oo ole o Rae 21,409 492, 000 172, 200
DIONE Sete sce cc Deleeic ceian gace oWiaa tania ciprdieias to cptetae eK vie a 5i= Sif 113, 322 2, 470, 000 815, 100
PVT RELIEVE reece otc eiarc.c cs tlaere = stale slele opaisisteinysials’s olersie ait te aye =< «ipl -'~ BE 638, 655 8,577, 000 2, 916, 180
INGORENOaTOHDR! F. Hd. « .\atdviacten easaby = eacloee atch Semteeee ots ee oe 635, 064 6, 276, 000 2, 824, 200
Bor @SVOlNMNe y, 225 ojo sie.c ccs (s/s lo/sle co) vlales/atatepmiciatoleaereiseete ctaele setter ale 393, 265 8, 440, 000 2, 132, 800
(E02 hy Ae Ae pea ae ae ee a On Ian Atco ad tats coo): So aaAPeORE 589, 001 5, 301, 000 3, 180, 600
Wma, Sasc5st fi aten. Bosses ie hep ee ak dese eeek Fels. AY 51, 467 489, 000 308, 070
Alabama...... B sicfetas Relte egeseyare ele ota © ale ke SREP te essen ss a,e)ar 409, 807 4,718, 000 2,925, 160
INSSISSID DI}. ie ot riess «aera te Modictns AOR OR eb cine ce Moe ems ORE ant bee oer 355, 001 8, 368, 000 2,121, 840
MIOVEISEEDTISY) secre -cesth bis Rete te mee lore wa ole. Sealer ate se Cero eIeears wis Siero wisiateee 36, 138 361, 000 187,720
JNLED7R (6 Aa egg CARB DOR SSR ORSA ER OBA D DS ceAb ABE on AC BO noo SEisen ane Ts 552, 966 11, 369, 000 5, 684, 500
PATA SHS So cies crane cae ie ayes ccyecasa,com ae mic oieiate ats piste tte eis os eine a ete 263, 848 4,749, 000 1, 994, 580
ITSVIMOASOS chs patesus fess hoses Store aie bctyaie ct Herat alate a pevaies Wei chate Suahietontsernt alters 638, 699 7,920, 000 2,534, 400
A\NVSEL \aalifeatal CRE Re Botosc Cbeiackaoce dsbdoor oudae en aoedE OoReOEe aA” 139, 419 2, 803, 000 840,
RIGTRULIGHE ice riaseceite ran = see eels en eae oO ect einem omeciae se one 486, 630 10, 219, 000 3, 270, 080
ORT a oer Te a eins; cise cle REE Roe a OID fab le aiotaraarorare siete 983, 606 31, 850, 000 8, 918, 000
ANT SEMAN rate cree cy atorasai2 ois cisyeso's Gerster wicin ajeiecis siete ¥.c/ape Move ints a cyase/eielora sie 628, 116 18,521, 000 6, 297, 140
NTICIATIEL EUG chee = oc Ne enc as bot PEO oo. 2 ee oe GREER re Gisisye Se 1, 034, 923 31,798, 000 8, 585, 460
TDP Ce) oS be de CRE Cee DOME Te DOA CUGH Obene cM Ice RCO Seat a peers 8, 257,180 | 103,649,000 | 26, 948.740
WAISGOLISI ter aoc coce cone chroma re cocne: cae Ba te edlalies Weaeire oe 1, 398, 349 39,656,000 | 11,103, 680
SIMIN ORO Ryle iots a aerate cs bic s atrewers late =: ale cere SNA eiolee nicye SORT 1, 184, 032 40,735,000 | 10,183,750
ARTA Ant w. 4: Ne osiaeile «oP ARH atelels lois. 0's noel Beas cee oe 2, 298, 752 78,454,000 | 18,044,
MVISSSCSUIAMe Lyford «ein a a pinteieles/e & conte sieitiewicls, «/<l-folayahetclelmisich lela! pele ome 1, 305, 884 80, 577, 000 7, 644, 250
Tee Rey RISE COR AICOR LA SER Ion tec ener ep OOn on Microa teers uci, 964, 930 25, 516, 000 6, 379, 000
INGDTSRICAII <5. Gch sale as b See oes Adin af Mare wleecRIelgs oo dalele wee 742, 051 21, 865, 000 4, 154, 350
MOAT OUNIBED oc Gibis'. abi Reins cise oo ble Aue «isle several tataistaicis aisiet ne ue 80, 2,317, 000 1,019, 480
MOTUS Nery croyesss spotaiar o ecleoeicetarererere ie eieleievalets /ojele Sisto loletove elated ewe aierate are wtOtehe ° 199, 199 5, 102, 000 2, 142, 840
IMU SGA ete so aioe See (Oks ch felt See amb Ins tobe are taerecelgs 0 te ae 7, 858 250, 000 125, 000
IGA MO sy <a -mir cee Heys one seek Gece aisles © iteterere cleiehs o'ecate's » chant Gh 48, 207 1,591, 000 668, 220
HUN SUA bseatevscapers tore fretaidle csefots «jas 'o'siurcfauate disin, ofeiavers) aio misfate Seles wloiaiale e-em iehe tame 825, 600 20, 651, 000 6, 195, 800
ABNOR cette 5 sc Me eee cass sc paniee duke stot nce dries. amore ws Tele ieee cere 34,770 1, 078, 000 592, 900
VEC URS icistess Foals doe «(alam clgB ost odie aid ol diclbis a-alt WRIe) « lalel ois alelew ceNTs wee 56, 774 1, 987, 000 1, 092, 850
NGS waAMeXICO! so stie -inscclod: «sb cmek antec Bs (side bars s atte mijeie’ «Vote OR 15, 087 528, 000 '
PURE er ieee eck econ rn c chelcien ctis wc alain ve eisie e ooles cieivetelesicitoleisievsieeiereis 28,794 858, 000 343, 200
SEE SEMIS SS) «Bio Gar Gro GOInOrIL er IHOMOCcice API Cie ices PATIO OID 88, 393 38, 126, 000 1, 406, 700
NAO) aes aed aneaap acide u iondtsccedarcgcd SenAEac JeEmunroma cae 2,756 86, 000 7, 300
TaN yo Be etees ASICOREG 4 Oeer chon ornniser eae co onetocher ata): 28,658,474 | 624,134,000 | 186, 137,930

The following statement of former crops shows that the average
yield since 1880 has been less than the average of the previous de-
cade, and the price lower, as is the case with nearly all farm products:

Average
Average | Average al f
Calendar years. Total Total area | Total value |/aiue per! yield per | Valueo

y production. | of crop. of crop. bushal, had yield per,

Bushels. Acres. Dollars. Cents. | Bushels. | Dollars.
1 ee a eT ee 417, 885, 380 | 16,187,977 | 150,248, 565 36.0 25.8 9 28
pM ee acls cicltccieics adie seleeamed 416, 481,000 | 16,831, 600 193, 198, 970 46.4 24.7 11 48
Th Spe a 488, 250, 610 | 18,494,691 | 182,978,022 87.5 26.4 9 64
GN IRER TER Paete rey ie ccs e-a-cie, svoisaiolev eave creme’ 571, 802, 400 | 20, 324, 962 187, 040, 264 £3. 0 28.1 9 27
Sd PASE IPE oe ai asc a-ala's) die eie\e'e'evatodshevela 583, 628,000 | 21,300, 917 161, 528, 470 28.0 27.4 7 58
LESNAR YATE niet ocelcie sisi ©,5.ave ahve 'atanatait 629, 409, 000 | 22, 783, 680 179, 631, 860 28,5 27.6 7 88
Fite aa EIST IONE a ‘ot seisie (ave lie era. sissetela rats 624, 134,000 | 28, 658, 474 186, 137, 980 29.8 26.4 T 87
Total ...... Peay sy ete Dear: 3, 731, 090,890 (180, 582, 251 |1, 240,759,081 |..........[...cc0cceefeceees eet
Annual average ...........5006 583, 012,918 | 19, 940,322 177, 261, 297 33.3 26.7 8 89

Annual average for preceding

REMY CALS eile sc a eaivinissivies cee: 814, 441,178 | 11,076,822 | 111,075, 223 85.38 28.4 10 03

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, © 379

RYE.

This grain isnot popular in the United States. Itisused toa limited
extent for bread in combination with maize in New England and by
the people coming from continental Europe, and in a still smaller
proportion for distillation. The crop of 1886 was about an average,
26,000,000 bushels in round numbers, yielding a little less than 12
bushels per acre. The following statement shows the previous pro-
duction and value: i

Average
Total Total area | Total value | Average | Average | value of
Calendar years. production. | of crop. of crop. eet a ea yield per
. : ; acre.
Bushels. Acres Dollars. Cents. | Bushels.| Dollars. ~-
24,540,829 | 1,767,619 18, 564, 560 75. 13.9 10 50
20,704,950 | 1,789,100 19, 327,415 93.3 11.6 10 80
29,960,087 | 2,227, 889 18, 439, 194 61.5 13.4 8 28
, 058, 2,314, 75 16, 300, 503 58.0 12.1 7 04
28,640,000 | 2,343,963 14, 857, 040 52.0 12.2 6 34
21,756,000 | 2,129,301} 12,594,820 57.9 10.2 5 92
153, 660,399 | 12,572,626 | 100,083,532 |.......... Pee | | rane
Annual average ................ 25,610,067 | 2,095, 438 16, 680, 589 65.1 | 12.2 | 7 96
Annual average for preceding
VENER enact aes fs ances. 18,460,985 | 1,305,061 12, 945, 136 70.1 14.1 9 92
BARLEY.

This crop is one of restricted area and use. Itis not sufficiently
abundant or cheap to take the place of corn and other cattle grains,
and is not used except in a very limited way in competition with
other breadstuffs. California, however, is a local exception to this
statement, producing more than a fourth of the crop, and using it
extensively in feeding. New York, the Northwest, and the Pacific
coast region produce nearly all of it. The crop of 1886 was a full
average, or over 22 bushels per acre, and the product nearly 60,000,000
bushels. The following statement shows the course of production
and values since 1870:

Average
Average | Average
Total Total area | Total value ; value of
Calendar years. production. | of crop. of crop. veins bee vie Pet yield per
‘ . acre.
Bushels. Acres. Dollars. Cents. | Bushels. | Dollars.
TB80 o.53. wom teh dees meme meee ee 45,165,346 | 1,843,322 30, 090, 742 66.6 24. 16 3
TSBL 6 bccn, ceciejccob ie veep series 41,161,330 | 1,967,510 33, 862,513 82.3 20.9 17 21
(: 2 re eer Pe eat 2 se , 953, 9 2, 272, 103 30, 768, 015 62.8 21.5 13 54
TEENS ica» =: 0.0.6 cyctacain Sip cine ieee 50,136,097 | 2,379,009 29, 420, 423 58.7 21.1 12 38
IBSAS di «sins. s vee esc gee belo a aeiee 61, 203,000 | 2,608,818 29,779,170 48.7 23.5 11 41
WBSS 5 << = ojn:ss'sistncorase.cteiemmaenereeeee 58,360,000 | 2,729,359 32, 867, 696 56.3 21.4 12 04
Total ....<stocasssceeeee St 970) 690 |. 18,800,128 |, 186; 788/5bo. |\s)aeeee ee toss ee
Annual average ...........0.... 50,829,950 | 2,800,021 | 31, 131, 427 61.2. 22.1 | 13 54
Annual average for preceding
TON YOATH. «. adc. cece eeenaaeene 88,704,652 | 1,529,357 24, 885, 503 73.8 22.0 16 27

380 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

BUCKWHEAT,

This, smallest in area and product of the principal cereals, was
somewhat under average in yield, considerably less than the’average
of the preceding year, producing scarcely 10,000,000 bushels. Two-
thirds of the crop is grown in New York and Pennsylvania, for con-
sumption in the form of breakfast batter-cakes, and used largely in
the central cities and towns of the Middle States. The following
record is made for product and value:

——.,.

erage
Average | Average
Total Total area | Total value : value of
Calendar years. production. | of crop. of crop. peiue hig vieht Det yield per
Bushels. Acres. Dollars. Cents. | Bushels. | Dollars.
SORES ce MER. 5 aa Neti Saati 14, 617, 535 822, 802 8, 682, 488 59.4 17.7 10 55
Spree ratataie ats SE cis: ove cts thee wisiavclere 9, 486, 200 828, 815 5,705 1.4 90
GCSE hess 8 wel ih Y: 11, 019, 353 847,112 Cys
PAW ae IE aa 7, 668, 954 857,349 8.9
ifs! 0 SRO Ma 2 ese 11, 116, 000 879, 403 2.6
CCU ees aren ana Se ee 12, 626, 000 914, 394 3.8
SDOtAN Meee ae dads eee! 66,534,042 | 5,149,875
=
Annual average ............06-- 11, 089, 007 858, 313

Annual average for preceding
ONLY OBIS F852: cic\a(e nln teh ils sae 9, 747, 272 651, 104

6, 972, 974 | 71.5 17.7 12 65

ALL CEREALS.

The increase in cereals is shown by the figures below, the average
of the decade ended in 1879 being 1,872,993,769, and that of the last
Six years 2,686,875,943 bushels, an increase of over 30 per cent., which
is decidedly in advance of the ratio of increase of population, and
serves to explain the relative cheapness of grain, aside from the
general tendency to lower prices. The product for 1886 is about
2,842,000,000 bushels, or 47 bushels per capita of present population,
and greater than the average of the period since the general census.
The record is as follows up to 1885:

Calendar years. Bushels. Acres. Value.

SEBO) shite fa ees. «OTITIS tates | eta raceme 2,718, 193,501 | 120,926,286 |¢1, 361,497, 704
aS a: is Ce Lace Ge namin be uke oumene atk eokes 2,066, 029,570 | 128,388,070 | 1; 470, 957; 200

TNs yh MON S MUNT E ees ACB Ley We de 2,699. 394,496 | 126,568,535 | 1,468, 693, 393
So RR CSSA Riana IONE SAE OEY HORE EH os 8 CaO G) 2, 629,319,089 | 130,633,556 | 1; 280,765,927
BORA orominctcnes sees, (81 seeds qeran tee ema oe nate 2,992, 880,000 | 136, 2927766 | 1) 184,311, 520
11 RNS oN RMI CE SON GVA yn MRE (CSCI 3, 015, 439,000 | 135,876,080 | 1) 143; 146, 759

ERODE ata: o's) araiet’: are aratoxcretors vemnecasteystarecetetate ¢ sleteis einer eetee 16,121, 255,656 | 773, 685, 293 | 7,909, 872,503
AVEDA POOL SIE VOANS .i)aiuic bis ss Notslemiclaleesichielelst <hasitlotceats e--| 2,686, 875,943 | 128,947,549 | 1,318, 228, 751
Average of ten preceding years.............cscceccceccsers 1, 872, 993, 769 88, 391, 088 "987, 857, 142

POTATOES.

The potato (Solanum tuberosum) is grown in all parts of the coun-
try, not very extensively in the South, where it is little used except
in spring, or grown for Northern shipment as an early crop. The
crop was a heavy one in 1884, and has since been declining to quite

/

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, 381

moderate production, the last crop yielding only 73 bushels per acre
and a product of about 163,000,000 bushels. The yield was good in
the Eastern States, medium in New York, and still less in Michigan
and other Western States. The previous record is as follows:

Average
Average | Average =
Total produc- | Total area | Total value * value of
Calendar years. tion. of crop. of crop. pane per sce yield per
Bushels. Acres. Dollars. Cents. | Bushels. | Dollars.
SREUNTuraraieieinicvore victe le s/eleisiatel state serele 167,659,570 | 1,842,510 | | 81,062,214 48.3 91.0 $44 00
USE AE oe BAD BE. OL Coens 109, 145,494 | 2,041,670 99, 291, 841 90.9 53.5 48 63
PORTS c's 0 sieicleainis wisieatcle et travalel sre: </s10 170,972,508 | 2,171,636 95, 804, 844 55.7 78.7 43 89
Fo IRR BP BENE ODE ABOBDOO OOO BEE 208, 164,425 | 2,289, 275 87, 849, 991 42.2 91.0 38 37
Vio pC cr nBEe 06 DOR Een OED 190, 642,000 | 2,220, 980 75, 524, 290 39.6 85.8 34 00
EEE Erolerhare cicie aveimresers sninieltinutatas sie 175,029,000 | 2,265, 823 78, 153, 403 44.7 77.2 34 49
MBO AD sere tieroteterciciviavara ct aje+« . Ort Olen GO ede, Sa, 894 SL tRG, OSs | sere als etcetera larcteate crete eiailin camterererctets
Annual average .............. 170, 268,833 | 2,185, 649 86, 197, 681 50.6 79.6 40.30
Annual average for preceding &
WEN OANSI Gs s suis cisteis cje.s)tie's« 132, 837,175 | 1,514,045 74, 653, 71 56.2 87.7 49,31

Sweet-potatoes (Batatas edulis) are grown in the cotton States,
and in a very limited way in others up to about the 40th degree of
latitude. The product is increasing in the South with advance-
mentof population. The area devoted to this crop in 1886 was largely
increased in those States where it is a material pen of the agricult-
ural production, and condition on July 1 was high. The wet weather
in the South during that month was not conducive to good growth,
and there was a slight falling in the average of the larger States.
This decline was continuing and more marked during August, and
the figures of condition of September 1 gave evidence of local inju-
ries from supersaturation in some sections and drought in others.
The October condition in the principal States was: North Carolina,
93; Georgia, 90; Alabama, 92; Mississippi, 92; Tennessee, 95, and
South Carolina, 94.

The crop may therefore be considered an average one, and may
have reached 40,000,000 bushels. It slightly exceeded 33,000,000
bushels in 1879. North Carolina and Georgia are States of largest
production, producing each about 5,000,000 bushels.

HAY.

The crop of 1886 was fully as large as that of 1885, but less than
the two large crops of 1883 and 1884—about 45,000,000 tons—yielding
about an average crop, or nearly one and one-fifth tons per acre.
The crop is an important one, and it is gratifying to state that
increasing attention is paid to it in the South, in connection with
improved stock-growing and dairying. The use of Japan clover
(Lespedeza striata) and several Southern grasses, and also of lucerne

582 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. -

(Medicago sativa) is increasing sclpeg with many striking and
a

cheering results. The recent record of hay stands:
s Average
Average | Average :
Total pro- | Total area | Total value : value of
Calendar years. ari value per} yiel doz, dea
y duction. | of crop. of crop, ton, «+ Perea lyield per
Tons. Acres. Dollars, Dollars. Tons. . | Dollars.
ESD recs pica e wre cietaiersta p= aiary<o: var winiain 31,925,283 | 25, 863, 955 871, 811, 084 11 65 1.23.) 14 38
TE RASS poo oc cote eee 35, 135,064 | 80,888,700 | 415,131,366 11 8 1,14 | 13 43
AERap crete ote: cic Reet nie viv in a. siale's s wheicias 88,138,049 | 82,389,585 869, 958, 158 97 1.18 | jl 44
T'S GR GaD cat OOO SEEING erotics 46,864,009 | 35,515, 948 3, 834, 451 8 19 1,32 10 b1
BERGA occ 2 arene aleve’ a e/a /n aiaipieinle/aceinin'e 48, 470,460 | 38,571,593 396, 139, 309 8 17 1.26 10 27
IPSN tS SEIS. a's. s)« cichsiert stsiaiecds 44,731,550 | 39,849, 701 389, 752, 873 8 71 1.12 9 78
To ee aes 245, 264, 365 | 203, 029, 482 | 2, 326,627,241 |........0-/.cec cesses eae 3
Annual average ............... 40,877,394 | 33,838, 247 | 887, 771, 207 9.49 1.21 11.46
Annual average for preceding
MTL W GAIA) fe Niei<’o scl Ste@ eivareiele 28,526,750 | 28,142, 841 323, 935, 991 11.36 1.23 14.00

TOBACCO,

The tobacco crop of 1886 was one of medium production, not yet
fully determined as to quantity, but approaching nearly to 500,000,-
000 pounds, and furnishing a supply equal to the wants of consump-
tion and exportation. The rate of yield is not far from an average
of 700 pounds per acre. ‘The previous record reads:

Average
Average | Average

Total produc- | Total area | Total value ‘ value of
Calendar years. tion. of crop. of crop. iran yer eee yield per

-————— |———wq“|————

Pounds. Acres Dollars. Cents. | Pounds, | Dollars.
460, 000, 000 10,000 | 39, 100, 000 8.5 “f 64
450,880,014 | 646,289 | 43,372,000 9.6| 697.7 67 11
513,077,558 71,522 | 43,189,951 8.4] 764.1 64 82
451, 545, 641 638,739 | 40,455, 362 9.0} 706.9 63 34
541,504,000 | 724,668 | 44’ 160, 151 8.2| 47.2 60 94
¥ 562,736,000 | 752}520 | 43, 265, 598 7.7 | 747.8 57 49
Motallis tkviscadevactess 2,979, 743,213 | 4,043,688 | 253,543,062 |..........|....0.0cae fee shaumails
Annual average........2+..-. 496,623,869 | 673,948 | 42, 257,177 8.5| 736.9] 62.70

Annual average for preced-
BNE PONVVOALS «.002- vcs 0c ve 464, 920, 000 629, 944 39, 770, 600 8.6 738.0 63.13

COTTON.

The area of cotton increased rapidly till 1860, when the acreage was
probably about 12,000,000 acres. From 1861 to 1865 very little cotton
was grown. The breadth in 1870 was not far from 7,000,000 acres.
Extension has since been constant though unequal, and there is now
in cultivation 50 per cent. more than in 1860.

Comparing production since 1865 with that of twenty years prior
to 1861, the annual crop has increased more than 50 per cent. Seven-
tenths of all was exported in the former period; in the latter, not-
withstanding the enlargement of the mpadict, less than two-thirds.

The season of 1886 was not a very favorable one for large produc-
tion, especially that of planting and cultivation. The fine autumn
did much to make amends for the misfortunes of the spring and

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 883

summer. Indications point to a crop a very little smaller than that
of 1885, between six and a third and six and a half million bales.

After the excessive rains of the early seasom, which wrought serious
injury and threatened still more, came the exceptional weather of
the autumn, which prevented discoloration or stains, and favored
picking with a minimum amount of dirt or trash, and ripened fully
the well-developed bolls. The unfavorable season of germination
and cultivation and the highly encouraging period of ripening and
harvesting were antagonistic elements in the production of the crop,
which have naturally caused much difference of opinion among crop
experts as to the magnitude of the harvest. The first caused a fail-
ure of growth, a shedding of. foliage and fruitage, a weakening of
plant vitality, which inevitably caused a reduction of the crop. But
there were areas in soil of strength and depth, well cultivated, where
the plants remained thrifty and vigorous, in either fair or fine condi-
tion to produce a heavy yield under the favorable influences of the
later season. The views and estimates of the harvest period were
therefore naturally and properly more cheerful than those of the com-
mencement of picking. As the larger average and comparatively
higher condition are mainly in the districts of richer lands and larger
capacity for production, these favorable autumn influences have been
all the more potent, tending to enlarge the crop aggregate.

The close of picking is reported the same as last year in the Caro-
linas and Texas, one day earlier in Mississippi, two in Georgia, and
two later in Louisiana, four in Tennessee, and twenty-one in Arkansas,
The dates are: North Carolina, December 2; South Carolina, Novem-
ber 30; Georgia, December 1; Florida, November 27; Alabama, De-
cember 2; Mississippi, December 7; Louisiana, December 12; Texas,
December 3; Arkansas, December 25; Tennessee, December 14. The
late maturing of the crop extended the season slightly in a few States.
Only in Arkansas was the season lengthened by inability to pick the
heavy harvest earlier. :

The average date of picking for the entire cotton belt was about
two and a half days later than the previous year, as that was nine
ref later than the season of 1884. The record of four years is as

ollows:

DUE INTE ee Setias fa Ae CCAP hee» sila wid ade sendsay vesadess Jan. 2/|Dec.-.11|Dec. 6|Dec. 12
MPOEUD OMEOUNA Cee tee ace ad Se as cae gedaaonaenae ta tadasend Dee... 2| Dec. .2| Nov. 25| Nov. 28
SOWIN CANOUNAT . -c-detenecnas saws... Jroezancaddadadsnaseas Nov. 30) Nov. 30| Nov. 20} Nov. 23
MOOT EIA iain cielo s'ciein claleiele rises sobs vee. + wt do tartdddadone nara Dee. 1/|Dec. 3)Nov. 19/ Nov. 20
RUNES TUM ER 2 5 Sie eis clea sc eM e Sele te OE oe ain ceroled Marddava aidan Ano stad Nov. 27] Nov. 25| Nov. 30| Nov. 30
IAD AINA Sob vlatciaied ied m eae weniag Me. sc atadncasienaroescaradse Dec. 2| Nov. 28| Nov. 24| Nov. 24
HESSEN 218) Be oc eae Gch Sana 3A SUE eee RECEDES cee - Dec. 7|Dec. 8|Nov. 23) Nov. 26
LG GT TE Ae Aer Se ei ae oo ie ei eRe ed ee eam i BR Dec. 12|Dec. 10| Nov. 28|Nov. 88
PIEREAS a wal arelol aie eat te En nin he ates ois aisles Seip alesse Dec 3|Dec. 3] Nov. 20} Nov. 30
PEDIATR ocretteras te ee Seats oni. ate ha ere Lee ota. Ane mas Dec. 25/|Dec. 4] Dec 4;Dec. 12
PRERHORSCO es oe a nee se eee Nee AON As MRE oct cledi sie de oe hbo gana Dec. 14 | Dec. 10! Nov. 30| Dec. 10

The returns of proportion marketed make the average to February
1, 85.1 per cent. This would indicate a crop of about 6,460,000 bales,
a mere trifle above the November indications of rate of yield. The
proportions by States are as follows: North Carolina, 87; South Car-
olina, 88; Georgia, 85; Florida, 83; Alabama, 87; Mississippi, 84;
Louisiana, 83; Texas, 86; Arkansas, 81; Tennessee, 83. The propor-
tion reported February, 1886, was 83 per cent. of the crop of 1885.

384 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

The quality of the crop is superior. Rarely if ever have the re-
turns of cleanness and color, combined with length of staple, equaled
those just received. Last year the State averages were 7 to 10 points
short of the standard of good quality in all of the Atlantic coast States
except Florida and in Alabama, and nearly as much in Mississippi.
In the other States it was near the normal standard.

The price of seed is low. Complaint is made of combinations of
oil-millers to reduce prices. Renters will sell at any price, sometimes
as low as 5 to 8 cents per bushel. The best planters refuse to sell at
ruling rates. The average in Mississippi and Louisiana is 10 cents,
11 in Arkansas, 12 in Texas and Tennessee, 13 in South Carolina,
Georgia, and Alabama, 16 in Florida, Feeders of cattle and sheep
pay the highest rates.

If every planter would grind into meal his surplus seed and feed it
to fattening stock on the premises he would derive a handsome re-
turn in meat, and have more and better stores of fertilizers than
though he used the entire supply in the usual mode of applying to
the soil. Itis important that the seed should be returned to the soil;
even if sold to mills, the refuse, after extraction of the oil, should be
returned, or an equivalent for it procured from other sources. A
combination to reduce prices of seed can easily be met by counter-
combination of planters to sell only at its equivalent value for feed-
ing and fertilizing. A single a without concert with his neigh-
bor, will increase his personal gains by individual refusal to sell at
10 or 12 cents per bushel, feeding for meat instead, or even applying
to the furrow direct from the gin-house. It is a monopoly, therefore,
that should easily be circumvented, with or without concert of action,
at least by all intelligent cotton-growers; and returns indicate that
they have already measurably applied this remedy.

The return of lint to seed is generally higher than last year, The
following table arranges the statistics here indicated:

. Price of
. : Proportion
States. Lint. Quality. Tiarkerodl pie Ls

Vil giNiG, .....--esccdcccscccvcccsvenccssvs+ssedesceveneccirervcie

IN ODER OANOlINES os see cc lecielecale «clei teeis Motels nls isieierehe)siclsieiete/sierele 31.5 101 87 14
SOnbhl@ arolixieiess clccrenieenieleciais avcleteleleleielofeipiclelels Loic elbisiaieletseieisineic 32.0 100 88 18
(Ghar deal} Woo mertaaead Coo nO DOA ROCIO OROnOS AHOUGEE eA addoonbodus 82.0 100 85 13
ME COTSUCR ERY Poe far rays ale cto bia ce aie afa rats oon oichetsle eo roletelerete ciate’ wcieloletolecbstereveio's 82.5 100 83 16
PA ery SUIN YER te tk cies byerere heise aiaelaietett slave axe’ eletetd eletezeseie(-/siecainielerelaieleelelsiere= 31.5 100 i" 13
AVMISSISSIP PTAs = [2 -/alais/oisb a\sicterslelaselo'es Ua dele ricece fee enone ieasines 31.5 99 84 10
PROUISIATIA seta. cteletats vistolecajsistclcreiarmietels «(AVS MMateis lol ch s]oie/otsldielejeseibinusiaieieeler= 31.5 100 83 10
BEEK SS Wale iclele’e cteeteteisteie a ein cieistteierelers elersiatartts ‘eisse/sieteietimininte Bleieintelersial 32.0 98 86 12
(ARTES OSE SAG Ga a RO SORE Cho On eOSbCOUE COG ISOOG UO IA ONO SOE eG 32.0 100 81 11
EPENTICSSOO).Ce. «c's sinters) tele o\<iareroia toe tie covsie Sle Gre lore ln eels aieiarereisioisjsiviemisieis 32.0 100 83 12

LAST YEAR’S COTTON CROP,

The National Cotton Exchange made the record of the cotton
‘movement of the product of 1885 6,575,691 bales. The Financial
Chronicle record aggregates 6,550,215 bales of 485.40 pounds each,
against 5,669,021 bales of 481.21 pounds; or, in pounds, 3,179,456,091
and 2,727,967,317 pounds, respectively, showing an increase of 451,-
488,774 pounds, or 16.55 per cent., over the crop grown in 1884. In
actual bales the increase be this record is 881,194, and in bales of the
same size as those of 1884, 938,236. The crop of 1886 will prove to be
nearly as large.

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, 8385

It is a noteworthy fact, and a cheering indication to growers of the
- world’s supply of cotton, that an increase of more than 16 per cent.
has caused a decline in export value (according to the record of ex-
ports for the year ended June 30) of less than 7 per cent. Had the
‘ present crop been sold at the price paid for the previous one, the
growers would have received scarcely twenty million dollars more.

The cotton movement, if assumed to be without error (and the two
statements differ by 25,000 bales last year and 37,000 the year before),
does not necessarily represent exactly the product grown in a given
year, but does so substantially, and affords the best available test of
the accuracy of our crop returns. What is the result of this test?

Stated briefly, the last four crops since the return of the present
Statistician to his work have been indicated, with one exception, with
nearly as much precision as by the ultimate record of the movement
. itself, the discrepancies being a fraction of one per cent. No non-
official estimates have approached the departmental results in degree
and uniformity of accuracy, and some of them have made annual dis-
crepancies of a fourth to half a million bales.

In 1882 the October condition was 88, indicating 10 per cent. more
than an average product, and, compared with 66 for the previous year,
“‘would indicate nearly 7,000,000 bales.” In November the returns .
of yield per acre indicated more than 3,000,000,000 pounds of net lint,
but this was not given as the full estimate of the year’s production.
In the final report the local estimates footed up 6,835,000 bales, which
was assumed to be slightly underestimated, the Statistician adding:
“‘Should these returns of product prove conservative as usual, the
movement wouid not be less than 7,000,000 bales.” The National
Cotton Exchange made its ultimate record of the movement 6,949,756
bales, and the Financial Chronicle 6,992,234 bales.

In October, 1883, it was said: ‘‘Indications point to a crop a little
larger than that of 1881 (which was 5,456,048), but falling short of
last crop by more than 1,000,000 bales.” The local estimates of yield
per acre pointed to a reduction of 14 to 15 per cent. The returns
gave expectation of about 6,000,000 bales, but the final report in Feb-
ruary indicated a crop somewhat less than 6,000,000 bales, or from 84
to 86 per cent. of the previous crop. This was 2 or 3 per cent. too
high, as the movement was 5,713,200 bales, between 82 and 83 per
cent. of the previous crop. This is the only season of recent years in
which the discrepancy was as much as 1 per cent.

The crop of 1884, in October, was reported in lower condition than
in September by 8 points, and the prospect of a top crop, as reported,
was ‘‘reduced to a minimum,” though the county estimates aver-
aged 0.36 of a bale per acre. The final report indicated a smaller
yield than the returns of condition in October, and the aggregate of
local estimates was 5,646,441 bales, and the Statistician summed up
the expectation from all these returns of ‘‘a crop of about 5,667,000
bales.” The Financial Chronicle record was 5,669,021 bales, and
that of the National Cotton Exchange 5,706,165 bales.

In: October of 1885 the prospect was more favorable than in No-
vember and December. The county estimates of yield per acre, when
consolidated, made an average of 36.75 of a bale per acre, which
would forecast a crop of nearly 6,667,000 bales. The returns of con-
dition the same month were equally favorable, indicating an increase
of 1,000,000 bales in round numbers, ‘‘ subject to future meteorological
conditions,” and not to be considered a final estimate, ‘‘as the date

. 25 AG—’86

886 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

of killing frost and the autumn weather may easily cause a variation
of a quarter of a million bales.”

In November it was reported that ‘‘the top crop is very light, and
in many places scarcely an appreciable quantity.” These returns
were local estimates of yield per acre in pounds, which were some-
what lower, looking toa yield of about 6,500,000 bales. The final
report summed up the crop prospects in these words: ‘The indica-
tions point to a crop approximating the November estimates of yield

er acre, which looked to a product slightly exceeding 6,500,000

ales.”

The recorded movement stands: By the Financial Chronicle,
6,550,215 bales; by the National Cotton xchange, 6,575,691 bales.

Thus the crop of 1885 was foreshadowed as fairly and almost as
fully as it could have been if the result had been published a year in
advance of the completion of the actual count of bales.

It is 57 per cent. of the cotton product of the world, though Ameri- ©
can cotton planting is an industrial growth of less than a hundred
years, while India, the original source of commercial cotton, pro-
duces only a third as much.

CROP ESTIMATES FOR 1885.

It should be understood that the following table does not include
all the crops of each State, and that no comparison of the agricul-
tural prominence of States can be fairly made from it. The onl
comparison that is practicable must relate to the specific crops named.
Sugar and rice, fruits, market gardening, aud meats in the South,
and flax, hemp, broom-corn, dairy products, and meats in the West,
and many other products, some very local in distribution, in these
and other sections of the country, are not included, simply because
they are not estimated annually in sufficient detail. This explanation
is made to prevent captious suggestions of unfairness to the different
sections, which are absurd and unreasonable. :

Table showing the product of the cereals, potatoes, tobacco, hay, and cotton of the
several States named, the yield per acre, the total acreage, the average price in
each Siate, and the value of each crop, for 1885.

Quantity | Average | Number of |/Value per Total
States, Products. produced in| yield | acresin | unit of | [4 o Pa
1885. | per acre.| each crop. | quantity.) Y4uaton
Maley .2aeeiis.:: Indian corn ....bushels..} 1,009,000} 32.8 81,222] $0 70 $706, 300
WBORE Hh. 24caae nets GO nie 566, 000 13.8 41,126 1 25 707,500
VE Tee a cea ree do. 29, 000 12.2 2, 385 84 24, 327
Oatsrrish: vrei. do 2, 622, 000 31.0 84, 57 40 1, 048, 800
Pati os. do 276, 000 22.4 12,302 69 190, 140
Buckwheat ....... do 871, 000 17.5 21, 185 54 200, 199
Potatoes ....... ..-do,...| 6,204,000 100.0 62, 035 42 2, 605, 476
agra ae. te oT. tons..| 976, 646 85 | 1,148;995| 1195 | 11,670,920
Mate <, os chee cee aememac meee: lee ees 1, 4082880 le. Avene 17, 153, 656
New Hampshire.../ Indian corn ....bushels..} 1,299,000 88.8 38, 386 i) 922, 290
TWWHGBU piice revere. ols do.... 174, 000 15.4 11, 267 1 24 215, 760
Rye «fo cypasngte+ ae do 41,000 12.5 3, 280 88 34,
OGLE Rte sree: do 1,092, 000 34.7 $1, 506 42 458,
Barley pietet tailes do. , 900 22.4 8, 745 69 58, 141
Buckwheat........ do. 95, 000 20.1 4,737 54 51, 160
Potatoes ,:........ do....| 2,'785, 000 102.0 27, 804 44 1, 225, 404
TRG. cm ciomsten® vole’ tons.. 527, 169 oe ecu 658, 961 12 75 6, 721, 405
Motel: Jc: ee Ser reeele a cat. 79,1868 |.......... 9, 686, 830

“REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN.

387

Table showing the product of the cereals, potatoes, hay, and cotton, &c,—Continued.

States,

' Vermont

Indian corn ....

Massachusetts... ..|

New York..

New Jersey

eee eee

wees

Products,

bushels
WWHMME cose cy cous. do.
1h ace See Se oe do.
Caer oe «ie aos kee do
Beatioee.. «0g ovoees do.
Buckwheat........ do.
POUBtOOR «2.02. cses do.
EONS ong a tons.
Total
Indian corn bushels. .
WIRE So's oy oct age Conic:
1) 7 Meee | does
CU ae 5c0Oss =
RAMIOMS «5 5 <i co's slots dort:
Buckwheat........ dows,
Potatoes ...:.,...: dos *
ToObsECO.. 2.5. pounds. .
ESR Oepgoqneenes tons..
Matal.< 2: eae:
— corn Dens ‘
A Ae eer ere +, dOse 2
CU Gee a ermeet & 100.46.
120 (a ee eee sdosce,
Buckwheat....... 75 Cae
Potatoes.........0. dosti.
TI Geen SEX: tons..
EOUAL Sop ceed ce
Indian corn bushels
VRE So cis's <p ote cet do.
AMEE. ooidiy tae te: do.
PRR Re aco sin'g'd ot cias GO, <
Barley...... AP prey do.,..
Buckwheat........do.
Potatoes...... eee aoe
TODSECO. foes... pounds
13) OR eee ++.» tOnS
Indian corn....bushels..
WW HOMI tae 25. 52s 6 ado-t-
UME ce esse ost ag do....
(2) ne dows
18) (3 eee eee don
Buckwheat........ dows:
1) ee doz 33
Pobacco....,... pounds..
oo See Seen tons..
Total
Indian corn . Aap £ é
VAS: Vi x
EE sea tos a5 oe: dent eee
CB ei Tae eee re te ee |
Lc) Goes
Buckwheat.,...... dow, s:
Potatoess......... d02,2-
oes eee tons.

| Quantity | Avera;
yi

Number of |Value per|

Total
\produced in e acres in unit of -
1885. | peracre.| each crop. | quantity.| V@luation.
1,979, 000 82.2 $1, 266, 560
300, 000 17.7 432, 900
85, 000 13.2 62, 691
3, 806, 000 36.4 1, 408, 220
295, 000 25.2 206, 582
366, 000 20.5 194,071
8, 656, 000 98.0 1,279,527
902, 7 -90 9, 929,700
dager ieertde Apher corse. s[saecs oh tach ee Deer oo: 14,780, 251
1,961,000 24.0 57, 668 70 1,372,700
17, 000 15.7 1, 080 1 25 21, 250
275, 000 11.3 24, 294 . 81 222, 363
753, 000 31.0 24, 267 43 323, 7
82, 000 25.2 3,248 72 59, 165
59, 000 114 5, 884 55 32, 271
3,426,000} 100.0 34,255 57 | 1,952) 535
3,798,000 | 1,464.0 2,594 12 455,714
661, 077 1.05 629,597 | 1850 | 12, 220, 925
Se ee eee 782, 837 |eseveseees 16, 669,713.
—<—<—<—<$_—<——<—<—————_
429, 000 808, 880
15, 000 12, 875
167,000 73,
19, 000 13, 756
1,000 783
668, 000 874, 321
69, 657 1, 274,728
ee ee A 2,058, 318
2, 083, 000 35.0 1,280,790
31, 000 14.1 82, 550
882)000 13.0 286, 582
1,090, 000 28.5 457, 800
14, 000 22.2 10, 381
140, 000 12.6 83, 818
2,811, 000 90.0 1,545, 836
12,066,000 | 1,575.0 1,496, 193
551, 431 .95- 9,925, 738
15, 119, 708.
22, 448, 000 30.7 731,196 | 58 | 13,019,840
10, 865, 000 15.4 | 687, 867 | 96 | 10,142,400
2, 658, 000 11.0 | 241,661 | 67 1,781, 042
88, 676,000 | 27.9 1, 885, 245 | 36 13, 923, 360
7,478,000 | 22.0 339, 922 7 5, 309, 582
4, 609; 000 14.8 311, 424 53 2,442. 888
19, 996, 000 56.0 ai 075 aS | 45 8, 998, 290
10, 234, 000 | 1,520.0 10 1, 023, 416
5,210, 266 1.05 | 4, 962! 168 [1 275 | 66,430,892
Pade civcney MR Ane 9, 022, 791 123, 071,710
| 11,212, 000 22. 350, 370 5, 942, 360
1,395, 000 9. 143, 097 1, 325,250
| 1,140, 10. 105, 588 741,22
’ a6, % 138, 451 1,315, 720
257 3, i532
35, 876 286,546
40, 916 i, 657" 088
519, 241 8, 139, 104
ed cece Peel cecceree es 1,328, 296 19,411,058

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

States.

Pennsylvania ......

Delaware..........

Maryland..........

WVAroINIA co 8. ta. 6 0:

North Carolina...
a

South Carolina ....

Value per
unit of
quantity.

or

49
7.8
75

Table showing the product of the cereals, potatoes, hay, and cotton, &c.—Continued.

Total
valuation.

22, 576, 260

36, 970, 722

98, 211, 826

3,740, 509

20, 082, 092

34, 456, 791

18, 859, 450
2) 790, 000
231,675

2, 241,500
3,312
34,012
716, 158

3, 966, 198
1, 129, 222
15, 922, 693

40, 894, 220

21, 969, 766

32, 971, 280

Quantity | Average |Number of
Products. producedin| yiel acres in
1885. per acre. | each crop.
Indian corn ....bushels..| 46,074,000 2.0 1, 417, 030
Wheat... ..d0....| 18,825, 000 9.7 | 1,380,294
TY ON a s/s <3 .do....| 38,295, 000 8.2 402,179
Mats. fe aah ee do 34, 326, 000 26.3 | 1,304,028
IB ATlOY:itn'<1sscies rane do 485, 000 18.5 26, 194
Buckwheat........ do 8, 897, 000 14,2 274,445 ,
Potatoes .......... do.. 13, 700, 000 | 72.0 190, 280 ;
MTODACGO. sce 1 pounds. . 23, 392,000 | 1,000.0 23, 392
EDA iaia siviaters oatvoteis tons..| 2,738, 572 1.0 2, 738, 572
ITE T All ie aisiniciats)atoteleretela el eietntaiete eisteio: =| wieta=/annyaees 7, 756, 409
Indian corn... area 4,174,000 19.3 216, 595
WHEL nw saseetions (oko re =: 957, 000 10.7 89, 103
RYO viciseceeet do... 6, 000 7.0 857
OBiSL Fi ccate seecm ee Gots 501, 009 23.6 21,197
Buckwheat........ dots 5, 000 11.4 437
Potatoes.) sci. ate ele dou 315, 000 76.0 4, 141
RDP isis sicsieseteteroveloye tons. 44, 665 .90 49, 628
PROG tots eyetese tine otelatotel|iciateeibis taro!siecoroll « ssoysiare ieee 381, 958
Indian corn ....bushels..| 15,999, G00 22.0 726, 836
heat ..... ceveeesGO....| 5,684, 000 9.5 580, 482
EUV Olcitis visjsisisinin sipiaie Ose 240, 000 7.8 80, 759
Oana eter can seeeeGO....| 2,475, 000 22.3 111, 100
Barley ..... BS GOs » 6,000 21.7 277
Baekwhoat, Meee On. 144, 000 13.0 11, 106
Potatoes ........0. do.. 1,528, 000 75.0 20, 378
Tobacco......5.« pounds..| 28, oe 000 663.0 43, 065
LY capoicietovete aiehehepete tle tons 272, 0387 95 286, 355
EOC E vesote sSpaiaca ara pyevsieistsl| shetaisie. nie ol-crec-|| eisioteietm ners 1, 809, 858
Indian corn ....bushels..} 31,835, 000 14.9 2, 182, 230
WHOS 35.2) netoleicles do....| 2,833, 000 4.4 651, 140
NEU MGievaters cyarasorars(olelete do.. 323, 000 6.7 48, 216
aise escolar do. 8, 664, 000 13.9 621, 230
Banloygie + sistent Goss25 20, 000 17.0 1,175
Buckwheat........ COvee > 18%, 000 9.0 20, 734
Potatoes... si. oe do:.-. 102, 000 60.0 35, 037
TODACGO!: = <<. /2/ pounds. . 107 7 711, 600 655. 0 164, 445
EV aby pietcretraterenrersisistonels tons. 251, 541 . 85 295, 930
(Ofe io) 14 AEA tomes bales. 14, 821 .383 44, 913
TE OGELL Ts inraiats ores oVeie a eie)| fate aceslese tee atevell eteieseTarsie’ le?s 4,015, 050
Indian corn. ..bushels.. 25, 199, 000 9.9 2, 545, 126
Wihestiiciiaccd.s. do.. 2,790, 000 4.1 682, 888
EUV Gere sleic o/oiesste rele do.. 273, 000 4,2 64, 895
Oats Aas cicaiee mason. 4, 483, 000 (es) 599, 117
(BALIOY easy tees ieerdo... 3, 000 10.9 276
Buckwheat........ do.. 52, 000 8.4 6, 156
POUtabOGS: 0:. 0.510 see do.. 1, 256, 000 61.0 20, 597
MODSECO ras see do....| 37,417, 000 480.0 77, 952
Player cca tte pounds 96, 680 «95 101, 768
(Oxo\740)5 1) GAG qapAGdae bales 407, 230 .388 | 1,071, 658
4 10) WEB anBaca foneisc|aonoccvooseu antag nbede 5, 170, 433
Indian corn ....bushels..| 13, 453, 000 9.0 1, 487, 341
TWH Sib ieee cise elaine rave do.. 1, 170, 000 5.3 220, 030
RUVEM a Saiteisis cis avers do.. 82, 000 4.0 8 036
OBES EE casciee eee do 3, 510, 000 8.5 413, 963
Barley: iscatiy decises dos 16, 000 12.9 1, 236
Potatoes ...-...... olayge 5 - 235, 000 60.0 3,911
Lis ielets aise aie els tons 4, 336 1.0 a 836
Cotton etree. 3% bales 554, 652 .32 | 1, 733, 289
ET OU) ie areiste'slerevarste etl ROR CIMER EERE Ilois sreieiel els) 3, 872, 142

* Per pound,

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN.

089

Table showing the product of the cereals, potatoes, hay, and cotton, &c.—Continued,

States,

ee

Mississippi.........

Products.

Indian corn ....bushels..
SVVIDSE cree + o:c7- saree do...
TREY ees dies o's. sia icio visitas do..
OPTS | aoe ener ae do
Barley
Potatoes
REV Rosters avis aicie eae
Cotton
otal ccc. ABO oe
Indian corn ....bushels
(ORIG HA Rp Sepeear arit, do...
Potatoes. ......<.4: Gos.
18 EAS BBC BRE Der Se tons
Gatton sic.useeeee bales
Moval as ssacsdatretes
Indian corn .... bushels
NWheateed. oooh age os do..
EU MO vores arate. oisisie, aye a do.
Oaths. <<die ves do
IP OLALOCS) <)s\c:sisie-siase do.
ELVA resin eieie ayavatctalele tons
COCLONY 2. a5 s/o wearers bales
Motall aisuienesner aes
Indian corn bushels
WAGER a scidrertis bierare Gout
BOS. reel, cia desis ais do..
Potatoes 2.606... Oc
AY ataie tate/aca(n: piaisinotays tons
COELON ea vinc as wens bales.
MOtaleweiascorenin ees
Indian corn .... bushels
UDR acti iele:e' ais aide do..
Potatoes .......... do..
UV eetah Aslercitiea ee tons
COULOMY C55 <ciccicieis bales
ML OU 2) o/oite cielo cleieisislerets
Indian corn .... bushels
WIHESD ie. 53s) teas + G0...
RG veiei sais de sbes do..
HES teeta oie sicis: aie do..
IG cane «\sisierecieio do..
Potatoes .......... do..
EV dere alc: (i0ia)0'0.s,<'~ tons
COROT ae = s'<755)0's bales
SO EEUMS « a\e\uivid.e a aie\ninrele
Indian corn bushels
WOR bias Gos aerate os do
BY Gite cehwiles seiselos do.
Oateretiad cso cisavieis do.
Potatoes .......... do.
TODACCO)/: «7.0/0 pounds
TARY Oee re ose stare sis'e's
CORON 65 sisierissc:s alee.
Tota, cae <cicie Gisvelc!ste le

Quantity | Average Number of

producedin| yield acres in
1885, per acre, | each crop,

2, 162, 000. 11.3 2, 857, 700
2,517, 000 6.2 453, 375
121, 000 4.5 26, 814

6, 395, 000 9.0 700. 640
24° 000 14.1 1, 699

578, 000 63.0 9,175

16, 642 1.0 16, 642

960, 025 -315|. 3,047, 698
Biches atatels:ziale nlllopath alate Sree 7, 122,743
8, 799, 000 9.0 420, 070
519, 000 9.7 53) 611
155, 000 80.0 4 988

70 70 528

73, 887 eet 273, 473
Beattatsme cea cadets 749, 620
31, 405, 000 13.4 2, 346, 114
fe 3077 000 5.5 239, 467
28, 000 4.7 5, 938

4, 915, 000 12.2 401, 77%
617, 000 66.0 , odo

13, 298 - 94 14, 147

760, 447 «272| 2,'795, 760
SOC CAB EUR ARES ACE 5, 812, 551
[pte Ne eas aro S| eS

25, 765, 000 13.4 1, 927, 892
190, 000 4.9 38, 448

3, 962, 000 11,2 855, 001
576, 000 68.0 8, 471

11, 069 1.0 11, 069

a 019, 470 - 402} 2, 535, 994
orate. al dels eeeteeiae 4, 876, 375

15, 410, 000 16.8 917,

i 11.4 36, are

466, 000 70.0 6, 661

38, 984 1.0 38, 984
487, 722 485] 1, 005, 613

SC osH ont dePal kiao SHaaaae 2, 005, 510
84, 406, 000 20.6 4, 090, 443
6, 117, 000 11.2 545, 468
41,000 7.0 5, 821

14, 211, 000 27.8 512, 006
30, 000 16.3 7,993
651, 000 68. 0 9,579

83, 899 «95 88, 315

1, 332, 027 -88 | 3,505,335
aielsiavalers: < eievote | apancreus aces 8, 764, 960
38, 309, 000 20.2 1, 898, 327
1,565, 000 6.5 , 997
27, 6.6 4,114

5, 313, 000 21.1 251, 284
932, 000 76.0 12, 268

1, 606, 000 700.0 2, 294
29,701 1.0 29, 701
610, 666 . 453) 1,348, 048
Basel gistatsia\s: «a erceeereecereee 3, 787, 033

| |

Value per rT
unit of otal

quantity, valuation,
$0 58 | $18,653, 960
109 | ~ 3,070,530
113 136, 349

53 | 3,389,350

109 26, 143

94 543,344

13 84 230, 325
-#3.5] 39,413, 826

Rae owin, 65, 463, 827
SS

70 | 2,659,300

67 347,730

1 00 155,040

18 00 6, 660
*13.0) 4,357,860

hts Gee 7,526, 590
55 | 17,272,750

1 03 1,346, 210

1 10 30, 700

54 | 2,654,100

97 598,779
12 7 169, 284
*8.5| 31,349, 428

et isk 53, 421, 251
54 | 138,913, 100
1 04 197, 600
55 | 2,179,100
85 489, 624

11 75 130, 061
*8.5| 41, 854, 341

t eo 58, 763, 826
53 8, 167, 300

47 197; 400

84 391; 667

11 00 428, 824
*8.5} 20,106, 339
Abn tae | 29,201,530
49 | 41,358,940

80 | 4,893,600

67 27) 300

37 | 5,258,070

54 70, 354

90 586, 235

10 78 904, 431
*8.2! 54,613, 107
FRR 107, 712, 037
46 | 17,622,140

1 00 1;565, 000

79 217 393

45 | ~ 2,890, 850

66 615, 363

7 112) 406

11 00 326, 711
#8.5| 25,226, 612
a6) 2 47, 880, 475

390 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Tabdle showing the product of the cereals, potatoes, hay, and cotton, &c.—Continued.

{
Quantity | Average | Number of | Value per Total

States. Products. roducedin| yield acres in | unit of ais
x 1 per acre. | each crop. | quantity.| valuation.
Tennessee ........, Tadian corn . = uleees 75, 581, 000 21.2 38, 569, 590 &0 89 | $29,476,590
RWWIHEHD of ccdcnees do. 38, 821, 000 3.2 1, 175, 882 95 3, 629, 950
IRV ENE cic ayela vieittarstatere do.. 5.2 84, 692 76 137, 102
Oath. 2°). 2 de.o88 GO:. ce 17.3 620, 096 84 8, 655, 680
SALA fie octet aes vistie lO; 75 13.5 3,112 62 j 26, 047
Buckwheat........ doy. a: 10.3 5, 833 66 89, 653
Potatoes .......... do... 65.0 88, 937 46 1, 164, 216
Tobacco........ pounds 575.0 46, 850 v4 1, 885,713
Faire recat teccs tons 1.10 208, 262 11 67 2, 673, 457
GOGTOMES deteswthen's bales 372 864, 618 *8.5) 18 959, 527
SD OUGS mire lcs six sins De ecte | peta isiviaies 2.-|| =ia.0/sieabiarols CHR SRE) Bacanesc oe 55, 947, 935
| West Virginia ..... Indian corn bushels. 23.8 665, 409 40 6, 380, 800
IWKDDEND |) i 5'oe3) cite ciel te) 5.6 268, 961 1 01 , 907, 930
RVG hie se os canes do 5.0 17, 744 70 62, 104
Soe EAS OHCTIGRp aS do 20.5 138, 039 85 990, 850
Barley less scone sce to} 15.6 578 55 4,959
Buckwheat........ do 10.5 39, 331 61 251,915
Potatoes .......... to) 70.0 27, 609 43 831, 031
Tobacco..... ... pounds 664.0 4,190 7.6 1,444

Wi sisvciiela ccs alee os FOODS, 82 353, 465 11 41 8,307,
RENSUPRL (S arelais aera en's alee ete ctercle wal cle'acers oir ae aa Lasts) pene 18, 498, 119
, Kentucky.......... Indian corn . Seis ae 90, 569, 000 25.5 8,551, 667 35 81, 699, 150
4 Wheat do. 3.6 1, 055, 760 95 3, 571, 050
Ryence.t 5.3 93, 347 71 351, 265
Oats 20.8 491,545 33 8,874, 250

Barle 17.5 19, 564 67
Buckwheat 9.5 1,152 67 7,419
Potatoes .. 67.0 50, 556 42 , 422, 646
Tobacco,. 790.0 265, 093 6.5] 18,612, 526
BVT ies cs 1.0 818, 200 10 2 8, 210, 800
ML OGEM tse wisreterasdiciare cis si[ vate erate staleriel| Mee igs ler BN BATS SBA oe chasis cscs 57, 477, 994
Ohio...............| Indian corn.... 87.1 8, 017, 464 32 85,796, 800
j Wheat... do. 10.2 2, 018, 952 91 18, 739, 630
RG ese v conn : 11.0 f 60

Oats ..2). +70. 87.8 1, 003, 680 27 10, 116, 900

Barley’. ..c. 5. ..do. 2, 20.5 , 583 67 5
Buckwheat .......do.... 182, 000 * 14.0 12, 995 65 118, 255
Potatoes ..... ...do....| 12,453, 000 75.0 166, 085 39 4, 856, 524
Tobacco.... ounds..| 33,767, 000 920, 0 36,703 6.3] 2,127,806
BY asantc . tons , 748, 900 1.10 | 2,499,000 11 44 31, 447’ 416
RDOUAL oars stories ges 90) Sead: 144-0095 4 en acaode 8. 880;'806))\'.: (= «jeer 108, 998, 839
Michigan .......... Indian corn ..| 80, 706, 000 82.7 988, 682 34 10, 440, 040
‘WHat is ..5.02 fo. .| 81, 261, 000 19.3 | 1,623,929 84 | 26,259, 240
RyO ee bee ee poets 250, 000 11.3 22,118 59 147, 460
Oats ..... 21, 789, 000 86.4 615, 800 28 6, 100, 920
Barley ....... +209, 23.3 51, 874 60 725, 198
Buckwheat . 433, 000 12.8 83, 826 58 251, 124
Potatoes .... 12, 880, 000 87.0 148, 048 34 4,379, 260
HAY vives ML OPC ee tons 1, 507, 282 1.20} 1,256, 027 10 71 16, 142, 455
UGLAL wei discs gaivuve tater emate ele crorasmmest 2690; 804) Ssfrevieiete's 64, 445, 697
GNGHAHA. «0.0.0 shen: Indian corn . . 181, 994, 000 35.5 3,720, 681 29 88, 278, 260
WEB ce ecrcissici 5 26, 659, 000 10.6 2518, 455 86 22, 926, 740
RY Oars cmrcicicsveites 78, 11.0 25, 256 59 163, 911
Oats ..... 27,178, 000 26.8 1, 014, 630 25 6,794, 500
Barley..;..,.. , 000 17.38 15, 398 55 146, 512
Buckwheat .. 89, 000 10,2 8, 787 65 57, 926
Potatoes .......... 6, 779, 000 72.0 94,151 36 2, 440, 394
Tobacco........ 9,595,000 | 720.0 18, 324 9 863, 395
Hay ii0c5 1,762, 560 by tage 468, 800 7 79 13, 730, 342
DotA isos dosuicie s ou cs eemetreere Plinieeiolsleocas ByOsOyasen|cayesereicir 85, 401, 980

ee ee
ee

* Per pound,

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 391

Table showing the product of the cereals, potatoes, hay, and cotton, &c.—Continued.

;
Quantity | Average | Number of | Value per) rein
States. Products. producedin| yield acresin | unit of hotel
| 1885. . | per acre. | each crop. ERB Te lca
UU [ee Indian corn .... bushels. ./268, 998, 000 31.4 | 8, 559, 036 n| goes
WHEBU 2 ck. occa dos... 10, 65: 33) 000 8.5 1, 255, $05 |
142) Ace aa Oe do....| 2,302, 000 12.7 181, 277
One. 52. Bs do... .|107; 968, 000 82.8 | 8,290,081
13.21] 572 GO OE do....| 1,001,000 24.2 41,361
Buckwheat ....... do... 194, 000 12.5 15, 491
Potatoes .......... do....| 12,871, 000 87.0 142,198
TOBRCCO :...... pounds 4, 968, 000 840.0 5, 908
SoC ORME ER Ine tons 4, 298, 125 1.30 | 3, 306, 250
(ih PRE TST —— Se ee
RSG OS DOO CCIE HOEDOEOOEAEE HeRceroner 16, 797, 507
Wisconsin ......... Indian corn ....bushels..| 82,750,000 30.1 1, 088, 019 34 11, 135, 000
WHORE Sei ciics osteo do....| 15, 665, 000 11.5 1, 362, 785 76 11, 905, 400
Vc coe sovis a aled do 2, 167, 000 12.3 176, 162 52 1, 126,782
(0). aera ey do....} 47,778, 000 33.8 1,412, 474 26 12, 422, 280
Ledehg |) Aa fee A do....| 9,802, 000 22.4 15, 285 47 4, 372, 120
Buckwheat ....... GOs-6, 75, 000 10.0 37, 473 69 258, 564
POURTOGS. .. 2.2.02. do....| 8,955, 000 83.0 107, 895 47 4, 208, 984
Tobacco........ pounds..| 31,196,000 | 1,150.0 27, 127 9.5) 2,963, 625
i Ta tee. «va see tons..| 1,850, 228 1.10 | 1,682; 025 700 | 12,951,596
Wotalens dace celeste es soot ees 6, Sad; thi ltc es. ee 61,344, 301
Minnesota ...... .-.| Indian corn ....bushels..! 18,431,000 28.4 648, 913 32 5, 897, 920
WHORE Fe. 05s chad do....} 84,285, 000 inal 3, 084, 274 7 23, 999, 500
AVOS mek. sass do.. 500, 000 15.3 82,710 48 240, 222
OBERT OF x. sca sone do 87,544, 000 34.9 1,076, 893 25 9, 386, 000
BELO as aie a siwiethate 8, 038, 000 23.8 7,525 41 3, 293, 569
Buckwheat ....... do 78, 000 11.2 6, 539 70 51,266
Potatoes .......... ° 5, 263, 000 85.0 61, 923 40 2,105, 382
TABS este ere «3 Reaaat tons 2, 457, 000 | 1.20 | 2,047,500 4 65 11, 425, 050
PROUAL |. |. Merete uintrter so lueiomaers Notes | ciao ee oleae 7 QOD Net RAl p> clei aie cysts = 56, 398, 909
TOWER ae s's 0b sce seis Indian corn . . bushels. Aes 496, 000 82.1 7,549, 642 24 | 58,199,040
GEO: ceci ete do.. (0, 882, 000 11.8 2, 683, 944 67 20, 322, 440
EBVO 18 oie sicreceis on 8 do....| 1,746, 000 13.7 127, 459 46 803, 246
(Oj: ae: RR eOBHOne do....| 74,718, 000 83.8 2, 210, 338 22 16, 487, 960
BATICY nik seas t co do.. 5, 106, 000 28.0 221, 999 39 1,991, 331
Buckwheat ....... do... 244, 000 11.8 20, 679 68 165, 928
Potatoes .......... do.. 12, 381, 600 90.0 137,563 41 5, 076, 075
13194 1B en eRe tons 4, 355, 625 1.15 | 38,787,500 4 8 21, 124, 781
Hho DRS: Gomera icccs aacedea anh aca 16, FOO} ORA | os «cles. 124, 120, 801
UVERRSSRELED c's cls: ocervs wicre Indian corn .... bushels. .|196, 861, 000 31.38 6, 295, 728 25 49,215,250 .
WEGAGKS oS sos ce do....| 11,275, 000 7.4 1,517,598 77 8, 681, 750
BiyOinscieecsvad seer do 10.4 48) 552 56 282, 767
WARIS eas OSaee S..: do 22.3 1, 267, 849 26 7,361, 120
BaPlOy oe. icis ta! to) 22.3 7, 006 52 81,
Buckwheat........ do 10.3 5, 894 68 41, 281
EOLALOES 0.460525 Os -3- 85.0 78, 275 39 2,594, 816
MORES... 20553 --pounds.. 880.0 16, 493 ff 1,015, 969
He ais cones ..tons,. 1.20 1,312,500 72 11; 418, 750
PLGATAAL,« ass gatele ove -icd etches sa se eaten eens 10,549,895 |.......... 80, 692, 945
BAnBHS 2... jasecs es Indian corn .... bushels. .|1 82.4 38, 013, 600
WHEE Tr geh. ss ilies 10.6 7, 278, 050
RV Oreo racwesiy ss a do. 11.6 953, 339
ORTRE Resi .cs cae do 31.8 6, 243, 350
3d G2 Goer 20.8 298, 049
Buckwheat........ do 12.7 14, 876
Potatoes .......... do 80.0 3, 645, 741
FOG ere aseics ccahe tons 1.25 16, 150, 000
PRGA en Biresies occa | aasteacctes «4s llanmana ears 72,597, 005

392

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Table showing the product of the cereals, potatoes, hay, and cotton, &c.—Continued.

States.

Nebraska

Nevada.

Colorado

eee tee eeee

Products.

Indian corn ....bushels
VIER Gi aisin sss hicreee do..
FUVISER, cise sivtccim seks do..
(OY: Rae Re es a Aes do..
IBAMIGY: ere aneieice sates do..
Buckwheat........ do..
POURLOGH Kins. sis<ais 6 do..
IY, Water eiaistc «utsiateine tons

IT OGAI ici isierelesteteletstereis
Indian corn ....bushels
WiGaitiea. secre «sien do.
IRV Gis aces akee Pan eis do.
ORGS ite ca csisis eres do.
Barley isis asics do.
Buckwheat........ do.
POtaboes «<2. <5 a0 do.
Is(hg. OS apoooorG .. tons

Total ..... Sines vse
Indian corn ....bushels
WES Nic icesicclste aie do..
IRV Giese hits osieleiceee do..
Ogtesis, scteis. docsss do...
Barleyicecs< 206s Ot.
Buckwheat........ do..
Potatoes .......... do..

LY a atainis Sievs'e'eteleters .tons

. {12
Ba| it

Quantity
produced in
1885.

oreo
Zo)
Cay
—

J

or

Average
yield
per acre.

Pons
wocuamwucw=I

MwWwRe
HEEREEES
o

Se aS

onrwovuceo

wo
or

Indian corn .... bushels 959, 000 34.5
IWHea bias cr wos do. 2, 395, 000 19.8
RWB crosses movee do. 35, 000 17.8
OFS Te soos aac ae do. 1, 698, 000 37.3
Barley. Grau... cs. —.600; 156, 000 24.0
POCAROGH \cjn:ateraieialors do. 747, 000 95.0
TL Vite Scions se wsapeiels tons 87, 600 1.0
MODAN aie /ate sareerelere cs =ys Mp tewatete alsre (ihe | si .cetebete e s\eis
Tadian corn .... bushels 66, 000 22.1
Wheater dtc do.. 303, 000 14.0
IBATIOY:finisssinacves 0 do.. 447, 000 20.0
Potatoes ........65 do. 84, 000 10:0)"
LAV ice verre sisies sie eLODS 22, 950 -90
DOE 55 so s1e0is sia ovraistol| ema eles aietaiotel| lato etal «
Indian corn ....bushels..| 15,345, 000 28.9
WES ii aecic cre one's do....} 27,918, 000 12.8
PRY Cie okies cect GO... 113, 000 12.0
Oats), een -0/4eegee do....} 18, 229, 000 87.5
Barley) 2b /sceapes do.. 2, 402, 000 25.0
Buckwheat........ do.. 4, 000 8.1
Potatoes .......... do.. 2,790, 000 75.0
Te En eS a tons..| 1,375,000 1.25
Ota: isis sisieevisiessicict | PEs | BnoEcHOonS

Number of |Value per
acres in unit of
each crop. | quantity.
8,526, 475 $0 19
1, 755, 252 57
69, 407 33
700, 048 19
177, 150 33.
2, 237 66
48,777 36
1, 994, 750 3 51
GB, 204,006) |). odeiccacer
155, 200 68
2, 822, 400 7
30, 105 76
78, 008 48
701, 809 79
1, 243 68
57,491 63
939, 300 11 50
BNT80. DOO "sacle tami
6,479 70
876, 102 69
1, 338 75
193, 397 37
, 845 49
561 62
12,587 36
357, 8 65

2,993
21,578
22, 362

1, 204
25,500

530, 100
2, 187) 084
9, 433
8527 800
96, O75
495

36, 000

1, 100; 000

73, 637

Total
valuation,

3, 078; 643
12; 962; 340

47, 767, 437

49,500
287, 850
357,792

58, 153
298, 350

1, 051, 645

1, 134, 000
5, 417, 500

32, 430, 816

| 4,311, 987

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN.

393

Table showing the product of the cereals, potatoes, hay, and cotton, &c.—Continued.

Value per
unit of
quantity.

|
Quantity | Average | Number of
States. Products. producedin| yield acres in
1885. per acre. | each crop.
toi Nelo a ee Indian corn ....bushels.. 41,000 21.5 1,911
Wihegt 3)a5.6.00 fe do....| 1,154,000 18.5 52, 370
RYO) eictiaa ciaas setae do.. 18, 000 11.9 1, 095
BDSM woes, oie Slaves do....| 1,082,000 30.3 34, O88
BIO Wes sas clots si stoee Gores. 353, 000 | 26.0 13, 582
IROCALORS) .... one ase doaes- 252, 000 80.0 3, 150
BOY einevaisio:as:eicielciers tons.. 144, 383 1.15 125, 550
Mobalpeae se eeese eel nas asses eee ee 241,746
Montamas « ..) scc.-8 Indian corn ....bushels.. 22, 000 25.0 880
Wheat 5 cc ee sees do 1,715, 000 20.4 83, 864
Oatehes eric do....| 1,775,000 33.1 58, 560
Barley. vine cmns AGEs. 71, 000 30. 2 2, 353
Potatoes ........% dor... 262, 000 82.0 3,198
EEG raetetsis «:sieccjere aes tons.. 156, 750 1.10 142, 500
16) I ES CeCe] |S ROCs CPA Choe 286, 355
New Mexico....... Indian corn..... bushels. . 979, 000 20.5 47, 67
iWilloata ieee. tone do....| 1,028,000 14.0 73, 242
Oats ye. vss. ache down. 282, 000 20.4 13, 841
Barley. Joo ees: Jose Geen: 63, 000 19.4 3, 240
Potatoes .......... doses. 35, 70.0 501
Ayiterelvicfoiere’elo eictes tons.. 18, 900 90 21, 000
Moballet 5513's sistas eels od aha ee tls are sta 159, 496
tabs: success Indian corn .... as ; 13,742
| Wheat doi. b 96, 861
Rye hoae 2,310
Oats 27, 687
Barley 13, 098
Potatoes .. 9,591
Hay ’
285, 689
Washington ....... Indian corn ....bushels.. 89, 000 26.4 3,371
Wiheateomn:: $cc ses do....| 7,412,000 17.5 424, 276
IVG ake fis ae s ceele dous.- 22, 000 aya! 1, 455
Oates. a. Ais do....| 3,095,000 38.5 80, 357
BATle ype cals o's adeee Gree 734, 27.0 27,191
Potatoes .......... do....| 1,136,000} 109.0 10, 422
Co) Cae SOC EOe Crea fe tons. , 944 1.20 159, 120
hoje) Seance pent, meen IC ees 706, 192
Wyoming i. ..<.-s Wihheahie idsi cess: do 66, 000 20.8 3, 180
(Ovi. Lk Been do 84, 000 32.0 2) 625
Potatoes........... do 112, 000 93.0 1, 208
HAY Asoiues es ..... tons 93, 500 1.10 85, 000
Mofallic ox. Shak... |SeNodee Salen codecs 92, 013

Totai
valuation.

$33, 620
865,500
7,556
412, $00
264, 849
131,040
1,516, 022

3, 281, 287

17,600
1,320,550
745,500
54, 354
131,118
1, 625; 498

3, 894, 620

768, 620
1, 043, 460
112; 800
53, 152
11,222
274,050

2, 258, 304

245, 400
1, 174; 860
11,192
304; 200
149, 841
310,748
949, 946

3, 146, 187

63, 190

5, 336, 640
14,025

1, 021, 350
352) 395
397,599
1,363, 340

8, 548, 589

1,115,541

394 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Summary for each State, showing the product, area, and value of each crop for 1885.

Corn. Wheat.
States and Territories.
Bushels | Acres | Value Bushels | Acres | Value,
Matuts...°,..05¢ Pag ay 1,009, 000 31, 222 $706, 300 646, 000 41,126 $707,500
New Hampshire.......... 1, 299, 000 38, 386 922, 200 174, 000 11, 267 215, 760
Wermhont ...:. ets... 6s 1,979;.000 61,488 1, 266,560 390, 000 22) 007 432) 900
Massachusetts..........+. 1, 961, 000 57, 668 1,372,700 17, 000 1,080 21,250
PAOGOUSIANG Gee <.0 0 one 429, 000 12, 818 808; BBO Nssadegscae |. 2 siees cceess| see en
Connecticut ........0.0005 2, 033, 000 58, 140 1, 280, 790 31, 000 2,193 82, 550
Mew Witkee wos. sis. 22) 448” 000 731,196 | 13,019,840 | 10,565,000 687,367 | 10,142) 400
Now Jersey.........000005 11,212) 000 350,370 5, 942, 360 | 1,805, 000 143,097 | 1,325,250
Pennsylvania............. 46,074,000 | 1,417,030 | 22,576,260 | 13,325,000 | 1,380;294 | 1277927 000
Delaware.............000- 4, 174, 000 216, 595 1,669, 600 957, 000 89, 103 909, 150
Maryland...............05 15,999, 000 726, 336 7, 359,640 | 5,584,000 580,482 | 5, 085, 940
ot er ao 31,838,000 | 2,132,230 | 14,963,860 | 2,833,000 651,140 | 2,634, 690
North Carolina. .......... 25,199,000 | 2:545,126 | 13,859,450 | 2,790,000 682,888 | 2)'790, 000
South Carolina ........... 13,453,000 | 1,487,341 7” 533, 680 | 1,170,000 220, 030 | —1,2877.000
Me, fa... sa 32) 162,000 | 2)857,700 | 18,653,960 | 2,817,000 453,375 | 3,070,580
i Sa Me Sa i 3,799, 000 420, 070 F G89, B00 iin ca daevl<slvolb.,+oceest sees amma
Sie eae Sins $1,405,000 | 2,346,114 | 17,272'750 | 1,307,000 239,467 | 1,346,210
Mississippi. ..| 252765000 | 19277392 | 137 913; 100 190, 000 38, 448 197; 600
AOTURIANA 5/6 Sele Sess 6 aes 15, 410, 000 917, 377 8, 167,300 cinch vlels.s sec|siee0ce'e'e + eet aan
2 ae i a 84,406,000} 4,090,443 | 41,358,940 | 6, 117, 000 545,468 | 4,898, 600
Avttatdas...5io.5.0.0.4008 38,309,000 | 1,898,327 | 17,622,140 | 1,665,000 240,997 | 1,565, 000
Tennessee ...........00.06 75,581,000 | 3,569,590 | 29,476,590 | 8,821,000 | 1,175,882 | 3,629,950
West Virginia ............ 15) 827,000 665, 409 6, 330,800 | 1,493; 000 268,961 | 1,507,980
Kentucky BS eee es. 90,589,000 | 8,551,667 31, 699,150 | 3,750,000 | 1,055,760 | 3,571,050
7 sf RRR Ye RRO as 111/865,000 | 3)017) 464 796, 800 | 20,593,000 | 2,018°952 | 18,739; 630
Michigan ......... okay: 30,708, 000 938, 682 ao? 440 040 | 31,261,000 | 1,628,929 | 2672597 940
Puelariie oy reorstotcmace es 131,994,000 | 8,720,681 | 38,278,260 | 26/659,000 | 2.518.455 | 22) 926,740
MUIR S css wre cork 268; 993,000 | 8,559,036 | 75,319,440 | 10,683,000 | 1,255,905 | 8, 653, 230
WISCONSIN 0.0.0.0 ..0c ee 82,750,000 | 1,088,019 | 11,135,000 | 15,665,000 | 133627785 | 11, 905; 400
Minnesota ..........s000-. 18, 431, 000 648,913 5, 897,920 | 84; 2857000 | 3,084,274 | 23° 999; 500
Oh Co ee ° RA ee ok 242,496,000 | 7,549,542 | 58) 199,040 | 80,332,000 | 2/683, 20, 822) 440
Missouri... .. Aa ee ae 196,861,000 | 6,295,728 | 49,215,250 | 11,275,000 | 1,517,598 |. 8,681,750
Kansas ...... Meee hee BS 158, 300,000 | 4,884,550 | 38,013,600 | 11,197,000 | 1,060,250 | 7278)050
Nebraska.........eceeeees 129, 426,000 | 3,526,475 | 24°590,940 | 19/828,000 | 1,755,252 | 11,301,960
MAADUONOIA, «i. Paso ccn cbc 3; 840, 000 155, 200 2; 611,200 | 26,592,000 | 2 822/400 | 173816) 640
Oregon ....... Re 148; 000 6,479 103, 600 | 13,916, 000 876,102 | 9,602) 040
WEVAGI -.. 0. oUeteccc ches 21, 000 84 15,750 103, 000 5,570 94
Colorado ....... rite satath Se 959,000 27, 830 652,120 | 2,395,000 120,943 | 1,963; 900
Arizona,....... reeraek. 66,000 2) 998 49, 303,000 21) 578 287,
RCN den tom vinnian 15, 345, 000 530, 100 4, 296, 600 | 27,913,000 | 2,187,084 | 17,585,190
BBE oa hice ae shee tec 41,000 1,911 33, 620 | 1,154,000 62; 370 865,
Le, ot a aa a 22° 000 880 17,600 | 1,715; 000 ,864 | 1,820,550
New MeBooh ieee b 979, 000 47, 672 763, 620 | 1,023; 000 73,242 | 1/048) 460
mee o.. Ms hae 409; 000 13) 742 5, 1,926, 000 96,861 | 1,174,860
Washi COM ak hele hoe 89, 000 3,871 63,190 | 7,412, 000 424 270 5, 336, 640
Ree ee, oe aR amen) fe Rae 66, 3:4 52; 800
MCtal 9h. Pee cc ce 1,936, 176,000 | 73,130,150 | 635, 674, 630 [357,112,000 | 84, 189,246 | 275, 820,390
———————————————— ee
' Rye. Oats.
States and Territories
Bushels, Acres, Value. Bushels Acres, Value,
oe vst fee 29, 000 2, 885 24,327 | 2,622,000 84,570
New Hampshire.......... 41,000 3, 280 er 080 | 1,092; 000 31, ae B40
WOPmOnt ....c-cevreneuce, 85) 000 6,418 2/691 | 3; 808, 000 104°565 | 1,408; 220
Massachusetts......-..... 275)000 24’ 204 229’ 363 753; 000 24’ 267 ” 328/790
Rhode Island .........0.., 15, 000 1, 372 12,875 | _ 167,000 6, 853 73, 480
Connecticut .............. 382, 000 29, 393 one 582 | 1, 090, 000 38, 262 457; 800
mem mur... .... schon 2,658, 000 241, 661 1,781,042 | 38/676,000 | 1,385,245 | 18, 9237360
New Jersey. ate clo) pre ety aiproteieeeke 1, 149, 000 105, 588 41, 228 3, 556, 000 138, 451 1. 315,720
Pennsylvania............. 3, 298; 000 402) 179 2,176,593 | 24)326/000 | 1,304,023 | 12) 357’ 360
MIB WETS s..+<ssccccscc 6, 000 857 4,500 501,000 | ” 21/197 ” 190; 380
Maryland..............0.. 000 30,759 155,948 | 2,475, 000 111} 100 866, 250
0 a ee ae 323,000 48) 216 216,441 | 8,664; 000 621,230 | 3,552,240
North Carolina ........... 73, 64’ 895 231,675 | 4) 483) 000 599,117] 2/241°500
South Carolina... 201.111! 32, 000 8, 036 32,144 | 3,510,000} 413,968 | 1/895; 400
ODER heee sn ncacs tes. 121/000 26, 814 136)349 | 6)395/ 000 709,640 | 8/389, 350
CG Oh te a a RI I AES NI Hh "519,000 53, 611 ” 347,730
Alabama .......... Rane 28, 000 5, 938 30,700 | 4,915,000 401,772 | 2, 654; 100
RUE oe cohen oin s'de|' so sas ARY Lae ESR REE eee een oe 3,962,000 | . 355,001} 2/179/100
Louisiana a » sielb's « sate Bore-na cial each Beye icaete ” 420, 36,875 | 197,400
eXAS ..... ee 33 41, 000 5, 821 27,800 | 14,211; 000 ; ;
AMCANEOS Yd dans fa sinnie 277 000 4,114 21,893 | 5,313; 000 oat’ ee 3B Bo8! be
Tennessee ........0005 180, 000 84, 692 187, 102 | 10,762, 000 620, 096 8, 655, 680

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN.

395

-Summary for each State, showing the product, area, and value, &¢c.—Continued.

Rye. Oats.
States and Territories. = +
Bushels. Acres, Value. Bushels. Acres. Value.
West Virginia ............ 89, 000 17,744 | $62,104 | 2,831,009 183, 039 $990, 850
al iahWlaebt pea capes 495, 000 93, 847 351,265 | 10,225, 000 491, 545 3, 874, 250
389, 000 } 238,600 | 37,470,000 | 1,003,680 | 10,116, 900
i 147,460 | 21,789, 000 615, 800 , 100, 920
168,911 | 27,178,000 | 1,014, 630 6,794, 500
1, 220, 176 107, 968, 000 | 8, 290, 081 25, 912, 820
1, 126, 732 47, 778, 000 1,412, 474 12) 422) 280
240, 222 | 87,544,000 | 1,076, 898 9, 886, 000
808, 246 | 74,718,000 | 2,210,338 | 16,437,960
282,767 | 28,312,000 | 1,267,849 7,361,120
958, 889 | 27, 145, 000 853, 920 6, 248, 850
804, 627 | 24, 028, 000 700, 048 4, 565, 320
235,662 | 2,106,000 78, 008 1, 010, 880
15,053 | 5,798, 000 193, 397 2, 145, 260
Bess Sauls eae Clr 271,000 7, 858 127, 370
28,710 | 1,698,000 45, 478 731, 080
68, 890 | 13,229, 000 352, 800 3, 042, 670
7,656 | 1,082,000 34, 088 412,800
Wii Ue Gon ake R Gea CCR CR CIIRES Bec GCG Coo BOOn BOaeeCeE a cee 1,775, 000 53, 560 745,500
SRD sale eS elats oscehobitphad 282, 000 13, 841 112, 800
11,192 845, 000 27, 687 304, 200
14,025 | 3,095,000 80, 857 1, 021, 350
BAB tere isto ih.s wie LAM shaottiots. ci oAMUT Aaa oicie ga lhibie,d 84, 000 2, 625 36, 960
MOURA 3 ales sve ck oisicie 21,756,000 | 2,129,301 12, 594, 820 |629, 409, 000 | 22,783,630 | 179, 681, 860
Bariey. Buckwheat,
\
States and Territories.
Bushels, Acres, Value. Bushels, Acres. Value,
MMGINSY 35, od Gatien ccs sos ae 276, 000 12, 302 $190, 140 371,000 21,185 $200, 199
New Hampshire........... i 84, 000 3,745 58, 141 95, 000 4, 737 51, 160
Vermont ..... Bistshap « lcAns 295, 000 Li 711 206, 582 366, 000 17, 862 194,071
Massachusetts .............. 82, 000 3, 248 59, 165 59, 000 5, 3834 82, 271
Rhode Island ...... SOogoe. Aine 19, 000 791 13, 756 1,000 126 783
GoOnnesticut, Pipes ss ses 14, 000 63; 10, 381 140, 000 11, 087 88, 818
NOW MOP name Peles ct if 7, 478, 000 839,922 | 5,309,582 | 4,609,000 811, 434 2, 442, 888
New Jersey...... RK th bates 6, 25) 3, 752 78, 000 35, 376 286, 546
Pennsylvania .............55 485, 000 26, 194 339,212 | 8,897,000 274, 445 2,104, 444
Delaware........ Haver ten | Merivecrivaes|ext ss VHAevlwer seawae ees 5,000 437 2, 732
MSryianie Wax ites see. adi 6, 000 277 4,083 144, 000 11, 106 86, 627
WAP RUT Nicks elsleltistes tes 20, 000 1,175 12, 984. 187, 000 20, 734 1138, 830
North Carolina............. 8,000 276 3,812 52, 000 6, 156 34, 012
South Carolina .:........... 16, 000 1, 236 UGEIOCO! |lerere rotors e\are sie) (cers elotere:seetarel| arene Reo
GEOTRIA vi ceisaane ds denen meres 24, 000 1,699 LAB | ccaraias vases d ate tele eho gi eraver syste aie laa eee ate
Texas ..... 130, 000 7,993 Ow Sb dip li satee eRe overs | siciersic ec dete se | nace cee
Tennessee . 42, 000 38, 112 26, 047 60, 000 5, 833 39, 653
West Virginia 9, 000 578 4,959 413, 000 39, 331 251, 915
Kentucky 27)... nlcees 842, 000 19, 564 229, 388 11, 000 alalis}s 7,419
ORIG sO eceiteteat ea aete 832, 000 40, 583 557, 408 182, 000 12, 995 118, 255
MIGHIS AM! 2.48 saeencies eee: 1, 209, 000 51, 87: 725, 198 433, 000 33, 826 251,124
TN GIANG 52 techitelesie aioees 266, 000 15, 398 146, 512 89, 000 8, 737 57, 926
PLUM GIS 5.5.5 7s ialatttataices ou pee ae 1,001, 000 41, 361 570, 584 194, 000 15, 491 123, 928
WSQOMEIN 5 tcccstens anactanan 9, 302, 000 415,285 | 4,372,120 375, 000 87, 473 258, 564
Minnesota ......... Sancta 8, 033, 000 837,525 | 3,293, 569 73, 000 6, 539 51, 266
OW ee ccs oavtre otic ake Whetceete 5, 106, 000 221,999 | 1,991, 831 , 000 20, 67 165, 928
WOSROUIL.. tic hcnteetecacen 156, 000 7, 006 81, 242 61, 000 5, 894 41, 281
WEEMS 3 3 cracls Soca sig ciccens 877,000 42, 145 298, 049 24, 000 1, 889 14, 876
INGDPEBRA, ccs. Nec ae scene 8, 862, 000 177, 150 1,274, 47 28, 000 2, 287 18, 467
Gelirornin .) oo. ete 7." 12) 703, 000 701,809 | 10,035, 167 25, 000 1, 243 16, 905
NEDOHBOT Ee co's ci take ae eee 704, 000 34, 845 344. 896 6, 000 561 3, 708
UN CEMMULEA ES. Cd criece See we he ites 465, 000 23, 272 ES FiCAG Toy | AACR Tee, Set leon ay eat Ie
HOT RUG sca sje caay ca ceoume 156, 000 6, 494 SONU Ea eens <cpqayare asl atemeersncs Meee lean Goren oe
PVIBONE Fo 5.36)s hehe cae. caectee 447,000 22, 862 BE GH ALE Tel 5 ot ALTE, Ei (oe am
DEON $33.5). essa vic caeerosnne 2, 402, 96, 075 888, 694 4,000 495 2,772
NGANG Fe hie sates vonecada nee 353, 000 18, 582 tt ol bags eee icici Sy cane ie ERD aH
WIGHGBTIA? Poin wis Sree aoe 71, 000 2, 858 Pe NOOR IAG: ee iat Pheri lve citigicy Sty Repel ee eee 24
WOW MGRIGG 4)... sss<oia he 63, GOO 8, 240 Oo a Ml see ek chee eae al et ee SN ee Rl
Ute eae ea ei eh leee eee , 900 13, 098 Pe ET Wit cdoie Succ lt fr 5k On aee haan RIE Ls
Weshington v5.6.5. e.aeeee 734, 000 27,191 Sie BUUL leetamere succinic ona sic | icary sane ceeaene
Total tecsananse --.{ 58,360,000 | 2,729,359 | 32,867,696 | 12, 626, 000 914, 394 7, 057, 363

enn UNE nppenmeeeemeemenemeeeeeeeeemenmemeeeeeeeeene eee

396

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Summary for each State, showing the product, area, and value, &c.—Continued.

em

Potatoes. Hay.
States and Territories.
: Bushels. Acres. Value. Tons. Acres, Value.
Maines: i 2ichs-decotena eet 6, 204, 000 62,035 | $2, 605, 470 976,646 | 1,148,995 | $11,670,920
New Hampshire...........- 2,785, 000 27,304 | “1; 225, 404 527, 169 658,961 | 6,721,405
BVO IMONG: 1s Gian sicteileimera ei) 3 656 000 37,304 | 1,279, 527 902,700 | 1,003, 000 9, 929, 7
Massachusetts ...........++- 3 426, 000 84, 255 1 952, 585 661, 077 629,597 | 12,229,925
Rhode Tsland’ speek». cl 668, 000 6, 366 874, 321 69, 657 87, 071 1, 274, 723
@onnecticuts seers ecke 2,811, 000 31,229 | 1,545,836 551, 431 580,454 | 9,925,758
INOW MONK op feistettenine iccin ees 19, 996, 000 357, 075 8008 290 | 5,210, 266 4,962,158 | 66,430, 892
NGwil CISCYselicee ws bess 0 3 3, 069, 000 40,916 | 1,657,098 493, 279 519, 241 8, 139, 104
Pennsylvania... ...........2% 13, 700, 000 190,280 | 6,439,075 | 2,788,572 | 2,788,572 | 36,970,722
DRI WarOreie cetse cies viel. soeiere 315, 000 4,141 157, 358 44, 665 49, 628 647, 643
VFA VAEGL OE el tele ois <2 0's ote ofole 1,528, 000 20, 87 748, 892 272, 037 286, 355 8, 740,509
VAT CAVA Rot Steels s soci sto cist 2,102, 000 85,0387 | 1,072,132 251,541 295, 930 3, 340, 464
1, 256, 000 20,597 716, 158 96, 680 101, 768 1, 129, 222
235, 000 3,911 175, 995 4, 336 4, 336 59, 620
578, 000 9,175 543, 344 16, 642 , 642 230, 325
155, 000 1,938 155; 040 370 528 6, 660
617, 000 9, 353 598, 7 79 13, 298 14,147 169, 284
576, 000 8,471 489, 624 11, 069 11, 069 130, 061
466, 000 6, 661 391, 667 88, 984 88, 984 428, 824
651, 000 9,579 586, 235 83, 899 88, 315 904, 431
932, 000 12, 268 615, 363 29,701 29,701 326, 711
MENNESSC . 1b eS 5c ieieis o's oslo’ 2,531, 000 38,937 | 1,164,216 229, 088 208, 262 2, 673, 457
WVESb Ware INIG lee clesie crcicie'o'ate = 1, 933, 000 27, 609 831, 031 289, $41 358, 465 3, 307, 086
INGilg ite vB AR Ning Jao conga dace 3, 387, 000 50, 556 1, 422, 646 > bbe 200 318, 200 3, 210, 300
GOW Ee a eeee eee ase ee 12, 453, 000 166,035 | 4,856,524 , 748,900 | 2,499,000 | 31,447,416
Michican\. 1 +o) cesses. chee 2, 880, 000 148,048 | 4,379,260 ? 507,232 | 15256,087 | 16; 142° 455
iGEhT ye sesqueadeboaTadace: 6,779, 009 94,151 | 2,440,394 rip 762, 560 1’ 468" 800 13, 730, 342
TLIO es PON ee chee 12, 371, 000 142,198 | 5,195,915 | 4,298,125 | 3/306,250 | 31,591,219
IVVISCONSIN ber) cece stesiscerrees 8, 955, 000 107,895 | 4,208,984 | 1,850,228 | 1,682,025 12) 951, 596
MMITINICROGA ss scie's cet e visite nis 5, 263, 000 61,923 | 2,105,882 | 2,457,000 | 2,047,500 11; 425; 050
NEWT EL arpa ioiste rats Wiel clopniciey ied ele vers 12 381, 000 1377 563 | 5,076,075 | 4,355,625 | 3,787,500 | 21,124, 781
MASS OUT ceveisre avsyew ere rccie es ave of 6, 653,000 78, 275 | 2,594,816 | 1,575,000 | 1,312,500 | 11,418,750
IEAMISAB rap cmters oc ieveerote tte ialsteehs 7,011, 000 87,638 8,645,741 | 8,800,000 | 38,040,000 | 16,150,000
8, 951, 000 48,777 | 1,422,387 | 2,593,175 | 1,994,750 9, 102, 044
4, 887, 000 57,491 | 3,078,643 | 1,127,160 939,300 | 12,962,340
1,322, 000 12, 587 475, 789 446, 250 857, 000 , 860,
855, 000 4,733 230, 734 135, 000 150, 000 978, 750
747, 000 7,860 455, 487 87, 600 87, 600 867, 240
84, 000 1, 204 58, 153 2, 950 25, 500 298, 350
2,700, 000 86,000 | 1,134,000 | 1,375,000 | 1,100,000 5, 417, 500
252, 000 3, 150 131, 040 144, 383 125, 550 1,516, 022
262, 000 8,198 131,118 156, 750 142, 500 1, 625, 498
New Mexico.............. : 35, 000 501 11, 222 18, 900 21, 000 274, 050
AUDA NE «Sas tae cteleiere siwtetabetere 863, 000 9,591 310, 748 159, 120 122, 400 949, 946
NUENSUAND T4100) Wie Agel Senora 1, 136, 000 10, 422 397, 599 190, 944 159, 120 1, 363, 340
WAY ONO 5 eh linc ais aie tiere 112, 000 1, 208 67, 406 93, 500 85, 000 958, 375
MOLE cae capststeitslersieae 175,029,000 | 2,265,828 | 78,153,403 | 44,731,550 | 39,849,701 | 389, 752, 873
Tobacco, Cotton *
States and Territories.
Pounds. Acres. ate Bales Acres Value.
Massachusetts.............. 38,798, 000 2,594 BADD TIA | oi 5:s,5/s010.sle «15's s cierslereve v elerale ota Oe ERE
KCOMNECCICUE! Ho orieiis occ ome 12, 066, 000 (BON, ||| DL A4OB OST ia’. « se acie ec clone. sve 00/ce eel em eee
IVGW, BY OK: sjaraslaaacicev cs ear 10, 234, 000 65788 || “DO28 AIG Sete evo... | abo eeee © otc aetna
Pennsylvania............... 23, 392, 000 Pa BOD Als 2s OOOO arain: 2: 0\\e0(0.0.0;0\] o c\a.eieie ereteletecell Cte cee
Maryland 28, 552, 000 4B OGD | 25 ORAS BOS ais cies ra s.n'e oe | one eo cries oo | Ce ee
Virginia 107,711, 000 164,445 | 7,970,649 14, 821 44,913 $579, 501
North Carolina 37, 417, 000 77, 952 3) 966, 198 407,230 | 1,071,658 15, 922, 693
jsfo ida OER) bola o a aanpasgondl|Socouros cde ooe||Adudsocn dos |[SsaadoqnoSon 554,652 | 1,783,289 | 21,969, 766
(Cet guill)s Saas boo agoupee cued |aEdorldnos)s-6nllabsaosade 300 asoppnoncase 960, 025 3, 047,698 | 39,413, 826
SALEOTLECL ER its ois/s 04515 jn. sass: orcie os cage) (shel eleveis-e sisi cistote | elalste/oreteteralvietallteieis ole sttipeiete + 73, 837 273) 473 4, 357, 860
PALEUIDERINR GY Vii 5 <ense/n Bisle\ein: w ovele wieral lsihele siete, ore Sreiace ral Miawereteh pvereie al le@iae ote Reais 760, 447 2, 795,760 | 31,349, 428
NVBISSIESID PL . 5 /aioretw seco «0's: wie arcvafesull aeeiareraie c-cre rye oa | tee cia aeienell peters che siete as 019, 470 2) 535, 994 | 41,854, 341
PERSURNRSL DIL EA osc cues» ure’ nV bercyeral laa isters toe:e Stelssere all efemeetetara aon ere eens itis e 487, 22 1/005, 613 20, 106, 339
ADEA E RIE acc co eterovecnciselae ee |e Aer othe ey al eae Sore | emcee eee 1, 3321 027 3,505,335 | 54,613, 107
Arkansas Sieissernatetnclsinic nisittelet 1, 606, 000 2, 294 112, 406 610, 666 1, 348,048 | 25,226,612
MEUVNOSSOC on t:s 5 cibisieeisese toes 26, 939, 000 46,850 | 1,885,713 321, 638 864, 618 13, 259, 527
PWESD VIEPINIG . oe. so. se hee 2,782, 000 4,190 211, 444
Kentucky OCIS CE RIE Cae 209, 423, 000 265,098 | 18,612, 526
Ot eas 33, 767, 000 36,703 | 2) 127)306
BIAS earereree ete Pie araeieinieicicisje oials 8, 593, 000 18, 324 863, 895
PORUTENO Sere eaters clesclerere'e stelle fois 4, 963, 000 5, 908 446, 645
INVESICOMSUM ere! latatclela'c/ tale «)- 31,196, 000 27,127 | 2,963, 625
DVDS OU emer latale oacelsyoii stele a 14, 514, 000 16, 493 | 1,015,969
All other States and Terri-
tories, includiag Missouri,
for cotton. 4,783, 000 8, 696 573, 936 82, 765 74,466 1,336, 812
ROUEN Siaisleiw vitals» aeaistslvie 562, 736, 000 752,520 | 43,265,598 | 6,575,800 | 18,300, 865 | 269, 989, 812

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 397

Table showing the average yield per acre, and price per bushel, pound, or ton, of farm
products for the year 1885.

Corn. Wheat. Rye. Oats. Barley.
States and Terri- : cf 7 i “
tories. Bush- se Bush- a Bush- ae Bush- es Bush- et
els. |pushel.| @S |pushel.| @S: |pushel.| ©S: |bushel.| © | bushel.
—— —_—
BAO) Aw oidrataters) iets, 82.3 1$0 7 18.8 |$1 25 12.2 |$0 84 31.0 |$0 40 22.4 | $0 69
New Hampshire....} 38.8 Ls 15.4 | 1 24 12.5 85 34.7 42 22.4 69
IMOEIGON. .\0cicteisceiees 32.2 64 ereelh Lode 18:2 74 36.4 37 25.2 vil)
Massachusetts. .... 4.0 70 ou | 125 11.3 81 31.0 43 25.2 %2
Rhode Island....... 33.5 ROAM ENS fn ta eallloeis he face 10.9 83 26.3 44 24.0 72
Connecticut ........ 35.0 63 14.1 | 1 05 3.0 16) 28.5 2 22.2 vi
New York.......... 30.7 | 58 15.4] 96 11.0 37 27.9| 36 22.0 71
New Jersey ........ 82.0 53 9.7 95 10.8 65 26.6 37 19.5 %5
Pennsylvania....... 82.5 49 9.7 96 8.2 66 26.3 36 18.5 70
Delaware........... 19.3 40 10:7 95 7.0 v (5 23.6 BO [i a5 ac Nae ee
Maryland .......... 22.0 46 9.5 91 7.8 65 22.3 35 21.7 68
WOR PTO, «wisi nisioieistes 14.9 47 4.4 93 6.7 67 13.9 41 17.0 65
North Carolina..... 9.9 55 4.1 | 100 4.2 85 WEB 50 10.9} 110
South Carolina..... 9.0 56 5.3] 1 10 4.0 | 1 00 8.5 54 12.9 1 10
UGOORBIGT ce sicee els o43)015 11.3 58 6.2] 1 09 4.5 | 1 18 9.0 53 14.1} 109
PEON GL). Hs tasiciniciwa si 9.0 TE QRHR IES OSE RS eas. aralelh wechoveebte aacken 9.7 of ed Beles coreg arto
BAS AIVID wc crcisiclalsre'~ - 138.4 55 5.5 | 1 08 4.7 | 110 2.2 oe eee ron aocda., a
Mississippi ......... 13.4 54 AES TF OL ea Ie ees 11.2 55) Aarne Iscoodere
Louisiana .......... 16.8 Be eee GR ecichd Be momorel Cnet! terete 11.4 7 Gd ERG ot icniccor
20.6 49 11,2 80 7.0 re 27.8 37 16.3 54
20.2 46 6.5 | 1 00 6.6 7 Pala rR ieee icxo| io uanadoe
21,2 39 8.2 95 5.2 7 17.3 84 13.5 62
23.8 40 5.6] 1 01 5.0 70 20.5 85 15.6 55
25.5 85 3.6 95 5.3 71 20.8 83 17.5 67
87.1 82 10,2 91 11.0 60 37.3 27 20.5 67
32.7 84 19.3 84 11.3 59 35.4 28 23.8 60
85.5 29 10.6 86 11.0 59 26.8 25 17.3 55
81.4 28 8.5 81 12.7 53 82.8 24 24,2 57
80.1 84 11.5 76 12.3 52 33.8 26 22.4 47
28.4 32 11.1 70 15.3 48 84, 9 25 23.8 41
82.1 24 11.3 67 13.7 46 33. 8 22 23.0 39
81.3 25 4 V7 10.4 56 22.3 26 22.3 52
82.4 24 10.6 65 11.6 40 31.8 23 20.8 34
36.7 19 tes 57 13.3 33 84.3 19 21.8 33
24.7 68 9.4 67 10.3 76 27.0 48 18.1 4
22.8 70 15.9 69 14.9 75 60.0 Vi 20.2 49
24.8 5 18.5 Ce al Ss Sere ore amos 84.5 47 20.0 81
34.5 68 19.8 32 17.8 68 37.3 46 24.0 60
22.1 vi) 14.0 i tn ANG ISB coc ee IOLA! lene mace 20.0 80
28.9 28 12.8 63 12.0 56 37.5 23 25.0 re
21.5 2 18.5 7 11.9 58 30.3 40 26.0 U5
25.0 80 20. 4 WN |e ate eaomre lectcme tee 33.1 42 80. 2 Wh
20.5 78 WAR OM) DROZawe Nive Sere lraverctetets oe 20.4 40 19.4 84
29.8 60 19.9 61 9.5 51 30.5 36 22.0 2
26.4 71 17.5 72 16.1 64 38.5 33 27.0 48
Brea) sreiaielers|| dralafetatsierall acisiges ssc 20.8 80 sat aeebe vata |lstetareare ete 382.0 44 alaicuarsbelete ere siee ae
26.5 82.8 10.4 Toad 10.2 57.9! 27.6 28.5 21.4 56.3
a == ———
Buckwheat. Potatoes. Hay. Tobacco. Cotton.
States and Terri- 5 : é : ;
: Price Price Price Price Price
tories. ee per es per Tons. | per |Pounds.| per | Bales.| per
bushel. bushel ton pound pound
Cents. Cents
Maineracavaceacen ce 17.5 |$0 54 100 =|$0 42 Seon STNG Hl os acase, gap [\eietsen oo. atcl ecleco = eye See
New Hampshire....| 20.1 54 102 44 YOO LRT Ne CR aes are 2 cute |yerare e-«iasotal| ere
IMENINONG: Se ewscicisas 20.5 53 98 35 390) | UEOGO Ts Seams e cas oo = ailtesicc cere ae prebtes
Massachusetts ..... tet 55 100 57 1.05 | 18 50 |1, 464 a PAC ae cel lortoce
Rhode Island....... 7.9 7 105 56 . 80 EL ERG COU ah ota tk ae hall eehsdes ss oe ills ctctevorenstss | een ae
Connecticut........ 12.6 60 90 55 95 18 00 |1,575 DEA inns -«soru:ll oreo
New Yorks, S-c ace. 14.8 53 56 45 1.05 12 75 |1,520 LOS OW terete | eta ees
New Jersey ........ 13.5 60 16) 54 ZOD, || GUGRDO ||. .; stele bletsra ores oll aharciow rasta aie es
Pennsylvania ...... 14.2 54 72 fA 1.00 | 13 50 |1,000 LOND nin saeeleneapmes
Delaware .......... 11.4 55 fi 50 390. | SRRAR BOs chicane eters, 2 PCat 5 oI abeeeeare
Maryland .......... 13.0 60 vi 49 - 95 13 75 | 663 Psst | [craters « fexey-l| Beets neys
PEW Eosk Sts, siaveretc sss 9.0 61 60 ay! ZOo |) 1ae28a!) ‘Go 7.4 38a 8.5
North Carolina..... 8.4 65 61 57 -95 11 68 | 480 10.6 38 8.5
South Caroling «=. sa) ise Palos c nek. 60 U5 TE00} 1 ASNT b,c saone eetaws soe 32 8.5
OOM STAG icin titans, 0.c:0 | lote Raacbalintacrctes 63 94 1200) | LBTBAG Se eee ote 315 8.5
CUT aE a I | (85 a 80 | 100 Oe LEC) 2s SASEAl sc 27 13.0
SDAIN oi. sic ote oat | hajitdcetomenice ae 66 97 Be 2 amb Tae so icc | eee 2272 8.5
MIRSIESI Dine. 55.5-00loe eas Ieee 68 85 TFOOA eee Topload ee . 402 8.5
TROUTSIGIO «5 20 «3,012 ststasctet Stollameeeterrere 7 84 L500} LIB OOn| Stace |e nn os . 485 8.5
MEAG Naps sic cviwiece-sistels lace loraer aa | oreetatatet ele 68 90 oi) |e LOIS estat cereale ba ha ce .3 8.2
PATI AMIS Eo ots 2.5 ain3-\fiasnie create | ree 76 66 1.00 11 00 700 7.0 . 453 8.5
Tennessee.......... 10.5 66 65 46 1.10 11 67 575 7.0 old 8.5
West Virginia...... 10:5) 61 70 | 43 | .82| 1141] 664 RisOh lasts ss: | eee
Kentucky .......... Osouli) 67) He 67 42 1.00 | 1025 | 790 Alot eeeeo ted kicaoreion

898 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Table showing the average yield per acre, and price per bushel, &c.—Continued.

Buckwheat. Potatoes. Hay. Tobacco.
States and Terri- Price Price
tories. eae ae ees Tons, | per [|Pounds,| per
bushel bushel poun
* | Cents
CO} AOS er ceric eee 14.0 |$0 65 % $0 39 1.10 | $11 44} 920 5
Michigan .........-. 12.8 58 7 34 1.20 ptt gE ae AR see
TNA Sire 65% 0 a A 10.2 65 7% 36 1.20 7791 720
inoi 64 87 42 1.30 7 35 | 840
69 83 47 1.10 7 00 |1, 150
70 85 40 1.20 7 SS) Se eI eee 8
90 41 1.15 Woe b Spec | o's.e-n we) fmsajenn tae
85 39 1.20 7 25 | 880
80 2 1.25 4 25
81 36 1.30 3 51
85 63 1.20 j1 50
105 36 1.25 8 65
95 65 - 90 Yi)
95 61 1.00 9 90
MET Bisa eects lea eee teal oeinate nie 70 69 .90 | 18 00 550
5 42 1.3 8 94
A iaein aise iaale Mi Doce Setilae ease 6 80 52 1.15 10 50
LSAT UO Sa) Se Can ci ca 82 50 1.10 10 37
MBM ESICO a ~ eco stnciccts areca e'sacly'ee 2 70 32 $0 | 14 50
TOS SAS 9 Re Se eee Se eine or 90 36 1,80 5 97
MVASHIN ECOL. cc cm ee dliicceniedmslnesenes 109 35 1.20 7 14
WYOMING eis cecal ge cee en ale ra are-0b 93 60 1.10 | 10 2%
Average.....-. 13.8 55.9 77.2 44,7 1.12 871] 747.8

States and Territo- : Buck-
ried. Corn. | Wheat.| Rye. | Oats, | Barley. Sayer

Maines i otieesistae< an $10 20 | $12 40 | $15 46 | $9 45
New Hampshire...,.. 10388} 1456] 1552] 10 80
TMGSBIMNOW Gi cise o:sa:ciovgicie 977 | 13 47 | 17 64] 10 87
Massachusetts 915) 1834] 1822 6 05
Rbode Island 902; 1157 | 17 89 6 Q1
Connecticut . 975 | 1196| 16 43 7 56
New York,.. 7387 | 1005] 15 62 7 84
New Jersey 7 02 9 86 | 14 60 8 10
Pennsylvania ........ 15 93 9 27 5 41 948} 12 95 7 67
DOB WATE sieves se cee 771) 10 20 5 25 SIGART Aes 6 25
Maryland). «sje 10 13 8 68 5 07 7 80} 14 74 7 80
AIT agai cnanc 7 02 4 05 4 49 5 72 11 05 5 49
North Carolina....... 5 45 4 09 3 57 374 | 12 00 5 53
South Carolina....... 5 07 5 85 4 00 4.58) 1480+). J...
GEOLRIA eas on eciese tee 6 53 677 5 08 478 SL ENISSE xc shaie’ steed
NONI Beale! ols 2:0 <inle 91 a0/0/6 CS re iog pdcerean GAD isn tapes os sat
IANA AINALS ha. fs Saatate 7 36 5 62 Lily QiGIH. Potttel| tte
Mississippi ..........- 22 Desimus Gara NS trataratai| Rteratetsverace
Louisiana ........ Es (eee 211 ees ee BBD il epatsehls|| sie 2 «eras
WR OXABIES Cr itis shere'sio.310 10 11 8 97 4 69 10 27 {sphtcid | et Sees
IABCANIBAS Sls cycles ve. 9 28 6 49 5 20 tat Wel Ee aoe 2 Ae Se
Tennessee.........+.- 8261]. 3 09 83 95 5 90 8 37 6 80
West Virginia ........ 9 51 5 61 3 50 7 18 8 58 6 40
PMANUINUCIRY, 5 ore 2 1nsa'e alot" 8 93 3 38 3 76 6 86 LIST 6 44
GRBIO So its aoc tice eis o's 11 86 9 28 6 60} 10 08 13 74 9 10
Mighivan....... seis 1 12). to a% 6 67 9 91 13 98 7 42
ATP ANIE i cies) « Gleiniaseieisiv(s 10 29 9 10 6 49 6 70 9 52 6 63
PETHOIS Scie vciepiesine.a 8 80 | ' 6 89 6 73 7 88 | 13 79 8 00
Wisconsin............ 10 23 8 74 6 40 879 | 1053 6 90
Minnesota............ 9 09 7 78 7 34 8 72 97 7 84
Gah 38 Sees ee eat! vabye 6 30 qT 44 8 97 8 02
I VOES (a) 1 ee Oe ne 7 82 5 72 5 82 5 $l 11 60 7 00
TOT a ae 7 78 6 86 4 64 7 31 7 OF 7 88
IWEDIASE osc sneis's'seue 6 S87 6 44 4 39 6 52 715 8 26
California.,.......-is.| 16 82 6 31 7 88 12 96 14 30} 13 60

BORON aay ssc ceicasiers 1599] 1096] 1125] 11 09 9 90 6 60
OVER tos o 5:0 4.0 ersinte 18 60 VRAO Ms ses eee 16 21 AG ADDIE TE So oss
IMIOTADD 2. =. we c siete 23 48 16 24 12 06 alg AAD es ae ,
PAIN ZOD Ais evan tof oiaccis 16.Gas) ASME neces celentee ete RB OD eteS sts.2 ove
PIED cer tole ais se:era/aceye 8 11 8 04 6 72 8 62 9 25 5 60 QF
LOOMIS OR SNE An See eee | 27 59 18 88 690| 12 11 OURO His patents it 12 ¢
II GYIUATIB aie nis 0% wine oie 20 00 1s bao Rega 138° 92'|) 23°10) |... pe 41 00 }°4] "eee
New Mexico..... .... 16°02:). 12 RB c ese 8 15 Koh: (1 ae ae 22 40 13 05 |,.... .
JOURN ES SS Aeeaeed 17 86 | 1213 ArBan | PRONBR |. Dasa eo. 82 40 Va 8 Pei 2
Washington.......... 18 75 12 58 9 64 271 1 PA ee 38 15 8 ST 4
Wyoming ..... ae Pere |. 165B0'|'...€ Beer ETE eae eee a 55 80 | J 11: 8<|eemee

Average........ 860| 805| 592| 788| 1204] 772| 3449| 57 49| 978] 14%

"REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 399

A general summary, showing the estimated quantities, number of acres, and aggre-
gate value of the crops of the farm in 1885.

Quantity Number of
Products. produced, acres. Value,

1, 936, U6 000 73, 130, 150 $635, 674, 630

357, 112, 000 34, 189, 246 275,320,390

21,756, 000 2) 129, 301 12,594. 820

629; 409, 000 22/783, 630 179, 631, 860

58, 360, 000 2) 729, 359 32; 867, 696

12, 626, 000 914, 304 7; 057, 363

175, 029, 000 2, 265, 823 78, 153, 403

3, 190,468,000 | 138,141,903 | 1, 221, 300, 162

Reese eC) ee ee oe, pounds..| 562,736, 000 752, 520 | 43, 265, 598
1 RR 3 ARC Aire ie 2S 44,731, 550 39, 849, 701 889, 752, 873
Cotton .... 02 cerseeeesees Son Jobseaenr nicunnoberrieee bales. . 6, 575, 300 18, 800, 865 269, 989, 812
AS oe 8 edn ie eG RRR a 197,044,989 | 1, 924,308, 445

Table showing the average yield and cash value per acre, and price per unit of quan-
tity, of farm products for the year 1885.

Average Average

Average Average Average Average

Products, _[yield per price per |” value Products, yield | Price per | “Tatue
quantity, Per acre. per acré.| suantity,|Per acre.
Indian corn . “Euabels. 26.5 32.8 $8 69 || Buckwheat .bushels.| 13.8 $0 55.9 $7 72
do. 10.4 iti! 8 05 || Potatoes ........ do..| 77.2 44.7 34 49
10,2 57.9 5 92 || Tobacco..... pounds.| 747.8 cut 57 49
27.6 28.5 Ce Oe Ie RAEUY; ct oreleio tains. #1612 tons.) 1.12 8 71 9 78
21.4 | 56.3 12 04 || Cotton ........ bales 359 *8,5 14 75

* Per pound,

FARM ANIMALS.

Table showing the estimated number of animals on farms, total value of each kind,
and average price, January, 1886.

Horses. Mules,
States and Territories.
Average Avera;
Number. price. Value, Number. ee Value.

Maine | (gare aed Rear B nee aoe SO ROSE SOR ANWN (Mz eOP Ae) ELT tec 6 |e ke ee Se eee
Fl ad Hampshire Gleissisis opiprle ards s a nie Be rs 4, fhe AU Efe <ottis,aa.s.so.cl\s0 055 as cpaiemee gels maee

(lait 1) APA Coelor Or ck tole Ope 79, 202 j TARE EI) | stpiaceve)o1ulais,sin'ai|'s o\e: 0'p s)e\clsla\l'y aratNeteiatpietete
Massachusetts ...........220020; 62,663 | 108 15 Gianmines i ee eee Oe
Mhode Island .........-..+..-.-- 9, 905 102 58 WOH Gaels || ties cromea.c's sil ciao oe eves | Sea eee
COMMSCHOUG 51,50 ss % gcpiaricigitia.« 47, 934 99 66 ABUTS 2 Syoroheteveiase ai ais'|'s:p aatevats's we lleteve YOR etre
INGWYIOEK selcrap a'ec.s\ce tomatoe a3 647, 845 93 22 60, 389, 110 5, 107 107 33 $548, 113
INGW JOUEOY.. a aeines <n uptegicmed. « 90, 741 108 54 9, 395, 110 9, 407 119 47 1, 123, 900
PONS yl WANIG: j-i5'/ oc cotalareeia aes 577,531 94 10 54, 346, 474 23, 670 109 99 2, 603, 488
DIGI RWAYO :«:0:5 s'olarsia'e's sie:darga oie e'share 22,330 97 29 2, 172, 4,061 113 74 461,915
EG gO Re ee ee Pea 126, 496 81 62 | 10,324,641 13,226 | 10817 | 1,430,626
Virginia ....... Sal) BBS ard 69 56| 16,267 609 34, 342 85 53 | 2,937,296
North Carolina................. 142, 579 74 53 10, 625, 894 86, 452 83 19 7,192,173
South (Carolia ssc. 9.aeme aaa. « 62, 789 88 97 5,586, 481 71,119 98 30 6, 990, 978
GAROOMND « « «yg aise: <4 -Barmcpdar 106, 884 81 58 8, 715, 984 143, 843 96 50 | 13,880,850
OVUM) « <-3\pcacaly a tig « <1=:4 geri ove 29,419 79 78 2, 347, 183 11,558 97 21 1, 123, 586
Alabama ......2.+-.--sseceneees 123, 342 70 7 8, 731, 643 132, 348 84 03 | 11,120,818
Mississippi... 2.:--+2-destes.- 125, 154 69 43 8, 688, 875 147,512 88 57 | 13,064,504
TROUGHS, 2. uy 550. ke. 112, 975 56 41 6, 372, 987 78, 863 86 24| 6,801, 147
MOWRY. 3..c:0g'ael5.0nd = cota Sete 998, 862 35 89 35, 851, 466 175, 515 54 50 9, 566, 081
AVERSA... «tas Jeko-cu.0-keated 169, 625 5 58 9, 258, 528 114, 317 69 77 7,976, 394
MenNeGEOO ow. 46-2 tnine gee cs 288, 604 65 72 | 18,966, 758 187, 208 69 69 | 13,046,443
WWrese Wircinias ; 30s 2 seeeeen ae 131, 621 60 85 8, 008, 848 6,412 75 50 484, 106
Reauucky «+n i. <0 ee 883, 034 68 69 | 24,394,884 124, 185 69 38 | 8,616,370
OHO ee ass Noh cake» 753, 650 79 16 | 59,659, 185 28, 999 87 68 | 2, 104, 238
Michigan ah diciaiace, osteo MUO teers 428, 650 88 58 35, 826, 292 5,775 99 60 575, 190
Indiana SF Masia. tc Ss ou: esau, cv mya tera pedal SONS 635, 862 5 47 47, 950, 766 54,943 81 97 4, 503, 828
Tiinois........ 0.2... e eee seeee| 1,048, 759 5 21 78, B72, 127 124, 47% 82 43 10, 259, 734
WVISCONSIMT .§ toc 22-8. seis aes 396, 700 7B OA 80, 957, 952 8,010 91 51 732, 995

MINES OLA en faa cletee coo see aed 834, 588 80 00 26, 767, 040 “10, 553 98 14 1, 035, 689

490 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Table showing the estimated number of animals on farms, total value, &c.—Cont’d,

Horses. Mules.

States and Territories.

Number. Average Value. Number. Average Value.

price. | price.

OWE inset ana oar ee OAC 945, 445 $72 18 | $68, 245,526 48, 537 $86 09 | $4,178,575
MISSOUTT -c cccide MRR occ es 737, 208 58 52| 43,138,118 212, 615 67 76 | 14,407,602
ICATIGARES 0-4, ALS deo sas 549, 406 69 98 | 38,446, 250 79, 615 89 64} 7,136, 992
INBDrsSicee came enact sssmmne 341,419 7450 | 25,435,716 28, 827 9448 | 2,723, 641
California ........ BES) 2s, cee 275, 834 63 00| 17,377,542 31, 551 77 65 | 2,450, 081
OVEZONG . . cnies 2 ovcce sree recensee 159, 786 52 57 8,399, 155 8, 005 64 41 | 193, 550
ING VENUES Lc ese eiacis aie hae 42,126 61 13 2, 574, 968 1,563 80 01 | 125, 052
Galaradome on gecliseasceeeeees 108, 570 59 09 6,415, 942 7, 560 80 83 607,311
Arizona 9, 681 53 00 513, 093 1, 242 94 50 117, 369
Dakota 206, 588 77 86 16, 069, 137 11,616 100 40 1, 166, 247
Idaho..... 44,318 60 00 2) 659, 080 2,388 87 00 207, 756
Montana... 120, 750 62 68 7, 568, 028 8,960 84 15 753, 984
New Mexico . 19, 796 39 37 779, 288 10, 698 54 60 584, 155
Ui epee aa : 52, 464 46 52 2, 440, 808 8, 409 62 94 214, 554
Washington 81, 945 67 45 5, 526, 821 1,009 85 00 85, 765
Wyoming 72,000 53 13 3, 825, 360 3, 100 80 00 248 000

TRG em See eGR Naeaat Ane 12, 077, 657 71 27 | 860,823,208 | 2, 052,598 79 60 | 163,381,096

Milch cows, Oxen and other cattle,
States and Territories, el avatar
Number. price. Value. Number, price, Value,
NEERING Co ele etalaisisia sibiatetnie/ecieiete cies 165, 8538 $30 10 $4, 977, 125 187,030 89 | $5,590,174
New Hampshire............0-+- 97,070 29 83 2, 895, 598 136, 169 81 '32 4, 264, 412
Wermtonb me jceriehicnicieiatels\s Deitosicd 218, 940 28 63 6, 268, 252 176, 808 26 06 4, 607, 683
Massachusetts ............se+00- 169,968 | 82 40 5, 506, 963 108, 382 31 67 3, 432, 457
Rhode Island..... atc osicleriosieriere 22, 543 | 34 00 766, 462 13, 024 36 89 480, 490
CONNECHECOE i... ccc ccc cscs 123, 426 | 382 92 4, 063, 184 106, 72 33 61 3,586, 5385
ING WOES. tiicle wisiniors cie’nicice ope aise 1,510, 300 | 29 60 44,704, 880 868, 409 82 08 | 27,860, 665
SWRI SIROY scents peccsoes 171,214 34 36 5, 882, 913 69, 248 3465 | 2,399,115
BANNSYLVANIB a).\lcis'ocsicieys riciae see « 902,127 | 30 10 27, 154, 023 858, 474 27 36 | 23,484, 680
Wea wWarore cris sche cntcee pee: ce 28,399 | - 28 50 809, 372 26, 605 28 53 758, 943
Wy LANIG i. = <leis!sic'stelaisvolcisipis ne oe 131, 063 30 15 8, 951, 549 138, 196 25 08 8, 466, 107
Werte eee ile vale isiaioln niinie yoo 247, 807 21 81 5, 404, 67 423, 803 18 42 7, 804, 759
INDrtH OANOlNAa ancy ce careenie.s 238, 955 | 16 65 8, 978, 601 423,619 10 24 4, 339, 469
South Carolina. .<.....000se 143, 315 19 93 2, 856, 268 214,711 11 18 2, 400, 020
MIL TEN Birtate te totetcls lolclofote wleieieisiove etree 241, 013 | 18 35 | 6, 257, 589 610, 811 9 91 6, 053, 141
Mica 2 We neato Ge te SODOGURC IG 47,915 16 00 | 766, 640 565, 600 8 7 4, 970, 606
PME ANVG a tos |otalelaieidis)iclsis's s1oinrete, © bse 285, 290 | 15 92 4,541, 817 432, 090 10 15 4, 384, 375
NRRISSI PDL Etech a. «eee 277, 523 15.96% 4,420,207 420, 457 989 | 4,158,822
OCAETAESLERELENE olavolals cre-s:elale ais\aia/sie\e e's 616 153, 313 | 19 00 | 2,912, 947 252, 863 11 93 3,016, 048
PO MAR Ya ratetsorstcisis“arslalptote sieves nveteyets 700, 876 20 29 14, 220,774 | 4,023,177 13 00] 652,298, 087
PATAMISASE: fois ove le tele'e vic 00 oats cis eos 276, 104 17 98 4, 964, 350 442,173 1126: 4,979,796
MIGRUOSSCO Pets. le <leieie icles siticisie vine/e 326, 417 20 00 6, 528, 340 475, 406 13 48 6, 386, 604
West VACPINIA 5 <\.'.0 02502 sse se 166, 252 25 42 | 4, 226, 126 289, 519 18 05 5, 226, 327
REPU CY) motec eine dewinas ss A 307, 767 28 53 8, 780, 593 529, 071 2118} 11,208,055
WHIO RE pus ett A Anda ctas - 775, 724 30 53 23,682,854 | 1,017,820 26 94) 27,414,996
Michigan 5 420, 362 30 38 12,770, 598 506, 644 25 52} 12,929,152
|

16, 219, 020 885, 665 25 42 | 22,511,670
31 57 29,303,085 | 1,485, 903 26 04 | 38,699, 757

28 63 | 16,181,018 710, 053 23 22 | 16,489, 066
27 87 | 10,768,020 448) 695 22 51 | 10,098, 280

28 80| 35,444,016 | 2,074,919 24 26 | 50,332,980

2459 | 17,426,884 | 1,387,818 20 84 | 28° 921.584

28 46} 16,367,204 | 1/494) 259 22.94 | 34,273) 065

30 80 9,520,465 | 1,535,457 24 69 | 37,916,598

38 75 9, 159, 648 27, 907 28 66 | 17,994,559

27 46 1, 986, 511 606, 835 23.73 | 14,897,777

39 00 656,799 288) 235 2355 | 6,788,320

40 67 2,080,474 | 1,019.77 25 95 | 26,211,893

31 00 429, 257 238) 931 2000 | 4,778,620

30 94 5, 610, 814 629, 145 23 61 | 14,750,060

35 00 779, 485 290, 131 2200 | 6,382, 882

37 00 936, 100 725.7 22 08 | 16,023, 456

26 00 466,232 | 1,151,857 18 00 | 20,733) 426

30 86 1,296, 521 162) 846 23 88 | 3,888,586

32 00 1,815,360 286, 358 26 00 | 7,445,308

38 00 236,854 | 1,280,916 25 00 | 32/022) 900

yeh 2 5 in We Rao he ge a Se a 627,000 22 00 | 13,794,000
27 40 | 389,985,523 | 31,275, 242 21 17 | 661, 956, 274

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. AOL

Table showing the estimated number of animals on farms, total value, &c.—Cont’d.
a BSED SAD AE ee UE RR, SER aa ES AEs NO Se ee Se BEE

Sheep. Hogs.
States and, Territories. v)
Number ee Value. Number. orice Value

PEAT OME Te arelsiots cleie\ciese wjele aime Slate's» 537, 407 $2 15 $1, 156, 771 70, 702 $8 7 $620, 760
ee eudaive BS aro coer eee 195, 260 2 45 478, 387 54, 404 9 33 507, 725
WRSTIMIONE alo icicle 1c a ccievicienjiaincencie 378, 174 2 86 1, 082, 031 74,115 6 90 5ik, 112
Massachusetts .........- appannae 64, 561 3 04 196, 104 77, 616 10 04 779; 577
AON USAT (oe bis2 Gelelele’s cisie'ele es 20, 449 375 76, 684 14, 395 9 80 141,017
Connecticut ...... Pea aratateh plat adiaie © 53, 477 3 25 173, 575 61,752 8 24 508,833
WERE OVE! hac sicieicis s oplele ce eeet 1, 595, 824 3 06 4, 875, 243 722, 060 7 53 5,435, 445
NICeRU A DOES Vins visixie(ejas «icieisis:efc\0\<:06\ 107, 413 3 76 403, 851 198, 795 8 35 1,618, 574
PPMMISVIVENIA cma toccccccciass s+: 1, 189, 481 2 68 3, 187/809 | 1,103,391 7 47 | 8,241,556
PVN <5. iters clea nicels cleieleld a 22, 294 2 80 62, 368 44, 431 6 10 271 028
APY «<< otic sicisie.sis ane eva(s isso. 168, 582 3 08 519, 739 299, 865 5 95 1,785, 115
WU OUIUTER TY, castes 0:c'sie'ctslcisiele e'wio(s's"Zo's« 463, 127 2 24 1, 035, 922 875, 256 3 66 3, 206, 063
North: Garolinay. ...6 66.5.6... 468, 816 1 28 600,084 | 1,346,558 3 24 4, 357, 460
ONE CATOMNG |. <ic.cicte cr 50.570 cms 112, 935 1 72 194, 250 567, 181 3 40 1, 927, 962
(COTES Bone ee Ae eee 500, 594 1 46 730,868 | 1,565,978 3 15 4, 930, 952
Florida ...... aeitis aidaielsinn cis sianialo\~ 91,094 1 65 150, 305 298, 108 2 38 709, 498
IEA AYN islet ncisoninis ce tece es ccs 337, 047 1 40 471, 866 | 1, 351, 152 8 15 4, 261,533
MisaiSsippis st o>. sxe seid ees 276, 103 1 50 413,878 | 1,212,144 304] 3,685,645
iy SpEEISTT Ya TiS Ae re 116, 385 1 65 192, 466 580, 790 3 10 1, 860, 449
Ucn cit) eB oe Aa oe 6, 802, 615 1701 11,582,812 | 2,411,727 276 6, 656, 367
AISA rae tao sista lary) eto!s(e 16a, © 234, 021 1 57! 367, S81 1, 692, 365 2 48 4,197, 065
BUSI EIIISNG fae clot! ofaraies sels ere: ,0.¢)seie vee 603, 7 1 60 967, 255 2, 122, 646 3 20 6, 788, 222
West MIPginiats Fie)... 2. cic 624, 912 1 85 1,174, 210 416, 133 3 66 1, 522, 133
entuckyeeeeientaes'e Tas 903, 223 22 2,024,665 | 2,032, 138 348] 7,068,996
GION eae cre cect cess Reiecie tae 4,753, 084 2 09 9,918,156 | 2, 442, 457 480] 11,720,864
Mighigayl foscs sepeiioe's 6514605 66% 2, 269, 607 211 4, 788, 871 840, 682 LPT E 4, 430, 393
YUCAT rer) age a sitters aise: 91 epraeioe «spose 1,088,517 210 2,288,607 | 2,773,199 4 66 | 12,936,420
MMoRE eee. Se: iy Sere 1, 005, 653 219; 2,205,196 | 3,967,961 476 | 18,897,017
Wisconsin ..... BEDS Sc sieaas 0.0 1, 218, 800 1 89 | 2,305,969 | 1,056,265 5 18 5, 468, 282
WMENOURIS cade ccs ciis ec te ciees's 278, 162 | CEPA 615, 294 440, 540 4 67 2, 056, 000.
RE eal sista stasesi-lelelete o« ty eer 467, 580 2 28 1,067,204 | 4,849,008 5 07 | 24,596, 107

WSSOMET Mra chcisete als sis. 02% s. co.cly 1, 285, 078 1 48 1,908,340 | 4, 168, 091 346 | 14,404, 92
MPUBRARS. cumtentocise cers BN 1,190, 163 1 60 1,898,667 | 2,275,178 4 86 | 11,059, 640
INBITASEB ec es salvaiceielstaes «is 448, 673 | 2 15 965,993 | 2,312, 784 5 08 | 11,748,943
Cairceniareee tt rats ee te 6, 069, 698 | 181 | 10,961,268 | 1,027,598 | 415 | 4,266,586
Oregon ,..... mere aS) Lee 2,469,551 | 1 47 3, 618, 139 191,600 | 2 81 588, 281
Novada oe. .22...0% anh se ee 661, 261 | Ife 1, 145, 436 14,399 455 65,517
CONORAAG Seite ee diets oe etre 1, 126, 645 | 177 | 1, 994, 162 17, 032 7 35 125, 611
PERTZOD RS. 250g 2%s cia ab Gites sadtlcidn ers 896, 002 ea 1,523, 203 10,149 | 4 50 45, 671
Dakar ee es 253,672 | 294 568, 226 355, 980 498] 1,773,849
Idaho...... adda tess raise © Ate 210, 375 | 2 10 441,758 26, 762 5 60 149, 867
Montana ee vcseatine st «+ 0s Se ORee 718, 750 212 1,525, 391 19, 298 6 26 120, 805
Wew MexicOmess ce) Soo. siik.. 4, 328, 755 1 60 6, 934, 666 17, 492 5) bb 97, 082
Utan tess... Oa SEER TORE TOC 651, 767 2 08 1, 356, 588 27, 554 7 16 197, 357
Washington genie os-s eciccccs eee 544, 548 2 25 1, 223, 491 66, 7' 4 81 321, 286
WY YONI. seers cinch tte ert. fate 518, 466 2 07 1, 072, 188 2,500 6 50 16, 250
Total a F308: ROR Oro oes 48, 322, 331 1 91 92, 443, 867 | 46,092, 043 4 25 | 196,569, 894

NUMBERS.

The interest in horse breeding has no* abated during thé past year.
Improvement is rife in nearly all sections of the country, giving in-
crease of value, so that the aggregate of horse values, notwithstand-
ing the general tendency to decline, has slightly advanced. No other
species of farm animals shows much increase of value.

In New England there is considerable interest in raising trotting
stock. The stock laws of the Southern States, which require fencing
in of stock, have resulted in the increase of horse raising, at the ex-
pense of other stock, as horses require a smaller area of pasture, and
better repay expenses of raising. The South, however, does not yet
raise all the horses required, making a market still for many horses
grown in Kentucky and north of the Ohio. In Louisiana the wood
pastures and old fields of the western parishes contain droves of a
small horse of Spanish origin, which is much used by the creole and
negro population for cultivating and general purposes. They are

26 AG—’86

4.02' REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

easily and cheaply raised, and bear a low price, thus reducing the
average value of the horses of the State. In some parts of Texas there
is a growing interest in horse raising. Cross-bred colts from Mexican
dams are produced in large numbers, selling, when grown, at $20 to
$40, according to quality. . A better cross from large American mares
is worth $80 when full grown. The average value of Texas horses of
all ages is less than half the average of the United States—$32.59 to
$72.15. The Arkansas markets are flooded with Mexican mustangs,
causing a reduction in price in some localities. Mustangs have been
very generally distributed during the past year—considerably even in
the Ohio River region—among better stock, where a tendency exists
for heavier draft horses. « The great variety of uses of horses admits
of enlargement of demands for both large and small breeds. Minne-
sota horses are in demand farther west, and are beginning to be grown
for the Dakota supply. Horse raising is to some extent taking the
place of wheat. Numbers have increased largely in Kansas, pee
owing to immigration and partly to the establishing of large stoc
farms. The bronchos, or Mexicans, are distributed extensively
through the Pacific-coast States, reducing the average value by their
numbers. The increase is very heavy in Idaho, Montana, Utah, and
Washington from establishment of horse ranches. Oregon, Califor-
nia, and Minnesota show marked increase.

The increase in mules has been less proportionally than in horses
during the past year, and is unequally distributed. Few are found in
New England or in the States of the Northern border, but they be-
come more numerous in the lower latitudes.

The largest increase of milch cows is in the States receiving immi-
gration, and in the Territories where mining and other industries are
increasing. The increase has been slow in several of the Western
States on account of the low price of butter. There is indicated, how-
ever, a tendency to improvement in quality. It is recognized that
the profits of a dairy, where the margin is small, may be sacrificed by
the presence of a few poor cows. It is reported that a better feeling
exists since the passage of the olemargarine bill.

There has been a considerable increase in other cattle, from a belief
that beef will pay better than wheat and cotton and other tillage crops,
declining less in unfavorable markets. A larger number of calves
has been raised, and in the ranch regions cows have been retained in
the herds, while bullocks have gone to market ; and though there was
heavy loss last winter in some districts, there is increase of numbers in
in the feeding grounds of the plains and mountains.

Sheep have been reduced heavily in numbers, under the influence
of low prices of wool, to such extent that the comparative scarcity,
with increasing wool values in other parts of the world, has given
prices an upward turn, and sheep are Pincus coming into greater de-
mand. In all parts of the world wool prices have recently been low,
and numbers have decreased in other countries, causing the rise in
value that has recently taken place.

The numbers of swine are aiso less than a year ago. The ravages
of cholera have been so heavy, that stock hogs have not been kept up
to the recent standard of supply. The reduction is also felt in the re-
ceipts of slaughtering establishments.

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, 403

_ The total numbers of farm animals, compared with the figures of
February, 1886, are as follows:

Increase or
Stock, 1886, 1887. decrease’
OV EET] daha ose poBaunBeiin elteode cas ogee eee nae 12, 077,657 | 12,496,744 | + 419,087
ECM BT TUR SENG OeT ONG Pac adi les viasescun Qegeen 2,062,593 | 2,117,141] + 64,548
TONE TEATS AT RCs goood acees swonbaee 14, 285,888 | 14,522,083 | + 286,605
EREPEPREIC UTOIIC ANG Scare Newco y Mr bc tsodssacteevescevaboes 81, 275, 242 | 33,511,750 | +2, 236,508
PERS SPC ag esas tiela cele cob aes wee bcica ius bessbebscbsuvecnvaatens 48, 322,331 | 44,759,314 —3, 563, 017
SADPRHE MC ICR ole aTaIee STE Oe niece tire vice Ob ts Sleds cis die wce's oan a ose beeinate 46, 092,043 | 44,612,836 | —1,479, 207
VALUES.

The decline in values noticed in two preceding reports has not been
active. It is most manifest in cattle, which have increased in num-
bers. As to horses, sheep, and swine, average values have slightly
increased during the year. It is to be hoped that the depression in
oo values has reached its lowest ebb. The averages are as
follows:

Stock, 1B6G:. | 1Beri'\ | Aeteeee or
HOPSGS. 30s occas $71 27 $72 15 +$0 88
MHMIOSN eriecdact anes 79 60 78 91 — 69
Milch cows 27 40 26 08 — 1382
Oxen and other cattle .... 21 17 19 7 — 138
IE) Ve Abe Eby COS Deere 1 91 2 01 + 10
PRAM erat ce get cial cieuele ohalle eciawdinve tau daieidis vce ie 4 25 4 48 + 28

The course of prices of the last ten years is thus shown as indi-
cated by the average price of all animals of each species on the 1st
of January:

Other
Years. Horses.| Mules. | Cows. cattle: Sheep. | Swine,
\
$58 16 | $63 70 | $26 41 17 14 | $2 25 $4 98
52 41 56 06 | 2178) 15 39 2 07 3 18
54 7 61 26 | 2827) 16 10 2 21 4 28
58 44 69 7 28 95 17 33 2 39 4 70
58 52 71 35 25 89 19 89 2 37 5 98
70 59 | 79 49 30 21 21 80 2 53 6 75
74 64 | &4 22 31 387 | 23 52 2 37 5 57
73 7 82 38 | 29 7 23 25 2 14 5 02
71 27 | 7960) 27 40) 21 17 1 91 4 25
7216) 7891 | 2608) 19 7 2 01 4 48

The year 1879 was the date of lowest prices recorded since the
collection of these statistics. The decline from 1873 to 1879 was
almost continuously progressive and very heavy. A sharp rise fol-
lowed, culminating in 1884. Sheep were highest in 1883, commencing
a decline, due to large importation of foreign wool, a year before the
retrograde movement in other values commenced. Hogs were also
highest in 1883, on account of the poor corn harvest of that year.
Hogs always sympathize with corn in price movements, fluctuating
with good and bad harvests, aside from the tendency of prices from
other causes,

A404

/

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

The aggregate values of farm animals and a comparison with val-

ues of last year are given as follows:

Nt

Stock.

weer oe cree e ences Ober ereesoesecrereeeraseersesconsssccece

Milch cows
Oxen and other cattle

1886.

$860, 823, 208
163, 381, 096
389, 985, 523
661, 956, 274

92, 443, 867
196, 569, 894

2, 365, 159, 862

1887.

$901, 685, 755
167,057,538
373, 789, 589
663, 137, 926

80, 872, 839
200, 043, 201

2, 400, 586, 938

Increase or
decrease.

|+$40, 862, 547
+. . 3,676, 442
— 11,195, 934
+ 1,181,652

— 2,571,025
+ 38,473,297

+ 35, 427,016

ee

There is an increase in the totals for ho

cattle, and swine.

rses, mules, oxen and other
The decline is heaviest in milch cows, attributed

to discouragement over the prices of butter, which farmers claim
have been reduced by the abundance of oleomargarine sold as butter.
The feeling is better under the law regulating the sale of imitation
butter compounds, and prices of cows are already appreciating In

consequence,

Table showing the estimated number and value of animals on farms, January 1, 1887,

Horses. Mules.
States and Territories. 5 . n
“ verage verage
Number. price. Value Number. price. Value.

HES] Ghodac BosOsOrBORI00 IOdID0E> 92, 094 $8869 $8167, Gb0 sacs. 2 se). oe niente een -
New Hampshire...............--- 49, 384 S391) 4 Aas BRON S525 Sec3..2 <|'. 2.) -t iets] eee
UV Garon a Ed Ge oppeocunb0udanse0~ 82, 370 82 31 GTBOKOTT [occa dec fn cc] «sic oreieeieell ote eee
NE GEE TERGIICES SonneadoeDenoboden 63, 916 106: 64 | 6,816, B00 [is o%. os ses.0 00 fii cie Se cro rein eee eet
isdntovo Penn t=\ te he\o I eamoncee Napanoe 9,955 106 62 OGY; 44D icc iye sees. [dc zien pete eer eee
Connecticut 45, 413 100 005)! 4, Bar eT ors. c. 3c +s, 210|¢ soe aieieleucll alee ee
IN Gyvaew OK: foc ees ficies s 660, 802 98 39 | 65,017,137 5,158 $110 87 $571, 860
New Jersey 91, 648 103 26 | 9,463, 186 9,407 120 84 1, 136, 749
IPERNSYIVAMIA:. c.-- 2 o> te ne oe cs one 583, 306 94 87 | 55,337,053 23, 670 110 51 2,615, 691
WICIAWATE foa6 oe oS clades ollece ss 22, 330 95 63 2,135, 491 4,061 118 23 480, 130
NUTR EIEG BReapodapepodasoousnde 129, 026 83 15 | 10,728, 077 13, 358 96 16 1, 284, 544
VRE PUMA ee ewlon seiscle- siete = cies ee 238, 548 70 11 | 16,725, 673 | 35, 372 86 46 3, 058, 096
NOME CO AEOUERD 2 Pree /o.e ccs sisie errs = 4 142, 57$ 75 14 | 10,718,012 | 88, 181 79 32 6,994, 096
SouthiGarolina. -27 1-35 1. eetree se 64, 673 88 17 | 5,701,926 73,050 94 04 6, 888, 383
Georeia Sr .kcs::. WS Sana dookchiacos 107, 902 81 16 8, 757, 335 146, 720 95 29 13, 980, 552
THGIAO EL pa Sea eS eames See reies ae 31, 184 $1 62 11,789 93 93. | — 1,107,284
PARI ath ovina tale cron ieisiee ereieese 127, 042 68 89 8,751,535 134, 995 82 93 11, 194, 624
NISSISSID ly eee Peeks hirece noe 130, 160 70 59 | 9,187,566 153, 412 84 44 | 12,953,958
MAOUISIANAI. 87. .-, 5c os «5.02 sioauec nec a 114, 105 57 27'| 6,534,952 81, 229 84 66 6, 876, 876
SAS Re ote a savas eishincle wipiegunte"s'e 1, 038, 816 82 39 | 33,642,055 186, 046 51 80 9, 637, 232
PASI ATISAS or Scere crs ate Pic sivis|svs1ecis)sis\o c's 174,714 60 07 | 16,495, 908 117, 747 72 75 8, 566, 439
MeENNESSEG!. -o5 ccjcce sce sobs eMart 294, 376 66 81 | 19, 667,265 190, 952 70 81 13, 521, 572
UGS TH Aldean hae asc aR pet don aaap 135, 570 65 72 8, 910, 107 6,540 (3 05 495, 399
[Gayl al Sadodaeads sadoduedchonss 386, 864 67 83 | 26,242,445 122, 943 G2 26 §, 888, 535
GTO See. Meee ae sae tee ae ene 761, 217 81 97 | 62,398, 601 24,479 7 98 2, 158,571
UNDG orete TWh Fraga 35 sob oe dene Eeon 454, 369 84 87 | 38,563,565 5, 486 101 39 556, 208
ER CIAN As ee ae co tice ate eicto cleueesecere\s 635, 362 77 50 | 49, 2438, 727 53, 844 88 49 4,495, 201
MUNOISH At. Sosa eee ac he totes + he 1, 059, 247 76 61 | 81, 152,417 125,718 $3 33 | 10,476,670
UV ASCOTIBIN 8 sors cies Ge jatsleretelaeiatie ies 408, 601 80 72 | 32,983, 234 8,010 94 24 5A, 877
WVIITIOSOGE 2/5 shes ceisie boos cise cle eac'es 354, 663 2 90 | 29, 402, 052 10, 447 99 23 1, 036, 624
1k, eae ae ee 973, 808 73 86 | 71,926, 052 48, 052 713) 4,186,822
WAGES TON + SR ae ed 759, 824 58 66 | 44,542,180 218,993 67 58 14,799, 633
CAMSAG acct soc basin. esbitens cone 593, 358 71 23 | 42, 263, 12 83,596 7 bY. 7,320,901
RS UASEAAs «is cloves 6.0100 oeuteciecicuteisinn 382, 389 %6 75 | 29,349,719 40, 358 9209 | 3,716,460
ASAE ORTMIBY. '. Let dee fe 5 hint 289, 626 64 00 | 18,534,945 36, 284 83 67 3, 035, 912
C1N2!=20) 1 eS SRS ene econ anon cree 167,775 53 92 | 9,045, 603 3, 155 72 60 229, 068
160 CS eee eee ee a 44, 654 55 15 2,452, 449 1, 657 73 18 | 121, 251
GLOVE Ne ini. 40: ote o's biew's silo cee nie eee 123,77 58 00 | 7,178,918 8, 165 83 92 685, 224
PAZADIA GD Retote lays s eiclee sie <isisie's sietapiow Sia 10, 165 52 00 528, 580 1,863 74 00 137, 862
TD SI2 01D. cae CBee a cle ee 2277, 027 77 60 | 17,618, 192 11, 964 99 85 1, 194, 622
Red AUTO) eee steele lai ois,« @r/cjoininin me,aroteters 48,750 55 00 | 2,681,250 2, 436 86 50 210, 714
RVPOHTPMAUIEET Me icinrine cs sone cesta 129, 203 50 58 | 6,535,088 9, 229 71 75 662, 181
EN ENV ULEERICO LE ia cls v cio cbciiciein See eee , 186 35 89 745, 944 10,912 47 70 520, 501
{URPEND, “2. 6G SS CHIDO. eee oe 56, 136 43 94 | 2,466,490 3,579 60 10 215, 082
RUM CLSFIED AKIN Crt falas cie's' « eyara. cis cielovelsce 94, 237 63 87 | 6,018,458 1, 231 83 06 : ge
MOV SOEKMITIS srctie eretesio stats clears craceie’eee 2, 500 44 59 | 3,678,675 2,850 69 7 “198, 887
BOUL Ese raietrisiei: «js'ers.vie sine vine vie 12, 496, 744 72 15 |901,685,755 | 2,117,141 | 78 91 | 167, 057, 538

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN.

405

Table showing the estimated number and value of animals on farms—Continued.

States and Territories,

378, 789,589 | 33,511,750

Oxen and other cattle.

Number.

Value.

185, 160
138, 892
178,576
110, 550

13, 154
109, 926
859, 725

69, 940
867,059

27, 137
139, 578
428, 041
419,383
216,858
604, 703
565, 600
436,411
424. 662
265, 506

6, 034, 766

451, 016
470, 652
286, 624
534, 362
997, 464
521,843
903, 378

1, 500, 762

681, 651
475,617

2,116, 417
1, 429, 453

$5, 208, 833
4, 255,574
4, 865, 493
3, 453, 157

432, 243
3, 484. 055

28, 512, 267
2) 347, 186

22) 663; 198

722, 930
3, 469,213
7, 958, 353
4) 188, 043
2/314, 199
5,975, 851
4, 827, 622
4. 304, 325
3, 883, 653
3,251, 655

73, 292, B32
4, 828, 896
6, 619, 257
5, 824, 486

12,727, 433

26, 827,597

13, 484, 860

21; 831, 037

37, 918, 859

16, 005, 369

10, 544, 186

47, 369, 232

27, 441, 923

35,501, 864

25, 460,778

13) 607, 595

* 15,289, 941

6,949, 923

15, 859, $62
7 298" 240
18.775, 310
21,824) 802
4,498, 871
047,849
28° 815,365
13, 035, 330

663, 137, 926

Number.
DUPRRIIIO I te Pernice cic aidtecie'e o's tia sretecice 2 165, 849
New Hampshire................ 98, 041
{GIS 001010) nS ns eR 221, 129
Massachusetts). 2. ic.c6 5 edecces: 175, 067
TPS SSERAEN ESLERILOL Le 2's ssete coisivitierelele’elsle'< 22, 656
CORNECHCUG Fe dsc. acces wee 124, 660
RN Pane OF Kare, crete g aisle s\atoiel ics viele oii 1, 495, 197
IVE PISO Va atmos ais oe alee ater a(eo0/~ 172, 926
Pennsylvania 911,148
Delaware......... 28, 683
We EWG 1G De A 133, 684
WAN OAR Re cet oe os risa cis s 3 255, 241
Worth Carolinas... 6. c.0.0-2o.-. 241, 345
Honth Carona)... .<.2 i. 144, 748
RON wae crete slate, fe) ale 3 oin)e esa’ 337, 603
HOMIE a ects cc delg to wis ale's « 49, 832
PANERA ainya) Peale istees s.aleicialereleve.e oe 288, 143
PPP SSVESHEN I fa teats o ais isto cr aiaid 2:21» > 283, 073
WOMRI Gan eee ee eco i ees cee 157, 912
WN(or ey Sn aS lose COC Soe 735, 920
PW IACOCCA Oi a 289, 909
WENHESSCOR Soe rie = =iaclae aie's.aceteie« 336, 210
WOSGF VAP SINT), ociats slew ines oe 167,915
Kentucky 310, 845
OOF 25.2 U75, 724
Michigan 432, 973
UNCER ea ees stoic dda’ cayea s 551, 447
MOT eee a cos, eas 937, 476
WASCONRIN 2. teat bccc cscs se cees 548, 222
MiInIGSOnaI es tenes oc ee astci cla. 417, 275
(000 pni cade bebe ide rece EEE a4 243) 002
WOSSO UI ee Scenes ccs cae atlcce 729,959
WSR aera ence earn eiocis tec. 05 609, 601
Ds (2) eg ae ee 333, 834
WANT ORMIB I fetys rere on cre citric sos 243, 469
OCR NE ays rata ce sit oie aiaye\n\s ose ves 2 < 15, 959
INE U6 1G ares eee oe SET CE eae 17, 683
COlORRHORS Re ee teccies conte eile acre 57, 294
PR UZEI eee |e AS eps oh cio\e aie aye cies 0 s 15, 232
TS IMOGEIES oO aa oie a, ete aea ciate ite a5 199, 480
NOAM rs Sees cate wets eles 24,498
Win tery o35 et ete. trad toe. « 29, 095
NBWIMOSICOM A ee.. cccccsis cee nes 18, 829
TOME RES Saati tare cine sia towels 44,534
Wrashisietoml onus ante ae, ceisrtbajede 3 62, 403
Wyoming RROD eten e! shsvel sist scotsTainy i © 6,358
Indian Territory rae tte otal cake eeite wetevers
TROVE Note cccide svete iterators 14, 522, 083
States and Territories.
Number.
WQIMOY ft) tc as aeaie sp sae as cetdens« 526, 659
NGwabam pshire . 55 6...) <s.cccse oe 195, 260
MEETINGS cance ceicias waiteite ans erele 378, 174
Massachusetts..............-... 63, 270
WRUMOMS ISAM ooo caste scisia ani c 20, 245
@ONNECHCULS: festa sonst koe esc n 6 53, 477
GW MOS saws ciajs clarsrerciaacenineie) ore 1,579, 866
INGWiCISGV® ah Sera cveierettete nies 106, 339
Pennsylvania! sii tsetene sca 1, 094, 323
GIA WAES 5. ache’ aaclearen owe nas 22,
NNERT VLAAIN GL. cons 5/21) o3ahata Pei Yolat ee ceo 165, 210
Tas Yes) An RA ee 449, 233
North Carolina 450, 063
South Carolina . 108, 418
GREE CIDs cc cis << oe oee kate 465, 552
UVGTIOR coe cen tae To cee enee eis $0, 183
7M END NA Oe Se At SACRE ERTS 323,565
SATINSISSUOP IN) tt octicinla-)5,4\<] «ee. gates 242, 971
ULISAEUNAEY. width SW koto: 0/3 vcre:ejeialateter orate 111,730
PEESREte g tietatsn sana tele. cielo distirercrsicialnie’e 4.761, 831

Bet et et et et et et Rt 0 C0 0 TO GC GC CG
LIRSSSSRSSRASSASE

2, 582, 818

WWWNWWNWWWRAIWIWOIDOOWOD

SaSKRSSRASTRSKSRSRRES

1, 754, 567
7, 080, 476

406 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Table showing the estimated number and value of animals on farms—Continued.

/

— = —:

Sheep. | Hogs.
States and Territories. ik Fe
- verage y + Average 7

Number. pri Rig Value. Number. price. Value.
ATICATISAN, | 4.05. Bots.. «pikes estes 224, 660 $1 52 $341,983 | 1,523,129 $2 65 | $4,036,293
HED TIGHROG| 1 5. bGs tees 6 ed's antes 561,515 1 51 846,877 | 1,910, 3 10 5, 922, 181
218 1, 297, 042 432, 778 4 11 1,780, 448
2 33 1,997,569 | 1,808, 3 82 6, 905, 247
2 53 11,533,675 | 2,320 5 59 | 12,967,882
2 54 5, 485, 187 823, 868 5 82 4,794,419
2 48 2,567,181 | 2,495,879 5 87 | 18,396,880
2 44 2,260,359 | 3, 650, 524 548 | 19,997,572
2 08 2,280,462 | 1,008, 452 5 80 5,314, 284
2 36 655, 239 422,918 4 60 1, 943, 730
2 40 1,020,515 | 4,461, 087 5 17 | 28,065, 603
1 67 1,968,838 | 3,876,325 3 62 | 14,082, 297
1 75 1,989,758 | 2,161,419 5 58 | 11,955, 240
1 92 ,004 | 2,382, 168 5 49 | 18,073,336
ale 10, 728,192 | 1,017,322 3 78 3, 841, 409
1 42 3, 670, 173 229, 920 2 86 656, 423
siya! 1, 153, 371 14, 543 5 32 777,339
1 61 1, 845, 579 21, 290 6 88 146, 424

1 60 1, 003, 522 13,701 4 00 54,
2 43 623, 100 427,176 5 42 2,314,013
2 25 520, 679 28,1 5 25 147, 525

2 34 1, 762, 197 20, 268 5 85 119,1

1 48 5, 958, 098 20, 990 6 27 131, 565

2 04 1, 343, 692 28, 656 8 27 237,

- 200 1,110, 878 90, 152 4 26 384,
1 96 1, 047, 480 2,750 6 40 17,596
NG ME TO SR ae a (ais Hab ea eed alas debne ete. =< eolatele shies 850, 000 2 60 2, 210, 000
2 01 89, 872, 839 | 44, 612, 886 4 48 | 200,043, 291

WHEAT AND CORN.

SUPPLY AND DEMAND FOR FIVE YEARS.

A resolution of the House of Representatives of the United States
called upon the Department of Agriculture to give the amount of
wheat and corn on hand in this country, where located, with proba-
ble requirements, to September 1, 1886, as compared with amounts
on hand at similar periods during the previous five years; the num-
ber of acres of spring and winter wheat growing, each respectively,
to produce the crops of 1886, with acreage for each of the five pre-
ceding years; the amount of wheat and corn, each respectively, likely
to be required by each importing country, with present surplus on
hand in each exporting country to supply such requirements until
September 1, 1886; the area of wheat sown in all other countries for
the crop of 1886, with probable surplus or shortage in each country.

On the 29th of May a report was made by the Statistician and
communicated to the House, showing concisely:

(1) (a) Stocks on hand in the United States; (b) requirements to
September 1.

2) Acreage of crop of 1886.

3) (a) Production in Europe; (6) European commercial supply.
4) Kuropean stocks on hand.

5) The coming crops: (a) Wheat; (b) corn.

It makes the normal consumption of wheat-consuming countries,
not including the small amount produced in countries where other
grains constitute the diet of the people, about 2,165,000,000 bushels,
and finds that the deficency of last year was 89,000,000, and the sur-

" REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. , AQT

plus of 1884 125,000,000. It finds a deficiency in 1886 in countries
where the harvest is finished of 32,000,000, the probability of an
average yield in Europe, and of a production in this country of at
least 100,000,000 bushels more than the product of 1885; and there-
fore, on the basis of present conditions, a probable full supply of
the wants of the world for the coming year.

It finds that there has been some increase of wheat area even in
Europe, and very material enlargement of breadth in the United
States, some in India, Australasia, and South America, which causes
a full supply, tf not a plethora, in the markets of the world, and
which has reduced the price in Liverpool to a lower point than has
been recorded in 125 years.

It shows the fact, which those who only look at the commercial
movement often fail to see, that nearly all the wheat-raising countries
of the world aim to produce a full supply, and usually succeed; that
North America, South America, Asia, Africa, and Australasia each
produce a supply, and generally some surplus, while Europe produces
34 of the 4 bushels required per capita, besides another half bushel
for seed, say about 165,000,000 bushels. It shows that if Great

Britain Ehalb be set off from Europe, the Continent will supply itself
usually, or at least require only a few million bushels after its interior
distribution is effected. In other words, the world is striving to del-
uge Liverpool with wheat, and finds elsewhere, and is likely to find
elsewhere, despite any law except the natural laws of production and
self-preservation, no markets that are worth striving for, or that can
enrich any wheat-growing nation. 7

The report of the Statistician is given in full.

1.—(a) STOCKS ON HAND,

In “‘stocks on hand” are included the estimated amount in the
hands of farmers and the ‘‘ visible supply ” of commercial authorities,
but not that of unenumerated wayside granaries, the unmanufact-
ured stocks of millers, or the manufactured product on its movement
from mill to mouth.

Wheat stocks, May 1.

Stocks.
Years. ee Ko aa
Farmers’. | Commercial.| Aggregate.
Bushels. Bushels Bushels. Bushels.
Sg qBCIE Dio JOLIE G0 COCIGEn OO GEOR SHG pe EEE Eone 60, 000, 000 44, 000, 000 104, 000, 000 357, 000, 000
Bn net gare eee fla AMEE a ek 112, 000, 000 40,000,000 | 152,000, 000 513, 000, 000
Meets sa ates cine ae Re eet ee oedoeee 73, 000, 000 22, 000, 000 95, 000, 000 421, 000, 000
BR arctate ds Pes nce REET Ce es baigieiele 3 91, 000, 000 20, 000, 000 111, 000, 000 504, 000, 000
LSC BABA RENE ocisete esc. o 4 ae eee Oe a ea 66, 000, 000 10, 000, 000 76, 000, 000 383, ¥), 000
l

Were the mill stocks, unenumerated commercial grain in obscure
storage, and manufactured wheat in distribution included in the
above aggregate the addition might suffice for the consumption of
two months. This portion of the visible supply will be greatly
reduced before the 1st of September, and will swell the above aggre-
gate of stocks for the year’s consumption. Then the harvest will be
in progress in Texas during the present month, in Tennessee in June,
in the Ohio Valley the 1st of July, and in Michigan later in the same

408 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

month. While the new crop is slow in its commercial movement at
first, consumption in farming neighborhoods commences at once.
There is a record in Northwestern Indiana of ‘‘ grinding new wheat
night and day on July 5,” and similar records are not infrequent.
Were the supply for milling exhausted two months before the Ist of
September, there would be no difficulty in obtaining a sufficiency
from the new crop. Last year the harvest not only prevented deple-
tion of commercial stocks, but added several million bushels in July
and August. These sources of supply in the later months of the
harvest year are larger than consumers and commercial dealers are
apt to suppose, and as regards wheat, August 1 would more nearly

mark the commencement of the new year.

The farmers’ reserves are mainly in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minne-

sota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Dakota.
The commercial stocks are as follows:

Wheat,

Bushels.
DIN ESN ACT mt ot ci Nerdes chess Sis iors Cibvetesc ate aus ieee epemeere eieterstove otepetdie ss /elelsis s opeiavevatote bretatelelevoeteTs 4, 138, 095
ATEN POLE I ie ete rarctale isis ate chats aielolatase oteteroraittcletebeterotele stove viote wkd sia veyctapela levees ieravers 492, 635
NES ATDIMIORE 2 Arak refer torstese ye Gictorote veto p fe State: sie Ge es letras ticiegste reve isie is aid sfusais alu torn ere etaete se fake ciate 459, 458

Saint Louis........ :

I ASTECE CLE? SAA On a ELS AURAL OAC $3 F Sac eee | 446) 185
MOBHOMIOINES: Kise strict scrote sors aie’y, eleyeleta UeaTADe ay-Pvay Ela nS oresbete da Gate reraver eS eve TASC TEL ora ans i; 1,708,911
OnmHBK es Rees Neniseieienidecinwar eeeac PN Hate os Ractlodasatete Oh Gre tetra ieete aaa Meio hatter eee a | 2,268, 858
Total 1886 ....... io Seto hay Septic (cafe as ids Svaeone ena nehanSlede abe BE Sib oe vetae cotatate Minot etaeate | 44,549, 960
TOLAIEISSH Leas flees Ieee eRe eS I Cee DOG ao ROR 43.3. 6:36 kaa | 40,451,148
BROUAISL BRA eh eee ly et ies ate ae ae IE Pa er eer ec om Abed nes
POURLAL BSS SP one BCT RAA Ra) lke the ed Bo Ae SARL Oy eee Meee | 20,781, 911
MMObAWISSS 2b Tetk Fic iciaitere late een ee bcs AON Se AE meer isd acing teternetrs 46 | 10, 577.543

(6) REQUIREMENTS TO SEPTEMBER 1.

3,111, 263

13,588, 611
9, 121,508
13, C01, 309
6, £94, 296
8, 407, 247

The natural requirements for consumption and tlie actual exports

(including flour as wheat) are as follows:

Years. Consumption. Reportieian Aggregate.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels,
84, 000, 000 51,000,000 | 185, 000,
82, 000, 000 27,000,000 ; 109, 000, 000
80,000,000 | 42°.000;000 | 122) 000; 000
81, 000, 000 31,000,000 ; 112,000, 000
79, 000, 51,000,000 | 180,000, 000
|

The wheat exportation, in this statement is largely taken from the
new crop in July and August; complicating the exhibit which the
resolution requires, and accounting for the apparent (but not real)
trenching upon the stocks reported above. For instance, in 1882,

ie

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. ° 409

after the short crop of 1881, the exports of July and August were
nearly three times as much as those of May and June.

Months. a) Wheat. Flour. Total.
Bushels. | Barrels. | Bushels.
SVE Macta Matcie clever dislalcia/sialelo'sraaitiniviele/«)o\¢te!« «isin. e(nipid\cin/e/cio\csinie.s «.e)e\e s/e\e.eieininielcjeleiotvie 5, 336, 253 434, 144 7, 289, 901
hot) Bh eapdetecec Sdobe carr oc (Ge CA BOROC OD DOC PROT COC OCRODO ROMO Otc 4, 406, 370 474, 025 6, 539. 452
MUEL Gs otalata's leroie tote nieihialclelc'eleieta els wio'e/eivin se cia mieltelsiti~ sisipie c.ciciel seinie,sia.sieieiai= wieiie 10, 454, 546 492,226 | 12,699. 563
ESSE BT i eee 20,900, 223 | - 695,525 | 24,030, 085
PTET GEL ere ete taielovanin: pete leisisivieisiainiers/e in iajaleldlv sie! pyais[a:0}<\e10'e;s'sieieies icicle anieists 41, 127,392 | 2,095,920 | 30,359,031

More than half of this exportation was from the new crop, and at
least an equal amount went into home consumption, to eke out old
crop deficiency.

The following table gives the production and distribution of five
years, showing the year’s consumption and actual exports, and a dif-
ference of 14,000,000 bushels for other use than as food, loss or waste,
or surplus:

a

Years. Production. For food. For seed. Exportation. spgeer ras
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
BBR: cerloeiaaelere(ccicies oie 0 ws os 235, 249, 812 55,215,578 | 121.802, 389 412, 357, 774
TRS hee os A MURIVELES sisleta seissic\s 255, 500, 000 52, 770, 312 147.811, 316 456, 081, 628
tS agg ell yan Ee 259,500,000 | 54,683,389 | 111,534/182 | 425,717,571
TSCA ne cat trare casts cus oh 265, 000, 000 55, 266, 239 182, 570, 367 452, 836, 606
TESS Ne runes oredeat ssics a 2s 357, 112, 000 271, 600, 000 51, 474, 906 94, 565, 794 417, 040, 700
Gas TGA! eles Sane. 2, 178. 427,620 | 1,286, 249,812 | 269,410,419 | 608,374,048 | 2, 164,034, 279

ANCTAEO) caiveniscaceeses 435, 685, 524 257 , 249, 962 58,882,084 | 121, 674,810 432, 806, 856

This would indicate that the surplus on September 1, with average
receipts from the new crop, will exceed that of 1881, when the visible

or commercial supply was about 20,000,000 and the invisible probably
a full average.

CORN.

The visible stocks of corn are given with those of wheat. The re-
quirements of four months to September 1 in any year are a very flex-
ible factor in crop consumption, which is itself so variable, rang-
ing from 1,200,000,000 to 1,800,000,000 bushels, with bad and good
crops. There are so many partial substitutes for corn as a stock-
feeding material that there can be no fixed or absolute requirement
for a given period. The crop of recent years, the stock remaining
March 1, and the exportation of the year are sufficient indications of
comparative supply during the period:

Year. Crop. Stock March 1.| Exportation.
pene Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
ER AE ht. BE ote hl Ae a ee 1, 617, 000, 000 587, 000, 000 42, 000, 000
Se ia aa ener at. > ee RA 1,551,000, 000 512, 000, 000 46, 000, 000
1a) aS Me reece] (Ask Ne aa 1,795, 000, 000 675, 000, 000 53, 000, 000
RE inl as os aus scorn eRe UE Te ee 1, 936, 000, 000 "73, 000, 000 65, 000, 000

Ua UEUEnE SESS REESE eee et

410 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

2.—PRESENT ACREAGE.

The estimated acreage of winter wheat now growing, and of spring
wheat sown, or to be sown (the latter from data not sufficiently full
on the 1st of May to determine with precision), in comparison with
the area harvested in four preceding seasons, is as follows:

Year. Winter. Spring. Total.

Acres. Acres. Acres.
Oe OE IO ee eo Mensd | ict arp act ice Oc CIC IEC 24, 727, O87 11, 800, 000 36, 527, 987
FSS Oh a eg ES ES ee SS jo 30) eae eee 22,148, 543 12, 040, 703 34, 189, 246
TRGA Gs oye ek Se kicheineel ate lee tage ks seen Ee eecic 28,345,708 | 11,180,177 39, 475, 885
i125) SCR Gee Ine ner Oe REM SEE E Nc ac, [0 AS aaa 26, 411, 928 10, 043, 665 36, 455, 593
Mar aches he cn.de de clalinip Gaeta he eshenms CURD tec Meteett ater teh ie 4 27, 477, 230 9, 589, 964 87, 067, 194

- The estimate for spring wheat of the present year is obviously sub-
ject to revision, as the sowing was not entirely completed on the 1st
of May. Dakota is assumed to have five-sixths of its proposed area

2,400,000 acres) seeded at that date. Minnesota reports indicate some

ecrease of area.

The acres of former years are those harvested. In 1883, and very
notably in 1885, the acreage seeded was larger than the figures above,
being reduced by extensive substitution of other crops for wheat de-
stroyed by the freezing and thawing.

The requirements of present consumption will be met by a breadth
of 27,000,000 acres with an average yield, leaving about 9,500,000
acres for the production of wheat for export; sufficient to produce,
with an average yield, 114,000,000 bushels. A large yield like that
of 1884 would allow 150,000,000 bushels for exportation.

3.—(a) FOREIGN PRODUCTION.

The requirements of Huropean demand can be better indicated by
a statement of the average production and consumption for a period
of years, in connection with the latest facts of product and supply.
A collection of the facts of production between 1874 and 1881, so far
as obtained for consecutive years, makes the average production of
Europe 1,144,000,000 bushels; the consumption, in food and seed,
1,312,000,000 bushels, requiring a supply from other continents of
168,000,000 bushels,

The rate of European consumption, though varying from a single
bushel in Norway to 9 in France, averaged (very nearly) 4 bushels
per capita, or 34 bushels exclusive of seed.

The rate of yield in the last five years has been larger than for eight
years preceding, upon a somewhat larger area; so that the average
product, as shown by a collection of data more nearly complete than
is often presented in similar statements, makes an aggregate produc-
tion of 1,210,000,000 bushels; an increase of about 66,000,000 bushels.
There is a small increase of population and some advance in rate of
consumption, yet some portion of the former European deficiency is
provided for at home, reducing the quantity to be obtained from
America and elsewhere, and also aiding slightly in the reduction of
the price of wheat throughout the world.

The following table gives, as far as possible, the official returns of
the product of the last five years in a che countries of Europe, and

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 411

is corrected, as far as possible, by official returns received since this
matter was prepared, modifying slightly the figures for 1885 and
the average. It shows that 1881 and 1883 were years of average
yield, those of 1882 and 1884 seasons of large, and that of 1885 one
somewhat above the medium production. The average of all is
1,210,000,000 bushels.

Production of wheat in Europe from 1881 to 1885, inclusive,

Countries, 1885. 1884, 1883, 1882. 1881.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
ABU. ada te eat 5 Wisin celeisieea oe 48, 281, 992 43, 314, 746 87, 871, 261 44, 548, 149 41, 167,716
Hung Baa haee eames Cheb 113, 805, 460 107, 208, 499 90,541,782 | 181,746, 87 88, 889, 962
SGUEIUIEN i ielnic sie deiaitacicte's eres+ +0 19, 573, 926 22,700, 000 16, 645, 666 , 990, 14, 782, 229
MSRETEL ERS oaioraly, ary e lalae’k' 49 C7 a6 9.0 15 4, 969, 739 4, 682, 130 4, 554, 284 8, 102, 923
LUD ULL etc Gee SS ae Ie eC 811,733,083 | 324, ,397 | 294,400,346 | 846,610,624 274, 699, 385
GSORDION Semi aya gases + ore saa 95, 505, 881 91, 082, 424 86, 379, 000 93, 828, 048 75, 660, 351
Great Britan and Ireland ..,.... 82, 081, 332 84,595, 368 72, 765, 921 91, 381, 503 82, 4 ee

’ a, 3
100, 708, 461
4, 704,575
9, 000, 000
25,, 000, 000
: | 265, 131, 340
PVONG IE es ee hata dase’ a'cheva:e cie,s.a/a vi0's 4, 681, 875 6, 242, 500 | 4,500,000 | 6, 810, 768 *4, 256,730
poh cee trios ogee ee ees 113, 500, 000 99,812,500 | 120,000,000 | 85,134,600 | *119, 188, 440
OUGO biae oy OC On CTE BREESE 3, 916, 601 8, 822, 857 3, 107, 304 | 3, 792, 884 2, 222, 845
PSWHECOUIAMO snore. Sateen ccc tees 2,057, 188 #2, 128, 125 ¥2, 128, 125 #2, 128, 125 *2, 128, 125
Dy soccer 45,400,000 | 42,562,500 | 36,887,500 | *40,867,200 | *40, 867,200
Ofer countries, ... 5... iec5. ees. *567, 500 *567, 500 *567, 500 *567, 500 *567, 500
anemone ts Mics. it sit 1, 182, 687,758 |1, 270, 324, 880 |1, 152, 951, 680 |1, 282, 617, 880 | 1, 159, 816, 355

*In the absence of official or reliable statistics for this year an average product is given,
+ Exclusive of the Vistula Governments.

This statement shows that the average production of Europe during
the past five years has been increased some 50,000,000 bushels over
the average of the ten years preceding, which included several seasons
of unusually low yield in Western Europe. Those exceptional years
were the ones in which American exportation ran abnormally high,
and that extraordinary demand led to an increase of millions of acres
of wheat in this country, and to further enlargement of area in Rus-
sia, India, Australia, and South America, This furnishes a sufficient
explanation of the present plethora and low prices.

The crop of 1885 in Europe was nearly equal to the average of five
years, while the one preceding was much larger in Europe and in Amer-
ica. The average production of the last five years in the United States
was 436,000,000 bushels; of the ten years preceding, some of which
supplied the heaviest demand for exportation ever known, 338,000,000
bushels. Thus the increase is at least 148,000,000 bushels, while the
increased population from 1875 to 1883 (say 18,000,000 in Europe and
10,000,000 in the United States) would demand nearly that quantity.
It is not true, then, that the comparative supply is less than formerly
from the home product of these great producing countries, And the
increase in other quarters, in Canada, Mexico, India, South America,
and North Africa is probably an average of 7,000,000 acres, with an
average increase of product of 63,000,000 bushels, two-thirds of which
is available to enlarge the commercial supply. This explains why
our exports have averaged 122,000,000 bushels for the last five years,
when for the three years preceding the average was 171,000,000 bushels.

The product of the world for 1885~86, harvested in 1885 in the

A12 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

nortlern hemisphere and in the early months of 1886 in the south-
ern, may be stated as follows:

Bushels.

LOTTE? 0) ¢ RP leise Sica SSaieweencas ehe Min. irked ia eaBe ars ares 1,184, 000, 000
BNO AMTYVOTT CA fc taerse ere foie, chetaue tel nes TORR INE febeife's ‘ets-8(e soe 3 fosiulle ae apace 409, 000, 000
eiatiin VAMMOTICH S's cahaceie ee eis le oie os Seale RMR ebertte et = aiohetiors i 1s te ates ciate e's 25, 000, 000
BTN Eas eae USPS eae Rita erste rain ALTO RON EU RES take Ps lokeTetcle lenis ioiee ie Meets 287, 000, 000
IATISUTALASIA soe la eee ee Ch ee Se eR eich acic stlaiecleicia te creltasta eto 37, 000, 000
Atirica and “WiCSUGEN GA SIAR. arcic.c ccosoialecoraieteteredebeeie icles otece ele atetels wus ofa eteteunte 134, 000, 000

0G 91 aS ig et SRS oc OIRO 5.1 7 OCU GRIGIO ca Oi MOC RICE aR REE Co 2, 076, 000, 000

The product of Algeria, Egypt, Asia Minor, Persia, and other dis-
tricts included in Africa and Western Asia, is stated on commercial
authority, and cannot be vouched for as accurate. Most of the other
estimates which make the aggregates of this statement are official.
The grand aggregate of 2,076,000,000 bushels does not represent ab-
solutely the whole production of the world, as China and Asiatic
Russia are not considered (the latter credited with only four or five
million bushels), as the quantity is uncertain and has no bearing
upon the commercial supply of Europe.

(b) COMMERCIAL SUPPLY.

The ordinary method of forecasting demand by an exhibit of com-
mercial stocks is unreliable, if not misleading. A large accumulation
of stocks may be strong presumptive evidence of large crops, yet the
visible supply is not necessarily in proportion to the invisible; nor
are the commercial sales of a period an infallible measure of the actual
consumption of that period. For instance, the receipts of foreign and
native wheat in the markets of Great Britain for thirty-six weeks up
to May 1, 1886, were 72,149,660 cwts. against 84,805,000 cwts. to May,
1885; and to May 1, 1884, they were 76,230,000 cwts. against 87,970,000
ewts. for a similar period of the previous year. The crops of the
world for 1882 and 1884, as shown above, were very large, and the
market movement of these years was heavy, but the invisible remain-
der was larger proportionally than the visible supply, and contrib-
uted to a reduction of prices in succeeding years, while the fullness
of visible stocks of those years limited the demand for consumption in
the seasons following.

In view of these considerations, it has been deemed best to ascertain
the actual production of the world and the normal consumption of
the principal consuming countries, to afford an indication of the real
supplies available, both in the hands of producers and in the world’s
markets. The absurdity of reliance on stocks alone is shown by the
fact that the average stocks of Great Britain on the 1st of April for
six years past have not been equal to three weeks’ consumption, and
they have sometimes been largest when taken from a medium crop.

The statement of production above shows that the year 1884 was one
of large yield everywhere, and that 1885 had an average product in
Europe, a large yield in India and Australia, and a small crop in the
United States. The following table gives in round numbers the pro-

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN.

413

duct of 1885 (without reference to surplus of previous years) and nor-

mal requirement for consumption:

Countries. Crop 1885. Consumption. | Surplus. | Deficiency.
|
Bushels. Bushels. | Buehler Bushels.

ia- 162, 000, 000 144, 000, 000 | 18,000,000 |..... ......
Be ha 20,000,000 |” 3850007000 | 18; 000; 000
PRPCTAYIVSU Rs 2 arcsnjeueres 22 pies rere ie) 5, 000, 000 3,000,000 | 2,000,000 -].....°......
LIMES GOV Co aR eae ABS EEE babe 312, 000, 000 348, 000, 000 51, 000, 000
MGR IIIN GG natal: stotelcre/ofere wivinin tie.6.a/4°2 96, 000, 000 117, 000, 000 |... = 21, 000, 000
fRea RIGA ae eae. te tee Te heehee 82, 000, 000 225,000,000 |... .| 143, 000, 000
UMINEE Te Ane OGbE bt GOA CD, DB ODL E-eICOEnOCIae BAGS rCOrn 5, 000, 000 10, 600, 000 5, 000, 000
NEDO eters atria hetatntete: hare elt ia ava ichw'ah 2: So Wla)aia. wakes 118, 000, 000 136, 000, 000 18, 000, 000
INGUHE RIAN GBs tote. ered selects es Palate he clacte sles 5, 000, 000 12, 000, 000 7, 000, 000
Par bTeG NE ORE: Ae ppp carr enic CRDOGEDIEL » DOerOOnE oe 5, 000, 000 9, 000, 000 1, 000, 000
BESO RUN SRN NN Ea eter stete crate ara ahs sh a or: vic) ie ¥iaizietns.cha\e le1ers's 23, 000, 000 18,000,000 | 5,000,000 |............
SURAT eat ae coe ceincerctice coe os tate een e daetae as 178, 000, 000 144, 000, 000 | 34,000,000 |............
Sri aes aes ie ane ae Se cs wields oe oele it ceees 5, 000, 000 3,000,000 | 2,000,000 |............
Saini wees. en eo ee, BR 114, 000, 000 114: GOOHOD0) [Feet kt Peas. eRe ee
SWECLOM atl alone sai cte cperais, a's od!aere wicferanare a cleretatae © 4, 000, 000 5, 000, 000 1, 000, 000
BOWIE ZOE LANCE errs cc fealinidlew srs.dis ae «45, o,sistdietcie ae Sia s 2, 000, 000 11, 000, 000 9, 000, 000
WC OV a Nem eae fenceieanetct toys ote cinsatasiaiayd dee ot icteo wee’ 45, 000, 000 , 000,000 | 5,000,000 |............
PROMI MSE eta, ort care cieleysiais Glesaun'©.oial meine iasste e'« 1, 184,000,000 | 1,372,000, 000 254, 000, 000

The summary of product of 1885 and net consumption of 1885~86

is thus stated:

Geographical division. Crop. Consumption.
Bushels. Bushels.

TBE De ici oc COROUORIC COR Cee CORA BE CREE Orenedccr Date tito He anc aa ae i, 184, 000, 000 1, 372, 000, 000
IVORUVAU OM CH te totes viele ote ce meek ate nee oddest eet aera 9, 000, 000 364, 000, 000
PAULRLIE MEU RLS epee a fo) say c chai s Sa - eee) s « Sh mereld shay stewemels cae adatles tedaat 25, 000, 000 | 23, 000, 000
VIPs Serra ee oe asic all ads Bea ATA ade ve wloe des aed bee whites 287, 000, 000 240, 000, 000
PUA TAG ELE Se - 53 5 AS eee eee ran bs eee eee ee a 37, 000, 000 20, 000, 000
Atte CHe MOV OSUPASIA RAS feo de c's Sitiee vceahes cae aioe oct tke coe tee ee: 134, 000, 000 125, 000, 000
WERT TOr GEN FRI TNG Soo eS ARR CIEE aS ee CMO Ee epee ae eee ete yt Bee ee 21, 000, 000

LGN oe SO tao ne ee ee ea 2,076,000,000 | 2, 165, 000, 000

With medium to large yields in nearly all countries in the world,
the United States excepted, the apparent deficiency of production is
only 89,000,000 bushels, while in 1884 the excess over this require-:
ment of consumption was at least 125,000,000 bushels.

4.—KUROPEAN STOCKS ON HAND.

The stocks on hand in Great Britain of both wheat and corn April
1, for the last five years, have been as follows (in Liverpool, London,
Fleetwood, Gloucester, Bristol, Hull, Newcastle, West Hartlepool,
Glasgow, and Dublin), calculated in Winchester bushels:

Years. Wheat. Corn.
ASQOM sic ratatancte patie secre eee S aan Dea Tea oc aah oe Coe eee Se 14, 146, 265 | 1,061, 228
ABR See BYE satay ae en eee tae, Re des be eee wo a, Ve, el oN 8,164,794 | 1,060,254
ee SE Sper ae Ae A ok 0 NN A eR ERNE Oe Me EG fd 17,031,889 | 1,654,377
PBR, use cd Se Ree Be te Ge a 10,310,975 | 1,875,742
Th SR Ee BoB Bea GRe De pe of cAdon occ rob nea a nO ELE eo BI 7, 959, 065 | 1, 218, 885

414 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE,

Stocks in Paris at the same date in 1886 slightly exceeded 3,000,000
bushels. They were about 3,000,000 bushels April 1, 1885, and nearly
5,000,000 bushels April 1, 1884,

Records of other continental markets are not complete, but stocks
are generally small and differ little in quantity from those of a year
ago.

sires are no great reservoirs of stored wheat in these hand-to-
mouth markets. Stocks represent the consumption of a fraction of
a month, hence a statement of stocks on hand, except in the United
States, is of little utility. In Russia and Southeastern Europe the
reserves are invisible, and in good years the distribution is much
slower than in this country, and liable to go over to succeeding oe

The amount on the water from all parts of the world is a somewhat
larger consideration. The British trade records, May 1, made in
round numbers the quantity of wheat and flour ‘‘on passage”
17,000,000 bushels against 25,000,000 bushels at the same time last

ear. French calculations made the total coming to Europe 21,000,000
ushels against 30,000,000 bushels last year. ay

Comparing stocks on hand (greater in Great Britain), in connection
with grain and flour en route by sea, there appears to be a small de-
cline, but not exceeding a few million bushels, perhaps not exceedin
two days’ consumption of Europe, in comparison with the stocks o
last year.

Tn the first months of 1886, to May 1, the importation into Great.
Britain has fallen off one-third, or 15,000,000 bushels, as compared
with the same months in 1885. With this reduction, the proportion |
contributed by the United States amounts to 16,000,000 bushels, in-
cluding flour as wheat, or 52 per cent. of British imports. India, in
these four months, sent over 11,000,000 bushels, and Russia nearly
5,000,000 bushels. A comparison of the four months of 1885 and 1886,
to April 30, is as follows:

Bushels. Bushels.

VT EETTOG AEB GABLLTRe Sc AHR OGAP EER ARATE ASTER RE: ME Th CLOem hata rr Suen ee 3,591,101 | 2,579, 696
(Ct sii a¥7 fa ORR OID OO OOOO OCI CEROUCE De Utah GOON SIO so) hare CSG ONCE eee 990, 188 1, 345, 364
TORTS? no Sep baedoeee SEDC OAR OCD Adit onoea deO0e Douce coer stacda ciupecdooSdEogene 258, 600 148, 988
PRGUITPIEING, 55.5.0 cis.5.c. cele atplejatayd sbi thas isle plobe oe Male sa bbb © OMe RIES COI Weibg adie siete ald olelele 66, 302 184, 417
TEA eee TE ee Se a SRR ah DA iy toa ve SS he © 143655: 2: pe nee
United States :

Ia ee ON Ot OR Sar AR ER aR ro) Hola: 4 4.5), ee 9,118,404 | 3,887,194
A ACLLLC cote xc Heel ysis eccye 5 eyd x serovts fav avw elalos a) 4 vaiians ayacerbie eae ONGEANG nl Grdeleiings lel use| oheiedie'e i> 10, 318, 601 5, 639, 349
CUAL as ahs Acoma tA Ra HOS Wien te MARR Se SMe) a anh | ar 90, 569 296, 804
Wyatt eV bis ke geen Mere en OLE RUM GUO mO Re TO CnUnOUs Gd tt COL OO Cae apo nnn 4,787, 507 6, 577, 751
POMS NOPUASIA Gr ct teciiess siusrats © CRC ereTLT CP Tororo Gn RR Gel ROMO TRO DIAG MRTG AREAS onus ss 1, 480, 530 857, 118
AIBA NCTM JAMMOICH Yh bu heiids se heckt cele Chloe LAIN hats Ohkubo Get Baa wh ke als 63, 902 59, 824
DUBE COUNTTION Gg rajepisller Fe xtacletas.cciaie s ceMe nat daccta PO Grp Ulesshaip Biers Cou. erei eras 689, 972 758, 275
Motel. = ot igideeitancguge sweetest eters Be Hea NE Pa OE UCSD OTE Wee Sofelele wll Gls 51,599,281 | 21,779, 277
OTR AB OEE faves aie. cln eo ais Steere’ Sielo.ciclo.be obtes Ceee SRM De pietntaee ciedijsomsieet ¢ece3)) Aes OMeNeeO 8, 825, 3384

|

|
ENATOITOLALs ch oa nae e teen oe Rie Mey PPE ene auoart ites sess ce | 45,972,507 | 30,604, 611

|
While the importations of 1885 gave an excess over consumption of

about 10,000,000 bushels, there is a deficiency since January that more
than overbalances it.

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, 415,

5.—THE COMING CROPS.

(a) WHEAT.

The supply of the commercial year 1886~’87 is to come from the crops
already harvested in the southern hemisphere and in India, and those
to be harvested during thenext four months. Thecrop of India, grown
on an area reduced about one and three-fourths million acres, may
have yielded 265,000,000 bushels. The Australasian crops are greatly
reduced, and from present information will not exceed 22,000,000
bushels. Those of South America are somewhat larger than last
year, how much is not yet known, but are not likely to increase the

roduct more than 5,000,000 bushels. From present information it is
air to estimate a decrease of 32,000,000 bushels from the aggregate
of last year’s production in the districts already harvested.

The harvests of the northern hemisphere, in progress from the pres-
' ent time to October, between 30° and 60° north latitude, but mostly
in July and August, cannot now be foretold. With a continuance of
present conditions the product of winter wheat will exceed an aver-
age and produce nearly or quite 13 bushels per acre; and with spring
wheat, on an area equal to the breadth of last year and average con-
dition of growth, a total product of about 465,000,000 bushels should
be expected. This would give a crop of 108,000,000 bushels larger
than that of last year.

In Europe, the area of wheat in Great Britain has been reduced 8
to 10 per cent., which means only 7,000,000 or 8,000,000 bushels at
best. In France the breadth is apparently as large as that of last
year. There is no indication of any material change in the acreage
of Europe, which will probably be about 94,000,000 acres, and pros-
pects are good up to the present date for a product equal to that
of last year—1,184,000,000 bushels—though the course of the season
may yet cause a variation of 50,000,000 bushels above or below this
figure. The present average yield of Europe, as a whole, is only
rc bushels per acre, while that of the United States exceeds 12

ushels,

It is a mistake to assume that the breadth of wheat of Europe has
recently been declining. There has been a marked increase in Russia,
as in this country, in India, Australia, and South America. There
has been some increase in Hungary, Germany, and France since 1880.
The acreage of the following countries is given for five consecutive
years:

Countries. 1885, 1884. 1883. 1882, 1881.

J iis Ei agar ge 1h GRQMTTECCO DO OT AOCIE ECR 2,326,115 | 2,735,597 | 2,610,968 | 2,511,308 2, 455, 276
EIA RELS i= -Gsotbupas fps ainigheoicisee ss ess s 6,773,899 | 6,795,019 | 6,435,528 | 6,161,272 | 6,260,558
REAPS ICED cite Sx aide apatite eee cs bp derolele cic sie = cfo's s 17, 220,552 | 17,426,038 | 16,812,242 | 17,069, 154 17,195, 971
COU OIBINY. «aia sn clin aisicia@\aisiaiidieplele</c'e's's'e oe s 5,000,000 | 4,741,730 | 4,744,747 | 4,498, 826 4, 488, 995
Great Britain and Ireland................. 2,558,092 | 2,750,588 | 2,718,282 | 3,168,899 2, 967, 059
IN GRU EUS tonne eeeas-e chart cook seeces 205, 000 219, 198 214, 040 229, 491 219,
OGM artadupeenaeyen veh ietied< cee eos 34,078, 658 | 34,668,165 | 33,530,802 | 33, 638, 950 | 38, 587, 059

The averages of yield in these countries range from 15 bushels in
Austria-Hungary to 28 in Great Britain, and the average of all for
five yearsisnearly 19 bushels. Russia hasan areaof nearly 31,000,000
acres, and yields scarcely 8 bushels per acre. Other countries have
an aggregate of about 29,000,009 acres, and produce an average of 11
or 12 bushels per acre.

-

416 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

The area planted in wheat, and now harvested or growing, is prob-
ably very nearly as follows:

Acres.

TENTERDEN 8 ach AEG tania Sete cds oh lage hs Mietotmvs thee mete e ice! a ialale tie bie cotati etd 94, 000, 000
MOnht AIMOriGa Lys h set seierels cicfelets Clee ntotick pteietelehee!sfavcl-ietr i ievsic cetioneiete 40, 500, 000
pun AIM SHICHI Rac craieiots sere ihe ls <ofe tote eye RRORTO sPokeks 010 to) sds aie paigiers Elcovoer - 6,000, 000
[irate Tee SNE oS PEI OR Ie ED cn RAM ANE IND ofS Te iS 2 26, 000, 000
AGIStPAlASI AN te 2s. ATRIA sane craves oRpe tI Ose tenete see’ ects olsrehe ree triorete sists relents 3, 500 ,000
AM PIGAIANG VV GSEOLIY AGia cles ce See Aet abet lero leianais ives Wists wicks ehereels. 6 stasis 13, 000, 000

Tested sun Seepe ay stots. «ola ahcte te rs (oialln: Pe eeeove PIT e Maes Glo ti» itch slam vas es fous talent 183, 000, 000

The average yield of the world is a fraction above 12 bushels
per acre, and the good and bad seasons, irregularly distributed geo-
graphically, equalize production in a large measure, so that the
yearly average rarely rises or falls half a bushel from the normal
average for-a period. -

(6) CORN.

As this country now produces three-fourths of the corn of the
world, and has averaged for five years a product of 1,619,000,000
bushels, and exported only an average of 56,000,000 bushels, or 34
per cent., and would readily have doubled the exportation without
missing it, it appears almost frivolous to give stocks in the commer-
cial markets which rarely show more than 1 per cent. of the produc-
tion at one time. The stocks in this country and Europe, however,
are found above in connection with wheat.

The principal buyer of maize is Great Britain, and in the last five
years the purchases have averaged 58,000,000 bushels per annum, of
which this country has contributed 36,000,000 bushels, or 62 per cent.
of all, without counting that going through Canada. Roumania,
Russia, Turkey, and Egypt always furnish a small amount.

Except in this country and Mexico maize is a minor product, and
is produced in countries which are not generally advanced in crop-
reporting methods. It is somewhat difficult to give the exact status
of acreage and product, but the following table is the best attainable
approximation. It is for the year 1885, except as indicated by notes,
for certain countries making only occasional returns of production:

Countries. Acres. Bushels.
Un eal Soe hee a aldes GuGta. OCOMMOnM au o> c0nd bonone > sacar anONs. caccGgosaoe 73, 130,150 | 1, 936, 176, 000
MORIN ECL epee tera claro ots os fete orale aisle sa\o oseyni= crete sala peieiels tetete slors\elaleteyetaiele<yatioialstejefale): n/-'s'= 200, 000 6, 000, 000
BYES Mya tees eRe eee wa fete cicta fot rerelinto ts tev cx (opal te caches ete aia|e elelete wleteteleloiels/araleeiwis\sleis's eis)- 10, 600, 000 213, 000, 000
TESTE Se Oe a See ne Oe CU GEE ae Ondo poeee cob scorn aden oa) dor cu oeocesderrde 11, 361, 000 70, 224, 000
[Rahs catalog pies Bek aaa ie eed: te ual iba aetaurt not Ge dodo Ar to ac ognntoe ace eCOeee 4, 423, 000 43, 000, 000
PIS UML e SEMA DEY vom to araoletoletercicheie.s ilo ure etotelo eee) love otedeteyelalsasatn)acste{o/s inis\s/e/2)=\« => = 5, 458, 757 105, 640, 810
TIC UR Sg a OR bel a ee oil ce ih A a ana 4, 240, 261 75, 645, 857
EEC AIET OR eS Sel. once Cretet stars cictewheet Net eiey crass sik aka ot piseie eters she eamiege eilate ete elev ely Sie tate eve love's 1,523, 787 27, 689, 976
SOT a Sead COCOA S OS Gone Dee CADE Ie ase s Haabar ee: Ean te ISaer aaa Te DOO mE 2, 300, 37, 378, 388
SETA A Pc ere te sia eaten ee tise aie icin ete ee scans ete etatetets esetniats (a sieveislale\ etars's'i0]=:> 1, 284, 960 20, 288, 125
BTOBPUL espe toals cote costa tare inaetorehs Base te eo Per enae erale eter speralige Ber aciets skeis\e.w yo: s | 114, 521,915 | 2,535, 043, 156
*Average acres of 1870 to 1879; product 1879. § 1883.
+Average production; acreage 1881. | Average product; estimated acreage.
$1884. 4 Average product (Neumann-Spallart).

There is a small area of maize in several countries of South Amer-
ica, and a little grown in the more northern portions of Cones
and in some unenumerated districts of Southeastern Europe, in Al-

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 417

* geria, Egypt, Australia, and at the Cape of Good Hope. In round
numbers the present area of maize may be stated approximately at
120,000,000 acres, and the product at 2,600,000,000 bushels, making
an average product of about 22 bushels per acre.

DEBTS OF FARMERS.

There are now about 5,000,000 owners of farms. A million of
new farms have been acquired since 1880. Many of the 4,000,000
then in cultivation have since changed hands. Hundreds of thou-
sands of these are owned by young men and others who never before
tilled lands of their own, and who commenced husbandry with small
means, little more than health, energy, and determination to succeed.
Necessarily indebtedness has been incurred in many of these cases,
in purchasing old farms, in stocking farms already paid for, or in
fencing and building upon lands obtained from the Government un-
der the homestead act. To such as commenced judiciously, with a
full knowledge of the responsibilities involved, and with will and
industry commensurate with the burden assumed, a mortgage may
prove a blessing. It represents capital, without which the business
of farming cannot be undertaken or its products and profits be se-
cured. It enables a poor but capable and industrious young man to
secure a home and a profitable business, paying for it in easy install
ments; but it becomes a withering curse when it makes productio1
dear and difficult, consumes a crop before it is made, and renders in.
debtedness hopeless.

The system of advances by merchants or brokers upon growing
crops is especially dangerous and disastrous. Itis not usually a preva-
lent practice, except in districts where a single crop dominates rural
industry and brings ready money at any time, vonduene borrowing
easy and encouraging the habit of spending before earning. It has
been prevalent from time immemorial—at least for forty years from
personal knowledge of the writer—in the cotton States.

No product of agriculture is more surely a money crop in any part
of the world than cotton, and none more promptly traverses the ways
of commerce. It has therefore become (with perhaps one principal
associate—maize) almost the sole product of large districts of coun-
try, rendering necessary the purchase abroad of supplies of all kinds,
agricultural and industrial, and their original cost, long-distance
transportation, and wholesale and retail profits render them exceed-
ingly expensive. It is selling the cheapest cotton in the world and
buying all supplies at enormous prices—a practice with which only
fertile lands, abundant crops, and persistent industry can save from
bankruptcy.

It is a matter of congratulation that the burden of debt is decreas-
ing, and is in fact relatively less than it was ten years ago. An in-
vestigation made by State statistical agents, undertaken to show the
actual and comparative condition of farmers as to indebtedness, affords
evidence of gradual amelioration, decrease in number and amount of
farm mortgages, and in advances by merchants in those regions where
such practice prevails. The inquiry was first made in the cotton States;
afterwards in the Ohio Valley, and in New York and Pennsylvania.
In the Eastern States, where no such inquiry has yet been instituted,
the farmers are not burdened very much with debt, while many of
the more prosperous hold mortgages on farms of the distant West
and other farms of Western property. In the newer States west of

27 AG—'86 -

418 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

the Mississippi there is far more general indebtedness than in the cen-
tral district east of that river. Further investigation in that region
and on the Pacific coast is contemplated.

To give a better idea of the state of farm-making and land develop-
ment in the States reported on the following table is presented, show-
ing the number and size of farms, amount of land held, and_propor-
tion unimproved, according to the last census, in the States included
in these investigations:

Average size Per cent.

Land in farms. of farms. unimproved.

Number of farms.

1880,

Acres, Acres. | Acres
INGW LOPE «500 ccccnceecee 23, 780, 754 106 25.5 31.5
Pennsylvania ..........-. 218, 542 19,791,341 93 109 82.2 38.5
COINID Seen Jonednr Mecce 24, 529, 226 99 114 26.3 38.3
Michigan .....06.ccsesee- P 90 113 39.9 50.5
Kentucky........-.----+. 129 211 50. 1 60.1
ihtu (eth ade aontucoeaodds 105 124 31.8 49.7
AURTOIS 9 fete cine cate = dedas 124 146 17.5 82.6
(MISSOUMI ice an od He ceive os 129 215 39.9 68.7
WCANIBAS Yeas acs cceecsearee 155 171 49.9 U7.2
INGbraskaitiocsscs.dacsds 631, 21 157 44,6 81.2
North Carolina 28, 762, 969 142 316 71.0 72.6
South Carolina 16, 195, 919 143 488 69.3 71.8
Florida 141 444 71.3 [7.6
Alabama . 139 346 66.2 66.6
Mississippi. 156 370 67.1 68.0
Louisiana. 171 536 66.9 70,9
NPR AR A Sa Ie, Sede ote ries es 208 591 65.1 89.5
UANICAMISES 2h sizicisieisinit 0 0/e)« 94, 433 12, 061, 547 128 245 70.2 79.3

The points of greatest significance in this table are the small pro-
portion of unimproved land in the Ohio Valley, less than three-tenths
of the area, and the great reduction in size of farms in the cotton
States and increase of their number. The latter fact is due largely
to the renting of old estates on shares or otherwise to several tenants
who report separately, making the number of farms far more than
the number of proprietors. There is no immediate prospect of a
change of this system, though the individual tenants hold by a very
uncertain tenure. The tendency will, doubtless, still be strong
towards subdivision of lands, both by sale and rent.

NEW YORK.

The result of the investigation in New York shows that three-tenths
of the farms are mortgaged, and that one in twenty of the farm pro-
prietors is hopelessly in debt, if the estimate, which is based upon
extensive information, is reliable. The interest is ample, but not
excessive, averaging, as is assumed, 54 per cent., though the legal
rate is 6 per cent. Mortgages ran to neighboring farmers and mer-
chants and to insurance and trust companies. _ It is thought that one-
tenth of the farm-owners are possessors of other forms of property.
It is doubtless true, in many localities, that the value of such prop-
erty is fully equal to the amount of indebtedness of less prosperous
farmers. The State agent says:

In the best sections of the State the farmers are making money or holding their
own, and are less in debt than ten years ago; while in the more unproductive parts,
and those more easily affected by drought, there has been a considerable increase, so
that on the whole farmers are more in debt than they were ten years ago, but the
average indebtedness is not heavy. There are a large number of farms, which were

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 419

purchased a few years ago and mortgaged, which now would not sell for more than
the face of the mortgages, owing to the depreciation of the farming lands, which
on an average is fully 38 per cent. in ten years. Probably one-third of the farms
in the State would not sell for more than the cost of the buildings and other im-
provements, owing to this shrinkage. Real estate in New York is burdened with an
undue share of taxation, while personal property escapes almost entirely. The
farmer pays the tax on the property represented or covered by the mortgage held
by the capitalist, which is a great wrong. The average income from farms over
and above expenses will not exceed 34 per cent. on the capital invested. The wages
for farm help have been for several years 33 per cent., more than the business could
bear. In many instances the employés make all there is made on the farm. The
current rate of wages asked by common farm help, by the day, for ten hours
service, atany time during the year, is $1, with board. Thediversified farm industries
in New York have prevented general disaster, and not more than 5 per cent. of the
farmers are insolvent. ; ;
Thirty per cent. of the farms in the State are mortgaged, ranging from 2 per cent.
of their value to 100 per cent.; average 66; per cent. of estimated value. These
. securities are held by retired or more successful farmers, merchants, savings banks,
and insurance companies. The latter, with long time and safe investments, will
loan moneys with 3 and 4 percent. The rate for the others is mostly from 5 to 6
er cent. In some instances, under the requirements of former contracts, the old
egal rate of 7 per cent. is still paid. The average rate of interest is 5.5 per cent.,
which is 4 per cent. less than the now legal rate. Twenty per cent. of the farmers
have property interests outside of their farms, mostly in the form of money de-
Saree in savings banks, mortgages, and notes. It is natural for a farmer to invest
is surpluses in lands, and not more than 5 per cent. have property as capital in
other forms of business. No class of people labor more hours in a day than farmers,
and none have the same opportunities for an independent, healthful, and happy life.

PENNSYLVANIA.

The indebtedness of farmers of Pennsylvania, it is believed, has
decreased as compared with ten years ago. It is estimated that not
more than 13 per cent. of the farms are mortgaged. The average
interest rate is about 5 per cent. Many farmers have property in
other branches of business and farmers themselves hold in part the
indebtedness of other farmers. With an average value of farms,
according to the last census, of almost $50 per acre—nearly $1,000, -
000,000, or about one-tenth of the farm valuation of the United
States—owned mainly by the farmers cultivating them, and yielding
a product worth $431 for each person engaged either as farmer or
laborer in agriculture, the agricultural interest in Pennsylvania may
be said to be prosperous, even in the present era of low prices. Of
course there are some who occupy positions of hardship and diffi-
culty. The source of this prosperity is found in the local markets
of the State. It is probable that no other State is more nearly self-
supporting, and perhaps none that depends on other States or other
countries so little either in buying or selling products of agriculture.
The State agent says:

It is extremely difficult to ascertain the pecuniary condition of the farmers of this
State, for they are afraid that any statistical information they give will be used for
purposes of taxation. The tax law passed two years ago required a statement, on
oath, of all bonds, stocks, notes, and mortgages; and the amount of money so in-
vested by farmers caused great surprise; yet there was a great deal of evasion and °
suppression, and no less than twelve counties failed to report any money at interest
when the triennial assessment was made in 1885.

From Lawrence County I get the definite information that the condition of the
farmers is worse than at any time since the war; and that there are $300,000 of mort-
gages and $150,000 of judgments against the farmers of that county. I find that the
assessed value of the real estate outside of cities and boroughs is $10,159,069; and it
is probably assessed at less than half its value; but supposing it to be assessed at its
full value, the indebtedness in the two forms is less than 4} per cent. of the value of
the property, This is the worst report I have received,

430 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Probably 25 per cent. of the farmers are in debt; but not more than 5 per cent,
hopelessly so, or to a greater extent than their credits.

Probably 15 per cent. of farms are mortgaged, 50 per cent. of the debts being to
other farmers or retired farmers, other heirs or legatees; and the remainder to bank-
ers, merchants, insurance companies, and machine and agricultural-implement
makers.

About one-third of the farmers have shares in incorporated companies, bonds of
the State and United States Government, and of counties and municipalities, and of
railroad and other companies, town lots, Western lands, notes, mortgages, and judg-
ments.

The indebtedness of farmers has been incurred for, first, purchase money, in many
instances one heir to an estate taking the farm and paying the others their shares.
In other cases a farm passes, at the owner’s death, into the hands of a person not re-
lated. Sales are also made by farmers desiring to move to some other State by those
who wish to change their business, and by the sheriff. Second, for improvements
on the farm, such as buildings, draining, and for improved live stock, and for im-
proved implements.

KENTUCKY.

The farmers of Kentucky are attached to their homesteads, and
hold their lands with considerable tenacity. There are fewer small
farms than in neighboring States, the average being 129 against 99 in
Ohio, and less subdivision and farm-making, consequently fewer be-
ginners and borrowers on land security. It is estimated that scarcely
more than one-eighth of the farms are mortgaged. The interest rate,
however, appears to be high, as the average rate is estimated at 7 per
cent., showing that money for investment is not very plenty. The
investments of farmers in other property is not extensive, nor is there
much capital obtained from other States for loans to farmers. The
State agent says:

While for the last two or three years the farmers have made but little money, yet
taking them throughout the State they may be said to be ina fairly good and healthy
condition, and this in the face of the facts that the wheat crop before the last was
almost a total failure, the last one, the best for years, ruling as low as from 68 to 70
cents per bushel; the tobacco crop not much more than quitting the cost of produc-
tion, and the cattle-feeders realizing but small profits. The truth is, nothing in Ken-
tucky has paid well but fancy horses and hemp and hogs in two or three years past.
Notwithstanding, the farmers are not depressed, and are living on expectation of a
brighter future. The chief indebtedness is to capitalists or money-loaners, or loan
associations, of necessity. 'The Kentucky farmers are a frugal set, taken as a whole,
and cut their garments according to the cloth. If crops fail, or there is a failure to
realize expectations in prices, they cut down expenses as far as may be to meet the
case.

I mention a fact that you may solve on any theory you choose. The bankers say
they have more unemployed capital on hand at this time than for years before, at
the same time of the year.

OHIO.

In this State a decrease of indebtedness during the past ten years is
reported. Itisestimated that one-fourth of the farms are encumbered .
by mortgages to secure debts to neighboring farmers and bankers, and
to insurance companies and Eastern capitalists. The smaller debts
are generally due on local loans. The rate of interest is averaged at
’ per cent. There are a few farmers who have capital employed in
other business. Ohio farmers are generally in good condition, though
feeling severely the disappointment of low prices of certain staple
products. The following statement is an extract from report of the
State agent:

While the indebtedness of Ohio farmers is no doubt very general, it is very evi«

dent from the county records that the amount of farm indebtedness is less than it
was ten years ago, and would be still less if taxation were more nearly equalized in

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. APT

the State, Everything possessed by the farmer is in sight for enumeration, and there
is less evasion of taxation by the farmers than by any other class of citizens. The
farmer, therefore, pays his full proportion of taxation and also a great portion that
should be paid by speculators in stocks and mortgages and other personal and valua-
ble effects, much of which is never returned for taxation. More equal taxation
would enable the farmer to apply his excess, now paid, to a reduction of his indebt-
edness, and a few years, at most, would see him free and independent of debt.

The extent of farmers’ property interests outside of farms is very limited. A few
Ohio farmers have investments in Western lands and some in city property, but the
surplus money of wealthy farmers rests, in many instances, in Governmcy..é and other
good securities. There are, however, but few such farmers; most of them have only
surplus sufficient to keep farm matters moving along.

MICHIGAN.

The investigation as to indebtedness of Michigan farmers shows
‘that it is neither very general nor heavy, yet probably a third of them
are somewhat involved in debt, afew seriously. It is estimated that
one-fourth of the farms are mortgaged for varying amounts, gener-
ally from one-fourth to one-half their value. It is an indebtedness
largely due to other farmers, and in less degree to merchants and
bankers. The average rate of interest may perhaps be placed at 7 per
cent., though in some cases 6 suffices, while in the northern coun-
ties 8 or 10 is paid by many debtors. There are many farmers in
the southern’ part of the State who possess surplus capital in the
form of notes, mortgages, bank and railroad stocks, and interests in
manufactures.

INDIANA.

Indebtedness of farmers is decreasing in Indiana, and it is estimated
that 10 per cent. are in debt beyond the amount of their credits.
Mortgages are divided in the following proportion, as estimated: To
Eastern capitalists, 35 per cent.; to banks and manufacturers for
machinery, 25; to secure payment of purchase money on land, 18; to
school funds and local loaners of money, 22 per cent. Itis estimated
that farmers have property interests to the extent of one-fifth the
value of farm property. The condition of Indiana farmers is there-
fore by no means serious. The State agent reports:

The demand for loans is less now than at any time for a period of seven years; but
the amount of mortgages on record shows but slight diminution. The average in-
debtedness, or the amounts for which mortgages are given by farmers, will average
nearly $1,000. Although apparently there is less demand for large loans, and seem-
ingly a better condition of money matters among farmers, yet there remains the fact
that many of the farmers are victims of various swindling schemes, that have been
so successfully worked in portions of this State (Bohemian oats, red-line wheat, &c.),
and this class of indebtedness is much greater than the public are aware of. Yet
another cause of distress among farmers is the inducement held out to them by agents
of farm machinery of long time. Many are induced to buy, and are compelled to
mortgage the farm to meet the notes whendue. This cause has operated to produce
30 per cent. of all the mortgages on record against farms, but not over 25 per cent.
of the amounts. I should think that 20 per cent. of the local capital is the property
of farmers. This includes what may be invested in town property or local securi-
ties, manufactures, and gravel-road bonds.

P ILLINOIS.

The proportion of unimproved land is less in Illinois than in any
other State. Farms are gradually decreasing in size and increasin
innumber. In the establishment of new farms by young men dad
others without capital there are many that are encumbered by mort-

A422 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

gages, large or small. These loans are held by Eastern capitalists,
and by banks, manufacturers of farm machinery, and local loaners
of money. The rate of interest may slightly exceed an average of 7
per cent. The State agent says:

With regard to the indebtedness of the farmers of the State there is a diversity of
opinion. It may be safely asserted, however, that their indebtedness is not very
general nor very heavy, and that it has gradually diminished within the last ten
years. Probably 33 per cent. of the farmers are in debt. Much the largest part of
their pecuniary obligations is for lands on which partial payments have beeu made
on notes drawing from 6 to 8 per cent. interest per annum, and secure? by mortgage
on real estate. These mortgages are held mostly by Eastern capitalists, often by the
representatives of large insurance companies. Loans of this kind are usually made
for five years on lands at from one-third to two-thirds of their cash value, and are
obtained through loan agents in different parts of the State, who charge a commis-
sion, making the cost to the borrower, including interest, from 6} to 8 per cent. per

um.

There is still a larger class of debtors, which includes farmers of smaller means
than those mentioned, and also renters or tenant farmers. Most of their debts are
to banks and merchants, chiefly to the latter, for such supplies as are ordinarily
needed in families. These obligations are met, according as the parties agree, in
thirty, sixty, or ninety days—in some instances running six and even twelve months.
This class of indebtedness is seldom allowed to go beyond the ability of the party
making the purchase to pay. In case, however, of a failure to meet the payment
when due, a chattel mortgage, or, in case of a tenant, a lien on his part of the crop,
fis given to the landlord, who assumes or pays the debt, or if not to the landlord, is
given directly to the merchant himself. Recourse is seldom had. to this mode of
securing debts, as farmers as a rule so diversify their crops as to enable them to sell
at almost any time something from the farm to meet these recurring demands. Ad-
vances are sometimes made by landlords to tenants, but never, we think, at a greater
rate of interest than the legal rate, which is 8 per cent.

The tax laid upon the agricultural industries of the State (and for which the
farmers themselves are most at fault) by the difference between the cash price and
credit price for goods purchased of the merchants will probably equal 10 per cent.

The number of farmers having property interest outside of their farms we would
not put higher than 3 per cent.; this would consist of ‘bank stock, lands, town lots,
es and outside the State, and live stock on the ranges of Texas, Wyoming, and

ontana.

MISSOURI.

The State agent of the Department makes a report, which shows an
average condition of indebtedness, with very little of the hopeless
element init and an existing tendency to improvement. These debts
are mainly borrowed capital invested in lands and buildings and va-
rious improvements, enhancing the possible resources of productive
apa With discretion and diligence they may prove advantages.

e says:

I regard the indebtedness as compared with other States or with other industries
as not above an average. Compared with ten years ago but little change has oc-
curred, but with a tendency to increase of indebtedness due to the last three years
of decline in values. Up to three years ago reduction of debt was going on. I
think that the tendency of late years has been towards the use of capital for im-
provements, although not to a sharp degree of change.

About 30 per cent. of our farmers are in debt above their credits, if mere annual
store bills are excluded, and more if they are included. But such debts, while large
in the aggregate, do not cut a serious figure with the average farmer; by no means
so large as formerly and far behind the bad store system of debts of the South.
Few farmers mortgage crops here to the trade, and not many trade on the credit
of a coming harvest in a radical degree. “Many run store accounts, but these are
often offset by eggs, poultry, butter, corn, &c., from time to time delivered.
Our traders not infrequently run accounts a year in such a style, the balance more
often being against the farmer. This system enhances the cost of supplies above
cash trades to some extent, but to no paralyzing degree.

About 20 to 25 per cent. of our farms are mortgaged. More of this indebtedness
is due to other farmers than to any other class, while the balance is about equally

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 423

distributed between banks, merchants, and Eastern loan agents, and to miscellane-
ous sources. Our banks mainly loan upon names or indorsers. _

The rates of interest vary widely. Heavy loans upon material amounts are se-
cured from Eastern capital for from 6 to 7 per cent. The general rate is 8 per cent.,
but short and less desirable loans are often found at not less than from 9 to 10 per
cent. The average rate will be over 8 per cent, and by may is rated as high as 9
per cent. Yet good property at ordinary length of time obtains money enough at
8 per cent. Our farmers have comparatively small investments outside of their
occupation. Our State is young in many sections, and its farms are not yet all
settled, and few have their equipments completed. Thus we have not ripened into
that maturity where we need such outside investments. In fact, not capital enough
is now used for the best results on our farms. But this is more the fault of judg-
ment than the dictate of necessity, for we can secure the capital if desired. In
short, our people are not in an impoverished condition nor under a heavier burden
than they can well carry as a rule.

KANSAS.

The flood of immigration pouring over the entire area of this State,
stimulated by rapid advance in real-estate values, the consequent
demand for money in the purchase of land, erection of farm buildings,
fence-building, prairie-breaking, and stocking with animals and im-
plements, conduces to the demand for loans that is almost universal,
and renders inevitable a large indebtedness. It is a wholesome indi-
cation that the process of liquidation from proceeds of labor in this
laboratory of nature is progressing, and that the burden will be grad-
ually lifted from Kansas farms. The agent says:

Indebtedness of farmers in Kansas, on the whole, is less in proportion than ten
years ago, although it is much larger in the western or newer portion of the State.
For the whole State it is still much larger than it ought to be.

Probably 20 per cent. of farmers are in debt beyond the amount of their credits.
At least 50 per cent. of the farms are mortgaged, mostly to loan associations hand-
ling Eastern capital. Local bankers and capitalists are largely engaged in making
real-estate loans.

The rates of interest charged on farm loans range from 6 to 10 per cent. On chat-
tel loans the rates range from 10 to 18 per cent. Not more than 10 per cent. of farm-
ers have property interests outside of their farms. The facilities for making real-
estate loans in Kansas are very great. There is scarcely a town of 500 inhabitants
that is not supplied with an agency for Eastern capitalists. The rates of interest
are lowering each year under the competition.

NEBRASKA.

The secretary of the Nebraska board of agriculture makes a very
favorable report of the financial condition of the farmers of that
State. He estimates that the value of rural indebtedness has been
reduced one-half inten years. The rate of interest is 6 per cent., and
by contract may be as high as 10. The proportion of farms mort-
gaged is quite small, the loans generally made by institutions known
as loan banks. Farmers have some real and preeeual property inter-
ests, in town and country, not connected with agriculture.

NORTH CAROLINA.

In North Carolina the legal rate of interest is 6 per cent., but 8 may
be charged upon agreement in writing. Yet this minimum charge
is easily and largely exceeded. When the planter needs assistance
from the merchant, the latter agrees to advance the supplies to a
certain amount, taking a mortgage on the coming crop, payable when
the crop matures. He then charges the farmer his own figures for
supplies, from 15 to 25 per cent. more than cash price, thus compell-.

494 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ing him to pay a heavy interest, perhaps without realizing the fact
that he is paying interest at all.

It is the opinion of the agent that the real interest, part of which
is deducted in advance for cash and supplies furnished, is not less
than 25 per cent., and that one-fourth of the cotton crop is sacrificed
to meet the interest arising from this indebtedness.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

A similar investigation in South Carolina showed that the recorded
liens for supplies, fertilizers, and money advanced amounted in 1882
to $9,218,312, and in 1885 to $6,595,000. Other indebtedness is assumed
to amount to 30 per cent. more. The entire advances of 1882 are esti-
mated at $12,000,000, and those of 1885 at $8,500,000. It is gratifying
to know that planters were better suppled with home-grown prod-
ucts last year than ever before. It is thought that there was a mate-
rial reduction in the advances in 1886. The most exorbitant prices
are charged for goods advanced—20 to 40 per cent., and even higher
charges. The planters bind themselves to consign their crops for
sale to the factors making advances. The agent estimates that one-
fourth of the cotton crop is pledged in advance.

GEORGIA.

The Georgia investigator reports bacon, lard, flour, corn, hay, and
fertilizers as the principal supplies bought on credit. Corn worth 76
cents cash is charged 99 cents, payable November 1; bacon worth 8
cents is charged 10.5 cents; and 50 per cent is given as a reasonable
average of the profits charged, Past-due indebtedness is carried over
at varying rates, but at least 10 per cent. per annum, though only 7
or 8, if so stated in writing, is all that can legally be collected. The
average rate of loans by banks to farmers is estimated at 15 per cent.,
ranging from 10 to 25 per cent. The amount of indebtedness is
thought to be less than for any previous time in the last five years.

FLORIDA. ,

In Florida the average rate of interest paid by farmers is estimated
at 16 per cent., varying from 10 to 24 per cent. The absence of re-
strictions upon usury ‘‘has brought into the State a class of unscru-
pulous money-lenders, who have pressed their loans upon the impru-
dent, and have secured themselves by bonds and mortgages upon real
estate far below the true valuations, and in many cases these will
be forfeited.” Expectation of extraordinary gains has thus induced
many to engage in mercantile pursuits on borrowed capital, until the
business is overdone. Indebtedness is large in Florida, but no defi-
nite estimate is made. It is gratifying to know that the practice of
borrowing money on crops is declining as variety in production is
secured, and cotton becomes less prominent.

ALABAMA.

It is estimated in the Alabama investigation that 45 per cent. of
the farmers of the State, white and colored, were in debt at the begin-
ning of the year, without available means of liquidation; and that
not less than 65 per cent, find it necessary to seek assistance from com-

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 425

mission or country merchants for supplies of some kind necessary in
the progress of crop-making. The agent says:

The cost of this indebtedness, or the tax upon agriculture resulting from it, is
found in such a multitude of ramifications that it is difficult to conceive of any re-
spect in which agriculture is not crippled by it. It prevents the farmer from con-
ducting his business upon the only absolutely safe and profitable basis—cash. Unable
to purchase first-class stock and improved labor-saving implements, he does his work
in the most costly manner. Compelled to purchase on time his supplies, &c., he pays
not less than 50 per cent. more than the same goods would cost for cash. His ener-
gies are crippled; his independence destroyed. The cost of this indebtedness to the
agriculture of the State in the form of diminished production and improvement and
increased wear of farms and improvements is not less than $5,000,000 annually.

Where money is borrowed by mortgaging farms, either from those engaged espe-
cially in this business or by advances from commission merchants, the rate of inter-
est ranges from 18 to 24 per cent. per annum.

The heaviest tax paid for advances is to local merchants who sell corn, bacon, &c.,
‘on time,” to be paid out of the cotton November 1. These advances usually com-
mence March 1, and continue through September, some running seven months and
some only one or two. The goods are usually sold ‘‘ on time,” at from 25 to 50 per
cent. above the cash price, and, taking the average time at which the accounts run,
the rate per annum would be upon all classes of goods purchased at the credit prices
about 75 per cent, upon the cash price at which the same goods could be bought at
the same place.

The tenants and croppers get about 35 per cent. of the cotton made in the State,
and, as a rule, all of this is pledged for supplies before it is gathered. Certainly,
taking the average, 90 per cent. of this is pledged. Out of the balance the planta-
tion must be kept up and advances secured, in a majority of cases amounting on the
whole crop of the State, according to the best information at command, to about 70
per cent. With the exception of the rates of interest, and rates on time purchases,
nee, are, of course, merely estimates based upon the best information at my com-’
mand,

MISSISSIPPI.

In Mississippi, according to the investigation made by the State
agent, the interest rate, when supplies are furnished to farmers, is from
1 to 14 bes cent. per month, which is generally secured by mortgage.
The bulk of the cotton crop generally goes to pay for supplies. About
one-third of the farmers are out of debt; one-third are recoverably in-
debted; and one-third hopelessly ruined. The rate of interest on gen-
eral indebtedness is usually 10 per cent. Those who are out of debt
are common farmers, white laborers, who cultivate their own lands,
and are in a prosperous condition. Those who buy mules, rent land,
and have to be supplied with food generally come out minus at the
end of the year, and they constitute a very large percentage of the
labor force of the country. Unless farmers can get 10 cents per pound
for cotton they can never keep out of debt. The ruling price paid to
farmers in 1886 was 7 to 7}.cents per pound, which will not more than
pay for the supplies in making the crop.

LOUISIANA.

It is estimated that 75 per cent. of the farmers of Louisiana are in
debt to the extent of a fourth part of the value of the cotton crop.
_ The annual rate of interest upon advances of money and provisions
is nominally 8 per cent., and 23 per cent, for purchasing, 24 per cent.
for selling, and 2 per cent. freights. Total, about 15 per cent.
Country merchants charge more, obtaining from 15 to 20 per cent.
for advancing, besides a heavy profit on goods sold, The smaller
farmers, who mostly live in the upland parishes, are more free from
debt as a rule than the larger or more pretentious planters on our
alluvial soils. The one-crop system and the purchase of supplies has

426 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

generally resulted in failure. Hence there is a growing disposition
among them to plant more forage and food crops, making cotton and
sugar of secondary importance, This is only retarded by their in-
debtedness to merchants, who demand from them yearly sufficient to
cover their indebtedness. At present the planters are very much de-
pressed, especially the rice and cotton men.

TEXAS.

It is thought that one-third of the Texas farmers are in debt, and
that half require some advances from the merchant. It is acommon
practice for the farmer to arrange with the merchant for an advance
of $2 to $5 per acre, generally $3 per acre, of cultivated land, to be
secured by a crop lien.* The renter has greater difficulty than the
owner in getting supplies; he must induce his landlord to waive his
landlord’s lien in the merchant’s favor or to indorse the renter’s note
for such supplies. The crop lien is usually given for supplies rather
than money. The annual rate of interest is 12 per cent., but the
actual difference between cash and credit prices is 25 to 50 per cent.
The western part of the State, engaged more fully in stock-raising, is
in better condition than the eastern.

ARKANSAS.

The Arkansas agent estimates the proportion of farmers in debt in
‘Arkansas at 75 per cent. in the cotton region and 25 per cent. in the
grass and grain region. The interest rate is 6 per cent., with privi-
lege, by agreement, of 10 per cent. The farms are not mortgaged as
arule. Indebtedness is of several kinds: To banks and money-lend-
ers, for money or supplies furnished by farm owners to small tenants
of large plantations; for supplies to small farmers or renters. The
most numerous class requiring help is the tenant cultivating a few
acres of cotton. The average increase of cost of all supplies by rea-
son of these advances is estimated at 20 percent. The report says of
this class:

The tenant or share-hand farmer: This man may or may not have a pony or
mule. He rents land, say, for $6, $8, or $10 per acre, or works for part of the crop,
but must have supplies from or through the landlord or by mortgaging his mule or
pony and the crop he grows. Of course the risk on him is greater than any other
class, and he must pay for the risk, and is scored at the rate of 50 to 100 per cent.
T should say that this man, taking all things into consideration, on the average over
the cash man, putting him at 100, pays 166, or two-thirds more tharf if he had
money. This is the most numerous of all the classes, and comprises the bulk of the
agricultural labor of the South.

This record makes a burden of interest that is unendurable. Thees-
timate of North Carolina is 25 per cent., including the advanced prices
of supplies furnished; of South Carolina, 15 per cent.; of Georgia,
50 per cent. in the prices of advances and 10 per cent. interest on
past-due indebtedness; of Florida, 16 per cent.; of Alabama, 50 per
cent. increase in price of goods and 20 per cent. on mortgages; of
Mississippi, 15 per cent. on advances, without reference to increase
of prices, and 10 per cent, on general indebtedness; of Louisana, 16
per cent., besides higher prices of goods and more for advances by

* Under the direction of the supreme court a mortgage is invalid given before the
seed is in process of germination, and the general tenor of decisions of the courts is
that a thing must be in esse before it can be disposed of in any way.

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, A27

country merchants; of Texas, 12 per cent. nominai interest for sup-

lies charged at excess of 25 to 50 per cent.; of Arkansas, 10 per cent.
by contract on supplies charged an extra profit of 40 per cent. These
are the averages assumed by our State agents as the cost of interest
on advances secured by crop liens.

It appears that a large proportion of cotton planters are in debt for
current supplies, and that the loss resulting amounts to $5,000,000 per
annum in some States, and absorbs nearly or quite all the profits of
production, while the soil is wearing away, with the lives of the cul-
tivators, for the benefit of the commercial class.

CONCLUSIONS.

The facts developed indicate a considerable amount of indebted
ness, diminishing from west to east and from south to north. It is
gratifying to know that the burden is decreasing. The element of
time in eliminating debts of pioneer settlement and improvement is
obvious, for a large proportion of American farmers have settled
with little capital, ae have erected houses and barns, built fences,
dug ditches, felled forests, or broken prairies by the labor of their
own hands. The capital in agriculture is of recent creation; much
the largest portion from the labor of a single generation of workers.

The inducement to improve and stock a farm on the basis of free
land is sufficient to warrant incurring indebtedness on the security
of youth and will and muscle; and the gradual reduction of the debt,
while the property is increasing in value, is a surety of ultimate
removal of the burden.

The worst form of indebtedness—advances upon growing crops, at
exorbitant prices for goods supplied farmers for the accommodation,
and high rates of interest—which has so long throttled industry and
devoured the proceeds of labor in the cotton States, is gradually fall-
ing into disuse and should ultimately be discarded utterly. It is use-
less to hope for rural prosperity where the practice prevails. In such
cases the borrower is literally a slave to the lender. In the older
States the unagricultural property of farmers, in shares of banks and
manufactures, notes, bonds and mortgages, and interests in minor
local enterprises, is greater than the total indebtedness of the farming
class. In most of the Central States, those of the Ohio Valley, this
is also the case, where land is rising in value and wealth outside of
agriculture is decreasing and absorbing the profits of farms and the
proceeds of land sold by farmers who are contracting operations or
retiring from active husbandry. In the remoter districts, where the
pioneer is borrowing funds from distant capitalists, and the cotton
grower is consuming his crop before it is grown, by the aid of the
city broker, there may be less ‘net capital in agriculture than the
assessor shows,

On the whole the situation is hopeful, and the intrinsic wealth in
agriculture slowly accumulating. The low prices of products are,
indeed, discouraging, especially to those in debt. For the excessive
decline in some of these the farmers are themselves to blame in not
better adjusting production to consumption. Gradually there will
come poe ela and a nearer approach to equality in values, and
there will be less of hardship in the situation. Probably a reduction
in wages of farm labor will be one of the movements in this adjust-
ment, as wages are now higher than products. _The tendency of the
times is towards lower rates of wages in all kinds of industries of the

428 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

United States; a movement to be deprecated and delayed in the inter-
est of a higher plane of culture and comfort for the working classes,
if it cannot be wholly averted.

FRAUDS UPON FARMERS.

Dishonesty is not content, in these greedful days, to manufacture
deceptive wares or sell adulterated goods. It leaves its accustomed
city haunts, goes among the green fields in the pure air of the coun-
try, and seeks victims among the farmers. It does more: seeks to
develop dishonesty among the moral weaklings of the farming class.

Twenty-five million people, living in comparative isolation, indus-
trious and prosperous, present tempting inducements to men who
live on the fruits of the labor of others, which have been improved
for years by many sharpers; and the agricultural press has exposed
the tricks and frauds attempted, preventing much loss, without eradi-
cating the evil.

These dishonest schemes take protean forms, and appear in mani-
fold guise and disguise. They appeal to the farmer’s ambition, econ-
omy,andcupidity. They offer, now a machine, labor-saving and effect-
ive; again, a variety of fruit tree or plant of marvelous productive-
ness and phenomenal quality. They excite his fears of law and
damages for infringement of some patent, and arouse the lurkin
devil of greed in some artfully presented and speciously arraye
scheme of dishonest gain. There is an opportunity for fraud in the
supply of all goods and chattels required on the farm. Trees, plants,
fertilizers, farm implements, household furniture, lightning-rods,
books, and crop returns even, are made the opportunity and medium
of fraudulent commerce. <A prime necessity is the signature of the
farmer, and the most ingenious means are taken to obtain it. An
order, a receipt, is made to serve the purpose of a promissory note.
A favorite ruse is to induce him to act as agent for the sale of some
article of farm machinery, leave with him some specimens, taking a
receipt for them in such form that, either with or without change, it
can be used as a note for the money represented in the goods. Orders
for subscription books, in some instances for the revised New Testa-
ment, have been converted into notes, which are sold to bank or
broker—assumed to be an ‘‘innocent” third party—and promptly
collected. Another device is the appearance of the sharper as a
pretended agent of a bible or tract society, or of some charitable in-
stitution, at dinner-time, when he accepts an invitation to dine on the
sole condition that he may be permitted to pay for his meal, accord-
ing to the strict requirement of his society. He takes a receipt in a
form which he carries to subserve his artful purpose, which returns
to the farmer as a promissory note for any sum which the scoundrel
sees fit to fill the blank with.

It would be easy to present many pages of these artifices. If all
could be exposed, and every farmer made acquainted with them, the
ingenuity of swindlers would devise others of a character equally
vile. A few will suffice, and if they shall put their intended victims
‘fon their guard,” and prevent their dealing with strangers or giving
their signatures in such form as may admit of fraudulent use, the
purpose of this article will have been subserved.

A lightning-rod agent agrees to put up lightning-rods about a house
for $5, and presents a bill for $105—$100 for the rods and $5 for put-
ting them up. The collection of royalties on some patented article

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, A29

found in the farmer’s possession, the sale of worthless receipts for the
manufacture of fertilizers, the sale of rights for a worthless patent
process for curing tobacco, the collection of fees by pretended ofiicials,
such as boiler-inspectors, ‘‘the drive-well fraud,” a variety of insur-
ance frauds, and the sale of worthless receipts for the cure of ‘‘ hog
cholera” or other animal diseases, are among the numerous swindling
devices mentioned by the correspondents of the Department. __

As long as there is rascality on the one side and undue credulity on
the other, such swindles will continue to be practiced to a greater or
less extent; but they are now practiced successfully in many cases
where they might be frustrated by the simple rule of refusing to deal
with irresponsible parties without any known business standing or
any fixed local habitation. The only additional precautions that sug-
gest themselves as available to the individual are the exercise of rea-

-sonable care, the use of proper means to keep informed on agricultu-
ral matters, the education of farmers’ children in business law, and
the use of the facilities for mutual protection offered by such asso-
ciations as the Patrons of Husbandry or other farmers’ organizations.
There are, however, some classes of frauds—such as the sale of fer-
tilizers under false names and the manufacture of oleomargarine for
sale as butter—which demand the efficient intervention of State or
national authority. But even in this matter much must depend upon
intelligent concert of action among the farmers themselves, both in
suggesting the proper legislation and in bringing to bear on legisla-
tures the influence necessary to insure the proper action.

BOHEMIAN OATS.

As a conspicuous example of these dishonest schemes, the inge-
nious and complicated ‘‘ Bohemian oat swindle” was investigated in
March, 1886, through the aid of our regular statistical correspond-
ents and State agents. And though the exposure was printed in
15,000 copies of our special reports, and sent to the agricultural press
and to thousands of other newspapers, some of which had repeatedly
exposed the fraud before, it satire ene driven from its prin-
cipal haunts in the West, it is yet, in March, 1887, to be found in
New York, and possibly in many other States. Thisfraud is of more
‘“‘hideous mien” than many others, for a long time growing more
formidable, emboldened by success, thriving under exposure, per-
sistent in defeat, and fortifying itself anew when driven from its en-
trenchments. It has entailed losses of hundreds of thousands of dol-
lars; possibly a million dollars would not be an exaggeration.

The history of this swindle covers much time and space. It has
lived from year to year under a galling fire of the agricultural and
local press. It has thrived not merely through ignorance of its dis-
honest character but also, it is feared, through an appeal to the
cupidity and dishonesty of a small PECUoaa of the agricultural
class. While the average character of farmers is believed to be fully
as high as that of any large industrial class, it cannot be assumed
that there are no “‘black sheep” in a flock that numbers nine million
workers in agriculture.

The magnitude and success of this enterprise is a sufficient reason
why this Department, designed for the protection of agriculture and
the general welfare of the country, should inquire into the extent
and geographical distribution of this prolific crop of frauds.

There are reports of the sale of hulless oats at an exorbitant price

430 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

in certain counties in Wisconsin and New York as much as ten years
ago, but the swindle does not appear to have taken root in those
localities. In its more recent development it is reported on good
authority to have been imported from Canada about the year 1880
and planted in Northern Ohio, where it soon attained a particular]
vigorous growth. It was early exposed, driven to western, to central,
and southern counties, and it soon spread through portions of Indi-
ana and Michigan, and eastwardly into Pennsylvania and New
York. During five the it has made its way into every Western
State, and made local incursions southward into Kentucky and Ten-
nessee, and is beginning to be heard of in the extreme East.

Correspondents report the attempt, in some form, to sell this grain
at exorbitant rates in 25 States, and the presence of the agents of the
organized swindle in 18. Ohio is the center of the infection, reports
having been received from 45 counties. Indiana makes return of
operations in 24 counties; from Michigan come reports from 16 coun-
ties, mostly in the southern part of the State, most of them among
the richest and most populous, and from 10 counties in different parts
of Illinois. In Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa agents have ap-
peared at fewer points, and only an occasional foray has as yet been
made into Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, and Dakota, on the west, and
into Kentucky and Tennessee southward, Agents have appeared in
several counties in Western New York (10 are reported) and in Penn-
sylvania, and a few in West Virginia. One is reported in New Lon-
don, Conn., and one in Waldo, Me. Altogether, there are 130 coun-
ties where this fraud is reported, and it is possible, and indeed prob-
able, that a complete report would reveal its existence in 200 counties.

The mode of operating has been exposed so thoroughly and in so
many places that it would seem superfluous to describe it, and yet
the returns show that it is entirely unknown in many districts, es-

ecially in the South, which may soon be invaded by an army of
epredators.

A person representing himself as the agent of some distant com-
pany appears in the neighborhood and proto to organize a com-

any or association of farmers for the growth and sale of this grain.
Fre strives at the outset to draw into this enterprise some man whose
name will have weight and influence with others to be approached,
thus inspiring confidence in his scheme and ayerting that critical in-
vestigation which would inevitably be fatal to its success. The com-
pany being formed, it is oreunied under the local laws.

The members of this association are to monopolize for a year or
two at least the production. The grain is furnished, generally in
quantities of not less than 10 bushels to any one member, at $10 per
bushel, for which the farmer gives his note, payable, with interest, in
twelve months. He might hesitate, fearing his inability to reimburse
himself for this outlay by the sale of the produce of this seed, but
the agent’s scheme is reassuring; he offers, on behalf of his company,
‘‘a bond,” in which it agrees to sell (but not to buy) twice the quan-
tity of oats purchased, at $10 per bushel, less 25 per cent. commission,
on or before a certain date, usually a month prior to the date at which
the note matures. Thus, if he gives his credit for $100, he expects
to receive $200, minus $50 as commission, and thus makes $50 clear
before the payment of a dollar. In fact, however, he gets a note
which runs another year before collection.

The sale is not limited to 10 bushels, though the agent is careful to
convey an idea of limitation in quantity and in number of purchas-

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. A31

ers, an idea of monopoly. In many cases, however, the lower limit
of 10 bushels is broken and 3d are sold, if the buyer proves cautious.
There is usually a pretense of limiting sales to one person in each
township, while the general practice is to sell to all who will buy and
can pay. Sometimes the sale is made for cash, but very rarely; a
note payable at a local bank being received as a rule and sold or dis-
counted at once. When due, it is collected by the buyer, an ‘‘inno-
cent” third party.

The scheme is intended to run more than a single year, but if ex-
posed too early the agent sometimes fails to appear after harvest to
**sell,” as ‘nominated in the bond,” the promised quantum of grain.
Otherwise he returns, takes orders among other farmers, and receives
notes due in twelve months, giving each a bond of the local company
formed by the first. growers for the sale after harvest of double the
quantity sought. He gives these notes in payment for the oats, but
takes $2.50 per bushel commission. Selling twenty bushels, he pock-
ets $50, or $100 for forty bushels. He may thus realize several thou-
sand dollars in the neighborhood, leaving the local company to sell
after the next harvest the two bushels for each one sold, at the same

rice. If the excitement can still be kept up, and confidence retained,

e can fleece scores of other farmers in farther commissions; but the
fraud is usually exposed in the second season, if not in the first, leav-
ing the first growers reimbursed by becoming swindlers themselves,
or engaged in numerous lawsuits with fellow-farmers who have been
swindled.

The losses that have accrued are already immense; these returns do
not give them, except in a few instances; 1t would require further time,
and prove a difficult undertaking, yet it is claimed that in some coun-
ties they would reach $10,000. Probably $100,000 would not cover
them in Ohio, and possibly the aggregate for all the States would
reach several hundred thousand dollars. A loss of $100 by one man
is common, and some cases are reported of $1,000.

One of the early promoters of the scheme in northern Ohio, Henry
L. Bacon, was last year sentenced to seven years’ imprisonment in the
Ohio penitentiary, by a court at Akron, for forgeries in connection
with this fraud. Others should follow speedily.

The returns relating to quality represent invariably that these
Bohemian or hullless oats are of inferior quality, not worth as much
as ordinary oats. One of the most competent judges in the country—
Mr. Ferdinand Schumacher, the well-known oatmeal manufacturer
of Akron, Ohio—in a letter to the Commissioner of Agriculture, dated
September 30, 1885, makes the following statements in regard to them:

I do not want them for oatmeal even at the same price with common oats. Ido
not know of a mill anywhere using them for oatmeal, and Ido not know of a farmer
sowing them more than twice. I do not know of any section in this country where
the experiment with them has been asuccess. They have no standing in any of our
grain markets.

Mr. W. 8. Walker, chief clerk in the office of the secretary of state
of Ohio, replying to a question as to the responsibility of one of the
Bohemian oat companies of that State, said: ‘‘These seed men are a
set of swindlers. There is not a dollar of security here for their
bonds. Don’t deal with them.” ‘Our courts,” says H. Talcott,

432 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

As the name Bohemian is becoming somewhat notorious, we begin
to hear of Australian and Russian oats; and other varieties, or the
old variety under other names, may be expected to appear. Cases
are also reported from a number of localities in Ohio, Indiana, and
other States in which ‘‘hulless barley” and pretended new varieties
of wheat, bearing such fancy names as ‘‘ gold dust,” ‘‘Seneca chief,”
‘‘red line,” &c., are being offered for sale at high prices—the wheat
as high as $15 per bushel—and upon the same plan as has been fol-
lowed with Bohemian oats. It is not necessary to know anything of
the quality of the grain offered on that plan to understand that these
schemes are fraudulent, because a plan which presupposes that the
crop can be sold year after year at the same price as the seed, when
the latter is twenty or thirty times the ordinary market price of the
grain, manifests a palpable lack of common sense.

AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS VS. IMPORTS.

The exports of thé agricultural surplus, commencing when these
States were colonies, have attracted the attention of the world, for
their volume, if not for their variety. First tobacco, then cotton,
wheat, and maize assuming prominence within two or three decades,
and meats subsequently, pork products quite early, and beef later, in
its “fresh” form, the growth of a single decade. Other exports of
agriculture amount to little. The bulk and main value of all come
from four crops—cotton, corn, wheat, and tobacco; all except wheat
distinctively American in origin, or peculiar adaptation to local cli-
mate. The increase since 1860 is seen in the following figures, taken
from the official records of customs:

’ Cattle, | All products | p,
, Cotton. | Breadstuffs. | Tobacco, | Provisions.| sheep, and of rh
swine. agriculture. a

$191, 806,555 | $24, 422, 810 lets eee $16, 934,368 | $1,463,643 | $256, 560,972 | 81.14
227) 0277624 | ~72/ 250,933 | 21.100, 420 | 30,992, 305 724° 933 | “361,188,483 | 79.34
211,535,905 | 288,036)835 | 16,379,107 |132, 488,201 | 14,657,931 | 685,961,091 | 83.25
205, 085,642 | 125,846,558 158, 457 | 90,625,216 | 11,963,095 | 484; 954; 595 | 72. 82

Cotton has remained almost stationary, owing to increase of manu-
facturing in this country. The increase in breadstuffs has been more
than fourfold. The value of tobacco exports has almost doubled.
Provisions and farm animals show the largest rate of increase.

Here follow tables showing what products of agriculture are ex-
ported and what imported, the difference between exportation and
importation slightly exceeding $200,000,000, or less than 7 per cent.
of the value of the products of agriculture, and with cotton excluded,
barely balancing surplus and deficiency.

‘ ; y
REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 433

Exports of the products of domestic agriculture.

1886.
Articles. > aR
Quantities. Value.
Gatien eee Lh le 0 eh det ah number.. 119,065 $10, 958, 954
ARS tea reer ne ae atsiclalsfeieisiolerelaicis(eleis syois w s's cle’ ie elsiaieeiaisia's do... 74, 187 674, 297
ERATE eee iy ta ee Ptete tieeteiate oe) oo ave(ordToieiets sieleynlal\e's 0 o's viene sinine d0.).2 1,616 348, 323
essome EP ENERO a inte e(als cistaielaielsl erelere\e's o/c sis .e.n'e,c'slnie dows. 1,401 148,711
Rea EN etree te Ale ches im oictiicia‘elsielsirie'o siela's sioieisioresaie'a doize. 177,594 | 320, 844
‘Allo other. GIT VO Gil} CORO BED GOODCOE DIC DOSE ERROR OME cee aa0ol Recunton sea eOeona, 58, 531
Animal matter: om
Bones, aria frais! TYE Qe RBOBe abo. 2500C CEBDE OED EAE DOD OSOOOrIOAd ER ocioce2 ones ore an nae he
USPS PEER UR Taiar ote tata ate aks cave, (0 alexe, sve 0a via"s Sieza are loioteterel| ia mreleleteraenareeaataarstays 700, 382
SR ot ae Oe ee ee ee ae
Pie... ort Meters 3 . pounds. . 297, 658 42, 137
(Cusuee i a9kG! Gof Te sPael cee on eppa pe obun vor Code deCdDAbOnORDEna a edd bono beccbcorercece 921, 337
Remit ran NEAT FCUNITOS OL) treo isieteaj stows siniaipl ars «/eiaieioia/>\s1e)oierclelawtaraiclel| oave sieleie sim ee eae eis 407, 672
MR EIRR ITM Pen Pst cs deed uassesccnneneele a eae oa ceeemaes 873, 925
I 9) Gy rae coer hele oc oCr CO DOC DE DBGEE SOO H00 CHOUUDESOPCTOCOOOE OnE: jEnandeecucae Horace 44,735
Oils:
SOMMER etclcreieriataciclain«csrdciole nisjere neraisla sie cis e.0s gael gallons.. 973, 229 500, 011
GANT apa PRUETT ote clo fotar«,«\s:wcse.cte:0:8 1a Ploiplolevare ereidialn olaiereiaa ate done. 360, 223 218, 648
Provisions:
Meat products—
Beef products—
Hae Pe CERESELEM MB yaa, sco) oro, c) ais o\ajnseicitiete| wiaia/sia/ela'ars!ase'erura’aisie y sisistaic Va\[feis'= «(es siete erie meee 3, 436, 453
Beef, SEAMEN PePe or atelnseeetal o> <lacnya erstmamiors clavarciols{stslerelo/are pounds.. 99, 423, 362 9,291, 011
Rae iss OSM lad eet nco icon unannees dose. 58, 903, 370 3, 544, 37
Beef, OLINGI? Glin"! Son ete sOODORDeC UEC EOCEC COPE DEC ee do.... 824, 955 89, 593
SIM IN. oka Picaiaaaioracd Hniznin aad + hem dor,.: 40, 919, 951 2, 144, 499
ITZ Oh. . ono adr AGOOEB MEM CODD TO TCCanG Ac HOOnpeOeoaacnr ee Gores 1, 059, 435 93, 082
Oleomargarine—
PETE ee NOTH NEL OTM ay cia's a(n (noe o/cinlaie's «4 selina eaten <poraisiaielsiats dora: 928, 053 93, 363
PRRMceeM aera Sarai cte orale, netsoicla wincisjccleeeidejeveleiwialeisiee ee dow: s: 27,729, 885 2, 954, 954
Pork products—
[EE-0317), ono coe Sap ON OE BEBE DEERE DER OAC HOPDECEL one doz. 369, 423, 351 26, 899, 111
PIATIS ccs sans s BRAC ERBODE are mietateefele sete Oe GO\ise> 50, 365, 445 4, 741, 100
OUREPERM ns oleicaisine se cae AnMaRe ADP odansadcoonkenes do.... 70, 749 3, 985
Pork, salted or cured............06 87, 198) 966 5, 119, 426
0) a ee i ac 298, 728, 019 20, 361, 786
Poultry and game.............. ap =O s sore letelaltie ahaittain omaile dake is
PEPE MPA LyILOULICES) oietolole cln’alo cisieelelela)e1e\e/ersis ¢)allajn e/a) o1e\a/eteiaiell|elereln\eleteyalelelelatale efeleie 947,524
D CS ata
18, 953, 990 2, 958, 457
91, 877, 235 7, 662, 145
“oon CO S0U BQO BOD DOOR COTCAC GOUCOE DARD GMAT Harter bebo) MEabcuCerrmen crn ae 255, 864
136,179 36, 626
2, 138, 080 476, 274
SRLORT CHORE OAC COUT DRE Nade bcp racer 107, 539, 458
Bread and breadstuffs: t
LBMIEN? cron ngs ca tebtZ POD ROCOSB BOCCONI OHEDOOCBCOLECBEDE bushels. . 252, 183 166, 330
IBECAGLANA DISC Go or oittstie ties «ein, siv'cianis sieienac cme ainieet ounds.. 16, 778, 850 725, 476
UG EE TT CT) S| CBE OU DE Che SCORE ngoroe PROOREEC OEE MenrooE ushels. . 63, 655, 433 31, 730, 922
fudian-commimeal neiaiacsnsies <wisisles bose ctcee boticoveens barrels. . 293,546 858, 370
(QUT Coccen ivan Map aece cos BE Sten NaRe AGee EHC peter mates bushels. . 5, 672, 694 1,944,772
OPI GCN Cok paar ReHESCLet CSET OBES EEE eet ee ener ee pounds.. 29, 495, 008 755, 973
13-4) GBR Ae CoC DD DOS CORE OCU COCOEE Panes “agate Spee RR Be bushels. . 196.7 125 133, 105
UVR OWE seria does ee toetttn sia aicioicle > cas Abadi ciaccle sober ne barrels. . 3, 329 12, 733
WMI irony rate deat a ees esa Sitle froin sai clelncvitoetenme s bushels. . 7, 159, 209 50, 262, 715
(VCR UIHONIES ete ret aicisian tirade «sfc. 5.eis/siaacios «oes cies wie nee barrels. . 8, 179, 241 38, 442, 955
IAG Ueer TSG EIGEN ESS 3 oon So Rene Behrman s CORE aaBOL CEL NGnOAscooe mpodoocrone:..coces 813, 207
Total value of bread and breadstulls. .. 0... s.<ccsenecctesiaecs|senes ces va seme cnc 125, 846, 558
Cotton and cotton-seed oil:
Cotton—
110 Dgncric natidton BEDSe EOC BOB COREE tae aoe pounds. . 4,613, 675 1, 176, 025
OPEB MANWEACDUTOGs Lost ce dncdcs. cers icvet aceon dou. 2, 053, 423) 769 203, 909, 617
COLLOn- SEEM OI Serre na ae cae Lyk Se Nate cache 3 Verse 6 yee gallons. . 6, 240° 139 2,115, 974
Total value of cotton and cotton-seed Oil ............0.cececes[acceccvccccceseces 207, 201, 616
Miscellaneous:
IBLOON] COrM -).%.2s2saee ulate olviela.aiaterd’siaiaiw'gis/s|sicis\sie <\sisis (0 wis/eisla sie ts ¥iaiaia| vinnie Grae teeta aes 134, 185
Fruits —
ADPIES OTIC” 2 ici conetars iets a isie ele a ste ie onarel ounds. . 10, 473, 183 548, 434
Apples 2Teen OF TIpOys teeta ce os c's gsc cie tyomine arrels.. 744, 539 1, 810, 606
Preserved—
Ponucd man o/ Ata fas eta tate\e otal ermeet eatete nial ofoxetors.<« <1a¥e)s are, <0e ays Poe, oro tall Oe Reece ere 580, 422
RRS HRS IODC IOC O05 °c. SEAS AROREECGS EBT BMG OEE AH inn top gnope none: 28, 339
AN OCHOY {440 baes cease Anhcidace ose BCRODOAe ECO DO CERIODOGG 6). CHACOOMODEICICCOA (i , 340, 507

434

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Texports of the products of domestic agriculture—Continued.

1886.
Articles,
Quantities. | Value
Miscellaneous—Continued.
BY. ochre aus Site Gee aan yA Shas a a Hae RIUM ao atoE ees tke ois 08 tons.. 13,390 $237, 902
BUSTS secre cto atsailera eis Gioic a ne eels Ueno MERU MMC Ee aA MLAeess pounds. . 18, 665, 661 1,714,488
a cake and al-cake meal) ..055 606 sagecnsiadenace css aes dois. 585, 947, 151 7, 053, 714
Oils—
TGIDSCO Gs Sirois cc aun sede tia a we a are cleanin iste airigies.c.s gallons.... 78, 885 41,963
Otheriwegetable ss ani/ fae} tse cee oe never eleie a elel 0,001.01 wicielncel| Maleteto leis ole Ohesetel latte 43,519
BIE Coe SP cso cate ote iegeratics Si aia such cc ta/e AUR Tb ante ER coos pounds.. 256, 311 14, 241
Seeds—
OV OR ie See SRR Sestens 3. BOOP OR eae tate Ts pounds. . 2, 652, 438 264, 882
QOGHONE oe eee Ge eae ale ask. act Pee rane ieaeh eke ied do.. 11, 793, 411 112, 782
MAIMOUAY We cedhictic ccabst commer ceenudenttnaenies cee’ do. 4, 023, 937 175, 754
PATODI GT Fat Gaye coxiar ons Aeieee'e sucsd asa Ce eee lated els,0ie 'sosaie ait OTe Ra RRAAe eae OT Ee 1, 396, 572
Sugar and molasses—
MolasseS and SINUD ns tasnceadaaceavcceeeeuheseaes gallons... 8, 231, 282 ty 115, 437
Bie Ar MDW ac.ca5 cc wis 2 We deneieinies ees meine eiele ies pounds 89, 523 , 030
Tobacco—
Tie ais. aitcores Hine ae ee <i sae tees Naoto amen doe al hal Sess cloner 281,737, 120 26, 926, 544
ShomsrangderimMn es. eee see castaway retirees eyite, = o/s OOe oh 11, 036, 770 231,913
Vegetables—
COMMONS Stacie anfoisicteiriek ccaicie hain cmeceiiae erste ores» bushels. . 68, 811 75, 838
MEASLY CL NSSERTNS, foie cca as stereo a sah ates icseityer ofciaisy a yey Pajares sictare dos..- 408, 318 570, 153
POLE LOOS a Basile relctaies Coes Oca ee aw Dok as Heelan wae Gs a: 494, 948 346, 864
BV Ser ODA DIGS CAMARO arts, ase 2 Sees == et Stavalcokasy Ab a, wi dspaysianevercter ore telenerMenere/ waar sioisie's Mio eee 190, 339
Alle other, including JOOS Sana: ised ocd bodas sob edosor £650) sos 0brpoLogeb. 134, 293
Wine—
PTD ODUISSS ae, ce aie uakes <at=\-r<1s107e ae do ee sake NSS slate Svea diodes dozen.. 6, 051 24,813
DNOUANDOBDIOS O38 aclsracen Siticciei six aiavoyoici sa erative plcierenate gallons.. 119, 085 98, 297
Opher’aericuliuMal PPOAUCUG oo «co: c 5/5054 escis: sinlosduy cacisiWhsie'< siioverercptelatoeteya sista sae Vick oe See 154, 132
oval value of miscellaneous) products: s. «hes sccs Geena nels |eianss oeeeaeie od tere 44, 366, 963
RECAPITULATION.
Wotalivalie of anintals and animal matter..cjs.5 5 st cue waa Vee de mieabiees vial ant elton actamme $107,539, 458
Taps value of breadandbreadstufks) : 52242 ibs 2vk chon ue sw elele ce cise shies toe cee eee ues conean 125, 846, 558
Torsbvalue of cotton: and Gotton-seed: Oils + Hac alanis dae da ote tile Soden ee ioeie scene oer 207,201, 616
Motalivaluc of miscellaneous) Produ Ets j<.spe).:to,clefareacaseraahara/aralehataresetaharaielerareselelsis Mia .o)5 tic sie ce tata 44, 366, 963
ROtsMaericultural' GxpOresece. sas akeS saeco Ae eae Mammen Oe apres ee baie) nu ene miereeemmang 484, 954, 595
MOURMOEXPOLES 3:5) cwiedos sisiare alors wets Ney area Maier wane aan ikea eae eal cae e sata dhe ene meee 665, 964, 529
Percent, of serictitiirali matter: .oe3< vi cases san oa tee oaale cies as cin sina cit a sas ne roman eters 72.8
Imports of agricultural products, 1886.
Products. Value. Products. Value,
Sugar and molasses: Animals and their products—Cont’d.
BEAT. Pantcchanscessigne 1 hess sacar £80, 773, 744 | Uti Bone Wcttsel bi. ccnecrsca coon eee ee * $712, 410
IOUSSSES inns dais Roe ceed Sernosiace 5, 595, 670 (Oi let hat beck: | De eee eR CS, 3, 488
ss WUOGISeero cts ns cn acct neooeee neem 16, 746, 081
Total sugar and molasses........ 86, 369, 414 | ———
—---—— Total animals and their products.| 58, 207, 181
Tea, coffee, and cocoa:
1 ireirig Eee ORTHOD POA Aes Aen 16,020,383 || Miscellaneous:
ERIE OOM ieterivs Ene t esd pee comma cleae 42, 672, 937 Breadstuffs—
COUR Ae she Udo sedsee eeeh eee as 1,793, 398 Bae ye iis Accs edhe fee aR 7,177, 887
AMO CONAN COLIN. « «,.tye0sre eee eee 8,785
Lotal tea, coffee, and cocoa ..... 60, 486, 718 IDS clos Sis 0 dle ein ge Pre aaa 30, 792
Snes See OATMEAN <o.5,3.00. sais ere eaeipee 49, 347
Animals and their products: TM Ore ae cchvc se neanae ope See 128, 180
UME oleae ce vgaa tha ret dene cone bits 1,281, 765 | AVNER COELD chaos asec .c tee, shootereteasslonoeie 331, 393
WEEE TES e's 3 chs Sine crar apes eis d 4, 312, 636 Wrinea.t SOUr \, so. scisucterere tate aeyetle 6, 274
MINOT ssa 2042) does ela eeee re 1, 006, 785 All other breadstuffs.......... 202,818
All other and fowls................ 338, 840 | (G{o7 1°) Ge Meee EEN Ica acu rio: 672. 508
IEW FEL SES cfots sic) disso sie. scot ywevaye ayereoe uel 1, 087, 137 | Farinaceous substances. ......... 603, 210
1 oi 0 a fe ete Sa 93, 421 | Flax, hemp, jute, &c.—
GH BORG tere siaiae phic t qaliy sida bemeOR 855, 570 ARR Sa. fs onctieg se saben Saree ene 1,576,518
Uc g on occa BE HER tee 2,173, 454 | Hemp and substitutes......... 8, 817,376
ICAP siyss indie Paldtctaes » 2,469, 237 LUG 5/2, sore tes ohniainie rete sour oretaya paar %, 287, 023
DBIRGHOS etetblovole oes assis (e:slete ecerew mieten nie tine 26, 699, 313 Sisal-grass, &e 2, 290, 459
Meats— PTUsbS ANG) MWS! ie. cae carscion see 17, , 318, 259
Preserved, Bis icc.0cissoccdees 271,512 DEV ofc. so over av eve ceasctetayerain tae intel etexe satel 1,02 eae 5,533
AMM OGRE, Mivehdcedvsse cies nes 220, 532 60) 0) RR ANSOHRREY to CORD Crack oe 444, 989

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, 45)

Imports of agricultural products, 1886—Continued.

Products. Value. Products, Value.
Miscellaneous—Continued. Miscellaneous—Continued.
IVES MIELE 2 cca artis isin ciajitsisls, «,« «(v'eiecore $237, 843 Tobacco—leaf, all other........... $7, 792, 832
Oils, vegetable— Vegetables—
ixed or expressed— Beans and peas......:..256...- 585, 461
Gliese steer cciwe ss ciateren's 651, 590 POUMUOCS eee ise coke ee aed 649, 009
V1 GS Se ae ik ee ere 1, 272, 026 Pickles and sauces,.........+.. $23, B62
Volatile or essential ........... 947, 645 IUNOUDEE tortie cs sia caeuinaen $94, 247
Tou: Nepn6douubocopda DeqounOodHCane 2, 047, 916 Wines—
Brel relareipiniive bralb aialeteralelsiais)t(pf4 » <2 ae 015s 38, 266, 208 Champagne and other spark-
Spices— METI ESe aeetertottta etstyel eta cei ore tei 8, 110, 292
POURS | sid cmitielsre odin, o's cred oe 170, 423 Still wines—
Unground— ETT CORES elriatcrsrs tip slate aiatsor ke © 2,519, 624
INEDEING ERG 5 oialara e0'iciove c) aibie\ i014 458, 379 || En) HOUMES Teese Seas cna et 1,810, 125
PAS) 1030 5 6 Ae id GOO oO ORAL 1, 644, 883 —
ELC es cis i Sin ahaa’. 678, 986 Total miscellaneous ............. 66, 757, 918
Tobacco— .
Suitable for wrappers..... 87,175
RECAPITULATION.
Bes sWMeMia EEA TIBERIO ERS SOS ey ale oa h- (6 = cra aly a iosetngs, clots lala Taisiovehssceysiais/s aveiais aelevelepofe. deal caistasorelt crate aia aelateise $86, 869, 414
MC ey AOC INS ETI C OCU Io cas: )e 5 5 a'c,0 6 civie's aes/d s sleieadials ce elndis'e Selec bicceelste et See wude da seaueea aaa 60, 486, 718
eer y Fe pea ITLL LOM ICES. sae sisisioielalesieniata ce a eieicigys SCL einidls ged Dele dels eile Ob duiare Oeee e eae el eR ee 58, 207, 181
IVE Sea UA SIAN EHO LICL MU taebe ec oWa oes cle, ciela)sie 8 cle) aaycial cre iciclsiain «ici siein sleiugare oe « sisiale nielsvevelere aiare cree ties tte diaspora neerete 66, 757, 918
Porm onis Of aPriculiural, PrOAUGES: § «.+;a1c:de's:sisiczed's isis eisiewisitidos nies sires dee aoleeiee vient se 271, 821, 231

This exhibit of agricultural exchanges in a nation more prolific in
variety, informs of production, and more abundant in quantity than
any other, is a striking illustration of the fact that each country
practically provides for itself; that its surplus is mainly the accident
of the adjustment of consumption to production, and therefore that
foreign trade must ever be a comparatively unimportant considera-
tion to its agriculture.

Circumstances, mainly climatological, have given this country an
advantage in growing cotton and tobacco which has amounted al-
most to a monopoly. The result has been an excessive amount of
exportation, favoring our balance of trade, without benefiting cor-
respondingly the districts of largest production. This result was
unnecessary, coming from neglect of other branches of agriculture
and from dependence on other and distant districts for supplies, even
for such bulky products as hay and corn for horses and bread and
meat for men. This neglect has reduced the profits of cotton-grow- -
ing and stimulated production and prices in the regions where sur-
plus grain and meat are produced. The benefit might have been
appropriated mainly by the cotton-growing districts, had all neces-
sary supplies been produced at home. Those farmers who are acting
on this simple truth in farm economy are advancing rapidly in pros-

erity.
: ane out cotton from our list of agricultural exports,$205,085,642
from $4£34,954,595, the remainder for the past year is $279,868,953.
The imports of such products, mostly foods and beverages, amounted
to $271,821,231, leaving a beggarly balance exclusive of the cotton
exports.

i is a short time since only one-fifth of the cotton and one-third of
the tobacco was respectively the amount of domestic consumption.
Now one-third of a much larger crop of cotton is required for home
manufacture and fully half of the tobacco, and these proportions
will be increased in the future, to the great benefit of growers and
increased eagerness of foreign buyers.

436 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

It will probably provea surprise to most readers to find that, while
the princely sum of $107,539,458 is taken for domestic animals and
their products, more than half of it, to wit, $58,207,181, is paid ont
for animals and their products produced in foreign countries, be-
sides a few millions more for ocean and inland transportation and
commissions on the same property. The largest item is hides ($26,-
699,313). Imports of manufactured leather are nearly $12,000,000
more. This is the more remarkable, as this country far excels any
Buropean country in number of farm animais in proportion to popu-
lation. It is doubtless a further attestation of the obvious fact that
our people are unusually well shod and that the uses of leather are
Rapidly increasing. a.

Another annual product which a million farm or ranch proprie-
tors in the United States are engaged in producing was imported last
year to the value of $16,746,081, mostly from the South American
pampas and Australian sheep-walks. Eggs, a food that could be in-
creased a hundred fold, are among the year’s imports to the number
of 16,092,583 dozens, costing $2,173,454.

The importation of horses is a large item of the past year’s trade,
amounting to $4,312,636, and numbering 21,062 free of duty and 37,901
dutiable. The animalsimported free are presumably for the improve-
ment of breeds, but really under the letter rather than the spirit of
the law as to much the larger proportion, to obtain very cheap stock
as a foundation for ranch herds, to be gradually improved by infus-
ion of domestic blood. Thus there were 15,880 horses brought from
Mexico last year, ‘‘for breeding purposes,” costing $7.49 each. The
real importation for improvement included 5,288 from Canada, at
$224.45 each; 1,123 from France, at $549.93; 698 from Great Britain,
at $512.46; and a few from other European countries. The intro-
duction of Mexican bronchos reduces the average of animals im-
ported free to $110.19. The dutiable horses were mainly 21,908 from
Mexico, valued at $9.40 each, and 15,854 from Canada, at $111.19.
The average of the dutiable horses was $52.55. The exports of horses
amounted to only $348,323; in number 1,616, averaging $216 each.

TRANSPORTATION RATES.

In the monthly statistical reports are published current freight rates
of railway and steamship transportation companies, to. which the
reader is referred for details of changes in rates of transportation.
These are the regular schedules, but cannot indicate fully the rates
actually charged, on account of the special contracts, rebates, and
other favors to individual shippers, which are private and confi-
dential. .

In this report there is room only for a sample, scarcely a synopsis,
of the rates published, sufficient to show the prices of the season for
a few principal products by lakes and canal, and also by rail, from
Chicago, by one of several lines, and from New York to Liverpool by
a single line of several regularly reported in the monthly.

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 437

Canal freight on wheat and corn from Buffalo to New York during the season of
1884, 1885, and 1886.

1884. | 1885. 1836. || 1884. 1885. 1886.
Date. +3 3 8 Date. Py 43 Pe

Slaieia|sia Slalo|alolgd

a\ela)Ela|é e|el2|5)2| 8

EFIOIEPlO];E oO Elo Olt eaio
DHE ORB Sone acer see 4/3 3 St | 4% || August 23.............. 44) 4 | 4 | 3: | 6 5}
May 1 é Se fee neice | PERIOD) || AURIS B03. cass adele 45 | 48 | 44/1 35.) BE) St
May 17 3} | 44] 4 | 62 | 52 || Septerber6........... 5 | 44/4 | 36)6 Be
May 24 BL | 2 | Be | 5 | 54 |] September 13..........: 44} 44 | 31! 31 | 64} 6
May 31 383i | 3+] 3 | 52) 5 September 20.........- 4e | 41 | 32 | 34 | G 54
June 7 8i | 813 | 42 |4 || September 27.......... 4) | 44 | 34 | 34 | 53] 52
Junel4.. 3k | 38 | 3b | Of | 43 || October4.............- 44 | 82/3416 | 53
June 21 .. 8 2E) 8h. 13: || October Il) 2... ga. 4 | 32 | 33) 5 4}
June 28 .. SO) on |Pealor ieee || October 18) 225722) aa. E 44/4 | 31) 5 4h
July 5.. BE eo 2s | SEveSt || ‘October 2oua5-- 0+ aes. = 5h | 43 | 5 | 4¢| 5e | 54
* July 12 32/13. | QE | Be | St || Novemberi1.......2-).-: 5t | 4¢.] 5t | 53 | GE) SE
DEINE DOR eapeareteeas or ee « BE | Sk S8 [4 113% || November 8. .2...:--.-- Bi |G | bE) dt) 5
July 26 31 | 84 | 24 | 48 | 4 || November 15. 44} 4h] 441/44] 43
Auzust 38 | 3k | 2 | 5 | 42 || November 22 eee aa ie | 44 | 44
ANISTIStOlatresaecevnce + 4 | 85 | 34 | Bb | 42 | 42 || November 24 4% | 441 5¢) 5

RUpTISE OMe ante e. vee 44 | 35 | 82 | 8315 | 43
!

is m- = TOV c

Average. | May. | June. | July. | August. er yee ete

ay oD sseeetal

OBA WMO sree eicte osafeieisis aisiaicoslale ciate soa warm 3.8 3.4 | 2.6 4.2 cig 5.0 4.7
OGM tits cietectalaaies!s avs .cisvale vies og ave 3.4 3.1 3.2 3.8 4.2 4.4 4.2
TSB5—— WGA bteics cia iclels|s\clua sx civic.c ces device 4.3 3.2 2.0 3.7 3.5 4.1 4.4
ID RIM ARSE Se leloe ale is\s'c'r elas oiele/ajale o.c,o 060 3.8 3.0 2.8 3.4 3.3 3.7 4.0
TSOG—Wilkeatieteleecticccit<.ckeisiscsweie ves os | 5.8 3.8 4.0 5.3 6.1 5.4 5.2
OGRE aS a ticle c o.n'0 oie sctajeivieisia s, 3=-0 | 5.2 3.4 3.5 4.8 5.6 4.9 4.8

Lake freight on wheat and corn from Chicago to Buffalo during the season of 1884,
1885, and 1886.

1884. 1885. 1886. 1884. 1885. 1886.
i
Date. ; :
3 < igs ae aba Uae:

o oO o I oO A 2 Bf o A

‘= = = e) Oo Ah Ss iS 5

= = Elo O\F OES

Shell PAUSES. oe ainis sleisicleiansistes 2 | 18] 1%] 18 | 3:] 3
3h || August.301.2,..28325..2 1/2 |2 | 18) 3f] 34

24 || September 7 ........... 2t | 23 | 1¢) 14/54) 5
24 || September 14 .......... 2 | 18) 1E | it | 4b] &
21 || September 22 .......... 2 1% | 13) 1¢) 4 BE
2 September 30 .......... 1g) 14/12/34) 44] &
3 October 7 ...... .--.| 1E | 12)2 | Ie | 4e] 4
3 October 14. -.| 18 | 18 | 24] 24) 5 4h
2 OCDODEE 22 aece Males oe 1% | 14 | 28 | 2) 48) &

Ae p OCCU! SN aa cereale store 24 )2 | 3b] 2] 44) 4
3 Wovember iy. ccs sce ss 23 | 22 | 33 | 33/4) 44
i 2% || November 14........... 212 13 (38 | 44] 4

BU RUSG i ricic « cinis ate ate sieeve 1g | 18) 2 | 12 | 3 | 2% || November 22....-...... 2/2)2 |2 |}4| 4
AMipuat Ta sees caees 1g | 13} 12] 1$ | 3 | 2 || November 29........... 24/2 | 8) 8b) 54) 5
Average. May. | June. | July. | August. cee ye bras
1884— Wheat Pe re 2.0 1.9 Pap 2.0 2.8
Vols ite ee 2.0 2.0 pa 1.6 1.9 1.6 Ppa
1885—W heat. Dat 1.4 15 159 17 2.3 3.0
Corn... 1.8 1.3 1.3 1.6 1.4 22 2.8
1886—W heat . 3.1 2.8 2.8 3.3 4.6 4.7 4.6
(0/0) 50 Lae eeAGace Sale Wate Ba nieid avers eleine 2.8 2.6 2.5 3.0 4.4 4.4 4.4

438

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Rates from Chicago to New York upon certain products, as reported by the several
trunk lines upon the ist day af each month for the years 1884, 1885, and 1886.

January— February— | March— April—
Articles.
1884.| 1885.) 1886.) 1854.) 1885.| 1886.) 1884.| 1885.| 1886.| 1884, |) 1885.| 1886.
Cattle, C.L....per 100 lbs./$0 60 |$0 40 |$0 25 |$0 60 |$0 40 |$0 25 |30 60 |S0 40 \§0 35 |§0 60 |§0 40 | $0 35
Horses: (51s...) d0:..55 60 60 60 60 60 i0 60 60 60 60 60 60
Sheep, CMa. ese do.. 60 50 25 60 50 25 60 50 45 60 50 45
Le rofen SiC A Do aa ae do.. 35 30 30 35 30 30 385 30 30 20 25 a)
Dressed beef, C.L ..do.. 64 70 434} 64 fe 453} 64 70 65 64 70 65
Grain Cg 3. esc do.. 380 25 25 30 25 25 30 25 25 15 20 25
HUOUE TC We. coe en > do.. 30 25 25 50 25 25 30 25 20 30 20 25
Potatoes, @.L....... do.. 35 30 25 35 30 25 35 30 25 20 30 25
Tobacco, C.L)....... do.. 374/274] 9-38 374| . 32 33 vt] 82 33 274] =28 | 88
Meg Vas tie dcje 22 0 do.. 85 30 30 35 30 30 85 30 30 20 25 30
Le fuiil (08) Figap asemeaa do.. 35 30 80 35 30 30 85 30 30 20 25 30
MOOI CUTG re clcrre pac do. 85 60 60 85 60 60 85 60 60 85 60 60
Lumber, C.L....... do. 35 35 35 35 2 30 35 32 30 30 32 25°
May— June— July— August—
Articles.
1884 185 1886. 8 1885. | 1886.| 1884.] 1885.| 1886.| 1884.] 1885.] 1886.
Cattle, C.L....per 100 Ibs.!$0 60 |$0 40 |$0 35 |$0 50 |§0 380 |$0 85 |$0 80 \$0 25 |$0 85 $0 30 |$0 25 | $0 35
Horses, G, Tit).!tsi0t6.3 do....| 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
SHeSD Cy Tie cece cnc do.. 60 50 45 50 40 45 40 40 45 40 40 45
ass Coa. ope. eon do.. 20 25 30 20 25 30 25 20 30 30 25 30
Dressed beef, C.L...do.. 64 70 65 48 7 65 48 431| 65 48 434 65
(eigenlalat OPE] WTS mee tee do.. 15 20 25 Bey 20 25 20 15 20. 25 20 25
Lito ie (OR es See nee do.. 15 20 25 15 20 25 20 15 25 25 20 25
Potatoes, C........ do.. 20 25 25 20 20 25 25 25 25 80 25 25
Tobacco,©, i...) -. do.. 274) 28 38 274) = 28 38 274] = 28 38 273) 24 38
IW hie hl OB) OSA Reena ae do.. 20 25 30 20 25 30 25 25 30 30 25 380
Bork: Obi. bescrceese do.. 20 25 80 20 25 380 25 25 ¢ 30 25 30
Mori (Chi bippeagadnac do.. 85 60 60 85 60 60 85 60 60 85 60 60
Lumber, C.L ....... do.. 30 30 25 30 80 25 30 30 25 30 30 25
September— October— November— December—
Articles,
1884,| 1885.) 1886.} 1884,] 1885.| 1886.| 1884.) 1885.
Cattle,O.L..... per 100lbs./$0 20 |$0 25 |$0 35 |$0 20 |S$0 25 /$0 35. |§0 20 |$0 25 |S
Horses, C. L O:.t4 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Shee sO: Wie seats bas ys 40 40 45 40 40) 45 40 40
LOPS, C0 Ta ccs cloves eee 80 25 30 30 ap 30 80 25
Dressed beef, C. L... 82 434} 65 82 431} 6) 32 434
(Cen ol (OR 1A Oe By males 25 20 25 25 20 25 25 20
MOUr Codie... D5 ces lite ea lee een OB | ten
Potatoes, C.L.. 80 25 25 80 25 25, 380 25
Tobacco, C. L 273| 28 Bt 274) 28 38 274! 28
LT? cto Pl Geil 7 ns cea 80 25 30 30 2b 30 380 25
Bore Cele. hyn rosree sie 80 25 30 30 2D 30 80 25
3), (ofa) Oh Cl Thane aes 85 60 60 8 60 60 85 60
Lumber, C.L 80'|° 80) 85 | 80/| 80) 25 | 85 | 35

Average cost per bushel for transporting wheat from New York to Liverpool, from

1866 to 1886, inclusive.
Years. Steamer rates. Railiny vessel Years.

Pence.| Cents. | Pence.| Cents.
1866..... Baers 'Sisie' 4.74 AMS |\ de aiosprcoiel ate aventeere AS es crete soetsiees
Gains atelale: dveieig= 0, o:0%e 5.18 “NOt: (Sl ER IGA Botuccteis METS ove apaie ase
DR ee ee ae eee 7.18 Me GH cs Paces x lew conte ABCONS ims dewey
ED aS oe de eee Bi dO) BEOB HS ON On eee eee U1 OHSS © 5 eae de
AAD cieite ote te Bes 08.0 5.7 HAE OG! | Ss ecto sls coe eat a ESAS <ics foe bette
Tears Risin siatelece« 8.16 GBR (dents oveterellecereetatouee etter siahibiecre
MBieiciicstemiesics: si « M3 O4- |) OLB teen cree eerie allo etenee Hopoitecttartetetis sc
LSvowreids Oe aioacrag 10.56 | 21.12 9.91 TONS 27)) WSS ce seis servers
NSA ieerren tein ai 9.08 | 18.16 ESO LO MOO (MLO reitis siciay pie ere
UC GHESA GeaOACAaOS 8.07 | 16.14 Te Lea|| pase LOO a aleivcere ae
b(iamaneanoasoedy 8.02 | 16.04 7.64 | 15.28

Sailing-vessel
Steamer rates. rates,
Pence. | Cents. | Pence. | Cents.
--| 6.93] 18.86 6.76 13.
des 7.61 15, 22 7.09
6, 20 12.40 6.
5. 88 11.76 5,
4, 08 8.16 4,
wall JON: ALB] RRS Alsiad ona,
Se 4,54 9.08 6. 25
a 3.40 6. 80 5.00
ri 8. 60 %. 20. ca Sera ea eee
3, 46 6.92 Sean

REPORT OF THH STATISTICIAN.

439

The following are the prices paid for carrying grain from New York to Liverpool
during the years 1884, 1885, and 1886.

Months. 1884. 1885. 1886.
| fie,
Pence. | C2nts. | Pence. | Cents. | Pence. | Cents.
RAEN UU PMOUT ects evirael i vaGaPedaiiteiar alsin <reisfesie axe Sqr Gigs s piale sie/ql<'a°s ie 2. 35 4.70 5.00 10 3.75 i
TL) ie Soin ate dl ci ie Ae Re 2.24 4.48 4. 50 9 Q. 50 |
March Miele: sta atelp cisraiapleie'eavar te creo ein nab cinictgines runiticiceerAyA 1.56 8.12 3.00 6 2.50 | 5
PREIS rere! cha'gssiatalaiciesaie a’ tia sip’ sieeigy o> ROO OT Ie DRO AD raret iC Toe 8. 54 4,00 | 8 3.50 7
hate. ot ee ARM SORE CO pone Ait RAEI BOSD or YOOCk Ere 1.25 2. 50 8.50 7 4, 00 8
dha SAC Re BAO Metin Taoist ae PR te ataelclnctssee ets 4:14 3.08 6.16 3.00 6 4,50 | i)
UR ectie cir srestee ss gt sieceiss 3% RA SAR OnE ORDO Ooo COpIieG 4.414 9.42 2.75 5s 8, U0 6
Jo STE a caplesb sone G0 7 OGDEIFIOEy RAG GEORE Ene MOOD ANC iar ien 4. 68 9, 36 3. 00 6 2,00 4
PAERRSEMAMNDENID IN cP teve ate etevetate) fea aVgte help! sir fre Ra dios o's eleve'gis sir piss 3. 00 6, 00 3,00 va 3.00 | 6
ISERIES MM se sere teeetetds misinccle te ate lslcipig's are pieypieisip disie wa'g ole 4.00} 8.00 4.00 8 4,00 8
be OO R212 2 0 Rn AC PRE los Clee D OFS EE ESTEEM I HIEIOES Ieee eae 5,79 11.58 4,00 8 4,25 | 84
AROSE OSMSINT <7 aVlra alae) cinta sists) pcitis'oinieie ia’ ps ciaigiatela als eln’eip'c a’ =\p =] 6.387 | 12.74 3.00 6 4, 50 | 9
|
Inman Line—New York to Liverpool.
January— February— March— April—
Articles. sae ur a es
1884.| 1885.| 1886.; 1884,; 1885.| 1886.) 1884.| 1885.} 1886. 1884. 1885. | 1886.
a | | |
Wheat......... per bushel.|$0 03 |$0 10 |...... $0 08 $0 09 |g0 05 |g0 04 |g0 06 |g0 05 \g0 04 |g0 08 'g0 08
Comet asin Aer RCE Onn 03 OE Setar 08 | 09 05 04 06 05 O4 08 08
WOW)... Sseres oes er bbl. 30 Opes 48 48 36 36 48 36 a4 485 43
Flour (in sacks) .p, 2,2401bs a Ce 3 60 | 3 GO | 2 40 | 2 40 | 8 60 | 2 40 | 1 80 | 8 GO| 8 60
Rago sas iaks do....|2 to bs a0 ae 6 00/5 40/3 60| 3 60| 360/300] 3 00| 4 20) 4 80
Tigre cigars <¢sG0+
Cheane oe esiiis.ys do....| 4 80
Beef.., ; er tierce,
Pork. ..per bbl.
ROD i fetestccteamtace’s per lb,
TODACOO: sepsctess per hhd,
Lard (in small Manele
seeeeey+ per 2,240 Ibs,
Tobacco Gn cases)
rey re ts .,..per 40 cu, ft.| 4 80
Meaiuremens per top
- AAA nS pee ee OCB
Primage..per cent..

Articles, ae
1884.| 1885.) 1686.| 1884. 1885.) 1886.) 1884.] 1885.) 1886.| 1884.| 1885.! 1885.
Wheat......... per bushel. $0 03 |$0 07 |$0 08 |g0 05 |$0 06 |g0 10 [$0 07 05 06 |$0 11 06 |g0 04
Corn a its Monae hs a) 08 07 08 05 06 10 07 e oie 06 ; 1 e 06 4 Ot
Flour feats Ses ae r bbl. 24 48 42 36 36 84 86 36 42 60 48 36
Flour (in sacks). p.2, >40 i ansaa 1 80 | 3 10 | 3 30 | 2 40 | 8 00 | 8 60 | 3 00 | 8 60 | 8 GO| 8 90 | 8 GO! 2 40
IRBGOnM. osten teak do....| 2 40 | 4 80 | 4 80 | 4 20 | 8 60 | 6 00 | 4 20 | 8 60 | 4 80 | 7 20 | 3B GO| 3 BO
OO hs Costa arsenic do.. 2 40 | 4 80 | 4 80 | 4 20 | 3 60 | 6 00 | 4 20} 8 G0} 4 80 | 7 280] 3 60) 8 60
PERSO) oa, c.aistonctac a ton do.. 8 U0 | 6 QO | 6 00 | 8 40 | 6 00 | 8 40 | 8 40 | 7 20! F 20] O Go| % 20! 6 00
TAGE: ais laters algicieiee per tierce.| 48 &4 84 ve 72 96 et 60 84] 1 20 72 GO
Fork solo lare’elp areas Ste per opts 04 4 ooh 008 48 72 60 48 48 84 5 42
i Ae Eonar ae per lb, Alt Og} 003; O01 00%; = =Q0§] =O O08; 00g
Tobacco... ... per hhd,| 5 40 | 5 40 | 4 80 | G 00 | 4 80 80 | 6 g
Lard te erasit pthcges i ) 30 | 4 80 00 | 4 80 | 4 80] 6 60 | 4 80 | 4 20
Srsichabe’ wie ia(aie's « er 2, Bi 0 | 6 00 | 6 00 20 | 6 00] 7 § §
Tobacco n ate , “i se aibed RO) BAR) S00 4 80
Se Ce per 40 cu, ft.| 8 60 | 4 80 | 4 20 | 4 80 | 4 80 | 4 20 5 40 | 4 20 | 4 20
Measurement per ton, 40 4 20 | 3 60 | 4 80 | 3 GO| 2 GO | 4 80 | 8 GO| 8 Go eee 3 fo
CUMIO PORE es esu ste elves 4 wo) to to to to to to to | to 6 00 | 4 804] to
6 60 | 4 80 | 6 00 | 6 00 | 4 80 | 6 00 | 4 80} 4 BO 4 80
Primage..per cent.. 5 5 5 5 B [7b 5 5 5 5 | Bi

440 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Inman Line—New York to Liverpool—Continued.

September— October— November— December—
Articles, SSS el a i
1884. | 1885.} 1886.| 1884.} 1885.| 1886.| 1884.) 1885.| 1866.) 1884.| 1885.) 1886.
Wheat........ per bushel. $0 06 |$0 07 |$0 05 /$0 08 |g0 08 |g0 08 |g0 10 |$0 08 |gO 082180 14 G0 06 /g0 094
COIN Sea vcte ce eee do...) 06 07 05 08 08 0s | 10 08 | O8+} 14 06 O94
RlOune eon oer bbl.| 42] 36] 36] 48| 48] 48] 60] 60) 48| 72] 36] 48
Flour(in sacks). p.2,240lbs.| 3 00 | 3 00 | 2 40 | 3 60 | 3 60 | 3 60 | 3 90 | 3 60 | 3 60 | 6 00 | 3 00 | 3 6
SCOR oo .aeee aie-sis aso do....| 4 80 | 4 20 | 3 60 | 6 00 | 4 80 | 4 80 | 6 00 | 7 20 | 6 00 | 9 60 6 00 | 6 6O
WAU nin che cis sos macke do 4 80 | 4 20 | 3 60 | 6 00 | 4 80 | 4 80 | 6 00 | T 20 | 6 00 | 9 60 | G6 00 | 6 CD
GEESE. 8s. eee ae do 6 00 | 7 20 | 4:80] 7 20} 7 20}; 6 00 | 7 20 | 9 00 | 7 20 |10 80 | 7 20) 7 20
Beet ni. seeecent per tierce. 96 V2 60 | 1 08 84 &4 | 1 08 | 1 32 96 | 1 68 | 1 08 | 1 08
per bbl. 2 48 42 84 60 60 96 72 | 1 20 "5 84
fay per lb.| 01] 003] 003} O1] 002} 002 003! 00s 004) 008
per hhd.| 5 40 | 4 20 | 4 20 | 7 20 | 4 80 | 6 60 | 7 20 | 6 00 6 | 7 20 | 4 80 | 6 00
Lard (in small packages), |
GAO OARE per 2,2401bs.| 6 00 | 6 00 | 4 80 | 7 20 | 6 00 | 6 00 | 7 20] 8 40 | 7 20 |10 80 | 7 20 | 7 20
Tobacco (in cases),
55] SOC ee per 40cu.ft,) 4 80 | 4 80 | 3 GO | 4 80 | 4 80} 4 80 | G 00 | 4 80 | 4 80 | 6 00 | 4 80 | 4 80
Measurement per ton, 40 ) 3 60 | 3 00 | 4 80 | 3 60 | 4 20} 4 80 3 60 3 GO | 4 20
CHDICTOSS. ci decwels ccless 4 804| to to to to to to 4 to 6 00<| to to
(| 480 | 4 80| 6 00 | 4 80| 4 80| 6 00 4 80 4.80 | 4 80
Primage. per cent..| 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 | 5 5 | 5 5

FOREIGN TRADE OF SOUTH AMERICA.

The extent of the South American continent, its vast areas of pro-
ductive lands, and its proximity to the United States are considera-
tions that affect not only our future trade, but our agriculture. Its
condition hitherto is like that of North America at the time of our
Revolutionary war; its practically illimitable areas unoccupied, ex-
cept very sparsely, if not by an aboriginal population, by a Spanish-
Indian element almost equally intractable and inefficient as subduers
of nature to the uses of man. A small sprinkling of Kuropean immi-
gration has given whatever of progress has been made. But anew
era is dawning. Immigrants are of late pouring into the temperate
zone, especially into the Argentine Republic, from Italy, Spain, and
other countries of Southern Europe, literally by millions, bringing
money, agricultural implements (the more enterprising ordering them
from the manufacturers of the United States), Knowledge of modern
agricultural methods, and a good degree of enterprise and ambition.
The rapid extension of railroads opens up new lands, on which agri-
cultural colonies are located, and wheat, flax, and other products are
already largely grown, and seeking export.

From this immigration, railroads connecting the fat pampas with
salt-water navigation, and the enticing cheapness of these productive
lands, a competition with our meat and wheat and wool may become
more serious than any heretofore suffered. India is populous and un-
enterprising, with old and worn soils, sending only 5 to 15 per cent.
of her wheat, and liable in any year to need it all to save her people
from famine. The Argentine Republic has a virgin soil, few people
to feed, and can soon send 50 to 75 per cent. of wheat produced to for-
eign countries. India plows with a stick and thrashes with the hoof
of oxen; the Argentine Republic and Chili are moving for the best
steel plows and the finest American reapers and thrashers. Our com-

etition in wheat is to be serious with South America, when appre-
oe of Indian competition yield to pity for her famine-stricken
people.

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 441

The external commerce of South America is increasing rapidly.
Chili has nearly doubled her volume of trade in ten years. In round
numbers the advance from 1874 to 1883 inclusive has been from
$32,000,000 to $73,000,000 in exports, and from $35,000,000 to $50,000,-
000 in imports. The increase in exports has been all in the last half
of this period, making the favorable balance of trade a source of
national prosperity. In the Argentine Republic the advance in ex-
ports for the same period has been from $41,000,000 to $66,000,000,
and of imports from $34,000,000 to $91,000,000. The agricultural
implements and other merchandise brought into the country recently
by immigrants as a part of their working capital, and paid for from
money brought with them from other countries, does not represent
indebtedness. This increase is all since 1881, as the imports of 1884
were not exceeded in a single year until 1882, when an increase of 70
- per cent. resulted in three years. Uruguay shows an increase also
from $15,000,000 to $24,000,000 in exports and from $17,000,000 to
$20,000,000 in imports. Other countries have made variable rates of
advance, the exact data for which are not at present available.

The United States has as yet only a small share in this commerce.
Great Britain has encouraged and ordered the establishment and sup-
por of steamship lines and fostered railroad communication, and

urnished capital for industrial development of these countries,
especially the Argentine Republic and Chili, and therefore controls
their trade. The London Statist claims for this development a prom-
inent place in the consideration of British commercial circles, ‘‘as
the bulk of the public debt of those States is held in this country, and
as British capital has built and supplied the material of all the rail-
ways finished and in course of construction, as well as for nearly all
other industrial undertakings in the Argentine Republic and Uru-
guay.

Our trade with all South American countries in the year ended
June 30, 1885, included a value of $65,289,956 in imports, and less
than half as much in exports, or $27,734,857. Of the imports, the
larger part, or $45,263,660, were from Brazil, and included 406,714,346
pounds of coffee, worth $30,346,792. Thus we pay more for Brazilian
coffee than the value of all exports to South America, and discredit
the commercial fallacy that all trade is barter, and that one country
will not buy the goods of another unless it can sell its surplus prod-
ucts in liquidation of the bill to that particular country.

The following statement of our trade in 1885-86 is from the official
records of the Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Department:

442 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Imports of the United States from South America in 1885-86,

g a
3 5 | | 24
eI lag | 4B
ay | g | 3
’ ae} | ¢£ oN e :
Articles. 2 & ; = | .eg
# aL © e 2 | O38
a a 4 Se 5 § Rank a
a) 8 : $5 Sp | CTR 3s
2 Zz q a 3 o sad 6
4 ea s) ss) =) - < =
Doilars.| Dollars. | Dollars.) Dollars.| Dollars.) Dollars.| Dollars.| Dollars.
WAGOR A, sajite kta ye osael saeeer es O14, Rell sete ees: CA eens oe 102,515} 588,688) 954,154
(OME Deru rineaatteisleiic als eaete alee 96,884, 150)... os,» os. 659,502)... ac. ces 4, 208, 480 9, 576/31, 261, 707
Cotton, and manufactures

Gar oie ecniorencN ate aynsavers sia oilata\<'ahacere' a's Dbl toes foe BB eiceee glia ces es 773 1,162
(CUTE): s Ses try eee CRIB CRG EES Cacheereitics eve Leiria) RM gn Ieee po 82° G61 Seaton 82, 661
Fruits, including nuts .....]...,..... Aad DOM so ages BOT, BOB! bo, aif 509 3,450) 452, 371
Hides and skins, other than

SURO RANG Hs Sais. shat abe ae,5.2 2,746,771) 2,283,001} 21, 410/1, 280, 048)3, 094, 945}1, 202,794) 421, 573/11, 090, 542
India-rubber and gutta-

percha GHG. ence ase tec caees cio 6, 894, 689]......... OAT ORI etereinreicis 21,011] 333, 246) 7,590, 927
Qils, olive and ether.......)......6.. AG Ee Sanesictell’s soca achete||ls sie gehen aera sma Albee eke ee 16
Seeds, linseed, flaxseed,

NM OUMOI Wats sete si ovclne 4 274, 794 AMA B | isciers qisress sills gisteate ate'sl Salen wearers Aa) oe ection 275, 971
Sugar and molasses ..,....|......... BY BO BO7 2-2 S0c559 T, BUG| bees Sel cedn gan: 1, 903, 924) 7,411, 944
Tobacco, and manufact-

UROR OL cd oles ana geote alone sae ales GBA ccf csce Balt shee Caen ee, Se ae 985
Wool, raw, and manufact-

MITON OR csi nioee vice ni hietyeae 1,188,765) 151,084) 136,441 3856/1, 336,990) 16,560: 9,632] 2, 834, 828
Wood, and manufactures

seh Sinaia c siahatcretyaate an cts 1, 426 BRIAR ce isieats 85826". censctaan 18, 796 112} 163,805
1 A a See acta ates 361,086] 107,110)......... 392] 209, 629 6} 678,270
Paper-stock, crude .....,.. HISAR ae BAS edost 1, 682 650 27 70 8, 216
Feathers and flowers... .. . 36, 318 768) 138 50} = 10, 694 BS OGT a's cince eae 49, 959
GIBCO Bisel een okie te see cleo es ATE arante «a 3) 2] Pe 2,548 9, 837 48,719
Furs, and manufactures

ARUN cree ieieve re essurefereaiaats sis 96, 124 736 100 155 SOOO ccf ares ccral's courehete 102, 424
Hate, bonnets, fe .c6b i. ee. DIELS (0) My ae ABA. cdmies were 15, 318 27 27, 152
Iron, steel, and manufact-

TERS) sae tiaeae aaa oe wean 22, 782 20, 840 5 5S: (AS ARANG Sead gree 6, 798 51,752
peteTs ELS Sia eta SGPT arr eaiet a een en ar4 GAP iee ee ee 952, 022 RT Mae nese elegee + sake 650, 886) 1, 602, 995
EV OMY etaeicisiennhc oes 5 ce clleseeecnint BOs creretersiare 12Bsobalece ec esis 14, 000 1,661] 142,725
Dye-woods, and extracts .

OE Serra ars iene dies. arate sete |e otaath eraake ote Lee nas BOF edaw- She , 924 411 42, 385
PGMA A BI crviee scsi enie ve OB BAAN ias oe! «sacs g ll custojagas emyavelliscereisan wares TOO TRE jes cjeca|'s 055 cereees 223, 416
MOBPEI a siias s cnaceh tpaltca tsar cect 19} 28,824) 21, 62g),........ 180 117, 55, 768

| other articles.......... 195,249 110,649) 38,905) 96,635) 147,459) 46,141) 145,580) 780,621
i i Ra a aed a 2 it Se fe ee ee id Bs
Motal «ifs ts. s25 hearin 5, 022, 846/41, 907, 5382/1, 182, 845/38, 008, 921/4, 925, 848)5, 791, 621/4, 036, 312/65, 875, 425

These imports are comparatively uniform from year to roar, In
the past year (1885-86) the value is $65,875,425, a very small increase
over the previous year, All countries except Brazil and Venezuela
show increase, and the decline in these is due to decreased value of
coffee rather than diminished quantity. The importation of 188485
amounted to 406,714,346 pounds from Brazil, averaging about 7.5
cents per pound; in the past year 392,058,002 pounds, at about 6.7
cents per pound, Seven-eighths of all the coffee imported comos
from South America. The sugar from Brazil was valued at 2.5 cents
per pound. The value of the importation of the previous year was
2.1 cents per pound. :

The increase of wool imported is large, from $1,687,109 in 1854~85
to $2,834,828 in 188586. The main increase is from Uruguay, and
is caused by a reduction in value of clothing wool from 14.3 cents to
10.5 cents, which had the effect of increasing receipts from 2,123,-
040 to 12,362,329 pounds. Most of the receipts from the Argentine
Republic were classed as carpet wools, and valued at 9.6 cents and
9.4 cents; a slight decrease, accompanied by a slight increase in quan-
tity from 9,851,121 to 10,456,556 pounds.

It will be seen that the imports from Brazil are mainly coffee, rub-

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 443

ber, and sugar; of the Argentine Republic, hides and wool; Chili,
soda and wool; Colombia, hides, coffee, rubber, and cinchona; Uru-
guay, hides and wool; Venezuela, coffee and hides. Coffee repre-
sents half the value of imports; hides, one-sixth; sugar and india-
rubber each over one-tenth; wool and soda, some millions of dollars,
and the other articles a comparatively small amount. The large
item in the column for ‘‘ Other countries,” $650,886 is for 42,367,498
pounds nitrate of soda, and is from Peru.

Exports to South America in 188485 and 1885-86.

1884-85. | 1885-86.
Countries.
Domestic. | Foreign. Total. Domestic. | Foreign. Total.

Argentine Republic .............. $4,327,026 | $349,475 | $4,676,501 | $4,331,770 | $393,876 | $4, 725, 646
SPA ZA ee c iteiraceslsigh iss clssic woes 7, 258, 035 59, 258 7,317, 293 6, 480, 738 60, 478 6, 541, 216
(CUBTTA oe ee ic ca oe ee 2,192,672 | 18,385] 2,211,007] 1,973,548] 10,058 1,988,606
Hanah Garang. seis. 0. sitet eels. 107, 492 3, 302 110,8 105,719 8, 488 109, 157
ARIPISRGIsAMANS ane cia o/s eee ess 1, 631, 608 9,049 | 1,640,657 | 1,654, 726 29, 568 1, 584, 204
AD LORXEl ais jeLC hay ee 296, 667 2,001 299, 018 293, 07. 4, 247 297, 318
a (Sh) Gach CO le SEC eee 735, 979 6, 126 742, 105 798, 577 15, 120 818, 697
COMIN a anocsite cgi siise sos see ee 5, 897,412 | 185,957 | 5,583,369 | 5,294,798 | 185,659 5, 480, 457
URIS ANE S eiey eats <2 ose a as 1,601,759 | 80,684 | 1,682,448] 1,110,545 | 110,531 | 1,221,076
WIBH DAOC AMP riyan aac cs caileucre cele ss 2, 992, 968 50, 641 8,043,609 | 2, 695, 468 37, 342 2, 732, 880
Other countries ..............6-. 425, 563 2, 448 428, O11 638, 343 4,351 642, 604

TOTAL Ee see cin woe ouees 26,967,181 | 767,676 | 27,734,857 | 25,277,328 | 854, 668 | 26, 181, 991

Among the products of our agriculture exported, as above, during
two years past the following are the principal:

Branly oo} Tamme | Wenemela. | 20 Siig:
Products.
1884-85. 1885-"86.| 1884-85. | 1885-86. | 1884-85. | 1885-86. | 1884-85. | 1885-86,
Wheat... 4 BBD dle siemic-«. 25 ei 506 3, 372 1,853 27, 233 7, a7
Bileurl.. « 542, 499 61, 860 64,714 143, 064 127, 085 | 1, 029, 282 882, 074
Apples .. nae : 1,796 1,390 1,477 789 1,526 5, 002 5, 581
jee a beh ; 27,950 | 738,143 | 681,898 | 59,008 | 29,680 | 2,421,161 | 2,811,828
Bacon... d 378, 718 44, 409 48, 053 6, 550 13, 896 541,766 538, 792
Hams 9,591.| 346,859 | 845,158 | 284,259 | 261,612 | 929,619} 865, 666
Butter .... 185,228 | 467,662 | 460,271 | 468,235 | 426,605 | 1,247,124 | 1,237,964
Cheese 736 | 842,039 | 338,165 80, 716 28, 048 585, 933 562, 680
Tobacco 63,549 | 301,810 | 415,689 | 118,887 | 168,511 | 2,583,383 | 3,015,594

The exports of agricultural implements to South America were as
follows:

Countries. 1884-85. 1885-86.
AT Sitter REDD eases: Mima tr IEF 2 sds Cecjers) See Rab Gale ono eo scrveeciemee $320, 912 $591, 588
Brazil CRED SOCED SUONG OGat oABOac BETAS Oe gd GE SOBE RR HeeaE es Grite GaanE coe anaes 14, 613 16,848
Ee seo akcinstattelon Ma rReeitr eck Sobie rel ti, ss Sect els aa IS SAS 71, 965 81, 006
imiiecis balesiot Onlorn tia oie an hoe ca raion cath cts aeain ine deters teen 2,188 2,583
BED EG: Sh. Totes cae ete tee fa Le ak CLs kn: ee 8,540 6, 652
LSUTE TE DOR SBMA Sadler occ dae 6c cpa GRE APE ae a St! ae a 1) 157, 327 51, 652
NGI TTI AE Soa Erie er ean aS ROROOSG SES DEE aE eatin wiki te te heh Le 2,548 1,817
Chwian Golnivies’: str ss eee ION A Mec een ogg te Cera 786 1,541

| ’

4 0) RE ode Bote Gphd toca to iq accc COM aaAne NaH Nati PIRSRAS Acorn 3 | 578, 879 758, 637

Textile manufactures, lumber, carriages, and other products of in-
dustry comprise the other exports to South America.

444

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

The following table is a statement of the volume of trade, the total
value, including bullion and specie, of imports for home consump-
tion and exports of domestic produce for each year:

Imports. Exports.
Years. : =
esos e€SOS
nacionales. Dollars. | nacionales. Dollars.
GA eee cee neiee fete Sees sis cine de bomrges sergetatme seer 55,961,000 | 54,002,395 | 43,105,000 | 41,596,825
RVG e Aes cratic ie ais eae ger ee eng 6 pnt ain Bre INS 55,766,000 | 538,814,190 | 50,331,000 | 48,569, 415
ARID mene nae ieee coisa thom cemechen ee pie | 36,070,000 | 84,807,550 | 48,091,000 | 46,407,815
Leo eee oe TAO NEE eS oc fein): Meee ee eet mee 40, 443,000 | 39,027,495 | 44,770,000 | 43,208,050
TS CR Eee Bet ELE |. ao cra clulae:sans you eee 43,759,000 | 42,227,435 | 87,524,000 | 36,210, 660
TRO MM ees atic cisternal Gis sew sete ehtes Sacto noe 46, 364,000 | 44,741,260 | 49,358,000 | 47, 630, 470
TSSO SIRE AIR. Soe. PRSSek hae cles at eciaid pietelene eae nile cress 45,536,000 | 43,942,240 | 58,381,000 | 56,837, 665
TRE rne Sect eS hte Me taten cores « on Meee ceeee aeons 55,706,000 | 58,756,280 | 57,938,000 | 65,910, 170
ARBOR eset pete to. 's coats Sem ame seg aticeeniane » ecteeite be 61, 246,000 | 59,102,390 | 60,389,000 ; 58, 275, 386
LESS eee Het eee RSE LER cision Seneamaeone Meee eats 80, 436, 000 | 77,620,740 | 60,208,000 | 58, 100,720
1 ie RN eh i kG area Ae ee 94, 056,000 | 90,764,040 | 68,030,000 | 65, 648, 950
|

The following statement of exports of hides and skins from the
Argentine Republic is made on the authority of Consul Baker for

the latest years reported:

1883. 1884.
Articles.
Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value.
revs Ret GUC ONVANIGES) < nieeicleasieis cele ne als elnte ais number 1,392,498 | $5,255,927 | 1,706,905 | $5,894, 306
Saltediox/and' cow. Hides iis. bed -cre co ctaeceiuee == do 517,270 | 2,890, 443 642, 804 2, 923, 602
DiyptOrse DIGS ce coat wees lori ences See iaeine oi do.. 88, 211 57,450 72, 325 134, 762
Saltedthorse Wides tex :!: .die< este «estes ele cies aleler= = dos: 221, 156 540, 912 209, 126 413, 968
SHEED-SKING oo 5. occ wisieists else alee ries ates. sates kilograms..} 26,564,619 | 5,035,886 | 24,988, 623 5, 484, 952
Goats eis ake he ae cleo sacks ctoie tee tna ae 830, 960 940, 470 931, 070 1, 017, 046
Carpincho-skins.......... 22,701 22, 704 35, 143 17,572
Nutria-skins........ Se 491, 217 392, 770 407, 549 244, 405
OLBETISRANS ye seletale, late Si ctete ara lereicieas erciedetate sate sis vatetone lttae'avavela)al|miclerete/olexe"etclake 65,9601) coher amore 118, 115

URUGUAY.

The total values, including bullion and specie, of imports for home
consumption and exports of domestic produce for each year are as

follows:
Imports.
Years, 2
esos
fuertes, | Dollars.

RSS en be are ate xa oat ocata ore Os ‘at claie eheraey oie wtaraizin he aiase-stertes sPetnte eee 17,182,000 | 16,580, 620
ADNAN ete (oc. claw -o/8 Ge Gre ctvsh nip'tave'vav'ecsiStn/S'e iol mike tale Seletwve hein ential e iol a 12, 431,000 | 11,995, 915
Ra Rate, chat, cfeNaya‘ere use ~ a0 oo mk erawie etme siaia/s Mm as Soetenee Riera 12,800,000 | 12, 352, 000
BERT yRtepate eteteect ccs’ jose craters are: erslara taveraaretetane etpteloie ste eveceintols cls venebategel act 15, 046,000 | 14,519,390
BLES GEE teiiay al obeticcsilovet Lass c. 6 zo) eie|'osa 016 jaro (Sieiwieotelaiaia.ere tet efaleveisiate lags) Oke sefene 15, 925,000 | 15, 370,520
STON TR REET. Mi oes oh cdi gh EAE vince Set ee ee 15,950,000 | 15,891) 750
LOO Beate ears Stare cle ilies. ava: lp oie. ocaa\ravalerenate pveletove otebeiele =" eebermeern 19,479,000 | 18,797, 235
BS a tere eee cite eiesae cde wie aio aie 0.0.5 micas Sis tere be outa iere pore erate 17,919,000 | 17,291, 835
FR Se aera ee iste resatete wave 6 wiele 2:6 o-oo. eidlotelore setere lee tov oloveyelaenatavere 18,175,000 | 17,538, 875
BG eeta tae ere eat tee osaje cals oieieis miass iso's ptalose epeisi tyes eistal MereererNe eS 20, 322,000 | 19,610, 730

Exports.
Pesos
fuertes, | Dollars.
15,245,000 | 14,711, 425
12,694,000 | 12,249,710
13,727,000 | 18,246, 555
15,899,000 | 15, 3842, 535
17,492,000 | 16,879, 7&0
16, 646,000 | 16,068,390
19,752,000 | 19,060, 680
20, 229,000 | 19,520, 985
22,068,000 | 21,290,795
25, 222,000 | 24,339, 2380

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 445

CHILI,

The total values, re bullion and specie, of imports for home
consumption and exports of domestic produce for each year are as
follows:

Dollars. ertest Dollars.

35,087,216 | 35,541,000 | 32, 413,392
34,780,944 | 35,928,000 | 32)766, 336
32, 185,392 | 37,848,000 | 34/517,376
26, 642, 256 | 29.715,000 | 277 100,080
22' 997,904 | 31,696,000 | 28 906,752
20,789, 040 | 42° 658000 | 38,904,096
27, 100,992 | 51,648,000 | 47, 102) 976
36, 083,280 | 60,526,000 | 55,199,712
46,504,704 | 71,210,000 | 64) 943/520
49, 655, 664 | 79,733,000 | 72,716,496

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

The distribution of the trade of the Argentine Republic for 1884
was as follows:

Imports, Exports.
Countries, e =
eSOS S08
nacionales,| DoU@rs. | nacionales,| Dollars.

8,869,000 | 8,558,585 | 6,814.000| 6,575,510
1,105,000 | 1,066,325 2,000 1,930
..| 7,250,000 | 6,996,250 | 14,880,000 | 14,359; 200
..| 80,728,000 | 20,6527520 | 7,211/000 | 6, 958,615
-| 16,785,000 | 16,197,525 | 22)518/000 | 21,729,870

4,702,000 | 4,537,430} 1.518000 | 1,464’ 870
3,997,000 | 3,857,105 | 1,804,000 | 1,740, 860
7,455,000 | 7,194,075 | 4,065,000 | 3, 922,725
2, 333)000 | 2)251,345 | 1,462,000 | 1. 410,830
5, 688,000 | 5,484,095 | 2)111,000| 2) 0872115

12, 000 11,580 | 2,082,000 | 2,009, 130

Pare OtiAlys cn secmijercteicla tele eine eee oe dio akstdie wee aac ec eae 1,414,000 | 1,364,510 94, 000 90,710
OUMeSEeouMiniesse de eco sane uciecces soncecccemaee 3,723,000 | 3,592 695 | 3,469,000 3, 347,585
UNSOMG CB ca 2 haha b baste Can Cee COMEe Eee acece 94, 056,000 | 90,764,040 | 68,030,000 | 65, 648, 950

This table shows that Great Britain supplies the Argentine Repub-
lic with about one-third of its needed merchandise, and, notwith-
standing this prominence in its trade and control of its land and
water avenues of transportation, takes less than one-fourth as large
a value of merchandise in return. France stands next in its propor-
tion of the Argentine supplies, and though sending less than two-
thirds as much as Great Britain, receives more than three times as
much as that country, paying $5,000,000 or $6,000,000 difference.
Germany occupies the third place while the United States comes
fourth, sending goods valued at more than $7,000,000, and receiving
in return little more than half as much, simply because there hap-
pened to be a demand for agricultural implements and other Amer-
ican products.

446

URUGUAY.

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

[From No. 12 British Statistical Abstract Foreign Countries.]

1883.

Se SS ia eo

Countries.

ee

Holland
Belgium
United Kingdom

Italy
United States

Brazil
Argentine Republic...
Paraguay
Other countries

Total of principal and other countries

Imports. Exports.
Pesos Pesos
fuertes. Dollars. fuertes. Dollars.
2,030,000 | 1,958, 95 689, 000 664, 885
115, 000 110,975 |... 6. ose | ea eee
596, 000 575,140 | 4,871,000 4, 700,515
5,515,500 | 5,221,975 | 4.831.000 | 4,661,915
3, 491, 000 3,368,815 | 4,221,000 4, O82, 915
2,093,000 | 2,019, 745 230, 000 221, 950
45, 000 43, 425 66, 000 63, 690
1,314,000 | 1,268,010 318, 000 806, 870
1,174,000 | 1,132,910 | 2,187,000 2,110, 455
224, 000 216,160 | 1,076,000 1,088, 340
9), 000 95, 5385 477, 0U0 45,355
2,218,000 | 2,185,545 | 3,352, 000 3, 234, G80
744, 000 717,960 | 2,056,000 | 1,984,040.
83, 000 230 sl eS boracmon.« 400
586, 000 565,490 | 1,268,000! 1,228,620
20, 322,000 | 19,610,720 | 25,222,000 | 24,339,280

The imports of Uruguay are obtained from Great Britain, France,
Brazil, Spain, Germany, Italy, the United States, the Argentine Re-
public, in the order named, and in smaller proporticn from a few

other countries.

The exports are greater than the imports, and

the principal buyer of these products is Belgium, a country that
contributes one-tenth as much as Great Britain to the volume of

Uruguayan importation.

France, the United States, Brazil, and the

Argentine Republic also receive more than they send to Uruguay,
while Great Britain, Germany, Italy, and Spain send more than
they receive, the latter two in much larger percentages of difference,
The immigration of representatives of the Latin race accounts for

this disproportion.

CHILI.
1883.
Imports. Exports.
Countries. -
esos Pesos
Susrtes, Dollars. fiertes. Dollars,

(€ yoatthns jeeadgheneoddedod Spoannbnc aebuser Sor NGdadss0e 10,016,000 | 9,134,592 | 4,811,000 4,387, 682
GION, «peje gacist he ese celal ciclasdicieleieletyts|-tetettat= = alatetaalelanates= 218, 000 194, 256 | 190, 000 173, 280
United Kingdom... 2.22. 2.0. cree eee tee ee ees e eens 21,638,000 | 19,733,856 | 58,962,000 | 58,778, 844

FM PeRTA CES NT fate ail Sree sicie alalare Atte re ela onane Dshale mele ete ert cerere re 8,985,000 | 8,148,720 | 6,209, 000 5, 662, 60!
(Sloe: ha Saee Redo DBO R OOD od doa t4 4 MacoUne ot sot saUbdds5 oc 420, 000 883s Odi sire See sell oiler Bax
RUG oes a sev eracatiare' oyolavaya\'» pays) vinislay nef jn\ nf «xcs ie) mn wVeleye, sti inte) steiutenalaz= 531, 000 484 O72. |. 3 fs alae ob Geta ae eae
UAE EO CES EGHLOS See «cave che rctet oul Pe ere erie tetatelel Rrareiate site ae 8,601,000 | 8,284,112 | 1,667,000 1, 520, 304
IES IANS oer epee asoern qeoee aU aee Neon acm art sauE a 698, 000 632, 016 129, 000 117, 648
Argentine Republic..............02--e eee eee eee ences 8,617,000 | 3,208, 704 328, COO 294, 576
LUNE gape oe UBD AE obad 5ab8 oobUa aspen Airnetssptus shi 434, 000 305, 808 8177, 000 289, 104
Hoitiis Ac ae Ae eeNE en teal mne Mnttcte rine ica bitioo yer 272, 000 248, 064 3923, 000 358, 416
PETE ee he Ach bs a. bic llss se eit ade Sheen eee 3,533,000 | 8,282,096 | 4,111,000] 8,749, 282
(BloWVovcay cits) (de ae Cee nen Gee Phan en Ol ortetncodd > 2bocl gop aot Oboes fa] eurmoe cro Ane 772, 000 704, 064
Cape Of Good Hope............2. cece cers etre t tee eect lees tet eens salenseecccauss 18, 000 16,416
GENERIGOUDETIOR Ai 62; 20h 6 oka eo mactte ne nag ree te sis eratetatetete 544, 000 496,128 | 1,831,000 1, 669, 872
Total of principal and other countries........... 54, 447,000 | 49, 655, 664 | 79,788,000 | 72,716, 496

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, 447

Chili also exports more than enough to pay for imports. Great
Britain is again most prominent in the trade, but while almost mo-
nopolizing the exports, taking nearly three-fourths of the whole, she
supplies less than four-tenths of the requirement of imports, the dis-

roportion being $54,000,000 to $20,000,000 and pays $34,000,000 cash
Pecnd receipts for the goods supplied to the Chilans,

Germany and France come next in prominence of supply, and both
buy less teri they sell, taking orders for goods brought through
British mails on British steamships, which bear away the produc-
tions of Chili. As in other countries, there is no necessary relation
between the exports and imports exchanged between countries and
generally marked inequality in the record, each buying what is
needed most and selling to countries that need most the goods that
are for sale, paying in cash and never in barter. :

The rate of increase of wheat exportation from Chili and the Argen-

‘tine Republic is more significant than the quantity of it. Until 1883
only Chili was separately mentioned in the British official publication
of wheat importation. It is not large now, but increasing, with

‘abundant opportunity for a tenfold increase in the near future if
agricultural enterprise should take this direction strongly. Hxami-
nation of these records shows that South American wheat received
into Great Britain in the past two years was as follows in quantity
and value:

1884, 1885.
Countries. Sea
Bushels. Value. Bushels, Value.
Cee Sori eo acc dciccaseaiqetnaut roctlune x 1,971,188 | $2,128,305 | 8,029,324 | $3, 109,548
892, 829 424, 962 623, 831 585, 026
79, 798 86, 356 144, 465 138, 306
66, 050 Le Fie Oil Ge eemOne tol adome como oce
Break ad sods caalessnee ee 24, 024 23, 359

The cotton imports into Great Britain from South American coun-
tries, as recorded in official reports, are as follows:

1881. 1882, 1883. 1884, 1885.

Countries. Gants AES oe BAS i nae

uanti- uanti-| ~ uanti-| +, uanti- uanti-)

fee: Value. ited, Value. ties, Value. ties: Value. ties.” | Value.
U.S.of Co-| Cwts. £. Cwts. Be Cwts. &. Cwts. ie Cwts. £.

lombia...| 32,609 115, 342 | 21,981 91,825 | 13,827 59,766 | 12,364 50,981 | 10,749 | 36,427
Pere sane 35,749 129, 664 | 37,958 137,531 | 37,743 182, 033 | 27, 23 92,607 | 36,258 | 121,495
(Olen! Ae aber 12, 169 36, 20, 577 70, 924 | 13, 644 46,544 | 12, 263 44,138 | 18,981 | 47,863
Brazil...... /358, 262 |1, 065,504 |482,611 {1,510,452 |438,919 |1, 291,798 353, 782 11,033,429 |322,058 | 916,451
Venezuela... 118 331 240 LO oA eRe Hil eae Cea to nee orreecal | ieee aes See hy ore
Ecuador... 12 34 3 EB Me ccatdy daleccinee ag 75 BOO) |e 3035.| eee hee
RAILROADS.

The railroad enterprise of South America is in its infancy. Peru
opened its first line in 1851, Chili in 1852, Brazil in 1854, and the Ar-
gentine Republic in 1864. Much more than half of the present mileage
has been built within ten years. In 1877 the aggregate was 4,558
miles; in seven years, up to the end of 1884, it was 9,835 miles, an
increase of 4,207 miles, or 92 per cent. The increase of the past year
is not at hand. The details are as follows:

448 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

1877. 1884,
Countries. = ae of
Kilometers. | Miles. Kilometers. Miles.

(Cail) ORE e Gah Me eboE cen dd Jagiaaa or ood Br 103 64 243 151 87
Niger) Cl CRSA ISO OC CISOAACCIA AEE eGOTene 147 91 164 102 iE
British (Guiianase.cclicsrsrs bee cth thse cust lOee ceo shah lpoldecs eeu 34 21 21
PEST Bazil ss cteseta oars isa ie tee aleTair le Sa sie ales iehoce fede 2, 600 1,616 6,115 * 8,800 2,184
Argentine. Republic: -......05.0.5205..0005 2, 24C 1,392 4,576 2, 843 1,451
UTM nis « eluie sie) e vrorese nisin ipin's tepsiarese onpeininlse 37 284 431 268 34
ERA EU CS TMELY ators areteleler kel ctpley ore stat eteeis tars eiiatnreinle/el = els 72 45 72 cal merianiccaet
(Cin Tis een ty Ont SOA CCE TIO on ater robo. 1, 625 1,010 2, 275 1,414 404
12h) Gal NR ES Crone coEneerena a (ers ace o oma i rs Boe ae reaeeee 1, 852 1, 16L: | eo eee
WS OUGAB Tih Me senterc ee aiere ces cise ehe orale Bis etches 130 BL ts SOA EN Sls Ten ER SRE eee
GTI OR eiate cle tcenintenials iafereeis's mintavetala'» wereie evel 41 25 64 40 15
$7, 334 +4, 558 15, 826 9, 835 t4, 207

*The record of Peru is incomplete as to 1877.
+The district in Bolivia in which these roads are situated has become a part of Chili.
+ Exclusive of Peru.

While the increase since 1877 is little more than that of the United
States for the past year, the advance is very rapid, and the future ac-
celeration may be more striking if immigration from Europe con-
tinues. Already the mileage is near to that of India, and may soon
be quite in advance of that populous Empire. The railway mileage
of the world was in 1884 292,166 miles, of which the United States
had 125,378, and at the end of 1885 our mileage was 128,966.

The increase of mileage in 1885 and 1886 has been large, though
not given in the table above. The London Statist states that there
are 5,600 kilometers completed in the Argentines, and additional lines
of equal extent in course of construction. The great railway cen-
ters are Buenos Ayres and Rosario. The Great Southern line leads
to Bahia Blanca, and the borders of Patagonia; another runs to Ro-
sario. From Rosario the Great Northern and Tucuman leads north-
ward, and is to be extended to Bolivia. From Mercedes the Trans-
Andine line is to be extended to Valparaiso on the Pacific coast, con-
necting transportation of the Pacific and Atlantic. Other lines are
to connect Entre Rios, Corrientes, Santa Fé, Cordova, and San Luis.

In Uruguay a grand trunk-line system, with lateral branches, will
extend from Montevideo to the Brazilian frontier, thence to Itagui
in Rio Grande do Sul, seeking the vast possibilities of traffic beyond.
There is in operation already a stretch of 75 miles to Durasno. The
Northwestern of Uruguay is in course of construction. This occu-
pies a region above Salto, the head of navigation for sea-going ves-
sels, opening a productive region above the rapids.

FARM ANIMALS OF THE WORLD.

The following table embraces such statistics of farm animals as it
was practicable to obtain for each of the grand divisions of the world,
but many countries are necessarily omitted for want of any trust-
worthy information from either official or private sources. It will be
understood that the totals presented below for the several grand divis-
ions include only the countries, and in a few instances parts of coun-
tries, named inthe table. The figures for the United States, Canada,
the principal Kuropean nations, except Spain, the British colonies,
and a number of other countries, are official. In other cases the best
information obtainable from private sources has been used. The
returns for a few countries were not made in such a manner as to con-

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN,

449

form to the classification adopted in the table, goats, for example,

being in some cases include

Where this is the case the fact is pointed out in a foot-note.

Countries,

NORTH AMERICA.
United States

Canada:
Ontario and Quebec.
Nova Scotia.........
New Brunswick
Manitoba
Prince Edw. Island..
British Columbia....

» The Territories

Newfoundland.........
Jamaica
Nicaragua
Quadaloupe
Guatemala b...........

Grand total

SOUTH AMERICA.

Argentine Republic...
Falkland Islands

Paraguay . 7S: ae
Uruguay...
Venezuela

Ce a es

EUROPE.

Austria-Hungary:

re
unga:

Chaat and Sla-

, including

ie
sete nee

See eee eee

ree = her and Ire-

and:
Great Britain
Treland

se eeeee
ir

tees

Greece h
Ttalyicrisanicete sa acitots
Netherlands

Russia in Europe 7....

Mules and} Sheep and

with sheep, mules with horses, &c.

Years.| Cattle. Horses. aneds lambs! Swine Goats.
1887 48, 038,835) 12,496,744) 2,117,141) 44,759,314) 44,612, 836)............
1881 2, 732, 500 984 150 (eked 2,249,011} 1,030,121)............
1881 825, 603 ECe LOU siatetesminrectere 377, 801 Cr) EPPING OF Ce =
1881 212, 560 SSO Ol ee a harstete ars 221, 163 Aor (API eI] Ac.
1881 60, 231 G7 (0||. elatateus eretatate 6,073 A SODO Les cticta nates
1881 90, 722) Sl BSD] |lc0 ateece stele = 166, 496) 1a to | APE
1881 80, 451 Diapr gas Ae en 27,788 TESBAT ae es
1881 12, 872 o (Oty 0) eee ese HELO aiaca craiereletersiete
1881 8,514, 989% 1,059) 858)... i. 3, 048, 678} 1,207,619]............

a875 13, 938 AvVObU ae eee OSHTOBI Min UaDTAlT ae eos
1885 130, 532 C2, SAD oe cefsions IB BOO A s432 SOSA ees oe

21884 CG. Sema deeded Eee Ber: os) Gtrae BOrcrerc ae meber mo pbellAeptlac seine
21880 9 615 5, 988 7,619 13, 690 14, 116 14,71
1884 441, 307 107, 187 041, 366 AU DY L| cdot nae Sate eee

We. 52,544,214] 13,736,179| 2,166,126] 48,281,415! 45, 840, 988 14,7

1885 18,000,000} 5,000,000} 600,000} 75,000,000 250,000! 3,000, 000
1885, 7, 984 33009 |), c0cveeee. , BIGOT 5) iis soeesc lone eeere ace
1882 BOOK OOO! 5-255 14 Bvepaporerecarsit ore ialatstera ss vate [ avavarst a-omee leh ate ll etote lal atehaletalsts!| eas en en
1884 5, 952, 349 480, 686 c5,742) 15,921,069 100, 000) 5, 656
1883 2, 926, 733 291, 603 906,467} e3, 490, 563 976, 500 (e)

Motetaiet ets 27,387,016] 5,775,298) 1,512,209) 94, 928, 607, 1,326,500) 3,005, 656
1880 8,584,077) 1,463, 282 49, 618 8, 841,340} 2,721,541) 1,006,675
1880 5,311,378} 2,078,528 33, 746 9, 838,133} 4, 160, 127 323, 223
1880 1, 382, 815 271, 974 10, 120 365, 400 646, 875 248,755
1881 1, 470, 078 847, 561 F282 1, 548, 613) 527,417 9,331
1885 15,104,970) g2,911, 392 625,847) 22,616,547) 5,881,088} 1,483,342
1883 15,786,764) 3,522,545 9,795} 19,189,715) 9,206,195} 2, 639,994
1886 6,646,683) 1,425, 859)........... 25; 520,18), 25991 AUpieena sc. s)tcle
1886 4, 184; 027 ya ee 8,867,722] 1,263, 188|............
1886 42,101 CECH (ABE Goreoor 66, 800 BP Asis1d Baroe aioe ae
1885 10, 872, 811 Oe Oes eas ae aca 28, 955, 240|. 3,497, 165)............-

i877 279, 445 97,176 142,835] 2,921,917] 2179,602| 1, 836, 663
11881 4,783, 232| 660,123] 1968, 114 8,596, 108] 1,163,916] 2,016,307
1884 1, 474, 412 RODS OL Ata crearatere cae 752, 949 426, 914 156, 255
1870 G24 GOB a Sess ates oe eee 2, 977, 454 971, 085 936, 863

miss4 2,376, 066 GOO K000N Yee Roe nes 4; 6545776)" 2: 310, OOO)... e260 5.2...

1882 20, 845, 1041 20,015, 659]........... 47,508, 966| 9,207,666! 1,374,805
a'The figures as to hogs in Newfoundland are for 1869.
b The total value of live-stock in Guatemala at the same time was estimated at $15,102,283.

c Mules only.

d The figures as to mules and assesin the Argentine Republic, and those as to goats in the same coun-

try, are for 1883.

e Goats are included with sheep.

Ff Asses only.

h

ures.

sheep, and 1,000,000 goats.
i The figures as to swine in Greece are for 1875.
k The figures as to borses in Italy are for 1882.

1The ha as to mules embraced herein are for
his leaves 674,246 as the number of asses

293,868.

Exclusive of about 70,000 horses in the city of Paris.
Thessaly, which has become a
The number of live stock in this

m The-figures as to horses and those as to swine in Roumania are for 1880,
n Exclusive of Poland.

29 AG—’86

part of the Greek Kingdom since 1877, is not included in these fig-
province has been estimated to include 200,000 oxen, 1,500,000

re ue number of these animals in that year being
in .

Countries. Years.| Cattle. Horses. Pare Boe ehpen ena Swine. Goats.
Geil eipabocetaacndnasc 1882 826, 550 NO ETAMH erers evs gis cis.ae 8,620,750! 1,067,940 725, 700
Spo SE os ee ccs 1878 8,808,241 |) nap esw errs 1,882,635] 16,939,288) 2,348,602} 3,813,000
€weden and Norway:

Swedel ..2.. see os os 1884 2, 827,008 ATBSOUB ER «oe .o.0s(ce's 1,410,177 476, 889 101, 496
WNOVWAY .cbscceeer ns 1875 | 1, 016, 617 1911873) A aoa 1, 686, 306 101, 020 322, 861
Switzerland ........... 1886 1, 210, 849) 98, 212 c2, 782 337, 905 394, 330 414,584
Turkey in Europé: a
Eastern Roumelia..... 1883 870, 862 43, 601 83, 415 1, 858, 839 107, 442 425, 569
Total Europe ...|....... 98,000,938] 35,057,065) 8,709,189} 179,620,428) 45,395,314) 17,845,433
ASIA,
Russia : b
NSSTYCASIANS Lierete wsne sie >:2 | (e) 1,816, 200 B00. 000] «<.5 5008 eis 4. B44, 300); 2. cece. 1, 227,000
Transcaucasia d..... (c) 1, 900, 000 COS 0) Reece. 5; 067,000)... «22.5 e = =| Ce eee
India : e ’

SUMS NAS Te. tev sities c'a1515:- 1877-78) 7,832,000 89,500} 128,000 4,600, 000 250,000) 2,700,000
Bombay and Sind ...|1877-78| 7,310, 000 150, 000) g90,000} h8,800,000)........... a
Punjab 1877-78} 76,570,000 137,000} 290,000) A8,850,000|........... 33

5, 200, 000 5 g22, 000 h641, 000 132, 000 3 4
J1, 376, 000 B BOO) s.<cscres ke h20, 000 102, 000 3
/2, 800, 000 18,900] g37,000] 1,590,000 32,000/| Bs
1,300, 000 32, 500) g17, 000 386, 000 2,700 E
963, 896 BUBSal so. c.csteues 58,757)... .. 20ers f
1,169,750) . 1,640; B28).......00.2.).s.nssccedee.|o. osc, eee ee
MOLAl cine ortas cee aeshs clk 87,827,846] 3,200,906 584,000} 24, 052, 557 518,700} 3,927,000
AFRICA
PAN ON: vetit. j<inverareiafaia 0 1880 1,168,513 SO S000) 3h. <<, stele se 6, 922, 218 300,000) 3,293,033
Cape of Good Hopez. -| 1875 | 1, 829, 445 2.7 GD) A Scr 11, 279, 7438 182, B78 snkesteeeieee
MSE oak betas tisuhsree 1885 | 600, 984!) E'S) ecense cae co 535, 482) ALD. eres
TIARAS 76 i ccistestores <i: = 1884 15, 000 112, 000 (()) h30, 000 30, 000 (hk
Orange Free State....| 1881 mA64, 575 TG: FOd Ae eee ee mB; COG) a01| ("ee er pet 673, 924
ALOT: tapers etviehs sok :n'|atatats cis 3, 573, 517 VBS: COGS... «ascii 23, 893, 744 485,792) 3,966,957
AUSTRALASIA.
Australia:
New South Wales...| 1885 1, 270, 078 829, 988]......5.-6% 34, 551, 622 208, 697] '5:..Murawtateat
Wictotia sos cts: 1885, 1, 265, 383 BOL 258) ost eee ee: 10, 664,598) 287,048).......... E.
South Australia..... 1884 389, 726 AGB 420) os teehee 6, 696, 406) 183; 802) < cepeteieierets 3
Western Australia 1885 70, 408} B41, BOs en. was cae 1, 702,719 24, 250... semteeemer
Queensland ......... 1885 4, 162, 652) O02 B0r| cr. saseecee 8, 994, 322) 55, 843... teers ve
New Zealand......... 01881 698, 637 SGU SSG case sored svat 14, 624, 547) 200, 083). ..earente
TASMANIA... 505 -tos4 site 1885 138, 642 PBS OND | ek = aececer 1, 648, 627 67, S95 << xe deters
Big Islands’ \ ee ace oe. 1884 4,415 p610 (p) B3869|o2, eee q11, 429
LOLAL Bene eases | eae S 7, 999, 944) 1) 0's p74 ti) Ga aedotooge 78, 888, 710 957, 153 11, 429
OCEANIA.
Tahiti and Moorea....| 1883 8,000 1, 000 qi5 8, 000 20, 000: 1,800
Grand totalr....|.....+. 227,336,475) 59,889,829) 7,971,489) 449, 668,456) 94,544,447) 28.772, 484

a There are no returns available for Turkey proper, and none for any of her tributary states except
Hastern Roumelia. ‘

b There are no returns for Asiatic Russia, except from Caucasia and a part of Transcaucasia.

c The statistics from the different parts of these Governments are not of uniform date, but were gath-
ered within the ten years 1874-1883. f Ae J

d These figures embrace statistics from the provinces of Bakou, Tiflis, Elizabethpol, Erivan, and
Koutais. :

e This statement is exclusive of the Northwest Provinces and Oudh and Bengal, with several minor
provinces and all the native states except Mysore.

Ff Bullocks, cows, and baffaloes.

g Asses only.

hi Goats are included with sheep.

2 Inchiding 217,732 cattle, 35,357 horses, 303,080 sheep, and 15,635 swine in Basutoland,

k Avproximate statement.

iMules and asses are included with horses.

m Breeding-cattle,

2 Merinoes.

o The figures as to sheep and lambs are for 1885.

p Mules are included with horses.

g Angora goats.

_7 See notes above for cases in which the figures given do not exactly conform to the classifica-

tion indicated in the caption at the head of the column, as where mules only, or asses only, are included
under the head of ‘‘ Mules and asses,” or where goats are included with sheep, &c.

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, 451

WHEAT CROP OF THE WORLD IN 1886.

In the following table the figures for Austria-Hungary, France,
Great Britain and Ireland, Italy, Russia (except Poland), Sweden,
and India, as well as those for the United States, are official; but
only those last named and those for Great Britain and Ireland are
the final estimates, unless those for India may be so considered. In
the figures for Canada are included the official returns for Ontario
and an estimate for Manitoba, based on the official estimate of the
area and rate of yield. These two provinces produce nearly nine-
tenths of the wheat crop of the Dominion. The figures for Austral-
asia are official, with the exception of those for South Australia,
which are from the Adelaide Observer. The countries thus far |
‘named furnish about four-fifths of the total product embraced in the
table.

For the countries credited with the remaining one-fifth the figures
are unofficial, all except those for Germany being taken from a table
published in the Echo Agricole of September 7, 1886.

The countries not included in the table are for the most part coun-
tries in which wheat holds a very subordinate position among the
staple food products, and which have no appreciable influence upon
the general wheat trade of the world:

Countries. Bushels. Countries. Bushels,

America: || Europe—Continued.

SIEUGE UDCA el ciercis cisic sc c's veces 457, 218, 000 ROUMBNIA J.2 9), Scouse ne sos 22, 629, 063

CROP erties corte Vicse «sleraiare <ixtsfe S's | 87,219, 284 | Russia (including Poland) ...... 218, 907, 084

Argentine Republic and Chili....| 28, 800, 625 | SOMvVid hsb oa. fede Ja. ons eee 4,525, 813
Europe: | Spawn ies Lo. RA Geet eke eek 131, 660, 000

Austria-Hungary*®............... 143, 001, 483 Sweden and Norway ........... +4, 081, 115

RBIPT ea ceiee ss nstce as ce es ea cers 18, 514, 688 Switzerland 7,225.2 5 aaeeek eee 1, 645, 750

DVGNEIA etree hoe taro siete a aieiere dere 4,731,531 | Wurkeyes visi: ten ceee oss cas seen 41, 143, 750

PPAIGGrs tases sass sviest ats Besse’ 299, 107, 620 146

Germany ....... eM sae tets ie ate te, e's 82, 000, 000

Great Britain and Ireland ......-. 65, 285, 353

GRRE P iaiciettiniecs ise 8 53.c0 s.s'a,2.0arasd 4, 937, 250

Tiskyeeeee ee ee kL 129, 412, 123 | pooner ey

INGUNELINMOSN esc. sae. cess fee 4, 937, 250 TOGRIVG Aecicce) Dolet coe ore Serres 2, 032, 934, 75

POTSUP HU ses ache na cee eat eco wee 8, 228, 750 ;

*The figures for Austria included in this statement are 12,987,000 hectoliters (=36,850,613 bushels), as
given in a preliminary official estimate. Those for Hungary are 37,410,090 hectoliters (106,150,875 bush-
els), as given in the second estimate made by the Hungarian ministry of agriculture.

+ The preliminary official figures for Sweden are 1,339,600 hectoliters, or 3,801,115 bushels, to which
280,000 bushels are added for Norway.

+The wheat crop of eeeeebad is gathered in the latter part of the year, and the crop for this col-
ony (51,598 bushels), included in the total for Australasia, is the one gathered in the latter part of 1885,
which may, however, be regarded as belonging to the same season as the crops which, in the more
southern colonies, were mainly harvested in the early part of 1886. :

FOREIGN FARM STATISTICS.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

The following table compiled from the “Agricultural Produce Sta-
tistics” of Great Britain and the ‘‘Agricultural Statistics” of Ireland,
both official publications, shows the area and produce of the principal
crops of these countries for the years 1884, 1885, and 1886, these three
years comprising the entire period for which statistics of produce in
Great Britain have been published. The cereal returns for Great
Britain are reduced from Imperial to Winchester bushels at*the rate

452 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

of 1.03152 of the latter to 1 of the former. Those for Ireland are
reduced from hundred weights, of 112 pounds, to bushels, at the rate
of 60 pounds per bushel for wheat, 48 pounds per bushel for barley,
and 32 pounds per bushel for oats. Beans and peas are stated in
bushels of 60 pounds. Potatoes, which in the official returns are
stated in tons of 2,240 pounds, are reduced to bushels, at the rate of
60 pounds per bushel:

1884. / 1885. 1886.
Crops,
Area, Product, Area Product. Area, Product,
Acres. Bushels. Acres. Bushels. Acres. Bushels.
INGE ate sic'e.ccisisise secis eres 2,744, 928 84,595,868 | 2,549, 335 82,081,332 | 2,355,451 | 65,285, 353
Baripye hs ncsteetaccisen=< 2,336, 227 82, 497,027 | 2,436, 823 88, 489,231 | 2,423,060 | 80,841,031
OR te ois naiviscetileiele anes 4, 263, 807 176, 228, 395 4, 269, 359 175, 248, 232 4,403,579 | 184,596,748
RORNIS A OY, Wiciocciclaleleisie n\n is(cisios 454, 580 12, 101, 345 | 441, 054 9, 402, 792 387, 205 10, 815, 330
ICRP (oe vicisecinGiss caivaiod 230, 618 5, 858, 621 | 231,100 4,475, 451 215, 072 6, 057, 879
RObAUOCE: o's ch cists se enced 1,364,000 | 253,252,720 | 1,346,028 | 287,971,701 | 1,353,808 | 217,858, 181
Tons. Tons. Tons.
il iivirt ost) Gh gaeqanoussacaan 2,331, 641 30,581,246 | 2,311,942 24,062,608 | 2,302,159 | 988,957,415
ManeOldstcncmcsaanekes sen 361, 905 5, 997, 139 891, 702 5, 969, 523 386, 708 7, 785, 811
Ela y en Meidae cate Heise salbeceoeeite etal bie tatampe aise cee 8, 217, 147 12,887,074 | 8,760,325 | 13,503,416
Cuts. Cwts.
EROS eee cies toate ctate dalstolc ell omelets mis aloe |eiriate nine er eains 71, 327 509, 170 70, 127 776, 144

The above statement does not include the crops of the Isle of Man
and the Channel Islands, which, however, are very insignificant in
amount.

The following figures, giving the number of cattle and sheep for
1885 and 1886, and dividing them into certain classes specified, are
from the Agricultural Returns of Great Britain for 1886, from which
are also obtained the totals for the several kinds of live stock in the
United Kingdom given in the table of farm animals of the world:

Number of head.
1885. 1886,
Cattle:
Cowsand heifers: in milkiorAmiealbs B22. 6} iiss = ict winietnaisiet-tole i isle nole vIn 's wlereiee 3, 965, 512 8, 974, 476
Other cattle, two years old and Over ... 2.5.25. 2-2. cece sense ese ences eeceees 2, 419, 624 2, 533, 062
Other cattle; under two years Old). fey ates lee beiete Pel taleie le: (eis15e!sielers™> 21 4, 483, 624 4, 365, 273
L101 Be CS NEE OW SOAR aan oo OAaO Maa oon ae 6 Spe Sago’ 10,868,760 | 10,872,811
Sheep:
Greer Old! And Over poh cate osteo esate eee oe emirate iter eicle fel elslobelete 2) - 18,717,058 | 18,291,345
Under onewear Olde: ancec emcees pete eis ule he ner-aee ae tet RI als 3/Se ke | 11,369,142 | 10,668, 895
i al bs aap eR ae TE ent, GR bs 2 le ee | 30,086,200 | 28, 955, 240

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 453

FRANCE.

The following statistics of agricultural production in France are
from the Bulletin du Ministére del Agriculture for December, 1886:

TABLE I.—Area, rate of yield, and product of cereals and potatoes, year 1885.

Area, Rate of yield. Product.
Hectol-
« Bushels .
Hectares. Acres. permuer per acre Hectoliters. | Bushels.,
Wea fs ate asi santtiesetinaae 6,956,765 | 17, 190, 166 J ayirh 18.13 109, 861,862 | 311,733,033
ESAS ofa. ost a RACER crssove ease a 330, 953 817,785 15. 68 18.01 | 5,190,771 14, 728,813
RY Css abe tet ocr aeanne Sele ere sy 1, 672, 951 4, 133, 862 14.39 16.52 24, 074, 325 68, 310, 906
BoA G yi cicicincvee Head piece «21 0-e/0s015) o/0!s 955, 616 2,361, 327 18. 22 20. 92 17, 415, 489 49, 416, 308
RDS Se sata MAES fs Oars Sis cieice 3,689,628 | 9,117,071 23.21 26.65 | 85,530,225 | 242, 692, 013
BHC WHOSE «20 ad bias oe!scin'sie.s ance 628,136 | 1,552, 124 13.73 15.77 8, 626,318 | 24,477,177
MAIZE naatedarasitemectalcielsie.ss S000 9.00 560,908 | 1,386,004 16.09 18, 48 9,028,063 | 25,617,129
Quintals. Quintals.
FOtALOOd saniseindsh Scie ce nes's-o le 1,487,263 | 3,551,477 78.24 116.35 | 112,458,541 | 413, 210, 166

TABLE II.—Annual average for the ten years 1876-1885.

Area. Rate of yield. Product.

Hectol-
F Bushels
Hectares. Acres. | iters per per acre.

hectare.

Hectoliters. | Bushels.

6,918,059 | 17,094,524 14.70 16.88 | 101,649,375 | 288, 430, 102
404,705 | 1,000, 026 15.14 17.39 6, 112,038 | 17,342,908

1,787,428 | 4,416,735 13.89 15. 95 24,827,298 | 70,447,458

1,033,215 | 2,553, 074 17.71 20. 34 18, 297,745 | 51,919, 851

3,521,278 | 8,701,078 23,04 26.46 | 81, 189,343 | 230,374, 761
642,765 | 1,588, 272 15.34 17. 62 9,951,169 | 28,236, 442
622,025 | 1,587,024 14, 86 17.05 9, 231,685 | 26, 194,906

Quintals. Quintals.

1,328,121 | 3,281,787 92. 90 138.14 | 123,501,484 | 453, 785, 619

Weight of cereals per hectoliter and per bushel.

First quality. Second quality. | Third quality.
|

Pounds
per
bushel.

|
Kilograms | Pounds | Kilograms| Pounds | Kilograms
per per per per per
hectoliter.| bushel. | hectoliter.| bushel. | hectoliter.

AUIS ae Greta SEE OSD COC OARS CEE 79.49 61.76 77.45 60. 17
1 AED COOC TROD SOOT ORE Er noner Ooree ane 73.41 57.04 71.61 55. 64
(IBADIB Yaar co). nace dete ate noee 64. 38 50. 02 62.15 48, 29

i 38. 10 36. 42

46. 87

a iy i

ABA REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Average prices of cereals, potatoes, flour, bread, meat, &c., for 1885 and for the
twenty years 1866-1885.

1885. Average for 1866-1885.

Franes. Dollars. Francs. Dollars,

Per hectoliter.| Per bushel. | Per hectoliter.| Per bushel.
. 80 1 14 21.93 1 49

DWAeco Crom

95 17.56 1 19
82 14.74 1 00
76 12. 85 87
76 12. 22 83
92 15. 04 1 02
62 9.90 67
34 | 5.98 41
Per barrel. Per quintal. Per barrel.
5 46 41.01 7 04
: Per pound. | Perkilogram.| Per pound.
First quality.......... Opies es,c ae «32 02.8 .39 08.
Second quality ...... ..........00 20 02.4 .33 02.
EPRI S CULL DY 9 Sd ale o vie o.nke Ke sloleitae 24 02.1 29 02.
Butcher’s meat:
Beet (OL OXGH) Ss aeis ct «icici oe eer 1.63 14.3 1,52 13.
BBE (OL COWS) UR in bi.c ad ewucteresced 1.50 13.1 1.41 12.
Veal 1.72 | 15.1 1.64 14.
1.84 | 16.1 1.67 14,
1.54 13.5 1.58 13.
intal. Per ton. Per quintal. Per ton.

41 4 53 8. 32 16 32
. 92 9 65 5.32 10 43
29 4,21 8 26

54 0. 60

0.77

Average price of wheat for 1866-1885.

Per hectol- Per Per hectoi- Per
Years. iter, | bushel. Years. iter. | bushel.
|

Francs. | Dollars. Francs. | Dollars.
1866 JAA COR OOLERA ot oc 19.59 1 33 PALO e iter ate cieid bvelele bs Bisreinier erste’ 20. 64 1 40
PLO Ge & sie ere.cs ere ‘f, 3CBSp CeOSe 26. 02 igri (lols Ais Se eA B OOM een ae | 23.42 1 59
PRIA eters tarttens siete a viata cleisie.ccetele 26.08 Eda Weiiniitel GAAP SO OON ee OC ee ae meee 23.08 157
oT heen AAG IOR AM OLS MES 20, 21 UpoyGu| ia Uo tis bddeeo an adernemoncte 21.92 1 49
KDE eis Aigkoiie'c Risse. .visys Vsieteis 20. 48 De SB) POS oe ees Seats «© Gate Water 22.90 1 66
RUC Merdisisioteyste'vsofeis @lavcitte sia.e weiiere 26. 65 fe allelic iG onic et Senet Heeb 22. 28 1 52
LIAM teveretesafers\s nsw: Wisjave, cve"ays stays‘ 22. 90 Gt RE oneterenetteyera cine ia ae feteraccnl’araisie, © 21.51 1 46
PROSTAR Gfetnorseienrscneted trcikcarocereYe 5 25. 70 USI eyel lediceber Premera teeta cine ttre ce. atelece c 19.16 1 30
LTA ae amine tetas ete ecg .o Ob 24,31 TQS NRG OP ree Weccccaccanawe | 17.76 1 RY
MOG By2 eicrarcisteisiee viei.oec osensees 19.38 Hl Sal | abe ecte wera 2 alee aye sie re andlawnaiat 16. 80 114

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN, 455

GERMANY.
The following official statement of the principal crops of the Ger-

man Hmpire for the year 1885 is from the Monatschefte zur Statistile
des Deutschen Reichs for J uly, 1886:

Total prod- | Average

Crops. Area, Metric tons. | uct, bushels per
(2) and tons, acre,
a fe =
Wheat: Hectares. Acres.
SEU ster: oT See AnTS Cy a) bushels. .| . 1,913, 821 4,729,052 | 2,599, 271 95, 505, 881 20.2
R Under hel ee DOES mail 's)-c0 haves SE He | ck « SAlgeas nnay 4, 231, 407.2 4, 164, 586 . 88
ye:
REAL Techs Gea heieo tats ooh bushels..} 5,826, 618 14,397,573 | 5,820,094.7 229, 124, 657 15.9
B Le etn \eVatsiatarathc eiSets eave. sid coo ae CONS. oe 6 oe “he ceeeesleccescesctes| 11,573, 223, 8 11, 390, 326 79
arley :
REARTE CS i)o3 Ses viries sce vice bushels..| 1,739,524. 1 4,298,364 | 2,260, 645.2 1038, 829, 550 24,2
: ie Se es oh ae OTIS | Ae RS Moe cE s.o4 eee ae 2, 624, 263. 1 2,582, 790 .60
ats:
WME eee he ac ok bushels..} 3,776, 837.9 9,382,566 | 4,342, 357.4 299, 161, 264 82.1
SULA Ge WAI casts onias fc cas GOHGNS Ps 2aioe Pes: gl Eset Meneoee 5, 795, 893, 4 5, 704, 298 -61
Spelt, &c.:
WRU rete 6 oro? wa ciscese., bushels. . 374, 558 925, 520 466, 446.9 17, 138, 814 18.5
eae At CON AECACO TE OEE eee CODE silMtew im. «iso Seren eek Sok 827, 917.4 814, -88
orn
VUNG eas 8 Kyle «Niu f dense bushels 5,539.8 13, 689 4, 844.3 177,996 18
UMMM ares. ss... VOTIS HA hci Ses Bese spe 10, 308. 1 10, 167 «74
Buckwheat
GTARUE sages wheats senses. bushels 216, 482, 2 534, 928 118, 150. 4 5, 209, 487 9.7
P 2/232. BoC DRE ee gma COM soi Kk geet he toate A 174, 491.2 171, 734 82
‘eas
HERG eget alee sia ctos ciate: bushels. . 408, 522.5 | 1,009, 459 306, 74. 4 11, 271,914 11,2
MRHOUACES aN es aseet ess TOTS PS Teer ene veal eave nee ay 499, 111.9 491, 224 .49
Field beans
UN Oe Gon Dae eae bushels 144, 7387.7 357, 647 201, 355. 1 7, 398, 458 20.7
Stalicseeeigss...:.-...... TOUSSS [rere alate ee ea 264, 987.1 260, 799 73
Vetches :
BOOMER eerie crac. os tons. 162, 828. 1 2, 348 123, 425.5 121, 475 .30
CTE SS Aa fe ee a Mh tect 120)2) Oe Eh Bech eta ee | ae 268, 932. 3 264, 682 66
Lupines: F
a OES BS en tons 161, 112.8 398, 110 107, 858, 4 106, 154 27
MORGANS Bieta ik... 5. COTINMY Ss atu eee OA) 25404 teak 195, 025.6 191, 944 «48
BQvators\(e).. satasctee.c)..., bushels..| 2,916, 333.4 7, 206, 260 | 27,953, 642.8 1, 027, 110, 015 142.5
Beets for MOLAR Alu eiasil ssc So tons.. 877, 842.8 933,650 | 6,901, 974.4 6, 792, 899 7.38
Other field roots (d) ..3222.7 717), do... 467, 804.0 | 1,155,944 | 3)549° 766.7 3, 493, 668 3.02
ON PEMA AY os Cia, <bh cs... cde do... 183, 240.0 329, 236 155, 791.5 153, 329 47
TARA SEE a:. 4 Nees b....-.. ides, do... 47,390. 5 117, 102 38, 201.1 32, 676 28
Clogeriseed. 4. yea sh & ." bushels. . V7, 214.3 190, 797 15, 343.5 563,771 3.0
CHOSE REAG «sc Swe Kies... a, tons 1,795, 429.5 | 4,436,506 5, 268, 909, 4 5, 185, 642 1.17
Lueern hay.......000000.,00700, do.. 191, 337.3 472,794 768, 128.0 755, 989 1.60
Esparcet hay.............. 0.07" doves 107,575.38 265, 819 323,544. 7 818, 432 1.20
Other forage plants C9 a ee do... 445,851.2 | 1,101,698 948, 265. 1 933, 279 85
CAAOW DAVE alice Mes yee. 4 tok do...| 5,903, 286.0 14, 587,020 | 15, 884, 187.1. 15, 633, 160 1.07
ee te ee

a Metric tons are reduced to bushels, at the rate of 60 pounds per bushel for wheat, 56 pounds for
rye, 48 pounds for barley, 32 pounds for oats, 60 pounds for spelt, 60 pounds for einkorn, 50 pounds for
buckwheat, 60 pounds for peas, 60 pounds for beans, 60 pounds for cloverseed.

bA variety of spelt,

ce Including diseased ones to the amount of 8 per cent. of the whole product,

d Carrots, turnips, &e,

e Rape-seed, &c,

JSerradella, &c,

The area devoted to wine production the same year was 120, 484.6

hectares (297,717 acres , and the product was 3,727,366 hectoliters
(98,465,828 gallons),

AdEG REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

SWEDEN.

The following table shows the produce of the principal crops of
Sweden for the years 1886 and 1885, with the average produce for the
ten years 1875-84. The quantities, as expressed in hectoliters, are
from the summary statements of the crops of the year, issued by the
Central Statistical, Bureau of Sweden for the years 1886 and 1885,

respectively:
Annual average for
Products. 1886. 1885. 1875-84.
Hectoliters. Bushels. Hectoliters. Bushels. Hectoliters. Bushels.
WHORE ce ide 1, 339, 600 8,801, 115 1, 380, 300 8,916, 601 1, 165, 400 3, 806, 823
ERO trrcycha-votoree ein 7, 144, 800 20, 273, 370 8, 092, 900 22, 963, 604 6, 882, 200 19, 528, 243
SAPO y ceca eien’s - 5, 659, 500 16, 058, 831 4,781, 000 13, 566, O88 5,527,100 15, 683, 146
Oats meee Cees REE 19, 394, 200 55, 031, 043 18, 284, 000 51,880,850 | 18,394,800 52, 195, 245
Buckwheat ....... 8, 100 8,796 2,700 7, 661 8, 700 10, 499
Mixed grain ...... 2, 698, 600 7, 657, 278 2, 237, 100 6, 347, 71 2,123, 900 6, 026, 566
Legumes ......... 1, 082, 200 2, 928, 868 978, 100 2,775, 859 997, 700 2, 830, 974
(0/0) 07 UR Rr 1,200 8, 405 8, 300 28, 551 8, 000 22,700
POtatOES, «0.0500 0.0% 17, 850, 400 50, 650, 510 18, 612, 400 52, 812, 685 18, 056, 000 51, 233, 900
AUSTRIA.

The Austro-Hungarian Ministry of Agriculture has recently issued
Part I of the Statistical Year Book for 1885, containing the final offi-
cial statistics of agricultural production in Austria for that year.
The area and produce of the principal crops are given below, both in
Austrian denominations, as stated in the document named, and in
their equivalent units of American measure and weight:

Products. Areas, Produce,
Hectares. Acres. Hectoliters. Bushels.
SWORE oiatisie tick ce nionies cc bles eee eta phtobrae mene cee 1,194,059 | 2,950,520 17,015,680 | 48,281, 992
RDGL Ge iaiciesete-cisharm sisters ssayeiarelecets Gane 6,510 16, 086 100, 790 285, 992
RVG zinlel clare ...| 1,994,461 | 4,928, 313 27,883,690 | 79,119,970
Barley 1,166,416 | 2,882, 214 18,844,870 | 52, 058, 569
Oats 1,829,047 | 4,519, 57 83, 389,650 | 94,748, 182
Maize 367, 657 908, 480 7,008,060 | 19,885,370
Millet ..... 76, 150 188, 166 1, 047, 686 2, 972, 809
Sorghum .. : 4, 438 10, 966 47,610 , 185,093
Legumes .... alo Bea SaeeNee ato lara eke fo posehtesc seals 2, 635, 145 7,477, 224
Mixed grain... : 20, 869 51, 567 372, 990 1,058, 359
Buckwheat.... : 220, 119 543, 914 2, 412, 360 6, 845, 072
Rape seed, &c.*.. Be sbicic cera tol Rate eee 570, 000 1, 617, 875
Clover seed...... : 69,733 ARZ B10 |. oieisis.ce na eee eee Oy ein
IBDURLORS.. (sarstere le tnve s .| 1,097,872 | 2,712,842 | 129,737,065 | 368, 128, 922
Met. cent. + Tons.
ES ETER WY cate) sie, vror0,chcvwca,jsevatalavaleve' aa ayutarstararerwvefovewevevete- state 6 eis leoerel tome torre eieta eet mereteisialeie teres 129,963,600 | 12,790,971.1
IE Saree ta 85,717 211, 807 429, 951 42, 315.6
Hemp 43,569 107, 659 231, 849 22, 818.5
Tobacco 1, 865 4, 608 25, 178 2,478.0
Chrysanthemum vee 616 1,522 10, 210 1,004.9
MHICOLY; so eee. sag 266 657 24, 340 2,895.5
Sugar beets... . aoe 148, 768 867, 606 25, 373, 870 2, 497, 288.0
Turnips ..... 5 bill sje enioe eovmele tata [ereleleis Jaye aisle 20, 346, 860 2, 002, 5389.7
Pumpkins... el Petae lace uote tae ei | alaretaie us tace, tai 1, 431, 900 140, 927.1
Hay, clover.. be 782,844 | 1,984,408 21, 931, 3865 2,158, 477.1
Hay, grass t. DR Ate vanta aresieolatedl Sue deieceesecelateve 71, 994, 510 7, 085, 674.0
Vetches, green corn, and mixed fodder. See Rite ciel [lbdetets seers ctatads 6 8, 702, 240 ,ofa.1
TO DB gate selsiststotare’/r1> slalohersinfolereieicleis ts feeaye jee als 12,775 81, 567 58, 044 5, 712.7
CUVG OU VAL... oh 44, 663 110, 362 120, 693 11, 878.6
OTTO DELUZDR er eiryels ver siu cars iofer rele etoie veveraveresbne oly iets vo taterede eve fetal stexetenetetnrayete tall cts.ase1eakets ists 22, 987 2, 262.4
Ly sn OS EOE IEE ADS COG DOC GUIDG SOBEL OC COTO OO 5| aac cant col Naini ecearers 86, 072 8,550. 2
Other fruits and nuts........ 6, 129, 490 608, 262. 2
: Hectoliters. Gallons.
BVVALILO Mrarariretais ts or csi ais v0\6 ois, Sivie-c)urolareteteteiec jopetaroieloveetavels ae 228, 949 565, 7338 4, 000, 850 10 454
Tead.
RCELESESEUES pretreat oie cit oicva's aYoieisie ats eievolereia inten atonmnietareravenaiere 76, 100 2885048 jc conee emma 908, 126, 000
ESS COMM Rett Na re api era: sla oi arolc avele\e a oteseuntnve-erieieiete ieteveviotets 440, 000

* The area of rape alone was 40,649 hectares, or 100,444 acres,

+ 2.24) pounds,

+The area in meadows is stated at 2,937,243 hectares, and that in mountain grass land at 184,057 hect-
ares, making a total of 7,589,195, What part of this area is cut for hay is not stated,

REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN.

HUNGARY.

457

The following statement, showing the area and produce of the prin-
cipal crops of Hungary for 1885, and their average area and produce
for the ten years 1876-1885, is compiled from the Statistisches Jahr-
buch, published by the Hungarian bureau of statistics, Hungarian
denominations being reduced to their American equivalents:

Crop.

i ee id

eee

Spelt
ixed grain ......

Total bread grains......

Barley:
Oe eos libece va's.
Spring.........

ay

weer eee rene

Ce ee

a
i irr

i ry

Vetches (seed) .......-......-5
Peas, lentils, and beans

i i i ii iad

i i i ie

Rape-seed:
WV GORE .crtaatcnersiste site's ride
Spring

MARAE SMe. ceases else eli nl ioc ea ewtllessecons Saale

Hempseed

We MEN ss wise sicisioscisten, seis
Hempiibert ios. fees ace
TTODACEO) hiscccie aa dea waa eee.
Burar-beets: tan as seecoues ¥
TPurmipsiy. 5 4s etiar’ oe eee
Lucern, clover, and sainfoin. .
Vetch mixture, millet-grass,
EG raiikia ve PORN SOCL CC ponte :

Area. Product.
1885. Average for 1876-’85.
Average for
1885. 1876-85.

Total. Per acre. Total. Per acre.
Acres. Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
6, 354, 354 | 5,881,817 | 108,516, 470 17.1 85, 325, 081 14.5
417, 893 425,114 5, 288, 989 12.7 4, 765, 358 11.2
6,772, 247 | 6,306,931 | 118,805, 459 16.8 90, 090, 439 14.3
2,693,951 | 2,818,033 40, 370, 880 15.0 37, 849, 949 13.4
100, 874 86, 3824 1,338, 795 13.2 1,071,103 12.4
2,794,825 | 2,904, 357 41,709, 675 14.9 38, 921, 052 13.4
9, 343 9, 032 163, 905 17.5 127, 652 14.1
458, 059 533, 484 7, 215, 059 15.8 7, 298, 554 18.7
10, 034,474 | 9,758,804 | 162,894,099 16.2 | 186,482, 697 14.0
198, 172 147, 977 4,341,801 21.9 2,579, 077 17.4
2,386,170 | 2,289,716 49, 971, 883 20.9 40, 262, 499 17.6
2,584, 342 | 2,437, 693 54, 313, 184 21.0 42, 841, 576 17.6
2,565,414 | 2,611,389 54, 442, 627 21.2 51,770, 135 19.8
72, 801 109,718 1,199, 289 16.5 1, 611, 633 14.7
46, 976 46, 769 685, 707 14.7 490, 319 10.5
149, 881 107,592 2, 274, 844 1552 1, 458, 914 13:5
105, 581 99,710 1, 407, 133 13.3 1, 144, 890 an leis}
4,633,869 | 4,615,171 | 109,093, 03 23.5 | > 86,301,458 18.7
1,036,881 | 1,024,954 | 109,548, 489 105.7 85, 380, 130 83.3
211, 987 234, 272 1,927, 181 9.1 2,415, 940 10.3
22, 956 10, 744 163, 505 teu 110, 171 10.3
234, 943 245, 016 2,090, 636 8.9 2,526, 111 10.3
ae BROUBAIL bese oa 907, 49, | ac. see ae
SOTO OR Th tere aes TOSSES oe ee ee

Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons.
27,095 25,938 4, 043 15 4, 647 .18
165, 520 170, 192 40, 804. 25 42,100 .25
140, 57: 155, 427 61,398 .44 60, 783 89
78, 432 77, 801 586, 008 7.47 555, 829 7.19
225, 429 166,717 2, 102, 645 9.33, 1, 345, 572 8.07
552, 459 459, 799 972, 248 1.40 601,712 1.31
514, 781 894, 303 590, 063 115 420, 478 1,07
6,320,189 | 6,694, 868 4, 935, 295 78 4, 616, 250 . 69
5.060) 714 il) +B GOGST298 | Mi tevaraere ara ierata eed ( accurate ete .ny| Meares ate sistere esiltnys states oleate

The value of the wine product was $18,804,546.

A58 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Exports of wheat from India.

Value : Value
Years. Bushels. Value. per Years. Bushels. Value. per
bushel ushel
i falter aiee Meaes 558, 852 S403 015 SONS ibd eres. ce. <a - 11, 896, 580 |¢ $1 17
7 he ak! eI et 514, 231 480, 616 MBVWTRTOR bel one: 1, 972, 544 1 28
ASTOR een e eee see . 145,988 160, 225 5 M5) | [lik C0) a ae | 4,109,495 | 1 38
Thay GuetSeaetete 463, 908 505, 303 TOOMBS Sao. Se. ctstavaite | 18, 896, 167 | 115
1, 146, 766 Soh PSS cea 87,148 543 | 43, 163, 728 116
816, 063 De DD SSR eA eo e occ 's 26, 495, 024 | 29,631,213 | eae
4, 027, 545 F235) 1884" ...| 39, 202, 636 | 43, 291, 464 110
2,391, 646 alg Gp) [PG kak eee ...| 29,558,311 | 30,736, 902 1 04
4, 410, 660 94 || 1886........ .| 39,312, 969 | 38, 943, 436 99
9, 526, 855 SUG ASBTE a. kee cake 27,914,183 | 20,789, 688 74
* Year incomplete.
CONCLUSION.

The increase of labor in volume and variety to meet the public re-
quirements upon the statistical branch of this Department cannot be
indicated fully in the annual report. This presentation is-not a
synopsis of the work done, much of which is special and specific, for
current uses of individuals or bodies in legislative, administrative,
and commercial work. Some of the more important original investi-
gations of the year are here recorded, including, of course, the records
of acreage, production, and value of some of the principal crops.
There are other rural industries, less general in distribution or more
complicated in their data, which are not included. The year is too
short or the country too large to attempt a census monthly or annu-
ally of all products, which include those of nearly every climate or
condition in the domain of general agriculture.

The work has the voluntary assistance of about twelve thousand
local correspondents and helpers, and in the Washington office a cleri-
cal force of about sixty is employed. It is the constant aim to im-
prove the service, in widening its range, in extending its facilities,
and in increasing its accuracy and reliability, and especially its prac-
tical usefulness to the farmers of the United States.

J. R. DODGE,
Statistician.
Hon. Norman J. CoLMAN,
Commissioner.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST.

INTRODUCTION.

Sir: I have the honor to present herewith my annual report for
the year 1886. It is confined to the consideration of a few prominent
and important insects that have not before been fully treated of in
Department publications, and I have omitted from it, because of the
limitation as to number of pages allotted to the Entomologist, many
_ briefer notes and articles that have been prepared as the result of the
year’s work. These omitted portions will at once be prepared for
special bulletins.

The fruit interests of the Pacific coast have of late years been more
and more threatened by injurious insects, and in the present report
the leading place is given to the consideration of the Cottony Cushion-
scale (Icerya purchast), which is perhaps the greatest pest that the
fruit-growers in that section have to contend with. Iwas urged last
spring by many prominent horticulturists and by Hon. W. W. Mor-
row, M. C. from the fourth district of California, to personally visit
the infested region, but as this was impossible then on account of
impaired health and important duties in the East, Messrs. D. W. Co-
quillett and Albert Koebele were sent to Los Angeles early in the year,
with instructions to carry on through the summer an extensive series
of experiments and observations upon the species. It will be seen
from the context that this is one of those insects which have, naturally,
extremely limited powers of spreading, and that its introduction from
one continent to another and its subsequent spread might easily have
been prevented had vigilance and intelligent appreciation of the dan-
gers of such an introduction prevailed in years gone by as they are
beginning to prevail now. Thearticle is supplemented by detailed
reports on experiments by Messrs. Coquillett and Koebele, which indi-
cate the difficulties of controlling the pest, but at the same time show
that these difficulties may be overcome.

The kerosene emulsions, in different proportions, which have
proved so entirely satisfactory against the scale-insects of the Orange
in Florida, have in general failed to win the good opinion of orange-
growers in California. Mr. Matthew Cooke and other writers in the
latter State have pronounced the kerosene emulsions inferior to caustic’
soda and caustic potash, and even to strong solutions of whale-oil soap.

Until this year I have been unable to offset the decision of these
gentlemen with the result of careful experiment, though I have always
believed their want of success was due to imperfect preparation of the
emulsions or imperfect application of them. I was also inclined to
give some credence to the theory advanced by Prof. E. W. Hilgard,
that the dryness of the atmosphere in California induced a more rapid
evaporation of the kerosene in the emulsion, which accounted for its
inferior results. Moreover, the Cottony Cushion-scale is much less
susceptible to the action of insecticides than any Floridian species on
account of the poseidon afforded by the large waxy mass which it
secretes, as well as on account of its great vitality.

(459)

460 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

The detailed reports on remedies just referred to show that kero-
sene emulsions must still be placed at the head of the list, not only
for ordinary scale-insects, but for this Jcerya, so far as efftcacy is con-
cerned, though other remedies have the advantage of beings, cheaper.
In the proportion of 1 part of the soap emulsion to 15 parts of water
it proves a perfect remedy for their Red Scale (Aspidiotus auranti),
a species which has done incalculable damage in Australia and has
created much alarm in California. After a thorough application of
the mixture in March Mr. Coquillett found that every scale-insect
was killed, and at the expiration of two months all had dropped from
the leaves. Used in the same proportion on the Cottony Cushion-
scale, however, it does not kill the old females with the egg-masses,
nor all of theeggs. Used at twice this strength it kills all of the eggs,
as well as the old females, and even when properly used at the rate of
1 part of the emulsion to 5 parts of water it leaves the tree uninjured.

Mr. Coquillett reports, with reference to the much-praised caustic
soda, that it has no effect on the eggs of the Jcerya, even when ap-
plied so strong as to burn the bark brown and kill all the leaves.
Similarly, whale-oil soap, one pound to two gallons of water, does not
kill the eggs directly, nor does hard soap and water in the same pro-
portions, although the effect of the latter seems greater than that of
the former. They both, however, harden the egg-masses so that a large
proportion of the young larve are unableto escape. The experiments
add greatly to the value of ordinary tobacco, for one of the most effect-
ual washes used is made by boiling one pound of tobacco leaves in one
gallon of water until the strength has been extracted from the leaves,
and then adding enough water to make two gallons. This wash,
however, costs about 5 cents per gallon, and is too expensive for ordi-
nary use. Mr. Koebele, experimenting through August, September,
and October, found that kerosene emulsified with soft-soap penetrates
the egg-sacs well, kills the old scales, and leaves the tree uninjured.
Emulsions of crude petroleum, although much cheaper, he found very
apt to injure the trees. He devoted his chief attention, on account of
their great cheapness, to the preparation of soaps and resin com-
pounds. Hesucceeded in making a number of these mixtures, which,
when properly diluted, need not cost more than from one-third to
one-half of a cent per gallon, and which, if thoroughly applied, will
bring about very satisfactory results, killing the insects and either
penetrating or hardening the egg-masses so as to prevent the hatch-
ing of the young. Iam strongly of the opinion that the value of the
soap washes depends somewhat on the season of their application,
and that the greater success of Mr. Koebele with them as compared
with that of Mr. Coquillett was probably due to the fact that his ex-
periments were made during the dry or rainless season.

' In connection with the subject of kerosene emulsions, I may put on
record here an important discovery made last spring in carrying on
further experiments at the office in emulsifying this oil. It is that
the white of eggs with a little sugar may be used as a satisfactory
substitute for milk where this is not accessible.

If the white of 2 eggs, about 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar, # quart of
water, and 14 quarts of kerosene are worked through a force-pump
and cyclone-nozzle for from 5 to 10 minutes a cream-like emulsion
is produced, which can be diluted with water to any desired amount
without any separation of the oil; provided that the emulsion is not
allowed to stand for any length of time.

Another investigation that has occupied considerable of my time

4

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. AG1

lately is that in reference to the Southern Buffalo Gnats. The loss
occasioned by the attacks of these upon domestic animals has been
of late years very great, and the Division has been strongly appealed
to by influential stock-raisers in the lower Mississippi Valley for infor-
mation. Messrs. F. M. Webster, Otto Lugger, and Francis Fillion
have each been directed to make special investigations and experi-
ments during the year in different parts of the South, and Dr. War-
ren King, of Vicksburg, has aided in various ways. Atthe time when
these investigations began the particular species concerned had not
been determined; nor was anything known of their habits in the
early stages. These habits were surmised from what was known of
other species of the genus both in this country and Europe, which, as
a rule, breed in clear, rapid, and rocky streams; but it was a ques-
tion how our Southern species could breed so numerously in the lower
alluvial Mississippi country.

It results from the investigation that there are more particularly
concerned two species, which may be known and distinguished as the
Southern Buffalo Gnat (the larger and more common of the species)
and the Turkey Gnat, the names by which they are very generally
known in the country affected. They are both undescribed species,
and I have given them the names of Simulvwm pecuarum and S.
meridionale respectively. The habits of both species are similar,
and both have been found to breed in the more swiftly running currents
of bayous and larger streams which are permanent and do not dry
up in midsummer. The larve are found attached to the masses of
drift-wood and leaves which form at points, and which, by impedi-
ment, induce a more rapid current on the surface. Very full de-
tails will be found in the article, and at its close I have discussed the
bearing which seasons of overflow may possibly have on the increase of
these insects. Much yet remains to be ascertained, however, -espe-
cially as to oviposition, the eggs, and the early habits of the larve.

Another insect that will be found fully treated of is the common
Fall Web-worm (Hyphantria cunea), which abounded during the
past year in the Eastern States in a phenomenal way, and which was
so destructive to the shade trees of the Capital as to attract an un-
usual share of attention and to call forth many requests for informa-
tion. Many facts hitherto unpublished, both as to its habits and
natural enemies, will be found recorded, while advantage has been
taken of the very favorable opportunity afforded by the exceptional
increase of the species in Washington City to carefully study its rele-
tive preference for different trees. I have already published in my
report for the year 1883, and in Bulletin 6 of this Division, in consid-
ering the Imported Elm Leaf-beetle, full directions for protecting
trees from leaf-devouring insects, and as it is inadvisable to repeat
what is already accessible in published form, I have given but a brief
summary of the means available for protecting trees from this Fall
Web-worm. Moreover, the spraying appliances that are most useful
against the scale-insects, and treated of in considering the Cottony
Cushion-scale of California, are equally applicable here, and in so
far as they differ from those inode described and published in pre-
vious reports they will be found treated of in connection with said
scale. Sofar as the city of Washington is concerned (and the same
will apply to all cities) there can be little doubt that the great in-
crease of this Hall Web-worm of late years has been largely due to
two circumstances: Wirst, the prevalence of the English Sparrow and
its indisposition or inability to feed upon this worm, while making

462 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

more room for it by destroying other less injurious and smooth
species; secondly, the use of the wooden tree-boxes, which afford
such excellent winter shelter for the cocoons.

Some recent experience is recorded with regard to Joint Worms,
and the interesting fact is brought out that alternation of generation
occurs among them, and that in the genus [sosoma, to which they
belong, two forms, which have hitherto been considered good spécies,
are in reality seasonal dimorphic forms of one and the same species,
as I have always suspected would prove to be the case.

The year 1886 may be said, entomologically, to have been an ordi-
nary one, and notwithstanding the exceptional injury by some, there
-has been, perhaps, less damage than usual from injurious species.

Among these last must be mentioned the Hop Aphis (Phorodon
humulz), which was so destructive in the great hop regions of New
York State as to have caused an almost totalloss. The best evidence
I have been able to obtain from correspondents is that in a great
many cases no harvest was made, and on an average only about 10
per cent. was harvested. In this connection I have taken steps to
carry on a series of practical experiments the coming year, and I may
state as a matter of interest that, from investigations made last Sep-
tember in the hop fields I am led to believe that I have discovered
the winter egg of this hop-louse upon plum trees, so that its mode of
hibernation, which has hitherto been a mystery, has thus been set-
tled. Full verification of this fact, however, cannot be obtained
without another season’s observation, and for this reason I have been
unwilling so far to publish anything in detail.

In my last report I showed that, so far as experiments in silk-cult-
ure are concerned, no decisive results could well be hoped for until
the Serrell automatic reel could be tested at some point in Washing-
ton where the details could be well controlled and observations made
by myself and assistants, and where the work could be carried on for
at least two years. Congress therefore appropriated $10,000 for this
particular purpose, and the reeling stations at San Francisco, New
Orleans, and Philadelphia have been abandoned. The brief report
of the work in this direction, which will be found in the following
pages, must be looked upon as preliminary; for, while the figures
given look somewhat discouraging, no fair and proper estimate can
be made before another year. Theconfirmation which our reelin
has so far given of the value of the Osage Orange as silk-worm foo
is interesting, and entirely in keeping with what I expected and what
I have previously recorded.

Work has been continued at the apicultural station at Aurora, Il.,
as far as the means would permit, and a report on some of the ex-
periments by Nelson W. McLain, in charge of the station, is em-
bodied, while some further reports will be included in a special bul-
letin. I have endeavored by occasional consultations with Mr.
McLain to keep the experiments in lines that have been more or less
neglected by bee-keepers and in which there was hope of valuable
results. The most important of these are in the direction of control-
ling fertilization. Most of the improvement in bee-culture in the
past has been in the direction of mechanical appliances, while these
experiments have in mind the improvement of the bee itself, so as
to increase its honey-yielding power, and thus advance the interest
in the same way that the dairy interest has been advanced by improvy-
ing the milk and butter producing qualities of the cow.

A year ago Congress added $5,000 to the appropriation of the Divis-

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. ' 468

ion for the promotion of economic ornithology, and charged the Ento-
mologist with carrying on the work. This appropriation was made
at the instance of Professor Baird, myself, and Dr. C. Hart Merriam,
and in obedience to a memorial from the American Ornithologists’
Union. Work was begun by your appointing Dr. Merriam as a
special agent in charge, and Dr. A. K. Hisher and a clerk to assist.
The scope of the work planned was indicated in my last annual re-
port, it being arranged that the part relating to food habits should
be dealt with by myself and former associates because of its entomo-
logical bearing; while to Dr. Merriam was assigned all the other
phases of the work, he being particularly interested in the migra-
tions of birds as chairman of the committee on migrations of the
Union above mentioned. _ ae Be

Harly in July, 1885, a circular was prepared (Circular 20, Division
’ of Entomology) setting forth the objects of the investigation, and
asking information concerning the food-habits of certain well-known
birds which were supposed to be beneficial or injurious to the farmer.
About 2,000 copies of this circular were distributed to farmers and
ornithologists throughout the country, and a large number of replies
were received. During the winter two additional circulars (Circu-
lars 24 and 27, Division of Entomology), accompanied by three
schedules, were prepared, which related to the migration and geo- .
graphical distribution of North American birds. These were sent to
the keepers of light-houses along the coasts and lakes and to the
regular observers of the American Ornithologists’ Union.

Special attention was given during the year to the English Spar-
row question, and a large amount of information has been collected.
The ravages of birds in the rice fields of the South was another mat-
ter which early received attention, and Dr. Fisher was sent on an
extended tour through the rice-growing districts, giving particular
attention to those of Georgia and Louisiana. The formation of a
collection of the stomachs, crops, and gizzards of birds was early
undertaken, and has been continued to the present time.

From the outset I have recognized that while the ornithological
work, so far as it related to food-habits, was legitimately placed in
the Entomological Division, because of its intimate connection with
the subject of entomology, yet there were many other lines of inquiry
that have no particular bearing on entomology, and could not well be
prosecuted in earnest without detracting from the time which should
be devoted to the more legitimate sphere of the Division. As soon,.
therefore, as it was ascertained that there was some prospect of get-
ting a new Division created I strongly urged such action, and a new
Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy was created last June by
Senate amendment to the House bill, it having been previously ar-
ranged that the Entomologist should take charge of the question
of food-habits so far as they relate to insects. Unfortunately, how-
ever, the appropriation to the new Division was taken from the
Entomological Division, thus reducing the means of this last below
what it was two years ago, so that the work has been correspond-
ingly crippled by the stoppage of investigations already begun (espe-
cially in California and the South), by the discharge of some of the
employés and the reduction in salary of some of the others.

So much of the time devoted to ornithology during the year having
been taken up in original investigations and the accumulation of ma-
terial, Dr. Merriam has submitted no formal report, and the results

464 ‘REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

of the investigations, so far as they have been written up, will be pub-
lished directly under the new Division.

In this connection, as evidence of the interest abroad in applied en-
tomology, I would refer to the holding of an international exhibition
of machinery and contrivances for applied remedies against fungi and
insects that are destructive to cultivated plants. This congress was
held in October at Florence, and his Excellency, B. Grimaldi, the min-
ister of agriculture, industry, and commerce for Italy, was very anx-
ious to have the Division represented by such discoveries and mechan-
ical applianees as have been developed in its work of late years. He
was also very anxious to have a representative from the Department
to take part in the discussions of the congress to be held in connection
with the exhibition. The Entomologist was in fact made one of the
jurors, and it is to be regretted that, by the terms of our appropria-
tion, the Department was unable to have entomological representation
at said congress. From reports of the congress that have come to
hand, kindly furnished by Prof. Gustav Foéx, in charge of the experi-
mental school of agriculture at Montpellier, and of Henri Grosjean, of
Paris, it is evident that they have made good use of the remedies and
contrivances published and recorded in our annual reports, and that,
with the exception of experience against the Grape-vine Phylloxera,
there was not very much that would have interested us in America,

The work of the Division is best represented by its published re-
sults, as, after all, its value is proportioned to the manner in which it is
placed upon record and made available to the public, though there is
of necessity a great amount of work that is not accounted for in print.
In the matter of published and contemplated reports and bulletins,
the following list represents the activity of the Division fairly well:

The publications of the present year have been as follows:

Bulletin No. 8. The Periodical Cicada. An account of Cicada sep-
tendecim and its tredecim race, with a chronology of all broods known.

. 46.

a esisne No. 11. Reports of Experiments with Various Insecticide
Substances, chiefly upon insects affecting garden crops. pp. 34.

Bulletin No. 8. Second edition.

Insects affecting the Orange. Report by H. G. Hubbard on the
insects affecting the culture of the Orange and other plants of the
Citrus family, with practical suggestions for their control or exter-
mination. pp. 227; figs., 95; plates, 14.

Fourth Report of the United States Entomological Commission, by
C. V. Riley, being a revised edition of Bulletin No. 3, and the final
report on the Cotton Worm, together with a chapter on the Boll Worm.
pp. 546; figs., 45; plates, 64.

Report of the Entomologist for the year 1885. pp. 154; plates, 9.

Bulletin No. 12. Miscellaneous Notes on the Work of the Division
of Entomology for the season of 1885. pp. 45; 1 plate.

Bulletin No. 9. The Mulberry Silk-worm; being a manual of in-
structions in silk-culture. Sixth revised edition of Special No. 11.
pp. 62; figs., 29.

Those in course of preparation are:

Final Report on Insects injurious to Forest Trees (nearly completed).

Bibliography of Economic Entomology. <A critical list of the
economic writings of American entomologists.

Report on Insects affecting Domestic Animals.

Report on Remedies. A critical and classificatory treatise upon all
the remedies which have been recommended against injurious insects.

\

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. A65 .

Report on the Insects affecting Garden Crops of Florida.

Report on the Insects affecting the Grains.

Report on Insects affecting the Hop Crop.

Report on Insects affecting the Cranberry Crop.

Report upon the Grape-vine Phylloxera.

Monograph of the Acridide (destructive Grasshoppers).

Monograph of the Noctuids (Cut-worms,. &c.).

Bulletin on Acronyctas (destructive tree-caterpillars).

Report on the Insectivorous Habits of Birds.

Several bulletins.

Dr. Packard has continued work on the Report on Forest Insects.
He spent a portion of March and April in Northern and_ Central
Florida studying and collecting the species injurious to Live and
Water Oak, as wellas to the Pines and Cypress. His observations
- go to corroborate those of others who have studied the Florida insect

fauna, viz, that while a large proportion of the insects feeding on
the oaks in Central Florida differ rom those found in the Northern
States, yet the pine insects from Maine to Florida belong to nearly
one and the same fauna. During the summer months he worked in
Maine, on the shores of Casco Bay, and a considerable amount of
work was also done near Jackson, in New Hampshire, and around
Providence. A report by him on some of the insects observed, and
especially on a worm injurious to spruce buds, has been submitted,
and will be published in the next bulletin.

Mr. F. M. Webster has continued investigations on the insects
affecting our grains and forage plants, and his report, included here-
with, contains a number of interesting observations, and also a list
of 102 species of insects frequenting Buckwheat, with notes of their
relative abundance and their method of attacking the plant.

Mr. Lawrence Bruner has continued work in Nebraska, and a
special report from him will be published in bulletin form.

Prof. Herbert Osborn, of Ames, Iowa, has continued to assist me
in work upon the insect parasites of domestic animals,

Miss M. EK. Murtfeldt and Mr. J. G. Barlow were each engaged
during the year for brief periods in various observations in Missouri,
and Mr. William H. Ashmead similarly for a brief period in Florida.

Work by Mr. B. P. Mann on the Bibliography of Economic Ento-
mology has been interrupted by the reduction in the appropriation,
but otherwise the Divisional force at the Department remains the
basal Messrs. E. A. Schwarz and Theo. Pergande assisting in the office
work.

The illustrations to this report have been made by Miss Lillie Sul-
livan_ and Dr. George Marx, with the supervision of myself or of
Mr. Howard.

I take pleasure, in conclusion, in acknowledging my indebtedness
to Mr. Otto Lugger for assistance in the preparation of the article on
the Buffalo Gnats and for the satisfactory manner in which he carried
on his observations at Memphis, and particularly to Mr. L. O. How-
ard, who has had charge of the Division during my absence, and who
has materially assisted me throughout both in the office correspond-
ence and the preparation of reports. December 24, 1886.

Respectfully submitted, -

C. V. RILEY,

Hon. Norman J. Couman, Entomologist.
Commissioner of Agriculture.
30 AG—’86

466 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

MISCELLANEOUS INSECTS.

THE COTTONY CUSHION-SCALE.
(Icerya purchasi Maskell.)

Order HEMIPTERA; family CoccIDé.
[Plates I, II, III, IV, and V.]
INTRODUCTORY.

We have, during the year, been conducting a special investigation
of the habits of and remedies for the so-called Cottony Cushion-scale
of California, an insect which for the last eight years has occupied
much of the attention of the horticulturists of that State. We have
been much interested in this pest since it was originally sent to us
while in Missouri by Mr. R. H. Stretch from San Francisco in 1872,
and have watched its increase and spread, until it became evident from
its alarming prolificacy, from the great diversity of its food-plants,
from its supposed immunity from the attacks of natural enemies, and
from the protection against the action of insecticides afforded by its
abundant waxy excretions, that especial study and experiment were
much needed.

The following account of the insect is prepared from published
accounts and unpublished correspondence; from our biologic notes
made at the office in Washington, chiefly in 1878, 1880, and 1886; but
more especially from our recent experience in the field (which the
delay in publishing the report has enabled us to partly embody), and
the observations of Messrs. Coquillett and Koebele, whose reports on
experiments made to destroy it will be found given in full among
the reports of agents.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

So far as we have been able to learn, up to the date of present
writing, the Cottony Cushion-scale is found only in California, in
Australia, in South Africa, and in New Zealand. We shall discuss
its introduction into California and its present limitations in that
State in subsequent sections of this paper, and what we know of its
spread in the other countries mentioned is here considered.

In AUSTRALIA.—As will appear farther on, the evidence collected
goes to prore that this insect is indigenous to Australia and has been
exported from this colony to the two other colonies in which it occurs
and to the United States. We have very few facts as to its occur-
rence in Australia and these are taken at second hand. We have
addressed communications to a number of naturalists in different por-
tions of that country, but their replies have at this writing not been
received. From the ‘‘ Report of the Commission appointed by his
excellency the governor to inquire into and report upon the means
of exterminating the insect of the family ‘Coccide,’ commonly known
as the ‘Australian Bug,’” published at Cape Town, 1877, and from the
letter of Mr. Roland Trimen, dated February 5, 1877, and published
by the government secretary of Cape Colony as ‘‘ Government Notice
No. 113, 1877,” we find that at that time specimens of the insect were
sent from Cape Town to different portions of Australia, and that re-

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 467

plies were received as follows: The Queensland authorities simply
promised inquiry and report. The government of South Australia
did not recognize the insect in question as a native of that colony,
The inquiry to Victoria was referred to Prof. Frederick McCoy, di-
rector of the National Museum at Melbourne, who’ identified the in-
sect as a new Dorthesia, ‘“‘common in Victoria on different kinds of
Acacia.”

This is the extent of our information. Mr. Maskell, in his second

aper on this species (Transactions and Proceedings New Zealand
Gattifite, XIV, p. 226, 1881), writes: ‘‘When in Australia a few
months ago I observed at Ballarat an insect, certainly an Icerya, but
I think not I. purchasi ; but I had no opportunity of bringing away
a single specimen.” There exists, then, a possibility at least that the
insect under consideration is found at Ballarat as well as around Mel-
bourne.

In Cape CoLony.—We find in the “‘ Report of the Commission,”
&c., just cited, the following information on the spread of the insect
in this colony:

From the answers received it would seem that the insect, having first appeared
and succeeded in establishing itself in Cape Town and the vicinity, gradually spread
along the lines of traftic by land and sea to different parts of the colony; and we may
mention, in evidence of its irregular dispersal by chance methods of conveyance,
that it was observed in the village of Ookiep, Namaqualand, only a few months
after its first discovery in the Cape Town Botanical Gardens in 1873, and yet was
not seen in the neighboring division of Stellenbosch till the later end of 1876.

The limits to which the insect had extended at the time of the pub-
lication of the report of the commission (1877, presumably the latter
part of the ae included the following localities: Cape Town and
neighborhood, Simon’s Town, Stellenbosch (Mulders Vlei), Malmes-
bury, Paarl, Wellington, Namaqualand (Ookiep), Bredasdorp, George
(Brak River), Uitenhage, East London. »

We have no information as to the present status of the insect in
a ist as the replies to our letters of inquiry have not yet come
to hand.*

In New ZEALAND.—From the paper containing Mr. Maskell’s
original description of Icerya purchasz (Trans. and Proc. N. Z. Inst.,
XI, 220, 1878), we learn that the insect was first noticed at Auckland.
A note by Mr. E. A. MacKechnie (Ibid., XIV, 549, 1881) indicated that
it had greatly increased in presumably the same neighborhood in
1881. In Mr. Maskell’s second paper (Ibid., p. 226) he mentions in a
foot-note that he had just received the insect from Napier. In his
third paper (Ibid., X VI, 140, 1883) he writes as follows:

Icerya purchasi has spread greatly in the last two years. It had just reached Na-
pier at the date of my last paper. It has now established itself in that district not
only in gardens, but in the native forests. In Auckland it is attacking all sorts of
plants. * * * It has reached Nelson, and I have had many communications from
that place complaining of its ravages’ * * * Whether this pest will spread in
our colder southern climate (Christchurch) as it has in the warmer north remains to
be seen. Our gardeners here are not in much dread of outdoor insects; they con-
fine their attention to those in greenhouses. They may be right; still the winter
even in Canterbury is not severe enough to kill these insects, and I know that in the
Christchurch public gardens many trees have had to be burnt simply on account of
the ravages of Coccide.

We have no information on this point from this colony later than
1883, but have taken steps to ascertain the present spread of the pest.

* Just as the report is being sent to the printer we learn from Miss Ormerod that
she has received specimens from Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony.

468 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

IMPORTATION OF THE SPECIES INTO CALIFORNIA.

The first printed record, with which we are acquainted, of the occur-
rence of the Cottony Cushion-scale in California is Mr. Stretch’s
article in the Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences,
Vol. IV, read September 16, 1872. In opening this paper he refers
to the fact that ‘‘at a former meeting certain insects forwarded to
this society from Menlo Park, San Mateo County, by Mr. Gordon,”
were referred to him for examination. A careful search through.
the previous proceedings fails to show any mention of this previous
sending, though at the meeting of July 1, 1872, Mr. John Hewston,
jr., “‘exhibited some limbs of Australian Acacia from San Mateo
which were infested by a species of Coccus, and stated that the insect
had not only been detected in its depredations upon said tree, but
also upon the orange trees.” This latter reference may very possibly
have been to the Cottony Cushion-scale, and if so it is interesting, as
indicating already a spread of some miles from Menlo Park.

All the slight evidence possessed points to the introduction of this
scale on Australian Acacia by Mr. George Gordon about 1868 or 1869.
Mr. Stretch says:

This being all the information to be derived from the specimens referred to me, I
visited Menlo Park in search of further information, and received a very hearty wel-
come from Mr. Gordon. Thesupposition is that the insect was imported from Aus-
tralia some three years ago; at any rate it seemed to originate on the Acacia latifolia.

This was evidently Mr. Gordon’s supposition, and the plain infer-
ence is that about three years previous to this time certain Acacias had
been imported by Mr. Gordon from Australia as plants or cuttings
contrary to the general custom, although it is not stated in so many
words.

Dr. A. W. Saxe, of Santa Clara, Cal., in 1877, wrote:*

‘*So far as I can ascertain, it was brought to California on some

lants imported from Australia by the late George Gordon, of Menlo
Dark (the sugar refiner).”

In the introduction to our annual report as Entomologist to this
Department for 1878 we referred to the serious complaints that came
from the Pacific coast of injury by it to orchard and ornamental trees,
and from specimens received from Dr. Saxe (Mr. Maskell’s papers
being unknown here then) referred it to the genus Dorthesia, and
remarked:

It is an Australian insect, and has of late years been introduced on Australian

lants into South Africa, where, as I learn from one of my correspondents, Mr.

oland Trimen, curator of the South African Museum, it has multiplied at a ter-
rible rate, and become such a scourge as to attract the attention of the government.
It has evidently been introduced (probably on the Blue Gum or Eucalyptus) to Cali-
fornia, either direct from Australia or from South Africa, and will doubtless become
quite a scourge, because most introduced insects are brought over without the
natural enemies which keep them in check in their native country and consequently
multiply at a prodigious rate. It will be naturally partial to Australian trees, and
shows a preference for Acacia, Eucalyptus, Orange, Rose, Privet, and Spireea.

Professor Comstock, in the Annual Report of the Department of
Agriculture for 1880, p. 348, cited this article of Dr. Saxe’s as the
earliest article with which he was acquainted, and repeated Dr. Saxe’s
opinion as to the introduction of the insect.

Beyond this we are able to get no information upon the subject, and
these data are in all probability the first connected with the introduc-
tion of the Cottony Cushion-scale. There may possibly have been

* California Agriculturist and Artisan, December, 1877.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 469

subsequent and independent importations, but that this is the one
from which the main spread originated there can be little doubt.

ITS SPREAD AND PRESENT LIMITATION IN CALIFORNIA.

We are indebted to Mr. Matthew Cooke, of Sacramento, for com-
municating a lengthy and careful account of the localities in which
the pest at present exists in California. Mr. Cooke has mapped out
ten districts, six in the counties of Marin, San Mateo, Santa Clara,
Sacramento, Sonoma, and Napa, in the San Francisco region, and four
in the counties of Santa Barbara and Los Angeles, in the southern por-
tion of the State.

The first infested district extends from Menlo Park to San Mateo,
a distance of 10 miles. It is bounded on the east by the Southern
Pacific Railroad, and extends some 3 miles west, including in conse-

uence some 30 square miles. But little effort, according to Mr.
Jooke, has been made to eradicate the pest in this district.

The second infested district is contained within the town limits of
San Rafael, Marin County, about 14 miles north of San Francisco.
In this district it has been held in check, but there are still some to
be found, and its increase is only dependent upon a lapse of vigilance.

The third infested district includes the city of San José and the
town of Santa Clara, and contains an area of about 16 square miles.
In these towns the scale insects infested the ornamental and shade
trees and shrubbery, but did not seem to trouble the deciduous fruit
trees to any extent. At San José energetic measures have been taken;
the trees have been cut back and their trunks scrubbed until the pest
has been thoroughly eradicated. At Santa Clara, however, little has
been done, and some places are seriously infested.

The fourth infested district occurs at the city of Sacramento, where
only-about 120 acres are infested, although it is stated to be rapidly
spreading. The insect was first discovered in this district by Mr.
Cooke in October, 1885, in about eight gardens. The city trustees
appropriated $200, and with this sum it was destroyed, except upon
certain premises which the authorities could not enter. Mr. Cooke
gives in this connection, as an instance of the rapidity of the multi-
plication and spread of the insect, the following:

In October, 1885, a patch of these insects covered a space of about 3 by 4inches ~

was noticed upon a limb of an Acacia tree. From these it spread, and in a little
more than a year several Orange and Lemon trees and other plants growing closely
in an area of about 160 by 80 feet had become seriously infested.

The fifth infested district is found at Healdsburg, Sonoma County,
about 65 miles north by west of San Francisco. Here the insect is
mainly comprised within the town limits, and infests the shade trees
along the streets and the shrubbery in the gardens.

In Mr. Cooke’s sixth district the insect cannot be said to exist at

resent. It comprises a single garden in the town of Saint Helena,

apa County, about 60 miles north by east of San Francisco. It
was found upon a rose bush in that place by Mrs. Richard Wood in
October, 1882, The bush was destroyed, and the pest has not been
found in that section since. ;

The seventh infested district includes the city of Los Angeles, where
the insect is principally confined, according to Mr. Cooke, to the gar-
dens and suburbs on the eastern side of the city. Mr. Coquillett says
that as nearly as can be ascertained the insect was first introduced

A70 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

into Los Angeles in 1878 upon some nursery trees purchased from a
San Francisco nurseryman. These trees were planted in a certain
nursery, and when the insects were first noticed upon them the owner
was requested to burn them. He neglected to do this, and soon after
failed in business, and the nursery fell into other hands. The new
owner also proved indifferent, and from this point the insects spread
into the surrounding orchards, going mainly in the direction of the
prevailing winds. Some years ago a tree was found infested at Passa-
dena, 7 miles east of Los Angeles, but it was immediately destroyed,
and the insect has not been heard of since. At Pomona, 32 miles
east of Los Angeles, the same thing happened in 1883. Two trees
were found to be infested and were immediately destroyed, and the
insect has not appeared since.

The eighth infested district is at Anaheim, Los Angeles County,
27 miles south by east of Los Angeles. Here the insect is purely local
and does not seem to be spreading.

The ninth district is at San Gabriel, 9 miles east of Los Angeles.
In the vicinity of this place are some of the largest orange groves in
California. In 1880 or 1881, according to Mr. Cooke, a Mrs. MeGreg-
ory bought a pot-plant in Los Angeles, brought it home, and placed
it beside a small Orange near her house. In 1882 the neighboring
orange trees were found to be infested with the Cottony Cushion-
scale. . In the fall of 1883 it was found in some-of the larger orchards
so abundantly as to cause alarm among the growers. By means of
a voluntary tax of five cents per tree, some fifteen hundred or two
thousand dollars were raised and expended and the pest eradicated.
The most radical measures were used. The trees were cut back to the
crotches, the branches burned, and the trunks scrubbed. In 1885,
however, the insect was again found, but only in a few trees.

The tenth and last district includes the orchards in and around the
city of Santa Barbara. According to Mr. Coquillett the scale was
introduced into this district in 1878. A number of trees from the
same lot which first introduced the pest into Los Angeles was sent to
Santa Barbara at about the same time. Mr. Cooke states that he vis-
ited this district in July, 1884, and found Mr. Stowe’s orchards (10 miles
north of the city of Santa Barbara) the most seriously infested spot in
the State. Forty acres, principally of lemon trees, were badly dam-
aged, and over many acres the trees had been dug out and burned.
Two miles north of Mr. Stowe’s, Colonel Hollister’s groves also con-
tained the insect in numbers. About 40 acres were partially infested.
The latter gentleman made strong endeavors to rid his groves of the
insect, and spent a great deal of money, with only partial success.
Mr. Cooke states that the course of the insect between Mr. Stowe’s
and Colonel Hollister’s could be plainly traced over a rolling grazing
land on the nettles, dock, and other weeds.*

*Reports have gained currency that this Icerya was found abundantly around
Santa Barbara on wild plants, and especially upon the ‘‘ Grease-wood,” and it has
been argued from such reports that the species is indigenous. They have no found-
ation except in mistaken identity, a large Coccid belonging to the genus Rhizococ-
cus, which occurs abundantly on Artemisia californica, having undoubtedly given
rise to the report. The female of this species, which we shall describe as Rhizococ-
cus artemisie, secretes a globular mass of white cottony wax, which is more or less
distinctly ribbed, and her eggs are of the same color as those of the Icerya; but
with these superficial redefines which have misled, there are profound struct-
ural differences.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. A71

FOOD-PLANTS.

ORIGINAL Foop-PLANT OF ICERYA PURCHASI.—There seems good
reason to believe that this species is originally an Acacia insect, and
that upon one or another of the plants of this genus it was imported
from Australia into South Africa, California, and New Zealand.
Australia is pre-eminently the home of the Acacias, while none are
indigenous to California, nor, so far as we can ascertain, to New Zea-
land, and, as is well known, the species now found in these two coun-
tries have been introduced from Australia.

Professor McCoy, of Melbourne, in his original, communication to
the government of Cape Colony, in 1876, stated that the insect in
question occurred in Victoria on “‘ different kinds of Acacia.”

Mr. J. C. Brown* states, on the basis of Mr. Trimen’s description,
that the ‘“‘Australian Bug” appears to resemble in several details one
of the Coccidae found on the Kangaroo Island Acacia, universally
around Adelaide. This statement is so indefinite as to have little
weight; yet there is more than a possibility that the Australian insect
mentioned is the [cerya.

Mr. Trimen, in his report previously mentioned, states that the
first specimens seen by him in Cape Colony occurred in 1873, at Clair-
mont, on Blackwood trees (Acacia melanoxylon), obtained from the
botanic gardens at Cape Town. He goes on to say:

In the course of a few months the insect increased so prodigiously in number, and
the Australian Acacias became laden with them to such an extent, that in the early

part of 1874 the large Blackwood trees in the gardens, which were infested to a
greater extent than any other plant, had to be cut down. .

In New Zealand the first appearance of this insect was also upon an
Australian Acacia. Mr, Maskell, in originally describing the insect, in
1878, says: ‘‘ My specimens of this subdivision were found on a hedge

of the Kangaroo Acacia,t in Auckland, in March last. I understood
from Mr. Cheeseman and Dr. Purchas, who kindly brought this in-
sect under my notice, that it had only lately appeared in Auckland,
and that it was only as yet to be found upon that one hedge.”

In California the experience was almost precisely similar. Mr.
Stretch, in his paper before the California Academy of Sciences, in
1872, stated that at Menlo Park ‘‘it seemed to originate upon Acacia
latifolia, aspecies imported from Australia.” Miss Anna Rosecrans,
writing to the Pacific Rural Press of February 17, 1877, says: ‘‘It -
was first noticed at San Rafael on Acacia trees four or five years ago.”
Dr. Chapin, in the first report of the State Board of Horticultural
Commissioners of California, 1882, says: ‘‘This scale has been, it 1s
asserted, known to be on the Acacia for seven years in San José, but
it is only during the past and present seasons that it has attracted at-
tention” (presumably by its spread to other cultivated plants).

Thus we have much cumulative evidence that the species of the
genus Acacia are the preferred food-plants of the Cottony Cushion-
scale, and, admitting Australia as its proper home, they are probably
its original food.

Its FooD-PLANTS IN SouTH Arrica.—From Mr. Trimen’s 1877
report we gather the following list of plants to which the Australian
Bug had spread since 1873:

Acacia melanoxylon.

On fhe “Australian Bug” of South Africa. Journal of Forestry, May, 1882.
, p. 44.
+ Acacia armata.—C. V. R.

472 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Australian Acacias,

**Golden Willow.”

Casuartus,

Pittosporum.

‘*Blue Gum” (rarely).

Australian ‘‘ Bottle-brush.”

Oak.

Orange.

Vine.

Fig.

Laurustinus.

Rose.

Rosemary.

Strawberry.

Verbena.

Plumbago.

Indian Jasmine.

Bougainvillea.

Hawthorn.

Poinsettia.

Hakea.

This list is not added to in the ‘‘Report of the Commission,” &c.
published at Cape Colony in 1877. Mr. Trimen, in the article cited
above, gave the preference to the trees and shrubs of Australian origin;
but Mr. J. C. Brown (loc. czt.) quotes him as writing, under date of
March 17 (1882?), that the insect had then mainly attached itself to the
orange trees. ‘‘Many of the finest plantations have been destroyed
and others are on the high road to destruction. You will remem-
ber,” he says, ‘‘ how good and cheap oranges used to be here; they have
lately been three pence and four pence apiece, and often inferior in
quality even at such a price.”

Its Foop-PLANTS IN New ZEALAND.—From the various communi-
cations of Mr. Maskell and others in the Transactions and Proceed-
ings of the New Zealand Institute we give the following list of plants
which have been especially designated. There has been no attempt,
however, on Mr. Maskell’s part to give at all a complete list, and in
fact, he says,* ‘In Auckland it is attacking all sorts of plants, from
Apple and Rose trees to Pines, Cypress, and Gorse”:

Common Furze.

Orange.

Lemon.

Acacia decurrens.

Acacia armata.

Apple.

Wattles.

Rose.

Gorse.

Pine.

Cypress.

Its FooD-PLANTSIN CALIFORNIA.—Originally starting upon Acacia
latifolia at Menlo Park, this insect soon spread to numberless other
plants. Dr. Saxe, in 1877, mentioned that it already attacked the
Acacias, Australian Pea-vine, Rose, Honey-suckle, Ivy-geranium,
Laburnum, Pear, and the weeds in the orchard.

*Tbid., XVI, p. 140 (1883),

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 473

Dr. Chapin, in 1883, mentioned the following:

Pear.

Apple.

Bridal-wreath.

Rose.

Dwarf Box.

Verbena.

Veronica.

Acacia mollissima.

Acacia latifolia.

Acacia limneris.

Acacia floribunda.

Pittosporum tobria.

Strawberry.

Black Locust.

California Laurel.

Cork Elm.

English Ivy.

Magnolia grandiflora.

White Oak.

Dwarf Flowering Almond.

Wild Grease-wood.

Our recent experience in California, as well as that of Messrs. Co-
quillett and Koebele last summer, would indicate that, while there are
few plants upon which the insect will not temporarily feed if it hap-
pen to fall upon them while in the first stage, yet the number of
plants upon which it can thrive and multiply is hmited. The larva
will survive for weeks without food and will wander about in search
of suitable food if it should find itself, for one cause or another, on
that which is unsuitable. Itundoubtedly thrives best on Acacias, and
next to these we should place the Citrus fruits, the Quince, and the
Pomegranate, and we doubt if it could thrive upon many other trees.
The list of its food-plants, or rather of plants upon which it has been
found, is longer than is justified, not only because of its power of
endurance above noted, but because the young are easily carried
by wind or otherwise to plants more or less uncongenial and on which
they ultimately perish, while the adults are often dislodged from in-
fested Acacia or Citrus trees onto plants under or near them,

Among the more valuable trees upon which it certainly cannot
thrive, and upon which it does not occur when they are grown at some
distance from infested Acacia or Citrus trees, are the following: Pines,
Cypress, Eucalyptus, Olive, Apricot, Peach, Pear, and Oleander.

The plants upon which Mr. Coquillett found females with egg-
masses in limited numbers, and which were growing in situations so
remote from any infested Acacia or Citrus trees as to preclude the idea
that the adult insects had found their way to these plants from such
trees, were as follows:

Pomegranate.

Quince.

Apple.

Peach.

Apricot.

Fig.
Walnut.
Locust.
Willow.

;

A74 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Pepper.
Grape.
Rose.
Castor-bean.
Spearmint.
Rose-geranium,
Mr. Koebele, whose observations have been close and extensive,
- found that the Quince is always thickly infested, as is also the Pome-
granate, while on Pear, Apple, Peach, and Apricot the scales were
not numerous in the adult state. Only afew scales, and these nearly
always small, were found upon the Castor-oil bean. Some Pecan-
trees were noticed on which some of the branches were completely
covered with scales. A Willow hedge surrounded by plants which
had been infested for over two years did not itself become attacked
until the past summer. The Fig he states to be a favorite food-plant.
On Eucalyptus he found young scales all summer, and in October
he found twigs full of scales of all sizes. A few full-grown individ-
uals were found upon a single Pepper tree (Schinus molle) growing
in the orchard. The following is a supplementary list of plants upon
which Mr. Koebele reported the scales most noticeable:

Portulaca oleracea—Scales often numerous.

Malva rotundifolia.

Grape (Vitis spp. )—Scales occurring principally on petiole and leaf.

Medicago denticulata.

Helianthus spp.

Rose (Rosa spp.)—Scales growing often to an unusually large size,
and very numerous on some varieties.

Epilobium coloratum.

Hrigeron canadensis.

Bidens pilosa.

Artemisia ludoviciana. .

Ambrosia psilostachya—Hundreds of scales on each plant during
July, August, and September.

Sonchus oleraceus,

Plantago spp.

Mentha piperita.

Stachys cequata.

Solanum tuberosum.

Solanum douglasiv.

Chenopodium mural,

Chenopodium album.

Amarantus retroflexus.

Polygonum persicaria—Stem often entirely covered by scales.

Rumex crispus.

Urtica holosericea—A favorite plant, on which the scales devel-
oped with unusual rapidity and to large size.

Carex spp.

Paspalum spp.

Panicum crus-galli.

CHARACTERS AND LIFE HISTORY.

The genus Jcerya was first described by Signoret in the Annales de
la Société Entomologique de France” for 1875, pp. 351, 352, and was
founded on the single species I. sacchart (Guérin), which occurs on
sugar cane in the Island of Bourbon. He knew only two stages, the

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 475

full-grown female and the newly hatched larva, but these were de-
scribed with his customary care.

Mr. Maskell, in describing the species under consideration, places
it without much hesitation in this genus, and later, in 1883, still

laces it in Icerya, after examining specimens of I. sacchari sent
feiris by M. Signoret. In his original paper (Trans. Proc. N. Z. Inst.,
1878, 220), Mr. Maskell describes quite carefully the egg, the young
larva, the second stage, and the full-grown fomale, but had not seen
the male larva, cocoon, or adult. Professor Comstock (Ann. Rept.
Dept. of Agric., 1880, p. 347) follows Maskell’s description quite
closely, and introduces no new facts.

There is therefore a necessity for a careful review of the complete
life history: of the insect, and this we have endeavored to give in the
following pages.

THE Haq (Plate II, Fig. 1).—The egg is quite smooth, elongate-
ovate in form, and is of a deep orange-yellow color. It measures
about 0.77" in length.

The average number of eggs laid by the female varies according to
the vigor of the individual or the condition of the plant upon which
she dwells; prolificacy diminishing in proportion as the plant is badly
infested—a general law among Coccide. Over 800 eggs have been
counted in a single egg-mass by Mr. Coquillett, while Mr. Koebele has
counted in a single egg-mass, which, by the way, was found upon
nettle (Urtica holosericea), 940 eggs and 72 young larvee, while 123
eggs yet remained in the dead body of the female, making a total of
1,135 eggs from the single female.

The time required for the eggs to hatch after leaving the body of
the female varies with the temperature. In the winter-time the sacs
are usually filled with eggs, while in the hottest part of the summer
seldom more than one or two dozen will be found in each sac. Some
collected by Mr. Coquillett on the 18th of March did not hatch until
pee ‘oe of May; but in mid-summer hatching is only a matter of a

ew days.

THE FEMALE LARVA—FIRST STAGE (Plate I, Fig. 2, and Plate I,
Fig. 2).—The newly hatched female larva (and probably the male is
identical with it at this stage of growth, since we have not been able
to separate them into males and females) is red in color, inclining some-
whatto brown. The body is ovoid in outline, being flattened beneath
and convex above. The antenne are long and 6-jointed. Joint 1 is
short and _ stout, and as broad as long ; joints 2, 3, 4, and 5 subcylin-
drical and subequal, much more slender than joint 1, and twice as
long as broad; joint 6 is as long as 4 and 5 together, and forms a long
club, at base equaling joint 5in diameter, but broadening out to twice
its width at tip. The basal portion of the club is sometimes distinctly

- Separate from the rest, forming an additional joint. All joints have
a few sparse hairs, and the club, in addition to several short ones,
bears near its tip four very long ones, each of which is considerably
longer than the whole antenna. The legsare thin and brown in color.
The coxee and femora are moderately large, while the tibize and tarsi
are long and thin, the terminal joints of the latter bearing several
long hairs. The upper digitules are represented by simple hairs, but
the lower ones are present and are bent near the base. ‘The eyes are
prominent and are each mounted on a short tubercle. The mentum
is broad and apparently 2-jointed. The rostrum is broad at base and
the rostral set are not very long. At the tip of the rounded abdo-
men are 6 small tubercles, 3 each side of tip, each of which carries a

A76 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

long stout hair, which is as long:as the whole body. The body above
shows 6 rows of secretory pores, 4 along the middle, and 1 on each
side. More or less regular rows of hairs alternate with these pores.

FEMALE LARVA—SECOND STaGE.—According to Maskell and Com-
stock, there are but three stages of growth in the female after hatch-
ing, and these are readily distinguished by the number of antennal |
joints; the larva of the first stage having 6, that of the second 9, and
the adult 11.. Messrs. Coquillett and Koebele came to the same con-
clusions, and all have overlooked a form which we have found quite
abundantly among the material we have studied, and which seems to
constitute an intermediate stage between the so-called first and second,
and which is of course produced by an additional molt which we have
personally observed in the field. Hence the so-called ‘‘second stage”
of these authors becomes third, while the adult female is fourth in-
stead of third, and there are 3 molts instead of 2.

This new intermediate form (Plate II, Fig. 3) differs from the
female larva of the first stage in the following respects: It is much
more rounded and of a stouter general appearance. The antenne
have the same number of joints, 6, but their relative proportions are
quite different. The antenne asa whole are relatively much shorter.
Joint 1 is short and stout, its length equalling its breadth; joint 2
equals joint 1 in length, but is not quite so broad; joint 3 is as broad
as joint 2, but is twice as long; joints 4 and 5 are equal in length and

width, each narrowing somewhat at base and tip, each considerably
narrower than joint 3, and each of the same length as joint 2; joint
6 (club) is of an irregular shape; at base it is as narrow as joint 5,
but it broadens until it is slightly wider than 2 or 3, and its tip is
narrowed again; its shape is that of an irregular rhomboid with
rounded angles and sides, the acutest angles at base and tip. The
antenn carry about the same number of hairs as in the first stage,
but those homologous with the four very long hairs of the club in
that stage are in this second stage but little longer than the other an-
tennal hairs. The eyes do not appear on the margin of the body, and
are only seen on a ventral view. The legs are proportionately much
shorter, and the femora are stouter; the trochanters are broader dis-
tally, and consequently form a broader triangle in shape. The six
tubercles at the anal end of the body are still present, but the hairs
which they bear are much shorter. The secretory pores are no longer
arranged in rows, but are scattered sparsely over the back and under
the sides. The back is more hairy, and the short black hairs occur
in irregular tufts.

FEMALE LARVA—THIRD STAGE (Plate II, Fig. 4).—That which has
heretofore been considered the second stage, and which, as we have
just seen, is the third, may be described as follows:

The body is broadly oval in shape and reddish-brown in color, but.
is soon obscured more or less by the thick, curly, cotton-like excretion.
The antenne are 9-jointed instead of 6, and are subcylindrical, taper-
ing somewhat from base to tip. Joints 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are subequal in
length, and each is about as long as broad; joints 2 and 3 are broader
and considerably longer; joint 1 is like the corresponding joint in the
previous stage; joint 9 (club) is a suboval joint, proportionately much
smaller than in the previous stages; it does not exceed joint 8 in
width, and it does not quite equal joints 7,and 8 together in length.
The long hairs of the club are proportionately quite short. The in-
sect as a whole is much more hairy than in either of the previous
stages. The hairs are short and black, and show a marked tendency

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. aR 477

to grow together in tufts; even when their bases are well separated
their tips turn toward each other or toward the common center of a
group; they are quite thickly scattered over the thorax, but less so
over the abdomen; all around the edge of the body they appear in
- close tufts, and the concentric subdorsal ring of tufts which is so
prominent in the next stage is plainly seen in this. The secretory
pores are scattered irregularly all over the back, and are more nu-
merous than in the previous stage; they also occur under the lateral
edges of the body. They are small and circular, and, seen directly
from above, have a double outline, indicating a circular central ori-
fice. Around the edge of the body is a row of much larger pores,
brown in color, which protrude from the body, masked by the lateral
tufts of hairs, each with a circular crown or lip at tip, from which
proceeds a long, fragile, glassy tube. (Plate II, Fig. 6.) The legs and
feet area little stouter than before, the tarsal digitules are shorter,
and their enlarged tips quite indistinct. The six anal hairs are still
present, though hardly noticeable as they protrude from the mass of
shorter hairs.

THE ADULT FEMALE—FOURTH STAGE (Plate II, Fig. 5).—Imme-
diately after the molt by which the insect passes into this stage, it is
free from the waxy excretion and presents a broadly oval form, flat-
tened below and quite strongly convex above, with two prominent
raised surfaces on the second and third thoracic segments. Its color
is still reddish brown, with several darker spots, especially upon the
front half and along the sides of the posterior half of the body, and
the antenne and legs are black. The antenne are now 11-jointed
instead of 9; joint 1 is nearly twice as wide as long; joints 2 and 3are
subequal in length and thickness and are each somewhat longer than
broad; joint 4 is a little more than half as long as 3 and is narrower;
joints 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 increase gradually and slightly in length
and decrease very slightly in width; joint11 (club) isirregularly ovoid
and is one and one-half times as long as 10; the special hairs are a
little shorter than in the previous stage. The whole body is furnished
with short, black hairs, more numerous than in the last stage, arranged
in tufts, particularly around the edge, where they occur in a double
parallel row, the inner row being practically subdorsal and accentu-
ated bya slight ridge. Down the central portion of the dorsum of
the abdomen the segments are indicated by the transverse rows of hair
tufts. The secretory pores are exceedingly abundant, occurring in
enormous numbers just under the lateral edges of the body, and scat-
tered more sparsely over the back. The individual wax filaments
which issue from these pores are very delicate and curly, and there
is reason to suppose that two or three issue at one time from one pore,
as they are frequently seen connected at base; the pore opening,
however, seems to have a single simple opening. The inner row of
tufts on the back is broken at its anal oint by a depression, in which
is situated a very large pore, from which the insect occasionally ejects
a globule of a semi-liquid honey-dew. This depression is surrounded
by an irregular ring of hairs, which are yellowish in color instead of
black. The glassy filaments arising from the large tubular pores
described in the last stage are now very long and radiate from the
body in almost every direction. They break off easily, yet still often
reach a length double that of the insect and her egg-sack together.
What is probably the opening of the oviduct is situated on the under
side of the seventh abdominal segment. It issurrounded by a trans-
versely oval chitinous ring. .

AT78 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

THE Eaac-sac (Plate I, Fig. 4).—As the body of the female begins
to swell from the eggs forming inside, the beginning of the egg-sac is
made. The female lies flat on the bark, the edges of the body turned
slightly upwards, and the waxy material of which the sac is composed
begins to issue from countless pores on the under side of the body, but
more especially along the sides below. As the secretion advances the
body is raised, the cephalic end being still attached, until, near the
completion of the sac, the insect is apparently standing on its head,
nearly at right angles to the surface to which it is attached. The egg-
laying commences as soon as a thin layer of the secretion has formed
on the under side of the abdomen, and it continues during the forma-
tion of the sac. There soon appears around the edge of the abdomen
a narrow ring of white feltlike wax, which is divided into a number
of flutings (Plate I, Fig. 3). These flutings grow in length and the
mass of eggs and wax under them increases, forcing the female up-
ward until the sac is completed. When completed, it is from two to
two and one-half times the length of the female’s body. It is of a
snow-white color, and the outside is covered with 15 of these longi-
tudinal ridges or flutings, of subequal size, except that the middle one
is smaller than the others. The upper part of the sac is firm in text-
ure, but the lower is looser and thinner, and from the middle of the
under side the young make their escape soon after hatching. The
size of the sac and the length of time required in its growth depends,
leaving the weather and the health of the food-plant out of consider-
ation, upon the number of eggs which the female deposits. So long
as oviposition continues, the secretion of wax accompanies it and the
egg-mass grows. Concerning the rate of growth Mr. Coquillet gives
the following instance:

‘‘On the 4th of May of the present season I marked a large number
of females which were located upon the trunk of an orange tree that
was not in a very healthy condition. These females had just begun
to secrete the cottony matter, the latter at this date being in the form
of short but broad tufts around the margin of the abdomen, those at
the hind end of the latter being longest. By the 31st of May the
cottony matter was equal in length to one-third of the female’s body,
and by the middle of July it about equaled in length the entire body
of the female. As the egg-masses of some of the females upon the
same tree were longer by one-half than the bodies of the females which
produced them, it is very probable that at least another month must
elapse before the egg-masses of the females which I observed would
be completed. It is altogether likely, however, that these egg-masses
would have been completed in a shorter time had the females been
located upon a healthy tree. The egg-masses found upon healthy
trees attain larger size than those found upon sickly trees, owing
doubtless to the fact that the females living upon trees of the former
kind are more vigorous than those upon unhealthy trees.” .

' THE MALE LARVA—PROBABLE SECOND STaGE.—Neither Mr. Co-
anillett nor Mr. Koebele were able to distinguish the male larve until
these had reached the stage in which they form their cocoons. Among
the specimens studied at the Department, and which were sent alive
from Los Angeles by Mr. Koebele, we have found a larval form
which has not yet been described, and which we strongly suspect
may be the male in the second stage. This form is illustrated at Fig.
”%,PlateII. It differs from our supposed second stage of the female
in its more slender form, longer and stouter legs, and longer and
stouter antenne. The legs and antenne are not only relatively

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 479

longer and stouter, but are absolutely so. The body above is much
more thickly clothed with the short stout hairs than the correspond-
ing female stage, and the mentum is longer and darker colored. The
antenne are 6-jointed, and the joints have precisely the same strange
relative proportions as in the female. The secretory pores are pres-
ent, but are not quite so numerous as in the female.

Mae LARVA—THIRD STAGE.—In this, the third or last larval stage,
the male is readily distinguished with the naked eye from the female
in any stage by the narrower, more elongate, more flattened, and
evenly convex form of his body, as well as by his greater activity in
crawling about the trunk or branches of atree. More careful exami-
nation shows that the beak is entirely wanting, the tubercle from
which it arises in the earlier stages being replaced by a shallow tri-
angular depression. The body is almost naked, being very sparsely
covered with a short, white, cottony matter, and is destitute of the
short but stout black hairs which are found upon the body of the fe-
male during the third and fourth stages of her life. In the absence
of black spots and in the 9-jointed antenne he agrees with the similar
or third stage of the female, and the average length when full grown
is about 38"" and diameter about 1”.

THE MALE PupA AND Cocoon.—When the male larva has reached
full growth and is ready to transform it wanders about in search of
a place of concealment, finally secreting itself under a bit of project-
ing bark, under some leaves in the crotch of the tree, or even wedg-
ing itself down under a mass of females. Very frequently, probably
in the majority of cases, it descends to the ground, and hides under a
clod of earth or works its way into some crack in the ground. Hav-
ing concealed itself, it becomes quiescent, and the delicate, flossy sub-
stance of which the cocoon is formed begins to exude abundantly
from the body. This material is waxy in its character, but is lighter
and more flossy and less adhesive than that of which the egg-sac of
the female is composed. After a certain amount has been exuded
the larva moves backwards very slowly, the exudation continuing
until the mass is from 7™™ to 10"™ in length. From this method of
retrogression it happens that the body of the larva is frequently seen
protruding posteriorly from the mass, which naturally leads to the
erroneous conclusion that the material is secreted more abundantly
from the fore part of the body, whereas the reverse is the case. When
the mass has reached the proper length the larva casts its skin, which
remains in the hind end of the cocoon, and pushes itself forward into
the middle of the cocoon.

The pupa (Plate II, Fig. 8). has the same general color as the larva,
the antenne, legs, and wing-pads being paler and the eyes dark. It
has also the same general form and size. All the members are free
and slightly movable, so that they vary in position, though ordina-
rily the antenne are pressed close to the side, reaching to basal part
of metathorax(ventrally); the wing-pads also against the side, elon-
gate-ovate in form and reaching to second abdominal joint. The legs
are rather shorter than the diameter of body, and the front pair
thrust forward. The anal end is deeply excavated, the abdominal
joints well separated, the mesonotum well developed, and the prono-
tum tuberculous or‘with some 8 prominences; but there are no other
structural peculiarities. The aOR is, however, more or less thickly
covered with waxy filaments, which are sometimes exuded in suffi-
cient quantities to give quite a mealy appearance.

Whenever the pupe are taken from the cocoon and placed naked

480 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

in atin box they exude a certain amount of wax, often enough to
partially hide them from view. If disturbed, they twist and bend
their bodies quite vigorously. |

The cocoon (Plate I, Fig. 5) is of an irregular elongate shape,
appearing a little denser in the center, where the pupa has placed
itself, and at the edges delicate and translucent. ‘The material of
which the cocoon is composed is very delicate, and appears like the
finest cotton, but on submission to a gentle heat it melts as readily
as the coarser secretion of the female, and leaves the larva or pupa,
as the case may be, clean and exposed. hs

THE ADULT MALE (Plate I, Fig. 1).—A careful description of the
male of this species has never been published. It was unknown to
Mr. Maskell at the date of his first paper and has not been mentioned
in any of his subsequent papers. Mr. Trimen attempted to breed it,
but was unsuccessful. He says: ‘‘So little is certainly known of the
males of the Coccide that I have kept from time to time a large
number of this Dorthesia under glass in the hope of obtaining the
males, but hitherto without success. I once, however, found on my
window a male of some Coccus which I thought was very probably
that of the introduced species, as it agreed in most of its important
characters with Westwood’s figure of the male Dorthesia characias.
It was dark-red, with the wings gray, and very slender and fragile
in its structure. It measured 43 inch across the expanded wings.”

The male was unknown to Professor Comstock, but was very briefly
mentioned by Dr. Chapin in the first report of the Board of State
Horticultural Commissioners, Sacramento, 1882, p. 68. He found
the male in numbers during a period of two weeks from September
25, 1881, but did not observe it in 1882. It is also mentioned by
Matthew Cooke in his ‘‘Injurious Insects,” &c., 1883, p. 166, and a
rough and uncharacteristic figure is given at Fig. 146, Plate 3. His
few words of description are: ‘‘Male insect, winged; color, thorax
and body dark brown; abdomen, red; antenne, dark colored, with
light hairs extending from each joint; wings, brown, iridescent.”
The following detailed description is drawn up from numerous speci-
mens, both mounted and living:

The adult male is a trifle over 3™™ in length, and has an average wing expanse of
7.5™m, The general color is orange-red. The head above is triangular in shape,
with the apex blunt and projecting forward between the bases of the antennee. The
eyes are placed at the other apices of the triangle, and are large, prominent, and fur-
nished with well-marked facets. There are no mouth-parts, but on the under side
of the head is a stellate black spot with five prongs, one projecting forward on the
conical lengthening of the head, one on each side to a point just anterior to the eyes
and just posterior to the bases of the antennz, and the remaining two extending lat-
erally backwards behind the eyes. The antenne are light brown in color and are
composed of ten joints. Joint 1 is stout, almost globular, and nearly as broad as
long; joint 2is half as broad as 1 and is somewhai longer; joint 3 is nearly twice as
long as 1 and slightly narrower than 2; joints 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 are all of about
the same length as joint 3, and grow successively a little more slender; each joint,
except joint 1, is furnished with two whorls of long light-brown hairs, one near base
and the other near tip; each joint is somewhat constricted between its two whorls,
joint 2 Jess so than the others. There are no visible ocelli. The pronotum has two
wavy subdorsal longitudinal black lines, and the mesonotum is nearly all black, ex-
cept an oval patch on the scutum. The metanotal spiracles are black, and there is a
transverse crescent-shaped black mark, with a short median backward prolongation.
The mesosternum is black. The legs are also nearly black and quite thickly fur-
nished with short hairs. The wings are smoky black, and are covered with rounded
wavy elevations, making a reticulate surface, a cross-section of which would ap-
pear crenulate. The costa is thick and brown above the subcostal vein, which
reaches costa at a trifie more than four-fifths the length of the wing. The only:
other vein (the median) is given off at about one-sixth the length of the wing, and
extends out into the d sk a little more than one-half the wing length, There are,

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. A81

“

in addition, two white lines, one extending out from the fork of the subcostal and
the median nearly straight to the tip of the wing, and one from the base in a grad-
ual curve to a point some distance below the tip. Near the base of the wing below
is a small ear-shaped prolongation, folded slightly on itself, making a sort of pocket.
The halteres are foliate, and furnished at tip with two hooks, which fit into the
folded projection at base of wings. The abdomen is slightly hairy, with the joints
well marked, and is furnished at tip with two strong projections, each of which bears
at tip four long hairs and a few shorter ones. When the insect is at rest the wings
lie flat upon the back.

RATE OF GROWTH OF THE DIFFERENT STAGES.

The rate of growth of the insect necessarily depends so much upon
surrounding conditions, and especially on the mean temperature, that
it is difficult to make any definite statements as to time elapsing be-
tween molts or that required for other periods of the insect’s growth.
No facts have hitherto been published which bear upon this point.
Mr. Coquillett’s observations show that individuals hatched from
eggs on the 4th of March cast the first skin on the 23d of April, and
underwent the last molt on the 23d of May. Mr. Koebele also re-
ports a case which bears upon this point, and which is interesting as
occurring later in the season. He placed four newly hatched larves
on a healthy young orange tree, out of doors, August 5. On Septem-
ber 26 two of them passed through the first molt. October 10 one
more molted, and on October 23 the fourth cast its first skin. All
left the leaves after molting and settled on young twigs. None of
them had gone through the last molt when he left Los Angeles, No-
vember 6. He was afterwards informed by Mr. Alexander Craw, of
Los Angeles, that nearly all of the insects were full-grown in Feb-
ruary, and he therefore concluded that the individuals observed by
him would not attain full growth before that time.

The mature male larva requires on an average about ten days from
the time it begins to form the cocoon before assuming the pupa state,
and the pupa state lasts from two to three weeks. The more reliable
information we have been able to obtain, would show that at Los
Angeles the average number of generations each year is three.

HABITS.

The newly hatched larve settle upon the leaves and tender twigs,
insert their beaks, and imbibe the sap. On passing into the third
stage they seem to prefer to settle upon the smaller twigs, although
a few are found upon the leaves and still fewer upon the larger
branches and trunk. The adults, however, almost invariably prefer
the trunk and largest branches.

The insect is rarely found in any of its stages upon the fruit.

_ The species differs markedly from most Coccide in being active
during the greater part of its life, though most of the traveling is
done by the female immediately after the third molt and by the male
just before settling to make his cocoon. At these periods they wan-
der up and down the trunk and larger limbs until they find some
suitable place, when they settle down, the male to pupate and the
female to insert her beak and develop her eggs and their character-
istic waxy covering. She is capable of slow motion even after ovi-
position has commenced, but rarely does move unless from some ex-
ceptional cause. In thus settling after their last wanderings both
sexes are oe of oma aud will get under any projecting piece of
AG—’

482 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

bark or under bandages placed around the tree, the male often creep-
ing under clods of earth. Both the female and the male, in adoles-
cence, are most active during the hotter parts of the day and remain
stationary at night; but the perfect or winged male is rather slug-
gish during the day, usually remaining motionless on the under
side of the leaves of low plants or high trees, in crevices of the bark,
or wedged in between females on the tree. There seems, in fact, to
be a well-marked attempt at concealment. The recently developed
individuals are found abundantly on or under clods of earth near
their pupal cocoons, and they issue most numerously during the lat-
ter part of the afternoon. They are at first weak, awkward, and un-
gainly, and instinctively seek some projection on the tree or elevation
on the ground from which to launch on the wing.

At the approach of night they become imbued with a very high
degree of activity and dart rapidly about on the wing. At such
times they swarm around the infested trees, and many of the females,
even some with large egg-masses, hold their bodies raised obliquely
from the bark, as though aware of the presence of the males, In
September and October Mr. Koebele noticed that the males began
their flight about 5 o’clock, and as soon as it was fairly dark they
again settled down to rest. None have been observed flying at night
and none have been attracted to the electric lights.

EXUDATION OF THE HONEY-DEW.

It required but a few hours upon our first visit to Los Angeles, the
latter part of March, to become familiar with the insect in all its
habits and conditions, as at that season the species is to be found in
all conditions from the egg through all the stages of both sexes. But
the characteristic of this remarkable insect which most obviously at-
tracted our attention and distinguished it from all other species of
the family, even where there were no gravid females with the fluted
cushion, was the saccharine exudation. As with most Aphids and
Coccids, this sweet liquid is exuded at all stages of growth, but is
most copious from the adult female just before oviposition begins.
It is expelled with considerable force from the large pore already de-
scribed, and in hot weather with sufficient rapidity to produce all the
effects of honey-dew. Usually it is hmpid enough to soak and dis-
color the trunk and to drop as it accumulates from the leaves, some-
times being so copious as to remind one of a shower; but at other
times, and especially during dry weather, the sugar condenses and
forms large drops or masses of white, semi-opaque, sirupy liquid,
which adheres to and often completely covers the insect, so that the
trunk of the tree looks much as if it had been bespattered with caustic
potash or melted stearine. At other times the liquid parts evaporate
entirely and leave masses of pure white powdery sugar.

Honey-loving insects seek this sugary secretion in numbers, and it
is always followed by the black mold or smut (Capnodium citrt),.
which is so universal an accompaniment of all honey-secreting Ho-
moptera, living as it does on the saccharine deposit. The secretion
being so very copious from Icerya, the smut is equally thick and co-
pious in her wake. Indeed, the great prevalence of this smut in the
Icerya-infested groves of California (rendering it necessary to wash
or cleanse the gathered fruit) is as characteristic of the Pacific coast
as the rusty effect of the Rust-mite (which is unknown there) is of the
orange groves of Florida.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 483

MODE OF SPREAD AND DISTRIBUTION.

The spread of this species will be aided by very much the same
agencies that affect the spread and dissemination of other species of
scale-insects. We have already, in 1868, in treating of the Oyster-
shell Bark-louse of the Apple,* and again four years later,+ dis-
cussed the principal methods by which such spread is promoted, viz,
by the agency of wind and running water; by the young being carried
upon birds and other animals, particularly flying insects frequenting
the same trees; but primarily by transport upon scions and nursery

k. ; z

ie insects like the Coccidee, where the locomotive power is confined
for the most part to a few days in early larval life, the species would
be very much restricted in range, and would never pass from one coun-
try to another, except by some of the agencies above indicated. Our
observations since we first wrote upon this subject, as well as the
extended observations of Mr. Hubbard in Florida, and given in the
special report on Insects affecting the Orange, as also Mr. Coquil-
lett’s observations on the distribution of the particular species in ques-
tion, all go to confirm the potency of these means of distribution.
Thus Mr, Hubbard found that lady-birds (Coccinellide), and more
particularly gossamer spiders, are active agencies in such distribu-
tion, The agency of the wind, as indicated by the more rapid spread-
ing in the direction of prevailing winds, has often been verified. Mr.
Coquillett reports: “In the infested part of this city (Los Angeles)
is a large vineyard, and on both the north and south sides of it is an
orange orchard infested by these insects; but, while the recently
hatched insects occur on the vines as far out as the tenth row of
grape-vines on the south side of the vineyard, they are not found
upon the vines beyond the third row on the north side, the wind, as
stated above, blowing from the southwest. No adult females are ta
be found on any part of this vineyard, and the young insects must
have been carried by the wind from the infested orange trees on
either side of the vineyard.” Our own experience in California
showed that similar evidence of the influence of the prevailing wind
in promoting the spread of the species is general.

While Mr. Hubbard’s observations show that the action of the wind
is indirect rather than direct, by influencing the flight of winged in-
sects and the floating of spiders which transport the scale-insects, yet
we have every reason to believe that winds have a much more direct
influence than is generally supposed, especially in the case of severe
storms passing over infested districts at the right season. We laid
emphasis on this in our earlier writings, and Mr. Coquillett, while
admitting the influence of birds, insects, and water in the transporta-
tion of our Icerya, lays greatest stress upon the direct agency of the
wind, Young scale-insects are not easily dislodged, but where a tree
is badly infested there is every reason to believe that they instinctively
drop from the terminal twigs, and their specific gravity is so slight,
that they may be carried long distances in strong wind currents.

In regard to the influence of birds upon the spread of the Cottony
Cushion-scale, Mr. Coquillett observed that whenever the nest of a
bird is found upon a tree recently infested with this insect, the latter
will be found to be most numerous in the immediate vicinity of the

* First Report Insects of Missouri, p. 15.
{ Fifth Report Insecis of Missouri, pp. 85, 86.

484 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

nest, thus indicating that the young had been accidentally brought
there and in considerable numbers by the old birds. There is no
doubt also that the irrigating ditches have a very marked influence
on the spread of the species, as many of the ditches pass under in-
fested trees, and the waxy secretion serves both to protect the insect
from the water and to facilitate floating.

While, therefore, the gradual spread from orchard to orchard is in
the main through the agency of other flying insects and gossamer
spiders, yet the transportation of the pests to long distances must
necessarily be effected through the agency of high winds, birds, and
man in commercial intercourse, the latter being probably the only
means by which the species have been introduced from one country
to another separated by wide ocean areas.

NATURAL ENEMIES.

Birps.—The natural enemies of the Cottony Cushion-seale seem to
be very few in number, not only in California but also in South
Africa and New Zealand. In South Africa the only bird which is
recorded as feeding upon this scale is the common ‘‘ White Hye”
(Zosterops capensis), and this is given by Mr. Trimen upon hearsay
evidence only: ‘‘I have not noticed any of our small birds attacking
the Dorthesia, but Mr. C. B. Elhott tells me that his boys have ob-
served the little ‘White Hye’ * * * pecking at them.” From
what we have been able to learn of the habits of this bird, however,
we are inclined to think that it is attracted rather by the abundant
secretion of honey-dew and the minute insects caught in it than by
the scale-insects themselves.

Neither Mr. Coquillett nor Mr. Koebele observed any bird feeding
upon it. The reason for this exemption is probably the copious se-
cretion of wax, which is doubtless distasteful. Several reliable per-
sons report that ducks and chickens feed greedily upon those scale-
insects which are dislodged from the trees. On one occasion a brood
of six young ducks gorged themselves upon scales which had been
washed from the trees with pure water, and on the same day two
ducks died. On the day following three more died, while the sixth
recovered after an illness of several days. This disastrous effect was
probably due to the greed with which the scales were eaten, as they
were said to produce no such result with chickens which ate them at
the same time.

PREDACEOUS Insmcts.—The only predaceous insect observed by
Mr. Coquillett to feed upon the Cottony Cushion-scale was the larva of
a species of Lace-wing fly (Chrysopa sp.), which was not bred and
cannot be named more exactly.

The Ambiguous Lady-bird (Hippodamia ambigua) has been no-
ticed feeding upon the eggs when they were exposed to view by the
egg-sac being broken open; but neither this nor any other species of
Lady-bird was seen to feed upon the adult insect, although commonly
attracted by the honey-dew secreted.

Among the predaceous insects found by Mr. Koebele and sent to us
for study we may mention first the larva of a small moth (Blasto-
basts ticeryeella n. sp., Plate II], Fig. 3), although as yet we are not,
certain that it ordinarily preys upon the living and uninjured scale-
insects or their eggs. Like certain other so-called predaceous Lepi-
doptera, it may be attracted primarily by the waxy secretions of the
bark-lice, and only incidentally destroy the insects and their eggs.

~

; REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 485

These larvee were often found feeding in the egg-masses of females
which had been destroyed by soap washes, and also in sacs the eggs
of which had hatched some time previously, but never upon fresh
eggs. One of the larve, kept in a glass tube with living scales and
fresh eggs, fed slightly on the waxy mass, but did not thrive until
after the scales died. It then fed upon the dead scales and molted,
but died before transforming. Two nearly full-grown larve fed read-
ily on dead scales which were still soft, and passed through their trans-
formations successfully. The same insect fed readily upon the Black
Seale (Lecanium olece), in this case eating the living insects and their
eggs, forming a silken tube along the twig, and passing from one scale
to another, just as does the Coccid-eating Dakruma (Dakruma cocct-
divora)* in feeding upon the Cottony Maple Scale at the Kast.

This is probably the same insect as that mentioned by Professor
Comstock, Annual Report Department of Agriculture, 1880, p. 536, as
follows: ‘‘Upon one occasion (August 25, 1880), I found within the
body of a full-grown female [of L. olece|alepidopterous larva. * * *
The specimen, however, was lost, and no more have been found since.”
From the fact that this larva destroys living Black Scales, we have
every reason to believe that it will also feed upon living Cottony
Cushion-seales, and will not confine itself, as heretofore observed, to
the dead females and their empty egg-sacs.

Blastobasis aphidiella, Riley MS., we have reared from the larvee
feeding on the contents of Phylloxera hickory galls.

The genus Blastobasis Zeller is distinguished by the first anten-
nal joint being compressed and much broader than the flagellum ; its
lower side concave, the anterior edge above its base furnished with
erect hairs; its apex above provided in the male with a scaly tooth ;
the flagellum in the male is filiform, faintly serrate, and furnished
with short ciliz, its base curved and anteriorly excised ; in the female
it is simple. The palpi are as long as thorax and rather stout in
the male, faintly compressed and covered with coarse scales, the last
joint slightly over half the length of the middle one and its apex
pointed. The ocelli are present. The front wings are narrow, their
apical portion quite slender and pointed; eleven-veined, vein 1 6 dis-
tinct. The hind wings have seven well-separated veins. This is not
the place to discuss the variation which the species of the genus are
subject to; but they are small in size, quite uniform in general color
and markings, but varying so in the intensity and the details of orna-
mentation that the species are not easily separated, and we shall not
be at all surprised if future experience should justify the combining
of several which are now separated.

_BLASTOBASIS ICERYAELLA n. sp.—Expanse 13™™ to 15™™. General color pale
cinereous. Head gray; eyes dull black, fringed posteriorly by rather long yellow-
ish hairs, which curve over them like eyelashes; palpi above pale yellowish-gray; in
some specimens the inferior surface is almost black, whilst in cthers there is only a
slight sprinkling of blackish scales; antennze uniformly gray, with a slight yellow-
ish tinge and faintly darker annulation, the tuft of the basal joint almost white.
Primaries cinereous, sprinkled quite densely with blackish scales; a linear, blackish,
transverse band more or less distinct (in one male only indicated by a small dusky
spot at costa), starting from basal third of costa and obliquing posteriorly, it termi-
nates at about the middle of inner margin; its inner edge is bordered by a more or
less distinct paler gray line; the black discal spot, which in other species is usually

* We have bred a species of Dakruma the past season, indistinguishable from D.
Pea eae ae ane vagina insect (Coecus cacti) received ps Dr. A. F. Car-
thers, of San Antonio, Tex., who collected the speci i x
fhear Cilln, La Galle CoadGhieee pecimens at his ranch (Iuka ranch)

A486 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

external of the band, in this species forms part of the band; the two black spots on
a transverse line with anal angle are always present, though the posterior one is
sometimes more or less obliterated; these spots are generally relieved poste by
a patch of paler scales, while posteriorly and exteriorly of this pale patch the black
scales are sometimes increased so as to resemble a transverse posterior band with a
pale interruption. Under surface uniformly gray, with slight brassy reflection.
Secondaries pale gray above, glossy below, with brassy reflection. Fringes of all
wings still paler, with a yellowish, silky luster. Legs pale gray, the anterior or ex-
ternal surface of the front and middle legs, including coxze, being in some speci-
mens dark gray or almost black, while in others there is only a slight sprinkling of
darker scales. In one specimen there is noticed a quite dark band near the apex of
the middle tibia; hind legs whitish, sometimes with a faintly dusky, longitudinal
streak externally on the tibize; abdomen of a lighter or darker silvery gray, gener-
ally somewhat darker towards the end, the anal tuft of the male more or less yel-
lowish.
Described from four gs and one 9 reared from Icerya-feeding larvee.

We have not seen good specimens of this larva, and may therefore
quote Mr. Koebele’s brief description, drawn up from fresh specimens :

The larva while young is of a reddish-white color, with a narrow, deeper red dorsal
line. The piliferous warts are prominent, whitish, with rather stiff white hairs.
The head and prothoracic shield are light yellow (testaceous), and bear also a few
hairs. The full-grown larva is from 5™" to 6™™ long and brownish in color. The
narrow, whitish dorsal line is bordered with a mottled liver-brown, and the whitish
line beneath this again with a heavier brown subdorsal line. The under side and the
feet are still reddish-white, while the head and prothoracic shield are pitch black,

This species is closely related to Blastobasts chalcofrontella, and
also somewhat to Blastobasis quisquiliella, from both of which,
however, it may at once be distinguished by the blackish band of the
front wings, which in them is wanting or only indicated by a small
dusky shade at the costa. The head of B. chalcofrontella is also
broader and of a yellowish-white color, and the palpi and legs more
concolorous with the body, and the general tint of the wings more
yellowish.

In B. quisquiliella the head, palpi, and legs are more rufous and
the general aspect more like B. chalcofrontella.

With B. nubiliella and glandulelia it cannot be confounded, as
both are generally larger and darker, though some specimens of
nubiliella are larger than the smaller specimens of iceryawella. The
band on primaries of nubeliella instead of being linear broadens
towards the costa so as to form a transversely elongate, triangular
spot, which in some particularly well-marked specimens is quite con-
spicuous.

In B. giandulella the band is not indicated or but faintly indicated,
and it is at once distinguished by the much larger size and uniformly
darker coloration.

A common Tenebrionid beetle (Blapstinus brevicollis Lec., Plate
III, Fig.2) was found by Mr. Koebele to occur abundantly among
the rubbish at the foot of the trees infested by Icerya. Egg-sacs
which had been completely eaten out and the eggs devoured were
found in close conjunction with several of these beetles, and in con-
sequence a few beetles were placed in a pill-box with female scales
and large egg-masses. In a few days the eggs were all eaten, but the
insects themselves were not disturbed. It is probable that this is not
the normal habit of this beetle, yet it may without much question be
put down as an occasional destroyer of lcerya eggs. The habits of
the allied Hpitragus tomentosus, as described by Mr. Hubbard in
his report on Insects Affecting the Orange, p. 75 (Fig. 36), render
this all the more probable. The Hpitragus was observed to feed upon

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. | AST

scale-insects of all kinds in Florida, tearing the scale from the bark
and devouring its contents, and sometimes also the substance of the
scale itself. . 1A sshd

The larva of a Dermestid beetle (Pertmegatoma cylindricum
Kirby, var. angulare) was also found among the Cottony Cushion-
scales, but as it would only feed on dead scales in confinement, it is
not likely that it is truly predaceous.

Prominent among the true bugs found upon the infested trees is the
large brown Largus succinctus (Plate II, Fig. 4). This is said to
destroy the scale-insects, although Mr. Koebele could never see it do
so. He noticed it feeding upon the honey-dew, and on one occasion
noticed two immature specimens with their beaks inserted in a male
larva of Icerya. They ran away on his approach, and the larva was
found to be dead; but, as there were numbers of other dead larvee
about, he did not consider that there was any evidence of the preda-
ceous habits of the Largus. Onthecontrary, he observed this insect
often with its beak inserted into young shoots of Orange. The other
Heteroptera found by him among the scales were the well-known
Piesma cinerea Say, Corizus hyalinus Fabr (Plate III, Fig. 5),
Peritrechus luniger Say, Beosus sp., Lyctocoris sp., and Puezoste-
thus sp. These last five species have been kindly examined by Mr.
Uhler, our best authority in the suborder, and he reports the unde-
termined species as probably new. :

The most efficient destroyer of the Cottony Cushion-scale at Los
Angeles is perhaps a species of earwig, family Forficulide (Plate ITI,
Fig. 6), neither the genus nor species of which we are able to deter-
mine, from the fact that we have only seen immature specimens. Ac-
cording to Mr. Koebele this insect is often met with among the scales,
and, from observations which he made, feeds greedily upon the Ice-
rya in all stages, tearing open the egg-masses and eating the eggs, and
also tearing and eating the mature insects as well as the larve. The
breeding habits of the mother earwig and her care of her flock of young
have been observed by Mr. Koebele, but have been so well studied by
HKuropean authors as to need no detail here.

Mr. Koebele also reports the occurrence in the scale masses, in large
numbers, of a minute whitish mite, which becomes of a reddish color
when full fed, and which he thinks destroys the female scales. We
have not seen specimens of this mite, and are therefore unable to de-
termine it.

In a recent communication from Miss Ormerod, already mentioned
on p. 467, she writes as follows of a predaceous insect discovered by
her correspondent, Mr. Bairstow, of Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony:

It will perhaps be of some interest to mention that Mr. Bairstow has found a spe-
cies of Coccinella which has proved (as far as our coleopterists are aware) to be pre-
viously undescribed, to be so exceedingly serviceable in destroying the ‘‘Australian
bug,” as they call it, that he has been supplying it to applicants. Dr. Baly exam-
ined the specimens sent over for me, and I propose to notice it, with full technical
description and a figure, as Rodolia icerye.

_PARASITES.—It is a somewhat remarkable fact that no true para-
sites were ever bred from the Cottony Cushion-scale until the past
summer, and still more remarkable that in the course of their careful
investigations, extending over a space of six months, neither Mr. Co-
quillett nor Mr. Koebele succeeded in finding a single parasite upon
this insect. From a number of scales, however, sent to Washington
by Mr. Koebele November 10, we bred, on December 8, two specimens
of a small Chalcid, which is, without question, a true parasite of

488 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Icerya, as the female scales from which they escaped were found each
with a small round hole in its back.

This little parasite (Plate III, Fig. 1) is prettily marked with black
and yellow. Itis new to our fauna and may have been imported with
its host. Weturned it over to Mr. Howard for study, and as he finds
it necessary to erect a new genus for it, we append his generic and
specific characterizations :

ISODROMUS n. g., Howard.

Female.—The antennz arise near the border of the mouth; the scape is not
widened; the pedicel is much longer than the first funicle joint; the funicle joints
increase slightly in length from 1 to 6 and considerably in width, so that joint 6 is
more than twice as wide as joint 1; the club is half as long as the funicle and is ob-
liquely truncate from base to tip. The head is thin antero-posteriorly; the facial
impression is slight; the inner borders of the eyes are nearly parallel; the ocelli are
placed at the corners of a right-angled triangle. The scapulz meet on a long line
at middle. The bind femora have a very delicate longitudinal furrow below. The
marginal vein of the fore wings is entirely wanting; the stigmal is moderately long
and bends abruptly downward, forming at first a right angle with the submarginal,
afterwards curving slightly outwards; the postmarginal is absent. The large meso-
pleura are covered with a number of longitudinal ridges.

Male unknown. ‘

This genus belongs to the Encyrtine, and is more closely related
to Homalotylus than to any other described genus. Its structural
affinity to this genus is quite marked, but it is well separated by the
characters italicized above. It differs in habit also, as Homalotylus
is parasitic upon coleopterous larve of the families Coccinellide and
Chrysomelide.

ISODROMUS ICERY, n. sp., Howard.

Female.—Length 2.2™™; expanse 4.2™™; greatest width of fore wing 0.7™™. Head
and thorax nearly smooth; head very delicately punctured and furnished witha
very few larger impressions. Pronotum and mesonotum very delicately sha-
greened; mesoscutum and hind border of pronotum with a number of closely ap-
plied white hairs. The general color is shining black; all of the head except eyes
and an occipital black blotch, the hind border of both pronotum and mesoscutum,
all of the tegule except tip,a blotch each side of the mesoscutellum and one at tip,
the under side of thorax and base of the abdomen, the upper side of the first abdom-
inal joint, and a small spot at the abdominal spiracles, yellow. The yellow cf the
head is nearly orange, while the rest is more of alemon. The antennz are honey-
yellow throughout, becoming dusky towards tip. All the legs, including coxe,
are yellow; hind femora dark above, black at knees; hind tibize with two black
bands. Wingsclear. Described from 2 specimens,

REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
¢

We have indicated in the introduction to this report the more im-
portant results of the experiments carried on at Los Angeles by
Messrs. Coquillett and Koebele, and as their reports are later given
in full we shall refrain from entering into detail here, and state only
a few of the more important convictions that impressed us after the
first week’s experience in the orange groves of California.

IMPORTATION OF PARASITES.—The general importance of the in-
troduction of parasites which affect a species in its native land, and
which have not accompanied it into the land of its introduction, has
been insisted on in our earlier writings and in those of others, and
the ease with which this may be done in the case of the more minute
parasites of scale insects adds to its importance in their connec-
tion. Considering the fearful losses already occasioned to California

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 489

orange-growers by two species (the Icerya in question and the Cali-
fornia Red Scale), introduced from Australia, we know of no way in
which the Department could more advantageously expend a thousand
dollars than by sending an expert to Australia to study the parasites
of the species there and secure the safe transport of the same to the
Pacific coast; and the fact that the Commissioner of Agriculture
is prevented from doing so by restrictions imposed on the Division
of Entomology is a sad commentary on the narrow Congressional
policy which seeks to limit and control administrative action in de-
tails which can neither be properly understood nor anticipated by
committees.

PREVENTIVE ACTION.—The value of clean culture and fertilizing
where necesary to induce vigorous growth, but more particularly of
wise pruning, so as to let in the sun and rain to the heart of the tree,
has been set forth in the special report of the Division on the Insects
affecting the Orange, by Mr. Hubbard, and apply equally to California
as to Florida. We have also been particularly impressed with the
value of wind-breaks of coniferous trees not affected by the Coc-
cide that infest the Orange, both as shelter to the trees and as screens
to prevent the spread of the Icerya from infested trees outside the
grove.

SPRAYING WITH INSECTICIDES.—The orange-growers of the Pacific
have suffered greatly from the advice and recommendations of biased
or interested persons, who were prejudiced in favor of their own par-
ticular remedies, and were for a long time unwilling to profit by the
results of thorough and careful experiments which we have for some
years conducted in the East, and which are in the main embodied in
Mr. Hubbard’s report. A pretty thorough personal survey of the
field has convinced us that while the resin soaps experimented with
by Mr. Koebele are a valuable addition toour insecticides for the
orange Coccide, yet in the main our experience in Florida is repeated
in California, and all the more satisfactory washes have kerosene as
their effective base. There has been, and is, however, a very great
waste in applying it, and wherefrom 10 to 50 or more gallons have
been used on a single tree, from 2 to 4 would suffice.

We cannot urge too strongly the fact that in the case of this Icerya,
as most other orange-feeding Coccide, it is practically impossible,
with the most careful and thorough spraying, to reach every one of
the myriad individuals on a good-sized tree. Some few, protected
by leaf-curl, bark-scale, or other shelter, will escape, and with their
fecund progeny soon spread over the. tree again if left unmolested.
Hence two or three sprayings at intervals of not more than a month
are far preferable to any single treatment, however thorough; and
this is particularly true of the Icerya, which occurs on so many other

lants, and which in badly infested groves is crawling over the ground
petween trees. It is now the custom to use the time of a team and
2 men for fifteen to twenty minutes or more, and 10 gallons and
upward of liquid on a single medium-sized tree. In this way the tree
is soaked until the fluid rains to the ground and is lost in great
quantities, some growers using sheet-iron drip-plates around the
base of the tree to save and re-use the otherwise wasted material.
This is all wrong so far as the oil emulsion is concerned, as the oil,
rising to the surface, falls from the leaves and wastes more propor-
tionally than the water.

_ The essence of successful spraying of the kerosene emulsion con-
sists in forcing it as a mist from the heart of the tree first and then

490 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

from the periphery, allowing as little as possible to fall to the ground
and permitting each spray particle to adhere. It is best done in the
cool of the day, and, where possible, in calm and cloudy weather.
With one-fifth of the time and material now expended in California
the spraying should be successfully done, so that three sprayings at
proper intervals will be cheaper and far more satisfactory than only
one as ordinarily conducted. In this particular neither Mr. Coquil-
lett’s nor Mr. Koebele’s experiments are entirely satisfactory, as we
were so far from the field while they were being carried on as to
render any special direction of them impossible. Both strove for the
practically impossible, viz, the destruction of all insects by a single
application. Mr. Koebele’s estimate of the cost of the kerosene wash
is also too high, as he used it much stronger than necessary. The
resin compounds may doubtless be used to advantage in connec-
tion with the kerosene emulsions; but anything which will give per-
manence and preventive character to the wash will add greatly to
its value. Without going into details as to reasons, we would there-
fore recommend the addition to every 50 gallons of the kerosene-soap
wash, made after the usual formula, 3 ounces of arsenious acid.
Though the arsenical preparations are mainly effective against man-
dibulate insects, by poisoning through the stomach, they have also
more or less effect by contact, and we are strongly of the opinion
(which we hope soon to verify) that this combination, for the first
time recommended, will give the spray more lasting effect, and that
the few insects which escape the direct spray will be destroyed as
they subsequently leave their protecting retreats or hatch from eggs
and crawl about the tree. As a means of arresting the growth of the
black-mold (which is, however, ouly the indirect consequence of the
Coccid), so troublesome an accompaniment of the Icerya, a small pro-
portion of sulphate of copper might also be added.

Just as there is now a great wastage of time and material in drench-
ing a tree, so the spraying nozzle most in vogue in California is also
wasteful. That most commonly used is the San José nozzle, in which
the water is simply forced through a slightly flaring terminal slit in
a more or less direct and copious jet. The force and directness of the
spray give this nozzle its popularity under the mistaken spraying
notions which prevail, and to this we must add the fact that, being
a patented contrivance, it is well advertised and on the market.

The cyclone nozzle has not yet had proper trial to impress its ad-
vantages, having scarcely been known prior to the experiments of
Messrs. Coquillett and Koebele. That made and sold by G. N. Milco
is patterned in size and aperture after that which we designed to spray
from near the surface of the ground. What is wanted for an orange
grove or for trees is a bunch of nozzles of twice the ordinary size
and capacity, the size of the outlet to be regulated by the force of
the pump. There is no form of nozzle so simple and so easily ad-
justable to all purposes. We strongly recommend a bunch of four
nozzles of twice the ordinary size and thickness, one arranged so as
to have the outlet distally or at one end of the piping (which may be
ordinary gas-pipe) and the other three on branches, so that the outlet
is at right angles, each about an inch below the other, and so placed
that they are separated by one-third the circumference of the main
pipe. Such a bunch, with apertures properly adjusted to the occa-
sion, worked from the center of the tree, will envelop it in a perfect
ball of floating mist, which in a very short time will imbue all acces-
sible parts. lor tall trees a more forcible direct spray might be sent

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. A91

- from the end by substituting an ordinary jet and the wire extension,
which is simply an extension tube screwed over the nipple, the end -
of the tube being covered with wire netting, which breaks up the
liquid forced through it, and which for force and fine division of the
particles has some advantages over the San José nozzle. Finally,
if a series of blind caps and several sets of caps of varying aperture
are kept on hand, the spray may be adjusted at will, and to suit the
conditions of wind, pump force, &c., that have to be dealt with.

Fumicating.—Fumigating the trees will always have the disad-
vantage, as compared with spraying, that the mechanism is more
cumbersome, the time required greater, and the first cost in making
preparation heavier; and these factors will always give spraying the
advantage with small proprietors or those who have to deal with
young trees. Asan offset to these drawbracks fumigation has the
‘ merit of more effectually reaching all the insects upon a tree, and this
alone would under some circumstances justify the greater first cost
and trouble in preparing movable tents for the purpose, providing
always that a gas, vapor, or fume be discovered that will rapidly kill
all the insects without injuring the tree; virtues not easily combined
in such subtile media.

In Florida proper spraying has been found to be so effectual and
satisfactory that no elaborate experiments in fumigating have been
undertaken, and we are fully satisfied that proper spraying will also
prove sufficient in California. But so much poor work has been done
and so many defective washes used that many growers have become
discouraged, and quite a disposition has been shown to either cut down
the trees or resort to fumigation as a last resource. In connection
with Mr. Alexander Craw, Mr. Coquillett has conducted some experi-
ments in the Wolfskill orchard at Los Angeles, which lead them to
believe that they have discovered a gas which possesses the requisite
qualities, and trees that had been treated iia which we examined
pretty carefuliy would seem to justify their hopes. Several ingenious
movable-tent contrivances are also being developed in Los Angeles
County that give promise of practical utility and feasibility, and
which we may have more to say about on some future occasion.

BANDAGES AROUND THE TRUNK.—There is always danger that a
tree once sprayed will get reinfested from the insects that have not
been reached upon adjacent plants or upon the ground, and which in
time crawl up the trunk. Any of the sticky bandages used for the
canker-worm will check this ascent, but when placed directly on the
trunk may do more harm than good. They should be placed upon
strips of tar or other stout = he or felting, tied by a cord around the
middle, the upper end flared slightly outward, and the space between
it and the trunk filled with soil, to prevent the insects from creeping
beneath, Cotton should not be used for this purpose, as birds for
nesting purposes carry away particles of it containing the young in-
sects, and thus help to disseminate them.

ConcLusion.—All possible care should be taken in cultivating and
harvesting the crop to prevent dissemination of the young upon
clothing, packing-boxes, &c., and too much care cannot be exercised
in endeavors to prevent the introduction of the species from infestea
to non-infested regions. Next to destructive locusts no insect has been
more fully legislated against than this Iceryain.California. Yet while
some good has resulted, the laws have too often proved inoperative,
either through the negligence or ignorance of the officers appointed to

492 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

execute them, or, more often, the indifference of the courts and their
unwillingness to enforce them with vigor.

The pest has come to stay. No human endeavor can exterminate
it. But it may be controlled, and while the greatest possible co-oper-
ation should be urged and, if possible, enforced, yet each orange-
grower must in the end depend upon his own exertion; and we say to
them, individually and collectively, that there is no occasion for
discouragement. This insect has made profitable orange-growing
on the Pacific coast more difficult and more of a science; but, by mak-
ing it impossible at the same time for the shiftless to succeed in their
business, it will come to be looked upon as a not unmixed evil.

BUFFALO GNATS.

Order DipTeRA; family SIMULIDZ.
[Plates VI, VII, VIII, and IX.]

For many years past one of the greatest insect foes the stock-
raisers of the lower Mississippi Valley have had to contend with has
been the so-called Southern Buffalo Gnat. This insect is a small fly,
closely related to the well-known ‘“‘ Black Fly” of the North, to the
famous “‘Columbacz Gnat” of Hungary, and to other less known but
as noxious species of the genus Simulium, found abundantly in Lap-
land, Brazil, and Australia. These flies swarm at certain seasons in
immense numbers, and by their bite, multiplied a thousand fold,
cause great destruction amongst mules, horses, cattle, hogs, sheep,
and poultry.

Although we possess in the United States a great number of species
of the genus Simulium, only a few of them are so very troublesome
and noxious as to have attracted special attention. The great ma-
jority of the species are quite local, and occur only in such limited
numbers as not to form swarms of sufficient strength to occasion any
serious damage, although they are very troubiesome at times in some
regions. The popular name ‘‘Southern Buffalo Gnat” includes at
least two distinct species, and others will doubtless be found to con-
tribute to the injury when the regions are better studied entomologi-
cally. In any general account of the distribution of the Southern
Buffalo Gnats it must be borne in mind that these two species are fre-
quently called by the same name, and that even other ies not at all
related to them are called Buffalo Gnats by the inhabitants of the
infested regions.

Although two or more species of Stmuliwm are thus confounded, the
following general statements will describe the actions of all species.
They resemble each other in their life-history so closely, that one
description of it will apply to that of all.

The popular name Buffalo Gnat has not been chosen because
these gnats ever attack the animal of that name, but because of a
fancied resemblance to the shape of the same. Looking at the insect
from the side, it reveals a very large, hump-backed thorax, with the
head—furnished with two short antenne, like minature horns—in the
act of butting anenemy. The name ‘‘ Turkey Gnat,” however, has
been given to one of the species concerned, because it appears at a
time when turkeys are setting and suffer somuch by them. ‘‘ Goose
. Gnat” is another name used for the same insect for a similar reason.

Believing that it is always best in popular nomenclature to adopt
names already known and given by itis people, we shall throughout

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 493

this article designate the chief depredator as the ‘‘Southern Buffalo
Gnat” and the second one as the ‘‘ Turkey Gnat.” We shall treat first
of the ‘‘ Southern BuffaloGnat,” but as both species occur to a great ex-
tent through the same region, most of what 1s said of the one species
will apply also to the other, their habits being essentially the same.
We shall call particular attention to the ‘‘Turkey Gnat” only when
it is necessary to show any differences, whether as to distribution,
habit, or character.

THE SOUTHERN BUFFALO GNAT.

(Sitmuliwm pecuarum n. sp.)
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

The region infested by the Southern Buffalo Gnat is much more ex-
tensive than formerly known. In some years at least it comprises
the whole of the Mississippi Valley from the mouth of the Red River,
in Louisiana, to Saint Louis, Mo. All the land adjacent to the many
rivers and creeks that empty from the east and the west into the
Mississippi River is invaded by swarms. They are driven about by
the wind, and reach points far away from their breeding-places.
The exact localities reached by such swarms can as yet not be given,
but may be mapped out after further investigations.

In Louisiana ali the land inclosed by the Mississippi and Red
Rivers, with perhaps the exception of the extreme western counties,
is usually invaded by the Buffalo Gnats during a gnat year. South
of the Red River they become scarce, less aggressive, and appear only
at very irregular intervals.

In Mississippi? all the counties bordering on the river that gives
the name to the State are more or less invaded during gnat years.

All Arkansas, excepting perhaps the western counties, shares the
same fate. In the numerous creeks and rivers of this State and of
Louisiana the Buffaio Gnat breeds most abundantly.

In Tennessee the same conditions prevail as in Mississippi, but the
swarms do not reach so far east as in the latter State.

In Missouri the Buffalo Gnats infest only the southeastern coun-
ties.

Kentucky does not fare as well as Missouri, since swarms of them
frequently ascend the Ohio River for some distance.

Illinois and Indiana are also more or less invaded ; in the former,
it is the region bordering upon the Mississippi and Wabash Rivers;
in the latter, that on the Ohio and Wabash Rivers. In 1886 Buffalo
Gnats appeared in large swarms at De Soto, in Jackson County, Illi-
nois, and along the White River, in Davies County, Indiana.

In Eastern Kansas swarms have repeatedly done great damage.

EARLY HISTORY.

From the very fact that the Buffalo Gnats have been constantly de- .
nominated by the same term, inevitable confusion must necessarily
exist in their early history. Such is indicated by the appended re-
ports of the special agents, who of course could not tell to which of
the species the information received applied.

It seems that no authentic record exists in Louisiana about the oc-
currence of the Southern Buffalo Gnat prior to the year 1850. It has

een reported, however, that they had previously appeared in 1846.

494 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

In 1861 and 1862 they were very troublesome in portions of Missis-
sippi and Louisiana; in 1863 and 1864 they abounded about Shreveport,
La., and in Chicot County, Arkansas. None are reported to occur
in 1865, but in 1866 they invaded the alluvial country between the
Arkansas and Red Rivers east of the Washita. In 1873 and 1874
serious injury was occasioned by them in several regions in Louisiana.
But in 1882 and 1884 they were more destructive than ever before,
doing immense damage to live stock of all kinds. Although not gen-
erally very numerous in 1885, they appeared in sufficient numbers in
several counties of Louisiana to kill quite a number of mules. In
1886 they appeared generally throughout the whole extent of the
region infested by them, and they appeared rather unexpectedly, be-
cause it was so unprecedentedly late in the season.

In Indiana this insect was well known as far back as 1848, when
the settlers used to watch for it every year, as swarms would appear
in certain regions with more or less regularity, often occasioning con-
siderable damage.

It was ascertained from a number of gentlemen in Tennessee and
Mississippi that the Buffalo Gnats were well known to their ancestors
who first settled in that region at a time when Indians were their
neighbors.

But every one questioned in the States of Louisiana, Mississippi,
Tennessee, and Arkansas would voice this universal opinion, viz, that
Buffalo Gnats come only with high water and are contemporary with
an overflow. The connection between an overflow and the appear-
ance of the Buffalo Gnats will be considered farther on.

TIME OF APPEARANCH.

The time of the appearance of the Southern Buffalo Gnat is regu-
lated by the earliness or lateness of spring, and it consequently ap-
pears much earlier in the southern parts of the Mississippi Valley.
Asa rule, it can be expected soon after the first continuous warm spell
in early spring. The first swarms were observed last year in Louisi-
ana on March 11; in Mississippi and Tennessee, May 1; and in Indi-
ana and Illinois, May 12. Small and localswarms may appear some-
what earlier or later in the neighborhood of their breeding-places,
The Turkey Gnat appears usually later, although in 1886 it appeared
near Memphis, Tenn., as early as April 5; the swarms were quite
local, however, and strictly confined to the vicinity of creeks that
produced them. In Louisiana they appeared, as usual, much later
than the true Buffalo Gnat, and some were found as late as June 6,
and the bayous disclosed others still in their pupal state.

The great majority of the species of this genus are northern insects,
and appear there in the winged form all through the summer. | The
larvee require cold water for development. As we go farther south
this cold water can only be found in the more elevated regions or in
winter or the early months of spring. THarliness of season or high
altitude are there the substitutes for the lower temperature of more
northern latitude.

DURATION OF AN INVASION.
Swarms of Buffalo Gnats usually appear with the first continuous

warm weather of early spring. They lead a roving kind of life, be-
ing drifted about with the wind, which frequently carries them long

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST, 495

distances beyond their usual haunts. At first the members compos-
ing a swarm are very active and blood-thirsty; but they soon die, and
the swarm decreases gradually and soon disappears entirely. New
swarms appear continually and replace the former ones. The dura-
tion of an invasion throughout the regions infested varies from a few
days to five or six weeks. If cold weather follow their appearance,
the gnats become semi-dormant; they are not killed by it nor by rain,
but revive and become aggressive again with the first warm rays of
the sun. Hot weather, however, soon kills them and puts an end to
any further injury. The duration of life of a single individual is
short; at least specimens confined even in large and well-lit boxes
soon die. Buffalo Gnats that have once imbibed blood of any animal
also soon die, as seen by the large numbers found dried up in stables
in which they have been carried attached to mules or horses. Inthe
fields’ gnats filled to repletion with blood drop to the ground and
crawl away, soon to die. They suffer, therefore, from their blood-
thirsty habits, and this seems to be quite a general rule with all those
blood-sucking species which are known to annoy man and other warm-
blooded animals; for the love of blood generally proves ruinous to
those individuals which are anxious to indulge in it, as we have shown
to be the case with the Harvest Mite or Jigger.*

CHARACTER OF A SWARM.

The number of individuals comprising a swarm cannot be com-
uted, as swarms vary greatly in size. Their presence is at once in-
Seuied by the actions of the various animals in the field. Horses
and mules snort, switch their tails, stamp the ground, and show great
restlessness and symptoms‘of fear. If not harnessed to plow and
wagon they will try to escape by running away. Cattle rash wildly
about in search of relief. Formerly, when deer were still numerous,
they would be so tormented by these insects as to leave their hiding-
places and run away, seeking protection even in the presence of their
greatest enemy,man. Approaching animals in the field, we notice at
once small black bodies, exceedingly swift in their flight, darting
about their victims in search of a suitable spot to draw blood. But
even during a very general invasion by these gnats these insects are
not uniformly distributed throughout the region infested, but they
select certain places. Only low and moist ground is frequented by
them; exposed or sunny spots are never visited. There may be no
indications of gnats in a whole neighborhood, and the unprepared
farmer, dreaming of no danger to his mules or horses in passing
dense thickets of bushes, &c., near the roadside, is suddenly attacked
by a swarm of these*pests, and is frequently unable to reach a place
of safety in time to save his cattle. As suddenly as such swarms ap-
pear, just as suddenly do they disappear. During a gnat season cau-
tious farmers never travel with their horses or mules without pro-
viding themselves with some kind of protective grease. ,
When Buffalo Gnats are very numerous the whole air in the vicinity
of our domestic animals is filled with them at times, and looking to-
wards the suffering brute, one sees it surrounded by a kind of haze
formed by these flying insects. Sweeping rapidly with the hand
through the air one can collect hundreds of gnats by a single stroke.
They crawl into everything, and the plowman has constantly to brush

*See Amer. Naturalist, vol. vii, 1873, p. 19.

496 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

them away from his face, which does not always prevent them from
entering and filling his mouth, nose, and ears; he is so tormented by
them, and frequently by their bite as well, that he has to cease work-
ing for the time being. Thousands try to enter the houses in vil-
lages and cities, and the windows are frequently completely covered
with them.

MODE OF ATTACK.

The flight of all species of Simuliwm is very swift and powerful.
They possess, in comparison with most other flies, an enormously
large thorax, consisting of a very tough, chitinous integument, that
furnishes ample attachment for the strong muscles which propel them
during their long and continuous flights.

The Southern Buffalo Gnat is exceedingly active in all its motions,
and is at its bloody work as soon as it has gained a foothold upon an
animal. The individual flight is inconspicuous and rarely more than
afew feetfrom the ground. Itis also usually noiseless, but when one

asses rapidly close to the ear of a person the sound produced is faintl
Tiles that of a passing bullet, and no one who has listened to it will
ever forget it, but will always connect it with their presence.

If the insects are not very hungry, or if influenced by too warm or
too dry an atmosphere, they circle around a mule or a horse very
much like so many small bees; if hungry, however, they lose no time
whatever, but with a few nervous jerks settle upon the selected spots
and immediately go to work. They are never quiet, but are most
active during early morning and towards evening. They also fly dur-
ing moonlight nights. During the hottest portions of the day, from
1i a.m. to 4 p. m., they are more or lessinactive. Their favorite time
of attack is a cloudy, dark day, or when rain is threatening. If the
gnats try to enter houses or stables by means of the windows, they
constantly butt their heads against the panes of glass, until they be-
come so exhausted that they drop to the ground and die. Specimens
kept in confinement in large vessels, with the bottoms covered with
moss and soil and containing a wet sponge and a saucer filled with
water, die within forty hours. During all this time they never cease
trying toescape. The sense of smell (and sight) of these insects must
be well developed, because they unerringly find animals a long dis-
tance away from their breeding-places. If very numerous, they cover
the whole animal, without making any selection of position.

The smaller Turkey Gnats are not so blood-thirsty, nor do they form
such large swarms. The snorting, biting, switching of tails, and the
general restlessness of the stock in the fields soon reveal the presence
of their foes. The gnats will, upom arrival, rapidly circle around the
animal, select a point of attack, fasten themselves upon the chosen
spot, and immediately commence to bite. The genital and anal re-
gions, the ears and portions of body between the forelegs—in short,
those parts where the skin is most easily punctured—are selected by
these insects. The attack is so rapid, that in course of one minute the
body of the tormentor is seen to expand with blood, which shows
plainly through the epidermis of the abdomen. The bitten part of
the animal shows a nipplelike projection, and if the insect is removed
by force a drop of blood as large as a good-sized pin’s head will ooze
out. Other gnats will almost at once pounce upon the same spot and
continue the biting. All those veins which project under the skin of
the animal are also favorable points of attack, and their course is made
visible by the hordes of gnats fastened upon them.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 497

The great danger of an attack by these insects lies in the unexpect-
edness of their appearance. As already mentioned there may be no
indication of their presence in any neighborhood and the roads are
free of them. But with the change of the prevailing wind they may
appear, and when one is passing certain localities, such as low, wet,
and shady ground, or dense thickets of underbrush, they will start
forth like a cloud, and cover the animals at once. Open fields may
be entirely free from gnats, but if animals pass certain places in them
out dart the tormentors, and the animals attacked can only save them-
selves by running to high places exposed to the full rays of the sun.
The gnats, following the animals for some distance, leave as suddenly
as they appeared, and hide themselves again in the thickets. In the
cities they appear suddenly with certain winds, chiefly with those
blowing from the south, southeast, and west, and usually disappear
- again with winds blowing from the opposite direction.

ANIMALS INJURED.

Domestic animals are attacked in the following order, varying some-
what in different localities, viz, mules, horses, cattle, sheep, setting
turkeys and hens, hogs, dogs, and cats. The death-rate of mules is
highest, both because they seem to be more susceptible to the bite,
and because they are almost exclusively used in the Southern States
for farm work. Horses also suffer greatly. Cattle, when weakened
by winter exposure and by scarcity of food, succumb easily to the
continued attacks of their winged foes. Hogs show at first the effects
of the bite but very little; yet large numbers die soon after the attack,
while others die about six weeks after the disappearance of the Buf-
falo Gnats; they usually perish from large ulcerating sores, which
cause blood-poisoning. Many persons claim that the so-called char-
bon is produced by the bites of these gnats, a statement which is, of
course, not borne out by facts. Sheep, although well protected by
their wool, suffer greatly by bites upon the Birnraiee portions of
their skins, and injure themselves still more by crowding too close to
fires, which are built to produce protecting smoke. Many sheep crowd
so close to the fire as to be burned to death. Setting turkeys and
hens are frequently forced by the gnats to leave their nests. Young
fowls are killed outright. The gnats, in attacking fowls of all kinds,
force their way under the wings of their victims, where they cannot
be dislodged. Dogs and cats are also greatly tormented, and will not
remain outdoors during a Buffalo Gnat invasion if they can help it.
Deer, forgetful of any other threatening danger, are tormented to
such a degree as to lose all fear, and approach the smoldering fires;
in their agony they sometimes allow people to rub the gnats from
their bodies, and will, in their frantic endeavors for relief, even lie
down in the glowing embers or hot ashes.

EFFECT OF THE BITES.

Animals bitten by many Buffalo Gnats show all the symptoms of
colic, and many people believe that these bites bring on that disease.
Mules especially are thus affected, yet large numbers of post mortem
examinations made by Dr. Warren King, of Vicksburg, and others,
failed to show any relationship between this disease and the bites, nor
were any facts obtained which would justify the correctness of such
a-popular.conclusion. Dr. King opines that the effects of these bites

32 AG—’86

498 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

onanimals are much the same as that of the rattlesnake onthe human |
system. This seems to be the generally accepted opinion among the
more intelligent planters. The animal attacked becomes at first fran-
tic, but within a very short time it ceases to show symptoms of pain,
submits passively to the infliction, rolls over, and dies; sometimes all
within the space of three or four hours. Even if bitten by a very
great number of gnats death does not necessarily follow, and then it
is not always suddenly fatal. Mules which at night do not appear to
be seriously injured will often be found dead next morning.

Animals of various kinds become gradually abeusiaenet to these
bites, and during a long-continued invasion but few are killed towards
the end of it. Itis a prevailing notion that the bite of the gnats ap-
pearing first isthe most poisonous. It would seem to be more proba-
able, however, that the poison introduced into the systems of ani-
mals—unless sufficient to prove fatal—may to some extent serve as
an antidote against that introduced later, and if this poison should
remain in the system with any stability, such a fact would also ac-
count for native or acclimated stock being less susceptible to the poison
from bites than that recently imported. There is no doubt that stock
freshly imported from Kentucky to Tennessee and Mississippi is more
apt to be killed than that raised in the infested portions of these
States, and that, having withstood one invasion, a second one proves
fatal but seldom. One reason why Buffalo Gnats appearing very
early in the season are more dangerous may be found in the fact that
the stock, weakened by exposure during the winter, have had as yet no
chance to gain in strength by feeding upon the early vegetation,
which it obtains previous to and during a later invasion. Conse-
quently, the resisting power of animals is greater later in the season.
Experience has also taught owners of stock how to protect the same,
and in comparison with former gnat seasons fewer animals are killed
of late. Prof. J. A. Schoenbauer, who wrote nearly one hundred
years ago about the Kolumbacz Gnats of Hungary, witnessed_the
post mortem examination of a horse killed by these gnats. Upon
dissection it was found that not only was the anus entirely filled with
the flies, but also the genital orifices, the nasal passages, and the
bronchial tube and its ramifications. A case of this kind must be
very exceptional. No doubt gnats will sometimes enter these pas-
sages, but as a rule death is not occasioned inthis manner. The loss
of blood and the terrible irritation of the skin by so many poison-
ous bites are reasons sufficient to account for the reflex irritation of
the nerves and blood poisoning.

HOW ANIMALS PROTECT THEMSELVES.

The different kinds of animals, knowing their tormenters by in-
stinct or experience, have various methods of protecting themselves
against their attacks. To run away is the first impulse of all; but it
is of no avail, since their enemies are too swift to be outrun.

Horses and mules, if not harnessed or tied, become perfectly fran-
tic, and rush away hither and thither, roll themselves upon the
eround, dash off again wildly, and repeat these actions until they
become entirely exhausted. If they succeed in reaching an elevated
spot free from trees and accessible to the full rays of the sun, they
escape further severe molestation.

Cattle act in a very similar way, but instead of searching for
higher, sunny spots, they prefer to rush through dense thickets, such

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 499

as are formed by canes, and thus rid themselves of many tormentors,
but all in vain. If creeks are near by, some find partial protection by
immersing themselves in the water. ' ;

Hogs also run some about. If mud is accessible, they do not fail
to make good use of that material and wallow in it.

Sheep run about blindly, crying piteously all the time.

Dogs and cats are sensible enough to search for dark shelters in
stables or remain in the house.

Poultry of various kinds seek relief by flying in high trees. They
assist each other in picking off their tormentors, thus partly freeing
themselves.

Deer try to find relief by running away from the gnats.

But all such methods avail but little without the assistance of man.
Fires are started everywhere to produce a dense smoke. As soon as
' the tormented animals notice such smoke they all show their good
sense by rushing to it, invariably selecting that side of the fire where
the smoke is densest. Here they crowd together, and many are in-
jured by too close proximity to the glowing embers. Nor can they
be driven away by hunger; and only during a dark night, or in the
brightest light of the midday sun, do some of them venture out in
search of food.

PREVENTIVES.

Smudges have thus far proved the best method of protecting ani-
mals in the field against Buffalo Gnats. Thoughtful planters are in
the habit of collecting and storing during the year all kinds ot mate-
rial that will produce a dense and stifling smoke; such materials are
old leather, cast-off clothing, dried dung, &c. As soon as large
swarms of gnats appear, and the stock is threatened by them, fires
are started in different parts of the plantation, and are kept burning
as long as the danger lasts. Anything that will produce smoke is
thrown upon the smoldering logs, and the most offensive is consid-
ered the most useful. If the time for plowing has arrived, smudges
are located in the fields in such a manner that the smoke is drifted
by the wind over the teams at work. Such smoke-producing fires
are also kept burning in the cities, and they are found in front of
every livery and street-car stable, as well as of such stores as employ
draft horses or mules. If these animals have to be upon the roads,
they may usually be somewhat protected by tin pails in which some
smudge is kept, and which are suspended from their necks and from
the wagons.

Animals may also be protected with a layer of mud or a coat of
sirup. It has been found that animals which have shed their rough
winter coat of hair and have become smooth are not as much troubled
as others still covered with long hairs. The gnats find it much more
difficult to obtain a foothold upon a smooth skin, and the clipping of
the hair in early spring is therefore advisable.

Buffalo Gnats have a great aversion to entering dark places, and
stables thoroughly darkened are safe places for stock of all kinds in
a gnat season. The odor of ammonia prevailing in such stables may
also to some extent prevent the insects from entering. Planters with
a small acreage, therefore, prefer to keep their horses and mules in
the stable instead of working them in the field. For the same rea-
son the owners of livery stables will not allow their animals to be
taken outside the city limits if gnats are numerous enough to be dan-
gerous,

500 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

But the great majority of planters cannot wait for the disappear-
ance of the pest, and have to resort to other defensive means. Vari-
ous external applications have been used to this effect: Decoctions of
Alder leaves, Tobacco, Pennyroyal, and other herbs, have been tried
with a view of preventing gnats from biting mules while at work;
but all of them have proven ineffective. At a time when small
swarms of Turkey Gnats were tormenting mules plowing in the field
one side of the animal was moistened by Mr. Lugger with various
insecticides, while the other side was not protected at all. By follow-
ing the animal and watching the gnats it was soon observed that any
offensive-smelling substance would drive the gnats from the pro-
tected side to the unprotected one. Kerosene emulsion, pyrethrum
powder suspended in water, diluted carbon-bisulphide, and dissolved
tobacco-soap were all used in turn, and all seemed to produce the
same effect. Several times the whole animal was carefully sponged
with the one or the other of the above substances. For a time the
gnats would not settle upon the animal; but in the course of two
hours the beneficial effect of these insecticides was gone, and the in-
sects were no longer kept away.

Experience shows that the best preventive is grease of various
kinds. The following kinds are the most important: Cotton-seed
oil alone, or mixed with tar, fish oil, gnat oil; a combination of stink-
ing oils alone, or mixed with tar or kerosene oil, crude coal oil, kero-
sene oil, kerosene oil mixed with axle-grease, and others. To be
effective, the grease must be used at least twice during the day, be-
cause as soon as its offensive odor disappears it becomes inoperative.
All such applications are of no advantage, however, on stock running
at large. Gnat oil is very extensively used, but it is like the rest of
the remedies—very apt to remove the hair.* In fact, all these differ-
ent kinds of oil and grease are more or less injurious to the animals,
because a continued coating with them weakens the system.

The employés of the Hudson’s Bay Company protect themselves
and their stock against the bites of the ‘‘ Black Fly” by the use of oil
of tar, and as long experience has shown it to be a simple and easily
applied wash, we strongly recommend its use. A quantity of coal
tar is placed in the bottom of a large shallow receptacle of some sort,
and a small quantity of oil of tar, or oil of turpentine, or any similar
material, is stirred in. The receptacle is then filled with water,
which is left standing for several days until well impregnated with
the odor. The animals to be protected are then washed with this
water as often as seems to be necessary.

As long as stock in the infested region is suffered to run at large,
and is neither provided with shelter nor food during the winter
months, it will suffer severely from the gnats. Animals well cared
for can stand the attacks of the gnats far better, and do not perish as
readily. Tll-treated and unhealthy mules and those bruised and cut
are the first to die, and the prevailing opinion of intelligent planters
is to the effect that well-cared-for mules, if greased twice a day when
working in the field, seldom die even when attacked.

* According to Messrs. Fahlen & Kleinschmidt, chemists, of Memphis, Tenn.,
“‘Gnat oil is any kind of stinking oil; it should not contain drying oils, such as
Olewm lini and O. gossypii.” They use fish oil, and to increase its perfume add Ol.
animale foctidum, 4 ounces to 10 gallons. But since fish oil costs 50 to 75 cents per
gallon, some mix it with crude petroleum; this addition, however, has the tendency
to kill the hair roots. Ol. hedeome (pennyroyal) is too costly, and therefore not
frequently used, Fish oil and Ol. animale feetidum have given the best satisfaction,

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 501

REMEDIES FOR THE BITES.

A number of remedies to counteract the poison of the Buffalo Gnats
have been tried, but none of them have been sufficiently tested or
have proved uniformly effective.

Dr. Warren King, of Vicksburg, Miss., recommends rubbing the
affected animals thoroughly with water of ammonia, and adminis-
tering internally a mixture of 40 to 50 grains of carbonate of ammonia
to 1 pint of whisky, repeating the dose every three or four hours
until relieved. He claims to have never lost an animal under this
treatment, although they were sometimes apparently beyond recovery.
This remedy is not generally known, but certainly contains sufficient
merit to warrant a thorough and careful trial.

Some planters claim to have cured their stock simply by continued
doses of whisky alone and by keeping the sick animal in cool and
darkened stables.

Blood-letting is also recommended, both as a preventive and as a
cure, but may be considered as of very doubtful utility, except in
cases where heroic treatment is required. Mules badly injured and
in a dying condition are bled until the blood, which at first is nearly
black, appears of a natural color again.

Dying animals have frequently been saved by immersion in the
cold water of running streams. Evidently all fuand remedies have
a tendency to allay the fever produced by incipient blood-poisoning.

ATTACKING MAN.

A number of cases have from time to time been reported by various
newspapers in the infested region of human beings being killed by
these insects. Inquiry has sometimes failed to prove the truth of
such reports; yet sufficient facts are on record to show that if the
gnats attack a person suddenly in large swarms and find him unpre-
pared or far away from any shelter they may cause death.

Dr. Bromby, in Madison Parish, La., had a case of death caused,
he believes, by the gnats. A Mrs. Breeme, having lost, in the spring
of 1883, 17 mules of her stock, was suddenly taken sick. She told
the doctor that she had been bitten by mosquitoes. She died in great
agony from blood-poisoning.

In 1884 several persons were killed by Buffalo Gnats. Mr. H. A.
Winter, from near Helena, Ark., while-on a hunting trip, was at-
tacked by them one and a half miles from home, while passing some
low ground: Running towards a house, he was seen to falldead. All
exposed parts of his body had turned black. Another man was killed
near Wynne Station, Arkansas, on the Iron Mountain Railroad.

DAMAGE DONE IN VARIOUS YEARS.

The damage occasioned by Buffalo Gnats throughout the infested
region cannot be estimated, owing to the fact that no statistics have
ever been collected in a systematic manner. But the loss in certain
localities has been immense, and greatest when the insects appeared
in the very early spring. Of late years the losses have increased be-
cause the country has become more densely settled and not because
the bite of the gnats has become more dangerous. The following
statements are based on reports from reliable individuals and from
records in local papers examined by Mr. Lugger:

502 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

As far as can be learned the damage in Louisiana was but slight
‘prior to 1850; but many animals were killed in 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864,
and1866. Inthislatter year the parish of Tallulah, Louisiana, lost over
200 head of mules,.and upwards of 400 mules and horses were killed
within a few days in the parishes of Madison, Tensas, and Concordia,
all in the same State. In other States they also did great damage.
In 1868 many mules were killed in the low lands of Daviess County,
Kentucky. Although frequently causing more or less trouble and
loss, they did not appear again in such overwhelming numbers until
1872, 1873, 1874, 1881, 1882, 1884, 1885, and 1886. In 1872 it was re-
ported that the loss of mules and horses in Crittenden County, Arkan-
sas, exceeded the loss from all diseases. In 1873 they caused serious
injury in many parishes of Louisiana. In 1874 the loss occasioned in
one county in Southwest Tennessee was estimated at $500,000. The
gnats have been especially injurious since the Mississippi floods of
1881 and 1882; in the latter year they were more destructive to stock
than ever before, appearing in immense numbers in Eastern Kansas,
Western Tennessee, and Western Mississippi, and the great destruc-
tion of cattle, horses, and mules caused by them added greatly to the
distress of the inhabitants of those sections of the country caused by
unprecedented floods. Many lacalities along the Mississippi River
in Arkansas also suffered severely. In 1884 Buffalo Gnats appeared
again in great numbers and were fully as destructive as in 1882. In
Franklin Parish, Louisiana, within a week from their first appearance,
they had caused the death of 300 head of stock. They were. equally
numerous throughout the whole region infested, and for the first
time in the history of the pest they attacked horses and mules on the
streets of the cities of Vicksburg and Memphis. No general outbreak
took place in 1885; yet gnats appeared in sufficient numbers to kill
quite a number of mules in various parishes of Louisiana, especially
in Tensas and Franklin. Buffalo Gnats appeared again in immense
numbers in 1886, and extended throughout the entire lower Missis-
sippi Valley, and swarms were even observed and doing damage far
away from the region usually invaded. They came very late in the
season, and consequently animals were in better condition to with-
stand their attacks. The damage was great, however, in many locali-
ties where planters had not taken steps to protect their stock.

Besides the actual loss by death of their stock, planters lose much
valuable time in preparing their fields for the crops. It so happens
that the gnats appear at a time in which the ground becomes fit to be
prepared for cotton, and as it is very important to give that plant as
much time as possible to mature, every day is very valuable in early
spring. Planters owning large estates have to use their mules for
plowing, notwithstanding the gnats, while farmers on a small scale
can keep their animals in the stable, thus protecting them. —

POPULAR OPINIONS ABOUT THE EARLY STATES OF THE BUFFALO
GNATS.

The early states of both Buffalo and Turkey Gnats were as a rule
perfectly unknown to the inhabitants of the infested regions when
our investigations began. Yet the great, and in some seasons ab-
sorbing, interest taken in them gave rise to many speculations as to
their origin. Many theories had been advanced from time to time
and were discussed in the newspapers, and no facts had been observed

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 503

to throw light upon the many mooted points yet obscure in the pop-
ular mind. ; ;

From the very fact that the region infested by these insects con-
tains many swamps, it was claimed by many that the gnats origi-
nated in them and nowhere else. Others were convinced that low
and moist soil would produce them, since it had been observed that
such localities would harbor gnats in abundance, and that their
swarms would rise from the grass if animals approached.

Even such absurd theories as that the Mississippi water coming in
contact with decayed leaves and similar material would spontane-
ously create them were stoutly maintained by some, while others
claimed that the gnats were produced out of mud without undergoing
any transformation whatever. There exists also a prevalent opinion
among the more intelligent that the eggs are deposited upon grass,
' weeds, &c., where they remain until the water of an overflow reaches
and submerges them, when incubation takes place. In this manner
eggs were supposed to remain sometimes for years, or until the nec-
essary conditions for incubation arrived with the cold water of the
Mississippi River.

Many larve, which are found in large numbers about decayed logs
and under rotten leaves in the woods, have given rise to the belief
that such were the young of their dreaded foe. The larve of a fam-
ily of flies, the Cheronomide, which occur in vast numbers in all the
water of the infested region as well as elsewhere, look somewhat like
those of the Simulium. Their general appearance and their actions
are very similar, and consequently they have frequently been mis-
taken for the young of the real culprit, and, in fact, were at first mis-
taken by our agents. But the flies resulting from these larve are
very different, looking very much like mosquitoes with feathered
antenne. they also swarm in very early spring, but are innocent of
any harm to animals.

We reproduce at Plate IX, Fig. 1, a figure of a Chironomus larva
which was found in the pods of Utricularia at Vineland, N. J., by
Mrs, Mary Treat. The figure was made by us at Mrs. Treat’s request,
and was published as Fig. 9, of her article entitled ‘‘Is the Valve of
Utricularia Sensitive?” in Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, Feb-
ruary, 1876, Vol. LII, pp. 382-387. We have also figured on the
same plate, at Fig. 2,a and b, the pupa of the same species and the
adult of Chironomus plumosus, a species common to both Europe
and America, and which was collected in great numbers by Mr. W. H.
Seaman at Chautauqua Lake, New York, August, 1886,

HABITS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

THE Eac.—The eggs of the different species of the genus Simulium
occurring in the lower Mississippi Valley have not as yet been discov-
ered,* but sufficient is known, from analogy with closely allied species
in this country as well asin Europe, to indicate the localities in which
to search for the eggs of one of the species, the smaller Turkey Guat,
which is so common in the vicinity of small and rapid streams.
These creeks descend from an elevated region not inundated by the
Mississippi River. They are, however, greatly affected by an over-

* While this report is going through the press, word reaches us at Los Angeles,
Cal., from Mr. ebster, who was sent to Louisiana especially to look for them, that
the eggs have been discovered by him.—C, V. R,

504 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

flow, since the back water arrests the downward current and event-
ually forces the water back, thus completely filling the creek-beds
with turbid river water. In such creek-beds trees of various kinds
abound, as well as great masses of dead and fallen timber, too heavy
to be floated away. All such projecting points offer sufficient space
for the fly to deposit eggs upon, and such places we intend to have
closely investigated the coming spring at a time in which the water
is highest and in a neighborhood where flies are known to breed.

As mentioned in our report for 1884, Dr. W. 8. Barnard has de-
scribed and figured in the American Entomologist (Vol. ITT, pp. 191-
193, August, 1880) the eggs and early states of a species of Simulium
common in the mountain streams in the vicinity of Ithaca, N. Y.
These eggs (Plate VIII, Fig. 7) were found on the rocks on the banks
a few inches above the surface of the water, and we give herewith a
description of them as a means of facilitating the finding of those of
the southern species here treated of. The eggs are deposited in a com-
pact layer; their shape is long ovoid, but on account of their softness
and close proximity to each other they become distorted and poly-
hedral; one end is frequently flattened or concave. Hach egg meas-
ures 0.40" by 0.18". In Hungary the eggs of the Columbacz
Midge (S. columbaczensis Schénbauer) have also been studied by
Edward Tomosvary, and the observations have been published since
his death by Dr. Géza Horvdth.* It seems that this species is, as
far as its habits are concerned, more intimately related to our smaller
species than the larger and more dangerous Buffalo Gnat. Its eggs,
which areenveloped in a yellowish-white slime and deposited towards
the end of May or beginning of June, are also deposited upon stones
or grass over which the water flows and in the brooks of the more
elevated regions. The female of that species is said to deposit on an
average from 5,000 to 10,000 eggs, but no detailed description is given,
while we have found only about 500 in the ovaries of our species.

But when and where does the larger and true Buffalo Gnat deposit
its eggs? At present nothing is known about it. Messrs. Lugger
and Webster left too soon to discover the eggs, because no gnats were
expected so unprecedently late in the season ; while Mr. Fillion did not
reach the affected region until too late. At the time in which the
Buffalo Gnat swarms all the low land is flooded and the water in the
bayous has reached a depth of 20 and more feet above the usual sum-
mer depth of 2 to 5 feet. The water at such a time has spread over
thousands of square miles, and only the taller trees are above it.
Over such an extent of surface it would naturally be almost impossi-
ble to find these small eggs; but it is now known that the members
composing the swarms of Buffalo Gnats are all females, which, led by
a mad desire for blood, leave their breeding-places not to return
again, but to perish in consequence of this appetite. To perpetuate
the species, therefore, copulation of the sexes must take place almost
immediately after acquiring wings, that is, at or near the places of
their birth, which latter the males do not seem to leave at all. Eggs,
no doubt, will be found at such places. If deposited anywhere else
their chances of hatching, or rather the chances of the newly-born
larvee remaining in the water after the subsidence of the same, would
be slight indeed.

It admits of but little doubt that the eggs will hatch very soon
after being deposited, for it is not likely, as has been claimed by

*A. Kolumbacsi légy, Dr. Horvath Géza, in Rovartani Lapok, I. Kotct, 10.
fuzet, Budapest, 1884,

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 505

some, that the eggs will remain dormant for a whole year, or even
two and more years, in the place where deposited, only to hatch when
reached by another overflow. Such theories are not borne out by
any observed facts, and they are, moreover, contrary to the usual
habits of similar insects.

Since some of the breeding places of the two species of insects are
now well known, the finding of the eggs will only be a question of
time.

Tur Larva.—The peculiar aquatic larve of both the Buffalo and
Turkey Gnats resemble those of the other known species, and their
distinctive features will be shown in the closing descriptive portions
of the paper. Generally speaking, they are less than half an inch in
length, subcylindrical, attenuated in the middle, and enlarged toward
both ends; the posterior third of the body is much stouter than the
anterior third, and almost club-shaped. The color of the larva varies
greatly, and is usually more or less like that of the substance upon
which it is fastened; 1t is marked by two dirty, greenish-gray, irreg-
ular spots upon each joint, ona whitish and translucent ground. The
head, which is almost square, is yellowish, marked with a few darker
spots and lines, and with a pair of small, black, approximate spots on
each side that look like eyes, but are not. Besides the usual mouth
organs the head possesses two additional brown and fan-shaped bodies,
which are usually spread out and kept in constant motion when catch-
ing food; they open and close like a fan, and if folded can be par-
tially withdrawn into the mouth. The smooth body of the larva is
composed of twelve joints or segments, five of which form the club-
shaped anal portion of the body. On the under side of the thoracic
portion there is a subconical, retractile process, crowned with a cir-
cular row of short and sharp bristles. The anal extremity consists
also of a subcylindrical, truncated protuberance, which is crowned
with rows of bristles similar to those of the thoracic proleg. The
larva possesses no stigmata, but immediately below fie anal pro-
tuberance, on the under side of the body, there are three short, cylin-
drical, soft, curved, and retractile tentacles, to which the large tracheze
lead, and which are probably the organs of respiration.

In some of the most mature larve two kidney-shaped black spots
are visible just above the thoracic proleg, one on each side. * If closely
investigated with a good lens it is seen that the tufts of filaments serv-
ing the future pupa for respiration are already formed under the larval
skin. All these filaments arise from the same spot and are branches
of a single internal tube.

Habits of the Larve.—The larve of the different species of Simu-
liwm are so very uniform in their modes of life that the description of
the habits of one will suffice for all. ;

The most essential condition for the well-being of these aquatic
creatures is rapid motion of the water in which they live. Wherever
water of such a description is found in the region infested by Buffalo
and Turkey Gnats the one or the other species can be found.

The next important condition of a suitable breeding-place is the
presence of some stationary material in the water upon which to fasten
themselves.

_ Water in rapid motion is only found in certain well-defined places,
either in streams coming from an elevated plateau or in streams mean-
dering through a level country. In the former any sudden bend and
any obstruction, no matter how small, will produce accelerated motion
of the water; in the latter, sudden bends are the chief cause. In the

506 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

former, there are numerous places where larvee can securely fasten
themselves, because large numbers of sticks partly embedded in mud
are not disturbed by the rising water. Against such immersed sticks,
as well as against fence-rails, &c., which cross such streams, numer-
ous dead leaves are lodged and &’anchored by the mud. All such ob-
structions, forming small whirlpools just below them, are places in
which the larve of the Turkey Gnats arefound, Larger submerged
logs, wholly or partly submerged stumps, brush, bushes, or any other
material of like nature in the larger creeks and bayous give the larve
of the Buffalo Gnat suitable places to anchor to.

Upon such material they cluster together, and, fastened by the pos-
terior protuberance to the leaf, they assume an erect position, or make
their way upward or downward with a looping gait. Frequently at-
tached by a minute thread, they sway with the ripples at or near the
surface of the water, often as many as half a dozen being attached by
a single thread. While these larve make their way up and down
these submerged objects with perfect freedom they do not venture
above the water, and when about to pupate select a situation well
down toward the bottom of the stream.

The larve of the Turkey Gnat are more often found fastened to
submerged dead leaves in the smaller and more shallow creeks or
branches. These larve are evidently somewhat social in their habits,
as they crowd together upon one leaf in numbers varying from ten to
thirty, and, judging from their uniform size, they must be the offspring
of the same parent. As the current away from obstructions caused
by twigs and leaves, decreases in swiftness, so do the larvee decrease
in numbers, until only a few feet away but one or two can be found.
When first found, in early March, they are quite small, but they grow
rapidly during the latter part of Marchand early April. They are
quite stationary when not disturbed. Besides being fastened to the
leaf by the last posterior segment, they are also securely anchored by
a very fine silken thread. When disturbed they loosen their hold at
once and float downstream, suspended and retarded by this thread,
which very rapidly increases in length while the larve are drifting with
the current. While thus drifting they jerk about in a lively manner,
searching for a new resting-place, and sink to the bottom quite grad-
ually. Owing to their small size, and to the fact already stated, that
their color is in harmony with their surroundings or with the leaf
upon which they are fastened, these larve are difficult to detect in a
depth of 3 to4inches. When removed and putin a glass vessel they
soon settle against the sides of their prison, and can then be studied
with a lens.

The larva can move about very rapidly in the manner of a span-
worm, but with this difference, that it always remains anchored by
means of a thread, which lengthens as the animal proceeds. Being
very restless and active in such confinement, it will keep on looping
for hours, at a rate of twenty to twenty-five loops per minute. It can
move both forward and backward; the forward motion being pro-
duced by fastening the single thoracic leg to the side or bottom of the
vessel, loosening the anal proleg, bringing it close to the former, and
letting the latter go at almost the same moment; the backward motion
being simply a reversal. In the course of six to eight hours the larva
becomes weak and sickly; it will drop to the bottom of the vessel if
disturbed, but will no longer try to escape. All the larvee thus im-
prisoned, in repeated trials, died in the course of twenty-four hours.
A colony of nearly full-grown larve, in a small creek, shared the

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 507

same fate when the overflow of the Mississippi River created a back
flow and made the water in this creek stationary for some time.

Ali the creeks and branches in which such larvee were found by
Mr. Lugger descend in beds composed of clay. The are | Bottom
Branch, a tributary to the Horn Lake Creek, Mississippi, has worn
out a bed in a solid deposit of stratified ferruginous sandstone, inter-
mixed with conglomerations of the same substance. The water, 6 to
8 inches deep in normal seasons, even during the summer months,
runs over this stony bed in very rapid currents, forming everywhere
little cascades, and no better breeding-places for the larve of any
Simulium could beimagined. Yet none could be found, plainly indi-
cating that the species under consideration must be able to fasten to
submerged material to find a suitable home.

Food of the Larve.—The larve of the Southern Buffalo Gnat are
- carnivorous in their habits, although they do not, perhaps, reject
floating particles of a vegetable origin. Their mouth is not adapted
for biting off any pieces from a large or solid substance, but is con-
structed to catch and ingulf small objects. To obtain these the fan-
like organs peculiar to these larvee create currents of water directed
towards the mouth. Any small and floating matter drifted by the
current of water into the vicinity of these fans is attracted by the
ciliary motions of the component rays of the same, and thus reaches
the pate embraced by them, and they, bending over the mouth, direct °
the further motions of the particles. If of the proper kind they are
eaten, otherwise they are expelled by a sudden opening or parting of
the fans. They do not feed, as has been claimed, upon plants which
they are unable to bite off or chew, and which do not exist in the
water at the time when the larve grow most rapidly. A searching
investigation of the water in their breeding-places revealed the fact
that it was swarming with animal life, and was filled with the larval
forms of small crustaceans belonging to various families, but chiefly
to those of Coptopods and Isopods. An abundant supply of food
must also be found in the presence of immense numbers of fresh-
water sponges, polyps, and animalcula. Larve of the Southern Buf-
falo Gnat kept in glass vessels were observed to swallow these minute
crustaceans, and none of this food was seen to be expelled again. A
number of square diatoms, jointed together in a chain, have also been
observed in the intestines of these larve by the aid of the microscope.
The presence of such quantities of animal food will also account for
the observed fact that the larve grow so very rapidly during the
early spring, since this is the time of the year in which most of the
small fresh-water crustaceans spawn and produce living young, and
sigs is, therefore, much more abundant at this season than at any
other.

There may be, and very likely is, a connection between an overflow
by the Mississippi River and the amount and kind of food produced
by it. During the long-continued heat of summer nearly all the
swamp-land, as well as the majority of the bayous, dry up, either
partially or entirely, and water remains only in small pools, in springs,
and in perennial creeks. The animal life in all these places becomes
more and more concentrated, while they fairly swarm with small
creatures of all kinds, and if the larve of the gnats could lead a rov-
ing kind of existence, or could thrive in warm water, there would
be no lack of food for them at this season. As great numbers of
small creatures found in the evaporating and fast-disappearing water
possess the faculty of coming to life again even after having been

508 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

dried up fora long time, an inundation resurrects vast numbers of
them, and brings them furthermore within reach of the larvee. These,
however, are not active during the heat of summer, and an inunda-
tion at that time will not affect them at all; but if it should take
place early in spring, this additional source of food would soon mature
vast numbers otherwise doomed to die.

Pupa AND Cocoon.—As soon as the larvee are fully grown they
descend towards the bottom of the water to make their peculiar
pouches, and many pupe are found at a depth of 8 to 10 feet below
the surface; others much higher up. But in shallow water they may
be found clustered one above the other, just above the bottom of the
stream, their instinct having evidently taught them to provide for a
sudden fall in thé water. otwithstanding this, with the water fall-
ing in the bayous and larger creeks at the rate of 1 foot per day,
many pupe are left high and dry. Those of the Turkey Gnats, which
are always found just above the bottom of the smaller perennial
creeks, are not thus endangered by a low stage of the water, which
rises and falls suddenly with every heavy rain, but remains of uni-
form depth at other times.

In one of the breeding-places of the Southern Buffalo Gnats, at the
junction of Crop and Mill Bayous,in Tensas Parish, Louisiana, Mr.

illion found immense numbers of the dry and empty pouches as late
as June 10, 1886; they were attached to vines, trunks of living trees,
and leaves retained by the vines. All these pouches were found near
the highest point reached by the overflow, forming a zone or belt
from 3 to4feetin width. OnJuly 15, the current, very swiftin June,
had almost ceased to be noticeable, and the stream had decreased from
a width of 45 feet to that of 20 feet; the Crop Bayou was partly dry,
and no obstructions or vines of any kind reached the water, which
flowed in clear dry banks. The belt of dry pouches was at the lat-
ter date high above the water, the lowest being found some 13 feet
above it, while the highest reached to the mark left by the overflow.

The cocoon or pouch spun by these larve is conical, grayish or
brownish, semi-transparent, and has its upper half squareiy cut off;
it is fastened to sticks, leaves, or logs. The larva in spinning does
not leave its foothold, but running in the center of its work, uses its
mouth to spin this snug little house. Init it changes to a pupa,
which has its anterior end protruding above the upper rim. These
pup are at first of a light brown color, afterwards changing to a
papeeh cast, and, just previous to the hatching of the fly, to Tage

uring the first of the coloration epochs they are attached to the veg-
etable substances upon which the pouch has been fastened by the
thoracic filaments, by threads about the body, and by the anal ex-
tremity; but during the last twothe pupe hang by the short anal
attachment alone to the threads at the bottom of the pouch, and rise
more and more out of the pouch, until at last they swing about freely
in the current, attached only by the drawn-out threads.

The pupa itself is distinguished from most other Dipterous pupx
by the presence of a tuft of respiratory filaments starting from each
side of the thorax. These tufts, as already stated, foreshadowed by
two dark spots upon the sides of the thoracic segments in the larva,
are composed of a greater or less number of very slender filaments,
varying in number in the different species of Semuliuwm. Along the
posterior margins of each of the third and fourth dorsal segments there
are eight minute spines; the tip of the abdomen is also armed with
two larger and bent spines or hooks, by which the pupa is secured to

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 509

the inside of the open pouch. Remaining but a very short time in
the pupal state, prolonged or shortened by atmospheric influences,
they give forth the winged insects. The length of the pupal state in
the case of the Turkey Gnat averages five days. Both larval and
pupal skins remain for some time in the empty pouch.

The perfect insects issue from their pupee under water, and sur-
rounded, according to some writers, by a bubble of air. The silky
hairs of the fly, however, are protection enough to prevent it from
drowning. The winged insect pops to the surface like a cork, runs a
few inches over the water, and darts away with great swiftness.

THE ImaGco.—The perfect fly varies in length from 3™" to 4.5"", the
females being usually the larger; the Turkey Gnat is somewhat
smaller. Both insects are, like all other species of Stmulium, char-

acterized by their peculiar short and thick shape. The head is bent
under, and is nearly as wide as the very large and humped thorax.
The thick antennz are composed of twelve stout joints; the four-
jointed palpi terminate in long and fine joints; the posterior shanks
and the first joint of the hind tarsi are somewhat dilated. The free
labrum is as sharp as a dagger, and the very prominent proboscis is
well adapted for drawing blood. The insects possess no ocelli, but
their eyes are large; in the male they join at the forehead, but in the
female they are farther apart. The mouth organs of the male are
also not so well developed as in the female, being soft and unable to
draw blood. The bodies of these gnats are quite hard and can resist
considerable pressure. The color of the Southern Buffalo Gnat is
black, but covered with grayish-brown, short, and silken hairs, which
are arranged upon the thorax in such a manner as to show three
parallel longitudinal black stripes; the abdomen is more densely
covered with similar hairs, and shows, furthermore, a dorsal broad,
whitish stripe, which widens towards the posterior end. The legs
are more reddish, but also covered with hairs of the same color as
elsewhere; the balancers are yellowish-white and the wings ample.
The general appearance of the Turkey Gnat is very similar, but it is
lighter in color.

The gnats are exceedingly active, and endowed with very acute,
senses, which enable them to find unerringly animals a long distance
away. Only females seem to form these aggressive swarms, since
not a single male has been found in the large numbers captured and
investigated. The male stays near the place of its birth, and since
females once gorged with blood do not and cannot return, copulation
and the depositing of eggs must take place very soon after emerging
from the water. These points have as yet to be investigated.

NUMBER OF BROODS.

All species of the genus Simulium, the life-histories of which have
been studied, are single-brooded, and no doubt Buffalo and Turkey
Gnats form no exception to that rule. Extending as they do over
such a vast area, we should expect their swarms in some seasons to
form and appear continuously for five or six weeks before the whole
brood had matured and disappeared. No Buffalo Gnats have ever
been found in the infested region during the summer, fall, or winter,
even when inundations have occurred in these seasons, and there are
no indications of a second or third brood in the same year.

510 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ENEMIES OF THE BUFFALO GNAT.

The Buffalo Gnats in their winged form have but few enemies
among birds, because they usually ahpedt at a time in the early spring
when but few of our insectivorous birds have returned from their
southward migrations. Besides the Mocking-bird and the Winter
Wren, birds which remain in the more southern portions of the in-
fested regions, no other birds have been observed to catch and feed
upon them. Hens and chickens eat large numbers of such gnats as
have become helpless by being gorged with blood. A single prema-
ture Dragon-fly, or Mosquito Hawk, and a brightly colored Hawk-fly
(Asilide) were observed by Mr. Lugger to catch them in the fields.
But the larve of the gnats do not fare so well. Although somewhat
protected by their color and position in the water, many are discov-
ered by small fishes belonging to the family Cyprinide, which
frequent even the smallest creeks, and greedily eat them; other
fishes in the larger creeks will probably act in the same way. The
carnivorous larvee of Water-beetles, as well as other aquatic insects,
no doubt find them as well suited to their taste. The pups escape
detection much better, because they do not move, and are, as a rule,
hidden by the fine floating mud of the water which partially covers
them and their pouches,

No insect enemies of any of the S¢muliwm larve have been here-
tofore observed either in this country or in Europe. It is therefore
interesting to note that the larva of a species of the neuropterous
genus Hydropsyche, has been found by Mr. Howard near Washing-
ton feeding upon the larve of a local species of Stmuliwm. The
facts were communicated by him to the Entomological Society of
Washington at its September (1886) meeting, and we quote his account
of his observations:

In the month of August, on the larger stones in parts of Rock Creek, District of
Columbia, where the current was swiftest, and particularly on such rocks as were
tilted so as to bring a portion of the surface close to the surface of the water, were
observed hundreds of peculiar funnel-shaped larval cases or webs (Plate IX, Fig 5)
of a species of this interesting Trichopterous genus. The cases varied greatly in size.
The mouth of the funnel in some instances was not more than 3™™ in diameter and in
othersreached fully 10™™, The tube of the funnel was in every case bent nearly atright
angles with the mouth, and the larva ensconced within it waited for its prey to be
caught in the broadened mouth. It was noticed that the cases were preferably
placed at the edge of slight depressions in the rocky surface, so that the tubular por-
tion was protected from the full force of the current. The broad funnel-shaped ex-
pansion was woven in wide meshes with exceedingly strong silk, and was supported
at the sides and top by bits of twigs and small portions of the stems of water plants.
The central portion was so open as to allow the water to pass through readily. The
tube was strong and tight and was covered with bits of leaves and twigs. It was
open at either end. On the surface of a rock about 18 inches in diameter 166 of
these nets were counted. At this portion of the stream the larve of a Simulium
(probably S. venustum, Say) were very abundant. They occurred chiefly on the
small water plants which grow in these rapid places, and were found in considera-
ble numbers on the surface of the rocks on which the cases of Hydropsyche occurred.
They must have been washed into the mouths of these nets in great numbers, and

robably furnished the principal food of the carnivorous larve. The Hydropsyche

arvee (Plate IX, Fig. 3, and enlarged head, Fig. 4) were very active and difficult to

capture, unless the stones were removed entire from the water. Placed in standing
water they fought vigorously with each other, and after a lapse of twenty-four hours
did not seem appreciably affected by the want of fresh water.

Miss Cora H. Clarke has described the nets of a similar species of
Hydropsyche (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 22, May 24, 1882), but
does not mention the insects which formed the food of the larvee
observed by her,

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 511

DESCRIPTIVE.

There are some characters which these two species possess in com-
mon with all other species of the genus, though scarcely any of the
described species are known in both sexes. It may be well to state,
therefore, that the male differs markedly from the female in his much
smaller abdomen and relatively larger thorax, by the mouth parts
being soft and subobsolete, and more particularly by the eyes being
confluent and having two well-marked and distinct sets of facets.
As we have already stated, the male is not found flying with the
female, and we should not have obtained this sex in the two species
here treated of had they not been bred from the larve. It is desira-
ble to deseribe both sexes from fresh and living specimens, as they
become sordid in alcohol, and shrink and lose much of their charac-
ter and color when mounted dry. The females are also somewhat
altered in appearance after having been gorged with blood. The pro-
thoracic is the only spiracle traceable in the insects of this genus.

The larve of all the species Known have very much the same gen-
eral form and structure, and they differ chiefly in some of the details
of the flabelliform fan and of the mouth parts.

The pupa in form foreshadows that of the future fly, and the spe-
cies differ in this state chiefly in the number of filaments or ramifi-
cations thereof that compose the breathing organs. These are inva-
riably situated, one on each side, upon the anterior dorsal mar-
gin of the thorax, each originating in a single trunk, which soon
branches into rays which are fine hollow tubes, apparently composed
of rings, and closed at their extremities. Each tube consists, further,
of one or two chitinous layers covered by a finely granulated mate-
rial. In both the species under consideration there are two of these
chitinous layers, of which the inner is very thin and smooth, the outer
thicker and furnished with pores. The base of the trunk connects
by a stigma-like ring with a true spiral tracheal tube visible beneath
the epidermis, and which, bending suddenly inwards, contracts and
connects with the internal tracheal system of the corresponding side.*
At the tip of the last abdominal segment, upon the dorsal surface,
are two hooks, which engage in the meshes of the cocoon, to hold the
pupa in position. Some few threads of loose silk and the old larval
skin are also found in this situation. Minute black hooks, arranged
in regular and definite order upon the dorsal and ventral surface of
the abdomen, assist the pupa to keep its position inside the open co-
coon. These hooks are usually bent upwards.

The cocoons of the various species differ from each other both by
their structure and by the method by which they are fastened to
plants, stones, &c. Generally speaking, the cocoon is a brownish,
obconical, semi-transparent pouch, open above, more or less covered
with mud, and directed against the current of the water. The pupa
is more or less tightly surrounded by it, and has the anterior portion
protruding above the rim of the pouch. The cocoons are formed of
irregular threads, which harden rapidly in the water, and in the
deeper parts of the cocoons there are also some long loose and dis-
connected threads.

* Dr. Vogel, in his description of the tracheal tubes of the pupae of Simulium,
gives a similar description, stating that, contrary to the published opinion of Siebold,
there are no trachez inside the tubes.—Mittheilungen der Schweizerischen Ent. Ges.,
Vol, VII, Heft 7.

512 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

SIMULIUM PECUARUM, n. sp.— 9. (Plate VIII, Fig. 3, and dorsal view, Fig. 5).
Length, 2.5%" to4 ™™, Head (Plate VIII, Fig. 2), uniform grayish-slate, clothed
with short yellowish hair, which becomes longer behind the eyes; eyes black, with
coppery or brassy reflections; antenne black, with whitish pubescence, and with a
few bristles on two basal joints, which are tinged with red; joints 1 to 11 gradually
diminishing in thickness towards the last, joint 1 shortest, joints 2 and 8 twice as
long as joint 1, joints 4,5, and 6 as long as joint 1, joints 7, 8, 9, and 10 gradually
increasing in length, last joint fusiform, twice as long as joint 10; maxillary palpi
a little longer than antennz, blackish, with long grayish bristles. Thorax grayish-
slate, more or less densely covered with short yellow hairs, and with usually very
distinct markings, consisting of two mediodorsal and two subdorsal, broad, longi-
tudinal, sooty-black bands, of which the latter curve to posterior edge of patagium,
which is reddish at tip; lateral edges of prothorax with fine black sutures; under
side of thorax uniform grayish-slate, with sparse yellow hairs; space around the one
large stigma lighter; halteres opaque, reddish-white; legs uniform reddish-brown,
densely covered. with yellowish hairs; tips of tarsi blackish: wings subhyaline;
larger veins and base reddish-brqwn. Abdomen nine-jointed; joints subequal in
length, except the last 2, which decrease in length; a longitudinal, broad bluish-gray
dorsal band extends from near base of segment 2, where it is broadest, to the tip,
curving downward to the anterior lateral edge of segment 7, below this band later-
ally the color is blackish-brown, with the exception of a broad bluse ay transverse
band on the posterior edge of each of segments 1 to 6; under side of abdomen uni-
form brownish-gray, without markings; abdomen densely covered with yellowish
hair, which is very long upon the posterior edge of segment 1, forming an overlap-
ping fringe.

3 .—Length varying from 1.5™™ to2.2™™, Differs considerably from female. Head
(Plate VIII, Fig. 1,) not visible from above, being occupied by the very large conflu-
ent eyes; the remaining parts below the eyes are black, with black hairs and bristles ;
eyes composed of two different kinds of facets, those above being very large, as
large again as those of the female, and those in front and surrounding the dwarfed
trophi very minute, the dividing line between the two sizes being abrupt [the figure
is not accurate]; antennz similar to those of female, more pronounced in color,
both the black and reddish being more vivid , maxillary palpiblack, and shorter than
the antenne. Thorax black above, with sparse yellow hairs; legs somewhat lighter
in color, tips of tarsi not black; hairs upon legs longer than in those of female.
Wings hyaline, veins and base yellowish-brown. Abdomen black, with grayish-
white posterior margins to segments, dorsally and laterally, and covered with longer
yellowish hairs.

Described from two bred specimens.

Larva (Plate VI, Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, showing head in three positions).—Average
length when full grown, 7™™ to 8™™. Subcylindrical, the club-shaped posterior third -
of body being twice as stout as the thoracic joints, and joint 4 the most constricted.
Translucent when living, dirty white in alcohol; immaculate in a very few speci-
mens; distinctly marked in the great majority with brownish dorsal cross-bands in
middle of joints, leaving free a white mediodorsal longitudinal line ; thoracic joints

_with three irregular rings of the same color; under side more or less irregularly
spotted with brown. ead subquadrate, horny, yellowish-brown, with a number
of brown spots and lines in regular order (as in figure) and two roundish approximate
ocellate black dots on each side under the skin, and seemingly rudimentary organs of
sight, from which the future compound eyes originate: antennee (Plate VI, Fig. 5 a)
uniformly pale, three-jointed, about one-third as long as greatest width of head; joint
1 very stout, fully four times as thick as 2, which is a little longer than 1, straight,
slightly tapering towards tip; joint 3 extremely smail, a mere triangular tip:
mentum (Plate VI, Fig. 3 a) subtriangular, with apex cut away and replaced =
three groups of very small teeth, of which the central group consists of three teeth,
the middle one largest, and the groups on side, of four teeth, of which the second
from center is largest; sides of mentum, near apex, with two small teeth each; all
the teeth are chitinous and black, a long erect bristle, pointing upward and inward,
near each side of mentum: labrum (Plate VI, Fig. 3 6) horny, densely covered with
hair: mandibles (Plate VI, Fig. 5 b and c) resembling in shape the profile of the in-
verted last joint of the human thumb, with a series of teeth in place’of the nail; teeth
difficult to see, owing to the presence of five distinct brushes of hair; upon extreme
lower tip of mandibles three large teeth, below them a series of eleven slender and
very pointed teeth, of which the first two are the smallest, teeth 3 to 9 increasing
and teeth 10 and 11 gradually decreasing in length; a second series of teeth below
them consists of two triangular teeth, of which the first is largest: maailla (Plate
VI, Fig. 6) stout, fleshy, with an internal thumb-shaped lobe; maxillary palpus two-
jointed, first joint cylindrical, second very short, crowned with a regular circular

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 513

row of short spines or warts: labiwm (Plate VI, Fig. 3 c) horny, with two brushes of
hair above, between which is a very small ligula covered with a small brush of hairs;
fans (Plate VII, Fig. 1) composed of a stout stem, bearing about forty-six scythe-
shaped rays, lined on the inside by very minute, equidistant, erect hairs of equal
length. Thoracic proleg (Plate V1, Fig. 4) faintly four-jointed, subcontcal, retractile
(introversible), very thin and transparent, crowned with about twenty rows of short,
sharp hooks, apparently arranged ® a circular manner; the hooks, of which ten are
in each row, seem to be movable to a certain extent, and are fastened or hinged to
small chitinous rods in the epidermis. ‘ip of abdomen (Plate VI, Fig. 7) formed by
a subcylindrical body, crowned with rows of hooks. Breathing organs below these
‘hooks and on the upper side of abdomen; they consist of three short, cylindrical,
soft and retractile tentacles, which connect with the large internal tracheze (Plate
-VI, Fig. 7). :

In Fae oan larvee a spot more or less dark (as in our figure) is seen on each side
of thoracic joint; it is produced by the formation of the coiled breathing tubes of
the future pupa.

Pupa.—Average length, 5™™, General color, when fresh, honey yellow; protho-
racic filaments brown, and the abdomen dorsally also tinged with brown, except a
mediodorsal space; all the members have also a fine brown marginal line. Pro-
thoracic filaments consisting of six main rays issuing from the basal prominence
and subdivided two or three times, so that in most cases as many as forty-eight ter-
minal filaments can be counted. Abdominal Ree 3, 4, and 5, each with eight well-

- separated dark-brown and anteriorly-recurved hooks (Plate VI, Fig. 8), the four on
each side separated by a mediodorsal space; those on joint 3 less conspicuous than
those on joints 4 and 5; joint 6 without armature; joints 7, 8, 9, and also subjoint
less distinctly armed near anterior margin with a continuous dorsal row of very
minute posteriorly recurved points; ventrally joints 6, 7, and 8 have each four very
minute anteriorly recurved hooks. q
Cocoon.—Average length, 3.5°™, Not completely made and not entirely covering
the pupa, but tightly surrounding its larger portion. Shape very irregular, with no
distinct rim at the upper edge, which is more or less ragged. The threads compos-
ing it are very coarse, and the meshes rather open and ordinarily filled with mud.
Not always fastened separately to objects, but frequently crowded together, without
forming, however, such coral-like aggregations as in some of the Northern species.

SIMULIUM MERIDIONALE, n. sp.—Q. Length, 2.5™™ to 3™™, (Plate VIII, Fig. 6.)
Head uniform slate-blue, verging to greenish or cerulean blue in some lights, clothed
with silvery pubescence, which becomes longer behind the eyes; parts below an-
tenns and trophi more densely pubescent, producing the effect of a white face; eyes
with a metallic, coppery luster: antenne black, with very dense white pubescence;
no bristles on basal two joints, which are but very slightly tinged with red; joint 1
shortest; joints 2, 3, and 11 subequal in length; joint 3 widest; joints 4 to 9 sub-
equal in length; joint 10 but slightly shorter than joint 11, which is fusiform; joints
3 to 11 gradually decreasing in width; maxillary palpi as long as antenne, blackish,
with long whitish bristles. Thorax slate-blue, with less dense silvery-white pubes-
cence; markings quite distinct, producing the effect of a sculpture, and consistin
of three black longitudinal lines, the median narrow, widening a little at apex,. and
the outer ones curving inwards at base and outwards near apex, sometimes reach-
ing to base of patagium, which appears whitish on account of dense pubescence;
on the lateral edges of prothorax are fine black sutures; under side uniform slate-
blue, with sparse pubescence; space around the large stigma almost white: halteres
white, very faintly tinged with red. Abdomen nine-jointed, joints subequal in
length, except the last two, which decrease; markings entirely different from those
of S. pecuarum, formed by velvety black, dark blue and bluish-white, almost sil-'
very, colors; the dark blue appears upon dorsal surface of the last five segments,
spreading from a roundish median spot on 5 to the immaculate blue of the last two
segments; segments 2, 3, and 4 have each a black cross-bar, and 5, 6, and 7 two nar-
row black submedian stripes, which disappear almost entirely upon 7; the bluish-
white forms an outer edge to all the black and extends over the whole lower sur-
face of abdomen, with the exception of more or less well-marked black cross-lines
in middle of each segment; a bluish-white or silvery pubescence covers the entire
abdomen, but is very sparse upon the dorsal parts. Legs brownish-black; tarsi
almost black, and more or less densely covered with whitish hairs. Wings subhya-
line, veins bluish-white, base ferruginous.

Described from many bred and captured specimens.

$.—(Plate VII, Fig. 4.) Length 1.5™™" to 2™™, Very different in appearance from
female. yes confluent, very large, brilliant coppery; a very marked difference in
the size of the facets, those on upper surface being very large and metallic-coppery,
those below and surrounding trophi becoming suddenly small, black, with bronze

33 AG—'86

514 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

reflections; trophi reddish-black, dwarfed; antenne black, with light yellowish-
brown pubescence in front. Thorax above intense black, velvety, with a bluish
luster; under side grayish. Legs reddish, with black tarsi; wings hyaline, veins and
base bluish-white. Abdomen above black, with posterior margins of segments edged
with gray; under side of segments 2 and 3 light reddish-gray, the others blackish
with gray posterior margins. Sexual organs black. Thorax and abdomen very
sparsely clothed with white pubescence. °

Described from three bred specimens,

Larva.—(Plate VII, Fig. 2.) Length when full-grown 5.5™™ to7™™, Normal shape
and general appearance. Differs from S. pecuarum by the much more irregular
markings of segments and head, A majority of the larve possess one or two lateral
spots on club-shaped poe third of body. Head lacks the regular arrangement
of spots and lines, which become confused; the two black spots on each side pres-
ent. Antenne (Plate VII, Fig. 3a) uniformly pale, much longer than in pecuarwm,
slender and 3-jointed; first jomt almost twice as long as joints 2 and 3 together, and
a little bent; at base three times and at tip twice as thick as second joint, which is
nearly uniform in width, tapering but very slightly towards tip: joint 3 small and
pointed, about one-fifth as long as joint 2. Mentum (Plate VII, Fig. 4) similar to
that of S. pecuarum, but distinguished by a flatter apex, by the possession of three erect
bristles on each side, starting from round pores, which decrease in size towards base;
a fourth very small bristle close to base and in line with the bristles above; the sides
of mentum have on each side four sharp teeth. Labrum and labiwm not different
from those of pecuarum. Mandibles (Plate VII, Fig. 3b and 8c) possess but seven -
teeth in first row; the three first nearly uniform in length; teeth 4 to 7 gradually
decrease in length; tooth 4 much the longest of all; the two teeth in second row
similar to those of pecuarum. Mazille and mawillary palpus also similar. Fans
similar, but the hairs lining the inside of the scythe-shaped rays are thicker and
nearer together. Proleg more slender; last joint bearing a crown of hooks, usually
bent suddenly toward head. Tip of abdomen similar to that of pecuarum. Breath-
ing organs (Plate VII, Fig. 5) quite different; the three main trunks branch each
six times, and the branches enter the trunk from both sides. Full-grown larve
show also the newly formed coiled breathing tubes of the pupe through their skin,

Described from many specimens.

Pupa.—(Plate VII, Fig. 6.) Average length, 3.5™™. Shape and coloration as in
S. pecuarum. The thoracic filaments consist only of the six original rays, which do
not branch. Upon dorsal surface of the posterior margins of abdominal joints 4
and 5 is arow of eight anteriorly curved hooks similar to those of pecuarwm, but
none on joint 3; anterior margins of joint 9 and of subjoint with a continuous row
of smaller anteriorly curved hooks; joints 7 and 8 unarmed dorsally; ventrally joints
6, 7, and 8 have each four minor hooks.

Cocoon.—(Plate VII, Fig. 6.) Length, 3.5™™. Neater than that of any other
species known to me, being formed of fine threads, lined with gelatinous ones. The
web is quite dense, uniform, with well-defined, sometimes thickened rims. The
cocoon is always securely fastened singly to leaf or stick, and even if many are
fastened upon the same leaf they do not crowd each other. It fits snugly about the
pupa, which is so securely anchored inside as to be with difficulty extricated.

REMEDIES TRIED AND PROPOSED AGAINST THE LARVA,

The results of a number of different experiments with insecticides
upon the larvee of the Buffalo Gnats made by Mr. Lugger during the
early spring indicates that it is nearly if not quite impossible to re-
duce their numbers by killing them in the streams. To attempt to do
so when all these streams are swollen, and frequently from 10 to 20
yards wide and half as deep, would be sheer waste of time. _When the
water is very low and much more sluggish in its motion, thus bring-
ing the chemicals in contact with the larve, an application of them,
might be more effective. Great caution must be used in any efforts
in this direction, however, as both man and beast are in many local-
ities entirely dependent upon these streams for their water supply and
the introduction of poisonous substances might cause much trouble.

Some of the experiments were made by confining the larvee in glass
tubes and submitting them to a current of water to which the fol-
lowing decoctions and solutions had been added, viz: China berries,
salt, lime, sulphur, tar water, kerosene emulsion, and carbon-bisul-

/

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 515

hide. Strong tar water killed them; diluted it proved harmless,
<erosene emulsion diluted to contain 5 per cent. kerosene was effect-
ive; three ounces of carbon-bisulphide in 7 quarts of water proved
fatal within ten minutes; the other insecticides were ineffective. It
would be very costly to put enough of these materials in the water
to produce the desired effect. Beles 18d

Other experiments in smaller creeks, in which numerous larve of
the Turkey Gnat were observed, were carried out in a different way.
The materials tried were freshly burned lime, emulsion of kerosene,
powdered pyrethrum, carbon-bisulphide, powdered cocculus indicus,
and tobacco soap. With the exception of the lime, which was thrown
into the water in pieces of the size of an Irish potato, all the others
were ina watery solution or suspension. Repeated trials with all the
chemicals produced the same effect. As soon as the larve came in
contact with any of the insecticides they would immediately loosen
their hold upon the leaf and drop down-stream. When the insecti-
cides became so much diluted as not to incommode the larve any
longer, these would again fasten to leaves. By using a larger amount
of the various substances many larve were killed, as well as most of
the small fish and aquatic insects.

But if the breeding-places in the creeks have to be searched out to
apply the insecticides, it would be much more simple to remove all
the logs, sticks, and leaves. All the fences across the branches should
be removed, or rather should be replaced by wire fences, which would
neither impede the current nor catch as many sticks and leaves. Logs
and larger twigs, if not embedded too deep in the mud of the creek
bed or banks, will always be removed by any high water; avery com-
mon occurrence in the Buffalo Gnat region. Old leaves, made heavy
by the adhering mud, would also be carried away by any high water
if the obstructions in these creeks were removed, and with these sticks
and leaves many if not most of the larve would be carried away
either into the main rivers or the lower level of the creeks or lakes,
where there is no current and where they would soon perish.

If the general opinion that broken levees are to blame for the de-
structive swarms of Buffalo Gnats prove to be the correct one, the
restoration of such levees would, within a few years at most, restore
the former immunity from these insects. This time would be materi-
ally hastened by the removal of obstructions in all such parts of the
bayous where they wouid come in contact with the swiftest current.

OVERFLOWS AND BUFFALO GNATS.

It is very generally claimed by the inhabitants of the infested re-
gion that as long as the States bordering upon the Mississippi River
had a perfect levee system, which prevented the water from escaping
into the inland bayous, no damage was occasioned by Buffalo Gnats,
not even in districts now badly infested. It is further claimed that
the Buffalo Gnats appear with every overflow, and only with an over-
flow if such overflow occur at the proper season and with the proper
temperature, viz, during the first continuous warm days of March,
April, or May.

' The chronological data already given seem to prove such assertions
correct. Too much weight should not, however, be attached to these
data. The region is as yet rather thinly settled, and no systematic
records of the appearance of Buffalo Gnats in injurious numbers have
ever been kept. A general and widespread appearance of these

516 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

insects seems to take place, however, only during an inundation, and,
granting the connection between the two phenomena, the causes for it
are yet obscure. It was by the elucidation of this problem that we
hoped to discover some means of preventing the injury of the flies by
preventing the multiplication of the larvee.

Inundations in the lower ee Valley are not occasioned by
local rains, but by the immense volume of water brought down by
the river and its more northern tributaries, and such overflows first
take place in the northern regions infested by the Buffalo Gnats, and
not in the southern. The earlier appearance of these insects in the
South would seem to invalidate the prevailing belief that an overflow
brings them. Similar conditions prevail in Hungary, where a closely
allied insect does so much injury to all kinds of live stock. There
the gnats appear every spring in varying numbers, forming local
swarms which move about with the wind: but no general invasion
takes place until the river Danube inundates the region infested.

Is it not probable that swarms of these gnats are forced by the con-
ditions consequent upon an inundation to extend their flight beyond
their usual haunts to the more elevated and drier regions, and that
in this fact we have at least one of the causes of the connection?
Small swarms, otherwise local and unobserved, would thus, during a
period of high water, be forced to band together in such immense
armies. There must be other reasons, not yet clearly demonstrated,
why these insects appear in such vast swarms with an overflow, and
this problem can only be solved by a critical study of many breeding-
places during several seasons over the whole region involved.

Some peculiarities of the swarms of Buffalo Gnats have been ob-
served, and these may, by closer study in future, throw some light
upon the problem. It is to be noted that all the specimens compos-
ing these swarms are females, and that not one male has been found
among them either here or in Europe. There is every reason to
believe that none of the females composing the blood-thirsty swarms
return to the localities where they were born and developed. Expe-
rience indicates that once gorged with blood they die. The swarms
dwindle in proportion as they are carried away or move from their
breeding-places.

Close investigation with the microscope has failed to reveal any.
eggs in the ovaries of the females composing these swarms, and if
they deposit eggs at all it is before congregating to attack animals.

These singular facts invite speculation and theory, but it were un-
wise to indulge in these before we have learned more about the eggs,
when and where deposited, and whether the females depositing them
are in any way different from those comprising the swarms. Dr.
Fritz Miller has published in the Archivos do Museu Nacional do
fio de Janeiro, Vol. IV, p. 47, pl. [V-VII, * some very interesting
observations on another fly (Paltosoma torrentium), the larva of
which is only found in the torrents and cascades of certain streams
descending the mountains of Brazil. There the pupee fastened by
the flat venter to the rocks under water, and change into the per-
fect flies. He found by opening the mature pupe that there are al-
ways two forms of females associated with one form cf male. The
one form of female possesses a rudimentary mouth, only fit to sip

* Reviews of his paper appeared in Kosmos, Vol. VIII, pp. 37-42; Nature, July 7,
1881, p. 214; Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, February, 1881, p. 206 and pp. 180-
132, and March, 1881, pp. 225, 226.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 517

honey while the other has a mouth well adapted to penetrate, the
skin of warm-blooded animals and to suck blood.

The male Simulium, so far as known, is only found near where it
developed. The structure of its mouth prevents it from biting, and
it shows no inclination to join the roving swarms of females. Hence
pairing of the sexes must take place in the vicinity of birth, and the
eggs are probably deposited soon afterwards. It is also pea as
in the case of other Diptera, that the eggs are already well developed
in the pupa.

The condition of the inundated region forbids an indiscriminate
selection of places to deposit in, since the young larvee must in time
find suitable swift currents of water after the subsidence to the nor-
mal level. Such breeding-places we hope to be able to map out in
future.

tt has also been claimed that a number of successive broods of the
Buffalo Gnat appear in early spring. If such were the case the rela-
tionship between the presence of the gnats and an overflow could be
very readily imagined; but we have already shown that there is abso-
lutely no proof thus far of more than one annual brood.

Mr. Webster, while studying in the neighborhood of Vicksburg
last spring, was impressed with the idea that the connection between
the Stmulium increase and overflows was dependent upon the condi-
tion of the levees, in that the river water in swelling the waters of the
bayous not only creates a stronger current in the main bayou, but
brings the current in contact with many trees and shrubs, as well as
stumps and vines, along the bayous, thereby offering much greater
chance for the larve to attach themselves.

While we were at first inclined to give some weight to this view,
and it seemed to afford an additional important argument in favor
of keeping the levees in good condition, a survey of the whole field
leads us to abandon this as the most important cause in the increase
of the gnats during the period of the overflow, and to adopt the
theory already advanced, viz, that the connection is at least partly
due to the gnats being driven by the advancing waters from the lower
to the higher lands.

Another theory, not supplanting this last but supplementing it, we
would advance here: There is no doubt but that tie advance of the
waters from the main river and their commingling with the clearer
streams and tributaries carry a suddenly increased food-supply, in
the way of minute crustacea and other aquatic creatures, to the Sumu-
lium larvee just at the season when these are about totransform. It
is quite probable that development in these larves remains more or
less latent or stationary during the cold winter months or when the
water in which they occur is depleted of minute animal life, and that
a sudden access of food would accelerate the final transformations.

A possible third connection between the overflow and this increase
may arise from the fact that the larvee, when the water rises, leave
their attachments, or that the débris upon which they are fastened
becomes itself started by the flood current, and that in consequence
the larves from hundreds of smaller streams and tributaries are car-
ried away by the rising water and impelled into the current of the
large streams, by which they may be carried for many miles, spreading
out at last in the overflowed region at just the time when they are
ready for their final transformations. On this theory the larve from
regions far distant become massed in the overflowed region and vastly
augment the numbers which have naturally bred there.

518 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

THE FALL WEB-WORM.
(Hyphantria cunea, Drury.) *

Order LEPIDOPTERA; family BOMBYCID.
[Plates X and XI.]

This insect has from time to time attracted general attention by its
great injuries to both fruit and shade trees. Many authors have
written about it, and consequently it has received quite a number of
different names. The popular name ‘Fall Web-worm,” first given
to it by Harris, in his ‘‘ Insects injurious to Vegetation,” is sufficiently
appropriate as indicating the season when the webs are most numer-
ous. The term is, however, most expressive for the New England and
other Northern States, where the insect is single-brooded, appearing
there during August and September, while in more southern regions
it is double-brooded. In our third Missouri report we first called
attention to its double-broodedness at Saint Louis, and we find that it
is invariably two-brooded at Baltimore and Washington. Except in
seasons of extreme increase, however, the first brood does no wide-
spread damage, while the Fall brood nearly always attracts attention.

We have decided to call attention to this insect somewhat in detail
in this report because of its exceptional prevalence and injury in the
Atlantic States during the year 1886, and because it became a public
nuisance in the city of Washington, and the District Commissioners
have formally requested information from us on the subject.

NATURAL HISTORY.

LIMITATION OF Broops.—At Washington we may say in general
that the first brood appears soon after the leaves have fully devel-
oped, and numerous webs can be found about the first of June, while
the second brood appears from the middle of July on through August
and September. In Massachusetts and other Northern States the
first moths issue in June and July; the caterpillars hatch from the
last of Jung until the middle of August, reach full growth and wan-
der about seeking places for transformation from the end of August
to the end of September.

The species invariably hibernates in the chrysalis state within its
cocoon, and the issuing of the first brood of moths is, as a conse-
quence, tolerably regular as to time, 7. e., they will be found issuing
and flying anes about during the evening, and more particularly

* We have adopted the name Hyphantria cunea, following Clemens’s reasons for
separating Hyphantria from Spilosoma. Heshows (Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1860,
p. 530) that, while agreeing in the wings, Hyphantria differs in the labial palpi, the
second joint of which is very short and the terminal joint nearly rudimentary, and
in the hind tibiae, which have but one pair of small apical spurs.

The following is the synonymy of the species:

Phalena (Bombyx) cunea Drury, 1782.

Phalena punctatissima Abbott and Smith, 1797,

OCycnia cunea Huebner, 1821,

Spilosoma cunea (Drury), Westwood’s Ed. Drury, 1887,

Hyphantria textor Harris, 1841.

Huproctis textor (Harris); Walker, 1855.

Hyphantria punctata Fitch, 1856.

Hyphantria textor Harris, Clemens, 1861.

Spilosoma cunea Drury, Brooklyn Soc, Check-list of Macro-Lep., 1882.

Hyphantria cunea (Drury), Grote’s Check-list, 1882.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 519

at night, during the whole month of May, the bulk of them early or
late in the month, according as the season may be early or late.
They couple and oviposit very soon after issuing, and in ordinary
seasons we may safely count on the bulk of the eggs being laid by
theendof May. During the month of June the moths become scarcer,
and the bulk of them have perished by the middle of that monta,
while the webs of the caterpillars become more and more conspicu-
ous. The second brood of moths begins to appear in July, and its
occurrence extends over a longer period than is the case with the first
or spring brood. The second brood of caterpillars may be found from
the end of July to the end of September, hatching most extensively,
however, about the first of August.

In Massachusetts and other Northern States the first moths issue
in June and July; the caterpillars hatch from the last of June until
. the middle of August, reach full growth, and wander about seeking
_ places for transformation from the end of August to the end of Sep-
tember.

The following general remarks upon the different stages refer to
Washington and localities where the same conditions hold.

THE Haas (Plate X, Fig. 3a).—The female moth deposits her eggs
in a cluster on a leaf, sometimes upon the upper Sy sometimes on
the lower side, usually near the end of a branch. Each cluster con-
sists of a great many eggs, which are deposited close together and
sparsely interspersed with hair-like scales. In three instances those
deposited by a single female were counted. The result was 394,
427, and 502, or an average of 441 eggs. But in addition to such
large clusters each female will deposit eggs in smaller and less regu-
lar patches, so that at least 500 eggs may be considered as the real
number produced by a single individual. The egg, measuring 0.4"",
is of a bright golden-yellow color, quite globular, and ornamented by
numerous regular pits, which give it under a magnifying lens the
appearance of a beautiful golden thimble. As the eggs approach
the time of hatching this colo¥ disappears and gives place to a dull,
leaden hue.

The interval between the time of depositing and hatching of the
eggs for the first brood varies considerably, and the latter may be
greatly retarded by inclement weather. Usually, however, not more
than ten days are consumed in maturing the embryo within. The
Seat OF the summer brood seldom require more than one week to

atch.

Without check the offspring of one female moth might in a single
season (assuming one-half of her progeny to be female and barring
all checks) number 125,000 caterpillars in early Fall—enough to ruin
the shade trees of many a fine street.

THE Larv# (Plate X, Figs. 2a, 2b, and 2c).—The caterpillars just
born are pale yellow, with two rows of black marks along the body, a
black head, and with quite sparse hairs. When full grown they gen-
erally appear pale yellowish or greenish, with a broad dusky stripe
along the back and a yellow stripe along the sides; they are covered
with whitish hairs, which spring from black and orange-yellow warts.
The caterpillar is, however, very variable both as to depth of coloring
and as to markings. Close observations have failed to show that
different food produces changes in the coloration; in fact, nearly all
the various color varieties may be found upon the same tree. The
fall generation is, however, on the whole, darker, with browner hairs,
than the spring generation.

520 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

As soon as the young caterpillars hatch they immediately go to
work to spina small silken web for themselves, which by their united
efforts soon grows large enough to be noticed upon the trees. Under
this protecting shelter they feed in company, ait first devouring only
the green upper portions of the leaf, and leaving the veins and lower
skin unmolested. As they increase in size they enlarge their web by
connecting it with the adjoining leaves and twigs; thus as they grad-
ually work downwards their web becomes quite bulky, and, as it is
filled with brown and skeletonized leaves and other discolored matter
as well as with their old skins, it becomes quite an unpleasant feature
in our public thoroughfares and parks. The caterpillars always feed
underneath these webs; butas soon as they approach maturity, which
requires-about one month, they commence to scatter about, searching
for suitable places in which to spin their cocoons. If very numerous
upon the same treethe food-supply gives out, and they are forced by
hunger to leave their sheltering homes before the usual time.

When the young caterpillars are forced to leave their web they do
not drop suddenly to the ground, but suspend themseives by a fine
silken thread, by means of which they easily recover the tree. Grown
caterpillars, which measure 1.11 inches in length, do not spin such a
thread. Both young and old ones drop themselves to the ground
without spinning when disturbed or sorely pressed by hunger.

PupPa AND Cocoon (Plate X, Figs. 2d and 2e).—Favorite recesses
selected for pupation are the crevices in bark and similar shelters
above ond, in some cases even the empty cocoons of other moths.*
The angles of tree-boxes, the rubbish collected around the base of
trees and other like shelter are employed for this purpose, while the
second brood prefer to bury themselves just under the surface of the
ground, provided that the earth be soft enough for that purpose.
The cocoon itself is thin and almost transparent, and is composed of
a slight web of silk intermixed with a few hairs, or mixed with sand
if made in the soil.

The pupa is of a very dark-brown color, smooth and polished, and
faintly punctuate. It is characterized by a swelling or bulging about
ae edge. It is 0.60 inch long and 0.23 inch broad in the middle of
its body. ;

Tue Motu (Plate X, Figs. 1 a—j, and 2/).—The moths vary greatly,
both in size and coloration. They have, in consequence of such vari-
ations, received many names, such ascunea Drury, textor Harr., punc-
tata Witch, punctatissima Smith. But there is no doubt, as proven
from frequent breeding of specimens, that all these names apply to
the very same insect, or at most to slight varieties, and that Drury’s’
name cunea, having priority, must be used for the species.

The most frequent form observed in the vicinity of Washington is
white, with a very slight fulvous shade. It has immaculate wings,
tawny-yellow front thighs, and blackish feet. In some specimens the
tawny thighs have a large black spot, while the shanks on the upper
surface are rufous. In many all the thighs are tawny-yellow, while
in others they have scarcely any color. Some specimens (often reared
from the same lot of larvee) have two tolerably distinct spots on each
front wing, one at base of fork on the costal nerve and one just within
the second furcation of the mediannerve. Other specimens, again,
have their wings spotted all over and approach the form punctatis-
sima, described as the Many-spotted Ermine-moth of the Southern

* We have known the substantial cocoon of Cerura to be used for this purpose.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 521

States. The wings of the moths expand from one inch and a quarter
to one inch and three-eighths. The male moth, which is usually a
little smaller, has its antenne doubly feathered beneath, while those
of the female possess instead two rows of minute teeth.

The pupa state lasts from six to eight days for the summer brood,
while the hibernating brood, however, requires as many months, ac-
cording to the latitude.

INJURY DONE IN 1886.

During the past year the city of Washington, as well as its vicinity,
was entirely overrun by the caterpillars. With the exception of trees
and plants the foliage of which was not agreeable to the taste of this
insect, all vegetation suffered greatly. The appended list of trees,
shrubs, and other plants shows that comparatively few kinds escaped
entirely. The fine rows of shade trees which grace all the streets
and avenues appeared leafiess and covered with throngs of the hairy
worms. Excepting onthe very tall trees, in which the highest branches
showed a few leaves too high for the caterpillars to reach, not a
' vestige of foliage could be seen. The trees were not alone bare, but
were still more disfigured by old and new webs made by the cater-
pillars, in which bits of leaves and leaf-stems, as well as the dried
frass, had collected, producing a very unpleasant sight. The pave-
ments were also constantly covered with this unsightly frass, and
the empty skins of the various molts the caterpillars had to undergo
were drifted about with every wind and collected in masses in cor-
ners and tree-boxes. The parks fared alittle better. Because of the
great variety of trees planted there some escaped entirely, while
others showed the effect of the united efforts of so many hungry cat-
erpillars only in a more or less severe degree. The grassy spots sur-
rounding the different groups of trees had also a protective influence,
since the caterpillars do not like to travel over grass, except when
prompted by a too ravenous hunger. The rapid increase of this in-
sect is materially assisted by the peculiar method of selecting shade
trees for the city. Kvery street has but one kind of shade tree; rows
of them extend for miles, and the trees are planted so close together
that their branches almost interlace. Thus there is no obstacle at
all to the rapid increase and distribution of the caterpillars. If dif-
ferent kinds of trees had been planted so as to alternate, less trouble
might be experienced. Plate XI shows a view of Fourteenth street,
taken in late September, which illustrates the point, the Poplars on the
west side being completely defoliated as far as the eye can reach,
while the Maples on the east are almost untouched.

As long as the caterpillars were young and still small the different
communities remained under cover of their webs and only offended
the eye; but as soon as they reached maturity and commenced to scat-
ter, prompted by the desire to find suitable places to spin their cocoons
and transform to pepe, matters became more unpleasant and com-

laints were heard from all those who had to pass such infested trees.

n many localities no one could walk without stepping upon cater-
pillars; they dropped upon every one and every thing; they entered
flower and vegetable gardens, porches and verandas, and the house
itself, and became, in fact, a general nuisance.

The chief damage done to vegetation was confined to the city itself,
although the caterpillars extended some distance into the surrounding
country. There, however, they were more local and almost entirely

522 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

confined to certain trees, and mainly so to the White Poplar and the
Cotton-wood. Along the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad tracks
these trees were defoliated as far as five miles from the Capitol. In
Georgetown the caterpillars were equally noxious, but in the adjoin-
ing forests but very few webs could be seen.

‘ihe proportionate injury to any given species of tree is to some
extent a matter of chance; and in some respects a year of great injury,
as 1886, is not a good year to study the preferences of a species, be-
cause when hard pressed for food the caterpillars will feed upon al-
most any plant, though it is questionable whether they can mature
and transform on those which they take to only under the influence
of such absolute necessity. Again, the preference shown for partic-
ular trees is more the result of the preference of the parent moth than
of its progeny in a case of so general a feeder as the Fall Web-worm.
We had a very good illustration of this in Atlantic City last autumn.
The caterpillars were exceedingly abundant during autumn along this
portion of the Atlantic coast, especially on the trees above named.
We studied particularly their ways upon one tree that was totally de-
foliated by September 11. The bulk of the caterpillars were then just —
through their last molt, though others were of all ages, illustrating
different hatchings. There was an instinctive migration of these
larvee of all sizes, and the strength of their food-habit once acquired
from birth upon a particular tree was well ‘illustrated. At first the
worms passed over various adjacent plants, like Honeysuckles, Roses,
&c., the leaves of which they freely devour if hatched upon them;
but as the migrating swarm became pressed with hunger they finally
fell upon these, and even upon plants like the Peach and Ailanthus,
which ordinarily are passed over. They would even pounce upon
any food, and a rotten apple placed in their way was soon literally
swarming with them and sucked dry.

In a general way it may be stated that conifers, grapes, and most
herbaceous plants are free from their attacks, and it is very doubtful
whether the species can mature upon them.

The list of plants which follows is arranged according to the rela-
tive damage to the foliage in the city of Washington. The three
ae named are most subject to attack, and in fact are almost always

efoliated.

PROPORTIONATE INJURY TO DIFFERENT PLANTS AND SHADE TREES.

The damage done in the city of Washington was exceptional, but
so was also the general damage throughout the New England States,
if not throughout the country. In New England the greater predi-
lection which the species showed for Poplar, Cottonwood, and the
ranker growing Willows was everywhere manifest, and so much was
this the case, that the destruction of the first brood on these trees
would have substantially lessened the damage to other trees.

Plants marked 1 have lost from 75 to 100 per cent. of their foliage.

Plants marked 2 have lost from 50 to 75 per cent. of their foliage.

Plants marked 3 have lost from 25 to 50 per cent. of their foliage.

Plants marked 4 have lost from 1 to 25 per cent. of their foliage.

Plants marked with two figures have shown the relative immunity
or injury indicated by both, the variation being in individual trees.

1. Negundo aceroides Moench. (Box Elder.)
1. Populus alba L. (Kuropean White Poplar.)
1. Populus monilifera Ait. (Cottonwood.)

He HB 9 29 O29 O2 Bo Bo B9 go gD go gd go go Eo OD

eo? Gene

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 523

. Populus balsamifera L. (Balsam Poplar.)

. Populus tremuloides Mich’x. (American Aspen.)
. Fravinus americana lL. (White Ash.)

. Fraxinus excelsior L. (European Ash.)

. Sambucus canadensis L. (Hlder.)

. Pyrus species. (Cultivated Pear and Apple.)

. Prunus avium and cerasus L. (Cherries.)

. Syringa vulgaris L. (Lilac.)

. Ilex species. (Holly.)

. Platanus occidentalis L. (Sycamore.)

. Salix species. (Willow.)

. Tilia americana L. (American Linden.)

. Tilia europea L. (European Linden.)

. Populus dilatata Ait. (Lombardy Le oar

. Ulmus americana L. (American White Elm.)
. Ulmus fulva Mich’x. (Slippery Elm.)

. Prunusarmenica L. | (Apricot.)

. Alnus maritima Muhl. (Alder.)

. Betula alba L. (White Birch.)

. Viburnum species. (Haw or Sloe.

. Lonicera species. (Honeysuckles.

. Prunus americana Marsh. (Wild Red Plum.)
. Celtis occidentalis L. (Hackberry.)

. Rosa species. (Rose.)

. Gossypium album Ham. (Coitton.)

. Cephalanthus occidentalis L. (Button Bush.)
. Vitis species. (Grape-vine.)

. Convolvulus species. (Morning Glory.)

. Acer saccharinum Wang. (Sugar Maple.)

. Geranium species. (Geranium.)

. Betulu nigra L. (Red Birch.)

. Tecoma radicans Juss. (Trumpet Creeper.)

. Symphoricarpus racemosus Mich’x. (Snowberry.)

Larvx europea Del. (European Larch.)
Corylus americana Walt. (Hazel-nut.)

. Quercus alba L. (White Oak.)

Diospyros virginiana L. (Persimmon.)
Carya species. (Hickory.)

. Juglans species. (Walnut.)

Wastaria sinensis Del. (Chinese Wisteria.)
Wistaria frutescens. (Native Wisteria. )
Amelanchier canadensis T. and G. (Shad-bush.)
Crateegus species. (Haw.

Rubus species. (Blackberry.)

Spircea species. (Spirea.)

Rrbes species. (Currant and Gooseberry.)

. Staphylea trifolia L. (Bladder Nut.)
. Cydonia vulgaris Pers. (Quince.

. Asimina triloba Dun. (Pawpaw.

. Catalpa bignonioides Walt. (Indian Bean.)

. Catalpa speciosa Ward. (Bignonia.)

. Huonymus atropurpureus Jaeg. (Burning Bush.)
. Cupressus thyoides L. (White Cedar.)

. Juniperus virginiana L. (Red Cedar.)

Berberis canadensis Pursh. (Barberry.)

Cornus florida L. (Flowering Dogwood).

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REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

. Cornus alternefolia L. (Alternate-leaved Dogwood.)
. Carpinus americana Mich’x. (Hornbeam.) .

Castanea americana Mich’x.: (American Chestnut.)
Castanea pumila Mich’x, (Chinquapin.)

Ostrya virginica Willd. (op Hornbeam.)

Quercus coccinea Wang. (Scarlet Oak.)

. Quercus phellos L. (Willow Oak.)

Quercus prinus L. (Chestnut Oak.)

; Quercus rubra L. (Red Oak.)

Diospyros kaki L. (Japan Persimmon.)
Buxus sempervirens L. (Common Box.)
Hamamelis virginica L. (Witch Hazel.)
Sassafras officinale Nees. (Sassafras.)
Cercis canadensis L. (Red Bud.)
Hibiscus syriacus L. (Tree Hibiscus.)

. Rhamnus alnifolius L’Her. (Alder-leaved Buckthorn.)

Prunus virginiana L. (Choke Cherry.)
Persica vulgaris Millan. (Peach.)

Atsculus hippocastanum L. (Horse Chestnut.)
Paulownia umperialis Seeb. (Cigar-tree.)

. Atilanthus glandulosus Daf. (Tree of Heaven.)

. Maclura aurantiaca Nutt. (Osage Orange.)

. Ampelopsis quinquefolia Mich’x. (Virginia Creeper.)
. Clematis species. (Clematis.)

. Trifolium species. (Clover.)

. Helianthus species. Ceci)

. Jasminum species. — (

. Ficus carica L. (Fig.)
. Rhus cotinus L. (Smoke Tree.)
. Pinus species. (Pine.)

essamine).

Taxus species. (Yew.)

Nyssa multiflora, Wangerh. (Sour Gum.)
Fagus ferruginea Ait. (Beech.)

Kalmia species. (Laurel.)

Rhododendron species. (Rhododendron.)
Ricinus communis L. (Castor-oil Plant.)
Liquidambar styraciflua L. (Sweet Gum.)
Gleditschia triacanthos L. (Honey Locust.)

. Gymnocladus canadensis, Lamb. (Kentucky Coffee Tree.)

Robinia pseudacacia L. (Locust.)
Liriodendron tulipifera L. (Tulip Tree.)

. Magnolia species. (Magnolia.

Chionanthus virginicus L. (¥ringe Tree.)
Ligustrum vulgare L. (Privet.)

Zanthoxylum americanum M. (Prickly Ash.)
Acer dasycarpum Ehrh. (White or Silver Maple.)

. Acer rubrum Wangert. (Red Maple.)
. Atsculus flava, Ait. (Sweet peeeeye)
. Afsculus glabra Willd. (Ohio Buckeye.)

Morus rubra L. (Red Mulberry.)

Trees in the vicinity of the White Poplar and Cottonwood suffer

most.

Even trees usually not injured, as, for instance, the Sugar

Mapte, are often badly defoliated when in such contiguity.

This list contains a number of plants not usually injured by these
caterpillars. In some cases the injury was due to the fact that twigs
containing the web with its occupants had been pruned from the tree

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 525

and thrown near plants, instead of being burned at once or otherwise
troyed. At

hethes cases the injury is due to the peculiar position of the plant
injured, 7. e. under a tree infested by the caterpillars. These, when
fully grown, commence to scatter, and dropping upon the plant un-
derneath the tree, soon defoliated it without actually making their
home upon it. The great number thus dropping from a large tree
will soon defoliate any smaller plant, even if each caterpillar takes
but a mouthful by way of trial. Thus Holly, a plant not usually
eaten by these insects, soon became denuded. Other plants, unpala-
table or even obnoxious to the caterpillars, are sometimes destroyed
by the multitudes in their search for more suitable food.

Hungry caterpillars, leaving a denuded tree in search of food,
wander in astraight line to the next tree, sometimes a distance of 25
- feet, showing that they possesssome keensensetoguidethem. I=fsuch
a tree offers unsuitable food, they still explore it for a long time before
deserting it. In this manner two columns of wandering caterpillars
are formed, which frequently move in opposite directions.

PECULIAR EFFECT OF DEFOLIATION UPON SOME PLANTS.

During the early part of October many trees, mainl Apple and
Pear, which had been entirely denuded of their foliage by the cater-
pillars, showed renewed activity of growth. Some had a few scat-
tered flowers upon them, others had one or two branches clothed with
flowers, while in some few cases the whole tree appeared white. It
looked as if the trees were covered with snow, since they lacked the
green foliage usually seen with blossoms in spring. Some few flowers
were also observed upon badly defoliated Cherry trees. Evenas late
as the middle of November, owing perhaps also to the pleasantly warm
weather, some few flowers could be observed upon some imported
plants belonging tothe genus Spzrcea and upon the Chinese Red Apple.
All these plants usually flower early in spring. The caterpillars,
having entirely defoliated the tree, produced thus an artificial period
of rest, or winter, which was followed by unseasonable budding and
flowering. Such a result often follows summer denudation by any
insect, and we have referred to some remarkable cases in our previous
writings. *

ENEMIES OF THE WEB-WORM OTHER THAN INSECTS.

The caterpillars have comparatively few enemies belonging to the
vertebrate animals, This is not owing to any offensive odor or to
any other means of defense, but it is entirely due to their hairiness.
Chickens, and even the omnivorous ducks, do not eat them: if offered
to the former they pick at these morsels, but do not swallow them.

The English Sparrow has, in this case at least, not proven of any
assistance whatever. Indeed, as before stated, its introduction and
multiplication have greatly favored the increase of the worms.

The ‘‘ pellets” of a Screech-owl (Scops asio), found in the vicinity
of Baltimore, Md., and examined by Mr. Lugger, consisted appar-
ently almost entirely of the hairs of these caterpillars, proving that
this useful bird had done good service.

Perhaps the statement may be of interest, that this little owl is

*See Eighth Report on the Insects of Missouri, p. 121.

526 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

getting much more common in the vicinity of such cities in which
the English Sparrows have become numerous, and that the imported
birds will find in this owl as bold an enemy as the Sparrow-hawk is
to them in Europe, and even more dangerous, since its attacks are
made towards dusk, at a time when the Sparrow has retired for the
night, and is not as wide awake for ways and means to escape.

If our two Cuckoos, the Black-billed as well as the Yellow-billed
species, could be induced to build their nests within the city limits
or in our parks, we should gain in them two very useful friends, since
they feed upon hairy caterpillars.

The common Toad (Bufo americana) has eaten great numbers of
these caterpillars, as shown by dissections made by Mr. Lugger, and
it should be carefully protected, instead of being tormented or killed
by boys, or even grown people. The Toad is always a useful animal,
and ought to be introduced in all gardens and parks.

The following species of spiders were observed to eat the caterpil-
lars, viz, Marpessa undata Koch, and Attus (Phydippus) tripunc-
tatus. Neither species builds a web, but obtains its prey by boldly
leaping upon it; they are, in consequence of such habits, frequently
called tiger spiders. The former was exceedingly common last year,
more so than for many previous years, thus plainly indicating that
the species did not suffer for lack of food, This species is usually
found upon the trunks of trees, and is there well protected by its
color, which is like that of the bark. It hides in depressions and
cracks of the bark, and, jumping upon the passing game, or, catlike
approaching it from behind, it thrusts its poisonous fangs into the
victim, which soon dies and is sucked dry. The Attus has similar
habits, but is still more cautious; it usually hides under loose bark.
Both spiders are wonderfully active and kill large numbers of cater-
pillars. Their large and flat egg-masses can be found during the
winter under dead bark and in cracks. Both species hibernate in
silken nests in similar localities.

PREDACEOUS INSECT ENEMIES.

The caterpillars of this moth have quite a number of external en-
emies, which slay large numbers of them. The well-known Rear-
horse (Mantis carolina) seems to be very fond of the caterpillars.
The so-called Wheel-bug (Prionidus cristatus) has proved to be one
of our best friends in reducing the numbers of the caterpillars. This
insect was formerly by no means very common in cities, but of late
years it has greatly increased in numbers, and is now a well-known
feature in all our public*parks and such streets as possess shade trees.
Outside of the city it is rarely met with; nor does it extend much
farther North than Washington. It is, like the Mantis, in all its
stages a voracious feeder upon insects, slaying alike beneficial and
noxious ones. The bright-red larvee and pupe, also carnivorous, are
seen in numbers during the summer; they usually remain together
until hunger forces them to scatter. They assist each other in
killing larger game, and are to this extent social. The Wheel-bug
could be observed almost anywhere last summer, but usually motion-
less, stationed upon the trunks of trees, waiting for the approach of
an insect. If one comes near, it quite leisurely inserts its very poison-
ous beak and sucks the life-blood of its victim. When this becomes
empty it is hoisted up in the air, as if to facilitate the flow of blood,
until eventually it is thrown away as a mere shriveled skin, The

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 527

appetite of the Wheel-bug is remarkable, whenever chances offer to
appease it'to the fullest extent. Frequently, however, times go hard
with it, and notwithstanding it is very loath to change a position once
taken, it is sometimes forced to seek better hunting-grounds, and
takes to its wings. The Wheel-bug has been observed to remain for
days in the same ill-chosen position—for instance upon the'walls of a
building—waiting patiently for something to turn up. It is slow in
all its motions, but withal very observant of everything occurring in
its neighborhood, proving without doubt great acuteness of senses.
It does not seem to possess any enemies itself, and a glance at its
armor will indicate the reason for this unusual exemption.* Dur-
ing warm weather this bug possesses a good deal of very searching
curiosity, and a thrust with its beak filled with poison is very painful
indeed. Boys call it the ‘‘ blood-sucker,” a misnomer, since it does not
suck human blood. Its eggs are laid during the autumn in various
places, but chiefly upon smooth surfaces of the bark of tree trunks,
and frequently in such a position as to be somewhat protected against
rain by a projecting branch. The female bug always selects places
the color of which 1s like that of the eggs, so that they are not easy
to see, notwithstanding their large size.

Huschistus servus Say is another hemipterous insect that preys
upon the caterpillar of H. textor, and in a similar manner to the
Wheel-bug. It isa much smaller, but also a very useful insect.

Podisus spinosus, Dall., in all its stages, was quite numerous dur-
ing the caterpillar plague. Its brightly-colored larve and pupx were
usually found in small numbers together, but as they grew older they
became more solitary in their habits. All stages of this insect fre-
quent the trunks and branches of trees, and are here actively engaged
in feeding upon various insects. Assoon as one of the more mature
larvee or pups has impaled its prey the smaller ones crowd about
to obtain en share. But the lucky captor is by no means willing to
divide with the others, and he will frequently project his beak forward,
thus elevating the caterpillar into the air away from the others. The
habit of carrying their food in such a difficult position has perhaps
been hansen simply to prevent others from sharing it. A wonder-
ful strength is necessary to perform such a feat, since the caterpillar
is sometimes many times as heavy as the he itself. The greediness
of this bug was well illustrated in the following observation: A
pupa of P. spinosus had impaled a caterpillar, and was actively en-
gaged in sucking itdry; meanwhile a Wheel-bug utilized a favorable
opportunity and impaled the pupa without forcing the same to let go
the caterpillar. The elasticity of the beak of these bugs must be
very great; they can bend it in any direction and yet keep it in suck-
ing operation. The poison contained in the beak must act very rap-
idly, since the caterpillars impaled by it squirm but a very short time
and then become quiet.

FUNGUS DISEASE OF THE WEB-WORM.

In our Fourth Missouri Entomological Report, p. 88, we called at-
tention to the fact that the fungus disease of the domestic Silk-worm,
called in France Muscardine, and supposed to be due to the develop-
ment in the worms of the fungus Lotrytis bassiana, or a disease
which had not yet been distinguished from it, had made its appearance

ae

*Its eggs, however, are pierced by a little egg-parasite—Hupelmus reduvit Howard,

528 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

among Silk-wormsp both imported and wild, in some of the Eastern
States, and that in the fall of 1870 it was so common. around Sain
Louis that we found hundreds of hairy caterpillars stiffly fastened to
their food-plants and covered with the white efflorescence. On sey-
eral occasions in Saint Louis we found the Hyphantria larvee gen-
erally affected by it.

The latest authority upon this fungus (Saccardo) gives it as living
upon Bombycid larvee, particularly upon the Silk-worm of commerce,
in France, Italy, and North America. Botrytis tenella, which he
described in his ‘‘ Wungt Italicee” as a new species, he now considers
as only a variety of B. bassiana. This variety is found upon dip-
terous larvee and pups, upon wasps of the genus Vespa, and upon the
larve of the coleopterous genus Melolontha. (P. A. Saccardo, Syl-
loge Hyphomycetum omnium huscusque cognitorum, Vol. IV, p.
119, Patavia, 1886.)

The first brood of the Web-worms at Washington in 1886 showed
in some quite well-defined localities the indications of a fungus dis-
ease, which was probably only a variety of this Botrytis. It did not
become, however, so general as later in the season, when it prevailed
everywhere; yet it could be observed that the contagion had started
from certain points. In such localities almost all the caterpillars were

iseased and died, and large numbers of the dead were huddled to-
gether as in life. But when investigated their bodies were hard and
dry, and would readily crumble to pieces when pressed, producing an
odor like that of some mushrooms. Only full-grown, or rather cater-
pillars in their last larval skin, were thus affected. The dry remains
had retained the original shape, and, if kilied but recent by the
fungus, their color as well. Before dying the caterpillars had fas-
tened themselves very securely to trunks, twigs, and leaves of various
trees, somewhat like the common house-fly, that dies by a similar dis-
ease in large numbers during September in our houses and produces
around itself sucha characteristic halo of white spores. Caterpillars
infested by the incipient stages of this disease wander about aimlessly
and at an irregular speed; often they halt for some time, then squirm
about frantically to start again, and frequently in an opposite direc-
tion to the one they were going before. If ish: a diseased caterpillar
is confined to a glass jar and observed, it is soon seen that a white
mealy substance gradually grows out of all the soft spaces between
the segments, which eventually covers the whole insect, leaving
generally only the black head and tips of hairs visible. Before long
many spores are scattered about, forming a circle of white dust around
the caterpillar, and, if not arrested by an obstruction in its expulsion,
the halo thus formed is quite regular and about 2 inches in diameter.
Outdoors this white dust is but seldom observed, because even the
slightest draft of air will carry it away and drift it about. Hven
the white mealy substance adhering to the caterpillar itself is usually
swept away, and the victims look very much like healthy caterpillars;
but they darken with time, and eventually drop to the ground. The
magnifying-glass, however, still reveals some spores adhering to the
hairs upon the under side and upon the bark or leaf of the tree in the
immediate neighborhood.

This fungus kills caterpillars even after they have made their
cocoons. Nor does the pupa escape. In the latter case the spores
form a white crest over every suture of the thoracic segments; the
abdominal segments, however, remain free from it. Evidently the
caterpillars were nearly full-grown when attacked by the disease,

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 529

and possessed vigor enough to transform into pupe; later the fungus
grew, and pressing the chitinous portion of the pupa apart, forced
itself to the air to fructify.

Plants not usually eaten by the caterpillars, as well as others not
eaten at all, have upon them the largest numbers of caterpillars
killed by the fungus, provided that they grew in the vicinity of
suitable food-plants. Perhaps unsuitable food, predisposing the
caterpillars for any disease, is one of the causes of the innumerable
host killed by this fungus. |

The white cocoons of a parasite (Apanteles hyphantric) were in
some cases observed to be covered with similar fungus spores. Open-
ing such cocoons it was seen that the spores were not simply blown
upon the silk and there retained, but-that they came from the victim
_ within, and had forced their way through the very dense silken mass.

EXPERIMENTS TO OBTAIN PERCENTAGE OF DISEASED CATERPILLARS.

Eizperiment I:

- QOne hundred and twenty-five nearly grown caterpillars were
gathered (October 7, 1886) at random in one of our public
parks. stayed were imprisoned in large glass jars, and daily
supplied with suitable food.

Result, October 18, 1886:
11 apparently healthy pupe.
3 deformed pups.
18 yellow cocoons of Meteorus hyphantrie.
9 dead pups, killed by fungus or otherwise.
84 dead caterpillars, killed by fungus or otherwise.

125
In the earth of the jar were found 17 pups of Tachina flies, leav-
ing 67 caterpillars and 9 pupe killed by the fungus, or 61 per cent.

Haperiment IT:

One hundred and twenty-five nearly grown caterpillars were
gathered (October 7, 1886) from a trunk of a soft maple
(unsuitable food) and treated as above.

Result, October 18, 1886:

8 apparently healthy pupe.

1 deformed pupa.

7 yellow cocoons of Meteorus hyphantrice.

3 dead pupe, killed by fungus or otherwise.

104 dead caterpillars, icilled by fungus or otherwise.
® cocoons containing Tachina larvee.

25

In the earth of the jar were found 28 pups of Tachina’flies, leay-
ing 76 caterpillars and 3 pups killed by fungus, or 63 per cent.

In both experiments it has been assumed that each Tachina fly had
killed one caterpillar.

On November 15, 1886, the jars were again investigated and it was
found that a number of the pup had been killed by the fungus since
October 18, 1886, and that in fact all the remaining ones appeared
diseased. The percentage of death by the fungus in the two experi-
ments was thus increased to 63 per cent. in Experiment I and to 67
per cent in Experiment II.

34 AG—'86

530 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

TRUE PARASITES OF THE WEB-WORM.

Up to the present time no parasites of this insect have ever been re-
corded. On August 18, 1883, we bred a number of egg-parasitesfrom a
batch of eggs found upon a willow leaf at Washington, but unfortu- ,
nately no description was made of them at the time, and, as they be-
longed to the soft-bodied genus Trichogramma, the specimens have
now become so much shriveled and altered that they are unfit for de-
scriptive purposes. We noticed after our return from Europe in Sep-
tember of this year that, at a number of points in New England, the
worms were quite commonly attacked by parasites, and careful in-
vestigation at Washington by Mr. Lugger showed the presence of no
less than five distinct species of primary parasites in addition to the
Trichogramma just mentioned. These will be considered in some
detail. The first was a new egg-parasite, which we have named Tele-
nomus bifidus; the others were all parasitic on the larve, and con-
sisted of a Braconid (Meteorus hyphantrie n. sp.); a Microgaster
(Apanteles hyphantric, n. sp.); an Ophionid (Limneria pallipes
Proy.), and a Tachinid, which, though probably new, we shall not
attempt to describe. These last four have been mentioned in about
the order of their relative abundance and consequent importance.
An astonishing number of Web-worms were killed by the four para-
sites, and so many died from this cause and from the fungus disease
previously mentioned as to fully warrant the prediction of almost
complete immunity for the summer of 1887.

In addition to these parasites found last Fall, the note-books of the
Division show a prior breeding of another primary parasite, which
will not be treated in detail here on account of insufficient material.
It is an external feeder on the larva and belongs to the genus Hu-
plectrus. It is closely related to E. platyhypene, described by Mr.
Howard in Bulletin 5 of this Division.

We have found, however, that three of these primary parasites of
the Web-worm, viz, the Apanteles, the Limneria, and the Meteorus,.
were killed off at a serious rate late in the season by secondary para-
sites, most of which belong to the family Chalcidide with the ex-
ception of three species of the Ichneumonid genus Hemiteles. So
extensive has been this killing off of the primary parasites by the sec-
ondary, that were not the fates of the three classes, viz, the plant-
feeder, the primary and the secondary parasites so interwoven, the
destruction of these beneficial insects might be considered a serious
matter in dealing with the plant-feeder.

We have not taken time to determine these secondary parasites
specifically, but give a little table showing the number of species con-
cerned, mentioning them only by their genera:

SECONDARY PARASITES.

On Apanteles:

. Hemiteles sp.
. Elasmus sp.
Hupelmus sp.
Panstenon sp.
Cirrospilus sp.
. Pteromalus sp.
. Pieromalus sp.

nF D OP 9 WW

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 531

On Meteorus hyphantrie:

Hemiteles sp. (= 1 on Apanteles).
. Sptlochalcis sp.

. Hemiteles utilis Nort.

Eupelmus sp. (= 3 on Apanteles).
Hemiteles sp.

Pteromalus sp. (= 6 on Bon
. Pteromalus sp. (= 7 on Apanteles
imneria pallipes Prov.:

EKupelmus sp. (= 3 on Apanteles).
2. Tetrastichus sp.

3. Pteromalus sp. (= 6 on Apanteles).
4, Pteromalus sp. (= 7 on Apanteles).
5. Elasmus sp. (= 2 on Apanteles).

THE TELENOMUS EGG-PARASITE.—A single egg of H. cunea is a
very small affair, yet it is large enough to be a world for this little
parasite, which undergoes all its transformations within it, and
finds there all the food and lodgment required for the short period
of its life. In several instances batches of eggs of this moth were

arasitized, and instead of producing young caterpillars they brought

orth the tiny insects of this species. The batches of parasitized
eggs were found July 27 upon the leaves of Sunflower. Judg-
ing from this date, it was the second brood of moths which had de-

osited them. There can be no doubt, however, that esEs produced

y moths emerging from their cocoons in early spring had been para-
sitized as well. The female Telenomus was also observed August
2, busily engaged in forcing its ovipositor into the eggs and ovipos-
iting therein. The female insect is so very intent upon its work that
it is not easily disturbed, and one can pluck a Jeaf and apply a lens
without scaring it away. The eggs soon hatch inside the large egg
of the moth, and the larve produced soon consume the contents.
This egg-parasite is a very useful friend, nipping the evil in the bud,
so to speak.

This parasite is new, and may be characterized as follows:

TELENOMUS BIFIDUS n. sp. ¢ 9.—Average length, 0.75"™; average expanse, 1.7™™,
Color of body, black throughout. Head three times as broad as long when seen from
above; face, especially in the middle, lustrous and without sculpture; vertex polished
and without a carina behind lateral ocelli; antennze black, except bulla, which is
honey-yellow, 11-jointed, joints 2 and 3 subequal in length. Thorax: Mesonotum
very delicately punctulate and furnished with a moderately dense, fine, whitish
pile; no parapsidal sutures; legs yellow, except coxee, femora, and last joints of all
tarsi, which are black or blackish; tibial spur of front legs bifid when seen under a
high power, and corresponding first tarsal joint furnished with a fine and strong
comb of bristles; fore wings with 11 costal bristles and with 8 cells visible in stigmal
club. Abdomen with the second segment striate only at base.

Described from 59,24, bred July 27, 1886, from eggs of Hyphantria cunea col-
lected in the District of Columbia.

This species belongs nearest to T. phaleenarum Nees, of Europe,
which has been bred from the eggs of Porthesia chrysorrhea by
Wachtl, from eggs of Panolis piniperda by Nordlinger, and from
eggs of anunknown Noctuid on the leaves of 4fsculus hippocastanum
by Mayr. (See Mayr, “‘ Ueber die Schlupfwespengattung Teleno-
mus” Verh. d. k.-k. zodl. Ges., Wien, 1879, p. 709.)

THE METEORUS PARASITE OF THE WEB-WORM (Plate X, fig. er
This parasite has performed very good service during the caterpillar
plague, and has done much to check any further increase of the Web-

Px oo ow

532 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

worm. During the earlier part of the summer this insect was not very
numerous, but sufficient proofs in form of empty cocoons were ob-
served to indicate at least one earlier brood. Towards the end of Sep-
tember, and as late as the 15th of October, very numerous cocoons of
a second brood were formed; they could be found in all situations to
which the caterpillar itself had access. But the great majority of
them were suspended from the trunks* and branches of trees, and
chiefly from near the base of the trunk. Each represents the death
of one nearly full-grown caterpillar, since the latter harbors but one
larva of the parasite. A careful watch was kept to see how such
a suspended cocoon was formed, but in vain. Oncea larva had just
started to make a cocoon, but became detached, and dropped out of
the orifice and commenced a new one. The larva, qngpeneee by the
mandibles, evidently spins at first loose, irregular, horizontal loops
around its body, until a loose cradle is formed. The silk secreted for
this purpose hardens very rapidly when exposed to the air. When
secure inside this cradle it lets go its hold with the mandibles, and
finishes the soft inside cocoon in the usual manner. If the larva has
dropped to the ground, it still makes an outer loose cocoon, but the
silken threads are thicker and much more irregular. In cocoons
made during a high wind, the threads that suspend them are much
longer, reaching sometimes the length of 4 inches; the more normal
length varies from 14 to 2 inches, -

To find out the length of time which this insect occupies in matur-
ing inside the cocoon 44 freshly made cocoons were put ina glass jar.
With remarkable regularity, but ten days were consumed by the in-
sect in changing from the larval to the winged form. The winged
Meteorus issues through a perfectly round hole at the lower end of
the cocoon by gnawing off and detaching a snugly fitting cap. The
several secondary parasites of the Meteorus which we have men-
tioned all leave the cocoon of their host by smaller holes cut through
the sides. Most of the adult Meteorws had issued by the 1st of No-
vember; but it is possible that some may remain in their cocoons until
spring. | *

ne Aaby to obtain the proportion between the Meteorus raised from
cocoons and its parasites (7. e., secondary parasites of Hyphantria),
450 cocoons were confined in a glass jar the latter part of September.
Up to the first week in November only 70 specimens were bred from
these cocoons, the rest giving out secondary parasites, which con-
tinued to issue up to date of writing (December 20, 1886). Thus only
16 per cent. of the cocoons produced the primary, while 84 per cent.
produced secondary parasites. ‘Theinsect is new, and we submit the
following description :—

METEORUS HYPHANTRIZn.sp.—@. Length, 5™™; expanse, 11™™. Comes nearest
to Meteorus communis Cress., being, however, a larger species. Its cocoons are also
larger and of a darker yellow-brown in color. General color, honey-yellow. The
irregular reticulation of the metanotum shows less tendency to arrange itself in
longitudinal carinee, particularly into one median and two sublateral. The fine longi-
tudinal impressed aciculations of the first abdominal segment are nearly parallel in
hyphantric, while in communis the middle ones converge strongly towards the
center behind. The general color is, as in communis, yellowish-ferruginous or honey-
yellow. In general, hyphantric has more dark markings than communis. The
antenne are dusky at tip; the mandibles are brown at tip; the mesoscutum has two
nearly black patches at sides and often a dusky stripe down middle; the metanotum

is usually entirely dark, as is also the first joint of the abdomen above; the rest of
the abdomen has two larger or smaller dark spots on each side; the sheaths of the

* In oneinstance only, the cocoon of this parasite was found inside that of its host.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 53a

ovipositor are dark, especially at base, and the ovipositor itself is honey-yellow; the
legs are all honey-yellow except the tips of the hind tibise, which are dark. i

g¢.—Resembles the female, with the usual structural differences. Varies consid-
erably in color, some specimens being almost immaculate, while others are marked
like the female. Wing venation in both sexes varies in no way from that of com-
munis, and but slightly from that in other species of the genus; in that the second
submarginal cell is subquadrate, broadening slightly posteriorly, and in the first trans-
verse cubital nervure being confiuent with the recurrent nervure.

Described from 189, 9g specimens, all bred in District of Columbia from cocoons
collected near remains of larvee of Hyphantria cunea.

THE MIcROGASTER PARASITE OF THE WEB-WORM.—This msect
was about as numerous as the Meteorus, and did equally good serv-
ice in preventing a further increase of the caterpillars. It appeared
somewhat earlier in the season, and had killed only half-grown cater-
pillars. From the numerous old and empty cocoons in early summer
it was plainly seen that a first brood had been quite numerous, and
that from these cocoons mainly Apanteles had been bred, and not, as
during the autumn, mostly secondary parasites. The white silky
cocoon is formed almost under the middle of a half-grown caterpil-
lar, and is fastened securely to the object its host happened to rest
upon. and but slightly to the host itself, which is readily carried to
the ground by wind and rain, and can therefore only be in position
in the more sheltered places, such as cracks and fissures of the bark
of trees. But one Apanteles is found in a caterpillar, so that each
white cocoon indicates, like a tombstone, the death of a victim. In
some places, and notably upon the trunks of poplars, these cocoons
were so numerous as to attract attention; it seemed as if the trunk
had been sprinkled with whitewash. But notwithstanding such vast
numbers, but two specimens of the architects of these neat cocoons
weve raised; all the rest had been parasitized by secondary parasites. _
It is barely possible, however, that some specimens may hibernate in
their cocoons, since numbers of them have as yet (December 20, 1886)
not revealed any insects. The winged Apanteles leaves the cocoon
by a perfectly round orifice in the front, by cutting off a little lid,
which falls to the ground. Its parasites, however, leave by small
holes cut through the sides. These secondary parasites were very
common late in September and early in October, and busily engaged
in inserting their ovipositors through the tough cocoon into their
victim within. It seems as if the cocoons formed early in the season
were on an average a little smaller than those formed later.

The cocoons of this Apanteles are of a uniform white color, but ex-
ceptionally a distinctly yellowish cocoon is found. From these yel-
low cocoons nothing has so far been bred, but since, as we have else-
where shown,* the color of the cocoon may vary in the same species,
it is probable that the variation here referred to is not specific.

Not quite one-half of 1 per cent of these cocoons produced the in-
sect belonging to it; 99 per cent produced secondary parasites.

APANTELES HYPHANTRL&, n. sp.—Q. Length, 3™™, Close to Apanteles aylina,
Say, with which it may be compared. Differs as follows: Mesonotum without the
faint median carina or polished posterior margin; scutellum not polished; first
abdominal segment about as broad as long, with a quite distinct median carina, the
apex of which is polished, and its posterior margin broadly bilobed. In A. aylina
the first abdominal segment is rather slender, and longer than wide, without dis-

tinct carina and with the apex almost straight. A quite distinct carina on the sec-
ond segment, wanting in vylina. Third abdominal segment coarsely pitted at base,

* Notes on North American Microgasters, &c., Trans. Saint Louis Acad. Sciences,
vol. 4, author’s separate copy, p. 7

534 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

the rest quite distinctly shagreened; in zylina the basal punctuation is less pro-
nounced and the rest of the segment smooth. All coxee black (in aylina the apical
half of lower edge of posterior coxe is reddish); the first joint of metatarsi per-
ceptibly stouter than the other joints (almost like the other joints in wylina). Cocoon
white and single (in wylina the cocoons are enclosed in wooly masses).

Described from two 9 specimens,

THE LIMNERIA PARASITE OF THE WEB-woRM.—In addition to the
two Hymenopterous parasites treated of, a third.one has been very
numerous, and has done much good in reducing the numbers of cat-
erpillars. This, an Ichneumonid, and a much larger insect, does not
form an exposed cocoon like that of the other parasites described.
Yet a little attention will soon reveal large numbers of them. Upon
the trunks of various trees, but chiefly 'upon those of the Poplar
and Sugar Maple, small colonies of caterpillars, varying in number
from 4 to 12, could be observed, which did not show any sigus of life.
When removed from the tree they appeared contracted, all of the
same size, and pale or almost white. A closer inspection would re-
veal the fact that the posterior portion of the caterpillar had shrunken
away to almost nothing, whilst the rest was somewhat inflated, and
covered with an unchanged, but bleached skin, retaining all the hairs
in their normal position, Opening one of these inflated skins, a long,
cylindrical, brown cocoon would be exposed; this is the cocoon of the

imneria under consideration. As numbers of such inflated skins
would always occur together, it was clearly seen that the same parent
Limneria had oviposited in all of them. Most of the cocoons were
found in depressions of the rough bark, or other protected places.
Single ones were but rarely met with. The Hyphantria larve in dy-
ing had very securely fastened all their legs into the crevices of the
bark, so that neither wind nor rain could easily dislodge them. Only
half-grown caterpillars had thus been killed. Many of these inflated
skins showed in the early part of October a large hole of exit in their
penguin and dorsal ends, from which the Ichneumons had escaped.

rying to obtain winged specimens of this parasite, 140 of these co-
coons—and only such as were not perforated in any way—were col-
lected and put in a glass jar. Only a single female was produced
from all up to time of writing, whilst very large numbers of second-
ary parasites issued from October 11 to November 20, and doubtless
others will appear during the spring of 1887, because some of these
inflated skins show as yet no holes of exit.

This parasite is, according to Mr. Cresson, unnamed in the Phila-
delphia collection,-and, after close study of all accessible descriptions,
we have decided that it should be placed, temporarily at least, with
Provancher’s Limneria pallipes. The specimens which we have
bred Shag aa with his variety, in which the four anterior femora
are pale red. The species is not unlike LZ. lophyri Riley, which we
described in our Ninth Missouri Entomological Report from a large
series of specimens bred from the larve of Abbott’s White Pine
Worm (Lophyrus abbottiz), but is smaller and has certain colora-
tional differences.

THE TACHINA PARASITE OF THE WEB-WORM.—The parasites of H.
textor described so far belong to the order Hymenoptera, which fur-
nishes the greatest number of them; but the fly now to be treated is
phe as useful as any of the others. We have not named and de-
scribed this species, on account of the fact that the family to which

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 535

it belongs has not been worked up and because the characters are not
well understood.

Tachina flies are very easily overlooked, because they resemble
large house-flies both in appearance and flight, and their presence
out of doors is not usually noticed on that account. Yet they play
a very important réle, living as they do in their larval state entirely
in insects. During the caterpillar plague such flies were often seen
to dart repeatedly at an intended victim, buzz about it, and quickly
disappear. If the caterpillar thus attacked was investigated, from 1
to 4 yellowish-white, ovoid, polished, and tough eggs would be found
usually fastened upon its neck, or on some spot where they could
not readily be removed. These eggs are glued so tightly to the skin
of the caterpillar that they cannot easily be removed. Sometimes as
many as 7 eggs could be counted upon a single caterpillar, show-
ing a faulty instinct of the fly or flies, because the victim is not large
enough to furnish food for so many voracious maggots. If the vic-
tim pelt to be near a molt, it casts its skin with the eggs, and es-
capes a slow but sure death. But usually the eggs hatch so soon, that
the small maggots have time to enter the body of the caterpillar,
where they soon reach their full growth, after which they force their
way through the skin and drop to the ground, into which they enter,
to shrink into a brown, tunlike object (known technically as the co-
arctate pupa), which contains the true pupa. The caterpillar, tor-
mented by enemies feeding within it, stops feeding, and wanders
about for along time until it dies. As a rule, not more than two
maggots of this fly mature in their host, and generally butone. The
hic ne attacked by a Tachina fly is always either fully grown or
nearly so,

Tachina flies abounded during the whole term of the prevalence
of the ec ag but it is impossible to state positively whether
they were all bred from them or not, since the many species of this
genus of flies resemble each other so closely, that a very scrutinizing
investigation would have been necessary to settle such a question.
But there is no doubt that they were very numerous during the sum-
mer. Some maggots obtained from caterpillars kept for this pur-
pose in breeding jars changed to flies in six days, others appeared in
twenty-three days, and still others, obtained at about the same time,
are still under ground, where they will hibernate. The maggots of
these flies do not, however, always enter the ground, as some were
found inside cocoons made by caterpillars among rubbish above
ground,

REMEDIES.

_ PRUNING AND BurNING.—The old and well-tried remedies of prun-
ing or burning, or pruning and burning, will answer every purpose
against this insect in ordinary seasons, where it is thoroughly done
and over a whole neighborhood. It must, however, be done upon the
first appearance of the webs on the trees, and not, as was done by
the Parking Commission of this city last season, after the first brood
of worms had attained their full growth and many had already trans-
formed to pupe. The nests at that time had assumed large propor-
tions, and their removal entire injured the appearance of many young
trees. Then, too, they were piled upon an open wagon, which was
dragged for many hours around the streets, permitting a large pro-
portion of the worms to escape.

On the first appearance of the webs, which should be looked for

536 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

with care, they should be cut off or burned off; and if cut off, they
should be burned at once. ‘The ‘‘tree-pruners,” manufactured for
the trade and well known to all gardeners, answer the purpose ad-
mirably.

The customary method of burning the nests is by means of rags
saturated with kerosene or coal tar and fastened to the tip of a long
pole. An old sponge has been substituted to advantage for the rags,
but probably the best substitute for this purpose is a piece of porous
brick. Ina pointed communication published in the Hvening Star
of August 21, Major Key, agent of the Humane Society, thus de-
scribes the making of a ‘“‘brick-torch:” ‘‘Take a piece of soft brick,
commonly termed salmon brick, trim it to an egg shape; then take
two soft wires, cross them over this brick, wrapping them together
around the opposite side so as to firmly secure it; now tie this end to
a long stick, such as the boys get at the planing-mills, by wrapping
around it; then soak the brick in coal-oil, ight 1¢ with a match, and
you are armed with the best and cheapest weapon known to science.
Holding this brick torch under the nests of caterpillars will precipi-
tate to the sidewalk all the worms on one or two trees at least from
one soaking of the brick, and it can be repeated as often as necessary.
Then use a broom to roll them under it, and the work will be done,
the controversy ended, and the trees saved.”

A little thorough work with a simple torch like this, at the right
time, will in ame every case obviate the necessity of the more ex-

ensive remedies later in the season, when the worms:of the first
rood have grown larger, or when the second brood has appeared.

Muucuine.—After a bad caterpillar year a little judicious raking
together of leaves and rubbish around the trunks of trees which have
been infested, at the time when the worms of the second brood are
about full-grown and before they commence to wander, will result in
the confinement of a large proportion of the pup to these limited
spaces, where, with a little hot water or a match, they can readily be
destroyed during the winter. Many of the caterpillars of course
reach the ground by dropping purposely or falling accidentally from
the branches, but the great majority descend by the trunk, and find-
ing the convenient shelter for pupation ready at the foot of the tree,
gonofarther. This has been tested on the Department grounds the
past season, and is mentioned as a method of riddance supplementary ,
only to others.

ARSENICAL POISONS.—It is seldom, however, that individuals, and
still more rarely that corporations, can be brought to the use of reme-
dies until damage is plain, and when this time comes nothing is bet-
ter than the application of some one of the arsenical mixtures. We
have already treated of the methods for applying such mixtures to
shade trees on a large scale in our report as Entomologist to the De-
partment for 1883, and in Bulletin 6 of this division, in both cases
in connection with the treatment of the Imported Elm Leaf-beetle
(Galeruca xanthomelena).

The most economical and convenient apparatus consists of a large |
barrel, provided with a force-pump and mixer, mounted on an ordi-
nary cart. A long hose, a metallic pipe, and a cyclone nozzle, ar-
ranged for elevation by means of a bamboo pole, complete the outfit,

Detailed descriptions of the apparatus having already appeared in
the reports just mentioned, it is unnecessary to repeat them here.

A somewhat similar apparatus is used in the California orange
groves against the Cottony Cushion-scale, and is illustrated in opera-

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 537

tion on Plate V. In this case a tank made especially for the purpose
is mounted in the high wagon-box and secured by cleats, and sup-

orts a small hose-reel. The so-called ‘San José nozzle” (a direct-

ischarge nozzle) is used. A feature of the illustration is the long,
portable ladder, which can be handled by one man. Such an appa-
ratus as this would be well adapted for use against the Web-worm.
It could be readily constructed and kept for years by the parking
authorities of any city liable to the attacks of this or other leaf-eat-
ing shade-tree pests.

In the use of arsenical poisons a number of points were brought
out by the series of experiments upon the Elm Leaf-beetle which are
important, and which may be briefly adverted to here:

Certain trees are more susceptible to the corrosive effects of the
arsenic than others. The 1883 experiments were confined to Elms,
and we have no reliable data as to the relative susceptibility of other
shade trees; so that we can simply mention the probability that those
trees which are most liked by worms are more apt to be affected by
the poison than trees which are distasteful to the worms.

‘“After each rain the poison takes a new effect upon the plant and
the pest, which indicates that the poison is absorbed more or is more
active when wet, and that it acts by dehydrating thereafter. Where
the tree is too strongly poisoned each rain causes a new lot of leaves
to become discolored by the poison or to fall. On some of the trees
the discoloration appears in brown dead blotches on the foliage,
chiefly about the gnawed places and margins, while in other instances
many of the leaves turn yellow, and others fall without change of
colors ae,

*“The poison not only produces the local effects from contact with
the parts touched by it, but following this there appears a more gen-
eral effect, manifested in that all the foliage appears to lose, to some
extent, its freshness and vitality. This secondary influence is proba-
bly from poisoning of the sap in a moderate degree. When this is
once observable no leaf-eater thrives upon the foliage. Slight over-
poisoning seems to have a tonic or invigorating effect on the trees.”

In the case of the Elm Leaf-beetle it was found that a preventive
application of the poison was valuable. It was made while the eggs
were being deposited and before the young larve were hatched, in
order to prevent the worms from getting a+start. It had the addi-
tional advantage of injuring the tree less than when applied later in
the season, as the caustic effect of the poison is greater when it comes
- contact with the sap at the gnawed edges and surfaces of the

eaves.

It was found advisable in 1883 to mix a certain amount of flour
with the Paris green or London purple used, in order to render the
mixture adhesive to the leaves. Three quarts of flour were used to
_ the barrel (40 gallons) of water. Where London purple was used it
was noted that the minimum amount per barrel of water was one-
fourth of a pound and the maximum three-fourths of a pound. Less
‘than the minimum did not kill the larvee and more than the maxi-
mum injured the foliage. Three-eighths of a pound was recom-
mended, With Paris green the quantity was somewhat greater,
ranging from a minimum of one-half of a pound to a maximum of
one pound.

In mixing the poison, flour and water, a large galvanized iron fun-
nel of thirteen quarts capacity, having a cross septum of fine wire

gauze, and having also vertical sides and a rim to keep it from rock-

538 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ing on the barrel, was used. The flour was first placed in the funnel
and washed through the wire gauze with water. This caused, it to
diffuse in the water without forming in lumps. The same process
was followed with the London purple or the Paris green, according
to which substance was to be used.

London purple has the advantage over Paris green in cheapness,

better diffusibility, and visibility upon the foliage, and experience
showed that the green seemed to injure the foliage more than the
purple.
; iy vas noticed with the Elm Leaf-beetle that the effect of a poison-
ing was slow in appearing; good effects are not expected before the
third or fourth day. Impatience which would lead to a repoisoning
on the second or third day would be apt to result in the burning and
fall of the leaves.

EMULSIONS OF KEROSENE.— We have had occasion for the last few
years to many times recommend the use of emulsions of kerosene
against different injurious insects. We need not repeat the advan-
tages of these preparations here, but simply state that when the Web-
worms are abundant, a thorough spraying with a dilute emulsion
will doubtless destroy the majority of them. On account of our
absence last summer no experiments were made upon the effect of
applying such an emulsion upon the foliage of the commoner shade
trees, but the result of experiments detailed in Bulletin No. 11 of the
Division would augur the destruction of the worms. These experi-
ments (made by Mr. Webster at La Fayette, Ind.) were not performed
upon this species, however, but upon the somewhat similar larve of
Pieris rapee and Datana ministra. Colonel Bowles, as we shall
soon show, rejected the emulsion of soap and kerosene as not effective
against the worms when reduced so as not to injure the plants; but,
' as he has not given us the details of the experiments, we still con-
sider the matter open to proof. The formule for several emulsions
are given in the article on the Cottony Cushion-scale (Icerya pur-
chast). Oneof the most serviceable is that which we call the ‘‘ Hub-
bard formula,” and which was used most extensively by Mr. Hub-
bard in his work on the scale insects of the Orange, and which has
been repeatedly given in the publications of the Division.

NAPHTHA.—Some experiments were undertaken in the height of
the Web-worm season by Col. John Bowles, of Washington, which pos-
sess a certain interest on account of the substance used and on account
of the manner of its application. It is, however, more expensive
than the arsenical poisons and the kerosene emulsions, and the spray
from the atomizer is not so far-reaching as from the force-pump and
cyclone nozzle. We append Colonel Bowles’s condensed account of
his experiments, with the remark that the experiments with the oil
doubtless failed of satisfactory results because of imperfect emulsify-
ing and application:

Tn accordance with your request I send herewith a concise statement of experi-
ments made by myself in exterminating caterpillars, web-worms, &c., which destroy
the beautiful foliage of our shade trees. ,

My experiment commenced with an efiort to save the shrubbery of my yard and
garden from the rapacious caterpillars that seem almost to germinate in the poplar
trees, one of which stood in our front yard. After denuding this tree and literally
raising an army of conquest and invasion, they broke camp and set forth as a huge
pene Dae consuming everything in their way, save the rough bark of the trees
an e .

I opposed them first with kerosene oil, which was equally fatal to the plants and
worms,

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 539

Then a simple emulsion of soap in proportion of 1 to 4 was made with the oil and
finally abandoned, not being effective against the worms when reduced so as not to
injure the plants.

ighter oils of the same character were resorted to and applied with aspray. This
killed the vermin, yet injured the plant. Still lighter oils were used, but, when
sprayed on, the foliage was materially injured. A vaporizer by means of compressed
air was substituted for the spray, and with use of very light oil or naptha, known in
commerce as 88, in half a second froze the worm and plant alike, with this differ-
ence, that in ten or fifteen minutes the vermin revived, but the tender leaves and
twigs wilted and turned black as though struck by Jack Frost in January.

The grade of oil was reduced until the proper gravity of, say, 77 was found to kill
the vermin and still leave the plant essentially unharmed.

The mechanical devices for vaporizing the oil and applying it to the upper branches
of trees and shrubbery alike, as demonstrated to the Commissioners of the District
some time since, and to which you kindly refer, have been since perfected, and so
reduced in cost as to make the management easy by any common day laborer and
the whole cost within the reach of all interested, whilst the oil costs less than 10
cents per gallon.

JOINT WORMS.
Order HYMENOPTERA; Family CHALCIDID&.
) THE COMMON JOINT WORM.
(Isosoma hordet, Harr.)

_ This old and well-known species has for the past few years been
increasing in numbers and importance in certain sections of the coun-
try, while for a number of years previously it had been almost lost
sight of. Since 1881 its work has been quite noticeable in portions
of Louisa, Albemarle, Goochland, Orange, and Fluvanna Counties,
Virginia, or, in other words, in just the locality where it was observed
and studied thirty-five years ago by F. G. Ruftin, Professor Cabell,
and Mr. Rives. Through the courtesy of Mr. F. C. Brooke, of Cuckoo,
Louisa County, we have been kept informed of the progress of the
pest and have been supplied with specimens from time to time.

In June, 1885, wishing to learn definitely the state of affairs in this
section, and more particularly on Mr. Brooke’s farm, we sent one of our
assistants, Mr. Pergande, accompanied by Mr. A. Stewart, a member
of the Entomological Society of Washington, to Cuckoo to make a
few days’ observations. The reports made by these gentlemen showed
that the damage done to the wheat crop by this and other wheat in-
sects was very great. Mr, Brooke’s crop for 1884 averaged less than
5 bushels to the acre, which did not pay expenses. —

The Joint Worm was not alone concerned in accomplishing this
result, although an important factor. The Hessian Fly (Cecodomyia
destructor), the Wheat Midge (Diplosis tritici), the Wheat [sosoma
(Isosoma tritict), the Tarnished Plant-bug (Lygus lineolaris), and
quite a number of other hemipterous insects were present in force,
and almost every straw had been injured by one or more of these
species. In the portions of the field most injured the plants were
often scarcely a foot in height, few in number, and many were bent

near the ground, so that frequently six or eight out of a bunch of
twelve were SPRCePnare: The ears of these straws were, however, bet-
ter developed and fuller of sound grain than those which stood erect.
On examination the prostrate stalks were found to be badly infested
by Joint Worms above the first or second joint, but almost entirely
free from Hessian Fly and Wheat Midge, while the standing stalks

540 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

frequently had both of the others in addition to Isosma tritici and
I. herdet. Of all these the Wheat Midge undoubtedly did the great-
est and most direct damage, and many ears were found white and
blasted from its work. In the most flourishing parts of the field,
where the stalks were green and 4 feet high, the Joint Worm was
also found, although not in such numbers as before.

The larvee of Isosoma tritict were often found in the same stalk
with f. hordev, often boring just alongside of the galls of the latter.
I. hordet, however, were quite uniformly found just above the first
or second joint, and in such position that the cutting of the grain
would not disturb them, while J. trztict was found in all parts of the
stalk from near the ground to above the upper joint.

In spite of the great abundance of the Joint Worms at this time
they were less numerous than in 1884, and in 1886 they were still
more reduced in numbers, owing, in great measure, to the prevalence
of Chalcid parasites in 1885. The most abundant of these was Semz-
otellus chalcidiphagus Walsh, the larvee of which were found in
nearly every swelling examined. The larve of Hupelmus allynit
(French) were also found, but in smaller numbers. .

A study of the comparative injury done by the four princtpal in-
sects found in this field would rank them in the following order:
Diplosis tritici, Cecidomyta destructor, Isosoma tritict, Isosoma
horde, yet f. horde alone had been complained of.

In parts of Ohio, too, the Joint Worm has been abundant. Mr.
Elliot Luse, of Barry, Cuyahoga County, writing under date of May
4, 1885, complained that the previous Fall, while threshing, bits of
hard straw from half an inch to three inches in length would come
through with the wheat. When cleaned with a hand-mill he would
get a bushel of these bits to 20 bushels of grain. The real nature of
the small pieces was not discovered by Mr. Luse until spring, when,
after feeding stock with chopped straw and ground feed and making
them sick, the straw was examined and the insects found and sent to
us for determination.

This case formed the text for an article which we wrote for the
Rural New Yorker of June 20, 1885 (vol. 44, p. 418), in which we
pointed out the necessity of cleaning with a hand-mill all wheat
thrashed with a steam-thrasher from infested straw, and of burning
not only the galls thus separated, but also the straw itself, as its loss
can be well afforded to lessen the injury the ensuing year.

Specimens were also received from Chagrin Falls, a few miles south
from Barry, in October, 1885, from Miss E. J. Phillips, who stated
that the wheat straw had been badly infested in that vicinity for two
years past, but that the yield did not seem to have been affected, as
she knew of several fields which yielded 30 and 35 bushels per acre,
and which were at the same time badly infested. The only trouble
was that the little pieces of straw came through the separator with
the wheat.

In Central New York the Joint Worm has also done some damage,
as we learn from correspondence with Dr. Lintner, the State ento-
mologist. Here, as in Ohio, the worms were often found higher in
the stalk than was customary in Virginia. In Chio this is shown
by the fact that so many galls were found in the harvested straw,
while Dr. Lintner writes us that his correspondent informed him that
the worms were found ‘‘in every joint.” From this he argued that
it might be Jsosoma tritici, instead of J. hordei, but its identity
with the latter species was settled by breeding the adults at the De-

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. BAL

partment from straws received from Dr. Lintner, who has referred
to this matter publicly in the Country Gentleman, vol. 49, p. 857.*

In Michigan the same insect appeared in 1884, working in the same
way. In the Rural New Yorker for May 9, 1885 (vol. 44, p. 314),
Prof. A. J. Cook described it in all stages at some length under the
name of ‘“‘ The Black Wheat-stalk Isosoma” (Lsosomanigrum, Nn. sp.).
He stated that he had received it from Wayne and Washtenaw Coun-
ties, and that at a ‘“‘farmers’ institute” held at Plymouth, Wayne
County, in January, he found hardly a farmer who had not been
vexed by the small pieces of straw, but that not one had discovered
the cause. : :

On the appearance of Professor Cook’s article we wrote to him for
specimens, strongly suspecting that his new species would turn out
to be the Common Joint Worm. He kindly complied with our re-
quest, and our suspicions were at once verified, and, as stated in our
article in the Rural New Yorker (loc. cit.), they proved to be well-
marked examples of Fitch’s tritzct form of J. hordet. Professor
Cook is still, we believe, inclined to insist that his species is a good
one, but without going into the details of eur rather extensive cor-
respondence with him in this matter, we reassert the correctness of
our conclusion and pronounce the Michigan insect to be J. hordez.t

In conclusion we may extract a few facts from our notes bearing
on the dates of transformations and the prevalence and habits of the
parasites:

December 9, 1884.—EKight straws which were received from Louisa
County, Virginia, July 30, were examined, with the following result:
No. 1. Two parasites had issued, and the straw still contained three
pupze of Isosoma and seven larvee of a Chalcid parasite. No. 2.
Hive parasites had issued, and seven parasitic larve still remained.
No. 3. Ten parasites had issued, and one pupa ct Isosoma; one liv-
ing and three dead larve of the parasite remained. No. 4. Two

arasites had issued, and six pupze of Isosoma, and one parasitic
arva. No. 5. One parasite had issued, and three Isosoma pupze and
four parasitic larve remained. No. 6. Two parasites had issued, and
three pupz of Jsosoma and two parasitic larvee remained. No. 7.
Contained four Isosoma pupz and three parasitic larve. No. 8.
Five Isosoma pupz and five parasitic larvee. Isosoma was found
only in the pupa state.

On December 17 the adult Isosomas began to issue, and they con-
tinued to appear in small numbers through January, February,
March, and April, issuing most abundantly the first week in May.
On May 28 straws were received from Louisa County which con-
tained eggs nearly ready to hatch.

The breeding of 1885-86 was very similar to this, and indicates that
the periods mentioned are about normal. The adults of both sexes

* In the American Agriculturist for December, 1884, vol. 43, p. 531, what is evi-
dently the same insect is treated as having been received from ‘‘ Central New York,”
and which is there determined as Isosome tritici, a reproduction of our figure of that
species being also given.

+ Professor Cook later republished the bulk of his first article on the subject as
an original contribution to the American Naturaiist for September, 1885 (pp. 804—
808). ere he seems to be in some doubt as to the validity of his species and ex-
presses the opinion that it will take time to ‘“‘clear all this up,” and says: ‘As spe-
cies are only venerable varieties which by age have been run into the mold of varia-
bility, it really makes no great difference. Practically the matter remains the same
in either case.” Such reasoning would justify unlimited species-making from any
one species known to be quite variable.

542 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

began to issue in numbers from Virginia straws December 19. De-
cember 31 another large lot issued, as also on January 5, January 8,
and February 1.

From our breedings it becomes doubtful whether the principal
parasite of the Joint Worm (Semiotellus chalcidiphagus, Walsh)
has one or two annual generations. A few specimens were swept in
the field by Messrs. Pergande and Stewart as early as June 13, while
inthe Department breeding-jars they issued in large numbers through
July and on until August 22. Then no more were noticed until Oc-
tober 10, when a number were found in the jars.* During the winter
straws cut open showed the presence of many of these parasites still
in the larval state. April 9 a large number issued, and none after
this date.

From these facts it seems that this species winters both in the adult
state and as larve in the straws, the latter issuing in early spring.
They undoubtedly oviposit in growing grain infested with Jsosoma
in the spring, and some individuals develop and issue in July and
August, while others winter in the straw and stubble as larve. What
becomes of the adults which issue so early in the season we can only
surmise. It is after harvest when they appear, and to parasitize
Joint Worm larve they would have to pierce the hard stubble or
work their way into their own holes of exit or into the cut ends of
the stubble; not a very likely proceeding. These early individuals
may oviposit in some other host, or they may live and hibernate
without ovipositing before spring. .

The common Hupelmus allynii (French) is also, as we have else-
where stated,+ a parasite of Jsosoma hordet, as well as of Isosoma
tritict and the Hessian Fly (Cecidomyia destructor). From the
Joint Worm it has also been bred from Virginia specimens, and on
three dates, viz, August 22, 1884, October 11, 1884, and April 9, 1885.
Although a considerable number issued on each of these dates, it
appears to be only about one-tenth as numerous as the Semioéelius.

THE WHEAT-STRAW ISOSOMA.
(Isosoma tritict,t Riley.)

In our annual report for 1884, in describing the larger Wheat-straw
Isosoma, we called attention (p. 358) to the possible relationship be-
tween this species and J. tritici in the following words: .

“It may be here stated as an interesting fact that of the specimens
so far reared both of tritict and grande, all are females, and whether
or not there is any dimorphic relationship between these two forms
is a question which future observations alone can decide. The prob-
abilities are, however, that there is no connection between them, for,

* There is a possibility that some of these issued several days prior to this date.

+ On the Parasites of the Hessian Fly, by C. V. Riley, Ph. D., Proceedings of the
U. §. National Museum, 1885, pp. 4138-422.

¢ As the object of this article is to show that the two species which we have de-
scribed as Jsosoma tritici and I. grande are in reality but seasonal dimorphic forms
of one and the same species, it may be well to state that we retain the species name
“tritici” as having priority, and because it represents the bisexual form of the
species. We retain this name in preference to ‘‘ grande” because, in addition to
these reasons, it is an eminently appropriate name, and, as we have previously
shown, Fitch’s Hurytoma tritici is but a variety of Isosoma hordei, and cannot even
be looked upon as entitled to a varietal name, since there is no constancy in the
characters upon which it is based,

~

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 543

on the assumption that they represent alternate generations, we
should expect the one or the other to comprise both sexes.”

The history of our experiments with the two forms, in order to as-
certain whether or not the relationship suggested in the above para-
graph has any real existence, is briefly as follows:

Grande was first found by Mr. Webster in the summer of 1884,
He observed it, and indeed bred it, early in June in Illinois, and on
June 6 found females ovipositing in wheat at Oxford, Ind. On the
“th he found a pupa and a fully developed adult in wheat-stalks.
The adults continued abundant until the 18th, when they began to
decrease in numbers, and the last one was noticed June 27. A num-
ber of the straws in which these females were observed to oviposit in
the field were sent to the Department, and a number were retained by
Mr. Webster himself. From the straws sent to the Department
tritici issued very abundantly in January and February, 1885. With
Mr. Webster two premature individuals issued in October, 1884, and
others issued in December, 1884, and January, and February, 1885; but
all attempts to induce oviposition proved failures. No specimens of
grande made their appearance. From straws left outdoors tretict
issued in March and April, and again no specimens of grande were
seen, although the straws were cut open fri thoroughly examined.

This predisposed us to the conclusion that trzticz had developed
from eggs laid by grande, and although none of the specimens of
tritict thus bred could be induced to oviposit in confinement, the
hypothesis of an alternation of the two forms thus received strong
support.

fit 2d of June, 1885, grande was once more observed in con-
siderable numbers in a wheat plot, and examination showed this form
present in nearly all stages of growth in the stalks. On August 12,
1885, stalks were isolated in which grande alone were observed to
oviposit, and from these tritici began to issue at Washington Jan-
uary 7, 1886, and continued to issue on the following dates: January
15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, and February 3, 4, 6,and 8, 1886. These all re-
fused to oviposit, as was the case the previous winter. Mr. Webster
was sent South the first of March on another investigation, and on his
return to La Fayette in April found a limited number of trzticz, which
had emerged much later (probably during the latter part of March),
still alive in his breeding-cages.

These specimens he at once transferred, as he states in his report,
on the 12th of April, to young wheat plants grown and kept contin-
uously under cover in acorner of his garden. These plants were
carefully protected from outside insects, and on the 2d of June, 1886,
the reverse of the former breeding was accomplished, and grande was
bred from wheat in which indubitably nothing but tritici had ovi-
posited! Several specimens issued in the next few days, and all im-
mediately began to oviposit in the now nearly full-grown straw in
other portions of the same stools from which they had issued.

The next step was then carried out, and these straws, in which the
bred specimens of grande had oviposited from June 2 to June 12, were
divided, and part sent to Washington and part retained at La Fayette,
Ind., by Mr. Webster. On February 4, 1887, two female tritici were
bred at Washington, and on the same day, as we subsequently learned,
two were bred at La Fayette.

_Thus the complete alternation of the two forms has been estab-
lished. It will be remembered that the entire absence of a male
among the many specimens of both forms bred and collected was a

544. REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

stumbling-block to our acceptance of this hyphothesis in 1884 before
the alternation had been proven, and it so remained until January 6,
1886, when a male Isosoma was bred by us from the same straws in
which grande was observed ovipositing by Mr. Webster at La Fayette
August 12, 1885, and which had since been isolated, and from which
female tritici were being bred and were subsequently bred in num-
bers. On February 4 another of these males was bred from this lot
of straw, and on February 6 still another, making three in all. In
size these males were slightly smaller than the females of traticz,
and of course much smaller than grande. They were all three fully
winged, and could have been nothing else than the males of trtzez.
Attempts were made while they were yet alive to establish this be-
yond aul peradventure by placing them with living females of tritace
bred from the same straws and also with living females bred from
straws received from California. The result was unsatisfactory.
The males were lively and ran actively about in the breeding-jars,
but made no attempt to pair. As soon as they came in contact with
the females they either flew away or dropped as if startled. They
were watched, however, only during the daytime from 9 a. m. until
4p. m., and were in confinement in breeding-jars in the Divisional
eres All males died after three or four days, and none of the
males issued on the same day with the females, so that one or the
other was weak when watched with the opposite sex. It is also
probable that the artificial conditions of a vivarium are unfavorable
to proper development or maturity of the specimens, and that free-
dom and sunlight are essential to coition.

This breeding of the males, although not perfectly satisfactory, re-
moves the last obstacle to the acceptance of the fact of alternation of
generations with this species; for we must now call it a single species.
The summary of its life-history in Indiana is as follows:

In March and April there issue from old last year’s straws, either
stubble or volunteer, wingless females of the frvficz form, with, in
some seasons, males. These oviposit in growing wheat. In June the
winged females of the grande form issue from this same wheat, with,
so far as known, no males. These oviposit in the now nearly grown
straws of wheat, and from these eggs hatch larvze which mature be-
fore winter and give forth adults of the tritzce form early the ensu-
ing spring.

From this summary it will be seen that it is the grande form alone
which does the damage in Indiana; and supposing this relationship
to hold wherever the species occurs, it effectually relieves those north-
ern regions where only spring wheat is grown from any anticipation
of injury, and indicates the obvious remedy of destruction of stubble
and volunteer grain in the cultivation of winter wheat. In locali-
ties where both winter and spring wheat are grown we should expect
to find the insect the most numerous.

Bearing out this suggestion, we may state that we have received
the insect from no portion of the country in which spring wheat ex-
clusively is grown.

We have used the above qualifying clause as to the alternation of
generation in these two forms in all sections where the species occurs,
for the reason that while grande has been found only in Blooming-
ton and Normal, Il., and Oxford and La Fayette, Ind., triticz has
been sent to us from Virginia, Indiana, Illinois, Tennessee, Missouri,
Kansas, California, and Washington Territory.

Mr. J. F. Donkin, of Grayson, Stanislaus County, California, wrote

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 545

us under date of May 23, 1885, sending specimens, and again on June 19.
Mr. Coquillett, writing from Atwater, Merced County, California,
June 29, sent similar specimens. Mr. Donkin, in his first letter, said:
‘“They are killing a large percentage of our wheat. The heads turn

ellow and die long before the wheat ripens.” In his second letter
fie supplemented this as follows: ‘‘I send you by this mail samples
of wheat-straw taken from different fields several miles apart. I am
told by friends who have been growing wheat for years on the same
land that the worms are in all the wheat this year. They have found
it in the wheat of every field examined. There is a difference of opin-
ion about the damage done by it. Some say that when we have plenty
of rain and the wheat is thrifty it does no harm. One told me that
he had noticed pieces of about one-eighth of an acre in extent where
about She sient of the heads had no wheat. Last year was the first
that I saw any myself.”

That this insect has existed in California for a number of years
there can be no doubt from the evidence of correspondents. It is
probably the same insect which was sent to Dr. Packard through the
Pacific Rural Press in September, 1879, from Healdsburg, Sonoma
County, California, and which was identified by him as a wingless
Joint Worm, Other specimens were received by him the same year
from Madison, Yolo County. It was also received by us in Septem-
ber, 1882, from Mr. J. A. Starner, of Dayton, Columbia County,
Washington Territory, in stalks which contained larve and pupa.
Although the work and early stages were preuely similar to those
of tritici, the great difference in locality led to the presumption that
it might bea ai erent though related species, but subsequent breed-
ing of the adults settled the question of identity.*

The presence of this insect in the other States mentioned has already
been. plated on record, with the exception of Kansas. From this State
we received specimens in July, 1885, from Mr. Warren Knaus, of Sa-
lina. The straws contained lave. which were dried up on receipt,
so that it was impossible to say to which form they belonged. The
work in the straws indicated either trztict or grande, while the date
of collecting (July 5) rendered it more probable that they were
grande. As this is the first recorded finding of Jsosoma in Kansas,
we may arene briefly from Mr. Knaus’ account:

**T mail you to-day a box containing specimens of what I take to be
Isosomatritict. The joints infested are all the second from the ground,
and are the only ones in the stalk of wheat containing the worm.
Stalks from various fields are almost all infested, many containing
three larve. Ihave taken a number of larveefromimmediately above
the joint next the head. My observation is that these worms have
caused more damage to the wheat in this part of the State than the
Hessian Fly fully 50 per cent. of the heads in many fields of wheat
showing their work in a very marked manner.”

In a letter dated August 16 he gives the following:

““T have just returned from a trip through Northwest Kansas, and
find that the Wheat-straw Worm has seriously damaged the wheat
in the counties of Ottawa, Cloud, Osborne, Rooks, and Phillips; also
in Saline, McPherson, and Dickinson Counties. It has really done
more damaged than the Hessian Fly.”

In order to compare the customary situation and abundance of the
larvee in the straw in California with Mr. Knaus’ statement and with

*See American Naturalist, December, 1882, p. 1017,
35 AG—'86

546 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Mr. Webster’s table in our last Annual Report (p. 386), we give the
result of an examination of ten straws received May 23 from Mr,
Donkin, of Grayson, Cal.:

Mae fourth: KNOU TLOMU OAT .'. 25 ca ceice er ebinre s pelas.s cane qeval’s.el eer ese. ee 3
Above third knot from ear...... WSIS ees TOS ee 2
Mnhnva second: knot from Oar es 511s dlem dele wlelate tele inie.s » « leialo sca quaite wee lnleeetee akan 15
Above first knot from CaP. 05. 2001 niniss te nye ne miles ae see's cam puinpisg ena ee peleelpie 5
Wi SECON: KNOUALON) GAL. 5.» a:c.aoie/esnie nein hupinia ae sigssiciy © .n:0i0'a 0ials sigibialel ais fia n/n ese eee 2
Wer GHiTd DO’ (VOM GAL. cs sce + + cen tice Gee witele bye © cee + 1s 90/506 16 44/0 oem 9 el ties 6
Pa ROUPT NOU LEO OAD L6. Cote vale metrclea ab 'oly als o'eg via ve sicait ea gas tls cea. et nna ul

Total number. of larvae in ten, Stal, « .¢ vies « «1 salen secn's'6 oylpiatele sclera oplaeieeE 44

PARASITES.—By far the most numerous parasite bred during the
season from both the bisexual and unisexual forms has been Hupelmus
allynit (French). But one specimen (female) of Stictonotus isoso-
matis Riley, which we described in our Annual Report for 1881-82
(p.186), has been reared since the original description, which was drawn
up from one female and two males. We have, however, bred a most
interesting parasite of the Proctotrupid genus Dryinus from the
grande form and a new Pteromalid from both forms,

SILK CULTURE,

Tn our last Annual Report we reiterated the recommendations which
we had several times made that means be given for the establishment
in Washington of an experimental silk filature, and expressed the
hope that we should be able to obtain a certain nunwher of Serrell au-
tomatic reels with which to carry out any experiments which might
be authorized.

In pursuance of this recommendation Congress, at its last session,
appropriated $10,000 in aid of silk culture, and, among other things,
authorized ‘‘experiments with automatic machinery for reeling silk
from the cocoon at some point in the District of Columbia.” The
experimental reeling station at New Orleans had been closed at the
beginning of the calendar year, and on the 30th of June that at Phila-
delphia was also closed and its appurtenances loaned to the Women’s
Silk Culture Association, in aid of which Congress also appropriated
$5,000. ,

In pursuance of this act (June 30, 1886) an experimental silk filature
has been set up in one of the Department buildings in Washington,
It consists of a battery of six Serrell automatic reels and an automatic
cocoon-brushing machine, invented partly by the same engineer,

Several objects will be held in view in operating this establishment,
Among tlem we shall endeavor to settle conclusively the commercial
value of Osage Orange as a silk-worm food, and, more important still,
as foreshadowed in our last report, will be the determination of the
question as to whether silk can be reeled with profit in the United
States by means of the most improved machinery.

OSAGE ORANGE VS. MULBERRY.

In reference to the first object, the work already done justifies the
statement that cocoons raised from Maclura-fed worms produce as
good a silk as when the worms are fed on Mulberry. The difficulty
found when these cocoons were reeled in France was that the rendi-

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 547

tion * was too great, being in the neighborhood of 5, while 4 is only
a fair result with white-mulberry cocoons.

The second week’s work in the Washington filature on Osage Orange
cocoons gave a rendition of 3.69, and subsequently a result as low as
3.65 has beeh attained. This result was reported to Mr. Serrell, the
inventor of the reels used, who, though living abroad, has always
taken a lively interest in American silk culture, and his comments
thereon are so encouraging that their substance is presented here:

The rendition from Osage Orange cocoons at the Washington filature is aston-
ishing. So far as I know, the only time they have been reeled in France they gave
a rendition of nearly 5. That is tosay,as reeled in France it took a pound anda
third more cocoons to produce a pound of silk thanin the work done in Washing-
ton. It is fair to say, however, that in France they were reeled in a filature accus-
tomed to only the best French cocoons.

‘* Be that as it may, the result attained is extremely remarkable, and makes me
foresee a prompter outcome from American cocoons than I had supposed was pos-
sible.

Of the silk mentioned several skeins were taken to New York and
submitted to the most rigorous tests at the Silk-conditioning Works
in that city. It is needless to go into the details of the technical re-
port made by its manager, but it will suffice to say that this Osage
Orange silk gave excellent results, the faults being such as can be
cured as our silk-raisers gain in experience.

The use of Osage Orange as a food-plant has now become quite
general in the States where it is plentiful. Some observations which
have been made on cocoons raised therefrom may be of service to
the raisers who employ it. If two batches of cocoons be taken,
raised from the same eggs, the one on the Mulberry and the other on
the Osage, they will to the ordinary eye possess no distinct character-
istics. The expert, however, can at once and almost unerringly des-
ignate the food used in either case, and this on account of the greater
ig ike of satinage observable in those produced by the Osage Orange-
fed worms. It was explained in the last edition of our manual that
this satinage consisted of an inferior gumming together of the layers
of the cocoon, and is made apparent to the eye by the coarser texture
of its surface. Asa result, the water penetrates to the interior, and
causes them to sink to the bottom of the basin in reeling, and thus
to break off the filament. Although this difficulty has not been
pases to be the result of any given cause, still it is generally be-

ieved to be due to the insufficient. feeding of the worm during the
last days of its life. At this time almost all of its food goes to the
formation of silk, and though a worm may make its cocoon if the
feeding is stopped five days after the last molt, still it will be weak
and commercially useless. In order that it should be strong and well
garnished, no food should be spared at this time. The almost uni-
versal difference found between the cocoons raised on Osage Orange
and Mulberry in this particular leads to the opinion that a greater
quantity of the former food is required than of the latter, and that
our people have not learned to supply their silk-worms with enough
liberality during the days which precede the spinning.

_ What has been said above must not be construed as a serious ob-
jection to the use of such food, but simply as an indication of how
it may be used with greater advantage than at present. On the con-

* By ‘‘rendition” is meant the number of pounds of dry cocoons required to pro-
duce a pound of reeled silk,

548 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

trary, though nothing definite can be said as to the result of the
limited experiments already made, the indications point to Osage
Orange as at least the equal of Mulberry as silk-worm food, and con-
firm in continuous reeling the conclusions arrived atin previous
years, and which we have reiterated in past writings.

THE SERRELL REEL—COST OF WORK UP TO THE PRESENT TIME.

In regard to the more important feature of our experiments we
have not yet gone far enough to be willing to venture any opinion
upon the probable outcome of the work. The limited appropriation
prevented the setting up of more than six reels, though we had hoped
to obtain twelve. Even with these six it has been somewhat slow
work to train the young girls employed in their operation, and the
consequent sale of the silk produced has been delayed longer than
we anticipated. But at the best we cannot this year hope for results
which will be more than indicative of the future prospects of the
industry; for there are so many items of loss in the operation of a
small establishment, which would not occur in a larger one worked
under what we may call factory conditions, that it is impossible to
make altogether accurate estimates. We shall be able, however, to
show the silk manufacturers of the country what quality of silk can
be made from American cocoons, and to give capitalists some indica-
tions of the probable profit to be realized or loss to_be suffered in
working a filature supplied with the best machines. We hope to be
able to give in our next annual report the result of at least nine
months of work under as favorable conditions as are possible with a
small establishment.

The expenses of the operation of the experimental filature have
been so far as follows:

Per week,

APRONS WOTATY rie recs ere cra oro are Cee aretalisne atin elcia ‘seen sinite ec ieteleve.o:.eTo ocepel otevcheletemetems $8 65
DOPCLALLVES: 4. o ec eee selboecaetenwccecnerscecersceeseteescersa cee rbasagms 23 08
4 Noi all heey A MOREeE EE nen GIs Soto One Orca OodOd MOOG cRORFOrEd Orde oo bina ols ac 81 73

Or of each of the five reeling days, $6.35.

It has been found best to reel forty hours per week, and employ the
time Saturday in sorting cocoons, so that the above sum ($6.35) in-
cludes the total expense for productive labor employed in making one
day’s product.

Only five of the reels have been in operation. The best product
made on the five reels mentioned has been 850 grams per diem (1.87

pounds).
This silk has cost us:
Bla IBOL AS ADOVO 35; bide a e'oe oye stam cele upstate ele aialoiein'e Gis s\0's 2's oie a wisn emis $6 35
SHOT ICOCOOTB 1. cs sie cel wictares ote sea tele we elleTel fever esetenelercheliotaieiensiateisi's/s,'eV's! c/»."ele/eie\'s iokcialevatevetel meta 7 29
PRYOR So eT 0s ec hate, aupidiona adn She MUR IRLSMRETs YB ISVS Ea 0 lds) s,s elelcls: Stclebeis wee tera 13 64
The value of the product would be, at minimum figures (1.87 pounds of sill,
BURRS e ciavossie vase c's otlece CARLIE Oe pen a te GE, co ee canoe ee 9 85
AVVISTE ets cn UE a cee “cs ie aba erclare Mintel ats itaetatiadt Rise topelete's 6 cel e's oe s'eyale fale ela eLntataner ateratetn 1 50
PRA soa, Sele win cl SS siatbioleieis nie aca ehoielaie wiepertadn Si ibis 6ia\s),o(ee.2. nhs, « ele iat ao iain te 10 85

This will show a daily loss of $2.79, or a loss of approximately
$1.50 per pound of silk produced, not including interest on capital
involved or cost of superintendence. It is not a very good showing,

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 549

and we quote Mr. Walker’s conclusion as to the chances of improv-
ing it:

“T am of the opinion that saving can be made in the following
ways: In the present machines the two threads of each basin are so
dependent upon each other that when one thread breaks the reels of
both threads stop. Judging from the result of carefully noted exper-
iments within the past week, [ am of the opinion that if these threads
were made independently of each other the daily production would
be increased by 125 grams without increase of the labor employed.
Again, the two girls at the reels, owing to their slight experience,
are unable to keep the threads sufficiently free from almost exhausted
cocoons, and as a result bunches run up into the crovsure and cause
the rupture of the filament. By careful noting of the time lost by
these breakages I found that it amounted to 29 per cent. of the working
day. Iput Mrs. Vaccarino in the place of the two girls, and by her
superior ability in taking out exhausted cocoons she diminished the
loss of time to slightly over 6 per cent. It is probable that with
properly constructed purgeurs the ratio of time lost would be reduced
aslowas10percent. And Iam now experimenting with some devices
which justify, I think, my hopes of arriving at such a result. If I
do succeed, [ shall, without increasing my labor, increase my pro-
duction from 1.87 pounds to 2.37 pounds.

“This silk will require in its production;

WOT POE. aso o's cuss ee ace are evaeasilseturon 6 NE: su averaverncersyetcty, deuias ee eCee
LST i100 sg Wee Nn, gaa pee ARE NN SI GS A let sas aythoaseined eeees
Total eoeeesoeeeeeseseseeceseeeeseeeeveeseeosvseoeeveeesnoeseese eeeeoeesesd 15 59
‘“The product will be worth:
Silk. eoeeoeeroceoese oe Coes ee oe eeeeeeoeroeoneeoereeoe oo e eoceeeo0 bt Oe Sein 85
VETS Creare Fh Ser TS fee’ en AR a ae ies gate LOS aa ea 2 00
Rice ee deh. Ores 7, Sait coat eS oh ogee 13 85

*‘This would reduce the daily loss to $1.74, or the loss per pound of
silk produced to 74 cents,” : ae

THE DISTRIBUTION OF EGGS.

In 1885, as stated in our last report, a quantity of silk-worm eges
were purchased of American silk-raisers and 150 ounces were distrib-
uted to applicants in different parts of the country. The general re-
sult was so unsatisfactory as to prevent the repetition of the experi-
ment. There were but few of the sellers who had the slightest idea
of the care to be taken in egg production, and it has not been thought
wise to continue the encouragement of this kind of work. There is,
too, undoubtedly, evidence of the existence in the country of much
“seed” of inferior races, and it is our aim to prevent the use of this
as much as possible by the gratuitous distribution of choice qualities.
In 1885 our distribution was confined to the class of races commonly
called the large Milan, and the same policy will be followed in 1887.
Silk-raisers who have had cause to be dissatisfied with their stock,
either from failure in their education or from poor prices received
for ie product, will do well to apply to the Department for a new
supply.

The reason for confining the distribution of eggs to the large Milan

550 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

races is one dictated by the necessities of the case. They have, as a
rule, been submitted to the Pasteur microscopical selection, which is
not true of Asiatic stock. This would have been of little importance
some years ago, but now there is good evidence of the existence of
the pebrine in Japan and China, and the only means of guarding
against it is by avoiding the purchase of such material.

Of the Milan races, then, stock of assured purity may be obtained.
The worms are hardy and the cocoons give excellent results in reel-
ing. The few reeling establishments now existing or likely to exist
in the United States in the near future can consume but a compara-
tively small quantity of cocoons and produce but a small quantity of
silk. In order to find a ready market for such silk it must be of good
quality, a term which includes among other things evenness of color.
To produce this evenness we must have not only cocoons of the same
color, but as much as possible of the same shade. The use of the
many races now in vogue in this country prevents the attaining of
this desirable end, and the cocoons that are offered at the filature are
not all that can be desired in this direction. Itis true that we might
choose some of the other European races that are as carefully selected,
such, for example, as the Bionne, but taking everything into consid-
eration, the conditions sought for are best found in the large Milan
varieties.

Last spring some of this sort of eggs, produced by the house of
Darbrousse, in France, were sent to us by a gentleman in New Or-
leans, and a few of them were raised in the Department building, the
food employed being Osage orange. There were almost no deaths in
the batch, and about 4 pounds of cocoons were produced. It took
256 of these to make a pound, while 300 is considered an extremely
good result. Part of the best of these were selected for reproduc-
tion, and were found to weigh a pound to each 216. Such cocoons as
these are what silk-reelers want and are willing to pay extra prices
for, but unfortunately there are few of them offered.

IMPROPER CHOKING OF COCOONS.

Our experience in the filature, too, has shown us that our people
are sadly deficient in their knowledge of the art of stifling cocoons,
and many lots have been received which were of otherwise excellent
quality, but which had been burned by the employment of improper
means for destroying the life of the chrysalis. It is the custom in
Kurope for the silk-raiser to dispose of his cocoons at the filature as
soon as they are raised and before they have been stifled. The raiser
then has the advantage of getting payment for his work as soon as
it is completed, and the silk-reeler is enabled to stifle his cocoons in
large quantities and by the most approved process. This scheme,
however, has thus far been found impossible in the United States, as
the silk-raisers are as a rule located so far from the available markets,
that there would be danger of the moths piercing the cocoons before
they could be choked. American buyers have therefore been obliged
to eae only stifled cocoons which have been thoroughly dried,
and as this process of drying requires several months, silk-raisers have
not received the proceeds of their season’s labor until well into the
autumn. And again, through inability to purchase apparatus or
through lack of knowledge on the subject, they have resorted to such
- means of stifling as were at their command, and have destroyed in
many cases an otherwise excellent crop. This burning of the cocoons

Ee

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 551

- may always be obviated by using steam in their stifling and after-

wards thoroughly drying them to prevent molding. A very efficient
though simple piece of apparatus for thus stifling cocoons was pur-
chased last spring by this Depart-
ment of the New York Silk Ex-
change, and is within the means of
most silk-growers. Asketch of it,
in aslightly modified form, is given
at Fig.1. Itconsists of a tin reser-
voir, A, which, when in use, is
about one-third filled with water.
Slightly above the surface of the
water is a movable perforated par-
tition, B, intended to prevent spat-
tering during ebullition. The up-
pe rportion contains a perforated
pan for holding the cocoons, while
all is tightly closed by a cover.
Cocoons may be thoroughly stifled B
by exposure inthisapparatusover [CUT T33S TTT ===en
boiling water for twenty minutes,
It will be seen, too, that much the
same apparatus can be contrived
by the use of a deep kettle, into
which is set an ordinary colander
full of cocoons. Itis well to avoid,
however, so filling the kettle with

water that it will splash upon the cocoons in boiling, as they should
only be subjected to the action of steam. The apparatus owned by
the Department is 12 inches in diameter and 13 inches deep, and will
stifle from 3 to 4 pounds of cocoons at a time.

COCOONS PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1886.

Desirous of getting some statistics as to the amount of silk produced
during the year in this country, and believing that the result could
be approximately obtained by summing up the receipts at Washing-
ton and Philadelphia, we applied to Mrs. Lucas, who has kindly fur-
nished the data from the Women’s Silk-Culture Association of Phil-
adelphia, of which she is president. These receipts are for the first
half of the fiscal year, or from October 1, 1886, to the end of the
year. They do not include whatever silk was raised in California,
and will probably be materially increased by receipts during the first
quarter of 1887. The result is, however, quite interesting, and the
more so that no impetus was given to the raising of the cocoons by
the establishment of the filature at Washington (and the same may
be said in a great measure of Philadelphia), since the appropriation

_did not become available until after the silk-raising season was over.

Figures show that during the time stated there have been pur-
chased at the Washington filature 1,313 pounds 15 ounces, valued at
$1,272.04, and by the Women’s Silk Culture Association at Philadel-
phia, 3,801 pounds 9 ounces, valued at $2,720.88. This makes a total of
5,115 pounds 8 ounces, for which there was paid the sum of $3,982.96,
or nearly 78 cents per pound. These were obtained, as will be seen.
by the following table, from twenty-six States and Territories, It
is probable that the table is not a just indication of the production

552 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

of those States, as there have been certain cases where lots of cocoons
have been received at the filature which were the results of collec-
tions made from many different raisers and which were possibly not
raised in the State from which they were purchased.

Philadelphia, Washington. ‘ Total,

Average
State. ' SS | SS rat

Quantity. | Value. | Quantity. | Value. | Quantity. | Value. | Pou:

Lbs. oz. | Dollars.| Lbs. oz. | Doillars.| Lbs. oz. | Dollars. | Dollars.

PAULA SUITIAS fore ciavs (lela « sfete ca ie sie 1 12 0 70 5 10 6 04 Giaa6 6 74 0 91
ATKANSAS). leks tes tislees 30 it 15 40 bie a 3 54 30 0h 18 94 54
DIshe1eb OL Colum Bia <).)-1-)-\\/< syei=.4/e/= slaiolelletaaeeeee 38 12 3 32 38 12 3 32 885
Florida 56 2 52 24 See 4 05 64 4 56 29 88
Georgia 18 64 11 38 0 12 ie 19 2} 12 16 63
Illinois Visine 04 622 3 249 7% 241 12 | 1,029 9 868 45 §38
Indiana 140 13 100 80 8 8 81 7 22! 5 182 50 8O5
Towa.... 165 2 111 68 2 38 59 168 4 pret 685
Kansas .. 596 7 351 85 BY 6b 61 08 653 12 412 93 63
KRentuckyigint scion see's 67 10 388 80 5 12 6 11 7 6 44 91 61
HOPHRIAMAla Jarsiste/oleiee oainwic 9 6} 8 72 162 8 172 54 171 144 181 26 89
Massachusetts ........... 4 6 PEAT Al ras cyetee PAIS ei tel| ‘a otels erate teteve 4 6 8 45 788
WG ENT SS dopenooooanee 241 12 223 18 4 12 5 46 246 8 228 64 92
Mississippi eyehelniereselercveiebat siete 8 10 Leer, VIS 52 86 49 114 12 87 76 76
WVISSOUITI GS vet ones since te 267 138 194 45 125 12 129 04 393 323 49 82
INGDVASES i. oteisisistacte ees on vi Genes || 32 18 nuda GOL 125 78 187 14 157 96 84
New Jersey ........ccce0 8 8 8 14 38 4 3 25 W112} 11 39 966
INGWaMOLE <0 e cacewneeaen Sip 2 81 308 2 86 (Bley ifs) 5 67 7
North Carolina .......... 9 7 49 36 87 8 41 28 1382 10 90 59 68
Oletcecisicie es sisieesivee sts 1,063 11 780 13 PSO 5 118 13 | 1,185 0 893 26 75
IPENNSVIVANIA!. os cence cn. b4 44 40 55 144 4 115 40 198 &} 155 95 78
South Carolina........... 9 4 QT |\s «Settle oeislers'| siete lols ite .6 9 4 477 515
Tennessee .......... Alsi 87.8 13 56 208 2 18 39 «3 15 74 40
AMES ENE So9 anouobouabGooudL 11 12) 99 40 10 89 97 5264 46 96 89
WVABOITHA Sho ccleicicss sapaicta 60 104 80 15 4 11 95 [5 144 54 7 72
West Virginia............ 8 0 3 38 ay aig 1 43 4 ONG 4 81 1 08
DOtal ye Se ieceiss deeses 3,801 93 | 2,720 88 | 1,818 15 | 1,262 04] 5,115 8 | 3,982 96 G72

REPORTS OF AGENTS.

REPORT ON REMEDIES FOR THE COTTONY CUSHION-SCALE.
By D. W. Coquillett, Special Agent.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

Sir: The following pages comprise my report upon the experiments to destroy the
Cottony Cushion-scale (Icerya purchasi, Maskell).

In accordance with your letter of instruction I proceeded to Los Angeles on the
9th of February, 1886, and had a conference with the County Horticultural Com-
mission relative to the best place for me to to locate in order to study to the best ad-
vantage the life-history and habits of the Cottony Cushion-scale, and they assured
me that they could find such a location in the city of Los Angeles, but wanted time
to enable them to make the necessary arrangements. Accordingly I returned to
Anaheim, and on the 15th of February again visited Los Angeles, and was shown
several orchards, in either of which I could carry on my investigations. I chose
the Wolfskill orchard as offering the best opportunities for my studies, and was not
a little influenced in my choice by the fact that I would thereby secure the aid of
the superintendent of this orchard, Mr. Alexander Craw, whom I found to be a
most careful and accurate observer of the habits of insects in general, and who has’
had considerable experience in combating scale insects of various kinds.

In this orchard I carried on my experiments with various remedies for the de-
struction of the Cottony Cushion-scale, and it was here that the greater number of
my observations upon the history and habits of this insect were made; but [ also
studied it in many of the other orchards and yards in various parts of this city.

On the 18th of June, 1885, the board of supervisors of Los Angeles County passed
an ordinance relating to the destruction of insect pests. In accordance with this
ordinance the office of County Board of Horticultural Commissioners was estab-
lished, and Messrs. J. R. Dobbins, George Rice, and § McKinley were ap pointed to

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 553

the board. It is the duty of this commission to divide the county into districts and
appoint an inspector for each district. When trees or plants are found to be infested
with the Cottony Cushion-scale or other injurious insect the owner is notified of
this fact and is requested to disinfect such trees or plants, and if he fails to do so
within due time his premises are deemed a public nuisance, to be proceeded against
as any ordinary nuisance until abated.

On the 4th of August, 1885, the city council of the city of Los Angeles passed an
ordinance declaring trees and plants infested with the Cottony Cushion-scale within
the city limits a public nuisance immediately, and it also established the offices of
inspectors of fruit pests, whose duty it was to see that the provisions of this ordi-
nance were enforced.

On the 13th of November, 1885, the board of supervisors of Los Angeles County
offered a reward of $1,000 for a perfect exterminator of the Cottony Cushion-scale,
and the horticultural commission and myself were appointed by the board to act as
a committee for determining the efficacy of the various remedies presented by the
different applicants for the above reward. Up to the present writing there have
been eleven applicants for this reward, and these have made thirty-eight tests, but
none of these remedies have been deemed worthy of the offered reward.

In the prosecution of my studies I have been not a little aided by the above com-
mission and their able corps of inspectors, to all of whom my warmest thanks are
due. Mr. Albert Koebele, one of the agents of the United States Division of Ento-
mology, has been with me part of the time, and has aided me much in the mechan-
ical part of my experiments.

Respectfully, yours,

Prof. C. V. RILEY

D. W. COQUILLETT.
United States Entomologist.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

The great desideratum in a remedy for scale insects is that it shall kill all of the
insects and their eggs without producing any injury whatever to the tree or fruit,
and to this must be added the additional qualification that it must be reasonably
cheap. A wash costing from 1 to 14 cents per gallon would be cheap enough to
be extensively used, while if it should exceed 3 cents per gallon it would be beyond
the reach of the majority of the fruit-growers.

It is no difficult task to discover a wash possessing any two of the above qualities ;
but to discover one which possesses the three properties combined is a far more
difficult matter.

The remedies in common use in Southern California for the destruction of the
Cottony Cushion-scale consist of various liquid solutions applied to the infested
trees in the form of a spray. The usual appliances for performing this operation
consist of a force or spraying pump mounted upon a barrel or tank; to the pump is
attached from one to four pieces of rubber hose from 15 to 20 feet in length, and
to the end of each is attached an iron tube measuring from 4 to 10 feet in length.
The nozzle commonly used is known as the ‘‘San José” nozzle, and is fastened to
the outer end of the iron tube above described.

This nozzle consists of a short brass tube, upon the outer end of which is screwed
a brass cap having a large opening in the top. This cap holds in place a circular
piece of brass, in the center of which is a small slit, through which the solution is
forced in the form of a fan-shaped spray. Sometimes a piece of rubber is substi-
tuted for the circular piece of brass in the nozzle; it has the advantage of not be-
coming clogged so easily as the brass one, but is far less durable.

The Cyclone nozzle, which has been fully described in previous reports of this De-
partment, has been used by a few different persons here, but these, with one accord,

refer the San José nozzle. For thorough work, however, the Cyclone nozzle is to

e preferred, as it does not become clogged so easily as the San José nozzle, and it
also permits the operator to spray the leaves from all directions, the spray issuing
from the side of the nozzle instead of from the outer end, so that by simply turning
about the iron tube carrying the nozzle the spray can be thrown in ail directions.

This defect in the San José nozzle is overcome to a certain extent by means of a
ladder, by the use of which the tree can be sprayed both from above and from be-
low. For this purpose an improved ladder, mounted upon wheels, is now coming
into use. This can be wheeled from one tree to the other, and being provided with
the proper supports, does not rest against the tree itself. In this way the operator
can move up and down the ladder without being hindered by the branches of the
tree he is operating upon. (See Plate V.)

Even the most skillful operator, however, when equipped with the best of appli-

554 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ances, will find it to be absolutely impossible to spray the solution upon every insect
on the tree, as a few are quite certain to escape, protected, it may be, by a curled
leaf or similar object. Much can be done to aid in properly spraying the trees by
first removing from the tree, especially from the inside of the top of it, all of the
branches that can possibly be spared. This will not only greatly expedite the task
of spraying and make it more efficient, but will make a great saving in the quantity
of the solution required, thus lessening the cost of spraying in proportion to the
number of branches removed.

Another item of importance is to prevent the great waste of that portion of the
solution which ordinarily falls upon the ground after having been sprayed upon the
trees. This can be accomplished by using some simple contrivance for catching the
solution in such a manner that it can be made to flow into a tub or other vessel, be-
ing in the mean time strained from all extraneous substances; it can then be emptied
into the tank or barrel to which the spraying-pump is attached and thus be used
over again. It has been ascertained that fully two-thirds of the quantity of the
solution first used could in this way be saved and with but very little additional labor.*

As illustrating the extreme tenacity of life with which the female Cottony Cushion-
seale insect is endowed, I may state a fact that I have frequently witnessed, namely,
that an adult female, with her egg-case attached, when sprayed with a solution so
caustic that her back was burned black and was hard and wrinkled, still retained
the use of all of her organs three weeks after the application of the solution had
been made. In such instances the cottony egg-sac had been hardened and discol-
ored by the solution, and the addition to it which the female had excreted after the
application of the solution was very conspicuous by its whiteness.

Several persons have succeeded in clearing their trees of the Cottony Cushion-scale
by simply spraying them with pure cold water thrown upon the trees with consid-
erable force, repeating the operation once or twice each week until all of the insects
have been removed from the trees.

When once these insects have inserted their beaks into the bark of the tree it is
quite impossible to extract them from the bark by any forcible means that we may
employ, as the beak is very brittle and easily broken off short to the body. It is
doubtless owing to this fact that the water remedy referred to above is so effective
when employed against these insects, as the beaks are broken off in dislodging them
from the tree, and the insects, thus deprived of the organ through which their food
is obtained, must necessarily perish of starvation.

This method is practicable only in places where but few trees are to be treated;
it iB much too laborious and requires repetition too frequently to be used on a large
scale.

Following is a summary of the experiments which I have made with various
remedies for the destruction of the Cottony Cushion-scale. For spraying these
solutions upon the trees I used a Johnson pump and a Cyclone nozzle.

In making these experiments it has been my aim to discover a remedy that would
prove fatal not only to the insects in their various stages of development but also
to the eggs, as it will be easily seen that if the latter are not destroyed they will in
due time hatch out, and thus again stock the tree with these pernicious pests.

Of course a remedy that merely destroys the insects could be used with good suc-
cess by making a second application at an interval of about two months after the
first one, thus giving the eggs time to hatch out; but this would require double the
labor and cost of a single application and the risk of injuring the tree would also
be much greater.

CAUSTIC POTASH.

The crude potash was dissolved in water and the solution then sprayed upon the
trees. The cost of the potash at wholesale is about 7 cents per pound.

One Pound of Potash dissolved in one Gallon of Water.—An hour after the applica-
tion the leaves upon the newest growth on the tree had sensibly withered; nine days
later about one-half of the leaves had dried up and fallen from the tree. Two months
after making the application one-tenth of the smaller lateral branches had become
dead and dry, while upon the other branches a new growth had started. About 95 per
cent. of the insects and 60 per cent. of the eggs were killed; the insects which es- _

* Such a drain-table has already been made and used at San José for the purpose
indicated. It is described in the first report of the State Board of Horticultural
Commissioners, 1882, p. 83, in Mr. Chapin’s report, as follows: ‘‘ The table is made of
sheet-iron and zinc, fixed upon a frame in halves, which are placed against the
trunk of the tree on either side, thus forming a ‘circular basin 14 feet in diameter,
and fog but one minute for transfer from one tree to another, * * * The
saving caused by this was at least two-thirds of the material.”’

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 55D

caped injury were those in the adult stage, both before and after excreting the egg-
mass.

One Pound of Potash and two Gallons of Water.—This killed about one-tenth of
the leaves upon the tree and several of the smaller branches. All of the insects in
the first and second stages were killed, but only about one-half of the adult females,
one-fourth of the females with egg-masses, and one-tenth of the eggs were killed.

One Pound of Potash and four Gallons of Water.—This killed about 5 per cent.
of the leaves and burned brown spots of various sizes in many of the others. Nearly
all of the insects in the first and second stages were killed, but not more than one-
fourth of the adult females before secreting the egg-masses were killed, while the
females with these egg-masses were scarcely affected by the application; eggs un-
injured,

CAUSTIC SODA,

The crude caustic soda was used; the present price of the soda is 5 cents per
pound when purchased in large quantities. uv Pte

One Pound of caustic Soda dissolved in two Gallons of Water,—This killed all of
the leaves upon the tree and burned the bark brown, but later in the season the tree

ut forth a new growth on some of the larger branches. All of the insects were

illed, with the exception of about one-tenth of the adult females before secreting
the egg-masses and one-eighth of those with egg-masses; eggs scarcelyinjured. (In
one of the egg-masses situated upon a spot where the bark had been burned brown
I found three recently hatched larvee five days after making the application.)

One Pound of caustic Soda to four Gallons of Water.—This killed about four-fifths
of the leaves and one-third of the smaller branches, and burned the bark brown in
large spots. With the exception of about one-sixth of the adult females before se-
creting the egg-masses and one-fourth of those with egg-masses, all of the insects
were killed; eggs uninjured.

One Pound of. caustic Soda to six Gallons of Water.—This killed about one-third of
the leaves upon the tree, while the bark was notinjured. A slightly larger number
of ae adult females escaped injury than in the preceding experiment; eggs unin-

ured.
: Several egg-masses were immersed in a solution composed of 1 pound of caustic
seat «aa in 1 gallon of water; this killed about one-third of the eggs thus

reated.

HARD SOAP.

This was a brown laundry soap, manufactured by the Los Angeles Soap Company,
under the name of ‘‘ Our Favorite German Chemical Soap,” and I am informed by
one of the members of the above firm that this soap is composed of tallow, caustic
soda, a little sal-soda, and resin. It is retailed at the rate of 5 cents per bar, weigh-
ing somewhat less than a pound, but it could probably be obtained at wholesale at
the rate of 3 cents per pound. It was first dissolved in hot water and afterward di-
luted with cold water, and sprayed upon the trees when quite cold.

One Pound of Soap and two Gallons of Water.—This left a whitish coating upon
the leaves and bark of the tree, but did not appear to injur: the latter. It killed all
of the insects with the ea paon of about 1 per cent. of the females with egg-masses,
and hardened the outside of the egg-masses to such a degree that the insects after
hatching were unable to make their way to the outside world. Fully four-fifths of
the eggs were thus virtually destroyed.

One Pound of Soap and three Gallons of Water.—This also left a whitish coating
upon the leaves and bark. All of the insects were killed with the exception of
about 4 per cent. of the adul¢ females, before secreting the egg-masses and 8 per cent.
of the females with egg-masses. About three-fourths of the eggs were destroyed in
the manner related above.

Several of the egg-masses were immersed in a solution composed of 1 pound of
the soap to 1 gallon of water, and not a living insect issued from either of the egg-
masses thus treated.

It is necessary to spray these solutions when quite hot, since the cold solutions are
of si a thick consistency that it is very difficult to force them through a spraying
nozzle,

SOFT SOAP.

, This was made by dissolving 1 pound of refined potash and 1 of concentrated lye
in 3 gallons of water, to which was added one-half gallon of fish-oil. This was
boiled for about one hour, when 4} gallons of water were added. The cost of these
materials when purchased in large quantities is about as follows: Potash and con-

556 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

centrated lye, each about 10 cents per pound; fish-oil, 35 cents per gallon. The ma-
terials used in making the soap above described made about 66 pints of soap, ata
cost of 37 cents, being a trifle over half a cent per pint.

Two Pints of Soap in one Gailon of Water.—This proved fatal to all of the insects
with the exception of about 10 per cent. of the adult females. About three-fourths
of the eggs were destroyed, the solution having the property of hardening the egg-
masses. 3

One Pint of Soap in one Gallon of Water.—This proved fatal to all of the insects
with the exception of about one-third of the adult females, but not more than one-
third of the eggs were destroyed.

KEROSENE EMULSIONS.

An emulsion was made by dissolving half a pound of hard soap in 1 gallon of
water, and adding it, boiling hot, to 2 gallons of the best grade of kerosene (150° fire-
test), and forcing this through a spraying-pump back again into the vessel contain-
ing the solution. This was continued for about twenty minutes, when a very good
emulsion was formed.

This emulsion was used in various proportions from 1 part of the emulsion to 6
parts of water, to 1 part of the emulsion to 18 of water. Neither of these solu-
tions produced an injurious effect upon the trees operated upon.

One Part of the Emulsion to six Parts of Water.—This proved fatal to all of the
insects with the exception of about 6 per cent. of the females before secreting the
pea anneees and 10 per cent. of those with egg-masses. Nearly all of the eggs were

illed.

One Part of the Emulsion to nine Parts of Water.—This was fatal to only about
one-third of the adult females and a somewhat larger proportion of the young ones.
Aboutfour-fifths of the eggs were destroyed.

A number of the egg-masses were immersed in the undiluted emulsion, and none
of the eggs thus treated hatched out.

‘An emulsion of the same grade of kerosene as that used above was formed of 2
gallons of kerosene andi gallon of sweet milk. This formed a better and more
stable emulsion than the one made with soap-suds, but its effects upon the insects
were not as good as those produced by the latter emulsion.

A solution composed of 1 part of this emulsion to 6 parts of water killed nearly all
of the young insects, but proved fatal to only 10 per cent. of the adult females with
egg-masses. About one-half of the eggs were killed.

A third emulsion was formed by emulsifying 2 gallons of the same grade of ker-
osene as that used above with 1 gallon of soft soap dissolved in 2 gallons of water.
Cousigerable difficulty was experienced in forming a stable emulsion with these in-
gredients.

This emulsion was diluted with water to such an extent that each 5 gallons of the
diluted wash contained 1 gallon of kerosene. This proved fatal alike to the insects
in all of their stages and also to their eggs.

It was also used in such proportions that each 7 gallons of the diluted wash con-
tained 1 gallon of kerosene; this was fatal to all of the insects with the exception
of asmall number of the adult females with egg-masses; all of the eggs were killed.

Even the strongest solution, containing 1 gallon of kerosene in each 5 gallons of
the diluted solution, produced no injurious effect either upon the trees or fruit; the
trees experimented on were small orange trees about four years old.

Unlike the soap solutions, which penetrate the egg-masses and afterward harden,
thus preventing the escape of the young insects after hatching out, the kerosene de-
prives the eggs of their vitality by penetrating first the egg-sacs and then the eggs
themselves.

The cost of the kerosene (150°) is about 20 cents per gallon when purchased in
large quantities.

TOBACCO,

Two pounds of tobacco leaves and stems were boiled in water until the strength
of the tobacco had been extracted; the solution when cold was diluted with water
and used in various proportions.

When used in the proportion of 1 pound of the tobacco to each 2 gallons of
water, all of the insects were killed; about 3 per cent. of the eggs escaped injury.

When used in the proportion of 1 pound of the tobacco to each 4 gallons of the
solution, it proved fatal to all of the insects with the exception of about 10 per cent.
of the adult females with egg-masses; about 95 per cent. of the eggs were killed.

The strongest solution used, 1 pound of tobacco to each 2 gallons of water, pro-
duced no injurious effect upon the tree.

Several egg-masses were immersed in a solution containing a pound of tobacco to

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 557

1} gallons of water, and this proved fatal to about one-half of the eggs. As this is
out of all proportion as compared with the other experiments made by spraying the
egg-masses upon the trees with the tobacco decoction of various strengths, I am led
to believe that when the egg-masses are simply immersed in any solution, except
when held in the solution for some time, they do not become so thoroughly saturated
with it as when the latter is sprayed upon them; and I have proved beyond a doubt
that a solution thrown upon the insects in the form of a fine spray will Have a better
effect than if thrown upon them in a coarser spray, just as a heavy fog or mist will
more thoroughly wet a tree than a heavy shower of rain in large drops will do.

The cost of the tobacco at wholesale is about 10 cents per pound, but sometimes
refuse tobacco can be obtained from cigar manufactories at from 14 to 2 cents per
pound.

SHEEP DIP.

This was the “‘ Gold-leaf” brand, manufactured at Louisville, Ky., and said to be
a pure extract of tobacco; it costs about $1.75 per gallon when purchased in large
quantities. ‘ {

It was diluted with water in various proportions, but even when used in the pro-
portion of 1 gallon of the dip to 30 gallons of water it proved fatal to only about four-
fifths of the young insects and one-fourth of the adult females with egg-masses,
whiie the eggs were scarcely affected by it. :

Several egg-masses were immersed in the pure dip, and none of the eggs thus
treated hatched out.

TOBACCO SOAP.

Samples of this soap were received from the manufacturers, the Rose Manufactur-
ing Company, of 17 South William street, New York City. The soap was first dis-
solved in hot water and afterward diluted with cold water.

One Pound of the Soap to nine Gallons of Water.—This proved fatal alike to the
insects in all stages of development and also to their eggs.

One Pound of the Soap to twenty-one Gallons of Water.—This was fatal to all of
the insects with the exception of about one-third of the adult females before secret-
ing the egg-masses and a slightly larger number of those with egg-masses.

The cost of this soap has heretofore been 50 cents per pound, but I am informed
by the agent here, Mr. J. B. Francisco, that the price of the soap has been recently
reduced one-half,

VINEGAR.

A small branch of a lemon tree upon which were a number of Cottony Cushion-
scales was immersed in pure grape vinegar, but it had very little effect upon the
adult females and their eggs, and produced no perceptible injury to the leaves. It
likewise had but little effect upon the insects when used in the proportion of 1 gal-
lon of vinegar to 8 gallons of water in which 4 pints of soft soap had been dissolved.

PARIS GREEN,

One-half an Ounce of Paris green was thoroughly stirred into two Gallons of
Water.—The whole was sprayed upon a small orange tree growing in the shade of some
large eucalyptus trees. This proved alike fatal to the insects and the tree. In many
places upon the tree the sap had exuded from the bark in considerable quantities,
and remained adhering to the bark in the form of a brownish gum.

One-third of an Ounce of Paris green to two Gallons of Water.—This was sprayed
upon ali parts of a small orange tree, the greater part of it being sprayed upon the
trunk and bases of the larger branches. In these places all of the insects were killed,
but fully one-third of those situated upon the outer ends of the branches were not
killed. In several different places the sap had exuded from some of the branches.

One-fourth of an Ounce of Paris green to two Gallons of Water.—This also killed all
of the insects upon the trunk and bases of the larger branches, where the greater
part of the solution had beer sprayed, but only about one-half of the insects situated
upon the outer ends of the branches were killed. This solution did not cause the
sap to exude from any part of the tree.

One-fourth of an Ounce of Paris green to two Gallons of Water and one Pint of the
Kerosene Emulsion.—The emulsion was formed by emulsifying 2 gallons of kerosene
in 1 gallon of hot water in which had been dissolved half a pound of soap. A pint of
this emulsion was diluted with 2 gallons of water, after which the Paris green was
added; but it was impossible to keep the green incorporated in the solution, as it
would rise to the surface the moment the stirring ceased. The effect of the solution
upon the tree and insect was about the same as in the preceding experiment, with
the exception that only about one-third of the insects situated upon the outer ends
of the branches were killed,

558 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

REPORT UPON SUPPLEMENTARY EXPERIMENTS ON THE COTTONY
CUSHION-SCALE; FOLLOWED BY A REPORT ON EXPERIMENTS
ON THE RED SCALE.

By ALBERT KOEBELE, Special Agent.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL,

ALAMEDA, CAL., December 1, 1886.

Sir: I herewith submit a report of continued experiments on the Cottony Cushion-
scale UIcerya purchasi), made at Los Angeles, Cal., after the expiration of the ap-
pointment ot D. W. Coquillett, with whom I worked previously, as directed by you
in letter of January 28.

My warmest thanks are due to Mr. August Buschhaupt, of the Los Angeles Soap
Company, for kindly assisting me in preparing the various soaps.

Very respectfully,

Prof. C, V. RILEY,
U. S. Entomologist, Washington, D. C.

ALBERT KOEBELE.

INTRODUCTORY.

The chief object of my work has been to find a wash as low in price as possible,
and at the same time one which all the fruit-growers can prepare themseives, This,
as is shown below, is not a difficult matter. prea

In March and April, while at work with Mr. Coquillett, and after witnessing vari-
ous experiments, especially with soaps, I concluded that these, if tried in all their
varieties, would prove good agents in destroying the scales, and that they also could
be produced at a very reasonable cost. Up to this day, in my limited intercourse
with orange-growers, I have seen nothing cheaper for killing the Cottony Cushion-
scale.

It has always been a difficult matter to know just how much of the article used
should be taken to a certain quantity of water to be effective on the scales and not
injure the trees. Very often the spraying is done by inexperienced hands, and in
such cases no good results can ever be expected even with the best washes. Natu-
rally it will be used in stronger doses at the next operation, and the consequence
will often be that there is more injury done than good. Experienced hands should
always be engaged in this work to secure good results. I have myself witnessed a
pair of inexpert operators, and was much amazed at the rapid progress of the work;
yet when examining the trees a week later it was hard to find *‘ dead scales.”

No wash will be effective on Jeerya unless penetrating the ccttony mass, and for
this purpose I found soap, or washes of soapy nature, the best. In most cases the
majority of the young scales are found among the egg-masses, and unless these are
destroyed the labor is of little value.

SOAP SOLUTIONS.

Almost any soap, if used in right quantity, will be destructive to both the eggs
and the insects of Jeerya, and, aside from resin compounds, will best penetrate the
cottony mass, The egg-masses should always, and immediately after the tree has
been sprayed, be completely penetrated by the wash. Unless this is the case the
wash has not the effect of destroying everything. In some of the washes used,
especially such as contained resin, the egg-masses, if not reached in the center, be-
came s0 hard that rarely one of the young scales was able to leave its place of birth.
Often one or more newly hatched scales will be found under the body of the mother
scale at the point where the beak is inserted. Here, too, the mother scale exudes a
little of the cottony substance, on which the body rests close to the bark. After light
spraying and with weak wash this place remains dry and the young scales unin-
jured. Therefore a strong spray is of value, by which the scale is raised or some-
what removed from its firm place. Soaps 144 and 152, which I have made, will do
as well at + cent with a strong and thorough spraying as at 4cent by weak spray.
Never have I observed eggs that were completely wetted by any of the washes used
to hatch; in every instance they were destroyed. ;

For applying solutions there is nothing better than a cyclone nozzle for thorough
work, especially if the exit hole be made considerably larger, ta save time, and this
is easily done,

The cyclone nozzle used in my experiments had been eaten out opposite the exit

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST, 559

arene
hole to a depth of about 6™™, and three additional plates of 2™™ thickness had been
put on successively; a circular cavity formed in the chamber, and last the cap con-
taining the outlet fell off. This also had been eaten nearly through. Not more than
1,000 gallons of wash had been sprayed with the nozzle. This may be largely due
to the impure and sandy water used,

PREPARATION OF SOAP.

At the beginning of my work, in preparing whale-oil soap, I used chiefly Babbitt’s
potash or lye, which is sold in boxes of 4 dozen 1-pound cans, at from 9 to 10 cents
per pound. To 1 pound of potash 2 gallons of water were added and placed over
fire. After all the potash had been dissolved, 2 pints of fish-oil were added and
contents cooked until the soap had formed; then 2 gallons more water were added
and well mixed together. This formed a soft soap, and would, after cooling, readily
mix with cold water. : ;

The cost of this soap is about 4 cent per pint, and 2 pints are required to 1 gal-
lon of water to destroy eggs and insects of Icerya. This would be 1 cent for 10
pints of wash. Fish-oil is sold generally at Los Angeles at about 32 cents per gallon,
wholesale price. , :

Later, however, instead of using Babbitt’s potash, I obtained caustic soda from
the Los Angeles Soap Company. This is sold at wholesale by the same firm at
5 cents per pound, and it is equally as good as Babbitt’s potash. To 1 pound of
this caustic soda 3 poundsof grease, or part of that and resin to the full amount,
should be taken, as will be shown in the experiments. Three pounds of tallow
and resin to 1 pound of soda did much better work than did 4 of the first to 1 of
the last. Tallow is sold by the same firm at 3 cents per pound and resin at 14 cents,
wholesale price, Almost any grease would answer in making soap, and much could
be saved for this purpose which otherwise would not be made use of,

In making soap 152, 1 pound of caustic soda is dissolved in 14 gallons of water;
then the 2 pounds of resin and 1 pound of tallow is dissolved in 1 quart of the lye;
after the resin is all well dissolved by moderate heat the lye is added slowly, while
cooking, under continued stirring. The mixture, if good, will become dark brown
and thick. Should it become whitish and flocky (this is caused by too much and
too streng lye), water should be added and it will become right again. This will
make 22 pints of soap—for water should be added to make that amount after all the
lye is in—at a cost of 11 cents, excluding fuel and labor in preparing it, which
amount to but little, and will be sufficient for 44 gallons of wash if sprayed well.
This is jor icerya., I would not recommend it stronger than 4 cent for a gallon of
the wash.

The same rule is to be observed in preparing soap No. 144. This has been tried
also on two large trees by Messrs. Wolfskill and Craw, at } cent per gallon of the
wash. All eggs and insects were destroyed and the tree left in excellent condition.

In preparing these soaps the resin and tallow should never be dissolved without
the additional lye. It will become so hot, that if a little lye is added a good part
of the contents of the kettle will boil over. All this is avoided by adding the lye as
said above, and the resin will dissolve the quicker.

In making tallow soap for experiment 77 the caustic soda should be dissolved in
somewhat less water. One gallonisused. After the tallow and resin are dissolved
together (in this soap it can be done without the lye) the lye should be added slowly
while boiling, and afterward the required water added. ‘Thirty-seven pints of soap
were made in experiment 77 at 4 cent per pint. In using caustic soda the cost of
same quantity—i. e.,1 pound of soda, 5 cents; tallow, 24 pounds, 7.5 cents; resin, +
ae 0.73 cent—would be only 18} cents; and in making 40 pints of soap this would

e 4 cent per pint. One pint of soap to 7 pints of water would be sufficiently strong
to kill the scales and their eggs.

A soap emulsion prepared cold is used extensively in and around Los Angeles. I
.have not seen any good results from it. If mixed with water free oil would float on
the top, and trees treated with it would lose half their leaves and be arrested in
growth for weeks, The fruit would be burned and marked from the excessive caus-
tic it contains. I haveseen several hundred trees in such condition in the Wolfskill
orchard. The consistency of this particular mixture I could notlearn. Never, and
I have been assured so by experienced soap-men, can a proper soap be made except
by cooking. Although my experiments 35 and 71 show good results, I would not
recommend them.

RESIN COMPOUNDS.

These I found excellent for destroying Icerya, and the few experiments made on
the Red Scale (Aspidiotus awrantii) showed promising results; yet further experi-

560 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

.

ments are required to be positive. The resin compound will penetrate the cottony
mass of Jcerya as well as, or even better than,soap. Yet its actions are slower, and
if not used sufficiently strong, even if all the eggs are destroyed, some of the mother
scales will not be killed by it, or if so, only after they have left a few fresh eggs,
which will in due time hatch. Such eggs, if few, are brought forth loose, 7. e.,
without the usual protection of cottony exudation, and either drop to the ground
or lie free above the destroyed egg-mass and under the dead mother. No deubt,
many of these eggs never hatch, especially in hot weather.

It is quite different with eggs which are deposited by females that really survive
treatment; the usual cottony mass is exuded, and thus the eggs are protected as
usual and hatch always.

Its action on Red Scale is very promising, either mixed with soap or in simple
emulsion, as experiments will show. Experiment 132, 4 pint of compound to 1 gallon
of water, although costing only 4 cent per gallon of the wash, destroyed a large num-
ber of the scales; and a few days after application the covering became loose from
the inseet, so much so that some of them could be blown off and leave the insects
exposed, affording an excellent opportunity for the mites, with which the tree was
swarming, and which do not seem to be harmed by the wash.

A strong application of this emulsion will form a coating over everything on the
tree, will exclude the insects from air for a few days, and will have entirely disap-
peared in a week in warm weather, as shown in experiment 134,

LYE SOLUTION,

A few experiments were made on hedges of young orange plants. Experiments
108-118 will show the results. While in every case the plant was more or less in-
jured, the insects alone were killed, or part of them, and the contents of egg-sacs
were not in the least affected, even with so strong an application that the plant was
destroyed entirely.

; BISULPHIDE OF CARBON,

A few experiments were made in fumigating with this article, but its action is too
slow to be of value on large trees. Messrs. Wolfskill and Craw have made several
experiments, and on trees of about 8 feet in diameter all the scales were destroyed
in twenty-four hours. The trees were greatly benefited by it, as I am informed by
these gentlemen.

KEROSENE EMULSION.

The cost of this article is too high for general use as a remedy for the Cottony
Cushion-scale. An emulsion of ‘‘ kerosene 1 gallon, soft soap + gallon, and water 1
gallon” (see experiment 41), cost about 24 cents for 24 gallons of the emulsion. This
is wholesale price. Three pints of this emulsion is required to 1 gallon of water to
destroy both the Icerya and its eggs. This would be about 18 cents for 7 gallons of
the wash.

Tn all the experiments made with this emulsion I have not seen the slightest injury
done to the trees, as is the case with some of the soaps if used too strong.

Made in this way with soap, it penetrates the cottony mass more easily than if
emulsified with some other substance.

Very good results were had with emulsion of petroleum. As this could be bought
at from 6 to 7 cents per gallon in large quantities and combined with soap, it makes
a reasonably cheap wash. The orange trees are left in an unsightly condition even
for a month or six weeks after application, and it could therefore not be used on
maturing fruit; yet if properly tried it may do good work on other scales on de-
ciduous trees in the dormant state.

EXPERIMENTS.*

I now give in some detail an account of the more instructive of the experiments-
made, noting results in each case.

Experiment 18. Sheep-dip.

Sheep-dip, 1 pint; water, 15 pints. Applied July 9. On examination, July 16, found
but few of the smaller scales killed; contents of egg-sacs notaffected. Mr. Coquil-
lett reported on other experiments with same mixture.

*Tt will be noticed that the numbers of the experiments are not perfectly con-
secutive; but the omitted numbers will be found under the head of the ‘‘Red Scale”,
in the last section of the report.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 561

Experiment 19. Emulsion of crude petroleum.

One gallon of crude petroleum; + gallon of soap of experiment 15 (consisting of
whale-oil, 4 pints; potash, 1 pound; concentrated lye, 1 pound; and water, 7} gal-
lons), and + gallon of water. Applied May 4, and reported on by Mr. Coquillett.
Soap and water were heated together first and petroleum added. ‘This made a good
emulsion after working for half an hour with hand pump, and remained stable for
the next three weeks. y :

Emulsion, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied July 16. Will settle in drops on tree
and not penetrate egg-masses. August 9, only a few of the smaller insects dead.
Leaves spotted, but not injured.

Experiment 20. Emulsion of crude petroleum,

Emulsion, 2 pints; water,1 gallon. Applied July 17. Wéillnot penetrate egg-sac.
August 9, found nearly all insects dead on trunk and large branches; young hatch-

ing numerously. The trunk and large limbs of tree remained free from scales for a
long time after,

Experiment 21. Emulsion of crude petroleum and soap 13.

Emulsion, 1 pint; soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied July 17,and penetrated
nearly all egg-masses. August 9, all insects killed and dry; a few of the eggs have
hatched.

Experiment 22. Whale-oil soap and lime water.

Made of fish-oil, 3 pints; potash, 1 pound; water (in which 1 pound of slaked lime
had stood for twenty-four hours*), 4 gallons.

Soap, 4 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied July 31. Onlya small pari of scales killed
and a few of the smaller egg-masses destroyed. Killed about half of the young
Black Scale (Lecanium olece).

Experiment 23. Soap 22.

Soap, 1 pint; water,1 gallon. Applied July 31. Will not penetrate all the larger
egg-masses. August 8, a few of the mother scales still living; some young hatch-
ing. September 14, insects were not numerous.

Experiment 24. Soap 22.

Soap, 14 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied July 31 on lemon tree, with trunk and
branches completely covered with scales. Penetrated all egg-masses. One hour
after spraying, many dead Coleoptera, Hemiptera, and lace-wing fiies were found on
ground. August 8, occasionally a single living insect was found. August 23, in-
sects few; very few young hatched; tree healthy and blooming.

Experiment 25. Whale-oil soap.

Made of fish oil, 9 pints; crude potash, 3 pounds; caustic soda, 1 pound; lime, 3
pounds; and water, 93 gallons.

Soap, + pint; water,1 gallon. Applied July 31. Will penetrate only smaller egg-
masses. August 9, only a small part of scales killed. August 14, scales numerous;
egg-masses covered with fungus.

Experiment 26. Soap 25.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied July 31. Will penetrate all egg-masses.
August 9, nearly all scales killed: a few newly hatched young on tree. September
14, scales few; tree in good condition.

Experiment 27. Soap 25.

Soap, 1} pints; water,1 gallon. Applied August 2. August 10, a few eggs found
uninjured. August 14, some of the mother scales have produced fresh eggs before
dying; others still living. September i4, scales quite numerous; tree healthy.

Experiment 28. Soap 25.

Soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 5 on lemon trees. Nearly all the
scales were dry the following day. August 14, no living scales could be found;
tree not injured.

* Whenever lime was used, only the clear water was taken after the lime had set-
tled to the bottom.

36 AG—'86

562 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Experiment 29. Soap 22.

Soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 6. August 10, found all scales
and egg-masses hard; tree not injured. September 15, many scales have come on
tree again; it is healthy and blooming.

Experiment 30. Soap 25 and crude carbolic acid.

Soap, 6 pints; crude carbolic acid, emulsified, ; pound; water, 6 gallons. Applied
August 7. Did not penetrate egg-masses well. August 23, living scales quite nu-
merous.

Experiment 31. Soap 25 and petroleum emulsion.

Soap, 2 pints; emulsion, 1 pint; water, 3 gallons. Applied August 8. August 10,
scales nearly all dead but not dry, having an inflated appearance. August 14, a
few scales have recovered. September 14, tree clean; scales very few.

Experiment 32. Soap 25. Petroleum emulsion.

Soap, 2 pints; emulsion, 1 pint; water, 2 gallons. Applied August 9. Destroyed
all scales and eggs. September 14, occasionally one scale on branches only; none
onstem. ‘Tree healthy; fruit not injured or spotted.

Experiment 34. Soap 25. Petroleum emulsion.

Soap, 3 pints; emulsion, 1 pint; water, 2 gallons. Applied August 9. Found
scales and egg-masses hardened the following day and many dead insects on Stan.
September 14, very few scales; stem and large branches entirely free; tree healthy
and growing.

Experiment 35. Soap made cold. Soap emulsion.

One pound of potash was dissolved in 1 quart of water; 2 pints of fish-oil made
lukewarm, and the lye slowly added under ‘continued stirring; then 4 gallon of
water, in which 1 pound of slaked lime had been, was added. After two days
water was added to make 36 pints, and in a week it had become an emulsion or im-
perfect soap. One pint of this (costing 1 cent) to 1 gallon of water. Applied Au-
gust 11. Will penetrate all egg-masses well. August 14, found all scales and eggs
destroyed. August 17, black sticky drops remained on fruit and leaves had begun
to drop. September 14, occasionally one young scale; black drops had disappeared
from fruit, not leaving any mark. About one-quarter of the leaves have fallen,

Experiment 36. Emulsion 35,

Heated emulsion to cooking-point; then took 1 pint to 1 gallon of water. This did
not penetrate egg-masses well, and many of the larger remained dry inside. De-
stroyed all of the scales, but some of the eggs hatched and young became numerous,
Many leaves dropped.

Experiment 37. Whale-oil soap.

Made of potash, 1 pound; fish-oil, 2 pints; and water to make 36 pints of soap,
costing 4 cent per pint.

Soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 13. This penetrated all egg-
masses well, and all the scales were found dead the next day. August 17, scales
and egg-masses hard.

Experiment 38. Soap 37.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied August138. Will not penetrate egg-masses
well. About half of the eggs and scales killed.

Experiment 39. Soap 37. Petroleum emulsion,

Soap, 5 pints; emulsion, 1 pint; water, 42 pints. Applied August 13. Tree well
sprayed. All the scales were found dead the next day. Only a few of the eggs
hatched, but scales were numerous again September 14.

Experiment 40, Soap 37. Petroleum emulsion.

Soap, 5 pints; emulsion, 1 pint; water, 4 gallons. Applied August 16. On the
18th all the scales killed; egg-masses hard, August 23, a few scales on stem again.
September 14, scales increasing, especially on stem; tree and fruit not injured or
discolored.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 563

Experiment 41. Kerosene emulsion.

Kerosene, 1 gallon; soap, 374 gallons; water, 1 gallon. Soap and water heated
and all worked together for half an hour with pump. This formed a cream-white
emulsion and became as thick as cream on cooling. ;

One pint of this emulsion to 1 gallon of water. Applied August 16. Did not pen-
etrate egg-masses; killed only a small part of young scales. September 14, tree full
of scales. ?

Experiment 42, Kerosene emulsion 41.

Emulsion, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 16. Did not penetrate ege-
masses well. Found next day about half of the eggs destroyed, also about half of
the scales were dead; several dead Coleoptera on ground. August 23, a few of the
scales still living; eggs hatching. September 14, a few of the mother scales still
living; young hatching numerously.

Experiment 43. Kerosene emulsion 41; soap 37.

Emulsion, 1 pint; soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 16. Tree well
sprayed; penetrated nearly all the egg-masses. August 23, a few insects still living.
September 14, scales numerous; Black Scale (Z. olece) not all dead.

Experiment 44. Kerosene emulsion 41; soap 37.

Emulsion, 1 pint; soap, 3 pints; water, 4 gallons. Applied August 16. Tree
sprayed well, and nearly all egg-masses were found wet. August 18, about half of
the scales dry, the others still soft but inflated; some of the egg-masses dry in center.
August 28, young hatching occasionally. September 14, scales numerous again,

Experiment 45. Kerosene emulsion 41; soap 37,

Emulsion, 1 pint; soap, 3 pints; water, 2 gallons. Applied August 17. Had pen-
etrated all egg-masses well after spraying; found 3 dead larve of Tortrix on stem,
destroyed by wash. August 23, occasionally one living insect; no young hatching.
September 14, few insects on Branches, but stem full.

Experiment 46. Kerosene emulsion 41; soap 37,

Emulsion, 1 pint; soap, 5 pints; water, 6 gallons. Applied August 17 on lemon
tree. Did not penetrate egg-masses well; killed one-half of the eggs and three-
fourths of the scales. In a short time the tree was full again.

Experiment 47. Kerosene emulsion 41; soap 37.
Emulsion, 1 pint; soap, 5 pints; water, 4 gallons. Applied August 18. Occasion-
ally one of the mother scales survived, but very few young hatched.
Experiment 51. Kerosene emulsion 41.

Emulsion, 3 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 25. Tree full of Icerya and
Red Scales. Penetrated all egg-masses well; killed eggs and insects of Icerya, Only
a few young of Red Scale hatched; old all destroyed.

Experiment 63. Tar soap.

Made of fish-oil, 2 pints; pine tar, 1 pint; potash, 1 pound; water, 4 gallons.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 31. September 10, some of the
mother insects still living and producing fresh eggs. September 18, all insects cov-
ered with fungus; some of the mother scales living; young hatching.

Experiment 64. Tar soap 63,

Soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 31. Penetrated all egg-masses
well, and all scales and eggs were destroyed; tree not injured,

Experiment 65. Tar soap 63.

Soap, 4+ pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 31. Killed only a small part of
young scales and small ege-masses.

Experiment 68. Tobacco soap.
Made of tobacco, 4 pound; fish-oil, 2 pints; potash, 1 pound; and water to make
42 pints of soap.*

placed in a bag and well cooked with part of the I d
added after the soap is complete, 4 gis be iene: ds ,

564 - REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Soap, 1 pint ; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 2. Penetrated only smaller egg-
masses well. September 6, occasionally one scale living; no young as yet have
hatched. September 11, scales still dying; large females, although living, yet soft
and sickly; noticed many walking down on trunk of tree. No newly hatched
young could be found. November 4, scales few; tree in good condition.

Experiment 69. Tobacco soap 68.

Soap, 14 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 2. Will not penetrate egg-
masses well. November 6, no living insects found. November 11, occasionally one
moving scale; nearly everything dry. September 14, a few of the mother scales are
depositing fresh eggs, but without cottony mass, lying exposed. November 4, scales
very few; tree healthy.

Experiment 70. Tobacco soap 68.

Soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 2. Will penetrate all egg-
masses if sprayed well, Pump broke and tree was not sprayed well. September 6,
all eggs destroyed and nearly all the insects; a few were observed leaving the tree.
September 18, quite a number of living scales on tree; some still dying. November
4, scales few; tree healthy.

Experiment 71. Soap emulsion 35.

Another trial of this emulsion was made; contents same asin 35. The mixture
was stirréd every day and used on the tenth day.

One pint of this emulsion to 1 gallon of water. Applied September 2 on large tree;
10 gallons of the wash used. Penetrated all egg-masses. September 6, all eggs and
scales destroyed. Result about the same as in 25, but not quite as many leaves fell,
October 7, tree remarkably clean, growing well; fruit not marked.

Experiment 74. Whale-oil soap.

Made of whale-oil, 3 pints; potash, 1 pound; water to make 40 pints of soap; cost-
ing about 4 cent per pint. This was not as perfect as when only 2 pints of oil were
used.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 6. Result, about three-fourths
of scales and eggs killed.

Experiment 75. Soap 74.

Soap, 14 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 6. Result: Will destroy eggs
and scales, but also tips and budding leaves or tender shoots; the older leaves did
not fall.

Experiment 76. Soap 74.

Soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 6. Killed scales and eggs;
result on tree about the same as in 7.

Experiment 77. Tallow soap.

Made of tallow, 24 pounds; resin, $ pound; potash, 1 pound; and water to make
34 pints of soap; costing 4 cent per pint.
oap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 9. Wash will penetrate all
egg-masses well. September 10, eggs and insects destroyed; nearly everything hard.
Nothing escaped this wash, and the tree was not in the slightest injured or arrested
in its growth.
Experiment 78. Soap 77.

Soap, 14 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 9, Killed scales and eggs;
tree not injured.
Eeperiment 79. Soap 77.

Soap, 4 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied warm, September 9. Penetrated only
smaller egg-masses well. About half of the scales and eggs destroyed.

Experiment 84. Soap of fish-oil, tobacco, and resin.
Made of fish-oil, 2 pints; resin, 4} pound; tobacco, 4+ pound; potash, 1 pound; and
water, 3 gallons.
Soap, 4+ pint; water, 1 gallon.. Applied September 11. Many of the scales survived,
and only small part of the eggs were destroyed.
Experiment 85. Soap 84.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 11. September 18, some of the
scales hardened and others became inflated. One of the mother scales deposited 6
more eggs before dying and one of the young hatched, On September 22 all had

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 565

hardened. October 5, no young scales; tree covered with fungus. November 4,
fungus loose; scales very few; tree in good condition.

Experiment 86. Soap 84,

Soap, 14 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 11. On the 18th some of the
insects were still dying. On the 30th all were hard. October 5, tree full of fungus:

Experiment 87. Soap 77.

Soap, + pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 11. Tree well sprayed, and
most of the egg-masses were penetrated by wash. Result: Nearly all the eggs de-
stroyed; only a few mother scales survived and produced fresh eggs.

Haxperiment 88, Resin soap.

Made of resin, 2 pounds; tallow, 1 pound; potash, 1 pound; and water to make 20
pints of soap; costing } cent per pint.

Soap, 4 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 13. Penetrated all egg-masses
well. September 18, some of the scales began to dry up; no fresh eggs. September
22, all dead, but not hard. October 4, occasionally one young scale; tree in fine
condition.

Experiment 89. Soap 88.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 18. The scales were all dead
oe the 22d, but not hard. October 5, scales and eggs destroyed; tree in good con-
ition.

: Experiment 90. Soap 88.

Soap, 1} pints; water, 1gallon. Applied September 13. Destroyed scales and eggs,
although they were not hard on the 22d. October 5, no living scales; tree in good
condition.

Experiment 92. Tobacco soap.

Made of tobacco, + pound; tallow, 14 pounds; resin, 14 pounds; potash, 1 pound;
and water to make 40 pints of soap; costing 4+ cent per pint.

Soap, + pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 15. Tree well sprayed. Re-
sult: Nearly all the scales and eggs destroyed; scales die very slowly; some Hemip-
tera and Coccinellids found dead on ground.

Experiment 93. Soap 92.

Soap, # pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 15. September 17, all eggs and
scales seem to be destroyed. September 22, insects not yet all dry, but dead; tree
in very good condition. Wash sufficiently effective.

Experiment 94. Soap 92.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 15. Penetrated all egg-masses
well and destroyed everything. September 22, scales not hardened; nothing living.

Experiment $9. Resin soap.

Made of resin, 3 pounds; tallow, 1 pound; potash, 1 pound; and water to make 32
pints of soap; costing } cent per pint.

Soap, $ pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 20 on large and dirty tree full
of fungus, almost covering some of the egg-masses. Nearly all the eggs were de-
stroyed. Some of the mother scales recovered and produced fresh eggs.

Experiment 100. Soap 99.

Soap, # pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 20. Had penetrated all egg-
masses after spraying. September 22, nearly all scales killed. October 12, occa-
sionally one living scale.

Experiment 101. Soap 99.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. np ed September 22. Some of the mother scales
were still living on the 24th, yet all had died on September 30, but were not dry.
November 2, tree nearly clean of scales. It was also thickly infested with Red Scale,
but all these were killed.

Experiment 102. Soap 77 and lime water.

_One pound of siaked lime in 20 pints of water. After the water became clear $
pint of this was taken with } pint of soap to 74 pints of pure water. Applied Sep-
tember 24. Result: All eggs destroyed and scales all dead after six days, although a
few fresh eggs were left. Tree not injured. The trees were very thoroughly
sprayed, The result would not have been so good with a light spraying.

566 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Experiment 108. Tobacco soap 92; lime water 102.

Soap, + pint; lime water, 4 pint; water, 7} pints. Applied September 24. Result
not as good as in 102, as a number of mother scales survived. October 5, found a
number of living scales, fresh eggs, and newly hatched young.

Experiment 104, Resin soap 99; lime water 102.

Soap. 4 pint; lime water, 4 pint; water, 74 pints. Applied September 24, Result
as in 102; very few living scales October 4,

Experiment 108, Babbitt’s potash lye.

Potash, 1 pound; water, 2 gallons. Applied September 29. Result; Killed all in-
sects, but did not injure contents of egg-sacs; nearly all leaves dropped; tender
shoots killed and bark burned.

Eaperiment 109. Babbitt’s potash lye.

Potash, 1 pound; water, 4 gallons, Applied September 29. Result: Killed scales;
did not injure contents of egg-sacs; tips of plant destroyed; leaves badly burned in
spots.

Experiment 110. Babbitt’s potash lye.

Potash, 1 pound; water, 6 gallons. Applied September 29. Killed all free young
and nearly all of the mother scales, contents of egg-sacs uninjured; tips of plant
broken off; leaves spotted in parts.

Experiment 111. Babbitt’s potash lye.

Potash, 1 pound; water, 8 gallons. Applied September 29. Only part of scales
killed; contents of egg-sacs uninjured; tips of plant injured; leaves spotted in parts.

Experiment 112. Babbitt’s concentrated lye.

Concentrated lye, 1 pound; water, 2 gallons. Applied September 29, Scales all
killed; contents of egg-sacs uninjured; all leaves dropped; tips of plant killed; bark
burned in parts.

Haperiment 113, Babbitt’s concentrated lye.

Concentrated lye, 1 pound; water, 4 gallons, Applied September 29. Killed all
scales, not injuring contents of egg-sacs; tips of plant killed; one-third of the leaves
dropped, remainder all spotted.

Experiment 114, Gillett’s concentrated lye.

Concentrated lye, 1 pound; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 29. Scales all
killed; contents of egg-sacs uninjured; plant entirely killed.

Experiment 115. Gillett’s concentrated lye.

Concentrated lye, 1 pound; water, 2 gallons. Applied September 29. Killed all
scales; contents of egg-sacs uninjured. Some of the shoots killed near ground; only
a few leaves remaining near the ground,

Experiment 116, Gillett’s concentrated lye.

Concentrated lye, 1 pound; water,4 gallons. Applied September 29, Killed scales,
not injuring contents of egg-sacs; tips of plant destroyed; leaves spotted.

Experiment 117%. Gillett’s concentrated lye.

Concentrated lye, 1 pound; water, 6 gallons. Applied September 29. About half
of the Ber scales survived; contents of egg-sacs not injured; tips of plants de-
stroyed. :
. Experiment 118. Gillett’s concentrated lye.

Concentrated lye, 1 pound; water, 12 gallons. Applied September 29. Only a
few of the scales killed; contents of egg-sacs not injured; tips of plants destroyed.

Experiment 119. Lime water.

One pound of slacked lime in 20 pints of water. Applied September 29. Killed
only a few of the scales; all became completely covered by fungus. This had disap-
peared again November 4, and insects were in good condition.

Experiment 120. Resin soap.

Made of resin, 8 pounds; tallow, 1 pound; caustic soda, 1 pound; and water to
make 25 pints of soap; costing 4 cent per pint.

REPORT OF THH ENTOMOLOGIST. 567

Soap, + pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 4 on large tree. Three gallons of
wash were required; only lightly sprayed. Scales died slowly; mother scales left a
few fresh eggs. October 14, occasionally one young scale found.

[All experiments after 120 only lightly sprayed.]
Haperiment 121, Soap 120.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 3 gallons. Applied October 4. Will penetrate egg-masses in
about 3 minutes. A few of the scales recovered and produced fresh eggs.

Experiment 122, Resin compound,

Made of resin, 4 pounds; soda ash (pure carbonate of soda), 1 pound; water to make
36 pints of compound; costing 11 cents.

Compound, 1 pint; water, 3 gallons. Applied October 4, Only penetrated smaller
egg-masses. Killed only a few of the smaller scales, and a few eggs only were de-
stroyed.

Experiment 123. Resin compound 122.

Compound, 1 pint; water, 2 gallons. Applied October 4; did not penetrate egg-
masses well, and only about half of them were destroyed. Many mother scales sur-
vived.

Experiment 124. Resin compound 122.

Compound, 1 pint; water, 14 gallons. Applied October 4. Penetrated all but the
largest egg-masses well. Some of the mother scales and some eggs escaped.

Experiment 125. Resin compound 122,

Compound, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 4. Penetrated all egg-masses
well. A few of the mother scales survived and produced fresh eggs. None of the
eggs sprayed have hatched.

Experiment 126. Resin soap 120.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 4 gallons. Applied October 4. Penetrated only smaller egg-
masses. illed most of the smaller scales, but only a few of the smaller egg-masses
were destroyed.

Experiment 129. Resin compound.

Made of resin, 4 pounds; common washing soda (carbonate of soda), 3 pounds;
water to make 36 pints of compound; costing + cent per pint.

Compound, 1 pint; water, 2 gallons. Applied October 7. ‘Will penetrate only
smaller egg-masses. A few young scales only and small portion of eggs destroyed.

Experiment 130. Resin compound 129.

Compound, 1 pint; water, 14 gallons. Applied October 7. Did not penetrate
larger egg-masses. Destroyed all smaller ones and a few of the mother scales.
November 4, scales numerous on tree.

Experiment 131. Resin compound 129.

Compound, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 7, Penetrated all egg-masses
well on slight spraying. October 11, a few mother scales, which were protected by
ee ay still living. October 14, all scales dead; occasionally a few eggs left among

ungus,
Experiment 134. Resin compound 129,

Half compound and half water, to see effecton plants. Applied October 7. Will
penetrate egg-masses instantly on application. All scales and egg-masses hard on |
examination two days after; plant asif varnished and sticky. This had disappeared
on October 13, leaving the plant in excellent condition, not a leaf having dropped.

Experiment 135. Resin compound.

Made of resin, 4 pounds; caustic soda, 1 pound; and water to make 83 pints of
compound; costing 4 cent per pint.

Compound, 1 pint; water, 2 gallons. Applied October 8. Will penetrate only
smaller egg-masses on light spraying; many of the mother scales survived and
young were numerous November 4.

Experiment 186. Resin compound 135.

Compound, 1 pint; water, 14 gallons. Applied October 8. Did not penetrate larger
egg-masses well on light spraying; many of the mother scales survived, and October
25 occasionally a single young could be found.

568 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Experiment 187. Resin compound 135.

Compound, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 8. "Will penetrate all egg-
masses well on light spraying in about two minutes. October 11, some of the mother
scales still living, but no fresh eggs could be observed. October 14, scales all dead.
November 4, no young have hatched; tree not injured.

Heaperiment 138, Resin soap.

Made of resin, 2 pounds; tallow, 2 pounds; caustic soda, 1 pound; and water to
make 28 pints of soap; costing + cent per pint.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 2 gallons. Applied October 14. Did not penetrate egg-masses;
killed most of smaller scales, but had no effect on contents of egg-sacs.

EHeperiment 139. Soap i38.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 14 gallon. Applied October 14. Will penetrate only the
smaller egg-masses well. October 16, all scales are dead. November 4, no young
had hatched.

Haperiment 140. Soap 188.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 7 pints. Applied October 14. Will penetrate all egg-masses
well on light spraying. October 16, no living scales could be found,

Experiment 141. Resin compound.

Made of resin, 4 pounds; washing soda, 3 pounds; and water to make 24 pints of
compound. This is somewhat thick, and will not so readily mix with water as 129,
especially after cooling.

Compound, 1 pint; water, 14 gallon. Applied October 15. Penetrated all egg-
masses and destroyed them; some of the mother scales produced fresh eggs before
dying. Found no living scales October 25.

Experiment 142. Resin compound 141.

Compound, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 15. Will penetrate all egg-
faasues well in about 2 minutes with light spraying. Found no living scales Octo-
er 16.

Experiment 143. Resin compound 141.

Compound, 2 pints; water, 14 gallons. Applied October 15. "Will penetrate im-
mediately. October 16, nothing living. October 28, scales still soft, but rotten.
N pyember 4, no living scales on tree, which was left in fine condition, with the wash
still visible.

Experiment 144, Resin soap.

Made of resin, 14 pounds; tallow, 14 pounds; caustic soda, 1 pound; and water to
make 234 pints of soap; costing + cent per pint.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 2 gallons. Applied October 18. Penetrated all but a few
large egg-masses well with light spraying. October 23, all scales dead; no fresh
eggs. October 28, found occasionally one newly hatched larva.

Haperiment 145. Soap 144.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1} gallons, Applied October 18. Destroyed all eggs and in-
sects.

Experiment 146. Soap 144,

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 18. All egg-masses well pene-
oan after spraying; destroyed all eggs and scales; not the slightest injury done
to the tree.

Experiment 152. Resin soap.

Made of resin, 2 pounds; tallow, 1 pound; caustic soda, 1 pound; and water to
make 25 pints of soap; costing 11 cents.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 2 gallons. Applied October 27. Will penetrate nearly all
egg-masses with light spraying. November 1, all scales dead; no fresh eggs left; a
few of the old eggs will hatch.

Experiment 158. Soap 152.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 14 gallons. Applied October 27. Will penetrate all egg-
masses well in about two minutes after a light spraying. Next day some of the
mother scales were still living, but all were dead October 30, and no fresh eggs were

left. November 4, nothing living; fungus loosening and coming off; tree in fine
condition,

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 569

Experiment 157, Resin compound.

Made of resin, 30 pounds; caustic soda, 3 pounds; and water to make 230 gallons
of wash; ata cost of 60 cents. Sprayed by Mr. Alexander Craw, and reported in
letter of November 22. White Scale when well saturated die, but when only lightly
sprayed form new wax. Black Scale all dead. Asa wash for Black Scale in the
fall and winter it will be admirable, but for the most thorough work only.180 gal-
lons of water should be taken.

Experiments on Fumigation with Bisulphide of Carbon.

Experiment 1.—September 29. One and a half fluid ounces in 1-pound tin can
were set on the ground near young shoots of orange, and a 50-gallon cask placed
over this for three hours. After removing cask only half of the carbon had evapo-
rated; scales seemed to be dead. On examining next day found all of them living.

Experiment 2.—September 29. Poured three-fourths fluid ounce into bottom of
cask; placed this over young plants at 3 p. m.; left until 1 p.m. next day. All
the insects were found dead, and had changed their color to a light hyacinth red.
October 4, leaves began to drop. October 7, nearly all eggs had changed to straw
color. About three-fourths of the leaves dropped, and the plant had not recovered
November 1.

EHeperiment 3.—September 30. One and a half fluid ounces in 1-pound tin can set
under cask and left for 20 hours. Destroyed all scales and eggs. About one-third
of the leaves dropped.

Heperiment 4.—October 1. One anda half fluid ounces poured into cask and
placed over plants for 3 hours. Killed all scalesand eggs. No leaves dropped, and
the plant has not in the least been injured.

Haperiment 5.—October 14. Made on tree about 7 feet high and 5 inches in diam-
eter, under tent. Two fluid ounces in shallow tin pan placed in middle of tree from
lla. m. until3 p.m. Destroyed all the scales except those on a few of the lowest
hrenohee where the eggs also remained uninjured. Tree not injured; no leaves

ropped.

Experiment 6.—October 22. On tree about 8 feet in diameter, under tent. Six
fluid ounces in shallow tin pan set in middle of tree at 3.80 p. m. and left until 6.20
p.m. Had no effect whatever on scales,

EXPERIMENTS ON RED SCALE (Aspidiotus aurantii).
Experiment 33. Soap 25.

Soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 5. August 14, nearly all scales
killed; a few mother scales with eggs and young living. October 5, only a few
newly formed scales could be found.

Experiment 48, Kerosene emulsion and soap 87.

Kerosene emulsion, 1 pint; soap, 5 pints; water, 4 gallons. Applied August 18.
Tree full of scales; some of the branches already destroyed. August 23, many young
scales have hatched; only part of large scales dead. September 24, about one-fifth
of old scales living; many young on tree.

Experiment 49. Soap 87.

Soap, 3 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 18. Tree thickly infested with
Teerya and Red Scales. August 23, scales nearly all dead and dry; a few young.
September 24, a few of the old scales still living; occasionally a young larva found;
tree in good condition.

Experiment 50. Soap 37.

Soap, 3 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 18. Tree thickly infested with
scales; half of the branches killed. August 23, about half the leaves have dropped.
September 6, leaves have ceased dropping; tree recovering; occasionally one young
scale found. September 18, tree pushing out new shoots. November 4, tree grow-
ing vigorously; young scales very few.

Experiment 52. Kerosene emulsion 41.

Emulsion, 4 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 25 on tree infested with
Icerya and Red Scale. August 28, Icerya all destroyed, Red Scales apRaeate so.

Sarena 24, a few gravid females still living; occasionally a single newly formed

570 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Experiment 53, Kerosene emulsion 41; soap 37.

Emulsion, 2 pints; soap, 1 pint; water,1 gallon, Applied August 25. August 28,
many young scales forming. September 7, about 10 per cent. of old scales living;
many young forming. November 4, tree swarming with scales.

Experiment 54, Kerosene emulsion 41; soap 37.

Emulsion, 1 pint; soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon; Applied August 25. Septem-
ber 7, found two mother scales Living; young forming quite numerously. October
5, tree full of young scales.

Experiment 55. Kerosene emulsion 41; soap 37.

Emulsion, 3 pints; soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 25 on small and
faded tree. September 7, leaves nearly all off; many young scales forming. Sep-
tember 22, branches all dead; many young scales on stem; no living adults,

Experiment 56. Kerosene emulsion 41; soap 37.

Emulsion, 1 pint; soap, 3 pints; water,1 gallon, Applied August 25. August 28,
found a few living young under mother scale, September 7, many newly formed
scales. September 24, old scales all dead; young quite numerous. October 5, scales
very few; tree doing well. .

Experiment 57. Kerosene emulsion 41. —

Emulsion, 5 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 31 on small and sickly tree-
September 7, no living old scales; only two living young could be found, Septem-
ber 24, leaves all off; scales few. October 5, tree pushing out new shoots on stem;
some branches still living. November 4, tree growing; scales few. :

Experiment 58. Kerosene emulsion 41.

Emulsion, 6 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 31. Tree lightly sprayed.
September 22, a few of the mother scales still living; young forming quite numer-
ously, October 5, no living old scales; young few; tree in good condition.

Experiment 59. Kerosene emulsion 41,

Half emulsion and half water. Applied August 31. Tree sickly and thickly in-
fested with Icerya and Red Scale; also many Black Scales; many branches already
dead. On very careful examination September 7 found one gravid female still liv-
ing and some young scales forming. September 24, tree bringing forth new shoots
on stem; young scales quite numerous, October 5, upper part of tree all dead, al-
though growing well below; scales few.

Experiment 60. Soap 37, :

Soap, 4 pints: water, 1 gallon. Applied August 31 on small and faded tree thickly
infested with Icerya and Red Scale. September 7, found two moving young; leaves
remaining only on lower branches. September 24, tree nearly dead; trunk again
covered with Icerya. October 5, tree shooting out below; scales few,

EKaperiment 61, Soap 37.

Soap, 6 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied August 31 on small and withered tree full
of Icerya, Red and Black Scales. September 7, all scales destroyed; occasionally
one young forming. September 24, a few young scales; tree shooting out.again.
Hebe! 5, hardly any Red Scales, yet the tree is covered again with Cottony Cushion-
scale.

Experiment 62. Soap 37.

Half soap and half water. Applied August 81. September 7, scales all destroyed;
on careful examination only one moying young could be found; only a few leaves
had dropped. October 5, tree shooting out everywhere. November 4, tree almost
free from scales and growing vigorously.

Experiment 66. Tar soap 63.

Soap, 2 pints: water, 1 gallon. Applied September 2 on tree that had been nearly
killed by the scales. September 6, scales not all killed; young hatching numerously.
October 5, some of the older scales still living; young numerous; tree nearly dead.

Experiment 67, Tar soap 63.

Soap, 4 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 2 on large tree covered with
scales. September 22, found only a very few young; old scales all dead; tree not

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 571

injured by wash. November 4, on careful examination only a few young scales
could be found.
Experiment 72. Tobacco soap 68.
Soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 3 on thickly infested and nearly
dead tree, September 22, only about three-tourths of the scales killed. October 5,
living scales of all sizes present, but not abundant.

Experiment 73. Tobacco soap 68.

Soap, 4 pints; water, 1 gallon, Applied September 3 on small and sickly tree;
some of the branches already killed by scales. September 7, scales not yet all dead;
tips of young shoots somewhat injured, and a few of the old leaves dropping. Sep-
tember 22, no living scales; tree recovering. October 5, not a single scale could be
found on most careful examination; tree in fine condition, growing vigorously.

Haperiment 82. Soap 77.

Soap, + pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 9. September 18, only a small
part of the scales killed. October 5, about four-fifths of the scales dead.

Experiment 83. Soap 77,
Soap, 13 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 9. September 18, all scales

killed; not the slightest injury done to tree by wash. October 5, not a living scale
could be found; tree in fine condition.
Experiment 95. Tobacco soap 92,
Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 18. October 5, scales nearly
all killed; young hatching quite abundantly, October 28, no living adults; young

numerous,
Experiment 96. Tobacco soap 92.

Soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon, Applied September 18, October 5, a few gravid
females living; a few young hatching. October 28, only young scales could be
found, but these were quite numerous; tree in good condition.

Experiment 97. Tobacco soap 92.

Soap, 8 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 18. September 24, tree not
injured. October 11, all scales dry; no young could be found.

Experiment 98. Resin soap 88.

Soap, 1 pint; water,1 gallon. Applied September 18, September 24, scales dying
slowly; blossoms and budding leaves not injured. October 5, occasionally one
gravid female living; very few young.

Experiment 105. Resin soap 99.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 27. October 5, scales appar-
ently all killed; found two newly-formed young. October 11, old scales all dead;
young quite numerous,

Experiment 106. Resin soap 99,

Soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 27. October 5, scales appar-
ently all dead; have changed in color; a few leaves dropping. October 11, scales all
killed; not a single young scale could be found; tree not injured.

Experiment 107, Resin soap 99,

Soap, 4 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied September 27. October 5, all scales dis-
colored; not yet dry; leaves dropping. October 7, leaves still dropping. October
11, leaves have ceased dropping; all scales dead; no young. October 28, not a liv-
ing scale could be found; tree in good condition.

Experiment 127. Resin soap 120.
Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 4. October 11, all young and

nearly all old scales dry; found two moving young, October 16, scales all dead.
November 4, occasionally one young scale.

Experiment 128. Resin soap 120.

Soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 4. October 11, all scales dead
and dry; tree not in the least injured. On the most careful examination, October

572 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

16 and 22, and November 1 and 4,I was unable to find any living scales; tree was
growing nicely at last-mentioned date.

Experiment 182. Resin compound 129.

Compound, 4 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 7. October 12, all young
scales dry; old scales all loose and changed in color. October 15, old scales seem to
be dead, yet not dry; found many dead young under mother scales. November 4,
about three-fourths of the scales killed; they became firm again on the leaves after
two weeks; mites very numerous.

Eaperiment 133. Resin compound 129.

Compound, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 7. October 12, nearly all
scales dead and dry and changed in color; all the scales on insects that were not
dry loose and easily removed; mites very numerous. October 15, no living scales
could be found. October 22, found three newly formed scales. November 4, very
few young and no living old scales could be found; tree not in the least injured; no
leaves dropped. ~ i

Experiment 147. Resin soap 144.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 2 gallons. Applied October 23. October 28, found several
moving young and a few newly formed scales. November 4, a few gravid females
still living; young increasing.

Experiment 148. Resin soap 144,

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 23. October 28, all scales killed;
coud PER moving young. November 4, occasionally one young; no old scales could
e found.
Eaperiment 149. Resin soap 144.

Soap, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 28. October 28, budding leaves
destroyed; old leaves dropping. November 1, a few leaves still dropping; tree had
been in poor condition, and this experiment was made chiefly to see result of wash.

Experiment 154, Resin soap 152.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 14 gallons. Applied October 27. November 8, nearly all
scales killed; some of the mother scales not yet dry.

Experiment 155. Resin soap 152.

Soap, 1 pint; water, 1 gallon. Applied October 27. November 8, found all scales
dead; no young could be found.

Experiment 156. Resin compound 141.

Compound, 2 pints; water, 1 gallon. Applied November 2. November 4, all
scales have changed on tree as well as on fruit. Mr. Craw examined the tree again
for me September 22, and he writes that all the young scales were dead, but many
of the old scales were living.

Experiments 154 and 155 were made at a late date, and the results perhaps would
vary a little if examined a month later; yet the soap will do excellent work on
Icerya at + cent per gallon with strong spray. I believe that the wash of experi-
ment 154 would not kill all the Red Scales. The soap of experiment 120 is but little
different, yet this destroyed all the Red Scales, at + cent per gallon of the wash, as
sprayed by Messrs. Wolfskill and Craw.

In regard to experiment 156, Mr. Craw’s statement is contrary to my expectations.
Although I had at the time of spraying a poor pump, and the tree had not been
sprayed well, yet the spray would miss the young as well as the old scales.

{examined tree of Experiment 133 often and carefully. In eight days nearly all
the scales were dry. This is the same wash as that of 156, but costs only ¢ cent for
pwinte Ps the wash, while in experiment 156 the cost would be 1 cent for 10 pints of

ne wash.

Resin compound is a good remedy in destroying Icerya and its eggs, and further
experiments will show the value of it on Red Scale.

The best results so far on the Red Scale were had with soaps 120, 144, and 152, and
these last two are also best for Icerya.

The fact that there are nearly always, even with the strongest washes, young
scales found afterward may be largely due to the fact that the ground below thickly
infested trees is always covered with infested leaves which have dropped, and nat-
urally most of the young will crawl back upon the tree again after the spraying.
They will also come from surrounding plants,

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. © 573

INSECTS AFFECTING SMALL GRAINS AND GRASSES.
By F. M. WEBSTER, Special Agent.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

LA FAYETTE, IND., November 2, 1886.

Str: I herewith transmit my annual report for the current year, containing a
continuation of my studies of the Wheat Isosoma, and a new pest, the Companion
Wheat-fly; notes on Meromyza americana, and some insects affecting Barley; a list
of insects frequenting or depredating upon Buckwheat; notes upon the destruetion
of timothy meadows by the Glassy Cut-worm; and two enemies of the White
Clover.

As usual, I am under obligation to yourself and assistants for the determination
of material, and numberless other favors.

Respectfully submitted.
F. M. WEBSTER,
Dr. C, V. RILEY, Special Agent.
Entomologist.

INSECTS AFFECTING FALL WHEAT.

THE WHEAT-STRAW ISOSOMA.
(Isosoma tritici Riley.)

Up to June of the present year matters remained very much as they were left in
my previous report, so far as obtaining any additional facts relative to the habits of
this species is concerned. Straws, in which grande only had oviposited, failed to
furnish adults of any sort, and straws taken from the fields gave only wingless
females of tritici, which, as usual with those reared in mid-winter, refused to ovi-
posit on wheat plants grown and kept indoors for that purpose. On returning from
the South in April, however, we found a limited number of these tritici, which
had emerged much later, probably in March, alive in the breeding-cages, and at
once transferred them to young wheat plants grown and kept continually under
cover, in a corner of our garden, at least three-fourths of a mile from any field of
either wheat, rye, or barley. This was on the 12th of April.

From this time forward until the grain and straw were fully ripened, early the
following July, the utmost caution was observed in keeping the plants thoroughly
protected from outside insects, and, with the exception of a single Tipulid, which
appeared during spring, no insects whatever were at any time observed within the
inclosure except the I[sosoma.

On the 2d of June, fifty-one days after the tritici had been placed in the inclosure,
a female of grande was observed in the act of ovipositing in the now nearly full-
grown straw, and, within the next few days several others were noticed similarly
occupied, placing their eggs not only in the upper joint, but in the one below also.
Previous to this, and, in fact, since the 2ist of May, the latter species had been ob-
served continually in the fields, and the belated appearance of these in the inclosure
is perhaps due to the fact that their progenitors, the tritici, were of the last to
emerge in the spring. Absence from home for two months previous to the date of
their removal from the breeding-cage to the young wheat made it impossible to
secure them earlier, as it was difficult to get enough then living to carry on the ex-
periments, the numerous dead in the cage indicating that the species had been
emerging for some time.

As before stated, the tritici placed in the inclosure were all of them females.
Neither could any males be found among those that had previously died, and,
moreover, all of the grande were females apparently, as all that were observed at
allin the inclosure were ovipositing. Hence the males of either form, if there are
any, are still unknown to me.*

A winged form of Isosoma, seemingly intermediate between tritici and grande,
was taken with the latter in considerable numbers about Bloomington, IIl.,
during May, 1884, and has since been found in the vicinity of La Fayette, Ind., in
both grain fields and grass lands, but in too limited numbers to permit of successful

* As shown on page 544, we have been more successful in this respect than has Mr.
Webster, and three males of tritici were bred in January, 1886,—C. V. R.

574 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

rearing in confinement, and hence what affinities it may have with other forms or
species is not known.

A small form of hordei also occurred about La Fayette during the latter part of
May, 1885, on blue grass and timothy, growing up intermixed, and also to a very
limited extent on wheat; but this also refused to oviposit in the latter in the breed-
ing-cages, and disappeared from the field of both grain and grass altogether ina
few days.

The same locality was repeatedly swept over during the present season, but no
hordei could be found. Grande were, however, obtained in considerable numbers
from grass lands, but the most careful search failed to reveal any indication that
they emerged from these grasses or that they oviposit in them.

It may be proper to state here that in the three years during which I have had
these Isosomas under observation they have never been observed ovipositing in
chess, nor has an instance been noticed where the straws of this grass have been
affected by them. This discrimination on the part of these insects, whereby the
stools of wheat are prevented from heading, while those of the grass continue to
flourish, may perhaps in part account for the unexpected preponderance of the
latter during some seasons, a phenomenon which so sorely taxes the science of the
unbotanical farmer.

There is, however, aspecies of larva infesting the stems of timothy from the latter
part of July to the following spring whose method of work is very similar to that
of the wheat-straw worms, but which nevertheless belongs to a different order of
insects. It is probably the larva of a species of Languria,* and may readily be dis-

‘tinguished by the form of the head, by the more slender and less smooth body, and
by the presence of well-developed legs on the thoracic segments.

THE AMERICAN MEROMYZA.
(Meromyza americana Fitch.)

Full-grown larve of this species were observed by us on June 18 of the present
year in a field of rye near Kentland, Newton County, Indiana, and we bred adults
from straw grown near La Fayette about July 21, and again from volunteer wheat
in the same field from which the straw had been taken from September 3 to 21.
A previous examination of this field made August 31 had revealed the fact that the
volunteer wheat plants growing upon a space 1 foot square contained 11 puparia,
1 empty case, and 1 two-thirds grown larva.

On October 5 we found adults in great numbers (and also adults of a parasite,
Celinius meromyze Forbes) engaged in ovipositing on wheat in a field sown Sep-
tember 22, and on going to another field, which had been sown much earlier, we
found adults there also, but in less numbers, although the former field had been
sown on oat stubble, while the latter field had last produced a crop of wheat.

In view of these observations and the results of your own breedings from volun-
teer wheat sent you from Oxford, Ind., on September 6, 1884, there seems little rea-
son to doubt the existence of a third brood of flies, originating, largely at least, in
volunteer grain, and emerging therefrom during the month of September.

As we have elsewhere shown,+ the observations of Fitch, Riley, Lintner, Forbes,
and ourself in no case have indicated that a third brood was‘improbable, but in
some instances strongly presage its existence.

THE COMPANION WHEAT-FLY,
Oscinis (?) sp.

During the latter part of June, 1884, while examining wheat straws in which the
larvee of Meromyza americana were at work, we often found several smaller larve,
also dipterous, and so closely associated with the former that we at first suspected
them of being parasites. They were almost invariably found among the juicy mass
of substance that had been displaced by their larger consort.

Securing a supply of affected straws, we cut from each a section about 3 inches

*Specimens of this larva were forwarded to us by Mr. Webster, but the adult
beetle was not bred. The larva was indistinguishable from that of Languria mo-
zardi, described by Professor Comstock in the Annual Report of this Department
for 1879 under the popular name of ‘‘ The Clover-stem Borer,” as he had reared it
from stems of Red Clover at Washington. Mr, Webster’s larvae probably belong to
this species, which is figured on Plate I, Fig. 6, of the report just cited, and de-
scribed on page 199.—C. V. R.

+ Bulletin No, 9, Purdue University, issued October, 1886,

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 575

long, including the upper joint, but excluding the head, and placed them in a breed-
ing jar. The result was, when the adult Meromyza emerged from these sections,
July 18 to 28, there appeared among them quite a number of a much smaller black
species, closely resembling those of the genus Oscinis, but, however, being quite
istinct. : ‘ :

Early in the following September larvee, seemingly like those observed in the
straw, were found feeding within the stems of young volunteer wheat plants, and
later the same thing was observed to destroy young plants in a field of early sown
wheat.

From this volunteer wheat adult flies of the species now under consideration
emerged from September 7 to October 1. The present season they began to emerge
August 30, in both cases being the most numerous about the 10th of September. We
have also reared adults from larvee in wheat sown during the last week of August,
- these emerging as late as the 3d of October. The adults are common in wheat fields
after about September 10 until the 1st of October, and hover about the young plants,
doubtless for the purpose of ovipositing, as they are often observed pairing.

We have never observed them during late fall or early spring. They are some-
times attacked by a fungous parasite very similar to, if not identical with, that at-
tacking the house-fly. :

The larvee are much smaller than those of Meromyza, but in a general way resem-
ble them in form and color, particularly when the latter are only partly grown.

The puparia are, however, very different, being only about 2.5"™ long and 0.8™™
broad. ‘fhe color is never like that of Meromyza, being at first of a yellowish-white,
with tinge of green, but later changing to a uniform brown. They are readily dis-
tinguished from those of the Hessian fly by being cylindrical and by the segments
being well defined.

From the foregoing it will be observed that, so far as we have been able to study
the species, its cycle is exactly parallel with that of the Meromyza, and besides, there
is a strong probability that while in young wheat the larvze work independently, in
the full-grown straws, where the tissue is too tough for their less rugged mouth
parts, they become the mess-mates of their stronger consort, and feed from the vege-
table juices by which it is surrounded. It is this characteristic that suggested the
common appellation selected.

The damage done to young wheat in the fall by this species must be considerable,
the credit thereof falling upon the Meromyza, as the effect of the two larvee is ex-
actly the same.

INSECTS AFFECTING BARLEY.

On account of the limited area sown, we have had but little opportunity to study
the insect enemies of this cereal, but it is extremely probable that the species do not
difier greatly from those depredating upon the closely allied grains—wheat and rye.

The two species here mentioned were observed in a small plot of this grain on the
University experiment farm, which had produced nothing but barley for the last five
or six years.

THE WHITE GRUB.
(Lachnosterna fusca Frohl.)

These well-known depredators were observed during the present season engaged
in cutting off the roots of the full-grown and fully-headed grain. As late as the
23th of June they were causing whole stools of the straw to wither and dry up be-
fore the kernels had filled,

THE BARLEY ROOT-LOUSE.
(Schizoneura sp.)

Both winged and apterous individuals were found clustering on the roots of bar-
ley in this same plot on the 12th of June, 1885, and at that time seemed to be doing
considerable injury, but we were unable to secure an above-ground form.

The present season we found the same species in the same place but several days
earlier, and watched them continuously until the 15th of J uly, when a few individ-
uals might still be found upon the roots, although the grain was fully matured.
Again we failed to secure an aereal form, although the grain was kept under careful
inspection until harvest, nor could we rear any such in a breeding-cage, to which we
had transferred infested barley plants.

In the fields the lice were all attended by ants, as usual, and, when placed in the
breeding-cage without their protectors, seemed to be well-nigh helpless.

576 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

THE GRAIN APHIS.

(Siphonophora avence Fab.)

This species was observed infesting the heads of barley in considerable numbers,
and, when the grain was fully ripe and the winged adults ready to forsake the bar-
ley heads, we placed some of them in cages in which growing timothy, blue-grass,
and red-top had been transplanted, with the hopes of learning where the species
passed the summer or until the young wheat appeared in the fall. The grasses were
kept alive, but’ the insects died, and no trace of a following generation was observed.

INSECTS FREQUENTING OR DEPREDATING UPON BUCK-
WHEAT.

So many reports of the aversion of insects for this plant are going the rounds of .
the press, nearly all of which are unaccompanied by generally accepted authority,
that some exact data relative to the matter seems very desirable. It was with a
view of obtaining this information that, under Dr. Riley’s instructions, we began a
series of observations, selecting as a basis one of the experiment plots of the Uni-
versity farm, which for the past five years has grown nothing but buckwheat, there-
by eliminating at the start any insects that might have been attracted by a previous
crop of grain or grass and remained over in either the adult or adolescent stages.

As the object of the observations was a twofold one, 7. e., to learn both the repul-
sive and the direct and indirect attractive properties of the growing plant, what may
at first appear to be overexactness will at once be seen to be quite essential, as the
occurrence of an insect but once or twice during several weeks is strongly indicative
of a repugnance for the locality.

Observations began as soon as the plants were well above the surface of the ground,
and, until they were high enough to sweep with an insect-net, consisted of careful
inspection only, but later the entire plot was swept over at intervals of a few days
and arecord kept of all captures. As some species visit the plants at one time of
day and others at another, the time of sweeping was varied, in order to preclude the
possibility of any escaping notice in that way. These observations were carried on
until frost destroyed the plants.

In the table the symbol ‘‘A” signifies abundant; ‘‘C,” common. Where only very
few examples occurred their number is indicated numerically. Unless otherwise
stated the adult stage is intended, and where a * follows the name of insect the
larval state only is intended; if a +, the pupal. When these follow the other sym-
bols, A or C, it is to be understood that all states occur, adults preponderating. If
they precede the letter, all states occurred in numbers indicated. Thus A * +t, adults
abundant, larve and pupe; * t+ C, all stages common,

List of insects.

| | ¢ Al g g\§ =|

ee allicbes all ees" Mikes Sls Be] el | ee

A/F Elalalal@iels|e |S iayaae

Insects. Alia eater aman se (es a oo Sy eee

Be oa RC ls Scalise =| at bese esas

s[elé/a@lalala/sl=|s||a|els

ao | oo} a | | Ho) wm) wml Sl ealalealel sia

Sh eh St Sha Sil) Stell Sih ap! D 3)

4/4/4|/4)/4/4/alalalalajalajo

PAIS ICULPEH NINN 2 oh oni inte rine jie tees Pe allsiehl| reel AO | A A “A: "|| RANA eee

PES OTLGUS HSE ae trate cin iotets wipes rale ieee iciotte teats so eile aistell s oteis lied oie Sars 1 SMe 2 sn on oo

Cerceris compactus Cr............2...6+- BMS eel eresc tell See ene iets wie] eses,| covets tecete tl eapte all eset cle. ssall eye's Ol epee eee

Halictus flavipes (Fabr.) ................ ee ae Alle Blt 2 LD ae eee

HAO CHS ISD (NO. 119)). shinee ac'sislelelariie eer Sere OND We IE Cc (OF) eee ree a sol|scar cack

Sphex pennsylvanicus Linn............-- 1h 5 ea Bet ech a oe ey aed He OU eae a bs Bootle silo

mmophila urwaria Dahlb............-- worse fore OCH] oletall in evevel| OL fie Seaici] Serat ll leceve td] ee erat nce I ekeyels fm ana
(EAT PATS needa begs sp ovoqonnoposou nd: Bano conllaocd once atae srevaiei| (eke (elell s sereter| RDI Stexerel| Operas eee
Tiphia (near) inornata Say ......--....-- Steal etal llecatatell Giterallloce sierra lal alle BC reo Peace! (Sesh) aces |
“TET OY OER) 6) PERS AR ERR ARISE SABER WAP ROS. HOC EOo Se doll COM TDNCGd INN Ghu eee ele OlMiee alP 73 «eile ree Bley Se cal MO
Mayne ROTNALW SAY .< 2.0.02 tes Css ne ve Sepia emlan tetera. eeeilterersio| sctetall Sail sreretsl|| SAC recall | milan om
Mutilla (near) fenestrata St. F.......... A ih OMS OER i ae Bohl state He 3) ig] eee

TSA EDS TL CUUG ocho tht ite= oisysieism reer lve sere Chin Waa Ce eC aCe! (Oe: CO ACA Aa 2

Perilampus (near) hyalinus Say ......... Sie aie hoes Xe aN ok Sah Bo) AS | Ale] A Jo Aly Ars At ae 1

OTIC SCROUPUSBIL. vos sec c en ee totes cle +24 Jy defer fon Cheol PO TAL Sul ear AS AG Cis 3

Calionsis andreniformis Say ............ (8 ios alh var ol loa aie Sacr | AC? eee fell eecal Ds
epi SD eal daisies bisepces tenets ae ene Cec PAG west | CEN TG) SEE
Fike BHAVENSOS Aer AO SACRO AOAC ee 5 oyeie] MBL ce tel as sAs)| K oscesei| cpotaie (rateeiel| ie ota all ate i] need torte
Mesograpta marginata Say ............. Seas | eters cell ees ser Gs chao ail ezacesel| eee ne Seely RS S|:
IPUETISVOTOLOGICE NBO) <i hb cele eon aces PSE bocce eaesere Lae tal eee Uae tee Pon a PK PSH STAT Nat Tied Ile)

Colraseuryuneme Bain 5). =<. ctaeliee c oats « Sates, (sss cel xe cif NEI lobe lell = Reavelobeeetel a ra eemtlRRIC Oy Fate) he AE ne

DONATE OPCRUDDUS HAD. \«,siais;~,«.«1s\c rie mieispe siete = syd) all felons Se fail fe yaw ea Sue c\] oc: ¢. sfHeS Peto se pL Hl elerers lees rile

Pyrameis atalanta Linn................. Pore aapetavel| ames loreal, oc5,8 says sustesell ibis eel hy aL eles msi Re roel cet 4

PUT COMES COP GUD MAADNI fk) ace vas |e clo see e Mecmloeee lems Bete Af cco ee sel LN Rcal See) avosetel| pe ated eaten
DEvlephieivainveata Wave® voarnacanecneeenlsecaleceel ee eleceelnne SR ite: bal eect heed 1 2 ere

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST,

Last of insects—Continued.

517

J i 3 : :
Aihenlea Prag losibl iat) eee| 2 E
: -|@]¢4 . ala al ey=r
gldldlslalelel@/Slalelsisia
Insects al@lsfe/S//=/Slsislels)a| a
ES isles ics ES ee le ea
on] ep} em] al co] ml a RIL R ITB] ele] GS
3 ete | fee, eta Mh sie ogres femeestea | xt bets eeet ee | SST ee te
4/4q/4/4/4/4/4/e/8/8/8138/318
Acronycta oblinita A. &5.* .....eeee 60a bod Geen eae! (Gano need cote hook need nbc boar Te |e tars ea eae .
Acontia erastoides Quen ......++++ AOC OR nee etetchalllafaissel > te | Oe eA tantra GC) lt iat Cua pease | eee
Geomcetrid larva ...... SUPRE Eee Se aeBacaem nee by oyeyeiftaia aya ffeverero/{p hi: toyota aetaiflayetozal i, State cay aval lop Seavert Serene | ee
Crambus (near) fuscicostella Zell. (No.18)| 1 |....]....J..0.]-...[--sc[ecee[eece[ececlecee[ecee[eces[eoe Lecce
Dicheclia sulphureana Clem.* .......+--.|.--.]+++-]-- ued eete lb a TIMES HR a oa |, ea ean a aa Naan
Eurycreon rantalis GUEN.....6..e.eeeees secretive ered [iC It GAL TAS AS A eA ce Oh GF x
Cicindela punctulata Fab ..........++4+: COPNECCIM OIA EOP OMELET COM CaM KOM eCetN legs} ef
Harpalus pennsylvanicus De]. -.....--.).---|--+-|o- ee fesse [eee cfense|eees 1 Bl esa abe leet ls
Tachyporus brunneus Wad........s0eeee- mratavelleteraye)| srarst='|) MeL fe 1 TT ese) Vx ©) fae al Pa ;
Sylvanus advena Waltl...........0.eeeee Fi oo OE ROI ea) Becks) orc (see al ocecl joer ie |e lace | eae a
Corticaria pumilis Mels...........0..005- ee eratel starctell tavacstl ok set” |lechishcills hai | eve linia A CuleCuled CuleGalk en
Hippodamia convergens Giientaeeo tact: Seti Weel eer tel here | eo kareena 1a (Stas eed feel bie
Hippodamia parenthesis Say... ....... Rissa siete cere Bete eae | Dyn SAO aa | = E
Cycloneda sanguinea Linn ..............)..2.)..-.]eee. BO Bee rad Goo el eae lees fi) ical ES IR :
Coccinella 9-notata Hb .................|- dl apaevel (see: a2 at aillay eda | cipal atch tose) Svceeps | slanted 5 ian i i
Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus Forst . sp aoal seoal a aol roh taco Aleroslevall. Gh lay WGhl) atclee 4
Ditemnats bidenfatus Say...... ......... AW? Ol eae ISB ees eee AAAS on| te acl Sve es a
Cyphon variabilis Thunb ................/.05. Lye sit everers'| (saat afatayel laters lfetelas| eaters 4 [eet lease i
Bruchus obsoletws Say ......20.- cece e wees SAE Ase aoe ners Dn Do ae Mees pee aN er,
Colaspis brunned Fab ..... ........0.05. ies G[ash Yves Ce a1 skerere|| etre ap an LE :
Doryphora 10-lineata Bay ..... 1. 2.1... Jeeee 3| hue lleBoc A ON a) A eb x
Chrysomela suturalis Fad .......... ASO Ce Ae Ooo ole Geeel seis eee ae sal ec led? 1 eee ae .
Diabroiica 12-punctata Oliv............. Se Dalle tal ecm ee | (eel ene epee Nas) 15| aon Foy Peep a
Diabrotica vittata Fab............2..006 bia) dena gitae Wedel anor Bacal seca Rew (4 ie
Diabrotica longicornis Say ..............[..../.00. [CT AC AGG A A PAD HAs IAC |Meat rate fa 2
Disonycha punctigera Lec............-2.]-.-6 B.A00) ABB cebd lnsoe! ace aed erase lel OUNiE
OUT SIGIR LIECCIUG MACE so, 0\e)ea\ara's o/a)s sists |[oicia\sl'a]e s/s] ¢ asciclllafsratsi|!ovevara bs ere Perak isicele'lle'ave.e salle Nels Ge tee ate
Phyllotreta vittata Fab........ AOAC ACOH muta fede ON aie ae le i Weipa lease alle (bea (S * :
Systena frontalis Wab ...........cecese0e|--- ! oe la Ss a NEO Poca Meee Pec 2
Systena blanda Mels.....0....0.c-c0cc.es]- holilice bee fiat | octet dss MLR eho PIALNT Ae Ol ee
Crem madera a immventrts MEIS. ooascis5 o05s)ohn.c| jase |e allacu loos] csanleeevlomncls Mule salt enalassebechee
Chmtoenem@ confints CY... ee ccsceecece|es
Mordella octopunciata Fab .............|-...
Epicauta vittata Wab........-.........--
Epicauta lemniscata Wab............0+6
Enicauta cinerea Forst.......... cdudor
Epicauia pennsylvanica DeG ...........)....]....
Centrinus picumnus Hort ........ Bieran se
Sphenophorus parvulus Gyll ............
Score spat (NOnol)i 5. sescs--ceses
Bibio sp. ?(No. 82)........
ANtATOL SP. ?...0-12.5
SparnanolnasaM (NQ1A) aii essence lee bel Olilosasleaealnsdeleciesl ees Pa Als
Stratiomyic sp. 1 ih fy) a eS ne “te ee Bate (Ae vel AO ie Fe I
BCHIIS'SDLY(NOs 20)- 0: ceb ese sconccise cess eal lage bale 3] 2 ill (Ohl| Wonton j
ORETES SPA RUNOn CA) ascieie ates aineicia sie algae Jooullsooa||ddad cod |) o £ , lag 6 6 .
Chlorops sp. ? (No. 65)... .. ssssseeeees eee i lhc, lasek CAN ARR Ath As, (OAL WA Ne Ae Tele ical on
Meromyza americana Fitch ..... 5 Rbor ae Ree ie listsiatall esaors eiatalallecs BL OFM bet Oa | Fi [ea 1
Pee ea a cr Ss ae sea iA GAN Bt as aad Cc
Oncomipreaspat (NO.'89): «doce Shae cece Socwle neal PAE MTS OEM Dee anu Fw fe ee 1 ae
Chelona wericeus Say 220000000000 Sloe, RNa ae aeligstes ala aa ae
phis sp. ? ot-form)..... ae IRAN 1 id Bh ol ote PhS nal lege Gg Gab Calon |p Ghul scietaa ae ee
ae ae! Sear ber evaatenires Yea area CON ie ara me G Ea Geliecs it Calais pas ue
ASSUS INIMICUS SBY ... 60sec scccccnannnaleces ae § aalicatalliaganale eae lie ah lie il ie ies
‘Macropsis venatus Uhl |... 222222077277 mh) alelelealelekeiela i
PA CHialis CALUOSaya (VARY) oa Ses va nancon c|sas cle eulimcoleduels eal pores
Diedrocephala mollipes Say ............. A i I eal pets ae eh Pes til bee | eae pay
PSCHASUUS SCTUUS SOY 2.0 coos pave wens Nene. es STR Ne la eT WE 1 Fy a oor a ees
Garizuslatenlis Say sae oe te okecnices «ills Sec seabsameie rd et a Nes fi pha Ale rears
Blagsus lEUOOPte; US SAY: dawapte sleds co siiabaleiodolsanclocwalaseulesaalooec Chhudolace ‘i Set
Saris ae CRUE UU osnetare teecee cel. Lb ccclance rf By ne sa fsa ile Mi bates
GUS BT QUCTESES PANN che allo sce tote lees “A | A¥| Ae IAS +E HALAS tH eAe
Calocoris rapidus Say .............-ceeeeles taille a 4 ca Me ‘ ie z C xe z Ao! Ge ‘Oe % 1G 1
Plagiognathus obscurus Uhl..... erie teealeixes Lilie Data Coele.Ghi fe Gh ied Cale Sales teilet
Plagiognathus sp. ?(No. 24)......1: See ea sie 8 OMEN Wo ei OC Ae ie ese
phen cated ee Reuters: ons - bel ee |e 18 | Galera “G| 3 (ola oie ee 13
iphleps insidiosus Say...ccserecccscc.lo.e| A | A)ATA|A | A. shal Pe Paes iors
Corius ferus Linn...... a salara ae ey ae ~ = rs Zz ee 7 =i sr oh ven ;
dcholld maltpinosa Be vosefereeeeeefiees aati 21 ¢ Cs ays
iia leit eee Ty Ata bed fel eel re bee ne ate aa
Gicanthus niveus..........2.000 IE, ee Oe Epes ae milled g q eal kitsil os :
pel vulgare Hair ........ 2 AE Re RT| eno Sis 1 rd i he holhera res
FEW ULES LOOT CULGLUS). 151. <onanccseenns SA CL Cea, eek, a5 cilalea “Gilt Gah aoe eal os
Melanoplis femur-rubrum Harr ...... , Clberlie t
Gidipoda carolina Linn ......... Ae oth bat se aang o Me . E paige sea
Crysopa eaterna ? .......... Sadat tbl 5 cio acs | tae Reval | BE Oy of C + 2 ly lees
Ig Pen (0 NON aR ek a Nua | A Bs ics | 98a UM GN Mo A
37 AG—’86

578 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

‘The Hymenoptera, as a rule, occurred most abundantly during the forenoon. Of
the Lepidoptera, Acontia and Eurycreon were the most abundant. Dichelia was
reared to the adult, but the Geometrid larva died, and it is very doubtful if this
was really one of its food-plants.

The rarity of Carabide is quite suggestive as being in accordance with the lack
of earth-inhabiting larve, and likewise the dearth of Coccinellidee might be traced to
the lack of Aphidide. Bruchus obsoletus doubtless wandered from a plot of beans
near by. Colaspis brunnea fed upon thebuds. The lack of Doryphora was strongly
indicative of disgust for the plant, as the adjoining plot was planted to potatoes,
which they destroyed, and migrated to other localities, but studiously avoided the
buckwheat. The same was true of Hpicauta, excepting the vittata species, which
fed upon the foliage quite freely. Diabrotica longicornis was one of the most
abundant insects, and fed upon the blossoms. Apiis sp. ? and the Dactylopius
were both found upon the roots. The spasmodic occurrence of Blissus leucopterus
has the same signification as the single occurrence of Doryphora. Lygus pratensis
was one of the most abundant species, and at the time of the last two observations
it outnumbered all others ten to one. Melanoplus femur-rubrum seriously injured
some of the young plants, but only along the margins. Gryllus abbreviatus cut off
the plants and dragged them into its burrows, but only for about the first week
after they came up. Larvee of Chrysopa were quite numerous during August and
September. Possibly these were of the same species as the adults. The Anthrax
emerged from pupz in the soil in considerable numbers during the early part of
August.

Besides these, Dr. Riley (First Mo. Rep., p. 79) states that the larvee of Agrotis
clandestina and (Third Mo. Rep., p. 109) Laphygma frugiperda (Prodenia autum-
nalis) affect this plant, as also (Seventh Mo. Rep., p. 159) Melanoplus spretus. Dr.
Cyrus Thomas (Sixth Ill. Rep., p. 171) thinks Gastrophysa polygoni might attack
the plant, but we found nothing of the species in this case. In Riley’s Seventh Mo.
Rep., p. 43, a correspondent states that Blissus leucopterus did not affect his corn
where buckwheat was sown among it. Deiliphila lineata (larva) is recorded as
feeding upon this plant by Dr. Riley in Third Mo. Rep., p. 141.

INSECTS AFFECTING TIMOTHY.

THE GLASSY CUT-WORM.
(Hadena devastatrix, Brace.)

On June 29 of the present season Mr. J. G. Kingsbury, of the Indiana Farmer,
called our attention to some rumors which had reached him relative to the depre-
dations of some kind of worm in the timothy meadows about Richmond, Wayne
County, Indiana, and we immediately wrote Mr. J. C. Ratliff, of Richmond, from
whom, on the 12th of July, we received a reply fully corroborating the reports given
us by Mr. Kingsbury.

On the 15th, in accordance with instructions from Mr. Howard, entomologist in
charge, we visited the infested fields, three in number, situated to the northwest of
the city, one on the grounds of the insane asylum, another about a half a mile north
of this on the farm of Mr. Kreets, and the third on the farm of Mrs. Thompson, per-
haps 2 miles farther to the northwest.

The field on the grounds of the asylum, of which about 15 acres were totally de-
stroyed, had been plowed and planted with corn after the ravages had ceased, but
the other two fields, of which about 15 and 20 acres, respectively, had been destroyed,
remained intact. A critical examination of the affected portions of these two fields
revealed the fact that even where every vestige of timothy had been destroyed red
clover remained untouched, and a decided preference had been evinced for low,
damp localities.

In the Thompson field chrysalids were found quite abundantly within a couple of
inches of the surface; and with them, in almost equal numbers, were the larvee of
Hadena devastatria, some of which were already in frail earthen cells, preparatory
to pupating, all of these last being of a dingy-white color, with yellow heads. Inter-
spersed among the Hadena larvee were a very few of Nephelodes violans. In the

eet field both chrysalids and larvee were much less abundant, although the de-
struction had been equally complete. Here also the Nephelodes larve were found,
but in a still smaller ratio as compared with those of the Hadena.

To settle any doubt which might arise as to which of the two species of larvae were
the authors of the destruction, we questioned the owners of the fields very closely,
as well as the employés on the two farms, but all stated that the striped larvee had

: REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 5Ty

never been numerous, and that if was the white ones with brown heads (‘“‘about half
way between a worm and a grub,” as they expressed it) which did the injury. In
fact, an aged and intelligent gentleman, Mr. Vinnedge Russell, as soon as he learned
of our arrival, went to the Thompson field and brought us therefrom a number of

. Hadena larvee, remarking that the striped worms had occurred with them, but only
in very limited numbers, and that those brought were the depredators.

From what we were able to learn, the effect of these worms was noticed for the
first about the middle of May, and they continued to carry on their work for about
three weeks, after which they appeared to do no ifjury, and the dried remains of
the young grass seemed to attest to the statement, as in no case were any withered
or dead clumps observed. The destruction appeared to lie solely in the amputation
of the small roots, neither the bulb nor the blade having been ravaged, and we were
informed that the worms were in no case observed feeding above ground, but invari-
ably below the surface.

Although no such outbreak of these larvae in meadows had been previously re-
corded, this habit of feeding below ground, and upon the roots of grasses was
noticed long ago by Dr. Riley, who found that the larvee would bury themselves in
the earth, and feed in this manner from grass roots, although other food was pro-
vided them.*

That the Hadena larve, in both the Thompson and Kreet fields, originated in
each case in excessive numbers throughout only a very limited area, and that they
gradually extended their domains as the food-supply became exhausted, was very
evident. In the Kreet field, which was very low, flat, and damp, the depredations
began in the southwest corner, the worms gradually working eastward parallel
with the highway, which was carefully avoided, and a margin of grass six to ten
yards wide was left almost untouched, while they pushed farther and farther to the
northward for a considerable distance, destroying every vestige of timothy, gradu-
ally seeming to exhaust themselves near the northern and eastern boundaries of
the field.

In the Thompson field they originated in the northwestern portion, along a low,
wide ravine, traveling eastward, following a narrow ravine near the northern
boundary, a tributary of the former, nearly across the field, while elsewhere along
the line of origin they did not extend their depredations more than about one-third
as far, as that direction brought them upon the higher ground.

We were informed that while a few worms had been observed working upon the
higher grounds in this field little damage had been done there, but as the tributary
ravine reached high ground there had been a tendency to spread out at right angles,
those on the south side being, as it were, thrown across the path of those worms
proceeding east from the place of origin. ° As in the Kreet field, the boundary be-
tween the totally destroyed portion and the uninjured was irregular and poorly
defined, a graduai fading of one into the other,

In this field larvae and pup were found in considerable abundance, although
many of the former did not appear in a healthy condition, and many of the latter
had a blackened look, and some others had evidently been destroyed by some natural
enemy. But in the Kreet field the case seemed different, for here it required con-
siderable labor to obtain either larvze or pupz, even in limited numbers, and many
of these were affected as in the Thompson field. Dead larvee were found in the
earth, stretched at nearly full length, rigid, and with a parasitic fungus, a species
of Isaria, growing from between the thoracic segments, but more frequently from
the neck, after the manner of Torrubia from the white grub, only that in this case
they affect the upper as well as the under part. This was also observed to attack
the larvae of Nephelodes violans.

On July 17 a goodly number of larvz and pups were secured from both fields
and placed in earth in tin boxes. Returning home on the 19th, these boxes were at
once opened, and found to be literally swarming with a species of Pieromalus. The
larvee and pupe were placed in separate cages, the Pteromalus continuing to appear
in that containing pupze for several days afterward. ter there appeared from
these pup a single individual of Ichnewmon jucundus, a species of Tachina, and
also Seu of Phora, This last, however, was doubtless a scavenger and not a
parasite.

The first moth appeared from the pupz on the 22d, and the first appeared from
the larve on August 11. All moths obtained were Hadena devastatrix, but not
over 10 per cent. of the adolescent individuals developed to adults.

Had the appearance of the Glassy Cut-worms been more general, in such num-
bers as in the vicinity of Richmond, the loss would have been very serious; as it

*First Report Insects of Missouri, p. 83, 1868. Report Commissioner of Agri-
culture, 1884, p. 297.

580 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE,

was, Mr. Ratliff, who is a crop correspondent of this Department, estimated the
damage to the three fields at about $1,000. :

We have not been able to learn of any such depredations elsewhere, and Messrs.
A. W. Butler, of Brookville; Stephen Gardner, of Cottage Grove; 8. 5S. Merrifield,
of Connersville; and D. E. Hoffman, of Winchester, all located in Wayne and ad-
jacent counties, have written us disclaiming all knowledge of any similar ravages.
“ While we were on the ground too late in the season to observe the working of
these worms or carefully study their movements, both the appearance of the af-
fected fields at that time and the information obtained were strongly indicative of
a slow, migratory habit. Mr. Kreet stated that he had several times observed the
worms collected in deep holes in the earth, from which they appeared to be endeay-
oring to escape. All of this is very suggestive of preventing the progress of the
worms by ditching, or even plowing a deep furrow across their course, and destroy-
ing them as they accumulate in the bottom, as with the Army Worm.

We again visited the locality on October 30. The Kreet field had been plowed
in the mean time, and was now covered with a luxuriant growth of wheat. The
Thompson field remained as we had left it in July, but neither there nor in other
meadows could we find any young Cut-worms of this species, although a few of
other species were observed. We dug up the earth to a depth of several inches in
places where it seemed most probabie that they would occur, but found none.

We observed a considerable number of carnivorous larvee in the Thompson field,
and these, quite likely, aided in sustaining the check given the worms by the para-
sites of the spring brood.*

THE GRAIN SPHENOPHORUS.
(Sphenophorus parvulus Gy.)

During the latter part of July of the present year the larve of this species were
observed burrowing in the bulbs of timothy, their method of work not differing
materially from what it was in wheat, as described in our last year’s report, except-
ing that the bulb, being much larger than a straw, enabled the larva to attain to
nearly or quite full growth before leaving it to pupate. Several larva were often
found infesting a single stcol. Pupes were also found in the earth about these
stools.

While examining the roots of timothy in meadows about Richmond, Wayne
County, Indiana, on October 30, we found an adult of Sphenophorus sculptilis Uhl.
in the midst of a mass of caten bulbs, these last resembling in every particular those
which had been destroyed by S. parvulus.

INSECTS AKFFECTING WHITE CLOVER.
THE FLAVESCENT CLOVER WEEVIL.
(Sitones flavescens Allard.)

Early in the month of October, 1885, the foliage of White Clover (Trifolium repens
L.) on the University grounds was found to be seriously injured by some insect dep-
redator, and a plot of Alsike (7. hybridwm) was likewise attacked, while Red Clover
(f. pratensis) escaped with very little injury, even though growing up promis-
cuously among both of the former varieties.

This injury to the leaves of clover was of two patterns, one consisting of a circu-
lar disk extracted from the center and the other a more or less hemispherical portion
taken from the margin, and, while there was never more than one circular space
eaten from the same ieaf, there might be several of the marginal pattern, or the two
might be combined, thereby leaving only the leaf-staik and bases of the mid-veins.

Careful search failed to reveal any insect about the injured plants in sufficient
numbers to arouse suspicion, except a small, yellowish-brown curculio, Sitones fiaves-
cens Allard, an imported species, injurious to clover in Europe, but not previously
known as such in America, although Dr. Riley had some years ago + directed atten-

* One of these species of larvea was that of an Elater, probably Drasterius dorsalis
Say. The larve of this genus are known to be carnivorous, and we have observed
this species destroying the larvae of Crambus zeelius Fern., and also those of an
undetermined species of Macrops which burrows in the roots of common piantain
(Plantago major L.).—C. V. R.

Pr nee me Naturalist, Vol. XV, p. 751, and Report Commissioner Agriculture
Pe

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 581

tion to its native habits, and Dr. Linimer had placed it in his list of possible enemies
of the clover plant in New York.* ‘ }

Dr. Le Conte+ gives the species as inhabiting the Atlantic States in abundance,
especially near the sea-shore, and states that the American race differs from the
European by the color of the scales, being more rusty and less gray. We have for
years found it plentifully here in the West, while Dr. E. R. Boardman reports both
the beetles and their work in Stark County, Ulinois, and Mr. Charles N. Ainslie,
Rochester, Minn., makes a similar statement.

The beetles are rather timid, and, on being disturbed, drop to the ground and
seek refuge among leaves and rubbish, and it was only after considerable patient
watching that they were observed in the act of feeding upon the leaves. This they
do by simply moving the head and thorax, the body remaining stationary, the cir-
cular disk being cut when the leaf is still folded, the two halves facing each other,
the beetles eating through the back at the mid-vein. The half disk thus extracted
from the two makes a full disk when the leaf is fully unfolded.

On October 17 a number of the beetles, confined alive in a small vial, deposited a
number of eges therein; and on the 25th of same month other adults, which had
been placed in a breeding-cage with clover plants selected and transplanted from a
locality where the leaves had not been injured, also oviposited, dropping their eggs
about promiscuously, some being on the leaves, others scattered about on the surface
of the soil, and one stuck to the side of the cage.

The eggs are nearly white, with a very slight tinge of yellow; slightly elongate,
ovate, being a trifle less than 0.4™" broad and a little more than 0.4™™ in length;
not acuminated or depressed.

In a temperature of 65° F. these eggs hatched in about 48 hours after being de-
pesited, the young larveze at once disappearing. A few days later they could be
found feeding upon the fresh lateral shoots, or even the softer parts of the main
stem under the bases of the leaf stalks. The entire plant upon which the larve
were confined withered and died within a few weeks, although it was kept well
watered and under favorabie conditions for growing. ,

A search in the fieids about seriously injured plants revealed numerous small,
white, footless larve in the earth, varying considerably in size, and for the most
part much larger than those we had hatched indoors. None of the larve were ob-
served in the act of feeding except one incividual, a rather small one, which was
engaged in devouring a seed. On being: placed in glass tubes with stems of the
plant they at once began to eat out the central portion, leaving only the epidermis.
Similarly affected stems were quite common in the fields, but whether they were
due to the work of this or another insect we find it still too much to say, although
the former is the more probable, as there has been at no time anything to indicate
that these larve attack the root, leaf, or leaf-stem portions of the piant, however
near the latter might be to the surface of the ground.

Two larvee found in the fields on the 1st of November being much larger than any
previously observed, they were taken indoors and fed with stems of clover, upon
the younger, tenderer portions of which they subsisted until the 2d of December,
when one of them punated, and twenty days later transformed to an adult, bein
at first nearly white, but assuming its normal color four days later. The secon
larva died before pupating.

The full-grown larva is 5™™ Jong; head small, testaceous, with brown mandibles;
body white, wrinkled, first segment little larger than head, second and third larger,
fourth to ninth nearly equal, gradually decreasing to thirteenth, which is very small
and nearly pointed.

These larvee when at rest in the earth lie in a hook-shaped position, the head and
thoracic segments being kept at almost right angles to the fourth segment, where
the rather abrupt curve begins. Prior to pupating they form a small earthen cell.

On December 9, the ground being frozen to the depth of from 2 to 23 inches, af-
fected plants, with the soil in which they were rooted, were dug up and brought
indoors. After being thawed out this was carefully examined, and Sitones larveo
were found therein, varying in size from i™» in length to full grown, the major
part being under 2.50"™ in length; but two fully grown were found, and these
were in their cells preparatory to pupating. One larva, 1.50™™ long, began feeding
as soon as thoroughly warmed. Two aduits were also found, but no pupez. One
of these was kept in a breeding-cage, in a warm room, and was still alive on the
18th of the following February, when I left for an absence of a couple of months.

* The Insects of the Clover Plant, Report N. Y. Agricultural Society, Vol. XL, for
1880. Author’s edition, p. 4.

+ The Rhynchophora of America north of Mexico, Proc. Am. Phil. Society, Vol.
XV, No. 96, p. 115. i

582 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Besides these, two adults were observed in the fields, in the act of pairing, on the
12th of November.

On account of absence from home no examination was made until the 13th of
April of the present year, when larvee were again found in the fields, in less num-
bers but in about the same stage of development as during the previous December.
No pup were observed, but two adults were found, which died soon after, without
having in the mean time deposited any eggs.

On May 25 both larve and pupz were found, the former in still less numbers
than they were during April, but now they were, for the most part, nearly or quite
fullgrown. An adult, taken also on this date, died on the 30th inststant without ovi-
positing. June 14 several adults were observed, and from this time forward they
appeared in increasing numbers until August, when they seemed to reach the
upward limit.

The deposition of eggs may commence in July, but we obtained none until Au-
gust 7, and then only after keeping adults confined in the breeding-cage for four
days; nor could we at this date observe any larvee in plants in the fields, although
very small ones were common enough in and about the tender lateral shoots early
in September, but in no case were they burrowing in the main stem except in the
tenderer portions, under the base of leaf-stalks, as previously indicated.

In summing up the life-history of the species, they may be said to emerge as
adults as late as July, and deposit their eggs from the last of that month until cold
weather begins. The larvae, hatching within two days after the eggs are deposited,
feed upon the tender portion of the clover stems, probably burrowing into them
sometimes, especially when they are from one-fourth to one-half grown, and, barely
possibly, subsisting in part upon the roots when older. They pass the winter, for
the most part, in this stage, but occasionally as adults. The larve pupate in spring,
and after remaining about twenty days in this state emerge as adults.

The adults seem to wander about considerably early in the season, and we have
observed them traveling about on fences, upon the heads of grain, and crawling
up the trunks of trees, and also found them hiding away under rubbish.

THE CLOVER-STEM MAGGOT,
(Oscinis sp.)

Sufficient opportunity has not been offered to study more than a portion of the
probable cycle of this insect, yet the very deceptive resemblance between the work
of the larvee and those of Sitones renders some account of it almost a necessity in
order to prevent confusion.

The adult insect is a small, rather robust, black fly. The individual larva is 4™™
long, with a breadth across the thoracic segments of .6™™, footless, slightly dimin-
ishing posteriorly, with the division of the segments after the first three very ob-
scure. Color yellowish-white, with a tinge of green, becoming nearly white at ex-
tremities; oral parts quite large and jet black. Near the posterior extremity is an
abrupt ventral restriction, and on the rounded anal segment are two short, robust,
brown processes, each terminating in a corolla of small circular pustules.

The puparium is 2.4™™ long and .8™™ broad, elongate, oval, slightly tapering
posteriorly, and rather less obtusely pointed than at anterior extremity. The two
posterior processes are here reproduced, and two others, shorter and more widely
separated, are placed on the anterior extremity. Color at first yellowish-white, with
tinge of green, but later turning to brown, and from this to’ nearly jet black.

The insect was first observed by us on August 6 of the present year in the pupal
stage, and within a stem of white clover, which had evidently been destroyed by it
while in the larval stage. During the four succeeding days other puparia weré
found, but only two larve. From the puparia one adult emerged on August 12,
others following a few days later, thereby indicating that the brood of which they
were a part was rapidly approaching maturity.

The exact time and place of oviposition it was, of course, impossible to determine,
but the maggots are found singly in the stem, sometimes just under the epidermis
and sometimes in the center, but in either case excavating parallel channels, work-
ing from the point where the stem originated. Hence we are led to infer that the
eggs are deposited near the main roots, and the larva, as its pushes forward, is pro-
vided with a continual supply of fresh-grown food, the terminal or growing portion
of the stem being in part sustained by lateral roots thrown out at equal intervals.
It is also possible that the eggs are sometimes placed on the young lateral stems,
through which the maggots burrow their way to the main stem.

As yet we have no trace of more than the one brood mentioned, although it is not
at all improbable that there may be several in a season.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 583

REPORT ON EXPERIMENTS IN APICULTURE,

By N. W. McLain, Apicultural Agent.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL,

UNITED STATES APICULTURAL STATION,
Aurora, Ill., December 31, 1886.

DEAR Str: I have the honor to submit herewith my report of the work done
under your instructions at this experiment station during the past year.

I desire to acknowledge my obligations to yourself for the valuable suggestions
and assistance given me, manifesting the deep interest you have in advancing and
developing the industry of bee-keeping.

I wish also to express my thanks to those engaged in the branch of husbandry in
whose interest this experiment station was established for the very kind and unani-
mous expressions of appreciation and encouragement, some of whom have cheer-
fully aided me in my work; and especially to the publishers of the following api-
cultural and agricultural journals for the favor shown me in publishing my report
and for files of their valuable papers, namely:

The American Bee Journal, Messrs. Thomas G. Newman & Son, Chicago, IIL;
Gleanings in Bee Culture, Mr. A. I. Root, Medina, Ohio; The American Apiculturist,
Mr. Henry Alley, Wenham, Mass.; The Bee-Keeper’s Magazine, Messrs, Aspinwall
& Treadwell, Barrytown-on-Hudson, N. Y.; The Bee-Keeper’s Guide, Mr. A. G.
Hill, Kendaliville, Ind.; The Canadian Bee Journal, Messrs. Jones, Macpherson &
Co., Beeton, Ontario, Canada; Rays of Light, North Manchester, Ind.; The Southern
Cultivator, Atlanta, Ga.; and The Cultivator and Country Gentleman, Messrs,
Luther Tucker & Son, Albany, N. Y.

Yours, very truly,
N. W. McLAIN,
Agent in Charge.
Dr. C. V. RILEY,
Entomologist.

THE ‘‘ QUAKING DISEASE.”

When bees are unable to obtain from ordinary sources a supply of saline and
alkaline aliment, indispensable to their health and vigor and to the normal perform-
ance of their functions, they seek a supply from any available source. At such
times they throng upon the Milkweed and Mullein, which exude a salty sap. At
such times large numbers of dead bees may be found at the foot of the mullein
stalks, and thousands perish in the fields, and thousands more which reach their
hives, being low in vitality and unable to free themselves from the meshes of the
silken fiber in which legs and wings are bound, die in the hive or crawl forth to
perish. The actions of these starved and weakened bees when attempting to rise
and fly or to rid themselves from the mesh of silky web causes a peculiar nervous
motion, and this is one manifestation of that which is called the ‘‘ quaking disease,”
or the ‘‘nameless disease.” If examined with a microscope, many are found en-
tangled with the filaments from the plants, and their stomachs are entirely empty.

The honey from hives containing colonies so affected has a peculiar and very dis-
agreeable taste and odor, somewhat like that of fermented honey, indicating that
some constituent essential in conserving it was lacking, and the cell-caps are dark,
smooth, and greasy in appearance, and an offensive odor is emitted from the hive.
An analysis of honey taken from such colonies, made by the Chemist of the Depart-
ment, fails to reveal what element is lacking.

Thave treated a number of apiaries so affected, using an application of strong brine,
to which was added soda sufficient to make the alkaline taste faintly discernible.
The hive should be opened, and each frame should be thoroughly dampened with
spray from an atomizer, or the warm brine may be applied by using a sprinkler
with very small holes in the rose, care being taken to use only enough to thoroughiy
dampen the bees and combs. The alighting-boards also should be thoroughly wet.
The treatment should be applied morning and evening until the disorder disappears,
which is usually in three or four days; a decided improvement being usually notice-
abie in twenty-four hours. The honey should be extracted and diluted by adding
the brine, and, after being nearly heated to the boiling-point for ten minutes, may
be safely fed to bees. The apiaries were last winter supplied with this food alone.
Both wintered well. Vessels containing brine should always be kept in or near the

A84 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

apiary. Pieces of burnt bone or rotten wood should be kept in the vessels of brine,
and these vessels should be protected from the rain.

Another form of the so-called ‘‘ quaking disease” appears to result from hered-
itary causes; for, if the queen be removed from the colony in which the disorder
prevails, and a young, vigorous queen be substituted, in due time the disorder disap-
pears. In very rare instances bees also gather poisonous nectar from plants, such
as Fox-glove or Digitalis, the eating of which, it is reported, results in paralysis;
another manifestation of the so-called ‘‘ nameless disease.”

THE FOUL-BROOD DISEASE,

One of the most maligant diseases incident to bees is called the ‘‘ foul-brood ” dis-
ease. What pleuro-pneumonia and hog-cholera are to the dairyman and swine-
breeder foul-brood is to the apiarist. This disease is so stealthy and so virulent and
so widely distributed, no locality in the United States being assured of immunity,
that much apprehension is felt, and some of the States have enacted laws having for
their object its control and extirpation. In many States the ravages of this scourge
have resulted in ruinous losses to bee-keepers, and many on this account-have been
deterred from engaging in this profitable branch of husbandry.

During the past year I have given much attention to the study of this disease and
to experiments for its prevention and cure. In making my investigations and ex-
periments concerning the origin and nature of this disease and the means for its
prevention and cure, I have collected a great amount of information from my own
experience and from the experience of many others. Concerning the origin ef this
meee and its means of communication the evidence obtained is somewhat con-

icting.

That the disease is actively contagious appears certain. That it is always com-
municated through the commonly accredited agencies is uncertain. That the dis-
ease is persistent and usually reproduces itself whenever the germs find the proper
conditions for development is verified by experience. That the germs of this disease
may be carried upon the clothing of the apiarist and in and upon the bodies of bees
from one apiary to another, and that they may be borne by the wind from one hive
to another in the same apiary, and that the disease germs may be liberated from the
decomposing bodies of other insects and scattered over other objects with which the
bees come in contact, seem probable.

That the disease is destructive to bees as well as brood, that live pollen is the me-
dium through which the contagion is most commonly and most rapidly spread, and
that the disease yields readily to treatment which is simple, cheap, and easily ap-
plied, appear to be true, in support of which I submit the following dctailed account
of my experiments and observations:

On the Ist day of June an apiarist having over two hundred colonies in his apiary
reported to me that he had discovered two cases of malignant foul-brood, and that
unmistakable evidences of its presence were apparent in twenty-five other colonies.
As I knew this man was not without experience with this disease, I could not hope
that he was mistaken. I knew that he had had unenviable opportunities, having
been a bee-keeper for many years where this disease had been prevalent, and two
years ago he himself had consigned one hundred and forty-eight colonies to the
fiames as incurable. I at once gave him the following formula for a remedy:

To 3 pints of soft water add 1 pint of dairy salt. Use an earthern vessel. Raise
the temperature to 90° F. Stir till the salt is thoroughly dissolved. Add 1 pint of
soft water boiling hot, in which has been dissolved 4 tablespoonfuls bicarbonate of
soda. Stir thoroughly while adding to the mixture sufficient honey or sirup to make
it quite sweet, but not enough to perceptibly thicken. To} of an ounce of pure
salicylic acid (the crystal) add alcohol sufficient to thoroughly cut it (about 1 ounce),
and add this to the mixture while still warm, and when thoroughly stirred leave.
standing for 2 or 3 hours, when it becomes settled and clear.

Treatment.—Shake the bees from the combs and extract the honey as clearly as
possible. Then thoroughly atomize the combs, blowing a spray of the mixture over
and into the cells, using a large atomizer throwing a copious spray; then return the
combs tothe bees. Combs having considerable quantities of pollen should be melted
into wax and the refuse burned. If there is no honey to be obtained in the fields,
feed sirup or the honey which has just been extracted. If sirup is used, add 1 ounce
of the remedy to each quart of the sirup fed. If the honey is used, add 2} ounces
of the remedy to each quart of honey fed. The honey and sirup shouid be fed warm
and ee remedy thoroughly stirred in, and no more should be furnished than is con-
sumed,

Give all the colonies in the apiary one copious application of the remedy, simply
setting the frames apart so that they may be freely exposed to the spray. This

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 585

treatment frequently reveals the presence of disease where it was not before possi-
ble to detect it. The quantity prescribed, applied by means of a large atomizer, is
sufficient to treat one hundred and fifty colonies. Continue the treatment by thor-
oughly and copiously spraying the diseased colonies at intervals of three days, simply
setting the frames apart so as to direct the spray entirely over the combs and bees.
In order to keep the bees from bringing in fresh pollen, burn old dry bones to an ash
and pulverize in a mortar and sift through a fine wire-cloth sieve, and make a mixt-
ure of rye flour and bone flour, using three parts of rye fiour to one of bone flour,
adding enough of the sirup or medicated honey to make a thick paste. Spread this

aste over part of one side of a disinfected comb, pressing it into the cells with a stiff
feu. or a thin honey-knife, and hang this in the hive next to the brood. Continue
this treatment until a cure is effected. Keep sweetened brine at all times accessible
to the bees, and continue the use of the rye and bone flour paste while the colonies
are recuperating.

As a preventive apply the remedy in the form of a spray over the tops of the
frames once every week until the disease has disappeared from the apiary.

On June 20 the apiarist above referred to reported as follows:

‘“*Number of colonies in the apiary June 1, 210. Number of colonies apparently
diseased, 25. Treatment applied as directed tothe whole apiary. Nuuiber of colonies
actually diseased, 63. The disease present in all stages of progress; in some cases just
appearing, in some weil developed; in others the contents of the hives were a black
mass, the brood combs nearly rotten, not an egg to be seen, and every cell of brood
dead, and the stench from the hives nauseating. Have given the diseased colonies
three applications, the first time extracting the honey. Effect cf treatment instan-

aneous even upon apparently hopeless cases. very colony save 5 is entirely free
from any trace of disease, and these 5 are responding to treatment rapidly. I ex-
amined a colony to-day which two weeks ago had combs of brood almost rotten. No
trace of the disease remains. I had 4,000 frames ofextracomb. After hiving afew
swarms, on some of them I found the disease present in every case. I then melted
every one of these extra combs into wax, cleared and scalded and disinfected every
hive, and hived the swarms on frames filled with comb-foundations. One of my
neighbors, having an apiary of 60 colonies, had 38 cases of foul-brood, and before I
was aware of it he had burned up a number of them. The remainder we treated as
directed. His yard is now entirely free from disease. The cost of the remedy was
just 10 cents. This prescription, if thoroughly applied according to your directions,
will speedily and effectually cure the most hopeless and forlorn case of foul-brood.”

It was afterwards found that the melting of the combs and scalding of the hives
was not necessary.

After requesting this same apiarist to make some further tesis, the nature of which
will appear from what follows, August 1 he made the following report:

‘Tn 5 of my best colonies, which had shown no symptoms of disease, I placed
frames of brood from diseased colonies, treating them as I did the diseased colonies,
and all evidences of disease speedily disappeared. To 1 colony from which the
bees had swarmed out, leaving less than half a pint of bees between the black rot-
ten combs and not an egg in the hive and every cell of uncapped brood dead and
not more than one bee hatching to every square inch of brood, after thoroughly ap-
plying the remedy I introduced a queen just crawling from the cell. To-day I take
pieasure in exhibiting this colony as one of the finest I own, lacking only a sufii-
cient store of honey, and this without the addition to the original odorous hive and
rotten combs of a single bee, cell, or brood, or anything whatever to assist, except
the young queen.

** f extracted the honey from diseased colonies and treated the combs of such with
the remedy as directed, and then exchanged hives and combs, giving the infested
hives and combs to the healthy bees without cleansing or disinfecting a hive, and
the diseased bees were given the hive and combs lately occupied by the healthy col-
onies. The contagion did not spread, and after two or three applications of the
remedy ali traces of it disappeared. Ifed back the honey extracted from the dis-
eased colonies for the bees to use in breeding, adding 24 ounces of the remedy to
each quart; and I also fed the mixture of bone-ash, rye fiour, and honey as a sub-
stitute for pollen by pressing the paste into the cells on one side of a comb, and this
I placed next to the brood in each hive. I would not advise any one to feed this
bone-iiour and rye-fiour paste unless they wish to raise a great many bees. I also
fed the salt, alisali, and acid mixture outside in the apiary, so that all the colonies
could help themselves. No; I do not fear that any of the mixture will be stored
for winter or get into the surplus apartment, as the bees seem determined to use
all they can get of it in brood-rearing. All my hives are running over with bees
ready for the fall honey harvest.

**As requested, I placed frames of sealed honey from diseased colonies in healthy

586 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

colonies, and the disease was not communicated; but the frames from which the
honey had been extracted, such as contained pollen, uniformly carried with them
the contagion, unless the combs were first thoroughly sprayed with the antidote,
and colonies gathering no pollen, or but little pollen, recovered much sooner than
those gathering pollen in considerable quantities—that is to say, the more pollen, the
more treatment required.

‘In reply to your question asking by what means and in what manner the disease
was communicated to my apiary, I answer: I at first thought that it had originated
spontaneously, but later and more careful inquiry leads me to believe that I intro-

uced it into my apiary through my own carelessness. Both I and my neighbor (to
whom reference was made in a former report) spent a day in some apiaries some
distance from home in which the disease was raging. It would seem true that we
brought the contagion home in our clothing. Other apiarists in our county who
kept away from the contagion had no troubie. As to the progress of the disease in
individual colonies, I would say that three or four weeks from the time the first
cells of diseased brood are noticeable is sufficient to complete the ruin beyond re-
demption. Iam surprised to hear that in some localities a colony may be affected
for three or four months before ruin is complete. I have succeeded in raising some
queens from one of these diseased colonies, treated with the remedy without remov-
ing the comb-frames, and I will give them every possible chance to reproduce and
propagate the disease. I have no fears of a return of the disease where the treat-
ment has been thorough.”

2. Number of colonies in the apiary, 14. Every colony nearly ruined by the dis-
ease in most malignant form. This apiary is located on the same ground where 145
colonies perished last year from the same cause. The whole yard had been swept
clean, everything had been burned up, and entirely new stock procured. Twelve
colonies in this apiary were treated by copious and thorough applications of the
remedy simply by setting the frames apart in the hive so that the spray could be di-
rected over both sides. The frames containing brood were not removed from the
hive, neither was the honey extracted. The treatment was applied every three or
four days, and in three weeks the colonies were free from all appearance of disease.
The other 2 colonies were treated with what is known as ‘‘ the coffee cure,” finely
ground coffee being used as an antiseptic. The coffee failed to furnish any relief.
Being dusted over and into the cells, it killed the little remaining unsealed brood.
The salt, alkali, and acid remedy being applied, these 2 colonies also rallied, and
‘everything is all right now,” was the last report.

3. Number of colonies, 106. Number apparently diseased, 48. A number of colo-
nies had already been burned when the disease was reported. The remedy was
thoroughly applied as directed, and in fifteen days the contagion had disappeared.

All the evidence so far obtained seems to prove that pollen is the medium through
which the contagion is commonly introduced into the hive and by which it is com-
municated to both bees and brood.

The bacteria, ‘‘the disease germs,” having been lately deposited on the pollen
(from what source is not positively known, but probably from the decomposing
bodies of other insects) before the organisms are washed from the blossoms by the
rain or killed by the heat of the sun, as they lie exposed to his rays without any
element essential to their culture and growth, are carried and stored with the pollen
in the cell, or pass into the digestive system along with the live pollen taken by the
bees for their own nourishment. By this means these agents of destruction are in-
troduced into the organism of the bees, and through the same medium are they
introduced into the cells of the uncapped larvee. The bacteria, having found a
lodgment in the organism of the bee, may or may not cause speedy death. If the
bees are young and vigorous they may resist the ravages of the infection, yielding
only after the organism is riddled with the bacteria, but if the bees are old and low
in vitality the infection, if left to itself, brings speedy ruin. In the spring of the
year I have dissected bees which had passed the winter in a colony in which this
disease was present when the bees were put away in winter quarters the fall before.
Their bodies had been completely honey-combed by the bacteria.

The fact that if a diseased colony is removed from the infested combs and hive
and placed in an empty hive or in a hive with frames supplied with comb-founda-
tion, even if the new hive be at once placed on the old location and the old hive and
infested combs be burned and the bees at once liberated, the disease commonly dis-
appears, seems also to furnish additional proof that the contagion is usually carried
into the hive in the pollen, and, further, that the ‘‘ disease germs” do not long retain
their virility if exposed to the rain and rays of the sun; otherwise.the bees would
continue to carry in the infection. The bees being compelled to consume the con-
tents of their honey-sacks in building new combs, none of the germs remain to be
regurgitated in the new cells; but by this practice the bees are left to the tender

} REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 587

mercies of the bacteria, unless they be treated with an antidote. For obvious rea-
sons the queens in such colonies should in any event be superseded as soon as possi-
ble. This method of treatment also contemplates the destruction or renovation of
all hives and frames, the destruction of all broods, and the melting of all combs; a
large percentage of the capital in honey-producing.

Another reason for believing that, except in rare cases, the disease is introduced by
means of pollen is found in the fact that the larve rarely ever exhibit any symp-
toms of disease until about the time when the process of weaning begins, at which
time the character of the food is changed from the glandular secretion, the pap, to
the goer ed digested and undigested food. Live pollenis then added to the larval
food, and with it the bacteria in greater or less numbers; growth is arrested; death
ensues; putrification follows, and the soft pulp, of a grayish-brown color, settles to
the lower side of the cell. As the mass dries up it becomes glutinous and stringy
_ and reddish-brown in color and emits an offensive odor. Some of the larvee will be
partially capped, some completely capped, and some left uncapped, the condition in
which the brood is left depending, I believe, upon the virulence with which the dis-
ease attacks both bees and brood. The remedies prescribed appear to destroy the
bacteria and cure the bees of the contagion and restore them to natural vigor. The
worker bees then cleanse the hive of dead bees and brood and clean out and renovate
the cells, and the colony resumes its normal condition.

That the contagion may sometimes be borne from hive to hive by the wind ap-
pears to be true, as it was observed in one of the apiaries which I treated for this
disease during the past summer that of a large number of diseased colonies in the
apiary, with the exception of two colonies, all were located to the northeast of the
colony in which the disease first appeared. The prevailing wind had been from the
southwest.

That the disease germs may be carried upon the clothing and hands appears proba-
ble, from the fact that in one neighborhood the disease appeared in only two apiaries,
the owners of which had spent some time working among diseased colonies at some
distance from home, while other apiarists in that locality who had kept away from
the contagion had no trouble from foul-brood.

THE CONTROL OF REPRODUCTION.

The improvement which has been made in mechanical devices and methods of
management by the scientific and practical apiarists of the United States during the
ast twenty-five years has resulted in establishing the claims of the industry of bee-
<eeping to a place among the various branches of rural husbandry which are the
acknowledged sources of the nation’s wealth. Improvements in the art of bee-
keeping and in the devices by which the art is practiced are continually being made,
and the degree of advancement made in the past is an earnest of the progress await-
ing development in the future.

Improvements in devices and methods of management and importing races of
bees reported to possess desirable qualities and characteristics have chiefly absorbed
the attention of American bee-keepers. It is not strange that reliance has been
placed upon these resources as the means by which the best results were to be real-
ized, rather than upon a persistent and skillful application of the laws of heredity
and descent and dependence upon the influence of intelligent selection and skillful
crossing as a means for developing the highest attainable standard of excellence in
the bee, the chief factor in permanent advancement.

The difficulties attending the control of the process of reproduction, of applying
the laws of heredity and descent, and securing the influence of persistent, intelligent
selection in breeaing bees have appeared to be almost insurmountable. The very
persistent efforts which have been made to improve the bees of the United States by
yearly importations of the best races in their purity has also been attended with
serious drawbacks and hindrances. These bees, bred for countless generations in a
foreign habitat and under climatic conditions widely different from ours, are here
submitted to conditions of domestication for which they are illadapted. Any modi-
fication and adaptation of habits, instinct, and physiological stru. mre which may
have been secured by breeding a few succeeding generations under the altered con-
ditions and requirements incident to domestication in the United States have been
lost with each fresh importation of ancestral stock, and the work of securing the
variability and adaptability of instinct, habit, physiological structure, and functional
capacity essential to domestication here must be begun ab initio.

That some practical method might be discovered by which the process of repro-
duction could be controlled has long been the hope of all progressive apiculturists.
With the control of fecundation assured, progress in scientific apiculture would be
rapid and permanent.

588 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

In obedience to your instructions I have continued my experiments in striving to
discover a practical method by which the fecundation of queen bees may be con-
trolled. This I have endeavored to accomplish by two different methods, in both of
which I have been in a degree successful. During the past summer, however, a
drought set in in May, almost with the beginning of the breeding season, which was
said to be the severest and most protracted known in this locality for twenty-five
years. No rain fell during eleven weeks, and during the four weeks next succeeding
the eleven weeks without rain we had but three light showers, scarcely sufficient to
lay the dust, practically resulting in an unbroken, all-consuming drought fifteen
weeks in duration. Under such conditions I found it impossible to bring many of
my experimental tests to a successful issue.

Having discovered last year that it was possible to introduce the drone sperm into
the spermatheca of the queen bee during the term of orgasm by artificial means,
and that fecundation was practicable by such means, I attempted to perfect a method _
by which this could be done with ease and certainty. For the purpose of holding
the queen bee in position for introducing the drone sperm I made what I call a
queen-clamp, which consists of a block of wood 2 inches square and 4 inches long,
in one end of which is an opening in size and shape like tie upper two-thirds of a
queen-cell, with the small end up. This block is sawed in two in the middle, leav-
ing half the cell-shaped opening on either half. Grasping the queen by the wings
or thorax I place her in one half of the cell-shaped opening and carefully close the
other half over her. I then place a rubber band around the block and stand it on
end. This leaves the queen in position, head downward, the lower half of her ab-
domen protruding, and confined in such a manner that she cannot receive any in-
jury. For the purpose of appropriating and depositing the male sperm I used a
hypodermic syringe. I removed the sharp injecting needle, and in its place substi-
tuted anozzle having an opening of sufiicient size to admit a knitting-needle of
medium size. Over this nozzle I slipped a small, smooth tube, drawn to a point so
small that the opening in the small end is not more than half as large as that in the
nozzle. After selecting the drone I wish to use, I grasp the head and thorax be-
tween the thumb and finger, and by a continued pressure cause him to perform the
expulsion act. I then remove the bean in which the spermatozoa are massed and
squeeze the contents into a very small glass receiver, an eighth of an inch in depth
and in diameter. I then add a drop of glycerine diluted with warm rain water, and
take up the spermatozoa with the syringe, using the wide nozzle. I then slip the
cap having a fine smooth point over the nozzle and inject the spermatozoa into the
vulva of the queen. The queen, which bas been held in position by the clamp while
the preparations were being made, naturally bends the abdomen downward when-
ever so confined. The vulva is easily opened to admit the point of the fine nozzle-
cap when the abdomen is lifted up straight. Of twenty-seven queens treated by this
method the last week in May and the first week in June six proved to be success-
fully fertilized. After that time, although I was persistent in my efforts to succeed
and made many and repeated trials, 1 met with seccess only occasionally.

Another method by which I succeeded in fertilizing a few queens in May, before
the bees began killing the drones, was in the manner described in my report of last
year. I took anumber of young queens from nursery cages, clipped their wings,
and introduced them to queenless nuclei. When they were seven days old, orgasm
being Well progressed, I placed them each in turn in a queen-clamp, and, holding
them back downwards, I picked drones from a comb taken from a populous hive,
and caused them to expel the generative organs, and selecting those in which the
contents appeared of the color and consistency of albumen, I placed drops of the
seminal fluid upon and in the vulva of the queen, which were eagerly received.
After the introduction of the drone sperm these queens were treated by the bees as
fertile queens, and in one or two days assumed the appearance of fertile laying
queens, and in from three to six days began to lay fecundated eggs.

The fact that I did occasionally succeed in fecundating queen bees by these meth-
ods, which proved upon. trial as prolific as any queens I had which had been natur-
ally fertilized, queens which I had hatched in an incubator and in nursery cages,
whose wings I had mercilessly clipped as soon as they had crawled from the cell,
and which I knew had never been upon the wing, seemed to furnish reason to hope
that I would be able to discover a method which would be uniformly successful.
The hope of reaching this much-desired result made me persist in the face of dis-
couragements incident to experimental work in breeding bees during the prevalence
of a protracted drought. ‘Iam by no means discouraged by the partial success now
realized. On the contrary, Iam hopeful that under more favorable conditions bet-
ter results may be obtained, and until other and untried resources fail I should not
feel warranted in abandoning effort.

Observation and experiment lead me to believe that drone bees differ in degrees

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 589

of procreativeness, and that the development and exercise of the procreative faculty
are under the control of the worker bees.

First, there appeared to be drones of the impotent sort. If such be taken between
the thumb and finger, no pressure short of crushing is sufficient to expel the sex or-
gan. When forced to position external to the body, or if removed by a dissection,
the organs are found to be nearly or quite empty, the few spermatozoa being massed
in a hard limp, and but little mucus being present, and that little watery and clear
and having no consistency. :

Another sort of drones are those in which the mucus surrounding the spermato-
zoa is thick and curdy. With this sort I have not been able to fertilize a queen.
The procreative principle is present in quantity, but the element in which it may be
liberated and floated into the organs of the queen appears to be wanting.

A third sort of drones are those in which the sex organs are completely filled with
spermatozoa and an abundant supply of albuminous fiuid. It is only with this latter
sort that I have been able to succeed in fecundating queens.

The facts observed seem to warrant the belief that it is the prerogative of the
worker bees to determine the degree of development and dominate the function of
the drones as they do the succeeding generations of workers and queens, the supe-
rior intelligence of the workers ordering the entire economy of the hive. During
the first half of the severe and protracted drought of the past season I was able to
rear a few drones by resorting to the usual methods employed for stimulating drone-
rearing, but one-third of the entire number proved upon trial to be of the sort which
I believe to be impotent, and nearly all of the remaining two-thirds were of the sec-
ond class, not more than 5 or 10 per cent. of the entire number being furnished with
the albuminous liquid necessary to enable the drone to voluntarily perform the ex-
pulsion act and complete the function of copulation, the filling of the spermatheca
of the queen; for I am led to believe that the presence of this fluid, more than any
odor or other influence from the presence of the queen during orgasm, excites in
the naturally frigid drones the sexual desire and assists jn the execution of the ex-
pulsion act and furnishes the element in which the spermatozoa are floated into the
spermatheca, and also that the workers intelligently and purposely determine the
sexual development and dominate the fitness, the desire, and capacity of the drone,
as they do the physical development, the fitness, the desire, and capacity of worker
and queen bees for the natural performance of their individual functions; that is to
say, if drones are reared during a drought by artificially approximating the conditions
under which the desire for drone-rearing normally arises, only a small percentage of
the number will be sufficiently furnished with the food essential to complete sexual
development, the counterpart of which is seen in a less degree in the rearing of
worker larvae; and, further, if there isa failure of honey or if for any reason the
swarming impulse is absent and no emergency exists for the forming of a new col-
ony, very few ot the sexually mature drones are supplied with the food-elements
essential in producing the secretion which excites sexual desire and supplies the
agency by which the spermatozoa are freed and floated into the spermatheca, the
counterpart of which is seen in the refusal of the worker bees to copiously supply
the queen with the rich glandular secretion essential to oviproduction whenever their
instinct warns them that ovipositing sAould.cease and that further brood-rearing
would only be a waste of energy, resulting in a generation of consumers and non-
producers; for the queen is only a mother, and in no sense a majesty; only a ma-
chine, nota monarch, Other facts inmy experience might be mentioned in support
of this belief.

October 15, Mr. Otis N. Baldwin, of Clarksville, Mo., wrote me that he had met
with success in practicing the method of fertilization described in my report of last
year and that he had discovered that drones were of three kinds, namely: ‘‘ Dwarfed,
unmature, and ripe.” As directed by your letter of instructions of November 5, [
went to Clarksville and interrogated Mr. Baldwin concerning his experience and ob-
servations, and I herewith give-the substance of his statement made in reply to my
questions. He said, ‘‘I first go to my nursery and take the queens and cage them.
I then go to my hive of drones and pick out as many as I think I may need, and then
proceed in the manner you describe in your report of 1885. I believe the whole se-
cret of success lies in the drones, and Iam not able to tell how old the drone must
be, or how the right condition is brought about, or whether it was originally intended
that only a very smali percentage of drones should be capable of fertilizing a queen.
I have, however, discovered that there are three kinds of drones. First, the drone
which when squeezed bursts with apparently dry organs of generation. Second,
drones which burst with an abundance of seminal fluid resembling a mixture made
by adding bromides to a silver solution. Third, drones which bursting show a fluid
resembling albumen. With the two former kinds I have succeeded in fertilizing a
single queen. With the latter I have fertilized over two hundred queens the past

590 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

season with but few failures after I found oxt the difference in drones. I carefully
grasp the thorax of the queen between the thumb and finger of the left hand and
with the right I pick up the drone which I have selected and press the thorax and
abdomen of the drone until the generative organs are expelled, using as many as I
need until I find one in which the color and consistency of the fluid suits me.
Sometimes only a few of the right kind can be found in as many as one hundred. I
place a few drops of the male fluid upon the vulva of the queen, which is eagerly
received, using one, and only one, drone for each queen. Ihave fertilized queens by
this method that were not a day old, and others more than fifteen days old, and after
clipping theit wings introduced them to their colonies, and they began laying infrom _
six to eight days and were satisfactorily prolific. As nearly as I could tell, those
fertilized early were more prolific than those treated after they were ten days old,
but the right condition of the drone is very essential. It is very difficult to get drones
ripe enough before the first half of May and after the first half of August, but during
June and July this method may be operated with gratifying results. Queens ferti-
lized by this method and directly introduced into a queenless colony are rarely ever
molested by the bees. I clipped the wings of the first twenty or twenty-five queens
I succeeded in fertilizing by this method, and finding the method worked to my sat-
isfaction and with but few failures, I clipped no more wings.”

The experience here detailed, as far as it relates to the procreativeness of drones, is
in agreement with the facts within my own observation already set forth. The
claim that a very large number of queens were successfully fertilized as set forth,
and that, too, with but few failures in the whole number attempted, is lacking in
the element of absolute certainty and completeness of detail which would entitle it
to acceptance as of any scientific value. Mr. Baldwin assured me that ‘‘ there could
have been no mistake about it;” but in order to effectually guard against all possi-
bility of the test being abortive, all the queens claimed to have been artificially fe-
cundated should have had their wings thoroughly clipped before they were liberated.
But the fact that the repeated successes were realized when the young queens were
clipped upon being taken from the nursery cage, never having had opportunity to
bear their weight upon their wings, is an encouraging step in advance towards the
solution of the most difficult problem in practical bee-keeping. Another season,
with the presence of favorable conditions, will determine the practicability and value
of this method.

FERTILIZATION IN CONFINEMENT.

Realizing that natural methods nearly always possess advantages over artificial
methods, I determined if possible to gain control of reproduction by the fertiliza-
tion of queens in confinement. That some inexpensive and practicable method
might be devised by which the natural mating of queens in confinement could be
secured has very long been hoped for by all progressive apiarists. Very many at-
tempts, in a variety of ways, some of which involved the outlay of considerable
sums of money, have been made, but difficulties apparently insurmountable have
been encountered.

IT removed the queens from 6 colonies which I had had confined in the house
for experimenting with bees and fruit; a holise 10 feet by 16 feet, 8 feet high, partly
covered on the sides with wire-cloth, a wire-covered sash in the gable, and large
screen wire-covered doors in each end. These were strong colonies, which had
been confined in this house for thirty days and had learned’ the location of their
hives, and from these the bees flew daily in great numbers, returning frequently to
their hives. Into these 6 colonies I introduced virgin queens hatched from cells
which I had placed in wire cages. Into each colony the virgin queen was placed
without being removed from the cage in which she was hatched. In due time they
were accepted and liberated. The day these queens were five days old I liberated
about ten drones near to the entrance of each of these hives. These drones were
brought from hives in the apiary, and upon being liberated most of them persisted
in flying against the wire-covered sides and windows in the gable, and few ever en-
tered the hives. Here again there was frigidity or disability apparent among the
drones. When the young queens flew from the hive seeking a mate they mingled
among the drones, crawling over them and caressing them with their antenne,
meeting with no response. These queens, with one exception, seemed to have no
difficulty in getting the location of their respective hives. The result of this trial
was, one queen of the six was fertilized, and after she had laid eggs with regu-
larity in two-thirds of the cells on both sides of one frame, after clipping the
queen’s wings, I removed this frame, with the queen and adhering bees, to a nucleus
in the yard, and from the eggs laid in confinement worker bees hatched in due
time, and the queen continued to lay as long as the nucleus was fed, there being
nothing in the fields for the bees to gather. All the eggs laid by this queen were

591
fecundated eggs. Being convinced that as far as the queens were concerned the
difficulties in the way of success were not insurmountable, and that the main trouble
was that the drones had not been furnished by the workers with the glandular secre-
tion or the food suitable for producing the albumenlike secretion which I had been
led to believe essential to produce sexual desire and to assist in the performance of
the copulative act, from these same colonies I removed the remaining unmated
queens, and to each I introduced another virgin queen as before. :

I then went toa distant apiary, and secured an unusually strong colony which was
under the swarming impulse. <A few queen cells were being built and a moderate
supply of drones was present. This was late in the season. This colony had not
cast a swarm during the year, and was the only one I could find, after considerable
search and inquiry far and near, having any drones, and probably owing to the ex-
cessive drought only an occasional one of the number examined had been prepared
by the workers for the procreative function. I took this colony home and placed it
in the wire-covered house at the end opposite that in which the virgin gueens were
located. I clipped the wings of the old queen so that she could not leave the hive,
and upon being liberated the workers and drones of this hive made less effort to es-
cape than those brought in from the apiary near by, and some seemed reconciled to
their new surroundings. The workers soon learned their location and drones were
soon to be found in nearly every hive in the house. The result of this trial was that
three of the six queens were fertilized, and as soon as they had each laid five or six
hundred eggs I clipped their wings and removed them, together with their colonies,
to the yard and fed them, and all the eggs laid by these queens produced worker
bees. I am much encouraged by the success so far realized under conditions so un-
favorable.

With the return of spring I hope to follow out your suggestions and continue
the test, using a large wire-¢overed inclosure for the purpose; with hives so arranged
on the sides that the worker bees may have unobstructed flight, while the drones
and, queens, being restrained by means of queen-excluding zine placed before the
outside entrance to the hive, may fly and mate within the inclosure and readily
return to the hives from whence they came. If practical control of reproduction
can be secured by so simple and inexpensive a method—and the facts from my ex-
perience as given above seem to warrant the conclusion that this is true—then the
Rubicon of scientific apiculture is passed.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST.

EXPLANATION TO PLATES TO REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGIST.

Where figures are enlarged the natural sizes are indicated in hair-lines at side,
unless already indicated in some other way on the plate.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE I.

THE COTTONY CUSHION-SCALE.
(Original.) ’ *
Fia. 1.—a, adult male—enlarged; 6, hind tarsus
of same; c, wing and poiser of same,

Fic. 4.—Female larva, third stage, ventral view—

reatly enlarged.

Fic. 5.—Aduit female (fourth staso). dorsal view—
greatly enlarged; a. antenna—still more
enlarged.

Fie. 6.—Greatly magnified portion of lateral bor-
der of adult, showing bases of glassy
filaments. -

showing hooks and pocket—still more | Fy¢, 7,—Male larva, second stage, ventral view—
enlarged. greatly enlarged.

Fic. 2.—a, newly hatched larva from below—en- | Fig, 8 —Male pupa, ventral view—greatly en-
larged; b, antenna of same; ec, tarsus— larged. —

still more enlarged.
8.—Adult female, side view, showing the
pale, greenish-gray form and with part
of egg-covering torn away, showing the
carmine eggs and egg-stain—enlarged.
Fic. 4.—Adult female. dorsal view, showing red-
dish-brown form. -eniarged. |
Fig. 5.—Male cocoon—enlarged. |
Fig. 6.—Branch of orange tree with mass of in- |}
sects in situ aud as they appear soon
after death—natural size.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE II.
THE COTTONY CUSHION-SCALE. |
(Original.)

Fra. 1.—Outline of the egg—greatly enlarged.

Fie. 2.—Dorsal view of newly-hatched larva—
greatly enlarged.

Fic. 3.—a, female larva, second stage, ventral
view—egreatly e ed; b, antenna of
same — still more enlarged, !

Fia.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE III.
ENEMIES OF THE COTTONY CUSHION-SCALE.
(Original.)

Fic. 1.—Isodromus icerye—greatly enlarged,

Fic. 2,—Blapstinus brevicollis—enlarged. -

Fic. 3.—Blastobasis icerywellu—enlarged.

Fie. 4.—Largus succinctus—enlarged.

Fig. 5.—Corizus hyalinus—enlarged.

Fic. se Seg found preying on Icerya—en-
rged.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE IV.

(Photo-engraved from a photograph.)

A lemon orchard at Los Angeles, infested by Cot-

tony Cushion-scale,

592

EXPLANATION TO PLATE V.
(Photo-engraved from a photograph.)

Spraying outfit used in Califonma in operation
against the Cottony Cushion-scale.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE VI,
THE SOUTHERN BUFFALO-GNAT. |

(Original.)

1.—Simulium pecuarum: Larva-—enlarged.

2.—a, ventral view of head of larva; b, lat-
eral; c, dorsal view of same—all greatly
enlarged.

. 3.—a, mentum of larva; 0, labium, c, labrum
of same—ail greatly eniarged.

4.—Pro-leg of larva—greatly enlarged.

still more enlarged.
6.—Maxilla of larva—greatly enlarged.
7.—Tip of abdomen of same, showing breath-
ing pay eee, enlarged.
. 8.—Pupa—enlarged; a, 6, c, spines of dorsal
and ventral surface of abdomen of
same—still more enlarged.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE VII.

THE SOUTHERN BUFFALO-GNAT AND THE
TURKEY-GNAT.
(Original.)

Fia. 1.—Simulium pecuarum: Fan of larva—
greatly enlarged.

Fia. 2.—Simulium meridionale; Larva—enlarged.

Fia. 3.—Same: a, antenna; 6, mandible—greatly
enlarged; c, tip of mandible—still more
enlarged.

Fic. 4.Same: Mentum—greatly enlarged.

Fie. Pape areauhing organs — greatly en-
arged.

Fic. 6.—Same: a, empty pupa-case; b, case with
pupa projecting from it—enlarged.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE VIII.
BUFFALO-GNATS.

Fiad. 1.—Simulium pecuarum: Head of adult
male—egreatly eniaree:

Tia. 2.—_Same: Head of adult
larged. (Original.)

Fia. 3.—Same: Adult female from side—enlarged.
(Original. )

(Original.)
eniale—greatly en-

. 5.—a, antenna of larva; b, mandible of same
-_greatly enlarged; c, tip of mandible—

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE,

Fic. 4.—Simauliwn meridionale: Adult male from
side-—enlarged. (Ovxiginal.)

Fie. 5.—S. pecuarum: Dorsal view of adult fe
maie--enlarged. (Ovriginal.)

Fig. 6.--S. meridionale: Dorsal view of adult fe
male—enlarged. (Original.)

Fig, 7.—Simulium sp.: a, portion of egg-mass
from side; b, same, from top; ¢, @, indi-
vidual eggs--enlarged. (After Barnard.)

EXPLANATION TO PLATE IX,

Fia. 1.—Larvaof Chironomus sp.: a, dorsal view
with pediform petri retracted
and jaws closed; 6, lateral] view with
Same parts extended; c, egg-mass—ali
enlarged; d, maxillary palpus; e, labial _
palpus; 7, labium; g. mandible—still
more enlarged. (After Riley.)

2.—Chironomus plumosus: oa, adult, dorsal
view; b, pupa, ventral view—enlarged.
(Original.

8.—Hydropsyche sp.: a, dorsal view of larva
—enlarged; 6, side view of anal hook
of same—stiill more enlarged. (Orig-
inal.)

4,—_Same: Side view of head and first tho-
racic segment of larva— enlarged.
(Original. )

5.—_Same: Web of larva—enlarged. (Re-
drawn from Clarke.)

EXPLANATION TO PLATE X,
THE FALL WEB-WORM.
(Original.) :

Fic.

Fic.

Fia.

Fic.

Fic. 1.—a, dark larva from side; b, light larva
from above; c, dark larva from above;
d, pupa, ventral view; e, pupafrom side;
f, adult—all slightly enlarged.

2.—a-j, wings of a series of adults, showing
graduation from pure white form
(cunea) to one profusely spotted with
black and brown ( punctatissima)—nat-
ural size.

Fie. 8.—a, moth ovipositing upon leaf—natural

size; b, a few eges in situ—enlarged.

Fig. 4.—Meteorus hyphantrie, a, adult; b, co-

coon—enlarged.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE XI,
(Photo-engraved from a photograph.)

Fig.

View of a Washington street in late September,
1886, showing complete defoliation of
the Poplars on the west side and almost
complete exemption of the Maples on
the east side.

eT

Report Entomologist, Dept. Agr, 1886. Plate I.

CVRILEY L.SULLIVAN, pix

GILES LITHO LIBERTY PRINTING CO. M7

THE ORANGE ICERYA,OR COTTONY-CUSHION SCALE.

(Icerya purchasi—Maskell,)

PLATE II.

culture, 1886.

gri

Report of the Entomologist, U. S. Department of A

THE COTTONY CUSHION-SCALE.

i

ee 2

Report of the Entomo

logist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1886.

PLATES III.

Fig. 1.

ENEMIES OF THE COTTONY CUSHION-SCALE.

i | wa Oe
ett ne: oe eh a 2
i" _

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Sieg a es
| x P sal iil os Pe 7 =
Jy, Cet Bat oe ae | gies ey

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ae e
ve ff. % “*
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ae Lee |
as % - 4
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a .
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7 Lishk-rouwe? ') -,enme? BNP 46 ctr re
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PLATE Iv.

. 8. Department of Agriculture, 1886.

Report of the Entomologist,

. ies

al

<<

(a4 <
ae

“ATVOS-NOTHSND ANOLLOD

Ad daisa

4INT GHUVHOUO NOW

aT

eee
= > - a

p= ¥ A,
bey, “=~.

ctu iat ty iy feo hie

PLATE V.

t, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1886.

is

sx
5S

Report of the Entomolo

‘WTVOS-NOIHSAD ANOLLOO LSNIVDV

N

OILVAddO

NI LIHLNOG DNIAVUdG

PLATE VI.

THE SouTHERN BuFraLo GNaT.

- » oe a 7 7
hbo ae 2. ae

Report of the Entomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1886. PLATE VII.

Fig. 3

THe SOUTHERN BurraLo GNAT AND THE TURKEY GNAT.
=

|
Mea

PLATE VIII.

Report of the Entomologist, U. S. Departinent of Agriculture, 1886.

ig. 2.

F

THE SOUTHERN BUFFALO GNAT AND THE TURKEY GNAT,.

Report of the Entomologist, U. S$. Department of Agriculture, 1886.

PLATE IX.

Fig. 2.

PLATE X.

Report of the Entomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1886.

ALL WEB-WORM.

THE F

Report of the Entomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1886.

=a

ay, Sages

HINGTON STREET AND EXEMPTION OF MAPLES ON THE OTHER.

EB-WORM ON POPLARS ON ONE SIDE OF A Was

RAVAGES OF THE W

ma ‘ye . mast

PLATE X.

eport of the Entomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1886.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

THE FALL WEB-WORM,

PLATE XI.

Report of the Entomologist, U. S. Department of A sriculture, 1886.

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WAHL

JO SADVAVIT

REPORT OF THE CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL
INDUSTRY.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith my report, which con-
tains a stalement of the more important work accomplished by the
Bureau of Animal Industry during the past year. For many inter-
esting details of this work, and for the reports of the Agents and In-
spectors, I must refer you to the Third Annual Report of the Bureau

of Animal Industry.
D. HE. SALMON,

Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry.
Hon. Norman J. COLMAN,
Commissioner of Agriculture.

PROGRESS OF PLEURO-PNEUMONIA AND ACTION TAKEN
IN REGARD TO IT.

KENTUCKY.

At the time my last annual report was submitted the outbreak of
pleuro-pneumonia in Kentucky, which began in 1884, was still in
progress. A portion of the history of this outbreak is recorded in
the reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry for 1884 and 1885.
When first discovered the plague was confined to one herd. There
was an attempt to maintain quarantine by the force of public opinion
in the absence of any specific statutes, but, as was to be expected, it
was not successful. The danger of the extension of the contagion
was such, that on June 15, 1885, the infected premises were declared
in quarantine by authority of the State board of health. At that
time an additional herd was found infected and included in the reg-
ulations, a copy of which will be found on page 35 of the Report of
the Bureau of Animal Industry for 1885. By request of the board,
an inspector of the Bureau was stationed at Cynthiana to watch the
results of this quarantine. November 16, 1885, he reported that the
disease had been found at 6 places in Cynthiana, at 3 places in the
Indian Creek neighborhood, 3} miles east of Cynthiana, and at one
place near the Pendleton County line, 13 miles north of Cynthiana.

Karly in March, 1886, the legislature of Kentucky enacted a law
authorizing the State board of health to slaughter the infected cattle,
and appropriated money to compensate the owners. The slaughter
began on March 15, and on March 27 I received official notification
that all exposed animals had been slaughtered. I give below a copy
of a letter from the secretary of the board to the Chief of the Bureau
of Animal Industry, which shows his estimate of the value of the
services rendered by this Department in suppressing the malady:

BOWLING GREEN, Ky., March 27, 1886.
Stk: I have the honor to inform you, as Dr. Wray has done in detail, that in the
execution of the recently enacted law in relation to contagious and infectious dis-
eases of cattle this board has exterminated contagious pleuro-pneumonia in this
State by the slaughter of all animals which have been exposed to that disease and
rigidly quarantined all infected premises.
38 AG—’86 (598)

594 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

In consequence of the foregoing facts, we hope to have the influence of your De-
partment in securing the removal of the restrictions now imposed against Kentucky
cattle by most of the Western States.

I desire also to call your attention to the inclosed resolution in regard to Dr. Wray,
and to add that there is every reason to believe that but for the timely and efficient
aid rendered me by your Department during the last year the disease would have
made such headway, and the sum of money required for its extirpation would have
been so large, that our legislature could not have been induced to extirpate the dis-
ease. I inclose a copy of our law and quarantine blanks.

Respectfully, yours,
J. N. McCORMACK,
Dr. D. E. SALMON, Secretary.
Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C.

Resolved, That the thanks of the State board of health of Kentucky be, and are
hereby, tendered to Dr. W. H. Wray for the faithful, efficient, and intelligent man-
ner in which he has discharged his important duties in the management of the out-
break of contagious pleuro-pneumonia in Harrison County.

A true extract from the proceedings of the board.

J. N. McCORMACK, Secretary.

Dr. Wray furnished the following statement, showing the number
of infected herds and animals in the vicinity of Cynthiana, and the
results of the disease at each place:

Previous to August 4, 1885, four animals in the Frisbie & Lake herd had died and

14 sick ones had been slaughtered. From and after August 4 the extent of the dis-
ease and the disposition of the animals is seen in the following table:

3 ; | 3 8 £
: 1312 |egis [a
ad on | &
ee| 3 |ga|2e\28| ¢
Owner of herd. TN | 3 2 a |e : c|
hy fa he
Baran | a
& Ps FI
3} =|
4 214 14 14 zi
PIPIB IO SiC LLIB Ln,. Viel nie « bisie ble viele edn sibiese sia Qudaele apiaeeeh Keepin pte xe 17 1 88 OB lin dove 87
WUD ANG Ge we aitcin sets ctanisce stotcee ete bmi ce coe seuleicelen sats 3 1 9 5 19
ITS MRODOLTS y. Cyiir lo dap ah EOR MER TAM stele chillis nic Ghee shiaci eae h cdistllisictsies'|'c wales Listen sitaAwe 1
VET UW CHORTLE o> a cc oleracessie (ies pin saya: fA SIE d, ale mslnlnce favs aesil vin vafeti are calcimvstelaYe'| Sve ipio bya b’asole sy€yall ayate’s isl EEE 1 1
AVI OGRe face tee cee reas a riccieet hie caltitethisatae cake slniocert 1 Beats 2 1 11 18
SHUSPWAEH OTS clr cahedceeh cab As steiecpiurnse saa eaeeaaa tooo. tabingeaaclonesan 1 Ir) RIE 2
DVIS EI Oe ec nee oa Mate eta ect pene oti cin ofatubsttce elias tier ae pel ee 1 Al Soon 4
peered (PMDAD Se EM SALA ES Cie wea eat eck haere dati ke oie colaciand ite n eevabctlln.atatereialfiee sect ete ana eemerenene 2 2
A UVLO AD WOIL a irdave tis <= ib orelna nieeeisie’s pps sWss sient - peiit’- pierenyheull Wus’et | teeter 1 3 tacees 4
ROUEN MPO ICO PR aAt i. ree tensa aa ce ttre Sotertete es tian ete iaiertt agheltiovel le cteseiees Thscaneel eee 1
TOV UES OKE Waray, stek creo bee ite hrals dire otal ere Shclolutare Mla etrtin aa loins nat |decrmtans M8) (STAI LER 17
DORR UOUB nisieic ease Fis cis c vrctursseraresciebe ine heinis siz cinle sin slams ms piniciese tania alsiaisiallesisgnaal lela ote UB Berries. 1
NASON Aa ele ce bk stelcaliactesvecls Gulad smidels Cnemtntne euch c Seaten we atecer ee 1 ea eee 1
SINE SIA ORE Ee Lh scien esos emvichdeGh tsk Sher et alaewierdachiokelts comet ees tice me belt eerer Ligases uf
EST TUUE UN seta tele Mere ale e'a'e oc oie wis ace a(S ge a te ate icine elerern ee ini e.cehia’ ate vaae is iajeil ate Biovail cleteverows | tehsil Rees 1 1
aU AVY MORTAR Rae vets PE Ein cla cle » che eM ude braid Och do eile lsbalole ote Stora Grab etecor at a Stell h orarehohsifiiso ahane valle eve Meee I care 1 1
DEALT ROO MOM Fete lis apetin tana, dapat dloiers labigh y olnioroy a sibtiie caylee Ble stare lnterereeet adtarb oy Ll lincyat eae 1
VETRAUALG Ac retolalets ccttQae aie Ca tts vis tute ote ees Oe ats te ote ered amie A tiaereratlte octet il stelle aif eae eee 1 i
AE MoM OREL Gb waite. 0.0h 0-00 he daratayerga Mee Sweets goo waadte CRUSE ARAB Ue RE Oe tee ee A: SER ate 1
UNM UPON EUURON Ws o's: oo, tvcyascree one ead prove sanimita ua siscelernless (oie vue G (eietarcieiass™ terete lore etokayst] asic ara ec wee Q \aebenas 2
ey ny ides feet 2. CELE Eee OR da P ddctehleatrincichoke combo dleeeeaolaacgen cist Tl eee Ye 1
VED ESARUIE TISAI 2 5s 205 5 5 Assay ahd wceyelolo,aleumy ie ayalarniatiadea'eletccrald Phe Matern a aie iemea ec dele wre |G Raa Hh Neer Pee 1
A CONS ME NS Tat) COS AGAR Dh oactout Gia. a DAO Aboaa AcSSeue uaSoEmbEsaee pesedal Oseae. 1 al gases 3
UEP USDA VEU UN: 4 Fs afe's oils cla RRGY ofelacle sAtvita bic Karometee eben ebb tctridaaater. Lae Rea eee Om Toei Ree later 1
BVT SIGE eroha sizes ote cays. s/00e scelore; yori days: psa we talein roparo Me eeameiitons idea tlatire/Medhcovs-otaell ic qeety malic = eee | keane Glas qome 3
STHIVIOAMSRENATL TSE eiletcaHEe celine Coker amka cae Nites Maneatis eet, MEANS. C802 Re TH Soe 1
URST STALE erase arin pin areislto cin ¢ Lap ioe seh CESS eles LEC MGL Ts dan Le eben EE Sent a eee LY rebteretd 1
SURG RAILS! oie 'o eralats al sia cists tute inicinw* ace hisiclsl RO MEIISRISEE eT PING eter iniciagaied WU iaefad caer Sleeps 1
WREROB IDIOT IO LS iJs bialdlele dita dati Soke dies tals scene bit caits ctuletis GA Ea eon een lL. seme eee TT une 1
AMES SU ULUWEEL al 3 ojos ais attains’ Mine sina mtolaiaiaauin trang qoercuuetete oe sername at DoteANlSuart Bete taste’ | Renae [ie erg ee Pa teres 2
040 AES RIA 4 Uf AL A a RR RT 2 ar EA ee A Re a ea el a NIN 1 SR eres [aoe - 1
DP ROOGEPAOIL sara's, 414 Fas aS ald gible ep es bok Foe -fsetan eee Ritelchaaek atkins [eeaboulaeeecs Le] tod Fee 1
PURER VIEICLCUS Me ass'0) <vois ies! aig Sialats,<eyalel Somtatehe ta ats oteraiel ater herelace EISISTE eile Oherateverellistor eterstall settee Cela ee aie Pa tech 2
OPAL PAIS LING4t.! LBGo thle. ciate atyoasta tinder ete 28 4 63} 114 22 180
ME OUMLMNCEBAROL 24 7. Ulcer‘ Hie lta dyed haasclolegmla eat Barca tae | Paes el coca lta ee ane el | 2
MEDAL COLEL. « o.<is:035,01:sinhad o's + s)bejajBinieie aicte stele i Pala otynv'a Guy sidin ated alin ete Al ete seit Lage eel ean 203

* Killed by mob,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 595

Dr. Wray remained at Cynthiana until June 22, or about three
months after the last affected animal was slaughtered, and no case
of this disease was discovered during that time. I have recently had
reliable reports from that vicinity, and I am satisfied that no case of
pleuro-pneumonia has occurred since the slaughter of the infected
cattle in March. Mie

This outbreak in Kentucky by itself indicates the great superiority
of a method which secures the prompt extirpation of the contagion
over any temporizing measures, the effect of which is to preserve in-
stead of to destroy it. Assoon as pleuro-pneumonia was known to exist
in Kentucky the other States of the Union quarantined against Ken-
tucky cattle, and the enormous commerce in these animals was pros-
trated. The local quarantine measures were looked Ge, by the au-
thorities of other States as an insufficient guarantee of the safety of
cattle from Kentucky, and therefore no bovine animals were allowed
admittance from there except under rigid and burdensome restrictions.
These restrictions, maintained for nearly two years, are estimated
to have caused a loss to the cattle-breeders of the State of from
$10,000,000 to $12,000,000; a loss which would have been entirely pre-
vented if there had been authority for this Department to cause the
prom bones of the infected herds when the plague was first

iscovered.

ILLINOIS.

In September, 1886, pleuro-pneumonia was found by the State vet-
erinarian to exist among cattle in the city of Chicago and vicinity.
It was first discovered on the farm of John Carne, at Ridgeland, near
Austin, a station on the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad, 6 or 7
miles from Chicago. The diseased animal was killed September 12,
and the post mortem examination showed conclusively that it was
affected with lung-plague. This cow had been on the premises a long
time, but she had recently been exposed to an ailing cow that Mr.
Carne had taken for trial with the intention of purchasing. This sick
cow was brought on the place by Silas Palmer, a cow dealer, who had
pau her for some time previous on the Harvey farm, near Hum-

oldt Park. It was represented to Mr. Carne that the cow was suf-
fering from bad treatment and would soon recover. After doctoring
it for two or three weeks with no success the dealer was notified that
it was not wanted, and he removed it.

In an attempt to trace the contagion the Harvey farm was visited
by the State veterinarian September 15 and 16, and he found there 250
head of cattle, among which were 8 affected with pleuro-pneumonia.
These animals were at once quarantined. An investigation of the
history of the disease at this farm led to the conclusion that it had
been introduced by a herd of 38 cows brought there to pasture by a
milkman named hee who had recently removed his animals from
the Phoenix Distillery stables. This led to an examination of the cat-
tle in the distillery stables, and to the discovery that many of them
were affected with ee beaumont.

The Phoenix stables were quarantined September 19. They con-
tained 1,185 animals, of which 297 were Western steers and bulls
which had been placed there to fatten September 15 by Nelson Morris.
The remainder of the animals were milch cows, belonging to a number
of different owners. The stables of the Chicago and Empire Distil-

596 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

leries were quarantined the same day. They contained respectively
496 and 207 animals. The Shufeldt stables contained 985 animals
and were quarantined September 20. :

A further examination of the cattle of Mr. Carne September
18 showed that another one was sick, and this, together with two
exposed ones, was slaughtered. The day before, September 17, two
sucking calves were found affected at the Harvey farm and were
slaughtered.

September 20 two sick cows were killed at the Phoenix and found af-
fected with pleuro-pneumonia. September 22 the Chief of the Bureau
of Animal Industry, in company with the State veterinarian and
members of the State Live-Stock Commission, made an investigation
at the Phcenix and Shufeldt stables, to satisfy himself as to the nature
of the disease. . The examination was made on one animal that had
died and two that were killed at the former stable, and upon one that
was killed and one found dead at the latter. All were undoubtedly
affected with contagious pleuro-pneumonia.

The milkmen at first denied the existence of any disease among
their cattle, but when the evidence became too strong to be longer
contested it was admitted that they had recognized the presence of a
lung disease in 1884. They at first attributed it to chemicals used in
the mash by the distillers, also to feeding the slop too hot, but they
finally concluded it was contagious pleuro-pneumonia, and were prac-
ticing inoculation to lessen the mortality.

The progress of the plague after quarantine may be seen from the
following notes made from day to day by the veterinarians. A part
of these were kindly furnished by Dr. Casewell, State veterinarian,
and the remainder were collected by Dr. Trumbower, inspector of the
Bureau of Animal Industry. It is to be borne in mind that the mor-
tality was probably lessened by the practice of inoculation:

September 23: 1 slaughtered and 1 found dead at the Phoenix; 1 slaughtered and
1 found dead at the Shufeldt.

September 24: 2 slaughtered at the Chicago.

September 25: 1 slaughtered and 1 found dead at the Phcenix.

September 27: 1 slaughtered at the Chicago and 2 found dead at the Phoenix.

September 30: 1 dead at the Shufeldt.

October 2: 2 dead at the Phoenix.

October 3: 1 dead at the Phoenix.

October 4: 1 dead at the Chicago and 2 dead at the Phoenix.

October 5: 3 dead and 1 slaughtered at the Phoenix; 1 dead at the Chicago; 1 dead
at the Empire.

October 6: 1 dead at the Phoenix; 1 dead. at the Chicago.

October 8; 1 slaughtered at the Chicago.

October 10: 1 slaughtered and 1 dead at the Chicago; 1 dead at the Phoenix.

October 11: 1 dead at the Phoenix.

October 12: 1 dead at the Shufeldt.

October 13: 2 dead at the Chicago; 1 dead at the Shufeldt.

October 16: 1 cow and 1 steer dead at the Phoenix (this was the first steer that
died of pleuro-pneumonia out of the lot placed in these stables September 15); 1 dead
at the Shufeldt; 10 cows were taken at the Shufeldt and slaughtered at the abattoir;
lungs found healthy. A

October 17: 1 slaughtered and 1 dead at the Chicago; 1 cow and 2 bulls from
the Phoenix slaughtered, lungs healthy. :

October 18: 1 cow at the Shufeldt slaughtered, affected; 4 slaughtered from the
Phoenix, lungs healthy; 7 slaughtered from the Chicago, lungs healthy.

October 19: 2 cows and 1 steer dead at the Phoenix; 1 dead at the Chicago; killed
14 cows from the Phoenix, lungs healthy. ‘

October 20: 1 cow and 2 steers dead at the Phoenix, only 1 of the latter affected
with lung-plague; 2 healthy cows from the Phoenix slaughtered; 1 dead at the Chi-
cago.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 597

October 21: 2 dead at the Shufeldt; 1 dead at the Chicago; 3 dead at the Phoenix;
slaughtered 2 healthy cows from the Phoenix.

October 22: 2 steers dead at the Phoenix; 1 dead at the Shufeldt; slaughtered 5
affected animals at the Shufeldt.

October 23: 1 dead at the Chicago; 1 dead at the Shufeldt.

October 24: 2 dead at the Chicago and 1 affected animal slaughtered.

October 25: Slaughtered 11 at the Chicago, all healthy; 1 cow and 2 steers dead at
the Phoenix; slaughtered 16 cows from the Phoenix, all healthy.

October 26: 1 steer and 1 cow dead at the Phoenix; slaughtered 24 cows from the
Phoenix, 3 affected; 1 dead at the Shufeldt. ;

October 27: Slaughtered 14 cows and 2 calves from the Phoenix, lungs healthy; 1
cow and 1 bull dead at the Phoenix.

October 28: killed 2 cows at the Shufeldt, 1 affected with pleuro-pneumonia and
1 with chronic indigestion.

October 29: 1 dead at the Shufeldt.

October 30: 1 affected killed and 1 died from choking at the Shufeldt; 1 affected
steer killed and 3 steers dead at the Phoenix.

October 31: 1 dead at the Shufeldt; 1 dead at the Phoenix.

November 1: Slaughtered 3 at the Shufeldt, lungs healthy; 1 dead at the same
place; slaughtered 14 cows from the Phoenix, 5 of which were affected.

November 2: 1 dead at the Phoenix.

November 3: Slaughtered 18 cows from the Phcenix, 5 affected; 1 steer and 2 cows
dead at the Phoenix.

November 4: 1 cow dead at the Shufeldt; killed 1 cow, lungs healthy; killed 5 at
the Chicago, lungs healthy; 1 steer dead at the Phoenix.

November 5: 2 cows and 1 steer dead at the Phoenix; 1 cow dead at the Shufeldt,

November 6: 1 steer dead at the Phoenix,

November 7: 1 steer dead at the Phoenix; 1 cow dead at the Shufeldt,

November 8: 1 slaughtered at the Shufeldt, affected; 1 steer dead at the Phoenix.

November 9: slaughtered 14 from the Shufeldt, 9 affected.

November 10: 1 steer and 1 bull dead at the Phoenix; slaughtered 19 from the
Shufeldt, 2 affected.

November 11: 2 steers dead at the Phoenix.

November 12: 1 cow dead at the Phoenix.

November 13: 1 cow dead at the Shufeldt; visited Harvey farm and found 2 new
cases.

November 14: 2 steers dead at the Phoenix; 1 cow dead at the Shufeldt; examined
45 cows, 2 affected.

November 15: Slaughtered 2 cows from the Phoenix, both affected; also 11 from
the Shufeldt, 4 affected.

November 16: 2 cows dead at the Shufeldt; 2 cows dead at the Phoenix.

November 17: 1 steer dead at the Phcenix; 1 cow killed at the Chicago, affected.

November 18: 1 cow condemned at the Phoenix.

November 19: Killed 6 cows from Phoenix, 2 affected; 1 steer dead at same place.

November 21: 1 cow dead at the Shufeldt.

November 22: 1 steer dead at the Phoenix; 1 cow dead at the Shufeldt.

November 24: 1 cow slaughtered from the Shufeldt, lungs healthy.

November 25: Slaughtered 1 diseased cow at Ridgeland. :

November 26: 3 cows dead at the Shufeldt, 1 of which died from choking.

November 27: 1 cow dead at the Shufeldt; 1 cow dead at the Chicago; slaughtered
12 cows from the Phoenix, 1 of which was affected.

November 30: 1 cow and 1 steer dead at the Phoenix; slaughtered 5 affected steers
and bulls at same place.

November 28: Slaughtering was begun on a larger scale, in order to empty the
distillery stables as soon as possible. The figures given below, which show the pro-
portion of slaughtered animals that were more or less affected with pleuro-pneumo-
nia, are of great interest, because they demonstrate the advisability of slaughtering
all animals once exposed to the contagion. Many of the affected cattle presented
no symptoms of disease before slaughter, but the condition of their lungs was such

598 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

as to make it very certain that they were capable of disseminating the contagion
for an indefinite period. The record is as follows:

Date Number Number af-
na slaughtered, fected.

ING VOU DOR 125 oiary Becta tae Cet Sacer he oe PARS SAUDER PE RH, Fees, Coates ara ele a 237 85
BO ee Oe UE pce py lit Sarge ESLER. Pek e eA INE o> Sheets aie te RoR 183 106

30 143 o
December 1 179 59

2 137

3 185 56
6 223 120
7 198 126

8 166 86
9 205 100
10 85 23
14 231 69
15 51 21
16 48 24
TRA 9 eeu RR ee RM ROL fen in ed aie A ame a a | 2,271 | 1,031

Of the 297 steers and bulls which were put in the Phoenix stables
September 15 by Mr. Morris, 37 affected with pleuro-pneumonia died
or were killed for examination previous to the 28th of November.
Three others died of Texas fever and 1 cripple was killed up to the
same date. November 29 and 30 and December 1, 244 of the re-
mainder were slaughtered, of which 182 were found affected,

One of the inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry was sta-
tioned at the rendering company’s platform from October 19 to No-
vember 30, to make post mortem examination of all cows coming
there from the city of Chicago. During that time he examined 19
cows, of which 6 had died of lung-plague.

The following table shows the number of cattle placed in quarantine
in Chicago and vicinity from October 13 to November 30, all being in
private herds and stables, and the greater part of which were quaran-
tined because of exposure to affected cattle on the various commons
about the city.

oy 4 :
Sie Nice
| ko
Ls =
Date, 2 i & 3 é $ Remarks.
54 58 BH
A A 14
1 66 | Several.| Two have since died.
10 (ie 12
10 41 1
40 | 104 3
30 67 3
*6 Guilty seen Quarantined for exposure.
*10 36 15
*17 [UBB AR GHARD Do.
2 BB hisses aie Do.
*2 Sseaseecket Do.
2 2 1 | One died November 2.
15 34 8
15 29 1
15 20 2
¥*13 13 1
NOOK Ia nS. ies Wee eT Be ¥*11 i 1
Pes cts Bae dase azeeMe yes dete tee yeas = 48 8 1 | Recovered.
PAs ASE ceise th oes Mae cone ape bo cc *13 13 1
ATE ct ese nea: Ti CT Poa nT Soe orien 9 33 1 Do.
BAS Ars ee di ee Bee eA Hane vee eerste 7 DU MIM ate Quarantined for exposure.
(RN SAAC ORS GOCE oo, NEES Or priane ie tae 1 CB eyageccne Do.
EO) a Saya. 6y5,a%s 0 Sie: os ala amen etnne oie Gao te ab ies c eresevatate re Do.
He ep Ree ERE Game ipiainy Sate igre MN ee iA, Wf 48) | ichsenceac Do.
DD itictelec Mia awe hd Pek State othe te datees Ne 9 Nes eater Do.
PUB ive cet Selb sisihle cee Oe ME Oe das 1G) } pRB cass cia Do.
ah ae refcisPs ote, 0.5 5:0. cis, a ns hatette o's Cake ae eaters 22 BOA hia citas cat Do.
BAS Meters butler ce pie o> ttle cm ain anelonis Me ete 18 BO Peratcta cietelars Do.
ae ttlee hic wets cietalete talestimha eietahe nis eeetesvals 11 EDOM iNheyae Boi ete ete Do
LO CATIOG AEG ET Lt GaeAben acre sedans Willer. cteiselece « Do.

* Stables,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 599

The above is a brief résumé of the work that has been accomplished
in Chicago by co-operation between the State Live-Stock Commission
and the Bureau of Animal Industry since the discovery of the recent
outbreak of pleuro-pneumonia. As there was great apprehension
that cattle would be removed from the distillery stables and dissemi-
nate the disease in Illinois and other States, a guard of deputy sheriffs
was placed at each stable and at the Harvey farm. Two were on duty
at each place during the day and four at night. Besides these, two men
were employed to count the cattle daily, in order that any decrease in
number would be at once discovered. Six veterinary inspectors were
also ordered to Chicago to inspect the city and learn to what extent
the contagion had progressed outside of the distillery stables,

The following rules and regulations for co-operation were certified

to the governor of Illinois and accepted by him:

Rules and regulations for co-operation between the U.S. Department of Agriculture
and the authorities of the several States and Territories for the suppression and
extirpation of contagious pleuro-pneumonia of cattle.

Recent acts of Congress make it the duty of the Commissioner of Agriculture to
prepare rules and regulations for the suppression and extirpation of the contagious
pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, and authorize expenditures for investigation, disinfec-
tion, quarantine, and for the purchase of diseased animals for slaughter. The fol-
lowing are the sections bearing upon this subject:

‘** Src. 3. That it shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Agriculture to prepare
such rules and regulations as he may deem necessary for the speedy and effectual
suppression and extirpation of said diseases, and to certify such rules and regula-
tions to the executive authority of each State and Territory, and invite said author-
ities to co-operate in the execution and enforcement of this act. Whenever the
plans and methods of the Commissioner of Agriculture shall be accepted by any
State or Territory in which pleuro-pneumonia or other contagious, infectious, or
communicable disease is declared to exist, or such State or Territory shall have
adopted plans and methods for the suppression and extirpation of said diseases, and
such plans and methods shall be accepted by the Commissioner of Agriculture, and
whenever the governor of a State or other properly constituted authorities signify
their readiness to co-operate for the extinction of any contagious, infectious, or
communicable disease in conformity with the provisions of this act, the Commis-
sioner of Agriculture is hereby authorized to expend so much of the money appro-
priated by this act as may be necessary in such investigations, and in such disin-
fection and quarantine measures as may be necessary to prevent the spread of the
disease from one State or Territory into another.” (Approved May 29, 1884.)

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.

‘For partying out the provisions of the act of May 29, 1884, establishing the Bureau
of Animal Industry, $100,000; and the Commissioner of Agriculture is hereby au-
thorized to use any part of this sum he may deem necessary or expedient, and in
such manner as he may think best, to prevent the spread of pleuro-pneumonia, and
for this purpose to employ as many persons as he may deem necessary, and to ex-
pend any part of this sum in the purchase and destruction of diseased animals when-
ever in his judgment it is essential to prevent the spread of pleuro-pneumonia from
one State into another.” (Approved June 30, 1886.)

In accordance with these laws I hereby certify the following rules and regulations
for co-operation between the Department of Agriculture and the authorities of the
several States and Territories, which I deem necessary to insure results commen-
surate with the money expended:

INSPECTION.

1, The necessary inspectors will be furnished by the Bureau of Animal Industry
of the Department of Agriculture.

2. The properly constituted inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry which
are assigned to the respective States are to be authorized by proper State authorities
to make inspections of cattle under the laws of the State; they are to receive such
protection and assistance as would be given to State officers engaged in similar work,
and shall be permitted to examine quarantined herds whenever so directed by the
Commissioner of Agriculture or the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

600 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

3. Allreports of inspections will be made tothe Bureau of Animal Industry, and
a.copy of these will then be made and forwarded to the proper State authorities.
When. however, any inspector discovers a herd infected with contagious pleuro-
pneumonia, he will at once report the same to the proper State authority as well as
to the Bureau of Animal Industry. }

4, The inspectors, while always subject to orders from the Department of Agri-
culture, will cordially co-operate with State authorities, and will follow instructions
received from them.

QUARANTINE,

5. When contagious pleuro-pneumonia is discovered in any herd, the owner or
person in charge is to be at once notified by the inspector, and the quarantine regu-
lations of the State in which the herd is located are to be enforced from that time.
The affected animals will be isolated, when possible, from the remainder of the herd
until they can be properly appraised and slaughtered.

8. Quarantine restrictions once imposed are not to be removed by the State au-
thorities without due notice to the proper officers of the Department of Agriculture.

9. The period of quarantine will be at least ninety days, dating from the removal
of the last diseased animal from the herd. During this period no animal will be
allowed to enter the herd or to leave it, and all animals in the herd will be carefully
isolated from other cattle.

When possible, all infected herds are to be held in quarantine and not allowed to
leave the infected premises except for slaughter. In this case fresh animals may be
added to the herd at the owner’s risk, but are to be considered as infected animals
and subjected to the same quarantine regulations as the other members of the herd,

SLAUGHTER AND COMPENSATION.

10. All animals affected with contagious pleuro-pneumonia are to be slaughtered
as soon after their discovery as the necessary arrangements can be made.

1i. When diseased animals are reported to the State authorities, they shall promptly
take such steps as they desire to confirm the diagnosis. The animals found diseased
are then to be appraised according to the provisions of the State law, and the proper
officer of the Bureau of Animal Industry (who will be designated by the Commis- -
sioner of Agriculture) notified of the appraisement. If this representative of the
Bureau of Animal Industry confirms the diagnosis and approves the appraisement,
the Department of Agriculture will purchase the diseased animals of the owner and
pay such a proportion of the appraised value as is provided for compensation in
such cases by the laws of the State in which the animals are located when they are
condemned and slaughtered by State authority.

DISINFECTION,

12. All necessary disinfection will be conducted by the employés of the Bureau of
Animal Industry.

INOCULATION.

18. Tnoculation is not recommended by the Department of Agriculture, and it is
believed that its adoption with animals that are to be afterwards sold to go into other
herds would counteract the good results which would otherwise follow from the
slaughter of the diseased animals. It will not be practiced in this State.

The co-operation of governors, of State live stock commissions, and of other offi-
cers who may be in charge of the branch of the service provided for the control of
the contagious diseases of animals in the States where pleuro-pneumonia exists, is
earnestly requested under these rules and regulations, which have been framed with
a view of securing uniform and efficient action throughout the whole infected
district. It is hoped that with a vigorous enforcement of such regulations the dis-
ease may be prevented from extending beyond its present limits, and may be in time

entirely eradicated.
NORMAN J. COLMAN,

Commissioner of Agriculture.
WASHINGTON, D. C., August 2, 1886.

By virtue of the authority imposed upon me as governor of the State of Illinois I
hereby accept the above rules and regulations, and the proper officers of this State
will co-operate with the United States Department of Agriculture for their enforce-

ment.
RICHARD J. OGLESBY.
SPRINGFIELD, ILL,, September 27, 1886.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 601

The Department has not purchased diseased animals for slaughte
in Illinois, because the law of that State makes it the duty of the
live-stock commissioners to slaughter such animals at once without
compensation. With this law on the statute-books of the State, and
with no apparent reason why it should not be enforced, it was not
* essential to prevent the spread of pleuro-pneumonia from one State
into another” that any part of the appropriation should be used in
Illinois to purchase diseased animals for slaughter. This conclusion
was confirmed by the desirability of adopting only such measures as
conform with the statutes of the States in which the work is being
done, so long as our only authority to enforce regulations within the
States must be obtained from State legislation.

PROGRESS OF CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER INFECTED STATES.

Co-operation with the other infected States has not progressed as
satisfactorily as was anticipated. In the latter part of July a con-
ference was held in Philadelphia, at which were present the Chief
of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and representatives of the States
of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. In formu-
lating the rules and regulations for co-operation as much considera-
tion was given for the views expressed at that conference as was con-
sistent with the object that was to be accomplished. It was under-
stood at the time that the four States there represented would co-
out with this Department under any reasonable rules and regu-

ations.

Rules and regulations were issued on August 2, and sent to the
governors of the interested States for their acceptance. With the
exception of the following rules, which were omitted or changed in
the case of Illinois, they were identical with those given above as ac-
cepted by that State:

6. To insure a perfect and satisfactory quarantine, a chain fastened with a num-
bered lock will be placed around the horns, or with hornless animals around the
neck, and a record will be kept showing the number of the lock placed upon each
animal in the herd.

ite The locks and chains will be furnished by the Department of Agriculture, but
they will become the property of the State in which they are used, in order that any
one tampering with them can be proceeded against legally for injuring or embez-
zling the property of the State.

_ 8. Quarantine restrictions once imposed are not to be removed by the State author-
ities without the consent of the proper officers of the Department of Agriculture.

INOCULATION, HM

13. Inoculation is not recommended by the Department of Agriculture, and it is
believed that its adoption with animals that are to be afterwards sold to go into
other herds would counteract the good results which would otherwise follow from
the slaughter of the diseased animals. It may, however, be practiced by State au-
thorities under the following rules:
bt No herds but those in which pleuro-pneumonia has appeared are to be inocu-

U .

15. Inoculated herds are to be quarantined with lock and chain on each animal,
the quarantine restrictions are to remain in force so long as any inoculated cattle
survive, and these animals are to leave the premises only for immediate slaughter.

16. Fresh animals are to be taken into inoculated herds only at the risk of the
ish and shall be subject to the same rules as the other cattle of the inoculated

nerd.

17. The Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry is to be promptly notified by the
State authorities of each herd inoculated, of the final dispoaition of ees thaniber of

the herd, of the post mortem appearances, and of an i i
the herd which may prove of = ue, eo acai gears

602 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

The Stateof New York was not represented at the conference, as
the State veterinarian, Prof. James Law, was then attending to some
business in the Western States. After returning, however, he gave
it as his opinion that, with the large number of infected herds known
to exist on Long Island and in the city of New York and vicinity, it
would be unwise to attempt to control the plague with the present
small appropriation.

The governor of New Jersey has not accepted the rules, and it ap-
pears that the obstacles to co-operation were Rules 8 and 15, The
objection to Rule 8 was removed by an offer from this Department to
change the reading from ‘‘ without the consent of the proper officers
of the Department of Agriculture” to ‘‘ without due notice to the
proper officers of the Department of Agriculture.” This concession
was also made to the State of Illinois, but the experience of the last
four months leads me to the opinion that it would os wiser for the De-
partment to adhere to the original reading, State authorities often
have very different ideas from those entertained by the officers of this
Department as to the time when it is safe to remove quarantine re-
strictions. They consequently object to restrictions which they can-
not remove at will. Onthe other hand, if the National Government
appropriates money to pay the expense of this work, there certainly
should be some guarantee that the proper regulations are enforced.: .

The objection to Rule 15 still stands in the way of co-operation with
New Jersey. The State authorities have adopted the practice of in-
oculation, and release the inoculated herds from quarantine after a
short period of isolation. After carefully considering the question
and all the scientific evidence bearing upon it, 1am of the opinion
that it is useless to attempt to eradicate pleuro-pneumonia in States
where inoculation is practiced and where inoculated animals are
afterwards allowed to mingle with the cattle of other herds. The
money expended for the purchase of diseased animals for slaughter
under such conditions is consequently largely wasted. .

The State authorities of New Jersey, however, have been assisted
by employing one or more veterinarians nearly the whole time, whose
duty it has been to investigate reported outbreaks of disease and give
such aid as was needed in inspection and in enforcing the State quar-
antine regulations. Thirty-one infected herds have been reported
from this State, containing 530 animals, of which 42 were diseased.

The governor of Pennsylvania has also failed to accept these rules
and regulations. His reasons for not acting on them are unknown
to me. The governor’s agent in charge of the pleuro-pneumonia
work raised some objections to Rule 15, but admitted that its enforce-
ment would make no great difference to the State. Inoculation is
practiced by the Pennsylvania authorities also, but with the small
number of outbreaks reported it would certainly be advisable to
slaughter all diseased and exposed animals and thus rid the State of
the plague at once,

Virginia is the only remaining State infected with pleuro-pneumo-
nia where the authorities have not accepted the rules and regula-
tions. The attention of the governor has been called to the desira-
bility of eradicating the disease from the State, but up to the present
he has taken no action.

The governors of Delaware and Maryland have accepted the rules
and regulations as issued, and without modification of any kind. No
cases of pleuro-pneumonia have been reported from Delaware since
such acceptance.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 603

Co-operation with authorities of the State of Maryland has been
more satisfactory than with those of any other State. The local
laws are good, and the work has been very largely in the hands of
the inspectors of this Department. The number of infected herds
reported from this State is 196, containing 2,277 animals, of which
705 were diseased. Dr. Wray, the inspector who has been in charge
of the work in Maryland since September 20, reported under date of
December 7 that since the former date 122 herds, containing 1,354
animals, had been put in quarantine, and that 92 herds, containing
1,089 animals, were still held under such restrictions. Since July 1
this Department has purchased and slaughtered in Maryland 308
LC amie cattle, for which $7,069 was paid, being an average of about
$23 per head.

In Maryland the quarantine has been made very efficient by plac-
ing a chain, fastened with a numbered lock, around the horns, or,
with hornless cattle around the neck, of every exposed animal. This
has prevented the substitution of one animal for another, and it has
also led to the prompt detection of any quarantined cattle which have
been allowed to stray beyond the boundaries of the infected premises.
The sick animals have been promptly slaughtered, and it is believed
that the good effects of this work are already seen in the decreased
number of new herds infected. In a number of cases where infected
herds have been of unusual danger to surrounding cattle this De-
pan has purchased and destroyed the sick animals, and the State

as then condemned and slaughtered the remainder of the herd, thus
entirely eradicating the disease at once. Unfortunately the State
appropriation has not been large enough to do this in as many cases
as seemed desirable.

No recent investigations have been made in Pennsylvania. The
governor’s agent, Mr. T. J. Edge, reports that during the year end-
ing November 30, 1886, 128 diseased animals were condemned and
slaughtered.

INVESTIGATIONS OF SWINE DISEASES.

In view of the results of investigations which have shown the
existence of two distinct infectious diseases in swine, perhaps of equal
virulence and distribution, a change in the nomenclature becomes
necessary in order to avoid any confusion in the future. Since these
two diseases have been considered as one in the past, and the names
swine-plague and hog-cholera have been applied indiscriminately, we
prefer to retain both names, with a more restricted meaning, using
the name hog-cholera for the disease described in the last report as
swine-plague, which is produced by a motile bacterium, and apply-
ing the name swine-plague to the other disease, the chief seat of
which isin thelungs. This change is the more desirable since recent
investigations have shown that the latter disease exists in Germany,
where it is called swine-plague (Schweineseuche).

INVESTIGATIONS OF HOG-CHOLERA.

Some additional biological facts concerning the bacterium which
produces the disease.—In the second annual report of the Bureau
and the Annual Report of the Department for 1885, the bacterium of
hog cholera, was quite minutely described, so that no one acquainted
with bacteriological investigations would find it difficult to recognize

604 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

it when found. The descriptions of size, shape, and mode of staining
referred to cover-glass preparations made from the blood and the
internal organs directly. These characters change somewhat when
the bacterium is cultivated in artificial media. Thus the bacteria
grown upon potato vary slightly in size and appearance from those
obtained from meat infusions and from nutrient gelatine. On the
other hand, their appearance is the same whether the spleen of mice,
ee guinea-pigs, or swine be subjected to microscopic examina-
ion.

The microbe was characterized as a motile bacterium 1.2 to 1.5
micromillimeters long and .6 micromillimeter broad, growing readily
in neutralized and even slightly acid meat infusions, milk, on potato,
and gelatine which is not liquefied. During the past year the bacte-
rium has been studied very carefully, with a view to determine the
best means of preventing its multiplication, and thus preventing the
spread of the disease itself. The conclusions arrived at are given in
full below, but will be summarized from a practical point of view in
the chapter on prevention.

Growth of the bacterium in simple hay infusion.—This was prepared by allowing
finely cut hay to soak in water for three or four days, filtering off the amber liquid
and sterilizing. Two tubes were inoculated with a drop from cultures in meat-in-
fusion peptone at different times. In both the following features were observed:
There was a slight turbidity within two days, which did not deepen perceptibly.
The bacteria were somewhat larger than in more nutritive liquids. In the shorter
forms there could be seen at each extremity more refrangent spherical masses,
while the central portions of the rod seemed empty. Longer rods contained three
or four of these bodies. When stained they appeared darker than the rest of the
rod. They were consequently not spores, but very probably masses of protoplasm,
which had contracted into these globules, and which indicated a degeneration of
ne bacteria. There were also forms present which were beaded, club-shaped, and

istorted.

Though the acid hay infusion is not a suitable medium, yet the bacterium of
hog-cholera evidently multiplies in it to some extent, and we may infer that in
any organic infusions, such as are formed about pens among the food of swine, the
bacterium may multiply under the influence of a hot sun and be afterward taken
into the system with the food and water.

Multiplication of the bacterium in water.—The hardiness of this
microbe is well illustrated by its capacity for multiplication in ordi-
nary drinking water. To determine this the following experiment
was made:

September 8: A culture tube containing very clear Potomac drinking water,*
which had been sterilized several weeks previous by a temperature above 110°C.,
was inoculated from a pure culture of the bacterium. By mixing a given quantity
of this water immediately after inoculation with gelatine, and making a plate cult-
ure of the same, it was found that the water contained about 26,240 bacteria in 1°.
The water was kept in the laboratory, in which the temperature corresponded
closely with that prevailing out-doors. It was examined from time to time on gela-
tine plates, and the number calculated for 1°. The following figures give the
results obtained:

September 8: 26,240 in 1°¢ (immediately after inoculation).

September 9: 201,600 in ice,

September 10: 1,296,000 in ice.

September 11: Too numerous on plate to be counted.

September 13: 2,608,200 in 1¢¢.

September 15: 1,519,560 in Ice.

September 17: 1,306,308 in 1¢¢.

September 29: 83,700 in Le,

October 12: 19,125 in 1¢¢,

* When drawn this water did not contain more than 100 to 200 bacteria to the
cubic centimeter.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 605

October 21: 10,880 in ve

November 18: 225 in 1°. ; ie
December's: A few bacteria still present, as determined by liquid cultures.
January 4: Seventeen in 1°.

January 11: No growth on plates.

That the bacterium can be kept alive in clear river water for four
months and perhaps longer is a fact very significant in itself. When
we consider, moreover, that the added bacteria multiplied so that
each individual was represented by ten at the end of five days, the
hardiness of the bacterium is very evident. The danger from in-
fected streams into which feces from sick animals find their way is

thus proved beyond a doubt.

The effect op aiiile drying on the bacterium of hog-cholera.—
The resistance of this microbe to various agencies, physical and chem-
ical, is likewise of considerable importance in determining the man-
ner of infection, the spread of epidemics, and the possible means within
reach of destroying the virus. In order to test its vitality when de-
prived of moisture the following experiments were carried out :

January 19, 1886: A number of cover-glasses were heated in the Bunsen flame
and then placed on a flamed glass plate under a flamed funnel. The mouth of the
funnel was plugged with cotton wool to allow desiccation while excluding aerial
organisms. When cool adrop froma pure liquid culture of the bacterium was placed
on each cover with a pipette, and the whole left in the laboratory at a temperature
of 65° to 80° F. The culture used had been prepared January 7 from the fifth spleen
culture, hence was twelve days old. : ;

January 21: Two tubes of nutritive liquid inoculated by dropping a cover-glass
into each. Both turbid next day, containing the bacterium of hog-cholera only.

January 25: Two tubes inoculated in the same way. Same result next day.

January 28: Two additional tubes receive each a cover-glass. They were still
clear on the following day.

January 29: Two tubes inoculated.

January 30: One tube. These five tubes remained permanently clear. In one,
inoculated January 29, a fungus had developed from the cover-glass in the bottom
of the liquid. This, however, remained clear. P

This series placed the death-point of the bacterium between the seventh and the
ninth day.

A suedni series of covers received each one drop from a culture obtained from a
mouse which had died from the effect of inoculation. The culture in beef infusion
peptone was ten days old. Treated in the same manner as in the preceding experi-
ment, the bacteria were found to resist drying for ten days, when the stock of cover-
glasses was exhausted.

To determine whether bacteria in the body of the diseased animal possess a greater
ower of resistance than those in cultures the following experiments were made:
Some bits of the spleen of a pig which was found crowded with the specific bacteria

of hog-cholera were dried on sterile cover-glasses as above described, and then
dropped into tubes containing beef infusion. Cover-glasses which had been dried
for from eight to sixteen days were able to develop pure cultures of the bacterium
in the tubes. The stock of covers being exhausted, another series was tried in the
same way. The blood of spleen tissue was permitted to dry undisturbed until the
seventh day, when the first tube was inoculated. Cover-glasses dropped into cult-
ures on the seventeenth, nineteenth, twentieth, twenty-first, twenty-fourth, and
twenty-sixth days left the cultures sterile. Those dropped in on the eighteenth and
twenty-second days produced pure cultures of the bacterium. These experiments
indicate a greater resistance of the bacterium in spleen tissue, which may live twenty-
two days in a dry atmosphere at a temperature of 70° to 80° F.

On May 8 five cover-glasses upon which bits of spleen tissue, known to contain
the bacterium of hog-cholera, had been dried under a plugged funnel since March
20, were dropped into tubes of beef infusion. On the following day all tubes were
turbid. In one of them bacillus subtilis was present. All the others were pure
cultures, as determined by microscopical examination. Two of these were tested
furthermore on gelatine plates with the same results. This indicates that in the
varying temperature of a room desiccation of small bits of tissue (not so large as a
pin’s head) failed to destroy the bacterium in forty-nine days. In the experiments |
with dried cultures those ten and eleven days old were chosen, so that if any resist-

606 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE,

ant spore state did form in liquids it would be present. It is highly probable, how-
ever, that if cultures but a few days old had been chosen the bacteria would have
resisted drying much longer. These experiments give the following results:

A liquid culture eleven days old resisted drying for nine days; another, ten days
old, at least ten days. Bacteria in tissue may resist destruction after drying for from
twenty-two to forty-nine days.

The method of drying the bacteria on cover-glasses and introducing the latter into
liquid does not inform us whether most bacteria die within the same time or whether
some resist much longer than others. Hence the following expedient was resorted
to, which Koch had introduced in the study of disinfectants: Silk threads sterilized
by boiling several times in distilled water were dried and steeped in a beef infusion

eptone culture about one week old. The culture containing the threads was al-
owed to dry in the incubator for one day, then placed in a sterilized bottle plugged
with cotton. Each day, beginning with the second, one or two threads were placed
in a layer of nutritive gelatine on a glass plate so that the thread was completely
covered by the gelatine. Characteristic colonies of the bacterium appeared around
the thread within two days, though the plates were usually kept under observation
five days. For twenty-one days isolated colonies and groups of colonies appeared
in moderate abundance on the threads, when the stock of the latter was exhausted.

In another similar series the threads were laid upon a sterile plate and a twenty-
four hours’ liquid culture poured upon them and allowed to dry uncovered in the
incubator for one day. These threads, still undisturbed on the plate, were placed
in the laboratory, covered with a bell glass. On the fifteenth day the testing began,
a single thread being placed in the gelatine layer each day for sixteen days. Col-
onies of the bacterium developed in large numbers until the twenty-second day,
when they diminished in number. On the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth days
no Sr appeared. On the three following days a few appeared, when the series
was closed. “a

The bacterium of hog-cholera may therefore remain alive, during
continuous desiccation, for from ten days to nearly two months. The
variation in the results obtained is no doubt due to the different vi-
tality of the cultures used. The gelatine-plate method is not so deli-
cate a test as the method of liquid cultures, as it would be difficult
to tell when the last bacterium died, a single colony under the thread
escaping observation very easily. A single bacterium would invari-
ably reveal its presence in aliquid after a time by multiplication. For
the same reason the latter method needs greater care; the liquid cult-
ures must be examined microscopically, and if there be any doubt
still remaining they must be tested on gelatine; for a single foreign
microbe gaining access to the culture tube might introduce an error
into the results, which is easily avoided on the gelatine plate by ob-
serving the characters of the colonies.

It had been determined by a large number of experiments that
cultures of the bacterium of hog-cholera can be sterilized—in other
words, that the bacterium itself may be destroyed—by an exposure to
58° C. for from 15 to 20 minutes. ‘To determine whether dried blood
or spleen tissue containing the bacterium was more resistant the fol-
lowing experiment was tried:

Spleen pulp from a case of hog-cholera was rubbed upon sterile cover-glasses
and allowed to dry under a plugged funnel for 24 hours at a temperature of 65° to
"5° F. Four tubes of beef infusion, after a cover-glass had been dropped into each,
were exposed to a temperature of 58° C. for 15, 20, 29, and 41 minutes, respectively.
These remained permanently sterile, while a fifth tube, which had been inoculated
in the same way but not heated, contained on the following day a pure culture of the
hog-cholera bacterium. It should be added that each cover-glass contained a con-
siderable number of germs, according to microscopic examination of different parts
of the spleen. | hd. ‘ (

The bacterium within the body of the diseased animal cannot there-

fore be regarded more resistant than when cultivated in liquids.

Hifect of boiling water.—Culture tubes containing about 10°¢ of meat infusion
were placed in boiling water until at the boiling-point. They were then removed,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 607

and a sterile cover-glass, upon which a bit of spleen tissue had been drying for five
days under a plugged funnel, was dropped into each tube. These were immediately
placed in ice water. A preliminary experiment had shown that the temperature in
these tubes fell below 40° C. in less than a minute. The spleen had been previously
found to contain the bacteria in large numbers. Of four tubes treated in this way
two became turbid with the specific bacterium; the others remained sterile.

In a subsequent experiment, four tubes were inoculated near the boiling tempera-
ture and one asacheck. This latter developed into a pure culture of the bacterium;
the heated tubes remained permanently clear. An almost momentary exposure of
the dried bacteria is sufficient, therefore, to destroy their vitality.

Resistance to various chemical substances or disinfectants.—In
the following experiments on the effect of various agents on the
vitality of the bacterium of hog-cholera the methods used by Koch
were not adopted, because liquids are far more sensitive to bacteria
than solid media. A single colony upon gelatine, the descendants of
a single germ, may escape the eye, but the same microbe in a nutri-
ent liquid would cloud it within a few days. There is, to be sure, for
this very reason, greater danger in the use of liquid media, since the
introduction of a single foreign microbe might lead to the same con-
clusions as the introduction of a dozen or a hundred, while a few
bacteria accidently caught on the gelatine would lead to no errors of
interpretation. The results obtained by the method given below
were so uniform, the absence of contamination was so constant, that
we can recommend it in all similar determinations.

The disinfectant solution was diluted with sterile distilled water
in a test-tube or watch-glass previously sterilized by heat. A few
drops from a pure culture of the hog-cholera bacterium were mixed
wn 4°° or 5° of this dilution, anda minute portion transferred at
given intervals, by means of a platinum loop, to culture tubes contain-
ing beet broth. These tubes were then placed in a temperature of 95°
to 100° F., where they remained from one to four days. Tubes which
remained clear at the end of this period were sterile, as shown by
numerous tubes which were watched for several weeks:

The experiments given below refer to the active vegetative state
of the bacterium in nutrient liquids, as experiments had failed to re-
veal any other more resistant state. The cultures were, as a rule,
but one or two days old. Previous experiments having shown that
older cultures are less resistant to heat than recent ones, it was as-
a that the vitality is gradually reduced as the culture grows
older.

All the tubes about which there seemed the slightest suspicion of
impurity were examined microscopically and often on gelatine plates.
In all cases the last of a series of inoculated tubes which became tur-
bid was carefully examined. This served as a check upon tubes ex-
posed for a shorter period of time to the action of the disinfectant.
The percentage of the solution used indicates the ratio by weight in
grams of chemically pure substances to grams of distilled water.

Mercurie chloride was found destructive to the bacterium when
diluted in the proportion of 1 : 75000 (.001 1-3 per cent.).

Several drops of a culture were mixed with about 1° of a.1 per cent. solution,
and tubes inoculated from this at the end of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 minutes. Tubes re-
main sterile. To show that the antiseptic effect of the liquid transferred with the
platinum loop was nil, one of these tubes was inoculated again from another cult-
ure. This tube was turbid on the following day.

Five tubes treated in the same way with .05 per cent. solution. Allremain sterile.

Five tubes inoculated from a culture exposed for the same periods of time to a .01
per cent. solution. All remain clear.

Five tubes treated as before, using a .005 per cent. solution. Permanently clear.

608 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Five tubes treated as before, using a .002 per cent. solution. All tubes clear ex-
cepting the one inoculated after 6 minutes’ exposure.

Five tubes inoculated at the end of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes after exposure
to a .0001 per cent. (1: 100000). Tubes inoculated after 5 and 10 minutes turbid next
day. On the second day all but the one inoculated after 30 minutes turbid and con-
taining pure cultures of the bacterium.

The limit of disinfection for this period of time must therefore lie between 1 : 50000:
and 1: 100000; hence 5 tubes were inoculated as above, using a solution of 1 : 75000,
at the end of 7, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes. All tubes remained clear.

Carbolic acid destroys the bacterium in solutions containing from
1 to 14 per cent. of the acid by weight.

Five tubes inoculated after treating the bacterium from a liquid culture with a 1
per cent. solution for 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 minutes. All turbid on the following day.
The two last tubes were also examined on gelatine plates and the cultures found

ure.
a With a 2 per cent. solution, five tubes inoculated after 10, 15, 20, 25, and 80 min-
utes remained sterile. The same result with a 14 per cent. solution. With a 1} per
cent., tubes inoculated at the end of 7, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes remained clear,
excepting the first, which contained bacillus subtilis.

Passing to a } per cent. solution, tubes inoculated at the same intervals became
turbid with the bacterium sown. With a }per cent. solution the result was the
same.

Passing back to a 1 per cent. solution, tubes inoculated at the same intervals re-
mained sterile.

There seems to be an incompatibility between the first and last series. If we ex-
amine the others, however, we must conclude that the limit of disinfection lies
between 1 and 14 per cent.

Iodine water was prepared by shaking up some iodine in distilled
water, which assumed an amber tint. This solution destroyed the
bacterium in 15 minutes, as the following experiment shows:

Six tubes were inoculated with, bacterium after they had been exposed to the ac-
tion of the iodine water for 7, 10, 15, 20, 26, and 31 minutes. On the following day
the first tube became turbid; on the second the 10-minute tube was turbid and found
to be a pure culture of the bacterium sown. The other tubes remained sterile. One
of them, inoculated later, showed its capacity for sustaining growth by becoming
promptly turbid.

Permanganate of potash.—A series of experiments with this sub-
stance, conducted in the manner described above, showed that the
bacterium is killed by 15 minutes’ exposure to .02 per cent. solution
tion (1:5000).

In order to obtain this result a 5 per cent. solution was tried first. Tubes inocu-
lated after an exposure of the virus for 7, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 31 minutes remained
permanently clear. One of these tubes, subsequently inoculated with the unaffected
virus, was turbid next day. Two and a half per cent., 1 per cent., 4 per cent., ¢ per
cent., j5 per cent., and 3/5 per cent. solutions were tried in the same way. The six
tubes used for each solution remained sterile. Finally a 345 per cent. (1: 5000) was
used. Tubes were inoculated after an exposure of the virus for 2, 4, 6, 10, 15, 20, 25,
and 30 minutes. On the following day the four first tubes were turbid; the fifth
and seventh remained sterile; the sixth and eighth contained a fine bacillus. These
two tubes, as was found later, belonged to a lot which, through some carelessness,
had not been properly sterilized, and the majority became turbid before use.

Mercuric iodide was found to destroy the bacterium in solution of
1 : 1000000 in 10 minutes.

Two grams of potassium iodide and 1 gram of mercuric iodide.were dissolved in
100¢¢ of distilled water, making a 1 per cent. solution of the disinfectant in a 2 per
cent. solution of potassium iodide. !

This solution, diluted with sterile distilled water so as to make .1 per cent., killed
the bacterium of hog-cholera taken from liquid cultures in less than 5 minutes;
.01 per cent. (1: 10000), .002 per cent. (2: 100000), .001 per cent. (1 : 100000), and .0005
per cent. (5 : 1000000) destroyed the germ within 2 minutes.

When the solution was diluted so as to make .0002 per cent. (2: 1000000) and .0001

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. . 609

r cent. (1 : 1000000) it was found that with both solutions tubes inoculated with the
Bepierinin after a exposure of 2 and 5 minutes were opalescent, the bacterium in-
troduced having multiplied, while the remaining tubes (10 to 30 minutes) were ster-
ile. These two solutions, therefore, were still powerful enough to kill the germ in
10 minutes. The dilution had been carried so far as to make them practically equiv-
alent in disinfectant power. f .

Sulphate of copper.—This disinfectant, which seems to be more effective than
most other metallic salts, was tried in solutions containing 2 per cent., + per cent.,
yy per cent. Both the 2 per cent. and 4 per cent. solutions destroyed the germ within
5 minutes. Tubes inoculated with the bacterium after an exposure to the 7; per
cent. solution for 5, 10, and 15 minutes became turbid; those inoculated after an
exposure of 20, 25, and 30 minutes remained clear. :

The disinfectant power for short periods of time may be said to lie between 4 and
yy per cent. In this, as in other tests, one or two drops of the culture were added
to 5° of the disinfectant. <A slight flocculent precipitate formed each time.

Of hydrochloric acid a .2 per cent. solution of the acid, made by adding 4.2¢ of
chemically pure acid (containing about 40 per cent. HCl) to 95.8° of water, de-
stroyed the germ in less than 5 minutes. ; ; mY

Chloride of zine.—A 10 per cent. solution of this salt failed to destroy the vitality
of the bacterium in 10 minutes; 20°¢ of Squibbs’ chloride of zinc, containing 50 per
cent. of the salt, were added to 80° of sterile distilled water to make a 10 per cent,
solution. A drop from a culture five days old was mixed with 5° of this solution,
from which mixture tubes were inoculated at the end of 5, 10, 15, 25, and 30 min-
utes. The two first tubes became clouded.

Sulphuric acid.—A .05 per cent. solution (1: 2000) was fatal to the bacterium of
hog-cholera in less than 10 minutes.

Without going into detail, it is sufficient to say that the results were reached as
indicated above. Tubes containing sterile beef broth were inoculated at the end of
5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes with bacteria exposed to 4+ per cent. and 4 per cent.
No development. Those inoculated with 5 per cent. became clouded, each being a
pure culture of the bacterium inoculated. When 3); per cent. was tried, only the
5-minute tube became clouded. The solution (by weight) was made from sulphuric
acid containing 96 per cent. of the acid (specific gravity 1.838).

It must be remembered that the foregoing tests were made upon
bacteria in an active vegetative state. It is probable that in the dried
condition it would have taken solutions of the same strength some-
what longer time to destroy their vitality. To briefly summarize the
results, placing the least effective substance first, we obtain the fol-

lowing table:

Chloride of zinc in a 10 per cent. solution destroyed the bacterium in liquid cultures
in 10 to 15 minutes.

Carbolic acid, 1 to 14 per cent. (1 :100), in 5 minutes.

Iodine water in 15 minutes. :

Hydrochloric acid, } per cent. (1: 500), in less than 5 minutes. (Only a .2 per cent.
solution of this acid tried.)

Sulphate of copper, +; per cent. (1: 1000), in 15 to 20 minutes.

Sulphuric acid, 75 per cent. (1: 2000), in less than 10 minutes.

Permanganate of potash, #y per cent. (1: 5000), in 15 minutes.

Mercuric chloride, 745 per cent. (1: 75000), less than 5 minutes.

Mercuric iodide in ypty5 per cent. (1: 1000000), in 10 minutes.

The above table would no doubt be somewhat changed by mixing
virus imbedded in large quantities of organic matter with the disin-
fectant solutions. It gives, however, a good working basis for ex-
periments on a large scale, and it throws out at once the use of chlo-
ride of zinc and perhaps carbolic acid.

In order to determine how much stronger solutions than those
above given would be required to destroy the dried bacteria, the fol-
lowing experiment was carried out:

Spleen pulp containing large numbers of bacteria was rubbed on sterile cover-

lasses so as to make a thin film, and allowed to dry for 2 days under a plugged

unnel. A solution of mercuric chloride, 1:50000, was poured upon the cover-

glasses, and one was removed after 14, 2, 3, 5, 7, 16, 15, 17, and 20 minutes, washed

in about pig of ep water, and dropped into tubes containing beef infusion.
AG— 606.

610 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

After remaining in the incubator for a day it was found that the virus exposed to
the disinfectant for 14, 2, 7, 10 and 20 minutes had been destroyed, the tubes remain-
ing permanently clear, The others contained pure cultures of the hog-cholera
bacterium.

The bacterium may be thus killed by solutions of mercuric chlo-
ride, which do not destroy spores. Koch found that anthrax spores
may remain in solutions of 1: 50000 for over 60 minutes without losing
their capacity for germinating. That all of the germs were not de-
stroyed in the.above experiment does not weaken the conclusion.
They were undoubtedly incrusted with blood and cellular elements,
so that the disinfectant could not exert its full power directly upon
them. Koch, on the other hand, used spores from cultures only.
The experiment demonstrates the absence of any resistant spore state
in the tissues of the animal, but points out the necessity of consider-
ably increasing the strength of disinfectant solutions in endeavoring
to destroy the bacteria in nature, inasmuch as we have to deal with
other things besides the germs themselves, which neutralize much
of the disinfecting power.

Is there any resistant spore state in the life-history of the bacte-
rium of hog-cholera?

Stained in dilute solutions of aniline colors the bacterium from
the tissues of animals which have succumbed to the disease stains in
such a way as to leave the impression that it contains an endospore.
A narrow band of stained substance bounds an oval pale body, which
is but slightly tinged. It appears that a rather resistant envelope
prevents the coloring matter from passing readily and quickly into
the interior of the bacterium.

If a drop from a recent liquid culture be suspended from the lower
surface of a cover-glass and examined in a glass cell with a homoge-
neous immersion objective and small diaphragm, the following ap-
pearances are worthy of record: The bacteria in the center of the
drop of culture fluid are in very active motion and quite small, If
the periphery of the drop be examined there will be found a dense
layer of bacteria caught there by the slow desiccation and conse-.
quent contraction of the ore These, some of which are still mov-
ing slowly, are larger than the forms in the center of the drop, As
the drying proceeds and the film of water becomes thin the bacteria
appear to be made up of a distinct dark border surrounding an almost
transparent body. In most forms there is a slightly thicker border
at the ends than at the sides of the short rod-like bodies. When
stained slightly this border takes the stain well, while the body of
the rod remains pale. The fact that the structural and color pict-
ures correspond is strong evidence that the microbe possesses a
rather dense membrane, which in optical section is seen as a narrow
dark border.

The form and size of the bacteria under consideration depend upon
the culture medium and upon the age of the culture. The appear-
ance which they present in the animal tissues is very closely simu-
lated in hquid media, more especially beef infusions with peptone.
When grown on gelatine or potato the appearance just described
cannot as a rule be made out, as the bacteria are apt to be smaller.

The foregoing facts incline us to believe that we have no true spore
state to deal with in this microbe, but perhaps a membrane, which is

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 611

more or less resistant, according to circumstances, and which is more
resistant in the animal tissues than in cultures,

Microscopical characters, however, are now and then misleading,
unless we interpret them by physiological experiments. Judging
from what has hitherto been considered properties of bacterial spores,
the microbe of hog-cholera cannot lay any claim to the production
of true endogenous spores, ‘Their absence is determined by results
of experiments recorded in the preceding pages: 1. The thermal
death-point of the bacterium at 58° C. An exposure to this tempera-
ture for 15 to 20 minutes destroys not only the vitality of cultures of
all ages, but also the dried germ in the tissues of the infected animal.
A momentary exposure to boiling water is equally efficacious. 2.
The bacteria are dectowed by disinfectants in solutions which are
incapable of destroying.spores. 3. They are killed by simple drying
far more quickly than are spores; at the same time their resistance to
drying is much greater than might be expected under the circum-
stances. In the experiments recorded some dried bacteria in spleen

ulp were killed in less than a month; others resisted forty-nine days.

Ve may put the limit, which is very much less for dried cultures, be-
tween one and two months. It is this continued vitality in the dried
state that suggests the existence of a membrane which is more re-
sistant than that possessed by the great majority of bacteria in their
vegetative state. This difference between bacteria in the vegetative
an the spore state is illustrated by the anthrax bacillus. Incultures
the bacilli are kiiled by drying in five or six days; the spores, under
the same condition, retain their virulence for years.

All the facts brought out by the study of this bacterium lead to the
conclusion that a distinct spore state, so called, does not appear either
within the animal body or in nature. *

Observations on the pathogenic properties of the bacterium of
hog-cholera.

In addition to the foregoing experiments on the general biological
characters of the bacterium of hog-cholera, a few additional obser-
vations were made upon its pathogenic activity, with a view to deter-
mine more precisely the mode of infection.

Growth im vacuo,—It seemed desirable to learn the extent to which
the bacterium was capable of multiplying with a minimum supply of
oxygen. The following simple experiment was tried:

An elongated glass bulb of about 15¢¢ capacity, terminating in a narrow tube
about 10™ long, and containing about 5° of beef-infusion peptone, was inoculated
from a pure culture. The air was then exhausted by an air-pump for fifteen min-
utes, while the bulb was kept immersed in a water bath at a temperature of 38° C.
It was finally sealed in the flame and placed in the incubator. The results of three
separate experiments were practically the same. In'the bulbs the culture liquid was
turbid on the following day. This turbidity increased but slightly, and within three
or four days growth had evidently ceased, Four other microbes, two of which were
found in the exudates of swine-plague bacillus luteus described in the Second An-
nual Report of the Bureau, a micrococcus, bacillus subtilis, and a microbe producing
septiceemia in rabbits, were treated in the same way. None of the tubes became
turbid. When, after three or four days, the bulbs were opened and filtered and air
allowed to enter, the liquids became turbid within twenty-four hours, the charac-
teristic pigment of the bacillus luteus appearing a few days after.

*There is no reason why the bacterium in the body of animals may not be in an
arthro-sporous state, according to the classification of de Bary. The name is of little
account as long as we define the properties belonging to a given state,

612 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

The bacterium of hog-cholera has therefore the power of multiply-
ing in what is practically a vacuum, but this power is limited. The
other microbes failed to show any signs of growth whatever. They
were purely aerobic. The bacterium of hog-cholera may therefore
be regarded as holding a place midway between those microbes which
seem to thrive better without air—anaerobic—and those that fail to
grow without it.
That no spores were found in these bulbs may be inferred from the |
following experiment: One of the tubes kept sealed for a month was
“opened and a number of culture tubes inoculated therefrom. They
were then exposed to a temperature of 58° C. for 15, 20, 25, and 30
minutes. All remained sterile. One, inoculated without being
subsequently heated, was turbid with the specific bacterium next day,
indicating that it was still alive in the bulb when the latter was
opened,

MODES OF INFECTION.

(a) By way of the digestive tract.—In at least 90 per cent. of
swine a very severe form of hog-cholera may be induced by feed-
ing to them the viscera of animals which have died of the disease.
The lesions produced are exceedingly severe. The mucous membrane
of the large intestine is extensively ulcerated or completely necrosed.
In animals which have contracted the disease in the ordinary way in
infected pens the ulceration of the large intestine, at times very se-
vere, usually stops abruptly at the ileo-czecal valve. When this is
slit up, the mucosa belonging to the small intestine up to the free
border of the valve is in the great majority of cases normal, while the
mucosa of that surface of the valve facing the czecum may be exten-
sively ulcerated. In many animals fed with infectious matter the
ulceration involves the entire ileum. This is well illustrated by the
following cases:

January 8, 1886.—Pig No. 165 was fed with the viscera of two pigs which had died
of hog-cholera. It was found dead January 26, after manifesting no marked symp-
toms of disease except a tendency to lie quietly in its pen. On examination the sub-
cutaneous fat was found diffusely reddened. There wasaslight peritonitis, indicated
by a considerable quantity of straw-colored effusion and some fibrinous stringy de-
posits. There were also a few local excrescences on the small intestine, due to the
irritation of echinorhynchi. Spleen somewhat enlarged; on its surface a few
bright red punctiform elevations. Right heart distended with a clot. Local hepa-
tizations in lungs, probably caused by lung worms, which were very numerous.
Stomach but slightly reddened. A number of ulcers in the duodenum, the mucosa
of which was reddened. The mucosa of the ileum for 14 feet from valve was com-
pletely necrosed, the walls thickened, and the serosa of this portion dotted with ec-
chymoses. Beyond this portion, near the jejunum, there were scattered ulcera-
tions on a deeply congested membrane for 6 or 7 feet. The entire length of the
large intestine was covered with dirty yellowish ulcerations varying in diameter
from a pin’s head to nearly aninch. The mucosa itself was very deeply congested
in the ceecum and colon only. and the walls much thickened. Ascarides and echi-
norhynchi numerous in smallintestines. The liver attached to diaphragm in several
places by whitish exudate.

A tube of meat infusion with peptone inoculated from the spleen of this animal
was found to be a pure culture of the motile bacterium of hog-cholera. Line
cultures on gelatine plates confirmed the microscopic examination. A tube of nu-
tritive gelatine inoculated from the spleen at the same time contained in each needle
track, several days later, from 10 to 15 colonies of the same bacterium. Two cover-

lass preparations revealed no bacteria. This fact, combined with the small num-

r of colonies in the tube culture, gave evidence of the small number of germs in
the spleen tissue. Inoculations on mice and guinea-pigs gave substantially the
same results as those obtained last year.

No. 159 was fed with the viscera of No. 165 on January 28. February 5, its
eyes were sore and nearly closed; it was quite weak. It died on the following day,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, 613

only eight days after infection. The skin on abdomen was reddened in patches;
the subcutaneous tissue diffusely. The superficial inguinals, as well as the glands
in the abdomen, were deeply congested, the cortex more especially. Those of the
thorax were nearly pale. The spleen was dotted with a few punctiform elevations,
Beneath the epicardium and endocardium of both auricles and the endocardium of
the left ventricle were extensive patches of extravasated blood. Kidneys enlarged
and congested throughout. The lesions of the ileum, czecum, and colon in this ani-
mal were quite as extensive as those of the case just described; there were no ulcers
in the rectum, however. Those of the colon had black centers, pointing to a recent
origin from blood extravasations on the surface of the mucous membrane.

In the spleen of this case the characteristic bacteria of hog-cholera were exceed-
ingly numerous, as determined by cover-glass preparations. Two liquid cultures
proved pure when tested on gelatine plates. In the needle tracks of a tube culture
in gelatine innumerable colonies appeared in a few days. Inoculations from sub-
sequent cuitures proved equally positive.

Pig No. 156 was fed with the viscera of No. 159 February 18, and, after manifest-
ing the usual symptoms of hog-cholera, died February 25, seven days after feed-
ing. Among the marked lesions produced by the disease was a complete necrosis
of the upper two-thirds of the colon, with scattered ulcers along the lower third.
About an eighth of a foot of the lower portion of the small intestine, beginning at
the valve, was necrosed, without manifesting distinct ulceration, for which the pe-
riod of disease was evidently too brief. In the spleen there were numerous small
grayish spots, probably centers of necrosis, as they showed no longer cell structure
when oresuey on a slide and stained. The fundus of the stomach was also deeply
congested.

The spleen, to which organ the microscopic examination was limited, contained
the characteristic oval bacteria, as shown by cover-glass preparations. Three liquid
cultures made from the same organ were found to be pure cultures of the same
microbe when tested by line cultures. A tube culture in gelatine developed in each
’ needle track numerous non-liquefying colonies.

In these animais the mode of introduction of the virus determined
the seat of the severest lesions. It is probable that the food passes
quite rapidly through the small intestine; that in the stomach the
action of the bacteria is more or less limited, because they have not
sufficient time to multiply, and probably because hindered by the
acid condition of the organ, though they will multiply with consid-
erable vigor in slightly acid solutions. The prolonged stay of the food
in the large intestine permits multiplication, and thereby causes the
first and severest lesions to appear here. When these have become
very extensive, so as to ae the action of the large intestine, the
ileum becomes involved in a similar manner, possibly by a partial
stoppage of the infectious matter in this portion of the intestine.
This view is supported by the evidence of the above and other post
mortem examinations in which the disease was produced by feeding.

This mode of infection by feeding viscera was used to keep up the
disease at the experimental station, as simple infection in pens could
not always be relied upon in furnishing cases for investigation.
These few cases might therefore be supplemented by many others to
show the ease with which infection may take place in this way.

In general two types of disease appear. In one the lesions are
limited quite exclusively to the alimentary tract, involving the
stomach, the large intestine, and often the ileum, less frequently the
jejunum. There may be complete necrosis of the mucosa in the colon
and ileum, with intense reddening of the fundus of the stomach.
The internal organs are but slightly affected. There are few or no
hemorrhages, and the bacterium is very scarce in the spleen and
other organs, so that its presence is only determinable by culture.

In the other type the extensive local lesions are replaced by hem-
orrhagic lesions of the internal organs, involving the spleen, kidneys,
lymphatic glands, lungs, and serous membranes generally. Besides
these, the mucous membrane of the. stomach and intestines may be

y’

614 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

congested, and extensive hemorrhages into the subinucous tissue, often
into the lumen of the digestive tube, take place. These lesions have
been described somewhat in detail inthe last report. Thespleen and
blood are found to contain a large number of the hog-cholera bac-
teria,

Both types of the disease produced by feeding lead to a speedy termi-
nation by death in from six days totwo weeks. ‘The difference above

iven may perhaps be referred to a difference in the virulence of the

acteria. In the type first described the bacteria may be less adapted
to a parasitic life. Their poisonous effects are exerted locally in de-
stroying the mucous membrane. In the second type the bacteria are
capable of entering the blood, to be distributed to ail the organs where
the hemorrhagic lesions are caused by their growth.
_ (b) Feeding pure cultures of the bacteriwn of hog-cholera.—In
the preceding report (p. 207) two very severe cases of hog-cholera
are reported as having been produced by the feeding of pure liquid
cultures. These positive results are not always obtained, as some of
the following experiments indicate:

Pigs Nos. 155 and 156 were fed February 8, 1886, with 200°¢ of a beef-infusion
peptone culture derived from a mouse which had succumbed to inoculation. The

animals remained well. Pig No. 155 was fed February 1 with 100°¢ of liquid cult
ures of the bacterium of hog-cholera without manifesting any symptoms of disease

The rapidly fatal effect from the ingestion of the viscera of swine
containing the specific bacterium may be harmonized with the nega-
tive results above recorded when we consider the different condition
of the bacterium in the liquid cultures and in the infectious viscera.
In the latter case the bacteria are enveloped by connective and cel-
lular tissue, which protect them from the destructive effect of gastric
digestion, so that they are carried into the intestine where the path-
ological lesions are first manifested. In culture fluids the bacteria
are in the most vulnerable state, and are easily accessible to the ac-
tion of the gastric juice, which very probably does not permit any to
pass alive into the duodenum.

That the condition of the stomach is a very important factor in the
production of the disease when the virus has entered it seems a ve
reasonable assumption. If the virus reaches the empty stomac
coated with an alkaline mucus it is more likely to multiply and reach
the duodenum than when the stomach is filled with food which is
being actively digested. In order to test this assumption the follow-
ing experiment was tried:

December 18.—Three pigs were fed each with 300° of beef infusion in which the
bacterium of hog-cholera had been multiplying for three days at a temperature of
90° to 95° F. The beef infusion had been neutralized, and sterilized in two flasks,
and the cultures, when examined before the experiments, were found to contain the
motile bacterium only.

The pigs were prepared for the feeding as follows: No. 348 received no food for
over twenty-four hours. A 2 per cent. solution of sodium carbonate in beef in-
fusion was then given to increase the alkalinity of the stomach. Of this about 1
liter was consumed. It was then fed with 300°¢ of culture liquid mixed with beef-
broth to make 1 liter. No. 350 was starved in the same way, but received no alkali
ee consuming the culture. No, 342‘was not deprived of food before eating the
culture.

The result confirmed our anticipations. No. 348 showed signs of disease in two
days. On the third it was unable to rise, and died on the same day. The post
mortem examination showed a considerable congestion of the mucous membrane of
the duodenum and jejunum, as well as of the largeintestine. The fundus of stomach
affected in the same way. The liver was gorged with blood, as well as the portal
system. There were no marked lesions of the other viscera. That the hog-cholera

.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 615

bacterium had also entered the blood was shown by two pure cultures in beef in-
fusion obtained from the spleen. A gelatine culture from the liver contained about
6 or 7 colonies.

No. 850 was a more typical case, and demonstrated the severe local effects of the
bacterium much better, since the animal lived longer. It ate fairly well until the
fourth day, when its appetite gave way and diarrhea set in. From this time it grew
weak and thin, being scarcely able to walk. It died on the tenth day after feeding.
The lesions of the alimentary tract were exceedingly grave. Beginning with the
stomach, the mucous membrane was dotted with closely set elevated masses as large
as split peas, and larger patches of a whitish viscid substance, made up entirely of
cellular elements (diphtheritic?), When removed, a raw depressed surface was ex-
posed. The membrane itself was pale. Besides a general injection of the iliem,
Peyer’s patches were more deeply congested, and the uppermost covered with a thin
yellowish film, not removable, and most likely dead epithelium. In the cecum and
colon the mucosa was superficially necrosed, and converted into a continuous layer
of a dirty whitish mass about 1™™ thick. The walls of the intestine were greatly
thickened and very friable.

Microscopic sections showed an extensivecellular infiltration of the submucous con-
nective tissue which had separated the masses of fat cells, concealed the connective
tissue fibers, and caused a great thickening of the entire layer. The mucosa itself
was greatly altered. The surface was necrossed and converted into an amorphous
mass. In some places the necrosis involved the entire depth of the crypts of Lie-
berkiihn, a series of strize indicating their former existence. Those whose epithelium
still remained were plugged with a cylindrical mass, filled with broken-down nuclei.
The bacteria had exerted their poisonous effects from the surface of the mucosa to-
wards the depths, destroying the surface epithelium and glandular structures and
involving secondarily the submucous layer. Near the rectum this continuous mass
of dead tissue was replaced by isolated ulcers embedded in an intensely reddened mu-
cosa. Plate II, taken from another case, illustrates well the superficial death of the
mucosa. The ileo-ceecal valve was much swollen, but the necrosis did not extend
into the ileum, although there were a few ulcers near the valve, and the epithelium
had a pale, lusterless aspect, as if dead. The liver was filled with blood, which
readily clotted as it flowed from the cut surface. Spleen congested and but slightly
enlarged. Lungs hypostatic. The lymphatic glands in general not much affected.
Two liquid cultures from the blood were turbid next day, and contained the hog-
cholera bacterium only. In a gelatine tube culture from the liver about a dozen
colonies developed in each needle track. .

No. 342, which was fed with the same quantity of culture liquid but was not de-
prived of food previously, was somewhat ill on the following day. It recovered, ©
however, and continued apparently well for several weeks. It began thereupon to
grow thin and weak. On January 26 it was no longer able to rise, and was there-
fore killed for examination, in order to conclude the experiment. On opening the
abdominal cavity it was at once perceived that the animal had been suffering from
a very intense disease of the large intestine, a portion of which was firmly attached to
the bladder. When dissected out and slit open, the mucous membrane of the caecum
and colon was found replaced by a brownish friable layer of necrosed tissue. The
wall of the intestine was infiltrated to such an extent that it was nearly + inch
thick, and so degenerated that the forceps easily tore through it. The thickness of
the walls prevented the intestine from collapsing after it was opened. Its only con-
tents was a brownish liquid mass. The glands of the meso-colon were very large,
some like horse-chestnuts. On section the entire tissue was very pale, almost
white. The spleen was somewhat enlarged; the malpighian corpuscles unusually
large and prominent on section. Lungs and heart normal; kidneys deeply reddened
throughout on section.

This case is very interesting in completing the information gained by this feeding
experiment. No, 348, which had been fed with sodium carbonate besides being de-
prived of food, died three days after the ingestion of the culture. No. 350, which
was apy starved, died ten days thereafter, while No. 342, which ate the culture
without being previously starved, was dying on the thirty-fourth day.

These results show how easily infection may occur by way of the
digestive system, provided the destructive action of gastric digestion
be prevented, as was done by starving and by the use of an alkaline
carbonate. é

They also indicate how purely local this destructive action may be.
Gelatine cultures from these animals showed that the internal organs
contained but very few bacteria. So few were they in fact that the

616 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

microscope alone could not have demonstrated their presence, as they
could not be found on cover-glass preparations.

Other successful experiments by feeding pure cultures will be
given in connection with a description of the bactoriats from differ-
ent parts of the country.

(c) Subcutaneous inoculation with pure cultures.—The least suc-
cessful method of producing the disease is the subcutaneous inocula-
tion of pure cultures. In the report for 1885 at least three out of four
inoculations produced a rapidly fatal form of the disease. In the
numerous experiments to be described later, in which pigs were in-
oculated with cultures to determine whether any future protection
was thereby granted, only five died from the inoculation. In these
experiments two subcutaneous injections were practiced, a small

uantity being followed by a larger quantity of culture liquid. The
deatite occurred from the first injection when this was made compara-
tively large; the second dose, which was usually quite large, was
borne without any ill effects.

These successful inoculations, reported in extenso in another section, are briefly as
follows: No. 239, inoculated April 27 with 4¢¢ culture liquid, died May 2, only six days
after inoculation. Hemorrhagic condition of vital organs. Though seven others
were treated in the same way none took sick. It may be that in this individual the
needle entered a superficial vein, and in this way introduced the virus directly
into the blood.

Nos. 204 and 212, inoculated April 12 with 14°¢ culture liquid, died eleven and seven
days after inoculation, respectively. In the former the mucosa of large intestine
was entirely necrosed. In the latter ulceration was just beginning.

Nos. 208 and 209, inoculated at the same time with 1°¢ of the same culture, died
fifteen and six days after inoculation respectively. Numerous extensive ulcers in
the large intestine of 208. In 209 general congestion and extravasation along di-
gestive tract and in internal organs. With each pair two others had been inoculated
without any untoward results.

The local swelling at the point of inoculation is usually propor-
tionate to the quantity of culture fluid injected. The following cases
show how large quantities may be borne without inducing the disease:

Nos. 116 and 154 were inoculated February 8 by the subcutaneous injection of 34¢¢
of the second culture from the spleen of No. 165 in beef-infusion peptone, one-half
being injected into each thigh. A very large swelling appeared at the seat of inoc-
ulation in No. 154, causing considerable lameness. March 4 this animal was killed,
although evidently not diseased. The inoculation tumor was over 1 inch long and 4
inch thick; firm, yellowish-white, developed in the loose connective, and only
loosely attached to skin and subjacent mucular tissue. There was considerable serum
in the abdominal cavity, and the spleen wassomewhat enlarged. In the fatty tissue
lining the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity numerous worms were found (Sclero-
stoma pinguicola), occupying tunneled spaces in the fibro-adipose mass. No indi-
cations of hog-cholera. No. 116 was not affected.

No. 181 was inoculated February 13 with 7°* of the second liquid culture from the
spleen of pig No. 159. Within afew days-the animal became lame, but this passed
away. At the seat of inoculation large tumors had developed, no doubt causing
the stiffness of the hind limbs. This animal was killed March 4, At each point of
inoculation were found firm fibrous masses, from 2 to 3 square inches in extent and
nearly an inch thick. Nosuppuration. There were no lesions pointing directly to
hog-cholera. There was, however, a considerable quantity of pale serum in the
abdominal cavity. Spleen enlarged; cortex of kidneys dull, thickened; lymphatic
glands of large intestine somewhat prominent, but pale.

These animals may have suffered from the absorption of ptomaines from the place
of inoculation, but dissemination of the bacteria through the internal organs evi-
dently did not take place to any extent.

The failure to produce the disease in even a small proportion of
animals by the injection of liquid cultures raised the question whether
the cultivation in itself did not attenuate the bacteria. Consequently

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 617

two experiments were made by inoculating with blood directly. Num-
erous gelatine cultures of heart’s blood had demonstrated the very
small number of bacteria compared with the number present in the
spleen.

September 10.—A pig dying with the disease was killed, the heart carefully ex-
posed, and the blood drawn with a disinfected hypodermic syringe. Nos. 329 and
333 received subcutaneously 5° each, one half in each thigh. No. 329 in a few
days lost its appetite, became weak and stupid. Found dead October 5. Slight
local swelling at the points of inoculation; superficial inguinals greatly enlarged;
hypostatic congestion of lungs; complete necrosis of mucous membrane in cecum;
large scattered ulcers in colon, showing as whitish patches on serous surface and
encircled by a crown of enlarged blood vessels; bacteria in spleen.

No. 333, slightly ill for a time; fully recovered. Died December 2 with no other
lesions than engorgement of liver. No signs of former ulceration. ,

A second experiment was made in the same way:

October 13.—Nos. 324 and 825 inoculated as in the preceding experiment, 10°¢ of
blood being used for each animal. No.824 was found dead November 1, after being
off feed for a time. Deeply reddened skin over caudal half of abdomen; extremely
large and serously infiltrated superficial lymphatics; on section, hemorrhagic points.
At point of inoculation the connective tissue is infiltrated; 50°¢ to 75° clear amber
serum in abdominal cavity; papille: of kidneys deeply reddened; slight conmestion,
but no ulceration in large intestine; lymphatics in general moderately tumefied and
congested.

No. 325 found dead October 29. Reddening of skin as in 324; extravasation in
connective tissue; spleen greatly enlarged, purplish; lymphatics of thorax and abdo-
men purplish, enlarged; petechize on section of kidney and in pelvis, also over en-
tire surface of epicardium; lung tissue mottled both on surface and on section with
purple spots, due to blood extravasation into alveoli, so that it scarcely floats. Mu-
cous and serous surface of small intestine dotted with petechize; small hemorrhages
on the surface of the mucous membrane and into the submucous tissue of the caecum
and upper colon. Ulceration beginning.

These results are more positive than those obtained with cultures,
and on first thought we may be inclined to attribute them to a greater
virulence of the germs in the injected blood. This view needs further
confirmation, however. The injected blood coagulating in the con-
nective tissue contains in it the bacteria, which are not only protected
from the aggression of cellular elements, but have actually a store of
nourishment upon which they may live and multiply. No such ad-
vantages are presented to bacteria suspended in NRE which are
readily absorbed, leaving them to the mercy of the tissues surround-
ing them. The local reaction in the above animals was very insig-
nificant compared with that produced by liquid cultures. In order
to come to any conclusion, it would be desirable to add a few bacteria
from cultures to fresh blood, and observe the relative virulence in the
way indicated above.

Taking the foregoing results into consideration, the alimentary
canal must be considered as the most vulnerable point for the entrance
of the bacterium of hog-cholera. It is probably the chief, if not the
only, entrance of the virus when the infection takes place among herds.
The occasional occurrence of lung lesions as extensive hepatization
in advanced cases of hog-cholera suggested to Klein the. name of
pueumo-enteritis. In the many cases carefully examined at the exper-
imental station the lung lesion did not appear to surpass in severity
those of the internal viscera and the lymphatic system. In the great
majority of animals lung-worms were usually found associated with
localized atelectasis. The collapsed portions had a red flesh color.
Many cases of chronic hog-cholera, associated with extensive ulcer-
ation of the large intestine, had normal lungs. On the other hand,
cases of a very acute hemorrhagic type, produced by feeding infec-

618 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

tious material or by subcutaneous inoculation, presented throughout
the lung tissue small hemorrhagic foci involving several contiguous
lobules. On section they were of a dark-red color, and indicated
extravasation into the alveoli, which were filled up with coagulated
blood. These foci are very likely caused by plugs of bacteria grow-
ing in the capillaries, producing necrosis of their walls and consequent
extravasation. Taking into consideration the condition of the re-
maining viscera in such cases, it is highly probable that the foci are
not primary, but secondary in character. They are not growths of
the bacteria introduced by the inspired air, but carried there by the
circulation, the original place of entrance being the alimentary tract.
These centers of growth may gradually spread and involve the entire
lung substance, giving rise to that extensive hepatization occasionally
found. That infection may arise through the air in some cases,
especially in summer, when the bacteria are dried and carried away
as dust, is not necessarily excluded. The greater activity of the virus
in the warm seasons cannot be entirely due to its dissemination in
this manner, since drying destroys the bacteria of this disease in from
one to two months, and it may reduce their pathogenic power in a
much briefer time. The greater diffusion and mortality must be
attributed to more favorable opportunities for the bacteria to multi-
ply outside the animal body in streams and in the soil on animal and
vegetable substances. In this connection it might be well to record
the following experiment:

Two pigs placed in an air-tight box were subjected to the spray of an atomizer
containing 10° of a liquid culture of the hog-cholera bacterium diluted with 40:«
of distilled water. The spray was directed upon the faces of the anima!s, which they
could not avoid, owing to the small size of the box. They were removed atthe end
of thirty minutes and placed in a disinfected pen. After afew days they seemed
somewhat dull, but both recovered. Several months after one of them died of
hog-cholera on being fed with infectious material. It is highly probable that the
bacteria were carried into the lungs at the time.

In view of the fact that another bacterium has been recently found
associated with severe lung lesions, and is probably the cause, it be-
comes necessary to re-examine diseases of the lungs, whether associated
with true hog-cholera or occurring independently. The subject is
fully discussed further on.

Cycles of virulence.—The variation in the severity and extent of
epidemics of infectious diseases has been a subject for observation:
and comment by all who have studied them more carefully. It is
characteristic of infectious diseases attacking man as well as those to
which animals are subject.

The change in virulence is indicated both by the number of ani-
mals affected in a given time and by the suddenness with which
they are struck down after infection. The record of cases of hog-
cholera kept at the experimental station for more than a year is very
instructive, in showing clearly how the virus of a specific disease may
become very much attenuated, then suddenly regain its virulence,
sweep away a large number of animals very rapidly, then again lose
its virulence until it has scarcely any effect upon the animal system.
This change in virulence is indicated in various ways. When atten-
uated the virus produces a chronic disease, characterized by local
ulcerations of the mucous membrane in the large intestine. The
affected animal lives for four or more weeks. This is the way in
which the disease manifests itself most commonly. When the viru-
lence is great the disease is rapid, the lesions hemorrhagic in charac-

/

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 619

ter, involving nearly all the vital organs. ‘These are found to con-
tain the specific bacterium in large quantities. Subcutaneous inocu-

a disease as severe and as rapidly fatal. When the pigs are fed with
the viscera from these same cases even more severe local and general
lesions are the result. From such a height of virulence there is a
gradual descent. Animals which have become infected in the natu-
ral way are attacked by a milder and more protracted disease. Inoc-
ulations of cultures become less successful or fail altogether. Hyen
when fed with the viscera of animals which have died of the disease,
pigs will after atime become affected with a slow chronic malady.
In these milder forms of the disease comparatively few bacteria pene-
trate into the vital organs to multiply there. Cover-glass prepara-
tions of spleen pulp do not show a single microbe in many fields,
while the same preparation from hemorrhagic cases may show from
50 to 100 in every field of a A, homogeneous objective. Nor does
the quantity of viru’ introduced materially change the result. When
the disease is at its highest point of virulence cases of natural infec-
tion are frequently as severe as those fed with large quantities of
virus. On the other hand, when animals are fed with cultures of
more or less attenuated virus, the local destruction of tissue in the
intestines may be very grave and cause speedy death, but the internal
organs remain more or less intact.

This change in virulence has not been observed in experiments
upon mice, rabbits, and guinea-pigs. The same peculiar lesions have
appeared throughout a period of fourteen months. The duration of
the disease may vary, but this depends upon the quantity of virus
introduced into the system. The lesions in the protracted cases due
to the inoculation of very small quantities are if anything more pro-
nounced.

What agencies are at work in bringing about this variation in
virulence is a problem still to be solved. There is no clew to an ex-
planation, and we simply record the facts as observed. There seems
to be a sufficient reason for regarding the increase of virulence as due
to climatic and meteorological conditions affecting the bacterium
outside of the body, for our own observations show that the success-
ive passage of the virus through the body of pigs by feeding dimin-
ishes its virulence and may finally destroy it.

The relation of the virulent and attenuated bacteria to the ani-
mal organism is expressed by the statement that the former are
capable of living and multiplying in the blood vascular system of the
infected pig, while the latter are unable to do so. Their destructive
action is limited to the intestinal tract. There may be two properties
by whose change a virulent bacterium becomes attenuated, and vice
versa—the capacity of living with a limited supply of oxygen, and
the power of forming a poison or ptomaine which is more or less de-
structive to cellular life. Either or both of these properties, when
augmented or diminished, may bring about the differences which are
observed between malignant and mild types of the disease.

EXPERIMENTS UPON OTHER ANIMALS WITH THE HOG-CHOLERA BACTERIUM.

Mice infected by feeding.—It was desirable to determine how far the bacterium of
hog-cholera was infectious to other animals besides pigs when introduced with the
food into the alimentary canal. Mice, being susceptible to inoculation, might con-
tract the disease about the pens, and being eaten by pigs would quite naturally be-
come a source of infection. To determine this point bread and spleen were thor-

620 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

oughly mixed by mincing them together. Two mice ate of this mixture, and one
was found stupid, scarcely able to move about on the following day. The same
material was fed a second time. Both were ill on the next day. They crouched,
somewhat sprawling, with head down, staring coat, and eyes partly closed. On
taking them out of the jar they were unable to move; when pushed forward they
moved a few steps. These symptoms passed away on the third day. Five days
after the first feeding one was found dead. The other was fed again six days after
the first feeding. It was found dead two days after the last feeding. The first feed-
ing had therefore taken effect. The liver showed the formation of islets of coagu-
lation necrosis and was crowded with the bacteria of hog-cholera. The very pe-
culiar condition of these animals on the second and third day after feeding can only
be explained by assuming the active multiplication of the bacteria in the intestinal
canal and the formation of a ptomaine, which, on being absorbed, produced a sys-
temic effect. The invasion of the internal organs themselves from the alimentary
canal manifested itself later by the death of the animals and the presence of the in-
gested bacteria in the spleen and liver.

Two additional mice were fed in the same way. One escaped. The other failed
to show any symptoms referable to the ptomaine, though fed four times. It re-
mained well for over two weeks, when it began to breath laboriously and became
very weak. It was killed with chloroform twenty-five days after the first feeding.
The spleen was found enormously enlarged, but there were no bacteria on one cover-
glass preparation. One lobe of each lung was solid, whitish, crumbling, evidently
the result of coagulation necrosis. This mass was crowded with what appeared
under the microscope as bacteria of hog-cholera. No cultures were made. This
animal, therefore, judging from the enlarged spleen and the necrosed lungs, was
also the victim of hog-cholera. Another mouse fed in the same way was dying
four days after, but found drowned in the drinking cup next morning, thus pre-
venting microscopic examination of the organs. ’

To determine whether these animals could be infected with pure cultures, a
mouse was fed with bread which had been saturated with about 4° of a liquid
culture and dried for an hour in the incubator. The feeding was repeated on four
successive days. Seven days after the first feeding the animal was plainly ill, and
it died on the following day. This would indicate that the first or second feeding
had taken effect. The spleen was enlarged, the vessels of the mesentery very
prominent and filled with blood. The bacteria were very abundant in the spleen,
moderately so in liver and kidney. A second mouse fed with cultures was found
drowned on the eighth day.

Two mice, kept in separate jars, were fed with a mass consisting of bread and
gelatine culture thoroughly mixed. The gelatine culture had been prepared by

assing a glass rod dipped in a, liquid culture over the surface of a layer of gelatine.

he gelatine after five days was covered with a thin opaque layer, consisting of
confluent colonies. Both mice ate the dose. One was found dead next day ina
crouching posture; the poison had evidently killed it in a very short tlme. .The
other did not appear disturbed by the absorption of the ptomaine, but it died from
general infection on the sixth day. The spleen was considerably enlarged. Both
spleen and liver contained large numbers of hog-cholera bacteria.

These few experiments show the possibility of an infection of mice
through the food, and of the transportation of the disease through the
agency of these animals. They show incidentally the effect on the
system of the absorption of the ptomaine produced by bacteria in the
alimentary canal.

Feeding was also tried on pigeons by saturating the feed with the
culture liquid and allowing it to dry. No marked effect was pro-
duced. The feces were unusually liquid and abnormal in appearance
for some time.

Guinea-pigs very susceptible to hog-cholera.—In. order to determine the effect of
very small doses on guinea-pigs, two animals, Nos. 8°and 4, which had been kept
for more than a month under observation, were inoculated by injecting under the
skin of the inner aspect of the thigh about ziy9°° of a culture in meat infusion
with 1 per cent. peptone, prepared from the spleen of a pig on the day previous.
To obtain such a small dose the culture liquid was diluted with sterile salt solution,
and about 4° of this injected. On the third day both were unusually quiet and
rested together; respiration seemed more labored; the animals moved unwillingly
when disturbed. No. 3 was found dead on the morning of the eighth day, and No,
4 died at noon on the same day.

=

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 1 621

On examination the skin of No. 3 was found discolored at the place of inocula-
tion. The surface of the muscular tissue at this point-was dotted with ecchymoses,
interspersed with whitish areas which corresponded to altered muscular tissue.
This was whitish, friable, evidently dead. Such masses could be found toa depth
of 1°“ in the muscles of the thighs. This alteration seemed to follow along the
planes of the intermuscular septa. A patch about 1°™ in diameter onthe muscular
wall of the abdomen contiguous with the place of inoculation was similarly affected.
In the abdomen the vessels of the intestine were injected, spleen full of blood, mottled
dark red and grayish, friable. Lungs somewhat congested. The stomach con-
tained a small mass of food embedded in considerable viscid translucent mucus; the
ceecum and large intestine were filled with a yellowish soft food mass.

The bacteria of hog-cholera were present in large numbers in the liver and
spleen. There were fewer in the kidneys and lungs; very few in blood from the heart.
A tube culture in gelatine from the spleen developed numberless colonies in each of
three needle tracks, growing precisely like cultures from the spleen of swine. A
liquid culture from the blood showed the motile bacterium on the following day,
and line cultures made therefrom revealed the same growth on plates as that from
swine.

Guinea-pig No. 4 presented the same local as well as general lesions. _ The spleen
was dark in spots and very friable. Vessels of the mesentery injected. The bac-
teria were as abundant in the organs as in No. 8. Cultures made as described for
No. 3 proved identical with the latter.

These animals are as arule more refractory than rabbits with reference to the
virus of rouget, rabbit-septicema, and a new pathogenic microbe described in a
subsequent section of this report.

Microscopic examination of tissues of infected animals.—In sec-
tions of ¢issues from cases of hog-cholera, cut after being imbedded
in pure paraffine, the bacteria stain very well in aniline water methyl-
violet. The sections may be treated afterward with a 4 per cent. solu-
tion acetic acid without removing the stain. Treated in this way and
examined with a 7; or 4s homogeneous immersion the bacteria ap-
pear in plugs or clumps, never isolated. In the spleen such colonies
are seen in the spleen pulp near the trabeculee; in the kidney the plugs
are rare even in the most hemorrhagic cases. In sections of the wall
of the large intestine of a recent case in which there was much extrav-
asation, the submucous tissue was infiltrated with red blood corpus-
cles, which had forced their way between the bundles of areolar tissue
and among the fat cells. Occasionally masses of corpuscles were seen
beneath the serosa. In a number of sections carefully examined no
bacteria could be detected.

When we take into consideration the coagulation necrosis produced
by this bacterium when injected beneath the skin in mice, pigeons,
rabbits, and guinea-pigs, and its tendency to grow in plugs or colo-
nies, the hemorrhagic effect is easily pe The growth in the
smaller blood vessels coming in contact with the walls destroys them
and gives rise to extravasation. In the intestinal mucosa the extrav-
asation may lead to a cutting off of the food supply and consequent _
necrosis and ulceration.

The liver of a mouse which had succumbed to hog-cholera, inter-
spersed with whitish specks and patches of necrosed tissue, was ex-
amined in the same way. The section contained unstained areas
corresponding to the patches of coagulation necrosis seen with the
naked eye. These ungtained areas are dotted with stained, shriveled
nuclei and surrounded by a zone of leucocytes. The bacteria are
found in small clumps both within and on the periphery of the un-
stained areas. They are also present in the capillaries of the sur-
rounding tissues. Inthe larger vesselsthey are present, but scattered.

In the muscular wall of the abdomen of a guinea-pig invaded from
the seat of inoculation on the thigh the bacteria had penetrated in

622 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

immense numbers through the connective tissue surrounding the
individual fibers and produced extensive extravasation, thereby fore-
ing the bundles of fibers apart.

THE BACTERIUM OF HOG-CHOLERA IN OTHER OUTBREAKS.

In an outbreak of hog-cholera at Ivy City, D. C., several miles
from the Experimental Station, the same lesions were found, coupled
with the presence of the previously described bacterium, as shown
by the following notes:

Pig No. 261.—Brought to the station a few hours after death. Considerable red-
dening of the skin of the limbs and over the pubic regions. Extravasations into
the subcutaneous adipose tissue; considerable deeply stained serum in abdominal
cavity; spleen very much enlarged and gorged with blood. Lymphatic glands in
thorax and abdomen all deeply congested. Hemorrhagic foci in lungs. Mucous
membrane of ceecum and upper colon almost black, the remainder deeply congested.
Numerous: small ulcers scattered over the mucosa of czecum and colon. Besides
these, there were, about 6 inches from the valve, two ulcers nearly 14 inches across,
so deep as to produce an inflammatory adhesion between the serous surface of the
intestinal wall and adjacent organs. The mucosa of the fundus of the stomach
deeply congested; numerous small ulcers near pyloric region. The small intestine
unaffected, if we except a few petechiz. Both kidneys much swollen; glomeruli
gorged with blood; also the pelvis and bladder. In the spleen the bactera of hog-
cholera were very abundant, as shown by cover-glass preparations. Two liquid cult-
ures therefrom were pure, as determined microscopically and on gelatine plates.

This case is interesting from two points of view. It dentonstrates
the identity of cause of two virtually independent centers of the dis-
ease. It also suggests a double infection; the first causing the few
deep ulcers and probably only a very slight general infection; the
second invading the entire body, producing rupture of the blood ves-
sels by a necrosis of the vascular walls. ;

Another outbreak near the city of Washington presented the same
features. The spleen of the animals which succumbed contained the
bacteria of hog-cholera only,

The Bacterium of Hog-cholera in Nebraska Outbreaks.

Karly in March of the present year (1886) Dr. W. H. Rose was sent
to the West to collect material for the study of hog-cholera, in order
that a comparison with the disease as it exists in the East might be
made. Is the disease identical with that described in the Second An-
nual Report? If the cause can be proved the same, the diseases must
nereserly be regarded as identical,

It was thought best to use the spleen, which has nearly always fur-
nished pure cultures of the specific bacterium, and which, in the
great majority of the cases, contains the bacteria in such numbers that
they may be easily detected in cover-glass preparations. The spleen
was removed from the body of pigs killed for that purpose and placed
in a bottle plugged with cotton wool, which had been sterilized at
ies es Spleen pulp was rubbed upon slides, dried, and sent with the

ottles. ;

Ten animals were examined in all, about three from Kansas and
the rest from three different places in Nebfaska. Irom the notes
sent there seemed to be little doubt that the lesions resembled those
described in the preceding report very closely. As to the spleens,
none of them arrived at the laboratory in good condition. Some of
them were partially decomposed; others were covered with fungi and
zoogloea of micrococci. Cover-glass preparations revealed a variety of
forms, most of them large bacilli, some spore-bearing. in only one

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 623

case did a bacterium resembling the microbe of hog-cholera appear
amongstanumber of otherforms, Weshall return to this case later on,

Of the slide preparations the dried films were searched in vain for
the presence of the bacteria, indicating plainly the external origin of
the putrefactive forms. Plate cultures were made in a few cases
without any promising results. Mice were inoculated with bits from
a number of the spleens by introducing them beneath the skin of the
back. A few mice died, probably of malignant cedema, and the rest

remained well. ;

In only one case was the result unexpectedly successful. This
came from Tecumseh, Nebr., the spleen in which the bacterium
seemed present in cover-glass preparations. Plate cultures and line
cultures directly from spleen pulp were equally unsatisfactory, owing
to the variety of germs present.

Two mice, Nos. 69 and 70, inoculated with bits of spleen tissue, furnished a key
to the problem. Both were inoculated March 23; one died March 30, the other
April 1. In No. 69 there was a very large quantity of serum in the subcutaneous
tissue of the skin about the abdomen and in the abdominal cavity. The liver, es-
pecially along its border, was dotted with small patches of coagulation necrosis, A
cover-glass preparation of spleen and liver negative. The culture from the effusion
contained several forms of bacteria, as might have been expected. A liquid culture
of the blood seemed a pure culture of a motile oval bacterium, resembling closely
the bacterium of hog-cholera, In No. 70 the lesions were more nearly identical
with those observed after inoculating mice with the bacterium found in the East.
The lympHatics of the knee fold and the spleen were very much enlarged; the
liver contained small patches of coagulation necrosis; lungs and kidneys congested.
Bacteria, not to be distinguished from those of hog-cholera, were found abundantly
in spleen, liver, and heart’s blood; in small number in lungs and kidney. The liquid
culture was identical with that from No. 69. A tube culture in gelatine and line
cultures from the liquid cultures failed to grow for reasons discovered later on.

In order to determine whether the bacterium obtained from these mice was patho-
genic or not, four mice were inoculated April 6 (Nos. 75 and 76), from the culture
of No, 69, 77, and 78 from the culture of mouse 70, each receiving from 5 to 10
drops of the culture liquid. April 12 all four mice were found dead. In No. 76
there were signs of commencing necrosis in the liver. There were no marked
lesions observed excepting a variable enlargement of the glands in the knee fold.
In the liver and spleen of every animal the oval bacteria, with pale center, were
present in large numbers. As these had succumbed in less than six days, the most
characteristic lesions, great enlargement of the spleen and coagulation necrosis in
the liver, were absent. These changes were invariably produced with the hog-
cholera bacterium first described when very minute quantities were inoculated, by
which the period of disease was prolonged for nearly two weeks from the date of
inoculation. April 20, Nos, 84 and 85 were inoculated with 5 drops of a culture
derived from mouse No. 78, No, 84 died in two days, and No. 85 died in six after
inoculation. In both the characteristic bacteria were present in spleen and liver.
At the same time Nos. 82 and 83 were inoculated from the culture obtained from
the blood of mouse No. 77. No. 82 died two days after, and No, 83 seven days
after, inoculation. In the latter case the longer time had allowed the formation of
coagulation necrosis in liver and great enlargement of the spleen.

This new microbe, identical morphologically with the bacterium
of hog-cholera already described, pees a disease in mice which
is pape the same as that produced by the latter microbe.

he effect of these two bacteria is the same on rabbits. May 22 a
young rabbit received subcutaneously an equivalent of .001° of the
eleventh culture (mouse) four daysold. No symptoms of disease ap-
peared until June 5, fourteen days after inoculation. It was then
very quiet, refusing to move and breathing with some effort. On the
poLowing day it wasfounddead. Theautopsy revealed the following

esions:

At the place of inoculation was found a yellowish-white mass resting on thg
muscular tissue and covering an area about 2°“ in diameter. This mass, consistine

624 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

of necrosed tissue, did not crumble readily between the forceps. The superficial
veins in the vicinity were dark and distended with blood. On the contiguous ab-
dominal wall there was a patch about 2°™ diameter closely stadded with small ex-
travasations. These were found isolated as far as the lowest ribs on the same side.
In the abdominal cavity there was a small quantity of stained serum. The in-
testines and bladder were lightly glued to each other and to the abdominal walls.
The spleen but slightly augmented in size. The liver studded with minute isolated
whitish points of coagulation necrosis. Lungs mottled with a bright red through-
out. In the spleen and liver the bacteria inoculated were abundant. A culture in
nutritive gelatine from the liver grew precisely like former cultures. Two cultures
in beef-infusion peptone were turbid on the following day, and had a complete
membrane.* Both were pure cultures of the motile bacterium inoculated.

A young rabbit inoculated May 28 with a comparatively large quantity (4°) of the
thirteenth culture (mouse) was found dead June 3. The local and general lesions
were the same as those above detailed. The bacteria were present in considerable
numbers in spleen and liver.

In liquid cultures from blood of heart and liver the motile bacterium only was
found, forming a surface membrane. Cultures in gelatine were equally satisfactory.
The lesions produced by this bacterium resembled those produced heretofore by the
bacterium discovered in the East very closely. The spleen, however, was not
markedly enlarged.

Effect on pigeons.—Two young pigeons were inoculated April 28, beneath the skin
over the pectorals, each with .6° of a culture from a mouse. They appeared unaf-
fected until April 27, when the feathers became ruffled and the birds moved about
with difficulty. They became worse, exhibiting the usual d&ppearances of pigeons
inoculated with the hog-cholera bacterium; feathers much rufiled, so as to give
the birds a puffed appearance, tail feathers drooping, head drawn in and depressed.
Discharges of a mucous character. One was found dead April 50, the other died in
the course of the same day. In both the pectorals presented the parboiled appear-
ance due to the local effect of the culture and previously described. In one bird
the bacteria were abundant in the liver, few in the spleen; in the other there were
but a few in both organs. Finally, quid as weil as tube cultures in gelatine were
successful in containing the bacterium inoculated. Another pigeon inoculated at
the same time, which had been fed with spleen unsuccessfully some weeks previ-
ously, did not become sick. After two weeks it was killed; and in each pectoral an
elongated sequestrum was found surrounded by a membrane and evidently ia pro-
cess of absorption. Another pigeon previously vaccinated and inoculated with the
bacterium of the Hast, and now inoculated with this bacterium from Nebraska,
remained perfectly well. ‘Two other pigeons were inoculated April 24, for the sake
of comparison, one with 4° of a liquid culture of the Eastern, and the other with
the Western variety. Both pigeons exhibited the characteristic symptoms above
described. The former died April 30; the latter recovered. When killed later
only a small sequestrum was found at the seat of inoculation. In the former, bac-
teria were found in spleen and liver. A tube culture in gelatine from liver and a
liquid culture from blood of heart were both cultures of the Eastern germ. The
bacterium failed to show any pathogenic effects when injected beneath the skin of
two guinea-pigs.’ The same culture which was promptly fatal to a rabbit had no
effect whatever on a guinea-pig inoculated at the same time. ;

Whether we are here confronted by a very slight attenuation or weakening of
the virus with reference to guinea-pigs, due to prolonged cultivation in artificial
media, with an occasional rejuvenation by its passage through a susceptible animal,
or whether the difference in activity between it and the bacterium from Eastern
outbreaks of the disease is in reality due to a permanent physiological difference,
remains to be determined by additional experiments.

In order to determine the effect of inoculation upon pigs at the
Experimental Station, bits of two spleens from Nebraska were intro-
duced beneath the skin of each thigh and the remainder fed to the
same animals on March 16. A slight swelling at the place of inocu-
lation soon subsided. As no results followed, the same animal was
fed April 28 with portions of the spleen of four or five pigs which had
died of hog-cholera at the Station. It was found dead May4. With-
out giving the autopsy notes in detail, it is sufficient to state that

*This bacterium differs from the one described in forming a surface membrane
on liquids,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 625

among other lesions the large intestine and ileum were more or less
ulcerated.

May 12, two pigs (Nos. 234 and 237), were inoculated each with
about 34° of a seventh culture obtained originally from a mouse.
One-half was injected beneath the skin of each thigh. There being
no indications of any disease after this inoculation, No, 237 was fed
July 10 with portions of viscera from cases of hog-cholera, and was
found dead July 15. No. 234 was fed July 25, and died from the ef-
fects August 8. No. 219 received May 28 10° of a liquid beef-infusion
peptone culture, one-half into each thigh. At both places a small
tumor developed, which did not disappear. ‘This animal seemed un-
affected by the inoculation, and was fed, together with No. 237, July
10. Both died on the same day. In both animals there was consid-
erable superficial necrosis in the caecum and cclon, and complete
necrosis of the mucosa of the major portion of theileum. In No. 219
there was an encysted mass about the size of a marble in the subcu-
taneous connective tissue at the place of inoculation, freely movable.
On section a grayish-white cheesy mass, partially converted into a
liquid in the interior, could be easily peeled out of a capsule, the inner
surface of which was considerably reddened. In Nos. 237 and 219
the spleen contained the bacterium of hog-cholera, as determined by
cover-glass preparations. No. 234 was not examined. The subcu-
taneous inoculations having proved unsuccessful thus far, a pig was
fed June 4 with the viscera of a rabbit which had died from the inocula-
tion, and the organs of which contained the bacterium in abundance.
June 9asecond rabbit wasfed tothesamepig. July 20, one month and
a half later, the animal being apparently in good condition, it was
fed with the viscera of a pig which had died of hog-cholera at the
station. After some days of marked debility it was found dead
August 9. It presented the lesions consequent upon a general sys-
temic invasion of the virus, greatly augmented spleen, deeply con-
gested lymphatic system, hemorrhagic foci in lungs, and extensive
necrosis of cecum and upper colon.

The negative results of these few experiments must not incline us
to reject the conclusion that the microbe under consideration was
actually the cause of this outbreak of swine disease in Nebraska.
When we remember how closely it resembles in its cultures, reaction
and its pathogenic effect upon smaller animals the bacterium which
was demonstrated to be the cause of the disease as observed for over
a year at the Experimental Station, the evidence from the standpoint
of to-day becomes too strong to beset aside. Wemustalsoremember
that the culture was obtained early in March, and was kept for inoc-
ulation experiments without re-enforcement from any fresh cases of
disease for several months, and that the disease is only exceptionably
produced by subcutaneous inoculation. Our information concern-
ing the attenuation of this virus under cultivation is very meager,
although it is highly probable that any microbe adapted to a parasitic
existence will suffer by artificial cultivation.

In order to determine whether the disease could be produced by
feeding the bacterium from Nebraska in liquid cultures, two pigs
(Nos. 383 and 384) were fed, each with about 250° of a beef-infusion
culture after being starved for over twenty-four hours. No. 383 re-
ceived previous to the ingestion of the culture liquid about 1 liter of
beef broth to which 1 per cent. sodium carbonate had been added.
The feeding took place on the evening of December 19, 1886. On the
following evening No. 384 was dull; on the next day it did not eat,

40 AG—’86

626 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

was dull, and its bowels relaxed. it continued in this way, with poor
appetite and manifesting general debility, until the ninth day, when
it was killed for examination, which gave the following facts:

Stomach rather pale; the mucous membrane of small intestine much reddened.
The mucosa of large intestine, from cecum to rectum, very dark red in large
patches, resembling in some places punctiform and diffuse extravasations. A few
whitish diphtheritic patches in the cecum; no ulceration. On section of kidneys a
moderate number of punctiform extravasations were found limited to the basal
portion of the pyramids. Beneath the pleura the surfaces of both lungs were cov-
ered with pale red spots not larger than a pin’s head. On section they could also be
seen. Other organs not changed. Six liquid cultures from blood and spleen re-
mained sterile. In this case the local lesions were very mild compared with those
produced by the bacterium from Illinois and the East. In order to determine
whether the bacteria themselves, which had been cultivated for nearly nine months,
had lost their virulence for rabbits, a black rabbit received hypodermically into the
thigh }¢¢ of a culture in beef-infusion peptone one day old. The culture liquid was
covered by the usual membrane characteristic of this variety.

The rabbit died January 4, 1887, five days after inoculation. The germ, therefore,
was still as virulent as ever for rabbits. At the point of inoculation the blood ves-
sels of the connective tissue and delicate fascia covering the muscles on the inner
aspect of the thigh were injected and tortuous. There was no extravasation, how-
ever, and on careful inspection what appeared to be so was resolved into arborescent
injections of very minute vessels. The fascia was but slightly thickened. The
muscular tissue covered by it had a whitish aspect, and when cut into it was found
necrosed for a depth of several millimeters and over an area of 3 or 4 square cen-
timeters. The neighboring lymphatic of the knee-fold was enlarged and infiltrated
with blood throughout. Spleen enlarged three to four times, blackish, friable. Me-
dulla of kidneys very deeply reddened, also inner portion of cortex. Liver shows .
six or seven large patches of a yellowish cast, representing regions of commencing
coagulation necrosis. A large number of ecchymoses of the size of a pin’s head on
gall-bladder; on mucous surface the membrane is blackish. Similar extravasations
beneath the mucosa of the rectum for a distance of 5™, and extending upon meso-
rectum; one of these isa projecting hematoma. Caudal and cephalic regions of both
lungs dark red, airless. Beneath the pleura of these regions are still darker spots
or ecchymoses. The pleura covering the remainder of both lungs is dotted here and
there with dark spots, varying in size from a pin’s head to 10™™ diameter. The
characteristic bacteria very numerous in spleen, less so in liver; few in blood from
the heart.

A gelatine and liquid tube culture were made from the spleen and liver, anda
liquid culture from heart’s blood. In the tube the tracks of the needle were soon
covered with colonies. In the liquid cultures only the motile hog-cholera bacteria
were found. In two days every tube had a complete membrane, which became
slightly thicker a few days later.

From the liquid culture prepared from the spleen one day old a large white rab-
bit received hypodermically into the thigh .05°°. The culture was diluted in sterile
beef broth and i°¢ containing the above amount of culture liquid was injected.
The rabbit seemed well and active until it was found dead on the eighth day after
inoculation. The local lesion involved only the subcutaneous tissue, in which there
were ecchymoses and greatly enlarged vessels. At the place where the virus had
been deposited a small nodule had formed, consisting of a whitish, pasty mass. The
lymphatic of the knee fold near by was enlarged, with dark red cortex. The inter-
nal organs, markedly changed as usual, were the spleen, liver, and lungs. The
spleen was many times enlarged, dark, friable, crowded. with bacteria, The liver
was similarly enlarged. On its caudal surface there was a diffuse discoloration,
which, on closer examination, was proved to be coagulation necrosis. It had in-
vaded the acini from the portal system, leaving the central portion still intact (Plate
VI, Fig. 2). On the cephalic aspect this network of necrosis was replaced by larger
solid yellowish white masses. In two places near the border of the liver the necrosis
involved five to six contiguous acini, converting them into pale hyaline cylinders.
The entire parenchyma was thus more or less changed, as shown on section. The
cut surface presented the same interlobular trabecule of dead tissue. The bacteria
injected were very numerous in this organ. The lungs were generally emphysema-
tous. The margins were dark red, with darker points, probably hemorrhagic. On
section these were found throughout the lung tissue for 4°" from the border. Bac-
teria in moderate numbers. Two liquid cultures from spleen and liver contained on
the following day the injected bacteria, with the membrane beginning to form.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 627

The disease caused by this germ in its duration, symptoms, and
lesions, in rabbits and mice, cannot be distinguished from that caused
by the bacterium of Eastern hog-cholera. It is, moreover, entirely
different from rabbit septiceemia,* in which no great enlargement of
the spleen, no coagulation necrosis in liver, nor inflammation of lungs
is present.

bi e No. 384, fed with No. 383, was dull on the following day, with
relaxed bowels. It remained more or less unthrifty for several weeks
after feeding.

Thus far the feeding experiments had not been conclusive, and a
final attempt was made, which proved successful. _

A flask containing between 500° and 600° of sterile beef infusion
was inoculated from a culture (rabbit), and after standing six days in
the incubator the entire amount was given to a pig which had not
been fed for thirty-six hours. The culture liquid was covered with a
thin membrane, and on microscopic examination contained only the
motile bacterium. The animal became dull and weak, eating little.
The bowels were loose on the fourth day. On the fifth it was unable
to rise, and on the sixth it was found dead. The autopsy notes are
briefly as follows:

In abdominal cavity several hundred cubic centimeters of a reddish
serum, a thin translucent exudate covering the peritoneum of the in-
testine, which is diffusely reddened. Between the layers of the mes-
entery, along the line of attachment to small intestine, an abundant
translucent gelatinous exudate. Spleen very dark on section; the
surface dotted with elevated points of extravasated blood. Liver
congested, Lungs normal with exception of a few lobules, which
are simply collapsed..

Almost the entire digestive tract was found involved. Around the
cardiac orifice a zone of mucous membrane about two inches in |
width was covered with whitish diphtheritic patches. Isolated ulcers
in duodenum, About 6 or 7 feet of the lower portion of the small
intestine very much thickened, the mucous membrane covered with
a thin sheet of necrosed tissue, whitish, brittle. The cecum and

ortion of the colon greatly thickened, and covered with a thick
ayer of necrosed tissue very rough and brownish. Near rectum
necrosis gives way to closely set, isolated, roundish diphtheritic ele-
vations of a whitish color, which leave a raw surface when scraped
away.

These lesions were therefore as intense as any produced by feeding
pure cultures of hog-cholera bacteria obtained from the East. The
identity of the two bacteria from Nebraska and the East was thus
completely established.

In the liver and spleen the bacteria were few, for a cover-glass prep-
aration from each organ did not show any after some searching.
Liquid cultures from the blood (heart), spleen, and liver were turbid
on the following day, and all contained the motile oval bacterium.
. Within four days complete membranes had formed on the surface.
The differential character of the bacterium had not changed, there-
fore, in passing through the organism of the pig. That the bacteria
were very few in blood from the heart was indicated bya gelatine
tube which had been inoculated several times with a platinum wire
dipped in blood; no colonies were visible on the fourthday. Of three
liquid cultures, each inoculated with a loop of blood, two remained

* Journ. Comp. Medicine and Surgery, VIII (1887), p. 24.

628 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

sterile. It was presumed that the liver would contain the largest
number, inasmuch as the portal circulation received its blood from
the seat of the disease. This assumption was confirmed by the very
abundant colonies surrounding apiece of liver tissue which had been
dropped into a tube of nutrient gelatine.

In order to make certain of the pathogenic powers of the cultures
obtained from this case of feeding the tube culture from the liver
was used to infect two rabbits. Theskin on the inner aspect, of one
thigh was carefully shorn and disinfected with .1 per cent. corrosive
sublimate. Anincision was made through the skin, and with a loop
dipped in the surface growth of the culture a minute quantity was
introduced into this pocket. The larger of the two rabbits was found
dead on the fifth day. The lesions were briefly as follows:

Slight amount of pus at the place of inoculation. Neighboring inguinal glands
enlarged and infiltrated with blood throughout. Surrounding vessels much injected
and very tortuous. Liver very friable, spleen dark and enlarged; both dotted with
points and stellate spots of coagulation necrosis, especially numerous on the caudal
surface of the liver. Both organs contained the bacteria of hog-cholera in large

numbers. Lungs deeply congested, perhaps hypostatic. A small number of ecchy-
moses beneath pleura; very few bacteria in kidneys and heart’s blood.

The second rabbit was found dead on the sixth day. The lesions
were the same, if we except the more pronounced coagulation necrosis
in the liver (Plate VI, Fig. 1) and its absenceinthespleen. The bac-
teria of hog-cholera were distributd as above; very abundant in spleen
and liver; ‘tungs normal,

Gelatine-tube cultures from spleen and liver of these rabbits con-
firmed the microscopic examination. Liquid cultures from the blood
contained the motile bacteria, which had formed a brittle surface
membrane on the second day.

* Differential characters of the hog-cholera bacterium from Ne-
braska.—The bacterium, when stained on cover-glass preparations
from the spleen and other viscera, closely resembles the one found in
the disease prevalent in the Hast, so that it is impossible to distin-
guish them in this way. Both stain well in an aqueous solution of
methyl-violet in from two to five minutes, and show a well-stained
narrow periphery around a pale center. This may be due to the
presence of a dense envelope obstructing the inward movement of
the coloring matter. In the last report an opinion was expressed that
it might suggest the presence of an endogenous spore, but that the
other evidence did not seem to warrant such a view. The experi-
ments of the present year have not changed these views. The illus-
trations given in the last report apply equally well to the microbe
from Nebraska.

A few minor differences revealed in the various culture media indi-
cated that the two microbes were not alike in every way, and brought
up the very interesting question of the variation of species of bacteria
and the influence of such variation on the severity of epidemics.

The first difference was observed in liquid cultures. Within
twenty-four hours after inoculation from the spleen or blood the
culture liquid became turbid, and upon its surface a complete mem-
brane was present in nearly every case. This whitish membrane is
not homogeneous, but made up of patches of varying thickness, and
when shaken, slowly settles to the bottom in lumpsand floccuh. The
microbe of Eastern outbreaks does not form a membrane within sev-
eral days after inoculation, and then only when the tube remains
perfectly quiet. It appears as a whitish ring attached to the glass,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 629

and is rarely found covering the entire surface. When a number of
successive inoculations are made a week apart the later cultures are
quite apt to form membranes after a few days’ standing. Thus one
microbe forms a membrane very speedily; the other only occasionally,
and then quite tardily.

In these liquid thane both exhibit, during three or four days
after inoculation, very active spontaneous movements. Sometimes
masses of five to ten bacteria may be seen moving actively to and fro
and at the same time revolving about themselves.

In the same culture liquid the microbe from Nebraska seemed to
grow more vigorously, so that at the end of two or three days the
liquid became turbid, and the deposit in the bottom of the tube was
very abundant after one or two weeks.

Both fail to liquefy gelatine. <A very slight but significant differ-
ence was observed in this medium also. It was found that when line
cultures were made on plates of gelatine, in order to test the purity
of liquid cultures, the microbe from Nebraska failed to develop, while
the microbe from the Kast invariably grew as described in the pre-
ceding report. This observation was made so uniformly with every
culture that it became later a means of distinguishing the two forms
when the cause of this behavior became known. Such lines, after a
few days, appeared as an aggregation of mere points under a 1-inch
objective, and did not enlarge, or else there was no indication of any
growth whatever.

Later, another quantity of nutrient gelatine was prepared, which,
on boiling, threw down a very fine precipitate, uniformly clouding
the gelatine. A few drops of acetic acid added to it when liquefied
by heat dissolved the precipitate completely. It seemed probable
that the precipitate was some alkaline phosphate or carbonate, and
in fact the reaction with litmus paper was more alkaline than with
the gelatine previously used. In this medium the bacterium from
Nebraska grew very well both on plates and in tubes, and the bac-
terium from the Kast grew much better than in the previous prepa-
ration of gelatine, thus showing that an alkaline medium is best for
the bacterium of hog-cholera, and that the Nebraska variety is by
far the more sensitive, and fails to multiply unless the reaction is
fairly alkaline. On gelatino plates the colonies are somewhat darker
and more coarsely granular when viewed by transmitted light than
those which develop from the Eastern variety.

On the surface of beef-infusion peptone agar-agar made slightly
alkaline with potassium carbonate both bacteria grow very vigor-
ously when kept in the incubator at 95° to 100° F. On potato both
grow as a dirty straw-colored layer at the ordinary temperature, so
as not to be distinguishable. (Plate V, Fig. 3.)

From the comparative plate cultures and from potato cultures both
bacteria, when P ocutatall into liquid media, showed the character-
istic difference already mentioned. On the following day one cult-
ure would be covered with a membrane, the other not. In milk both
my without producing any microscopic change.

This bacterium is ikewise killed by a temperature of 58° C., as the
following experiment shows: Five tubes containing sterile beef-
infusion were inoculated from a liquid culture ten days old, obtained
from a mouse. Four of these were placed in a water bath at atem-
perature of 58° C., and retained there for fifteen, twenty, twenty-five,
and thirty minutes respectively. These, with the check-tube, were
placed in the incubator. Next morning the check-tube was turbid

630 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

and the liquid capped by the characteristic membrane, consisting of
the oval bacterium. The four heated tubes remained permanently
clear.

Hog-cholera in Illinots caused by the same Bacterium.

A herd was found September, 1886, a few miles southwest of Sodorus,
Champaign County, Illinois, in which a number of animals had al-
ready perished from what was supposed to be hog-cholera. The dis-
ease had existed for months, and the affected animals usually lingered
for several weeks.

Two pigs about four months old were chosen from this lot, which ~
were so weak as to be scarcely able to stand or move about, and killed
by a blow on the head. Owing to the disadvantages of the situation
no thorough autopsy could be made. In what we shall denominate
No. 1 the superficial inguinal glands were very much enlarged,
purplish, In the thorax the caudal portion of both lungs was_com-
pletely solidified. On section the hepatization had a variegated pale
red appearance. The smaller bronchi were plugged with a white
tenacious mass. A few bands loosely attached the lungs to the costal
pleura. Inthe abdominal cavity the various organs seemed of normal
size and color. The large intestines were filled with dry hard fecal
masses. On opening them about four or five ulcers, } inch across,
were found in the cecal portion; the mucous membrane itself was
pale, with a few specimens of trichocephalus attached to it. The
stomach was emply, the mucosa pale, and pyloric region bile-stained.

In No. 2 the lungs were in the same condition, the pleurisy slightly
more marked. In the abdomen the spleen was four or five times the
normal size, very soft, and gorged with dark blood. In the small
intestines lesions caused by echinorhynchi were present. In the
intestine, which was empty, the only lesion Tac idanle was a patch of
ulceration involving the mucous crypts at the base of the ilec-ceecal
valve. Stomach as in No. 1.

The major portion of the spleen of No. 1 was removed with sterile
instruments and transferred to a sterile bottle plugged with cotton
wool. Within four or five hours bits of this spleen were carefully ex-
cised after thoroughly scorching the surface with a heated platinum
spatula, and placed in tubes containing nutrient gelatine. Cover-
glass preparations gave negative evidence as regards the presence of
bacteria. Within two days minute whitish points could be seen in
thedepths of the gelatine. The hot weather had liquefied the gelatine
and allowed the bit of spleen to sink intoit. Small surface patches of
a very gelatinous appearance were also present. On returning to the
laboratory at Washington the colonies in the four gelatine tubes thus

repared were found to be made up of the oval motile bacterium of
fee choles, identical with the bacterium described in the preceding
report microscopically and in its growth in gelatine and other culture
media. There was not even a single differential character by which
this germ might be distinguished from the one demonstrated to be the
cause of hog-cholera last year.

In order to test its pathogenic effect on small animals and to make
comparisons a number of animals were inoculated simultaneously
from the same liquid culture. This was obtained as follows: One of
the original gelatine tube cultures was used as the starting-point and
from it a liquid culture inoculated. On the following day a gelatine-
plate culture was prepared from this, and when the colonies had de-

*

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 631
/

veloped sufficiently a tube of beef-infusion peptone was inoculated
from one of them. In this way a liquid culture was obtained from
the progeny of a single germ, although the preceding cultures had
been found pure.

Three days later (October 4) the following inoculations were made: Two mice, 4°
each; 1 guinea-pig, }°*; 1 pigeon, $°¢; 2 rabbits, 4 and ,4, respectively; and 2 pigs, 5°
and 3.5%. Of these animals the pigeons, the guinea-pig, and the pigs remained
well. One of the mice escaped several days after inoculation; the other remained
apparently well until October 18, two weeks after inoculation, when it was found
dead. This long period of incubation and sudden death were characteristic of hog-
cholera. An examination confirmed the nature of the disease. The spleen was
enormously enlarged with a mottled grayish and bright-red surface. The liver
very large, dark red, and dotted with minute whitish points of coagulation necrosis,
found so uniformily in inoculated mice last year. Both liver and spleen contained
the oval bacterium in large numbers. The lungs were deeply congested.

Both rabbits succumbed on the seventh day, about eight hours apart. The lesions
were also the same as those observed heretofore. In No. 1, at the place of inocula-
tion, there was a small area about 4 inch in diameter over which the fascia covering
the muscles was infiltrated and thickened. There was no peritonitis, but the fat
about the kidneys contained patches of injected capillaries. The spleen was very
much tumefied, its dimensions being 6™, 1™, 4°. It was very soft and dark. The
liver was large; rather pale. On its surface were scattered whitish points and

atches of coagulation necrosis, most numerous about the portal fissure. Kidneys
bat slightly reddened. The lungs were deeply congested; the pleural surfaces were
mottled everywhere with blood-red points and patches. The stomach was normal,
In the duodenum, at the pylorus, a band of hemorrhagic deposit encircled the tube.
For 4 inch farther the mucosa was covered with petechiz.

In the spleen, liver, lung, and kidney the bacteria of hog-cholera were very abun-
dant; in blood from the heart quite scarce. Cultures in nutrient liquids from liver
and blood proved pure. The movements of the bacteria were exceedingly active
when examined in a drop suspended from a cover-glass. The tube cultures in gela-
tine from the spleen and liver contained the same bacterium.

In the second rabbit rigor mortis was marked an hour after death. Locally a
thick pasty infiltration had formed in the subcutaneous connective tissue, surrounded
by injected vessels. The spleen, liver, lungs, and kidneys presented precisely the
same lesions as were found in the first rabbit.. There was a slight amount of serum
in peritoneal cavity, not containing bacteria, as a tube of beef infusion inoculated
from it remained sterile. The extravasation at pylorus was limited to a small
patch. There was, however, a circumscribed area on serosa of large intestine cov-
ered with petechiz. The bacteria were abundant in spleen and liver; absent in
cover-glass preparations of kidney, lung, blood, and peritoneal fluid. <A liquid cult-
ure of blood contained the motile bacterium only. Tube cultures in gelatine inocu-
lated from the spleen and the liver also proved pure.

These pa a the microscopic examination of the organs, and
more especially the invariably pure cultures from each animal, con-
firmed the supposition that the microbe obtained in Dlinois was the
same as the one causing hog-cholera in the Hast. The fact that
‘neither pigs nor pigeons nor guinea-pigs died does not in the least
weaken this conclusion. The experiments on preventive inoculation
show clearly that large doses of liquid cultures can be borne with im-
punity by the majority of swine when introduced beneath the skin.
‘The microbe may have been of a less virulent variety than the one
with which inoculations were made last year. On the other hand, a
most virulent case of hog-cholera was produced by feeding pure
cultures, as the following notes will show:

A pig was kept without food for over twenty-four hours, A 24 per cent. solution of
sodium carbonate in meat broth was then given toit. Of this it consumed about one
liter, taking thus about 25 grams of the salt. It was then fed with about 50° of gela-
tine cultures and 100° of liquid cultures of the hog-cholera bacterium obtained from
rabbits which had succumbed to inoculation; one was obtained from the original
gelatine culture of the spleen made in Champaign County, Illinois. The animal was
found dead December 4, scarcely three days after feeding. This was the briefest pe-
riod of illness thus far observed. The lesions were very pronounced, Pyramids of

~

632 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

kidneys deep red throughout; glomeruli visible as dark points. Lungs pale, not fully
collapsed. Right heart filled with semi-coagulated blood. Liver gorged with blood.
Mucosa of stomach intensely reddened, especially along fundus, and covered witha
thick layer of tenacious mucus. Mucous membrane of ileum similarly affected.
Peyer’s patches exceedingly dark red, showing through serous coat. The elevated
border gives each a slightly concave boat-shaped appearance. The colon also deepiy
congested, almost hemorrhagic in patches, filled with a small quantity of semi-liquid
feces, The rectum still filled with consistent masses. The mesenteric glands con-
ested. ;

. The feeding had thus produced a very severe inflammation of the digestive tract,
so severe, in fact, that the animal died before the ulceration or necrosis had begun.
The diagnosis was further confirmed by obtaining pure liquid cultures from the
spleen, the liver, and blood from the heart. The bacteria were not sufficiently
numerous in these organs to be detected by the microscope. To make sure that the
carbonate of soda had no corrosive effect another animal was treated precisely in
the same way by starving and feeding a solution of the salt. No ill effects what-
ever were manifested.

In order to test the specific pathogenic character of the bacterium obtained from
this animal a large rabbit was inoculated subcutaneously with about 4° of a liquid
culture from the blood. On the sixth day the rabbit was lying on its side; abdom-
inal breathing very labored. It was found dead on the next day. Slight thicken-
ing of the subcutaneous tissue and fascia covering the thigh muscles at the
point of inoculation. The muscular tissue covered with minute ecchymoses around
the infiltrated patch. Small quantity of serum in the peritoneal cavity. Spleen
very large, blackish, exceedingly friable, and crowded with bacteria. Liver _en-
larged; interlobular tissue pale; the entire parenchyma very soft and brittle. Dot-
ting both surfaces of all the lobes are smali grayish-white patches, involving one,
two, or three, rarely more, acini, and bounded very sharply by the acini them-
selves. Peculiar figures are thus formed, three contiguous ones giving the patch
a clover-leaf appearance. On section they are found to extend to the depth of one
or several acini into the parenchyma. The great majority of these masses of coag-
ulation necrosis involve lobules on or near the surface. Only a few are in the
depths of the organ. When such a whitish mass is spread on a cover-glass and
stained innumerable bacteria of hog-cholera make their appearance. The rest of
the tissue is likewise crowded with them. Beneath the pulmonary pleura are large
purplish patches of extravasation, which on section extend deeply into the paren-
chym2. The lung tissue is in general congested. Blood from the heart contained
very few bacteria. No cultures were made.

A pipette filled with heart’s blood from pig No. 1 (Sodorus, I1.), as de-
scribed in the first annual report, and sealed, was opened about three
weeks later. Want of time had prevented earlier examination. Two
liquid cultures were inoculated from the contents of the pipette, which
were dark and firmly clotted, without any order whatever. On the
following day both were clouded, and contained the motile bacterium
of hog-cholera growing on gelatine in the same manner. One of the
cultures contained in addition a streptococcus, which was eliminated
by making plate cultures and inoculating fresh tubes from a single
colony. A second pipette furnished a pure culture of another patho-

enic microbe, probably the cause of the lung disease. This will be
escribed in detail farther on.

From the spleen of No. 2 cultures were made as above. Small

ieces were dropped into tubes of gelatine with the usual precaution.

ne tube remained permanently sterile. In two others liquefaction
began after several days. A rather large bacillus was found in both
tubes, in one associated with a microbe to be described later. Pieces
of the spleen from the culture containing this bacilius alone were

laced beneath the skin of two mice. Both remained well. This

acillus, therefore, had no pathogenic effect upon these animals. It
was probably a germ accidentally present in the spleen during life
rather than a contamination of the cultures. No further attention
was paid to it.

The bacterium of hog-cholera was not therefore obtained from the

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 633

spleen of No. 2. Nor was it present in a pipette of blood obtained
from the heart. The autopsy notes will indicate that the intestinal
lesions were limited to a single patch of ulceration at the base of the
valve. Whether this was due to hog-cholera cannot besaid. Never-
theless the absence of the bacterium of hog-cholera from the internal
organs in chronic cases, or its great scarcity, has been a matter of
common observation in our investigations of this disease. The dis-
ease is in fact over, and only the lesions remain. It resembles in this
respect typhoid fever in man.

The presence of another microbe in this animal, however, even
more virulent in its effects upon animals than the bacterium of hog-
cholera, gives it a peculiar interest, as indicating the existence of two
totally distinct diseases in the same herd and even in the same animal.

To illustrate the negative results often obtained in this disease it
seems advisable to give the post mortem notes of another case of
genuine hog-cholera observed at a place but a few miles from the
herd from which Nos. 1 and 2 were taken. In this herd the animals
were slowly dying of a chronic malady lasting weeks. None of those
alive seemed very ill excepting one, which, when incited to run, would
move a short distance and then liedown. Yet when an attempt was
made to catch it it showed considerable strength, scarcely warranted
by the extensive lesions found at the autopsy. It was killed by a few
Bidws on the head. The following facts were noted down:

The superficial inguinal glands very large and of apalered. Inthe
peritoneal and pericardial cavity a small quantity of serum; blood clots
readily; lungs normal. In the cecum the mucous membrane is con-
verted into a continuous yellowish necrotic layer. 'The remaining
portion of the large intestine, containing but little food, is studded
with isolated ulcers from 1™ to 2™ (4 to 4 inch) across, showing on the
surface concentric brownish and yellowish rings. These ulcers are
visible as oe whitish patches under the serous coat, which are
surrounded by zone of newly formed injected vessels. The ulcera-
tion, being thus deep, indicated a disease of some weeks’ duration.
These lesions accorded very well with those observed at the Exxperi-
mental Station.

The spleen, which was preserved in a sterilized bottle, contained no
germs visible on cover-glass preparations. A pipette of blood was
sterile, neither liquid nor solid cultures manifesting any growth after
inoculation. Of about six tubes of gelatine, each containing a bit of
epieen tissue, all but two remained permanently sterile. One of
these contained a feebly growing motile bacillus, harmless to both
mice and rabbits. The other contained a liquefying microbe not
further examined.

EXPERIMENTS DIRECTED TOWARDS PRODUCING IMMUNITY.

On page 219 of the Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal
Industry an account is given of an experiment demonstrating the
very important fact that pigeons may be made insusceptible to the
strong virus of hog-cholera by the subcutaneous injection of liquid
in which the bacteria had multiplied and had afterwards been de-
stroyed by heat. .

In order to confirm the remarkable result there obtained a second
experiment was tried in the same way. Three pigeons were inoct-
lated at three different intervals indicated in the table below with
1° of heated culture liquid in which the bacterium of hog-cholera

634: REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

had been multiplying for sixteen, eleven, and fourteen days, respect-
ively. Three additional pigeons received only two doses from cult-
ures sixteen and fourteen days oid, respectively. The culture liquid
used was beef infusion containing 1 per cent. peptone. The tubes de-
scribed in the First Annual Report of the Bureau were used unless oth-
erwise stated. The liquid was injected beneath the skin covering the
pectorals on both sides of the keel. Three pigeons were reserved as
a check upon the experiment. All heated cultures used were tested
by inoculating fresh tubes, which remained invariably sterile. Six
days after the last inoculation with heated virus the nine pigeons
were inoculated each with $° of the eighth culture, two days old, from
the spleen of pig No. 156. On the following day two of the three check
pigeons were found dead. The rest were apparently undisturbed. The
third check pigeon, which was not affected by the inoculation, differed
from the rest of the pigeons in having a differently shaped trunk, a
long curved beak, large ruffled masses over the nostrils, and nearly
invisibleiris. It was snow white. It was supposed to have some of
the characters of the carrier pigeon. Leaving this bird out of account,
this experiment was as conclusive as the preceding in demonstrating
the protective power of devitalized cultures.

In the two dead pigeons the pectorals presented a parboiled ap-
pearance over an area about 2™ by 3° (1 by 14 inches). On section
the discoloration extended into the muscular tissue for from 4 to4
inch. Nothing characteristic in the internal organs. In both the
esophagus was filled as far as the pharynx with regurgitated food.
This phenomenon had been observed in former cases.

is] Lr rs] A
o o O¢ & = a Ee
Be # FE
= ro os 2
Number of pigeon. | SB Se | # 3 Total. FI 5 ate
E° egy Nataly |) 22 | 2a
Sj Sao aa |; «ag
ESE | &Sé RE Ree
OPP onP Se ae
ey i = =
ce. ce. 86| ee. CO: ce.
i sadarocnendaccdenoc if 1 & 2} 3 Well for several weeks after.
NGMAEE Rie bdacsisiete sot i 1 1 3 4h Do.
IHRE Segdeceenesasener 1 1 if 3 } Do.
De te iata areata Sate winsea'e"s Lah) VW adasaeare 1 2 £ Do.
QW stvetensces Orns emee Le Mieco sectoral 1 2 Z Do.
AS Sele anima ped clsiciciei e's AEE i eemtetenaerae 1 2 £ Do.
oy Sethe Ph co. ee Rea sleacsatere Wie See P| Cate ae ale Ri cel Fs Dead March 9.
D7, bee er a eoreAne hoster cod hnaoactnoun docseanocos a Do.
DAME AR DDT SENT SEA SEALs Cone Naiete oR she's oil dace atchlele senha Woes ales i Well.

Since the product formed during the growth of the bacteria is not
destroyed by the heat necessary to destroy the life of the bacteria
themselves, it became necessary to determine whether the evapora-
tion of the culture liquid in a water bath at the temperature of boil-
ing water would destroy this product. ,

Recent investigations point to an alkaloid or ptomaine resulting
from the multiplication of bacteria in liquids. It seemed advisable,
therefore, to determine whether the substance producing immunity
in pigeons was related to or identical with the jftomaines thus far
examined. If the boiling temperature destroyed the power of pro-
ducing immunity, the substance possessing this property must either
be easily volatile or decomposed at this temperature. The cultures
used were renewed from day to day, so that the seventh culture would

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 635

indicate that the seventh tube had been inoculated from the sixth,
and that the original culture from the spleen of the animal was not
more than seven or eight days older than the seventh.

In the following experiment two pigeons received two injections
of heated cultures, two received injections of cultures which had
been evaporated on a water bath to one-half or one-third the original
volume and restored to this volume by the addition of sterile dis-
tilled water, and two were reserved as checks. The cultures used
were from eighteen to twenty-three days old. All received these in-
jections beneath the skin of the right pectoral. Five days after the
second inoculation each received beneath the skin of the left pecto-
ral #° of the ordinary unattenuated culture. On the following day
one of the check pigeons was dead and one sick, as shown by the
ruffled plumage and quiet position. Those which had received the
heated culture were both well and remained so. Of the two which
had received the evaporated culture one was well, and the other sick,
which died two days later. From the blood from the heart a pure
culture of the bacterium of hog-cholera was obtained. A few bac-
teria were found in cover-glass preparations of the liver and blood.
The dead muscular tissue of the pectoral was already beginning to
separate as a sequestrum. :

This experiment seemed to point to a partial destruction of the
element producing immunity during the process of evaporation.

?
?

g
ope
eee.
Boe
Number of pigeon. April 26. April 29. Total. gaa B Remarks.
aH S
cass
by EE
BSOrD
=)
ce. .
ES Ubon DOCU RCORU CEO OL ABO ise = evapor- | lie ~~ evapor- | 3° evaporated b Sick May 4; dead May6,
ated culture. | ated culture. | cult
Dilicre ctllsietetetsleisialeisiaislolatae 265 2QO\~ ode dette Bees corse si sister ONasccacjes & Well.
Oeareistsiedeeeeaecice sal iv heated cult- | 1°*heated cult- | 2°¢ heated cult- i Do.
ure. ure.
Oocatiales Palecle <iamstarrcle DOs e505, <leg sil Sats GC aRap ea nod lees GOs risepissier 7 Do.
Oa den aetetersleinieteiaete aia | esis aiees aaa dae a| eisisieiatateiecetot rete | cekereoste cceeiics % Dead May 4.
DOR tarde nee erlciter ory all eyeepe nanitre Mebane cclttontee ociiaeie oan Met ods ekaee eee £ Sick May 4; recovered

| May 12.

A number of other experiments were made, which are tabulated
below. In some the culture liquid was evaporated on the water bath
to dryness and again diluted in sterile water. In others the culture
igus ae simply heated to 58° C. to devitalize it. This was tested,
as before, in every case by inoculating sterile infusions therefrom.
iy a few experiments the age of the culture was limited to three
days.

The results of these experiments show that evaporated cultures
are less efficacious than heated ones; also that a single injection is
not protective. A period of two days between consecutive inocula-
tions seems to be sufficient to protect. It will be observed that the
experiments were most uniformly successful in the winter. As the
warm weather approached the birds became less susceptible, so that
the checks failed to take the disease in some experiments. In the
winter they usually died within twenty-four hours after inoculation
with strong virus. Grains of corn in the beak and cesophagus indi-
cated partial regurgitation of food from the crop. Later on the birds

636

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

lived longer. The feathers became ruffled and gave them 2 puffed
appearance. They stood in a corner of the coop with head drooping,
the tips of the wing separated from each other more than normally,
the tail feathers touching the ground. The birds were conscious of
movements about them, and would, when approached, regain for a
time their normal position, relapsing into the former relaxed attitude
soon after.
Experiments with pigeons.

|
|

33 lay
|
Bo les
2 ts! + .5| Heated virus, 7 to 8 days old. | Strong virus. Remarks,
Se iE
PAB
May 29 May 31 June 2
Luh eal 1 ee. 1 ce, .75 ce. Well June 9,
2 1 1 75 Do.
3 1 a 16) Slightly ill; recovered June 9,
AT Etre ee Aeocaetaleeee cae teeree 75 Til next day; dead June 7.
May 26 May 29 Junel
aa Lice, 1 ee. 75 ce. Bl etter first inoculation; very thin; dead
une 8.
2 1 1 75 Became sick June 3; still worse June 9; dead
June 12.
3 1 1 PaCS: Well June 9.
be sic ais ital bok iatetensval| Pasi oiswe & syenatateions nto Do.
\vaporated virus, 7to8daysold.| Strong virus.
May 29 June l June 4,
im 1 ce 1 ce. 4 ee. Well June 9,
2 il 1 rs Do.
3 ] 1 4 Do.
BME Sita clay ss nic co eeea | eeteatee oe erate ots rs Sick June 5; still so June 9; dead June 14,
Heated virus, 7 to 8 days old. | Strong virus,
Iv| 1 1 ce. 1 ee. £ ce, Well June 9,
2 1 j £ Do.
3 1 1 £ Do,
ORI IA ee I Ree Bl Sree R Dead June 5.
bs May 26. May 28,
Viet AGOAG MULCH ye ante eee EHE 1 ce. Very sick June 2; dead June 3.
2 Sle VO Ul ae ana aS 1 Very sick June 2; recovered June 9; dead
: June 13.
3 Leg meine ell? eae Cae il Well June 3.
| Evap. virus. | Heated virus. | Strong virus,
May 26. May 29. June 1,
VAP LG 1 ce. a cc § CC. Very slightly ill, but apparently well June 9.
5) 1 i Do.
3 1 1 } Do.
Evap. virus. | Evap. virus. | Strong virus
ANH al 1 ce. 1 ce. £ ee. June 20, well; July 1, well.
2 1 1 & Do.
3 1 1 R Do.
AA ets sicfelSctalraatossk |hisie le to\clarctarath ae sls a Slightly ill.
Heated virus. | Heated virus. | Strong virus.
June 12. June 15. June 18.
Vill} 1 nice, 1 ce. & ce, Well July 1.
2 1 1 £ Do.
3 1 1 te Do.
CE eadbno stoop dul laasaastonaae: sue £ Do.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 637

In order to determine whether such very susceptible animals as
rabbits and guinea-pigs could be made immune by heated cultures
three rabbits were selected, two of which were inoculated with heated
cultures and the third kept as a check. The culture liquid used con-
sisted of about 2 per cent. Liebig’s meat extract and 2} per cent. pep-
tone, neutralized with sodium carbonate. Contrary to the former
method, the cultures were made in Erlenmeyer flasks, and the liquid
was not more than 1™ deep. Considerable evaporation took place
through the cotton-wool plug, which was covered with tin-foil. Thus
it was presumed the bacteria would multiply more abundantly be-
cause of the greater amount of air to which the surface of the liquid
was exposed. When the cultures were fourteen days old they were
heated to 58° C. to destroy all life, their sterility subsequently being
tested by reinoculation into fresh tubes. Rabbits Nos. 3 and 4 re-
ceived subcutaneously into the thigh on April 24 and 28 and May 1
1.5° of this culture liquid. May 6 the three rabbits (Nos. 2, 3, 4)
were inoculated subcutaneously with an equivalent of z59°° of a four-
teenth culture of the bacterium of hog-cholera. Nos. 2 and 3 were
found dead May 12. No. 4 died on the morning of the same day.

All, therefore, succumbed to the inoculation with strong virus in
about six days, those having received about 4.5°¢ of the heated cult-
ure as quickly as the check animal.

In No. 2 (check) there was slight necrosis of the muscular tissue at the place of
inoculation. Small amount of serum in the peritoneal cavity. Spleen enlarged,
very dark, and friable. The bacterium of hog-cholera was present in large num-
bers in cover-glass preparations of the spleen and liver, fewer in kidneys, the cortex
and pyramids of which were deeply congested. A liquid culture from the heart was
found pure microscopically and when grown on gelatine plates.

In rabbit No. 3 local necrosis more pronounced than in No, 2. Eechymoses on
the contiguous wall of the abdomen. Large intestine loosely adherent to bladder,
the latter to abdominal wall; mesenteric vessels distended with blood; spleen very
soft, dark; bacterium of hog-cholera very numerous in spleen, less so in liver. A
gelatine tube culture from the spleen pure.

In No. 4 the local lesion was similar to that in Nos. 2and 2. The liver studded
throughout with very small punctiform or stellate grayish-white masses of coagu-
lation necrosis. A large abscess filled with white creamy pus and with a well-de-
fined wall fills the major portion of the right lung. Several small abcesses present.
The bacteria of hog-cholera were abundant in spleen and liver. A liquid culture
of blood from the heart and a gelatine tube culture from the liver were both pure
cultures of the same bacterium. No immunity was thus obtained by the injection
of this quantity of devitalized culture liquid. ‘

A similar experiment was tried with three guinea pigs, the same cultures being
used. Nos. 5and 6 received subcutaneously into the thigh 1°¢ April 21, 24, and 28,
The culture first used ten days old, those used subsequently fourteen days old. May
5, one week after the last injection, the three animals were inoculated with an equiv-
alent of ay0° of a thirteenth culture in beef-infusion peptone two days old. The
check animal (No. 7) and one inoculated animal (No. 5) both died May 16, eleven
days after inoculation with strong virus. ‘They were well and active to within a
few days before death, when they began to crouch together and breathe heavily. In
No. 5, at the place of inoculation, two small glands were enlarged, and a cavity was
found containing soft, dirty grayish material, showing no cellular structure under
the microscope. It was very likely a product of coaguiation necrosis. The spleen
was enormously enlarged, its dimensions being 2 by 1 by $ inch. The liver was
dotted with grayish points and patches of coagulation necrosis. Kidneys pale, soft,
enlarged. Lungs of a deep red. Both liver and spleen crowded with hog-cholera
bacteria. A gelatine tube culture from the spleen pure. - In No. 7 the local lesions
were confined to an enlargement of the lymphatics, otherwise the lesions were iden-
tical with those of No. 5. One cover-glass preparation from spleen and liver re-
vealed no bacteria, but a liquid culture from heart’s blood and a gelatine tube
culture from the spleen were both pure. In both rabbits and guinea-pigs the local
lesions were more pronounced in those previously inoculated with heated virus. The
third guinea-pig remained well. A second inoculation with }c¢ of a Higuid culture
May 22 was also without effect, as it was well and active June 2.

638 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Tests with heated virus on Pigs,

In order to test the effect of heated cultures upon pigs the follow-
ing experiments were made March 1: Two animals (Nos. 162 and
173) received hypodermically each 9° of a second and third culture,
twelve and thirteen days old, respectively, which had been devitalized
by heat. March 9 a second dose of 9° was given in the same way,
using a fifth and eighth culture eighteen and fourteen days old re-
spectively. These cultures were made in beef infusion containing 1
per cent. peptone, excepting one, which contained about 2 per cent.
of blood serum in place of the peptone. After the second inoculation

of No. 162 a swelling appeared on one side. Both were fed with vis-
cera infected with hog-cholera, and placed with sick and dying pigs
in a large infected pen. No. 162 was found dead March 29 and No.
173 April 5. The appended table and notes give a summary of the
experiment:

Died. Number days

March 1. | March 9, after feeding.

Total.

ce. ce. ec
Ge cick tates cds lncistencieonewiclesis 9 9 18 March 29 10
5 17

No. 162. Subcutaneous fatty tissue much reddened. Mucous membrane of stomach
considerably ulcerated; of small intestine deeply congested. For 8 or 10 feet above
the ileo-czecal valve the mucous membrane of ileum is completely necrosed. Large
ulcers in ceecum and upper portion of colon.

No. 173. Subcutaneous fatty tissue slightly reddened. Petechize under pulmonary
pleura. Extravasations under serosa of czecumand colon. Inflammatory adhesions
of large intestine with walls of abdomen, A patch of extravasation beneath peri-
toneal layer of dorsal abdominal wall nearly 2 inches across. Spleen very much
enlarged and softened. The mucous membrane of large intestine and several feet
of ileum necrosed and breaking down. Fundus of stomach deeply congested.

This experiment clearly showed that this method was no protec-
tion to the animal when the latter was infected by feeding.

It now became necessary to determine whether this method would
confer immunity upon animals simply exposed to the disease by co-
habiting with diseased animals in infected pens. Observations made
upon other diseases by investigators, and by us upon this disease,
seem to lead to the inference that it frequently depends on the quan-
tity of virus introduced into the system whether the disease will
make its appearance or not. In feeding this quantity is considerable;
in simple exposure in infected pens to diseased pigs the amount of
virus taken into the body with the food and drink is necessarily in
ae Hats repeated doses. The following experiment was therefore
planned:

Four pigs (Nos. 163, 164, 177, and 196) were inoculated March 13
with heated virus, each receiving 44°° beneath the skin of each thigh.
The cultures in beef infusion with 1 per cent. peptone were about fif-
teen days old when heated. The second inoculation was made March
16 from a culture in an Erlenmeyer flask about eleven days old, and
containing about 50° of culture liquid. Each animal received 10°
as before.

March 31.—These animals, together with two check pigs (Nos, 195
and 201) were placed in a large infected, pen. Within a period of
three weeks from this date at least fifteen pigs died of hog-cholera

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 639

in this pen. The two check animals died on the 14th and 19th of
April, respectively. Of four vaccinated animals only No. 163 showed
siens of the disease, and gradually pages into a chronic case, dy-
ing of general debility on May'1. The three other vaccinated ani-
mals remained apparently well for months after, although constantly
exposed to the disease in the infected pen.

Vaccination. 1
Pig. No. Expos- | pied. | Number of days after exposure.

ure.
March 13. | March 16.

. 81} May 1} 81 days.

“Mar - 81 | July 23 | 3 months and 23 days.
. 81 | July 7 | 3 months and7 days.
. 31 | April 19 | 19 days.

. 31 | April 14 | 14 days.

Autopsy notes.—No. 163. Spleen not much enlarged; texture firm; effusion into

ericardial and thoracic cavity. Lymphatic glands enlarged, but pale; two ulcers
in stomach; small intestine normal; mucosa of cecum and colon studded with
many extensive and deep, yellowish ulcerations. On cover-glass preparations of
the spleen only a few bacteria could be seen. Two liquid cultures inoculated from
the same organ remained sterile. No colonies appeared in the gelatine tube inocu-
lated with blood from the heart. A few developed in the tube inoculated from the
spleen.

Be 195. Spleen greatly enlarged; gorged with blood; very friable; shreds of
a fibrinous exudate on serosa of intestines; much serum in abdominal cavity; pete-
chize on epicardium of auricles; small anterior lobes of lung hepatized; mucous
membrane of gall bladder ulcerated; extensive ulceration and inflammation of mu-
cous membrane of caecum and colon. Hemorrhagic inflammation of kidneys.

No. 201. Spleen but slightly enlarged; lungs extensively hepatized; intense con-
gestion and commencing ulceration of the mucosa of large intestine; stomach and
portion of ileum similarly congested. Though no bacteria were found on a cover-
glass preparation, a pure culture was obtained by carefully dropping a piece of
spleen tissue into a culture tube. This was tested on gelatine.

After apparently resisting the infection for several months the remaining pigs
(Nos. 164, 177, and 196) were transferred to a clean pen. No. 177, not very thrifty,
began to decline, and finally died July 23. Among the most prominent lesions were
a plastic exudate on the epicardium and numerous large old ulcers in the large in-
testine. The mucosa itself was extensively pigmented. No. 196, on removal from
the infected pen, seemed in good condition, but it died July 7, after some days of
unthrifty condition. In this case the mucous membrane of the large intestine was
pigmented, and there were what appeared to be cicatrices of old ulcerations. In all
of the large serous cavities there was considerable effusion. In cover-glass prepa-
rations of the spleen there were no hog-cholera bacteria to be seen, but numerous
bacilli resembling those of malignant cedema.

A second experiment was made in the same way upon Nos. 197 to
200, inclusive, and No. 157. March 24 each animal received in the
thigh about 10° of a mixture of heated cultures in beef infusion with
1 per cent. peptone about fourteen days old. March 29 an equal
amount was injected, one-half into each axilla, these cultures being
about fifteen days old. These animals were kept until April 20, when
all but No. 157 were placed in the large infected pen. From that
date on pigs died almost every day of the disease, so that the infection
must have been quite thorough. Unfortunately no check animal
was exposed at the same time. In these animals the slight swelling
at the seat of inoculation disappeared in a few weeks.

They remained well, with the exception of No. 199, which became
emaciated and was found dead May 19, about one month after expos-

640 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ure. The three remaining animals were apparently unaffected nearly
two months after exposure. At this time No. 197, which appeared
rather thin, was killed, to determine if any ulcerations were present.
But the mucous membrane of the intestine was entirely normal, with
no indications of former ulcerations.

Injection of heated virus.
Time of ex-
Pig No. ——_—_____—___________| “posure, Remarks,
March 24, March 29.

ce. cc.

LO Zea a svabilace oleieteie oo eistais evaisiolerb botacers lela 10 10 April 20..... Killed June 10. Healthy,
POS heieiia eae ciciele eietcictsicictets diaisiete eisisiele 10 10 April20 San Well June 10,

GO Frere sralicte stclate oe e/ciete cistelelelnieteleieim cis 10 10 April 20..... Died May 19.

DAG oye etotala as laeiaeinieieie esis emislainieieisicie eis 10 10 April 20s. Died July 12.

Soka evatate atetetctatanieieiaeieicis eieieleieie’e eis) 6 ers 10 10 May 2..... Died June 28,

Autopsy notes of No. 199.—Slight extravasation in subcutaneous connective tissue,
Spleen somewhat enlarged, filled with blood, friable; considerable effusion in peri-
toneal cavity. Right lung in part hepatized; pleuritic adhesions to chest-wail; hem-
orrhage in and about pelvis of kidney; lymphatic glands purplish; extensive and
deep ulceration of the mucosa of large intestine.

Pig 197, killed for examination, was very anzeemic. There wassome pale serum in
abdominal cavity. The kidneys and lymphatic glands showed evidence of chronic
inflammation. The lungs were exceedingly pale. No evidence of inflammation or
ulceration in any portion of the intestinal tract.

It must be borne in mind that these animals were constantly ex-
posed for a period of several months to the virus of the disease, and
that a continual struggle between the organism and the invading

arasites must have been going on, which naturally would tend to
ower the vitality. Such severe conditions as these are probably
never realized among herds.

The later history of No. 200 does not, however, bear out the first
supposition that complete immunity was attained. After being con-
tinually exposed in the infected pen from April 20 to June 21 it was
removed to a clean pen, where it continued to grow very weak. It
died July 12. The autopsy revealed a plastic pleurisy over the right
lung and a fibrinous exudate upon the epicardium. The mucosa of
the cecum was extensively necrosed; in the colon the ulcers were
isolated; the solitary follicles were very prominent. <A small bit
from the epicardial exudate was placed beneath the skin of two mice.
' One of them died on the eighteenth day. The spleen was greatly en-
larged. Numerous hog-cholera bacteria were present in this organ
and liver. The epicardial exudate of the pig must have contained
but very few, for they cou!d not be demonstrated in cover-glass
preparations. The long period of time from the inoculation of the
mouse to its death is also evidence of a very small quantity of virus.

No. 157, inoculated with the rest, became quite lame in the hind
limbs, so that it was thought best not to expose it to the disease in
the infected pen for the time being. It soon recovered its power of
locomotion, and was transferred to the infected pen May 25 and re-
moved therefrom June 28. In the new pen it grew rapidly weaker
and died June 28. On post mortem examination the right lung was
found entirely hepatized and adherent to the chest-wall. The mucosa
of ceecum and colon was studded with large and deep ulcers; that of
the fundus of stomach was deeply congested.

It became desirable to determine whether repeated subcutaneous

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 641.

injections of heated cultures until a large amount had been intro-
duced into the system would be more efficacious in producing im-
munity. For this purpose the culture liquids were concentrated, by
using a 2 per cent. solution of meat extract with 2 per cent. peptone
for some of the injections; for the remainder a 2 per cent. solution
of peptone in beef infusion. The cultures were made in Erlenmeyer
flasks, plugged with cotton wool. Ris

The table given below gives the date of the injection and the quan-
tity used each time. It will be noted that Nos, 191 and 194 received
two, Nos. 216 and 218 three, and Nos. 219 and 221 four doses each of
the heated culture liquid. The injections were made two days apart,
the exposure in the infected pen and among diseased animals about
one week after the last inoculation. Nos. 220, 232, and 235 were -
placed in the infected pen at the same time, to determine the virulence
of the infection upon pigs which had not received any injection.

Heated virus.

4 Exposure in in-
Pig No. Sa oy a oe sa ee eed beers ail: Remarks.
April 20.| April 22.) April 24.| April 26.
cc ce. ce. ce. ce. [
DIO see ay ica ais sees 9 8 MET foaaent eaters DAES | Maya acccticets Died May 17.
pal A EAR oe 9 8 ves 8 2b) i |) Mayas eo eco ee Died May 19.
DiGi eaaen bce sts ck. 9 8 pee |i Ov 244 | May4......... Do.
Po INS ICCAD OSOGUECRE 9 8 ves 8 Set | May aterost.t: Died May 23.
LP teienismeinate calc o> [leu cle a viets so |laseleiccicieiec 10 8 18 Maya. teense Do.
A ee Ct xe ea Gate sialaicie*= leis aiejniole,«vsi||a.0)e's/aieis Sale| acseioiwrelsleee 18 iy AC nes ahr Died May 17.
ae Jost doce Dh 20004] KSaC GetOes) OSeobedGdd Se BES CoGe bscssob cad) Be booooe Mey pe ee Le me
File Se ke Oa a en a gt Art 8 | 18 | May 4.2.1.1...) Died June 19.
1 i]
* Checks.

All of the inoculated and control animals died within periods rang-
ing from thirteen to nineteen days, only one living thirty-nine days,
and this one a controlanimal. Of those that had received two doses,
No. 191 died May 23 (nineteen days after exposure), with considerable
ulceration in cecum and colon. No. 194 died May 19, with extensive
and deep congestion of the lymphatic glands in general, of the kidney,
stomach, and large intestine. In the latter, ulceration was not yet
begun. No. 216, which had received three doses, died very unex-
pectedly thirteen days after exposure. The lesions were of the hem-
orrhagic type, involving extravasations and ecchymoses of the intes-
tinal tract, more especially of the large intestine, heart, lungs, lym-
phatic and subcutaneous fatty tissue. Ulceration in large intestine
very slight, the congestion being intense. No. 218, treated like the
former, died fifteen days after exposure. The lesions were like those
of No. 216, but not so severe. Ulceration as yet very slight.

Nos. 217 and 221, which had received four injections, died fifteen
and nineteen days after exposure, respectively. The lesions in No.
217, which died very suddenly, were of hemorrhagic character, the
ulceration in the cecum and colon being quite superficial. In No.
221 the ulceration was more pronounced, the general congestion and
extravasation much less so.

Of the control animals the lesions of No. 220 were of the hemor-
rhagic type, resembling those of No. 194 very closely. In No. 232
there was extensive ulceration of the mucous membrane of the large
intestine. In No. 235, which lived for thirty-nine days after expos-
ure, the mucosa of the cecum and upper portion of the colon was
involved in complete necrosis nearly 5™ thick. Beyond this the ne-

41 AG—’S6.

642 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

crosis took the form of isolated ulcers. Owing to the depth of the
ulceration inflammatory adhesions had formed between the cecum
and adjacent organs. There was no reactionary swelling of the inoc-
ulated animals at the point of injection.

Those animals in which the disease took the hemorrhagic type
succumbed very suddenly, as if the invasion had taken place in a
single day. . In those animals in which symptoms of weakness and
loss of appetite appeared some days before death the well-defined
lesions were asa rule limited to the large intestine in the form of
ulcerations. The former cases represent a class in which the bac-
terium invades the entire vascular system; in the latter the absence
of a general congestion and extravasation seems to indicate a more
- local multiplication of the specific disease germ in the intestinal tract.

This mode of vaccination, as shown by the results recorded, did
not prove to be any protection to the animals, as they died, most of
them, within a brief period after exposure from a very acute attack
of the disease. re

The spleen examined in about one-half of these cases contained the
bacterium of hog-cholera, usually in large numbers. From a few,
cultures were made in which the bacterium was found pure.

A second experiment was tried, in which each animal received hy-
podermically 40° of heated culture liquid in two doses. The cultures
were made in beef infusion with 1 per cent, peptone, the growth being
killed by a temperature of 58°C. the third day after inoculation.
The flasks used were shaped like Erlenmeyer flasks, a glass cap being
fitted over the flask by means of a ground-glass joint, which con-
tracted into a straight narrow tube, plugged with glass wool. The
removal of a cotton-wool plug was thus avoided, the cap being removed
for inoculation. This culture flask affords better ventilation and a
more rapid evaporation of the culture liquid than does the culture
tube with the bent ventilating tube.

The following table gives all the facts necessary for an understand-
ing of the experiment and its results: |

|
Heated virus. |

A cw oa Pa Se Exposure in in- x e Days after first
Pig No. Total. | “fected pens. | Remarks. exposure,

June 14.| June 17,

cc cc ce.

ERLE rolplole: cine ole wig cle oie n\v'= © 1s 20 20 40 June 21.,..'..% Died July 7 16
oma clatanmsinteishs in Mase @6 ssaceini? 18 20 33 June 21....... Died July 9 18
oe eetintenicapiscs tees s + rene 20 20 40 JUNG Bis. ...'0 Died July 9 18
0 SRO dep ca andi: Oc UC GEC OCG [opty Coates «are eu bary te yo uereat 4 JUNO Bs ..c « Died July, § 17
OVER eoriseinis(oocetr *'> sisiee aie a0 20 20 40 June 21,....... Died July 6 15
IDE Aste ieieinivie ols vie'n vib'a wis ore vie’e 20 20 40 June 21....... Died July 10 |- 19
aU aiets ecelstp'c Gawie/eamialgi4'6\>piaielsia 20 20 40 June 21....-... Died July 10 19
Ue eRe tee cee ae craleye'l ciaiead oceans let oaiecinmiei| uscitibee JUNC 21 52-1. <3. Died July 9 18

* Check.

It will be seen that all the experimental animals died, inoculated as
well as check animals, within a few days of one another; death taking
place about sixteen to eighteen days after the first day of exposure.
A brief synopsis of the post mortem appearances will not be amiss in
this connection:

In No. 231 the spleen was very much enlarged and gorged with blood. The in-
tensely congested mucous membrane of the czecum and colon was dotted with small

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 543

superficial ulcerations. In No. 233 the congestion of spleen, and ulceration with
congestion of the large intestine, were also very marked. No. 266 presented the
same lesions. The ulcers in the czecum were from + to 4 inch across. No. 230
(check) differed from the preceding cases in presenting severer lesions; greatly en-
larged and congested spleen and lymphatic glands, entire superficial necrosis of the
cecum and upper portion of colon, with intense congestion of the mucosa of the
entire colon and great thickening of the walls; extensive extravasation of blood be-
neath the mucosa of duodenum.

Of the second lot of four treated in the same way, No. 267 presented very severe les-
ions, consisting of intense congestion and extravasation, involving the spleen, lym-
phatic glands, lungs,and kidney. The left lung was almost entirely adherent to costal
pleura. There was considerable hemorrhage in the pelvis of both kidneys. The
large intestine was least changed, the mucosa being slightly ulcerated and containing
some hemorrhagic spots and points. This animal was first to die out of this lot of
eight. In No. 268 the congestion involved the lymphatic glands generally, and the
mucosa of the large intestine, which was extensively necrosed in its upper portion.
No. 269 resembled No, 267 in the severity of the lesions. The lungs were not af-
fected, however, while the ulceration of caecum and upper colon was very extensive
and deep. No. 270 (check) presented extensive ulceration of the large intestine and
a greatly enlarged spleen. In five cases the spleen contained the bacteria of hog-
cholera more or less abundantly, In two none could be seen on one or two cover-

lasses. No local swelling had developed at the points of injection in any of the
inoculated animals.

In this experiment no immunity was produced, since the animals
succumbed to the infection very quickly and showed themselves very
susceptible, as indicated by the severe lesions of the internal organs
in general.

The foregoing experiments, aimed at producing immunity by the
injection of the chemical products or ptomaines, were, as a whole, un-
successful with reference to pigs, although successful upon pigeons,
If larger doses of culture liquid had been given and in separate doses
extending over longer periods of time the results might have been
positive even upon pigs. The cost of the culture fluid being too great
to make the experiment of practical value on alarge scale, no further
attempts were made in this direction for the present.

As the etiology of this very virulent disease had been sufficiently
demonstrated by the experiments reported last year, no particular
attention was paid to a determination of the presence of the bacteria
of hog-cholera by cultures. Usually the spleen was examined by
means of cover-glass preparations whenever time allowed, and in most
cases large numbers of the specific bacterium were present. In the
many cultures from spleens made from these and subsequent cases to
carry out the inoculations none other than the motile bacterium of
hog-cholera appeared in these cultures. At the same time many
minor experiments upon mice were made for various purposes, and
in all the characteristic lesions described in the ena report were
found associated with the specific bacterium.

Inoculations with unattenuated cultures.

While the tests for conferring immunity upon pigs by the injection
of heated virus were being carried on it was thought advisable to ex-
periment in the same direction with the unattenuated cultures them-
selves. A lot of animals was at first inoculated twice with very
small quantities, the period between the two inoculations being about
two weeks. This time was sufficient to reveal any disease which might
have been induced by the inoculations. Twoweeks after the second
inoculation the animal was infected either by feeding the internal
organs of pigs which had died of the disease or by exposing it to

644 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

the sick and dying in an infected pen. It was soon found that the
inoculations were by no means protective in whatever way the virus
entered the system. Feeding usually produced cases of the most
acute character and with the most severe and extensive lesions. The
doses of inoculated cultures were gradually increased in quantity
without yielding any better results. Of a large number of animals
subjected to inoculation only five took the disease unmistakably as a
consequence of the operation.

This method of protective inoculation having failed with unatten-
uated cultures, there seemed no necessity for attempting any investi-
gations with attenuated cultures. The experiments, including tables
and post mortem notes, are given in extenso as they were made, In
reading them over it will be noticed that the virus was cultivated
chiefly in liquid media, and the solid media, more particularly nutri-
tive gelatine, were only employed to test the purity of the cultures.
Whenever these cultures were used for inoculations they were pre-
viously tested on gelatine plates by drawing a platinum wire, dipped
into the culture, through the gelatine layer two or three times before
the gelatine had become solid. Among the hundreds of cultures thus
tested in the space of several months not one was found impure.
Series of cultures extending up to the tenth generation were usually
carried on by inoculating fresh tubes each day. The last culture ~
tested as described above gave precisely the same colonies as the first
in all the series thus far prepared. The culture tube described in the
first annual report of the bureau was used almost exclusively for
these cultures in liquid media. The advantages and accessibility of
cultures in liquids for purposes of inoculation; the readiness and ease
with which quantities or doses may be determined, finally, certain
characteristics of growth in liquids, place this method on a level with,
if not above, that of solid cultures for experimental purposes. For
diagnostic purposes solid media are to-day a sine qua non of bacteri-
ological work.

xperiments.—Pigs Nos. 152, 167, 168, and 175 were inoculated
with pure cultures in beef-infusion peptone as follows: On January 23,
one drop of the seventh culture, derived from the spleen of pig No. 114;
on February 8, with 4° from a culture derived from a guinea-pig (No.
4). Both cultures were diluted in sterile normal salt solution in such
a way that 1° of fluid was injected each time. The inner aspect of
the thigh near Poupart’s ligament was chosen. The liquid was intro-
duced beneath the skin into the subcutaneous tissue with a hypoder-
mic syringe. There was no perceptible swelling at the site of either
inoculation, excepting in No. 175, in which there were two nodes, each
of the size of a walnut, at the seat of the first inoculation. In order
to test the extent of the immunity which these inoculations may have
conferred, feeding the viscera of pigs which had succumbed to hog-
cholera was resorted to, the animals being transferred to the large in-
fected pen for this purpose. Nos. 168 and 175 were fed in this way
March 5, and two animals not inoculated (Nos. 158 and 159) were fed
withthem. All four died, the two vaccinated animals in about twenty
days, the others in about fifteen days after feeding. March 13, Nos.
152 and 167 were fed with two check animals Nos. 176and 190. These
four also died of hog-cholera; the two vaccinated ones averaging
twenty days, the others eleven days after feeding. The inoculation
may be said to have simply retarded death from five to ninedays. A

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 645

table giving a summary of these facts is appended, together with a
brief description of the post mortem appearances:

Pig No. January 23. | February 8, pe fl a Died. eed
Drop. ce.

TSE siafveiblenisielclasde-civie’s p bse 1 b March 18 ....... ADYILB sect. ace 21
SFE lctafeloteicis ncocatala ainteia'e eitaxe’s 1 $ March 18 ....... AD TIL a4 lee ope 19
Ue eis noes cca c ea apiece i + Mareh 5......5.. March 28 ....... 23
HIPS Misis aiuicha cme cibinla;ea eel sttte 1 + Marchi iis. sat « March 22 ....... 17
MessEUe nD era sania. s siaid)e diatersiscs|‘s’a' eivis oli's molsiotsl a's oe > e/e,deienele© March 5 ........ March 21 ......: 16
Ee Sarai s8 cla nicl tee a's elaivie « | alarticlate sisters sic b's] delve Selenieie’efernis March Gites Mare 192.50... 14
UMM Meee stehei diate ue woe rite o1ererW o| sole ai sreraray aieie(ele| c\e'sie + olalerete’s' wea March 130532 5).;.'. March 28....... 10
EMR eo crema se clcciscitaoie tuderes ctataealocelsisleemowee as March 13°.:...:. March 25'....... 12

Autopsy notes.—No, 152.—Skin of limbs and abdomen dotted with purple spots;
on abdomen general reddening. Points of extravasation and ecchymosed spots
throughout the subcutaneous connective and fatty tissue and on Pigs aaa
omentum. Superficial inguinal glands greatly enlarged and congested. Spleen en-
larged, filled with blood, and verysoft. Petechize onepicardium. Numerous lobules
of the lungs collapsed. Glomeruli of kidneys appear as deep red petechia. In ce-
cum and upper portion of colon extensive and deep ulcers. A few in the ileum near
the valve. The mucosa of the stomach, small and large intestine, thickly covered
with dark red points or petechie.

No. 167.—Dying, and hence killed by a blowonthe head. Spleen swollen, friable;
epicardium dotted with points and spots of extravasation. In lungs afew collapsed
lobules. Lymphatic glands generally very deeply congested, similarly the mucous
membrane of fundus of stomachand the kidneys. Large ulcers in cecum and upper
portion of colon.

No, 168.—Subcutaneous and subperitoneal tissue contains numerous ecchymoses
from + to 2inch in diameter. Mpleen enlarged, gorged with blood, friable. Petechiaa
on epicardium, Lungs not collapsed; its parenchyma contains numerous deeply
congested areas from }to4inchindiameter. Kidneys enlarged, with extravasations
on surface and in parenchyma. Cortex of lymphatics in general deeply congested.
Extensive, almost continuous, ulceration of cecum and upper portion of colon, in
part blackish, the remainder of the large intestine being the seat of severe inflam-
mation and extravasation. Mucous membrane of stomach similarly involved.

No. 175,—Subcutaneous tissue dotted with pale red spots. Tumor at the place of
the first inoculation firm throughout, pale yellowish. Superficial inguinal glands,
as well of those of thorax and abdomen, with purplish cortex. Spleen tissue still
firm, dotted with numerous bright red points, but slightly enlarged. Beneath the
entire epicardium and endocardium many extravasations. Czecum and upper por-
tion of colon extensively ulcerated. Serous surface of large intestine dotted with
extravasations.

No. 158.—Subcutaneous fatty tissue deeply reddened. Spleen slightly enlarged.
Lymphatics in general with deeply con pict: cortex. Adhesive peritonitis matting
the various viscera together and to abdominal walls; fibrinous and serous exudate
abundant in the abdominal cavity. A few lung worms present. Czecum and colon
extensively ulcerated; rectum congested. Serous surface of this tract dotted with
extravasations. Fundus of stomach deeply congested.

No. 176.—Slight reddening of skin and subcutaneous fatty tissue. Cortex of lym-
phatic glands in general deeply congested. Spleen much enlarged and surface dotted
with numerous bright red elevated points. A few petechiz on endocardium and
epicardium. Lungs deeply congested throughout; kidneys likewise inflamed. Stom-
ach slightly reddened at fundus. Small intestine also slightly congested. Serosa
of large intestine dotted with extravasations. The mucosa of czecum and small
portion of colon one mass of necrosed tissue. Walls thickened.

No, 189.—Extensive and deep reddening of skin of abdomen, throat, and limbs,
Subcutaneous tissue only slightly reddened; spleen enlarged, gorged with blood,
friable. Besides the sonar congestion of the hands there are small darker areas,
representing hepatized lobules. Bronchial glands and those along lesser curvature
of stomach swollen and gorged with blood; the other lymphatics only moderately
congested. Besides a small number of ulcers throughout the large intestine the
mucous membrane is deeply congested and dotted with occasional hemorrhagic
points. Kidneys extensively inflamed; on section the cortex shows extravasations.

_ No. 190.—Considerable reddening of the skin of abdomen and ventral aspect of
limbs, very slight in subcutaneous tissue. Spleen greatly enlarged; dark purple;

4

646 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

blood flows freely on cutting into it; very soft. Lungs contain regions of congestion
and hepatizations, possibly due to the presence of a few lung worms. Lymphatic
glands near stomach, the bronchial and superficial inguinal glands deeply congested.
Other glands only slightly congested. Mucous membrane of stomach extensively
congested; a large patch of extravasation in fundus; large intestine severely in-
flamed, with occasional extravasations; no ulcerations.

In these animals the lesions of a severe type of hog-cholera were
manifested both by severe inflammations and hemorrhages of the
viscera and the extensive ulcerations. It seems very probable that
the bacteria begin their ravages after the food has reached the large
intestine, where it remains for a time. The absence of anything but
a small quantity of semi-liquid matter in the small intestine indicates
the rapid passage of food from the stomach into the large intestine.
The bacteria are protected from the gastric juice by the muscular
and cellular tissue in which they are farbddde and are thus able to
pass through the stomach without being destroyed. The diagnosis
of hog-cholera was confirmed in every case by finding the specific
bacterium in cover-glass preparations of splenic tissue and obtaining
therefrom pure cultures in liquid media and in gelatine.

In conjunction with the first series of inoculations, two pigs (Nos.
149 and 161) were inoculated at the same time, as follows: January
23, with 1° of the seventh culture in beef-infusion peptone derived
from the spleen of No. 114. No reaction at the place of inoculation
in No. 149; a tumor as large as a marble in'No. 161. On February
8 both received a second injection of 1° of the second culture in
beef-infusion peptone derived from pig No. 165. Two swellings as
large as a chestnut at the place of the second inoculation in No. 149;
in No. 161 also a considerable thickening was present. No. 149 was
fed March 5 with four of the preceding series; No. 161 on March 13
with the remainder of the preceding series, and some to be subse-
quently spoken of. Both died of hog-cholera. The accompanying
table and brief autopsy notes explain themselves:

Tnoculation.
Pig No. act RRS onal ace Fed. Died. ee
January 23. | February 8.
ce. ce.
AOE bs ciscakeweeeeiesusn ant 1 1 March. 5 ......0s March 24....... 19
Lvih os AageAage anor spo caae 1 1 March 18 ....... Po wile t Proeae see 32

No. 149.—Slight reddening of the skin and subcutaneous connective tissue; the
nodes produced by inoculation firm, pale yellowish, only one showing softening
within; spleen considerably enlarged and full cf blood; ascarides in gall bladder,
which is ulcerated; mucous membranealong fundus of stomach intensely congested;
the mucous membrane of cecum and upper portion of colon one mass of ulcers; in
the remainder of colon they are isolated; kidneys congested.

No, 161.—Great emaciation; spleen enlarged and gorged with blood, very soft;
all excepting the posterior region of each lung hepatized and the bronchi filled with
a thick creamy mass, which consists almost entirely of pus corpuscles; lymphatics
but slightly congested; adhesions between adjacent coil of large intestine and blad-
- der; cecum and colon studded with large deep ulcers; valve greatly enlarged; in-
tense congestion of mucous membrane of fundus; cover-glass preparations from the
spleen of both contain the characteristic oval bacterium. Gelatine and liquid cult-
ures from the same organ were pure,

The comparatively large dose of strong virus used for vaccination
was not capable of protecting these animals from the disease commu-
nicated by feeding. There was no suspicion of disease caused by the

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 647

vaccination when they were fed, and the time intervening was suffi
cient for the development of the disease from the injected virus.

Pigs Nos. 151, 169, 170, and 178 were inoculated as in the preced-
ing experiments on February 8 and 23 with 4° of a beef infusion

eptone culture derived from a puinee oe and the seventh culture
rom the spleen of a pig in the same medium. The dose was diluted
in salt solution so as to make 1° of liquid. In No. 151 the second
inoculation produced a tumor about 1 inch long and 4 inch thick.
The first was scarcely noticeable. In No. 169 the first inoculation
resulted in a bean-like nodule; the second promoec several of the
same size. In No. 170 neither inoculations showed more than a very
slight swelling. In No. 178 both inoculations produced rather exten-—
sive swellings. }

On being’ fed with the viscera of pigs known to have died of the
disease all took the disease and died; two on March 13 and the re-
maining two on March 19, one in thirteen, one in eighteen, and two in
twenty-two days after feeding. A table summarizing these facts and
brief post mortem notes are appended:

Inoculation. | |

MEN venues hotles eee | : Days after
Pig No. ; Fed. Died. feeding.
February 8. | February 23.
ce. ce

LBL jamaysise's AE aoiw ious asics - 4 + Marchii8:: 4660 March 26 ...,.¢. 13
TW ei oles cine ciarcieivi¥'w w\e.eis. 0. 4 + MArCHi dD) oi ae sof) Pepe 10s camtsyee.e 22
by) A a SSS Oe Eee + + March 13 ....... Aprilia. sas fs 22
LiGid dst seibiniecatsn tes aces + + March 19 ....... ADT Gs ves.cucadme 18

Autopsy notes.—No. 151.—Purplish spots on skin of abdomen and paler ones in
subcutaneous tissue. Inoculation tumor cuts like cheese; yellowish white. Extrav-
asations under endocardium and epicardium; left lung mottled from congested
areas; cortex of lymphatic glands congested; those of meso-colon and lesser curva-
ture of stomach dark purple throughout; kidneys pale; hemorrhage into pelvis of
left kidney; extravasations into mucosa of stomach; moderate number of ulcers in
ceecum and colon; large quantity of blood in the lower six or eight feet of ileum and
in the large intestine; clotted in the former tube, where the mucous membrane is
deeply congested.

No». 169.—Small tumor on the left side, the place of the second inoculation; spleen
enlarged and congested, with large hemorrhagic infarcts; considerable effusion in
the large serous cavities. Besides the general congestion of lungs, there are scat-
tered throughout its parenchyma hemorrhagic foci. Hemorrhagic inflammation of
kidneys manifested by bright red glomeruli throughout its cortex; lymphatics in
eral deeply congested; numerous petechiz in stomach, small and large intestine.

n czecum and colon large, deep ulcers.

No. 170.—Redness of skin of abdomen; nothing at places of inoculation; spleen
enlarged, friable, full of blood; abdomen, thorax, and pericardial cavity contain
much yellow serum, congestion of the lungs with darker hemorrhagic foci through-
out; anterior lobes collapsed; kidneys enlarged, with a few extravasations on surface
and in parenchyma; mucous membrane of stomach and intestines covered with
many hemorrhagic points and spots. In large intestine, including rectum, numer-
ous old ulcers, some 1 inch across. LLymphatics in general extensively congested.

No. 178.—Died quite unexpectedly. At the place of first inoculation two firm
whitish masses; spleen enlarged, friable; its substance contains hemorrhagic infarcts;
extravasations beneath both serous surfaces of the heart; congestion of lungs, with
numerous darker hemorrhagic foci; lymphatic glands of abdominal cavity very dark
and gorged with blood; extensive ulceration about the ileo-cxecal yalve, in the
cecum, and colon; in the lower portion of colon and in the rectum numerous small
extravasations. Hemorrhage into pelvis of both kidneys.

The post mortem determination of a severe type of hog-cholera
in these four cases was confirmed by finding in the spleen of each

G48 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

animal, by means of cover-glass preparations, numerous specific bac-
teria of this disease. Cultures in liquid media made from every
spleen were found rue when examined microscopically as well as on
gelatine plates. This experiment likewise proved the inefficiency of
small quantities of non-attenuated virus introduced beneath the skin
in preventing an invasion of the micro-organisms from the aliment-
ary canal. .

A third lot of four pigs (Nos. 117, 171, 172, and 174), between three
and five months old, were inoculated as before with .2° each from
the second beef-infusion peptone culture derived from the spleen of
No. 159. On March 1 they were inoculated with .2°¢ from the second
culture derived from the spleen of No. 156. In No. 117 there was a
slight swelling after the first and one as large as a chestnut after
the second inoculation. In No. 171 a mass 14 to 2 inches long and
three-fourths inch in diameter was found at site of the first inocula-
tion. There was but a small nodule at the place of the second inoc-
ulation. In No. 172 two lumps, like small marbles, formed after the
first inoculation; after the second only a small nodule formed. In
No. 174 the reaction after the second inoculation was manifested by
an irregular tumor about 2 inches long and one-third of an inch in
diameter, the reaction at the place of the first inoculation being less
marked.

Of these four, two (Nos. 117 and 172) were fed with the viscera of
pigs dead from hog-cholera, together with two control animals (Nos.
192 and 193), on March 19. The rest (Nos, 171 and 174) were simply

laced in the large infected pen March 22, with those that had been
ted with infectious matter. Below the result is given in a tabulated
form. It shows that all the animals succumbed to the disease, those
simply exposed by contact with the sick as well as those fed. Of the
inoculated animals, those fed died in twenty-one and eighteen days
after feeding; those exposed, in twenty-two and twenty-five days re-
spectively. Those not inoculated died twelve and eleven days respect-
ively after feeding. Here, likewise, we notice the prolongation of
life in the inoculated pigs.

! Days after
Pig No. February 13.| March 1. | Date ot oe and ex- pee
ing.
ce. ce.
itgratrctastatelererete ttsversisis «2 «2 Fed March 19........... 21
Ni(imeteraternia(cinievainioieieisietcia 2 2 osed March 22...... 22
SMiferieiate tate) sisie etalsteis{ohcleisia 2 2 Wed March 19........... 18
i/iieterteslalciawiersfataieiere es Ac AY} osed March 22...... 25
EM eieistereiinle eeteletiiois |noialeisleja.eie-ererapial| eieiclveieisiaratersts Fed March 19........... 12
De Raver terete aerators viel disietal| i Taisvelalevetetereretciesti| iets, ote\eietalatetmraval| bininte cis GOm emeecouans 11
OSM ietete cto a laisrelciaievetelersvel|n'sloralalcrelareieievelsts|lisieteieistereYern ela Exposed March 31...... 19
ON eye tetretseretelatatels ajeiatale a evsin ole inie eroleiete| sreleleietatere alerole| eferere te GON a rtrsistaeiienwewne 14
* Checks.

- The lesions found at the autopsies of these pigs are briefly as fol-
OWS:

No. 117.— Extensive reddening of the skin of abdomen; great enlargement of spleen,
which is gorged with blood, very soft; petechial discolorations on surface of lungs
and on section; large intestine studded with broad deep ulcers as far as the rectum;
a few in ileum.

No. 171.—Skin over ventral aspect of body deeply reddened; hemorrhagic spots
under peritoneal covering of diaphragm and large intestine and under capsule of

-

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 649

kidneys; lungs congested, containing numerous dark hemorrhagic lobules; part of
anterior lobes collapsed. The spleen very large, dark colored; nodes slightly raised
above surface, shown on section to be hemorrhagic infarcts; lymphatic glands gener-
ally highly congested; petechial spots on surface and in cortex of kidneys; hemor-
rhagic foci throughout mucosa of stomach and intestines, About four large ulcers
in czeecum and colon.

No. 172.—Reddening of skin of ventral aspect of body and of subcutaneous tissue
generally; firm, pale yellow cheesy masses, surrounded by a thin membrane, at place
of inoculation; engorgement of spleen and lymphatic glands; extravasations in pa-
renchyma of kidneys. In cecum and colon numerous deep ulcers, some coalesced,
Mucosa of stomach generally congested, and that of intestines thickly dotted with

etechiee.
; No. 174.—Deep reddening of skin of abdomen; encysted cheesy mass at site of first
inoculation; great enlargement of spleen; prominent red points on surface; effusion
into abdominal cavity; anterior lobes of lungs collapsed, remainder normal; lymphat-
ics highly congested; three large ulcers in cecum; valve thickened and ulcerated;
petechize numerous throughout mucosa of stomach and intestines.

No. 192.—Control animal. Reddening of skin of ventral aspect of body and of
subcutaneous tissue; spleen swollen, full of blood, friable. Atelectasis of the small
anterior lobe of each lung; ulcers on the mucous surface of gall bladder. Cortex of
lymphatic glands congested; mucosa of large intestines congested; numerous ulcers
in ceecum and upper eolon.

No. 193.—Subcutaneous connective tissue considerably reddened; spleen but slightly
enlarged, not much softened. Mucous membrane of stomach, of large and small in-
testines, deeply congested; contents of large intestine fluid, chocolate colored.

In cover-glass preparations from the spleen pulp of these animals
numerous bacteria of hog-cholera were found in each preparation.
Both gelatine and liquid cultures from every spleen proved to be
pure cultures of the bacterium of hog-cholera.

The diagnosis made on post mortem was thus confirmed by micro-
scopic examination and culture.

To determine the effect of a single inoculation, on February 13 two
pigs (Nos. 115 and 160) received subcutaneously each 1° of the second

eef-infusion peptone culture obtained from the spleen of apig. In
No. 115 a tumor as large as a marble was found at the seat of in-
oculation March 9. In No. 160 the tumor was elongated, about 2
inches long and three-eighths of an inch thick. No, 115 was fed with
viscera taken from cases of hog-cholera March 19. No. 160 was
simply exposed to the disease by being transferred to the large in-
fected pen. No. 115 died April 8. No. 160 recovered and was well
May 6. The detailed account of this experiment is appended :

- Date of feeding and ex- - Days after
Pig No. February 13. posure. Effect. fending:
ce.
115... .cccessccevccscess 1 Mea MarchyiO ye c.csnc ce cee Died April 8 .......... 20
TGQ rescrsisiersio aleturere avaie/eale’s 1 Exposed March 22.......... HVECOVELCH reno ecoeicie sa lse acer

Post mortem notes.—No. 115.—Firm, pale yellow tumor at seat of inoculation,
encysted; center undergoing softening. Spleen tumefied, very dark and friable. A
few extravasations beneath serous coverings of heart. In cortex of kidneys numer-
ous hemorrhagic points; cystic degeneration of right kidneys; advanced ulceration
of czecum and colon; scattered petechie in mucosa of stomach and small intestine.

No. 160.—Was very low for a time, beginning with April 1. It was barely able to
stand and its appetite was poor. It rapidly recovered, however, and was gaining
fiesh in May. Whether the animal was suffering from hog-cholera or from the

Sclerostoma pinguicola (kidney worm), with which some of this lot were found
affected, cannot be said.

In order to determine whether a single injection of a comparatively
large quantity of culture liquid, while not inducing the disease, would

650 , REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ees against the disease itself, the following experiment was per-
ormed :

Four pigs (Nos. 202, 204, 205, and 212) were inoculated April 2 with
14°¢ of a seventh culture in beef infusion with 1 per cent. peptone one
day old. Four additional pigs (Nos. 206, 207, 208, and 209) received
but 1% of the same culture. The remaining four of the same lot
(Nos. 203, 210, 211, and 213) were reserved as checks upon the experi-
ment. Of these, Nos. 203 and 213 had a temperature of 106° F., and
hence were suspected of disease. This suspicion was soon confirmed
after they had been placedinapenalone. Both had asevere diarrhea,
one dying April 11, the other April 13. Thelesions were confined to
the mucous membrane of the large intestine, which was dotted with
numerous elevated lemon-yellow tough masses a few lines across, sim-
ulating ulcers. On close examination, however, this impression was
dispelled. These tough masses were easily removed in toto from the
mucosa, which presented a slight depression without any loss of sub-
stance. They were evidently exudates from the mucosa and perhaps
diphtheritic. There were no bacteria in the blood or ina bit of spleen
ean into a culture tube. No development took place in either
tube.

Of those inoculated with 13°, two died from the immediate effects
of inoculation. No. 204 died in eleven days and No, 212 in seven days.
In No. 204 a tough tumor had formed at the point of inoculation on
each side. The mucous membrane of the large intestine was com-
pletely necrosed and the spleen enlarged. In No. 212 local swelling
was present on oneside, The stomach and large intestine were deeply
congested, with points of commencing ulceration in the latter. In
both animals the bacterium of hog-cholera was present in cover-
glass preparations of the spleen. Nos. 202 and 205 seemed to remain
unaffected by the inoculation. One month anda half later both were
exposed to the disease in the largeinfected pen. A month later they
were removed with others to a clean pen, after having apparently re-
sisted infection. No. 202 was gradually wasting away and died July
24, more than two months after exposure. Inthe large intestine were
cicatrices of healed ulcers and such as were healing. The severest
lesions were in the lungs. Both were adherent by means of bands
to the costal pleura, and were extensively hepatized. No. 205 was
alive and alk August 15. ;

Of the second lot, which had received 1° of the same culture,
the results were nearly the same. Two succumbed to the inocu-
lation, one died of infection, and a fourth survived. No, 208 died
fifteen days after inoculation. Besides the inoculation swellings, en-
larged and congested spleen, the mucous membrane of the large in-
testine was covered with extensive deep ulcers and the walls much
thickened and softened. The corresponding lymphatics in the meso-
colon deep purple. No. 209 died in six days after inoculation. There
was georidral congestion and extravasation of blood in the internal
organs, involving the entire mucous membrane of the alimentary
tract, especially the large intestine, the lymphatics and serous mem-
branes, the spleen and kidneys. Ulceration had not yet begun. In
both animals the spleen was crowded with bacteria and furnished
pure cultures of the specific germ.

Nos. 206 and 207 were not affected by the inoculation. They were
exposed with the preceding lot, as indicated in the table. No. 207,
after apparently resisting the contagion in the infected pen for a
month, died J hy 18, after having been in a clean pen since June 21,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 651

The extensive necrosis of the mucous membrane of the cecum and
upper portion of colon, with the absence of any acute inflammation
elsewhere, gave evidence of achronic case of hog-cholera. No. 206,
though still alive, is emaciated.

The two remaining check pigs, which were exposed with the pre-
ceding animals in the same infected pen, both died of hog-cholera.
No. 211 found dead June 21. The most marked changes were a small
number of ulcers ona pale mucous membrane scattered over the cecum
and colon. No. 210 lived a month longer than its mate. The exist-
ence of hog-cholera was demonstrated by a general necrosis of the
mucous membrane of the czecum and an extensive pigmentation in
the remainder of the large intestine. The lungs were adherent in
places and much congested.

When we gather together the facts presented by this experiment
we shall find a certain number of interesting deductions springing
therefrom. In the first place we note the peculiarity of the intes-
tinal lesions of the two animals which died from some unknown cause,
presumably not hog-cholera. We next point to an additional dem-
onstration of the specific nature of the bacterium of hog:cholera,
for out of eight inoculated four died, and the age of the lesions cor-
responded well with the length of time elapsing between inoculation
and death.

Those animals which resisted the inoculation were in part protected,
as two among four were still alive on August 17,and the remaining
two died, probably from effects of the ulceration, months after ex-
posure.

|
5 Tnoculated April | Died from in-| Exposure in in-| Removed from
Pig No. 2.

oculation. | fected pens. | infected pens. Remarks.
DUST i wise Ap CC. COG UG ic | ino este vie eos Mavis e...o.: June 21....... Died July 4.
pL ee ee GB se ci bee APPA TO Na cyst MMA Lies cic-es sales be winerewie owe
Pe ee sate tex: Tie LER Veerab| Oiabae neo ses Maye: .y.a. June 21....... Alive Aug. 17.
PAD aise z\ose bint HO tie «dcus Paya ey re | eee SY ONE 2 Beer | ean ee Ae
P| Oe TSGCVCUM GMO © a clocec ces ae craae 5 May 18.0; 23.5% DUNE Ls ces.s's Alive Aug. 11, but unthrifty.
tA ee ee WO sr SEVe TI eM Most. (Saree Pataca eet ulna lob habese ve Died July 18. .
DBiiaes tito. GO Aiavtt Shs ASU cienpas |aes wih Meciatdiots Fach] cabs Te ee wlde oh
Piel ereth ofall ters Oi acs ase esolaie< | ADEN On 3 octal sai vempatemaicrtmain| Msiiumes eh cue nee be
i ete a ceteietaees tie te v6 lB. a0 owe at wc | Shea aa ure da bie viene) hak dis spemiesiestens Died Apr. 11,from some un-
own disease.
METS EM ile ch Ue ea cecae se] i tees tanttaan se May 8%). 275. « June 21. 2.0.62 Died July 21, of hog-cholera.
PUA bs tect vaici> winjot a Perea y eta’ crabarate Se a otk’ oetara < DMV Gide oA store weaisiguvuiviets cle Died June 21, of hog-cholera,
sal ea eC rea loa kh lain W Ebi-rs Cala [NE Re hinin comand eer ete civics c/cll cata coke Se cos. ys Ore Died Apr. 13, from same dis-
ease as No. 203.

*These animals were one and a half months old at date of inoculation. + Checks,

Having determined that even large doses of liquid cultures of the
bacterium of hog-cholera can be borne without producing the dis-
ease in most cases, it was thought advisable to make two inocula-
tions of strong virus, a first one with a small quantity and a second
with a large quantity, }

First inoculation, April 21: Nos. 214, 227, 228, and 222 received 4¢¢
of a third culture in beef infusion containing 1 per cent. each of pep-
tone and glucose. The liquid was diluted with sterile salt solution
a0 iat to make 3°. It was injected one-half beneath the skin of each

igh.

Second inoculation: After waiting two weeks in order to determine
whether the inoculation had not produced the disease, a. second in-
jection was practiced May 6, the thirteenth and fourteenth culture
of the same series being used for this purpose. The animals received

652 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

lee, 14¢¢, 2°¢, and 24°¢, of the culture liquid respectively. No un-
toward results following the injection of these large doses, they were
transferred to the large infected pen May 25.

A second lot (Nos. 226, 228, 215, and 229) were treated in precisely
the same way and at the same time, excepting in receiving 3° for
the first dose instead of 4°.

. First inocula- | Second inocu- | Exposure in in- : Days after first
Pig No. tion April2i. | lation May 6. | fected pen, Time of death. pide 5
cc ce.

D1 AR rceia'ose'sie sie sicie en 3 1 B25 aiaieieisie'siere's JULY gl cursste cise 37
Pea kitelatelslalelalelaeiews'elsisio 4 14 WER: « <lssciniciee DUUOCISS coanciceee 33
eianbisisobmis's cletoisic 4 2 MB yireocts «able nines DULY ie ra cateenestes 38
28) COR GRLSOOONA + 24 MAY 25... cccccccs July 1) Sestee ees 37
SaeORe wemiena os eateiat + 1 IMERIY) PO % < slelciec cela DULYAS iene ce cieeer 39
2s thascdadsoss60n 4 13 MSY oe sass ose VIO) mee see 49
PAE oacaogagobbadce 4 2 May 25.......... July: LOS fnomer

Re akercisle cies a ciclsiaare + 2 May 25 sa tice cies JUNO Cie se sceteee 33
OT a ee SA ESS SAS 30) BOSOODDLE EBD 5005 [CoboOseRossa5eq05 EA CD es clelcitisise.= AI As saspmicicet 71
Re Ns Ae citsivicwe'l Sebeit cbc kee einen ctestisieeiniacine see May 25 iioeccusee TUCO Zi Secale 33

* Checks.

No. 214 being in a dying condition July 1, was killed. In the cecum and colon
were found very large, deep, blackish ulcers upon a pale mucosa. The case was evi-
dently one of chronic hog-cholera. A pure liquid culture of the hog-cholera bacte-
rium was obtained from the spleen.

No. 227 died June 27. The lymphatic glands were deeply congested; the mucosa
of large intestine was generally pigmented and covered with large blackish ulcers.
Small yellowish ulcers were also found in the ileum. The points of injection were
occupied by encysted, partly liquefied masses.

No. 223 was found dead July 2. At the points of injection encysted masses were
found, the contents of one of which were discharging through an opening in the
skin. The mucosa of the entire large intestine deeply congested. Scattered ulcers
of varying age and size in the cecum and colon. Bacterium in spleen.

No. 222, after a period of unthriftiness, was found dead July 1. The autopsy re-
vealed a chronic broncho-pneumonia, with pleuritic adhesions of right lung. The
mucous membrane of the cecum and colon, besides being studded with a large num-
ber of broad shallow ulcers, was deeply and uniformly congested, the congestion
involving also the lower portion of the ileum. On both thighs an encysted semi-
liquid mass indicated the seat of the inoculation. This case suggests the probability
of a double infection, the first represented by the ulceration, the second by the more
recent inflammation of the mucous membrane.

Of the second lot, which had received 4°¢ of the first inoculation, all succumbed to
the infection. No. 226 died July 3. The characteristic lesion was extensive ulcera-
tion, together with deep congestion of the mucosa of large intestine. Encysted
masses at the points of inoculation. A considerable number of bacteria of hog-
cholera in the spleen.

No. 228 died July 13. In this animal the mucosa of c#ecum and colon presented
a continuous mass of necrosed blackish tissue, the ileo-czecal valve being enlarged
to twice the nomal size. A few scattered yellowish ulcers in the lower portion of
the colon. No. 215 died July 10, probably affected in the same way, though no post
mortem examination was made.

No. 229 died June 27. In this case the lymphatic glands were in general deeply
congested; ecchymoses beneath the serous membranes. Pigmentation of the mu-
cous membrane of the stomach, duodenum, ileum, and large intestine from former
extravasations. Several large ulcers on the valve and some others in colon. Ulcers
in the cardiac portion of the stomach. Encysted masses at the point of inoculation.

Nos. 224 and 225 were penned with the above eight animals as checks. No. 225,
after being sick for a few days, was found dead June 27. The mucosa of the cecum

-and upper half of the colon is extensively pigmented and ulcerated, the lower half
deeply congested. The ileum is also ulcerated for 5 or 6 feet from the valve. Many
of the ulcers are so deep as to have produced inflammation of the serous membrane
and thickening of the intestinal walls. The other check (No. 224) lived over two
months after exposure, being unthrifty during this period. On post mortem the
mucosa of large intestine was considerably pigmented and scars of healed ulcers
were present. A large suppurating wound of the lower jaw, involving the bone,
may have contributed towards the fatal issue.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 653

These inoculations having failed to pr@duce immunity from natural
infection, a second experiment was tried by augmenting the dose of
strong virus used for the second inoculation. Thus Nos, 239, 242, 244,
and 245 received each $° for the first inoculation May 27, No. 243 be-
ing retained in the same penasacheck. Of these No. 239 died of
hog-cholera as the result of the inoculation. The remaining three,
received two weeks later, on June 10, 2° each of strong virus. The
cultures were prepared in beef infusion with 1 per cent. peptone.
They were usualiy the third or fourth culture, not more than one day
old. A second lot (Nos. 240, 254, 255, and 256) were inoculated at the
same time and in the same way, with this exception, that the second
dose was increased to 3°, On June 24 all were placed in the large
infected pen.

No. 239 died June 2, within six days after receiving 4° of the culture and as a re-
sult of the inoculation. The lesions were those of a very acute case, engorged spleen
and lymphatics, intense congestion of the mucosa of the large intestine and of the
intestinal tract in general. The lungs were likewise engorged and dotted with ex-
travasations. Thisanimal was eating and apparently well on the morning of death.
The spleen was crowded with the bacterium of hog-cholera, and pure cultures of the
microbe were obtained from it.

No. 242 died July 17. The characteristic lesions of hog-cholera were found in it;
extensive ulceration of the cecum and colon; engorgement of spleen and lymphatic
glands with blood. Encysted masses at the pointof inoculation. No. 224 succumbed
July 9 with practically the same lesions, besides the presence of a considerable quan-
tity of serum in the abdominal cavity.

The check to this lot died July 13. The depth of the ulcerations in the cecum
and colon had implicated the serous covering, so that adhesions had formed between
the ceecum and abdominal walls. Punctiform ecchymoses on serosa of ileum; the
mucosa not affected. The mucosa of cecum was found completely ulcerated, the
necrosis stopping abruptly at the edge cf the valve; in the colon the necrosis re-
solved itself into large isolated ulcers.

Of the second lot No. 240 died July 10. At the place of inoculation a firm pale
yellowish mass about one inch long was found. The lower portion of ileum, the
ceecum, the upper portion of colon, contained ulcers of different sizes. The duode-
num was occluded by a clot of blood. No. 254 died the same day-with lesions of a
similar character. No. 255 died July 20. The spleen in this case was greatly aug-
mented in size and gorged with blood. The right lung was congested and adherent
to wall of thorax; considerable effusion in this pieural sac. The caecum and upper
portion of colon covered with deep blackish ulcers. A few small ulcers in ileum.

° First inocula- | Second inocu- | Exposure in in- . Days after first
Pig No. tion May 27. | lation June 10. ected pen. Time of death. exposure.

on ce. ce. |
aid eles ashes aie + sia ea ein Ow mia dain Ste wills salah a Bip aineeas ole dsin:Giesie fa mineele a pint 'ds.bcne
AD eiteapla cee acciaaisid 4 2 June 24......... 23
Aaa cipiaiatviatsiare ieisiaizie + 2 June 24......... 15
RAD cesiaetasiasied aici s + 2 CUT eps Lis Saat Ol Re See ern beh ee s lke 8
DAS eIamnadie ra sts cassie! Selaeiele tied eiama siete sures <aine'ste nets SUNG! 24; J veljevice 19
AD eaten tea <5 del + 3 une) 240. cn eee ce 16
254 bap oect BSSe ces $ 3 June 24......02 16
ROO Sein scveatewors + 3 June; 245. 63366% 26
od omatda ep ceiecs emav'e $ 3 SUHO Wi acae aces alodaisetaic eds oc sale Sala nina eie'caldup ieee

* Check. + From inoculation.

The foregoing experiments demonstrate the important fact that pigs
cannot be made insusceptible to hog-cholera by subcutaneous injec-
tions of pure cultures of hog-cholera bacteria. This method, which
was originally suggested and applied by Pasteur to anthrax and
rouget, therefore fails in this disease., The experiments have been
sufficiently varied and extended to leave no doubt as to this point.
The subcutaneous injection of large as well as small quantities of cult-

654 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ure liquid, either once or twice, left the animal as susceptible to nat-
ural infection as before inoculation, and in a few cases produced a
virulent type of the disease. We have already dwelt upon the im-
portant fact that the disease can be produced by feeding when sub-
cutaneous inoculation fails. This may also explain the failure of
protective inomulation. The disease exerts its severest effects locally
upon the mucosa of the large intestine, and in only a few cases is it
areal septicemia. The bacteria have the power of rapid multipli-
cation within the vascular system only when exceptionally virulent.
Subcutaneous inoculations of cultures, in which they may have be-
come attenuated, are of little avail, because they are speedily destroyed
in the connective tissue, leaving only a slight local swelling behind.
Other lines of investigation must therefore be followed out before
any practical results can be obtained.

HOW CAN HOG-CHOLERA BE PREVENTED ?

The measures which must be adopted to prevent the introduction
and spread of hog-cholera depend upon our knowledge of the disease
as 1t appears in herds, and more especially upon a study of the cause.
This we have demonstrated to be a microscopic plant organism be-
longing to the class of bacteria, and resembling in a general way those
organisms which are the cause of infectious diseases among men.
Of this disease the only reliable diagnostic lesion is ulceration of the
large intestine, or the presence of the bacterium in the body of the
affected animal, and whatever follows can only apply to the disease
produced by this specific organism or bacterium.

It has been shown in this and preceding reports that the disease
spreads from one animal to another of the same herd until sometimes
only asmall percentage of unthrifty animalsremain. It extends from
one herd to another, and may be carried long distances. The pres-
ence of the specific bacterium has been demonstrated in such widely
different regions as the District of Columbia, Illinois, and Nebraska.

The fact that one animal takes the disease from another does not
explain how the virus is transferred. Is it carried directly from one
to another in the air, or is it deposited in the soil by one animal to
be taken up by another? Is it introduced through a wound in the
skin? Is it taken up by the lungs from the inspired air, or is it in-
troduced with the food and drink? These questions cannot be solved
by simply observing the disease in herds, hence numerous experi-
ments detailed in this and the preceding report have been directed
to a solution of these questions, upon which some rational rules for
prevention may be based.

The disease is perhaps never communicated by injuries of the skin,
by bites and wounds obtained in other ways. Large quantities of
liquid containing the virus can be introduced beneath the skin with-
out fatal results. Inthe great majority of pigs a local swelling is the
only effect.

Whether the lungs serve commonly as an entrance to the virus
cannot be definitely stated. All experimental evidence points the
other way, and in a large percentage of cases the lungs are intact,
while the large intestine is severely ulcerated. We haveshown that
blood and tissue which have been dried for two months may contain »
bacteria, which readily multiply when placed in proper media. Hence
the dust from pens where the disease exists may contain many bacte-
ria, which, on reaching the lungs, multiply and produce the disease,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 655

It is our intention to continue experiments which may throw more
light upon this mode of infection.

Perhaps the most common source of infection is the food and drink,
That is, the virus enters the alimentary canal, and there produces
such extensive ulceration that the animal sooner or later succumbs
from gradual exhaustion, septic poisoning, or peritonitis. Or the
virus immediately enters the blood from the intestines, multiplies in
every organ of the body, and causes death in a few days, or even
hours. Such sudden deaths usually occur at the beginning of severe
epidemics. Pigs which are fed with the internal organs of those that
have died of the disease almost invariably take the disease in a very

. Severe form, and die within one or two weeks after infection. To
demonstrate that it was the specific bacterium of hog-cholera in
these internal organs, and not some other element, pigs were fed with
liquids which contained only this organism, and they produced the
most severe disease. These demonstrations, together with the com-
monly observed fact that the disease seems to exist in the large intes-
tine only, prove conclusively that the virus is introduced largely with
food and drink.

\ It has already been stated that the most common seat of the disease
is the large intestine. The food after leaving the stomach passes in
a liquid condition through the small intestine, so that this never seems
filled; in fact, its only contents are a coating of semi-liquid matter
over the mucous membrane. It passes through the small intestine
quite rapidly, but on reaching the large intestine the undigested re-
mains become more consistent, because the liquid is reabsorbed, and
are kept here for some time. The bacteria, if not destroyed by the
gastric juice, pass quickly through the small intestine, but in the
large intestine they begin to multiply and attack the mucous mem-
brane, which they destroy. Hence the feces or discharges of diseased
pigs, wherever deposited, scatter larger or smaller quantities of the
virus, which may induce the disease over and over again. The dis-
charges, then, must be looked upon as the chief vehicle for the virus
when the disease has taken hold of a herd. Pigs endowed with the
well-known habits will not hesitate to avail themselves of the oppor-
tunity of becoming infected whenever it is offered. But the dis-
charges are not the only means by which the virus is disseminated
and kept alive, We have shown that the bacterium constituting the
living virus is a very hardy germ, and one endowed with great pow-
ers of multiplication. In the laboratory it has grown luxuriantly in
milk and on boiled potato. It grows slightly in hay infusion, even
in urine not neutralized. The temperature throughout the summer
in most of the States is sufliciently elevated to permit the growth of
the bacterium in these various substances, since a temperature of 70°
F. is amply sufficient, and temperatures above this point simply favor
the rate of increase of the quantity of virus. Even in good drinking
water the virus will increase for four or five days and remain alive
for months.

There is consequently very little about a pen in which the virus,
when scattered in the discharges of infected animals, will not in-
crease in Yuantity and form a more potent source of infection. It
will multiply in the wet soil, in the drinking water, and in the semi-
liquid foo A gallon of milk inoculated with a minute portion of
infectious material and allowed to stand through a warm night in
midsummer might be sufficient to produce the disease in at least a
dozen animals if fed to them on an empty stomach,

656 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

Such are the external conditions which may favor the extension of
hog-cholera. The condition of the animals themselves is of great
importance in favoring or preventing infection. When pigs are fed
with liquids in which the specific bacterium only is present, those
that have been deprived of food for some time previous take the
disease, while those whose stomachs contain food that is undergoing
digestion do not take it readily. If, besides starving the animal,
they are fed with some alkaline solution by which the alkalinity of
the stomach is increased, the pathogenic effect is still more pro-
nounced. Any disorder of digestion by which the secretion of gas-
tric juice is diminished or checked and the mucus is increased in
quantity will increase the susceptibility of the animal to infection,
because the alkalinity of the mucous membrane will favor rather
than destroy the virus. Any mode of feeding which produces con-
stipation and overdistension of the large intestine is likely to favor
the disease, as the virus is retained for a longer time. It multiplies
there and destroys the mucous membrane before it is discharged.
Keeping these facts in mind, we may formulate a few rules, which
must be carefully observed if the disease is to be kept in check.

In the first place, there should be no communication between in-
fected herds and such as are still free from the disease. The virus
may be carried in various ways, even on the shoes of persons. A
small quantity thus introduced may multiply in the soil and water
until it becomes a center of infection for many animals. Streams
into which sick animals have dropped discharges or in which dead
ones have lain must be considered as vehicles of the disease for all
herds below the source of infection. This is especially true in wuim
weather, when the virus multiplies very rapidly and extensively.

When the disease has appeared in a herd, the ground upon which
the animals lived at the time must be considered as infected, and it
is much safer to remove all the well ones to uninfected grounds than
to simply remove the sick ones. But how are we to know that the
disease has gained a foothold in the herd? It is quite common for
the disease to announce itself by a few sudden deaths. The stricken
animals may seem well a day, perhaps only a few hours, before
death. Such animals should always be immediately destroyed by
careful deep burial, or by burning, which is much better, for the
bodies are as a rule crowded with the specific poison of hog-cholera.
In order to remove any doubts as to the precise nature of the disease,
it is best to examine such animals before burying or burning them.
This should be done in a secluded place which pigs cannot reach, and
the ground thoroughly disinfected, as will be described later. The
disease in the sudden cases can be easily recognized. The spleen is
as a rule very black and enlarged. Spots of blood from the size of a
pin’s head to a quarter inch or more will be seen in the fat under the
skin, on the intestines, lungs, heart, and kidneys. The lymphatic
glands are purplish instead of a pale pink. When the large intes-
tines are opened they are found covered with these dark spots of
blood more or less uniformly and entirely. Often the contents are
covered with clotted blood. Any or all of these may be considered
as signs of the disease in its most virulent form. In these animals
the virus has penetrated into all of the vital organs, and they should
be saan beastly removed and destroyed. It must be borne in mind
that for any animal to consume portions of these carcasses would be
zertain death; that the blood and fluids from these dead bodies con-
tain the virus, and when scattered over the soil or thrown into

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 657

streams they simply distribute the virus, allow it to multiply, and
all the other animals are thereby put in the way of becoming in-
fected.

In many outbreaks the early cases do not succumb sorapidly. They
grow weaker, lie down much of the time, eat but little, and usually
have diarrhea. Most of such cases may linger for weeks, meanwhile
scattering the poison in the discharges. The disease may be recog-
nized in these cases as soon as they are observed to act suspiciously,
and there should be no delay in determining at once the nature of
the disease. When the animal has been opened the large intestine
should be carefully slit up and examined, beginning with the blind
or upper end. There will be seen roundish yellow or blackish spots,
having an irregular depressed, sometimes elevated, surface. These
are well shown in the Second Annual Report of this Bureau, p. 246,
or in the Annual Report of the Department for 1885, p. 522. These
spots correspond to dead portions of the mucous membrane, and they
are frequently seen from the outside as soon as the animal is opened.
Sometimes the membrane has been entirely destroyed. Its appear-
ance is well shown on Plates I and II of this report. These slow,
chronic cases are apt to spread the disease in the bowel discharges,
for in them the virus is chiefly located.

Having determined the existence of the disease, it may not be pos-
sible to remove the healthy animals to uninfected quarters after the
sick ones have been takenaway. Under suchcircumstances thorough
disinfection should be practiced at once. Among a large number of
substances tried in the laboratory only a few were found to meet the
requirements of rapidity of action combined with certainty and cheap-
ness. Carbolic acid seems to be useless, as it is expensive, and a con-
siderable quantity is required to destroy the germs. Thus experi-
ments in the laboratory have shown that to kill the virus in liquids
1 part carbolic acid in 100 parts of water is required, whereas 1 part
of mercuric chloride in 75,000 parts of water is sufficient. The best
disinfectant is therefore mercuric chloride, also called mercuric
bichloride and corrosive sublimate. As itis a violent poison to man
and animals, it should be very carefully handled. In order to make
a solution which is strong enough to act rapidly and with certainty,
1 part of the substance should be dissolved in 1,000 parts of water.
This is best accomplished by adding half an ounce to about four gal-
lons of clear water, preferably rain-water. As a pound of corrosive
sublimate retails at about 70 cents, the cost of the disinfectant is very
small. This solution, which should be made in wooden or granite-
ware vessels at least half a day before use, should be applied by
means of a broom or brush to the flooring, sides, and covering of
pens in which diseased animals have staid. All utensils used about
the pens, as well as the troughs and other things containing food,
should be carefully washed with the solution and afterwards rinsed
thoroughly in pure water. Ten minutes’ exposure to the disinfectant
solution is sufficient for all purposes. As the corrosive sublimate
solution attacks many metals, iron and tin utensils should be disin-
fected with boiling water instead of the mercuric chloride solution.

The bowel discharges should be made innocuous by pouring upon
them corrosive sublimate solution or mixing them with powdered
chloride of lime. In general it may be stated that whatever has come
in contact with diseased animals or their discharges should first be
disinfected before healthy animals are brought in contact with them
In using Hs cer sublimate solution we must bear in mind that

2 AG—'86,

658 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

it is poisonous to animals as well as to man, and that to get the desired
effect no large quantities need be applied. The surfaceyneed simply
be moistened with it in order to be disinfected. A spray apparatus.
by means of which a spray is deposited, would be most convenient,
but such apparatus is expensive and not readily procurable. It is
always desirable to moisten the bodies of dead animals with the dis-
infectant before removing them. Any virus adhering to the surface |
of the body is thereby destroyed and the danger of disseminating it
avoided.

When the disinfectant is not at hand much can b edone with boil-
ing water, which immediately destroys the virus. Scalding the
troughs and other articles is perhaps better than the use of the cor-
rosive sublimate, especially if they are immersed in the boiling water
or flooded with it. Some good may be dene by scalding bowel dis-
charges and the flooring of pens, although by doing so the virus
which is not destroyed is carried away by the cooling water, which
may later on favor its multiplication. In any case it is best to use
for pens the sublimate solution first and then scald them.

As it is quite impossible to disinfect the soil with any degree of
certainty, it is very desirable that in a herd in which the disease has
appeared the still healthy animals be transferred to fresh ground and
kept confined. In this way the dangers arising from an infected soil
are averted. For a like reason animals should be kept from streams
which have become polluted, as it is impossible to disinfect them.
Hence a dry soil, without standing pools of water, should be chosen
as long as any suspicion of the disease exists.

Great care should be bestowed upon the food, especially that of a
liquid character, which, when infected, will permit the multiplica-
tion of the virus and may infect large numbers. Cleanliness in this
respect is perhaps the simplest and most universal rule which can be
laid down. This simply means that the food should not come in
contact with the bowel discharges of diseased animals; that it should
not be allowed to stand for more than a few hours before it is con-
sumed; and that the troughs used for feeding should be scalded at
least twice a day when there is a suspicion that the virus may be
among the animals.

It may seem too laborious or perhaps superfluous to carry out such
directions as these. They may be incompatible with the present
methods of hog-raising in many parts of our country. They are,
however, the only means at present available by which the spread
of the virus may be checked. They prevent the soil from becom-
ing saturated with it, and every exertion made towards disinfection
destroys so much, and continued efforts may finally destroy it al-
together. Moreover, if the disease does appear while measures of
prevention are being carried out, it is not so apt to become very de-
structive, for the severity of the disease depends, as a rule, upon the
quantity of virus taken into the system. If this is allowed to accu-
mulate on all sides, much will find its way into the stomach and in-
testines and cause the most severe disease.

We do not know whether the virus can live in the soil through the
winter, but it seems highly probable. Hence thorough disinfection
practiced will lessen the chances for a reappearance of the disease in
the following year.

The investigations in regard to vaccination as a means of preven-
tion have not yet led to any results which can be practically utilized,
and therefore are still being carried on. The ordinary methods of

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 659

attenuation, as practiced by Pasteur in obtaining a vaccinal virus for
anthrax and rouget, are inapplicable in this peculiar disease, for the
unattenuated virus itself is incapable of conferring immunity. The
experiments demonstrating this fact are found on another page.
Hence any attenuated virus is still less capable of accomplishing this
end.

The use of certain medicines internally to act as preventives may
prove of some value, and it is our purpose to carry out some experi-
ments in this direction as well.

The treatment of this disease, as of the great majority of infectious
diseases, after it has gained a firm hold upon the animal, is not only
useless but dangerous; for the animal can only serve to spread the
disease. The ulcerations produced in the large intestines can only
heal slowly if they are not too extensive, while medicines are of no
avail. Those who insist upon a cure for well-pronounced cases of
hog-cholera, in which the bowels have become ulcerated, should
look upon the disease of typhoid fever in man, in which ulceration
also occurs. Through centuries the best physicians have been treat-
ing this disease, yet none has ever ventured to assert that he had a
cure for these ulcerations. They take the best care of the patient
and allow nature to heal the ulcers. Even then they frequently find
their patient snatched away at the very threshold of recovery.

PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS CONCERNING INFEC-
TIOUS PNEUMONIA IN SWINE* (SWINE-PLAGUE).

In prosecuting investigations in the West in order to determine
whether the disease which has been described in these reports as
hog-cholera existed there also, the lesions characteristic of this dis-
ease and the specific bacterium were found in Illinois and Nebraska.
At the same time another microbe was found, resembling in its mi-
croscopical characters the microbe of rabbit septiczemia very closely,
and associated with disease of the lungs—a chronic pneumonia—in
the few cases which were examined, Although the investigations
concerning the nature of this microbe, its distribution, and the losses
it produces, are scarcely begun, we venture the conclusion that it pro-
duces an infectious pneumonia in pigs, and that its effect may perhaps
be spent upon organs other than the lungs. This conclusion is based
upon the facts recorded in the following pages.

Among the post mortem examinations made in the State of Tlli-
nois in July, 1886, the following are worthy of attention:

In Marion County, a few miles from Patoka, a herd was found, July 7, of which
about ten had died and an equal number were still alive. Through the kindness of
the owner several pigs, which were evidently diseased, were killed by a blow on the
head. In No. i the superficial inguinals were greatly enlarged; ecchymoses were
found in the subcutaneous fatty tissue in large numbers on the omentum and the
epicardium, The lymphatic glands were as a rule enlarged and purplish, the spleen
augmented in size, the major portion of the lungs hepatized, and the remainder in-
terspersed with hemorrhagic foci. The mucous membrane of the stomach and the
large intestine was ecchymosed, that of the latter presenting here and there deep
ulcers, especially on the ileo-ceecal valve, Coyer-glass preparations from the spleen
of this case contained no bacteria of any kind. A tube of gelatine into which a bit
of spleen had been dropped remained sterile. No, 2, from the same herd, also killed
at the time, was affected with a suppurative pyelitis of the right kidney, causing
inflammatory adhesions of the large intestine. The mucous membrane of the latter
was dotted with innumerable petechie and a few ulcers, Cover-glass preparations

" #We shall call this disease swine-plague, in distinction from hog-cholera, just
described, See introductory remarks to Diseases of Swine, p, 603.

660 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

from the spleen of this animal were equally negative. A tube of gelatine into which
a bit of spleen tissue was dropped began to liquefy very slowly. It contained a ba-
cillus and a large oval coccus.

No. 3, from the same herd, killed, had its lymphatic glands generally enlarged and
purplish, the spleen dotted with numerous blood-red elevated points, lungs with large
carnified areas. The mucous membrane of the large intestine was merely congested.
No bacteria seen in cover-glass preparations of the spleen, and a gelatine culture
made as before remained sterile.

Several miles east of Champaign, IIll., the disease was appearing in a herd, the
owner of which very kindly permitted us to make what examinations we thought
advisable. On July 8 two autopsies were made. In No. 4, dead since last night,
the lymphatic glands generally were enlarged and purplish. Thesubcutaneous fatty
tissue stained yellow. The peritoneal and pericardial cavity contained a considera-
ble amount of yellow serum. The only other marked lesion observed was an enor-
mous enlargement of the spleen, which was very dark and pulpy. The mucous
membrane of the alimentary canal apparently intact. These lesions did not point
to hog-cholera. Cover-glass preparations of the spleen were negative. A piece
dropped into a tube of gelatine slowly liquefied the latter. A bacillus was found in
it, not pathogenic.

A pig (No. 5) which was observed to be very weak, although able to move about
when disturbed, was killed for further information. Inthe subcutaneous tissue over
the abdomen were numerous ecchymoses. The inguinal glands were greatly en-
larged, cortex purplish, some lobules deeply congested throughout. The abdominal
cavity contained a small quantity of colorless serum; the spleen considerably tume-
fied and covered with blood-red raised points. The lymphatic glands about the
stomach, as well as the bronchials, were deeply congested, the cortex infiltrated with
blood. The epicardium was dotted over its entire surface with minute extravasa-
tions. The mucous membrane in the fundus of the stomach and of the entire length
of the large intestine covered with closely-set extravasations. Cover-glass prepara-
tions, as well as cultures of the spleen, were entirely negative.

Reports of swine-plague from Geneseo, Henry County, made it advisable to make
a few post mortem examinations in this section of the State, in order to make sure
of the nature of the disease. The losses were very heavy, involving in many places
the greater part of the affected herd. July 11 several autopsies were made ina herd
about 3 miles from Geneseo. In this herd the disease had been observed about nine
days before. At the time three or four large animals had died during the night and
a number of others were ill.

No. 6.—Adult black male. in gcod condition, no signs of decomposition. In the
peritoneal cavity there were ecchymoses beneath the peritoneum of the dorsai wall,
near the caudal end of the kidneys, at least an inch in diameter. The spleen was
enlarged and congested. Whitish patches showing through the serosa of the large
intestine were afterwards found to correspond with ulcerations of the mucous
membrane. The lymphatic glands in general with congested cortex. The left lung
completely solidified, blackish, and everywhere adherent to chest wall. On force-
ing the ribs apart the lung tissue broke as a watermelon would; from the broken
surface a blackish frothy liquid exuded. A portion of the right lung was in the
same condition. A fibrinous deposit on the epicardium indicative of pericarditis.
In the alimentary tract the mucous membrane of the fundus of the stomach is
darkened with extravasations on the ridges of the folds. In the large intestine the
mucous membrane is completely covered with punctiform extravasations, in part
converted into pigment. In the czecum and colon are isolated disk-shaped ulcers
about one-half inch in diameter, slightly elevated. The center is dark, surrounded
by a broad yellowish margin, giving the whole a button-like appearance. On sec-
tion a whitish tough tissue is found to make up the ulcer and extend to the peri-
toneum, where it appears as a whitish patch when viewed from the serous surface.
Cover-glass preparations of the spleen negative. Two portions dropped into a tube
of gelatine and agar-agar respectively gave rise to cultures which will be described
n detail farther on.

No. 7.—A small shoat, having shown signs of disease for a few days, was killed by
a blow on the head. The superficial inguinal giands were enlarged and reddened.
Both kidneys dotted on the surface with minute petechiz. On section a few are
found in medullary portion. The spleen is dotted with a few blood-red elevated
points. Cover-glass preparations of the spleen negative. Cultures remain sterile.

No. 8.—Large black sow; died last night. Adipose abundant. In thisanimal the
spleen was enlarged, the medullary portion of kidneys deepiy reddened, lungs nor-
mal. The mucosa of the large intestine was entirely covered with minute elongated
spots of pigment, representing former extravasations. Cover-glass preparations of
spleen also negative. A gelatine tube containing a portion of spleen contained a

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 661

micrococcus. Bits of the spleen introduced beneath the skin of the dorsum of two
mice made them ill for a few days. Both finally recovered.

Besides the cultures mentioned in the autopsy notes at least ten others were made
at the time by piercing the spleens with a platinum wire and then piercing with it
tubes of gelatine or drawing it over the surface of tubes of agar-agar. None of these
showed any signs of growth, thus confirming the supposition, derived from the exam-
ination of cover-glass preparations, that the specific microbes are either entirely ab-
sent from the spleen or else are present in very small numbers.

The lesions found in all but three cases, in which the ulceration of
the large intestine was present, were not sufficiently uniform to war-
rant the diagnosis of hog-cholera. Viewed by the light of later ob-
servations, it seems highly probable that the remainder of the ani-
mals were affected with a different malady, due to the presence of the
microbe to be described later on. The ecchymosis of the large intes-
tine and the congestion and tumefaction of the lymphatics generally
differed from the lesions which we have found in hog-cholera. The
absence of bacteria from the tissues is also suspicious. There was
moreover a partial cirrhosis of the liver in most of the animals exam-
ined which we have never encountered in hog-cholera. We must
remember, however, that of these eight cases five were killed, per-
haps in the early stages of the disease, before the lesions were well
marked. Leaving these observations for future interpretation, when
more cases have been examined we will proceed to a description of
the bacteriological investigations.

In a few among a large number of tubes bacteria were present.
Nearly all were found harmless when inoculated into animals very
susceptible to hog-cholera. In two tubes inoculated with bits of
spleen from No. 6 two microbes were found which deserve attention.

One grew in both tubes, which was more carefully examined, because it resembled
the bacterium of hog-cholera very closely. In liquid media it is actively motile
and simulates the form of a bacillus. When stained, however, each individual is
resolved into a pair of ovals or very short rods with rounded extremities. A deeply
stained narrow border surrounds a comparatively pale body. There seems to be
slightly more stained material at the two extremities than in the bacterium already
fully described in the last report. It seems a trifie longer than the latter form, but
on attempting to confirm this impression by measurement the dimensions were
found practically the same. Sown on gelatine plates the colonies appear within
twenty-four hours and grow quite rapidly. The deep colonies are spherical, with
smooth outline and homogeneous disc. The surface colonies appear as irregular
patches, spreading very quickly, and, as a rule, growing far more vigorously than
the deep colonies. In tubes containing nutrient gelatine the isolated colonies in the
depth of the needle track may grow to the size of pins’ heads. On the surface a flat,
thin, pearly layer rapidly extends from the point of inoculation, and in from one to
two weeks may have covered the entire surface. The margins are irregularly scal-
loped and lobed, the entire layer often simulating the frost flowers on windows or
lace work (Plate V, Fig. 2). On potato, a thick straw-colored shining layer of nearly
smooth surface forms, which grows very vigorously and gradually covers the entire
cut surface of the potato with a layer 2™™ thick. This growth is brighter in color
and more abundant than appears in the potato culture of the bacterium of hog-
cholera. Cultivated in liquids, such as beef infusion with 1 per cent. peptone, the
medium becomes very turbid within twenty-four hours. <A thin pellicle appears,
which soon becomesa thick membrane. A cream-colored deposit forms and accumu-
lates to a considerable extent, while the liquid remains turbid. It will be remem-
bered that the bacterium of hog-cholera grows very feebly in comparison.

No resistant spore state was found, for tubes exposed to 58° C. for fifteen minutes
remained sterile; those exposed ten minutes became turbid. The pale, unstained
central portion of the bacterium simulates very strikingly the appearance of an en-
dogenous spore, yet they all succumb to the temperature of 58° C,, as described. A
peculiar property not common to the hog-cholera bacteria described is the coagu-
lation of the casein of milk. If a tube of this liquid, sterilized by discontinuous
boiling, be inoculated, it will be solidified within twenty-four hours. The coagulum,
contracting later on, leaves a shallow stratum of watery liquid near the surface,

662 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

The reaction is acid. Grown on gelatine a rather penetrating odor of decomposing
flesh is given off. The bacterium of hog-cholera develops no odor whatever in
cultures. This microbe, therefore, resembled the bacterium of hog-colera very
closely in its microscopic characters, but differed from it in some of its physiological
properties. This illustrates how important cultivation experiments are in the deter-
mination of specific differences. That it was not the bacterium of hog-cholera was
shown by an utter want of pathogenic properties when inoculated into mice and
rabbits. Pigs were inoculated and fed; cultures were introduced per rectum without
any effect whatever.

In one of the tubes the motile bacterium just described was mixed
with another microbe, which proved to be a very virulent germ. It
was obtained pure as follows: A rabbit inoculated with the mixture
from a liquid culture made from the original gelatine tube died in
seven days, after showing signs of lameness for several days. The
inoculated thigh was enlarged, the skin bluish. The subcutaneous
connective tissue was of a leathery consistency. The surface of the
muscular tissue on the inner aspect of the thigh was of a uniform
yellowish gray; this change extended into the muscular tissue to the
depth of 3™™ (one-eighth inch); the striated appearance was _ lost.
This change also involved the deeper intermuscular septa of the thigh,
On the abdomen the subcutis was infiltrated with a blood-stained
serum. The local effect had thus been unusually severe. Oultures
from the spleen, liver, and blood in gelatine tubes contained only
the second microbe. The one above described had no power of in-
vading the tissues of the rabit. That the microbe obtained from the
tissue of this rabbit was pathogenic the following experiments clearly
demonstrate:

With pure liquid cultures of this microbe three mice were inocu-
lated. T'wo of these died within one and two days of inoculation.
In the spleen of both peculiar torula-like forms were found, presum-
ably the cocci in process of division, which was retarded by unfavor-
able conditions. Its effect upon a rabbit, however, was more pro-
nounced. This rabbit died three days after a hypodermic injection
of 4° ofa liquid culture. Beneath the skin of the inoculated thigh
there was a translucent gelatinous exudate about one-half inch
thick. The muscles of the thigh and of the contiguous wall of
the abdomen were dotted with closely set punctiform and larger ex-
travasations. In the abdomen they were very numerous on the large
intestine along a zone nearest the abdominal wall. They were also
found over the kidney and on the psoasmuscle. Spleen not enlarged,
dark; liver rather pale; acini well marked; the entire right lung and
base of the left deeply congested; very few bacteria in the internal
organs. Two liquid cultures of blood and one from liver contained
the injected microbes. Gelatine cultures of blood, spleen, and liver
peoaees into numerous colonies of the same microbe in the needle

rack,

Two pigs (Nos. 287 and 289) were inoculated September 11 from a
culture of the rabbit. Each received beneath the skin of the thigh
23° of the culture liquid. No. 287 became dull and lost its appetite
several days later; eyes discharging. September 28 the animal be-
came delirious and ran blindly about the pen; dead next morning.
The only observable lesions were local swellings two inches across and
one-fourth to three-fourths inch thick, with centers which were _ be-
ginning to soften. Blood very dark, not coagulated; a few petechiz
on epicardium. The liver was very pale, sclerosed; the medulla of
kidney deeply reddened. No. 289 died September 21, after exhibiting
the same symptoms; local swellings as above, without indications of

‘BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 663

softening; the connective tissue and fat of the whole body of a deep
yellow color; liver very firm, bloodless, and of a peculiar yellowish
red color throughout; medulla of kidneys deeply reddened; two large
cysts in the right one. In neither case was the alimentary tract dis-
eased. In both there was cirrhosis of the liver, producing in the
second animal a general jaundice. From neither were cultures of
the inoculated microbe successful, though blood from the heart, the
spleen, and the liver were used. The tubes remained sterile.

Nos. 288 and 290, which had been retained in the same pen, did not
contract the disease from the others, as would ordinarily happen in
hog-cholera. No. 288 was fed with hog-cholera viscera October 12,
and died from the effects December 4; cecum and colon ulcerated.
No. 290, fed at the same time, died October 28, the only visible cause
of death being retention of urine.

This microbe was, therefore, fatal to mice, rabbits and pigs, pro-
ducing in the pig an acute inflammation of the liver, leading to a
marked cirrhosis and general jaundice. -

The same disease found near Sodorus, Ill.—The same microbe
was obtained from an outbreak in Sodorus, Ill, several months
later. On page 630 a description is given of two post mortems, in
one of which (No. 1) the lesions were ulceration of the large intestine
and a grayish hepatization of the lungs. From this animal the bac-
terium of hog-cholera had been obtained from the spleen. In the
other animal (No. 2) the lung lesions only were present. Portions
of the solidified lung tissue from No. 2, hardened in strong alcohol,
were submitted to a microscopic examination. The tissue was infil-
trated with paraffine, the sections treated with turpentine to remove
the imbedding substance, and then stained in various ways. The
smaller bronchi and air-cells were completely filled with an exudate,
consisting of white blood corpuscles chiefly, and some larger pale
cells, propel derived from the epithelium. This infiltration was
exceedingly dense in many places; in others less so. The septa or
alveolar walls were not perceptibly affected, but the capillaries were
distended with blood corpuscles, and formed an unstained mesh-work
around the deeply stained alveolar contents. The interlobular con-
nective tissue was also infiltrated, and the lymphatic spaces distended
and filled with a fibrillar network of coagulated lymph. When the
alveolar contents were carefully examined with a one-eighteenth
homogeneous objective, after staining the section in Léffler’s alkaline
methylene blue for several hours and decolorizing in one-half per cent.
acetic acid, groups of very minute oval bacteria were recognizable, in
size and outline lke those obtained in cultures fromthe pleura. These
groups were very large and extended through the depth of the section,
a fact easily recognized by focusing up and down. They were found
in all parts of the section, the bacteria themselves and the groups
they formed being readily recognizable. No other bacteria could be
detected, though the sections were searched over many times. Stain-
ing in aniline water methyl violet overnight did not bring these
groups out so clearly as the stain above given. These groups, more-
over, were present in those air-cells chiefly in which the exudate was
but moderately dense.

The lesions of the lungs found in both pigs at Sodorus, Ill., were
different from those occasionally found in post mortem examinations
of hog-cholera at the Washington Experimental Station. In the
latter the acute cases, characterized by hemorrhagic lesions in various
organs, usually presented lungs which were dotted with dark red

664. REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

patches visible on the pleural surfaces and in the parenchyma. These
were evidently extravasations into the alveoli, and etiologically the
same as the extravasations found elsewhere. Inthe majority of cases
lung lesions were entirely absent. When present they were usually
associated with an abundance of lung worms in the bronchi. In
many cases the small anterior lobes resting laterally upon the peri-
cardium were collapsed (atelectasis), of the color of red flesh. This
condition seems to stand in no direct relation to the disease itself.

The broncho-pneumonia found in the pigs above referred to ex-
tended over at least one-half of the lungs, involving the caudal por-
tion of the base, resting on the diaphragm. The pleura was but
slightly affected; a few adhesions and a more than normal quantity
of serum on its surface constituted the visible changes. The lung
tissue itself was airless, solid, of a grayish red, somewhat mottled.
From the pleural surface of No. 2 two tubes of gelatine were inocu-
lated by dipping into them a loop of platinum wire filled with serous
exudate. The heat of the weather liquefied both tubes soon after,
and within a few days the gelatine in one of them was densely
crowded with small whitish points; in the other tube the colonies -
were fewer in number and consequently much larger. Both were,
in fact, pure cultures of a non-motile oval bacterium, found identical
in all respects with the microbe obtained from Geneseo, Ill., and
already described.

Postponing the description of this microbe for the present, the fol-
lowing experiments were made in order to determine its pathogenic
effect upon small animals:

From one of the original tube cultures in gelatine, plate cultures were made, and
from one of the colonies a tube containing 10° beef-infusion peptone was inoculated.
‘When two days old the following animals received subcutaneously portions of this
culture: Two mice, 4°°, 73;°°; two rabbits, 4°°, 4°*; two pigeons, $°°, #°°; two pigs, 4.5°°, 3°.
One of the mice was dead on the following day. In thespleen and liver were present
oval bacteria and some quite long rods. The liquid culture from the blood remained
sterile. The second mouse died in two days. A peculiar bacterium was present in
spleen, liver, and blood, often irregularly fusiform and pyriform; most were cocci in
pairs. <A liquid culture from the blood of the heart contained the inoculated microbe
ony: and the identity of this germ with the one injected was confirmed by plate
cultures.

Both inoculated pigeons died, one two days and the other four days after inocula-
tion. In the former the pectoral muscle at the point of inoculation had a grayish-
yellow parboiled appearance over an area of 1 to 14 square inches and extending toa
depth of three-eighth inchs. In the second bird, which had received the larger dose,
the local lesion was less marked. A thick pasty deposit had formed between the
skin and muscle, slightly infiltrating the surface of the latter. No bacteria could
be detected on cover-glass preparations in the blood or liver of either bird.

Both rabbits likewise succumbed, one four and the other five days after inocula-
tion. The autopsies point out the radical differences between the hog-cholera bac-
terium and the coccus under consideration. Before death both animals lay on their
sides, breathing slowly. In the one which died first (which had received the smaller
dose) the inoculated thigh was enlarged and drawn up to the body, the fascia cover-
ing the muscles of the thigh and the contiguous abdominal wall were thickened into
whitish opaque sheets; a small area of the thigh muscles was whitish, necrosed. In
the abdominal cavity strings and flakes of coagulated fibrin in various parts, together
with the reddened appearance of the peritoneum, indicated a severe peritonitis; the
liver was dark, blood flowing freely on section; spleen scarcely enlarged. Beneath
the serosa of large intestine a few patches of extravasation; kidneys deeply reddened
to the tip of the papilla; lungs normal. The microbe was very abundant in the local
infiltration, the peritoneal exudate, in the parenchyma of spleen, liver, and kidneys,
as well as in blood from the heart. In these cover-glass preparations involution
forms were very common. Liquid cultures from blood of the heart and the peri-
toneal exudate contained the microbe as it usually appears in liquids. Tube cultures
in gelatine from the blood, peritonal exudate, and liver contained very many colonies,
growing in a somewhat characteristic manner, to be described later on.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 665

In the other rabbit the local effect was equally extensive, and there was a more
marked grayish discoloration of the thigh and contiguous abdominal muscles. Peri-
tonitis less marked; no coagula present. The bacteria not so numerous in the organs,
but very abundant in the peritoneal cavity. Liquid cultures from the latter and
from blood were pure. Gelatine tubes, cultures from the liver and spleen, contained
many colonies.

Rabbits, mice, and pigeons were thus shown susceptible when in-
oculated with the quantities above mentioned. Two rabbits were at
the same time inoculated with large quantities of two other microbes
obtained from spleens. Both remained unaffected. In one a small
circumscribed abscess could be seen through the skin.

Of the two pigs inoculated (Nos. 330 and 331), No. 330, which had
received the larger dose (5°) died in nine days, after exhibiting the
same symptoms as those manifested by the two former cases—debil-
ity, loss of appetite, inflamed eyes. In this animal there was a sim-
ilar condition of the liver, together with a deep yellow staining of
the connective and adipose tissue generally. Cultures negative.
No. 331 died thirty-five days after inoculation. In this animal there
was a less pronounced pathological change in the liver. Icterus pres-
ent. No cultures were made.

In order to confirm and extend the preceding inoéulation experiments a second
series was planned in the same way. A beef infusion peptone culture, which had
been derived from a single colony of the microbe on a gelatine plate and was twenty-
four hours old, was used to inoculate of mice, pigeons, fowls, and white rats 2 each,
1 guinea-pig,and rabbit. The mice, which received y;°° beneath the skin of the
back, died in two and six days respectively. In the first one the spleen and blood
were crowded with bacteria, and a liquid culture from the blood proved pure. From
the second mouse no cultures were made; bacteria few or absent from the organs.
Of the 2 pigeons, 1 inoculated with 4°¢ was dead next day. Atthe place of inoculation
in the pectoral the muscular tissue was whitish, parboiled for a depth of one-fourth to
one-half inch; cultures from blood and liver sterile. The other pigeon, which received
de, survived. The white rats, receiving respectively 4° and 4° subcutaneously in the
thigh, did not prove susceptible. The rabbit, which received 4° in the same place,
died in three days, after showing symptoms like those in the preceding experiment.
Locally the lesions were the same; thickening of the fascia more pronounced; lar-
daceous appearance of the surface of the muscular tissue; punctiform extravasa-
tions both on abdomen and on thigh as far as symphysis pubis. In the abdominal
cavity the serous surface of the entire intestine appeared as if sprayed with blood,
the extravasation being beneath the serosa and not visible from the mucous surface.
Small intestine but faintly reddened; only a few delicate fibrils of exudation as yet
visible; a few extravasations on capsule of kidney, which is deeply reddened through-
out; spleen and lungs normal; liver invaded by coccidium oviforme. Cover-glass
preparations of spleen, liver, and peritoneum contain the microbes in abundance;
in the peritoneal exudate they seem as numerous as in a liquid culture. Cultures
both in beef infusion and in gelatine from the blood and peritoneal fluid were pure.

The guinea-pig, which had received into the thigh a rather large dose, }°°, suc-
cumbed on the sixth day. At the point of inoculation there is but a slight infiltra-
tion and thickening of the subcutaneous connective tissue. In the abdomen, both
spleen and liver somewhat enlarged. Covering these a thin, translucent, gelatinous
layer, easily scraped away, and particularly well marked on the liver. Lungs deeply
congested, not collapsed, but showing the impression of the ribs. The pleura coy-
ered with a similar exudate. The internal organs contained scarcely any bacteria,
but cover-glasses touched to the surface of lungs and liver showed the exudate,
consisting chiefly of leucocytes, to contain large numbers cf the injected bacteria.
Gelatine cultures of blood and from the liver, a liquid culture from the blood, were
pure. A liquid culture from the peritoneal surface of spleen contained also a mo-
tile bacillus. The contact of this organ with the very thin-walled large intestine
may explain the contamination.

_ Of two fowls inoculated beneath the skin of the pectoral with 3c and 1°, respect-
ively, the one which received the smaller dose died in five days. In this ‘bird the
local lesion was very extensive. On removing the thickened, discolored skin the
large pectoral was parboiled in appearance throughout half its mass; the remainder
of the muscle studded with small extravasations. The pathological changes in-
volved also the smaller pectoral in points and patches, extending through one of

666 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

the-fenestra of the sternum to the membrane surrounding the coils of intestine.
The serum between the two muscles crowded with the injected bacteria. The mu-
cosa of the intestine below the duodenal portion, including the czeca and the rectum,
was very much inflamed, The czeca and the cloacal portion of rectum of a very
dark red. There were also occasional hemorrhages beneath the mucosa. The bac-
teria seem to be confined to the local lesion, for cultures from the blood and liver
remained sterile. The second fowl remained ill, sitting quietly and not moving
unless disturbed. It was killed nine days after inoculation. The local lesion pre-
sented the appearance of a more advanced degeneration, but was more circum-
scribed, and limited in its depth to the larger pectoral. The intestines and other
organs were free from inflammation. Cultures from this bird remained sterile.

in order to determine whether there would be any difference in the mortality or
the lesions, another mode of inoculation was resorted to. Instead of employing
liquid cultwres and injecting into the subcutaneous tissue with the hypodermic sy-
ringe, a gelatine culture nine days old was used and the inoculation made as follows:
In three mice an incision was made through the skin at the root of the tail, and into
the subcutis through this incision a loop of the gelatine culture, consisting of a mixt-
ure of gelatine and microbes, was introduced. With the same amount two guinea-
pigs were inoculated beneath the skin of the abdomen, two pigeons and one fowl
beneath the skin covering one of the pectorals, and one rabbit on the inner surface
of the ear, near the tip, by puncturing the skin with the point of a lancet and in-
serting the mass into wound thus made. Of these animals the two guinea-pigs, the
rabbit, and two mice died. The pigeons and fowl remained unaffected.

The mice died three and four days after inoculation respectively. One guinea-pig
died in five days. The subcutis of the ventral surface of body from neck to pubis
was infiltrated with a sero-sanguineous effusion and thickened, the skin itself infil-
trated. There was but little change in the internal organs excepting the liver, which
was pale and very friable. No exudate indicative of peritonitis, although a cover-
glass touched to the surface of the liver contained very many bacteria, which were
few in number in liver tissue and blood from the heart. The second guinea-pig died
on the eighth day with the same but less extensive local lesions, parenchymatous
degeneration of liver and spleen. The rabbit’s ear had a deep red blush on the day
after inoculation; enlarged slightly and drooping backward. There were no marked
symptoms of disease at any time. The animal died on the ninth day. There was
an extensive inflammatory infiltration of the subcutaneous tissue and fascia over
the sides of head, extending to the top, involving the ventral aspect of neck and ex-
tending to shoulders laterally. The subjacent muscular tissue was considerably
ecchymosed. Peritoneal exudate absent. Degeneration of liver and spleen. Bac-
teria numerous in the local infiltration, very few in blood and organs, A liquid
culture from heart’s blood was found pure.

These results place fowls and pigeons upon the border line of susceptibility; that
is, these animals may be destroyed by large doses, but are not affected by small ones.
They also put rabbits, guinea-pigs, and mice among the susceptible animals, the first
named being the most susceptible. In every case the inoculation seems to produce
local lesions, the extent and severity of which seem to stand in an inverse relation
to the number of bacteria found in the blood and the internal organs, and in a direct
relation to the duration of the disease.

The foregoing inoculations were made from cultures derived from
the pleural exudate of pig No. 2 (Sodorus, Ill.). The same germ was
isolated from the spleen and blood of the same animal.

Three tubes of gelatine, into which bits of spleen had been put, began to liquefy.
(It will be remembered that the spleen was enormously enlarged and softened.) One
of these contained only a large bacillus, another the same bacillus and a microbe
resembling the one under consideration. By means of plate cultures these were
separated and a pure culture of this microbe obtained. By introducing beneath the
skin of two mice bits of the spleen containing the two forms a pure culture of the
same microbe was obtained from one of the mice which died three days after inocu-
lation. Two mice, inoculated with bits of spleen from the culture containing the
liquefying bacillus only, remained unaffected. From a vacuum tube of blood taken
oe, from the heart of the same animal pure cultures of the same microbe were
obtained.

From pig No. 1 (Sodorus) two pipettes were filled with blood, ob-
tained with every precaution directly from the heart. One of these
tubes, opened three weeks later, was used to inoculate a liquid cult-
ure, which proved, when tested on gelatine plates, a pure culture of

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 667

the same microbe obtained from the pleura, the spleen, and the blood
of pig No. 2 of the same herd. In the other tube the bacterium of
hog-cholera was found. It will be remembered that pig No. 1 had
in addition to the ulcerations of the ceecum and colon, partial hepa-
tization of both lungs, while No. 2 had merely the lung lesions,
About a month later a liquid culture, made from a gelatine-tube cult-
ure of this blood, was used to inoculate a rabbit, only s;°° being
injected subcutaneously into the thigh. The animal was found dead
on the third day. The lesions were nearly identical with those ob-
served previously after inoculation with this microbe—local thicken-
ing of the fascia, homorrhagic markings of the muscular tissue, with
superficial degeneration at the point of inoculation, ecchymoses on
the contiguous abdominal walls, peritonitis indicated by a few
stringy deposits on liver, as well as more than the normal quantity
of serum. Cover-glass preparations of the spleen and liver revealed
a large number of the injected cocci, which, stained in alkaline
methylene blue, showed the polar stain very clearly. A cover-glass
touched to the serous surface of the large intestine contained immense
numbers of the same germ. Gelatine tube cultures of liver and
heart’s blood grew in the characteristic manner. From the blood
culture a second rabbit was inoculated, as follows: The hair was
clipped from the inner aspect of the thigh, which was washed with
.1 per cent. solution of mercuric chloride. With a flamed lancet a
little pocket was formed beneath the skin, into which a small quan-
tity from the gelatine culture was introduced on a platinum loop.
The animal sat quietly in the coop, eating but little, and breathing
slowl = some days before death, which occurred ten days after
inoculation.

Slight enlargement of the inoculated thigh. Subcutaneous tissue over the inner
and caudal aspects of the thigh, on the abdomen beyond umbilicus, greatly thick-
ened by inflammatory infiltration, which is of a soft, pasty consistency, grayish
white. It isclosely adherent to skin, but not to muscular tissue on abdomen, from
which it may be easily removed. The muscular tissue beneath is dotted with punc-
tiform extravasations. On the caudal aspect of the thigh the infiltration is closely
adherent to muscular tissue as far as the pubis, involving the superficial muscular
fibers, which are whitish, softened; the groin stained with a frothy, blood-stained
serum; the superficial lymphatic gland on the same side enlarged to size of a horse-
chestnut; on section whitish, lardaceous; the lobules of the gland appearing as pale
red masses imbedded in it. The serosa of intestines and the liver coated with a
hee translucent, grayish deposit, which may be drawn out into threads and peeled

rom the liver ina thin layer. This exudate contains very few cells, but immense
numbers of bacteria, evidently in a state of active multiplication, as they are quite
small, resembling oval cocci, and staining uniformly. Parenchyma of liver uni-
formly dark brownish; bile very dark greenish; spleen not enlarged; lungs normal;
right heart filled with a translucent gelatinous clot; left, with dark liquid blood;
mucosa of stomach, which contains considerable food, coated with a tenacious mu-
eus; circumscri bed hemorrhagic spots scattered over the right half of the stomach;
very few bacteria in the parenchyma of spleen and liver.

In this case ten days elapsed between inoculation and death. The
jocal lesion was very extensive, the peritonitis advanced. According
to previous experience the difference between this and the preceding
case was due entirely te the mode of inoculation. There is also an-
other difference worthy of note. In the preceding rabbit the bacte-
ria showed very beautifully the stain at the ends of the short rod: in
this one they did not show it clearly at all.

This microbe was therefore present in the pleural cavity, in blood
from the heart, and in the euleet of one pig, and in the blood of an-
other. It is highly probable, judging from the microscopic exam-

668 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ination of the diseased lungs, that if circumstances had permitted a
thorough examination of the lung tissue itself by means of cultures and
inoculation experiments, the same results would have been obtained.
This, however, was quite impossible under the circumstances.*

This microbe, from Geneseo, Lll., also found associated with com-
pletely hepatized lungs, was without doubt the same as the one just
described, when we take into consideration microscopical characters
and those brought out by culture and inoculation. This microbe
had not yet been tried upon fowls. In order to confirm still further
the results already given the following experiment was tried:

October 30, two pigs and two fowls were inoculated with the microbe from Gene-
seo, and an equal number with that from Sodorus, Ill. The pigs received subcutane-
ously each 5° of a beef-infusion peptone culture. Of the four only two died. One
of these had been inoculated with the microbe from Sodorus. On the third day both
eyes were discharging, the animal looking unthrifty and becoming weak and thin.

¢ died on the eighth day. In brief the lesions were as follows: Fat and connective
tissue in general yellowish. Both ventricles of heart filled with large washed clots
and semi-coagulated blood. Liver very firm, of a dirty red-lead color. On cuttin
into it a gritty sensation is transmitted tothe hand. Venous stasis of the ahaaieeel
vessels. Other organs and intestinal tract normal. Cultures failed to detect the
microbe in the spleen, liver, and blood.

No. 363, inoculated with 5° from a culture of the microbe obtained from Geneseo,
Ill., showed inflammation of the eyes a few days after, which disappeared in a week.
At the same time the animal looked unthrifty. It had apparently recovered two
weeks after inoculation, when it again became unthrifty and weak. The abdomen
became enlarged and it was unable to rise. Found dead December 27, nearly two
months after inoculation. At each point of inoculation on the thigh an encysted
mass was found in the subcutaneous tissue as large as a marble. The contents
were softening and inclosed by a fibrous wall. Lungs hypostatic. Pulmonary ves-
sels and right heart filled with a firm clot. Liver very much contracted, especially
the lobes on the right, and streaked with depressed lines and furrows. The perito-
neal covering on the cephalic aspect was very much thickened, in some places uni-
formly, in others in a mesh-work corresponding to the interlobular tissue. The acini
of this side were very small. On the caudal aspect they were in some places very
‘large and bulging. On section this transition from large below to small above could
be easily traced. Gall bladder filled with a thick prune-juice-colored bile. Inflam-
matory adhesion between rectum and cecum. The mucous membrane of the large
intestine of a dull red color, probably due to a passive congestion. No ulceration
anywhere to be seen. The intestine itself was very much distended with dry, half-
digested feces of a yellowish hue. Four liquid cultures made from blood of heart
remained clear.

This case is interesting in that the inoculation caused a cirrhosis of the liver, which
became indirectly fatal by destroying in great part the normal functions of this organ.

Both fowls inoculated with the microbe from Sodorus died. One of them, which
received 4° of the liquid cultures into the pectoral muscle, had a temperature of
1102° F. next day. It began to grow weak rapidly, the temperature remaining high,
and it died on the ninth day. Theonly lesion was the parboiled condition of the pec-
toral muscles. No growth in cultures from theliver. The other fowl, which had re-
ceived but 4° of the culture, lingered in the same condition, becoming very emaciated.
It died on the seventeenth day. The inoculated pectoral muscle very pale and infil-
trated with serum. Yellowish necrotic masses embedded in it. Extravasations be-
neath serosa of duodenum, also beneath corresponding mucosa., The mesentery
streaked with petechiz near the vessels. Terminal portion of rectum dilated, filled
with yellowish semi-liquid matter; mucosa of this region intensely dark red.

One of the fowls inoculated with 4° from a culture of the microbe from Geneseo
died on the fourth day.- Extensive serous infiltration and tumefaction of the inecu-
lated pectoral, which is firm, whitish, parboiled in appearance; mesentery adjacent
to pectorals slightly inflamed; slight congestion of duolenum.

This case demonstrates a similarity of pathogenic power of the two
cultures both upon pigs and fowls. In these cases the local infiltra-

*Very recent investigations of the disease in the District of Columbia have con-
firmed these statements. The pathogenic bacteria are limited almost exclusively to
the diseased lungs.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 669

tion contained the microbe in abundance, but cultures from the blood
and liver remained sterile. It seems that it has not the power to mul-
tiply in the internal organs, though producing exceedingly severe
local lesions sufficient to cause death. The lesions which the sub-
cutaneous injection of the microbe produces in pigs were so uniform
and yet so peculiar, that it seemed necessary to add a few more experi-
ments to those already made.

November 18, two pigs (Nos. 374 and 375) received hypodermically
5° (one-half into each thigh) of a beef-infusion peptone culture two
days old, derived from a gelatine culture (rabbit) about one month
oe Three pigs were placed with these to determine whether the
disease was infectious. In both animals two days after inoculation
the sclerotic became deeply reddened. This congestion was followed
by discharge, which gummed the lids together for a part of the time.
In about a week these symptoms gave way and the eyes became jaun-
diced. The eyes of the three check pigs were not affected. No. 375
died November 25, one week after inoculation. The*subcutaneous
connective tissue of a deep yellow color. The points of inoculation
occupied by cysts filled with a blood-stained serum. Blood black,
partially coagulated. Hypostatic congestion of lungs. Purplish
spots beneath pleura and in parenchyma; some lung worms present.
Liver very pale, bloodless, very tough. The sclerosis general and
the contraction of the connective tissue has made the caudal aspect
very concave. Removed from the body it resembles india-rubber, as
it retains the same form in whatever position it is laid. Gritty sen-
sation when cut. The gall bladder filled with semi-liquid, dark brown
bile, resembling plum juice, surrounding a mass of putty-like con-
sistency and of thesame color. The papillar opening of the common
duct into the duodenum contained a plug of gelatinous mucus, and
when the duct was slit open it contained mucus only. The walls were
not even bile-stained; the secretion of bile had ceased some time past.
When the liver, was cut the section was of a dirty reddish-yellow
color throughout; no blood flowed from the vessels; when scraped the
cellular elements of the acini came away readily, leaving the tough
interlobular tissue in situ as a honey-combed mass.

Sections hardened in alcohol and stained in alum-carmine showed
a large amount of connective tissue as compared with the normal
liver. This increase was general. In the parenchyma of the lobules
there were circumscribed areas in which the protoplasm of the cells
stained very feebly, while the nuclei were either shriveled or else re-
placed by a group of granules. The characteristic trabecular struct-
ure in these areas was more or less destroyed. Almost every lobule
examined contained these altered regions, which were situated as a
rule near the periphery.

There was a very marked venous stasis of the portal circulation,
characterized ‘by an overdistension of the vessels, bringing even the
smallest into view. The vasa recta of kidneys very prominent, giving
the pyramids a bright red appearance. Serum in the abdominal
cavity ofadeep yellow. This yellow tinge is present in the fat around
the base of the heart. The urine deep yellow, the mucosa of bladder
stained with the same color. The urine readily gives, with Gmelin’s
test, the colors characteristic of the bile pigments. The intestinal
tract normal throughout, save what changes arose from the general
stasis of the portal circulation. The stomach empty and coated with
a viscid mucus. 7

The injected microbe which without doubt caused these lesions

670 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

could not be found. Three tubes of culture liquid were inoculated
each with three to four drops of the blood from the heart. They
remained sterile. Bits of spleen and liver about 3°" cube were
dropped into tubes. They also remained sterile.

No. 374 lived longer, became very weak and stupid, and finally
was unable to rise. Eleven days after inoculation it died. At one
of the points of inoculation there was a firm, tough tumor. The le-
sions were very similar to those just given, but less pronounced.
There was but slight icterus of the connective tissue. Serum in per-
icardial cavity and fat about heart stained yellow. Urine gives very
easily the reaction for bile pigments. Lungs hypostatic. Both sides
of heart filled with black coagula. Liver in the same condition as
that of No. 375. Gall bladder as above. The common duct was
patent and still bile-stained. Venous stasis of portal system but
slightly marked. Intestinal tract normal. Four liquid cultures of
blood from the heart remain sterile. Into one a large coagulum had
been dropped: ‘Two pieces of liver and two from the spleen fail to
induce any bacterial growth whatever in the liquids into which they
are dropped. The check animals remained well for a month after.

The uniform success in producing most severe cases of hog-cholera
by feeding pure liquid cultures of hog-cholera bacteria to pigs which
had been deprived of food for 24 to 36 hours led to the inference that
the same result might be expected from the microbe of pneumonia,
provided it was at all capable of being infectious by way of the
intestinal tract.

December 19.—Two pigs (885, 386) were deprived of food for 82 hours, No. 885
then received a liter of beef broth containing 10 grams of sodium carbonate to in-
crease the alkalinity of the stomach. Each was thereupon fed with 250°. of a cult-
ure of the pneumonia microbe in simple beef infusion six days old. This dose was
mixed with beef broth to make one liter, Up to the time of writing (January 27)
not the slightest disturbance in health has been manifest. Three pigs fed about
the same time and in the same way with cultures of hog-cholera bacteria all suc-
cumbed, with very severe lesions of the intestinal tract. (Pag@ 614.)

This microbe had thus produced, when injected beneath the skin
in quantities not less than 5° of culture liquid (beef infusion with 1
per cent, peptone neutralized), an acute cirrhosis of the liver in seven
out of ten pigs. The pathological changes in most cases were so severe
as to ahaa the formation of bile entirely, We must provisionally
accept the theory that the injected microbes exert their patho-
genic power chiefly upon the liver. Perhaps the germs are deposited
there by the blood current and cause an acute inflammatory hyper-
plasia of the interlobular tissue. In contracting, the portal vessels
and bile ducts are compressed so as to become impervious. This pro-
duces a venous congestion of the abdominal organs, which pour their
blood into the portal vein, and a generalized icterus, caused perhaps
by the retention of the bile elements in the blood, as well as their re-
absorption from the liver. Meanwhile the bacteria themselves are
destroyed in the tissues, so that at the death of the animal none can
be found even by means of the most delicate methods of cultivation.

That the three pigs which did not succumb to the inoculation were
not affected is not warranted, as the following experiment shows: A
pig was inoculated by injecting into the trachea a culture of this mi-
erobe. The pig remained well for several weeks, when it was killed
for examination. At the autopsy it was found that owing to the
thick layer of fat in the neck the injection did not enter the trachea.
A tumor almost as large as a hen’s egg had formed by the side of the

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 671

trachea. Its center was already softened. The organs were appar-
ently normal with the exception of the liver, which 1s extremely pale
and bloodless, showing signs of cirrhosis.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE MICROBE CAUSING PNEUMONIA IN
SWINE.

In cover-glass preparations from the organs of animals which have
_ died frominoculation, and of which the rabbit presents the best advan-
tages for'study, the microbes appear as oval bodies, measuring about
1 to 1.2 micromillimeters in length and .6 to .8 micromillimeter in
breadth. When stained by some aniline, such as an aqueous solution
of methyl violet or an alkaline solution of methylene blue, their ap-

earance is very much like that of the microbes of rabbit septiczemia.

he two extremities of the longer axis are deeply stained. Between
these colored masses a transverse band remains transparent, without
any color, This unstained portion may vary between one-fourth and
one-half of the entire optical area of the oval. It is limited on either
side by a very delicate, stained line (Plate III, Fig.2; Plate IX, Fig. 1).
It is probable that this appearance arises during the elongation of the
coccus preparatory to a transverse division into. two, and that the
width of this unstained area depends upon the stage of the process.
Among the cocci there may be seen in cover-glass preparations of
liquid cultures rodlike forms as broad as the cocci, imperfectly seg-
mented, and attaining in a few cases a length of 15 to 20 micromilli-
meters, These filaments must be regarded as involution forms of the
cocci, due to a want of power of division; for such a form is frequently
of varying width and the extremities irregularly tapering; moreover,
the cultures containing them are invariably found pure when tested
on gelatine plates. This abnormal growth is not confined to cultures,
It is found in cover-glass preparations made directly from the tissues
of animals which have succumbed to inoculation with pure cultures.
They are common in mice and rabbits. In the former animals they
assume a bacillar form occasionally, in rabbits a form staining very
irregularly and resembling swollen diplococci. In the earlier exper-
iments with this microbe these abnormal appearances were very puz-
zling. Inoculation of liquids with these bacteria gave invariably the
same form. Gelatine tube cultures and the colonies on plates always
proved thesame. It became necessary to conclude from these results
that, although fatal to these animals to a very high degree, this par-
ticular coccus does not find the best conditions for multiplication in
these animals; or else it may be found that some slight variations
in the manipulation of cover-glass preparations, a too rapid drying
or a greater heat applied to the dried film, may cause changes in the
microscopical appearances of thestained germ. Whatever the reason
may be, the striking fact remains that in some rabbits the bacteria on
cover-glass preparations are regular and uniformly stained at both
extremities; in others they are irregular in outline and the staining
is not characteristic.

If a neutralized beef infusion with 1 per cent. peptone be inocu-
lated with this microbe a faint opalescence pervades the entire fluid
on the following day. There is no membrane present at this stage,
nor after several weeks. A pure liquid culture of this microbe is
easily distinguishable from that of the hog-cholera bacterium. The
latter is more opaque, and when the tube is shaken rolling clouds
are formed, This is not seen in the faint opalescent liquid of the

672 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

former. It will also be remembered that after one or two weeks a
ring of deposit forms about the tube at the surface of the liquid in
the culture of the hog-cholera bacterium. In a few cultures an
incomplete surface membrane may also appear. It multiplies more
abundantly, therefore, in this medium than the more delicate microbe
under consideration.

If a drop, from a culture one day.old be examined with a 4
homogeneous objective no spontaneous movement. can be observed.
When dried and stained in an aqueous solution of methyl violet or
other aniline, the microbes are best studied, as regards their form, at
the circumference of the dried film, where they have been drawn
together in large numbers by the slow drying of the drop. The
microbe appears in the form of an oval coccus, about .6 to .7 micro-.
millimeter long and .4 micromillimeter broad. The small size
makes the exact measurement very difficult. Besides these there are
smaller and larger forms measuring 1 micromillimeter in length.
The great majority of forms correspond with the dimensions first
given. Those around the border of the dried film usually show the
characteristic stain at the extremities with the unstained band be-
tween. The remainder are usually so small that this cannot be made
out, or else they are in that stage of growth when division has not
yet begun, and are uniformly colored.

If a minute portion from the organs of a rabbit, or from a culture
of this microbe, be shaken up with nutrient gelatine, barely lique-
fied by a gentle heat, and the mixture poured on plates, the colonies
will become visible to the unaided eye in about two days, provided
the temperature does not fall below 70° k.. They are round, with
pale homogeneous disk, when examined with transmitted ight. Their
growth is slow, and at the end of a week they vary in diameter from
¢-"to 3". Their appearance at this age is peculiar (Plate IV, Fig. 5).
Each colony is provided with a border of varying width, usually not
exceeding one-fourth the radius of the colony. This border is paler
than the central portion, and sharply separated from it by a circular
line, sometimes sane eccentric, as in theillustration. The central
disk is usually somewhat granular at this stage. The colonies when
growing on the surface of the layer of gelatine spread quite rapidly,
and soon are four or five times the size of the deep colonies. The
margin of the more or less circular patch is very thin and sharp, and
slightly wavy. This microbe does not liquefy the gelatine at any
time of its growth.

In tubes containing nutrient gelatine the microbes carried by the
needle into the depths of the gelatine develop into spherical colonies
which do not become larger than $™" in diameter (Plate IV, Figs. 1,
2). The surface growth is quite vigorous. It spreads as a pearly
white circular patch in all directions from the point of inoculation.
This patch is not convex, but uniformly thick, usually with a wavy
or scalloped border (Plate V, Fig. 1, 6). The growth is very slow as
a rule, varying with the temperature of the room. It requires sev-
eral weeks for a disk a few millimeters in diameter to form, and from
one to two months for one 5™ to 10™". When viewed obliquely very
faint concentric markings may usually be observed on this pearly
growth. ‘There are some slight differences between the tube cultures
of the microbe of genuine hog-cholera and this organism, which are
entirely expressed in the surface growth (Plate V, fig. 1, a, 6). In
the second annual report the tube culture of the bacterium of hog-
cholera was figured as having very minute deep colonies and scarcely

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 673

any surface growth. Later observations showed that if a more alka-
ie Te cel ane be used the growth is far more vigorous; the
deep colonies are much larger and the surface growth abundant
(Plate VI, Figs. 4,5). It presents either as a compact convex pearly
disk or button, or as a very irregular flat patch, sending out ragged
prolongations over the surface of the gelatine.

This microbe grows upon blood serum from the cow. On the sur- °
face the growth is very thin, scarcely visible. In the needle track a
dense opaque mass forms. On the condensation liquid in the bottom
of the tube a whitish, brittle membrane is present. Repeated efforts
to induce growth on potato have thus far failed. In milk its multi-

lication is not very great when compared with the other microbes.

t is capable to a certain extent of multiplying in tubes from which
the air has been exhausted and in which the ordinary saprophytes
remain dormant. When exposed to a temperature of 58° C. for fif-
teen minutes it isinvariably destroyed. This is true of the bacteria
taken directly from the animal as well as of those in liquid cultures.
This microbe is easily killed by drying, three days being sufficient,
whether it is taken from cultures or from the tissues of the dead
animal.

Upon sterilized cover-glasses a drop from a liquid culture two days old is allowed
to dry under a plugged funnel. On the third day a tube of beef infusion, into
which one of these cover-glasses had been dropped, remained clear. On the sixth,
seventh, and ninth days tubes were inoculated in the same way, which also re-
mained clear. ‘ } ' : F

Exudate from the peritoneal surface of the liver of a rabbit which died from in-
oculation was dried on cover-glasses and tested in the same way. The exudate con-
tained immense numbers of microbes. One tube inoculated after four hours’ dry-
ing, two after one day, and two after two days became opalescent and were found
pure cultures. Two inoculated on the third, fourth, and fifth day remained clear.

The multiplication in ordinary drinking water was tested as de-
scribed for the hog-cholera bacteria. The latter, very hardy, as the
experiments showed, remained alive in large numbers for months.
The microbes under consideration showed themselves almost inca-
pable of living and multiplying in such water. In fact, it is very

probable that many are destroyed in being transferred into it from
nutrient media.

On November 20a tube containing sterilized Potomac drinking water was inocu-
lated from a culture two days old. A plate culture immediately prepared to deter-
mine the number of germs transferred was lost by accident. Judging from preced-
ing experiments, there could not have been less than 50,000 in 1° of the water.
Plate cultures containing .1*° of water were made two and three days after inocula-
tion. Nothing grew upon either plate. On the sixth day a tube of beef-infusion
peptone was inoculated from the water. The liquid remained clear.

On November 27 a tube containing sterilized Potomac drinking water was inocu-
lated from a liquid culture of the microbe twenty-four hours old. A plate culture
made immediately after the inoculation showed two days later that each cubic cen-
timeter of the water contained after inoculation about 140,000 microbes. After
standing for two days at a temperature of 22° to 25° C. a plate culture made with
about hn”, which should have contained at least 500 colonies, showed none what-
ever. December 6, nine days after inoculation, 4°° was added to a tube of beef in-
fusion peptone. On the following day this tube was turbid and contained the mi-
crobe only. Hence a few individuals were still alive on the ninth day. <A plate
culture was made from the same water twenty-four days later by adding 4° to the
gelatine before pouring it upon the plate. No colonies grew. Finally a tube of nu-
trient liquid, to which 4° was added on the twenty-seventh day, remained clear.
Hence all the microbes were practically dead before a month had passed, and the
great majority perished, without doubt, a few days after being mixed with the
water.

43 AG—’86

674

The appearances and morphological differences of the microbes dis-
covered in hog-cholera and in the infectious pneumonia which we
now call swine-plague, are illustrated by the photo-micrographs re-
produced in Plates VII, VIII, and IX. The microbe of hog-cholera
is seen in Plate VII, Fig. 1, as it appears in the tissues of the body.
Most of the germs in this case are sufficiently elongated to be classed
- as bacilli, In cultures where more rapid multiplication occurs the
microbe is shorter and assumes an oval form (Plate VII, Fig. 2).
The microbe from the Nebrasba outbreak of hog-cholera, referred to
above, maintained a distinctly rod-like form, however, even in liquid
cultures (Plate VIII, Fig. 1). The micrococcus of swine-plague,
which is plainly oval in the tissues and in the blood, as shown in
Plate IX, Figs. 1, 2, becomes very nearly or quite spherical in liquid

REPORT OF THH COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

cultures (Plate VIII, Fig. 2).
in gelatine cultures.

This is also very nearly the form seen

The following comparative table sets forth briefly the differences
between the bacterium of hog-cholera and the microbe which has
been found associated with pneumonia in pigs and described in the

preceding pages:

HOG-CHOLERA BACTERIUM,
Morphological and biological properties.

1. Ovals varying in length from 1.2™™
to 1.8"™,

2. Stains around periphery, with a
slight increase in the width of the stained
border at the extremities; observed chiefly
in the tissues of animals. In cultures
may stain entirely.

3, Motile in liquids.

4, Grows actively on potato,

5. Resists drying for oneto two months,

6. Multiplies for a time in drinking
water, and remains alive at least four
months.

Pathogenic effects.

1, In small susceptible animals subcu-
taneous inoculation causes but slight
local reaction.

2. In mice it always produces a disease
lasting from eight to sixteen days; spleen
enormously enlarged; liver enlarged and
containing numerous foci of coagulation
necrosis.

3. In rabbits the disease produced by
inoculation of small quanties of culture
liquid into thigh lasts from six to nine
days, Great enlargement of spleen; en-
largement of liver and centers of coag-
ulation necrosis. Local lesion: circum-
seribed necrosis of muscular tissue.
Lungs usually haye hemorrhagie foci or
more extensive lobular pneumonia.

MICROBE OF PNEUMONIA,
Morphological and biological properties.

1. Ovals varying in length from .8™™
to 1,2™™, (In both species the size is very
variable, according to the stage of growth
and division and the culture medium.)
This microbe is in general much smaller
than the bacterium of swine-plague.

2. Stains in process of division at the
two extremities only.

8. Non-motile in liquids.

4, Growth on potato fails. Growth in
nutrient liquids more feeble; on gelatine
almost as vigorous.

5. Resists drying only a few days.

6. Doesnot multiply in drinking water,
and is entirely destroyed ina few weeks.

Pathogenic effects,

1. Local reaction usually yery severe -
and extensive.

2. Mice destroyed, but not invariably,
in two to six days, No characteristic
lesions.

3, Same mode of inoculation destroys
life in from three to sixdays. Extensive
local sero-sanguineous, later purulent
infiltration and thickening; plastic peri-
tonitis; spleen pot enlarged.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.

4, Same mode of inoculation destroys
guinea-pigs, with a few exceptions. Le-
sions quite the same as in rabbits. May
live fourteen days,

5. Pigeons destroyed by large doses.
Bacteria in internal organs,

6. No fowls destroyed by inoculation,

7. Pigs are either not affected by hypo-
dermic injection, or else a severe disease
follows, characterized by hemorrhages in
ali organs.
numbers in internal organs.

8. Feeding cultures after starving for
a day produces extensive necrosis of mu-

Bacteria present in large

675

4, Guinea-pigs somewhat more refrac-
tory; extensive local lesions as in rab-
bits; occasionally plastic peritonitis; die
in four to six days; spleen not enlarged.

5. Pigeons also susceptible to large
doses. Bacteria absent from internal
organs.

6. Large doses kill fowls. Very ex-
tensive local infiltration and destruction
of muscular tissue.

7. Large doses cause acute sclerosis of
liver, with icterus, Bacteria absent,

8. Feeding cultures produces no effect
whatever.

cous membrane of large intestine; in-
flammation and occasional ulceration of
stomach and ileum.

The inoculations apply to subcutaneous injections of small quantities of liquid
cultures, in mammals on the inner aspect of the thigh, in birds on the pectoral.

MORE RECENT OUTBREAKS OF INFECTIOUS PNHUMONIA.*

Recently specimens were received from an outbreak of infectious
neumonia in Jowa. According to information obtained by Dr, N,
H Paaren in January, 1887, a disease of swine prevailed during the
fall and winter of 1885~86, and during the same period of 1886~87,
which was limited chiefly to the four counties of Worth, Mitchell,
Cerro Gordo, and Floyd, along the Shell Rock River, Specimens of
lung tissue were obtained from Cerro Gordo County, although the
disease was almost extinct at this time (January, 1887).

At Mason City Dr. Paaren examined a number of dead hogs at a
soap factory, which had been brought together from different parts
of the surrounding country, In these animals the lungs were uni-
formly diseased, the digestive tract normal or but slightly congested.
The liver also was diseased in all examined.

From these observations it would seem that the disease prevalent
in Iowa was the infectious pneumonia which has been described in
the preceding pages, and not the real hog-cholera. The following
experiments tend to confirm these views:

Pieces of lung tissue sent from Cerro Gordo County were partly
immersed in a blood-stained liquid which must haye exuded from the
lungs. The animal was frozen solid when the tissues were removed.
Both pieces of lung tissue had a faint, not putrescent odor. They
weir of a red flesh color. The tissue seemed completely airless.
Cover-glass preparations showed the infiltration to be made up
almost exclusively of small round cells, with an occasional epitheloid
cell amongst them. Careful observation demonstrated the presence
of very minute oval bacteria, varying slightly in length. The long-
est (perhaps not more than 1™) stained only at the extremities.
There were no other bacteria visible to indicate any. advanced decom-
position. In one of the pieces the knife had been passed through
an irregular cavity in the lung substance as large as a marble, lobu-

*Lately a disease of the lungs, probably identical with the infectious pneumonia

under discussion, came to our notice in the District of Columbia, from which the
same microbe was obtained. A detailed account must be reserved for future pub-
lication. ‘

676 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

lated, bounded by a membrane, and partly filled with an inspissated
substance easily crumbled, and consisting entirely of round cells.
There was also marked pleuritis. The pleura of the portions sent
was thickened, and a spongy membranous exudate, about $" thick,
had formed, which consisted also of small round cells exclusively.

A number of plate cultures were made by shaking up pieces of lung
tissue and pleural exudate in gelatine and pouring it on plates. These
plates were, as a rule, negative. Inoculations into animals proved’
more successful, however.

Two mice were inoculated by placing bits of the lung tissue beneath the skin at
the root of the tail. One mouse died on the second day. Internal organs un-
changed; no local reaction; no bacteria to be seen on cover-glass preparations of
spleen and liver.

The second mouse died on the third day, though apparently well the day before.
In this animal the spleen was very dark and enlarged; liver also much congested.
In these two organs, as well as in the blood from the heart, oval bacteria were pres-
ent in large quantities. Plate cultures and liquid cultures of blood proved them to
be the immotile oval microbe already described.

Two rabbits had been inoculated at the same time by placing a bit of the lung be-
neath the skin of the thigh on its inner aspect. One of them died in five days. The
local reaction, very slight, was limited to a small mass of pus in the subcutaneous
tissue. The muscular tissue was not involved. The internal organs were also un-
changed, but in all of them the microbe already described was present in immense
numbers in the spleen and liver, fewer in heart’s blocd and kidneys. Gelatine cult-
ures from spleen and liver and two liquid cultures of heart’s blood contained only
the specific microbe. The second rabbit remained well.

Two mice inoculated subcutaneously with a liqv..d culture derived from a gelatine
tube of the above rabbit died within twenty hours, though each had received but
ee of liquid. The spleen and liver crowded with the injected microbe.

From a tube culture in nutrient gelatine a tube of beef infusion was inoculated,
and on the following day a rabbit was inoculated hypodermically into the thigh with
a few drops, and two pigeons, beneath the skin of the pectoral, with 4° to $** from the
same culture. In the former bird the needle entered the pectoral muscle. The rab-
bit was found dead next morning, not longer than eighteen hours after inoculation,
At the place of injection a few ecchymoses and distended vessels on the inner sur-
face of the skin. A lymph gland near by deeply reddened. A few threads of fibri-
nous exudate on coils of intestine. Lungshypostatic. Immense numbers of bacteria
a nee spleen, and heart’s blood, most of them showing the characteristic stain at
the ends,

The pigeon which had received 4 into the pectoral died in twenty-four hours. In
this bird the pectoral was discolored, parboiled for a depth of one-half inch and over
an area of about 1 square inch. The subcutis was filled with a reddish serous effu-
sion, the skin slightly thickened. Innumerable bacteria in this local lesion. Fatty
degeneration of liver. A small portion of each lung deeply congested. Vessels of
duodenum and testes injected. Immense numbers of bacteria in blood from the
heart, in the liver and lungs, showing the characteristic stain at the ends very well.
The other pigeon was not affected.

The fowls inoculated with 4°¢ of a liquid culture of this microbe remained unaf-
fected. Similarly two pigs, which had received each 5° beneath the skin of the
thigh, remained well.

Specimens from the Mason City soap factory were like the first.
The lung tissue was enlarged, solidified, and of a pale reddish color,
When sections were made into this airless mass the cut surface showed
a reddish ground, in which were embedded whitish specks about $ to
1 micromillimeter in diameter. These protruded slghily, giving the
surface a granular appearance. They could be lifted out, and when
crushed upon a cover-glass and stained small round and larger epithe-
loid cells were found to make up the mass. Bacteria of different
kinds indicated post mortem multiplication.

These lesions were therefore very much like those found in Illinois,
and there is no reason to doubt that they were caused by the same ©
agency. In all of the lungs thus far examined from which the same

~ sss BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 677

microbe was obtained the vesicular portion of the lungs was filled with
a cellular exudate, partly derived by a desquamation of the alveolar
epithelium and partly by an infiltration of cells from the blood.

Two rabbits inoculated by rubbing some of the scrapings from the cut surface of
the lung tissue into a wound made on the inner surface of the ear remained well.
Gne mouse inoculated as above died next day. No bacteria in the organs. Blood
cultures remain sterile. A third rabbit was inoculated by placing a bit of lung sub-
stance beneath the skin of the thigh and closing the incision with a stitch. The ani-
mal remained well,

No positive results were thus obtained from this specimen. The
source of the animal, the time of death not being known, it is not at
all improbable that this specific microbe may perish in the animal
body a certain time after death through frost and other agencies. It
is not, moreover, to be denied that only certain portions of the lung
tissue are, at a given time, the seat of active bacterial growth. These
portions may not have been sent to us.

It seems that this hitherto unrecognized disease in swine is far more
prevalent in the Western States than was at first supposed. It there-
fore becomes necessary to inquire more carefully into the distribution
of these two maladies and to determine whether they do not fre-
quently exist in the same localities.

The microbe from Iowa outbreaks showed a greater virulence, as a
few drops of culture fluid were sufficient to destroy mice and rabbits
in less than twenty-four hours. Whether such differences are suffi-
cient to account for the varying severity of the disease in different
localities remains to be determined by more extended observation.
The fact that the subcutaneous inoculation of cultures did not affect
two pigs may be due to a want of power to develop in the internal
organs. This is virtually the case in the disease, as it appears natu-
rally among swine. Though the lungs may be extensively diseased,
the blood, spleen, and other internal organs are practically free from
bacteria. ‘The disease seems to be caused by inhaling or aspirating
the specific bacteria, which exert their destructive effect in the alveoli
and smaller bronchi, and do not in reality enter the blood of the af-
fected animal. The final test will rest upon the possibility of pro-
ducing the specific lung disease by means of inhalation experiments
which are now being carried on. .

RECENT FOREIGN INVESTIGATIONS IN INFECTIOUS SWINE DISEASES.

The investigations by foreign observers during the past year upon
infectious diseases of swine, and more especially their causation, have
led to some interesting results, which deserve careful consideration.
In the Second Annual Report of this Bureau it was pointed out that
the disease known in this country as swine-plague, or more commonly
as hog-cholera, was wholly different from the disease known on the
Continent as rouget and Rothlauf. Notonly are the lesions different,
but the micro-organisms producing them wholly unlike in their mi-
croscopical and biological features, as well as in their pathogenic effect
upon animals. Thus far rouget has not been found in this country.
The conclusions reached last year, though doubted by those who
seemed to consider allinfectious or contagious diseases of swine iden-
tical, are unshaken. All efforts at practicing preventive inoculation
in hog-cholera with virus derived from rouget must not only be
looked upon as absurd in the light of present knowledge, but as dan-

678 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

gerous, inasmuch as a new disease may thus be introduced into our
country from abroad.

The important lesson taught by these investigations lies on the sur-
face. Infectious diseases in which the gross pathological effects dif-
fer quite constantly in the same species of animals should not be
classed as identical until so proved by the most rigorous methods
that scientific research possesses.

On page 226 of the Second Annual Report of the Bureau (1885) a
brief mention was made of a disease found once by Léffler in Ger-
many, which presented as the most marked lesion an enormous cedema
or swelling a the skin of the neck. It is caused by small ovid bac-
teria, calling to mind by their appearance the organisms of septi-
cemia in rabbits, especially when in the process of division, although
but half as large. Inoculation with these bacteria produced speedy
death in rabbits, mice, and guinea-pigs, as wellas pigs. Rabbits died
within twenty-four hours; mice lived a few hours longer; guinea-
pigs died on the second and third day after inoculation. In all ani-
mals there was a sero-sanguinolent effusion into the subcutaneous
tissue of the entire abdomen, extending to the axilla on the one hand
and the inguinal region on the other. Muscular tissue infiltrated
with the same reddish effusion. Pigeons, fowls, and rats remained
unaffected after the inoculation. One of the three inoculated pigs
died on the second day with the following lesions: ‘‘Skin of abdomen
bluishred, Enormous cdemaof theskin, Lungs hypostatic. Mu-
cosa of stomach deeply reddened. Spleenunchanged. Kidneys par-
enchymatous. Mesenteric glands not swollen,”*

More recently this same infectious disease among swine in Ger-
many has been carefully described and studied by Schutz,t+ and as it
has many features in common with the disease which has been sep-
arated from hog-cholera in the preceding pages, it deserves a some-
what careful analysis here.

The author first obtained the microbe causing this disease by plac-
ing beneath the skin of small animals bits from spleens of pigs which
had presented symptoms of rowget. The spleens were putrid, but
the pathogenic microbe was found alone in the bodies of the inocu-
lated animals,{ the putrefactive germs not having the power of pen-
etrating beyond the wound in which they are placed. In this way he
inoculated 2 mice, 2 guinea-pigs, 1 pigeon, and 1 rabbit. The mice
died on the second and third day. The bacteria found in the organs
of these mice have the form of ovals, and are easily stained by watery
solutions of aniline colors.

When stained with gentian violet they show in their central portions an unstained
region surrounded by a layer stained blue, The thickness of this layer is greater
at the poles, so that the extremities appear more deeply stained than the sides.
When deeply stained they appear uniformly blue. As fees organisms stand he-
tween microcococci and bacilli, they may be called bacteria. They are 1.2™™ long
and .4™™" to .5™™ broad. They multiply in the following manner: They become twice
2s long as broad, show distinctly rounded extremities, and stain like the organisms
of rabbit septicaemia and fowl-cholera, so that between the deeply stained ends about
one-half or a third of the entire length remains unstained. Careful examination
shows, however, that the colored end pieces are connected with each other by a fine
line which passes from one to another on each side, The end pieces then separate
and the median portion disappears. The former are at first spherical, but very soon

* Arbeiten a. d, kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte, I, 8, 877.
ties cit. 8. 376.
The bacterium of hog-cholera as found in Nebraska was obtained pure in the
same way as described elsewhere in this report (p. 628),

BURHAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, 679

assume an oval form, Hence from every organism two new individuals arise by
division, in which by careful staining the uncolored central portion is easily dis-
tinguished from the colored periphery. If the process of multiplication is very rapid,
as in pigs and rabbits, the organisms do not attain the size given above, but divide
before the unstained median piece becomes distinctly visible. Under these circum-
stances the organisms of the succeeding generations are smaller, only one-half as
large as, or even smaller than, those which have resulted from the slow division of
the bacteria. The younger generations are frequently extraordinarily small, plainly
oval, however, and staining uniformly in gentian violet. * * * They do not ex-
ecute any spontaneous movements.

This description applies very well to the microbe found by us in
igs with lung disease. It points out the folly of expecting to de-
ermine a specific form with the aid of a microscope and an aniline

stain only, when we reflect how many different forms of one specific
microbe may be met with, according to the rapidity of multiplication,
which in turn depends upon the medium in which they grow.

We will continue with the author’s statement. The rabbit died on

the third day. From the inoculated ear an inflammatory swelling
had spread over the entire head and neck, due to an extensive effu-
sion of a turbid liquid into the subcutaneous connective tissue. EHn-
largement of neighboring lymphatics. Bacteria in the blood and all
organs, especially numerous in the subcutaneous effusion. The two
pune nae and the pigeons remained well. Gelatine tubes inocu-

ated with this germ show no signs of liquefaction atany time. With
a pure culture on gelatine the author inoculated two mice, one rabbit,
and three pigeons. The mice died on the first and second day after in-
oculation respectively. The lesions were as follows: ‘‘ Slight edema
and hypergemia of the subcutis. Swelling of the lumbar, inguinal,
and mesenteric lymphatic glands. Large intestine filled with feces;
spleen considerably enlarged. Parenchymatous inflammation of
liver, kidneys, heart, and muscles. Portion of blood coagulated; the
remainder coagulateson exposure to air. Bacteria in all the organs.”

The rabbit died on the second day after inoculation. Besides local

and general lesions already mentioned, there is an implication of the
respiratory apparatus (tracheitis and bronchitis hemorrhagica). To
these lesions we cannot attribute any specific character whatever.
They are very likely due to proximity to the point of inoculation
(ear), If the animal had been inoculated in the thigh they might
have been absent. The pigeons remained well.

. Two pigs were inoculated with beef-infusion peptone culture, ob--

tained from a mouse, each receiving subcutaneously the contents
of a Pravaz syringe. On the following day a considerable tumefac-
tion of the thigh appeared. The skin over the swelling was dark
red, Both animals were so weak as to be scarcely able to walk. No
appetite. Breathing accelerated. One of them died twenty-four

hours after inoculation. At the autopsy the following changes were:

observed: Infiltration of skin, connective and muscular tissue at the
point of inoculation, with a red turbid effusion; the skin tough and
thickened. About 55° of turbid yellow liquid in the peritoneal
pede f The other changes given by the author do not point to any
specific lesions, and are omitted. ‘The bacteria were found in the
exudates and in all the organs, especially numerous in the effusion
at the point of inoculation. The other pig died forty-eight hours
after inoculation. In this animal the local swelling was also very
extensive and severe. Bacteria in all the organs.

The lesions indicated that the bacteria had at first multiplied and
exerted their pathogenic effect at the point of inoculation, and thence

680 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

had spread over the entire body by way of the blood and lymph
channels.

The author calls attention to the great resemblance between the
inoculation disease produced by him and by Léffler, and considers
the cause the same in both cases.

A pig which had been made insusceptible to rouget by vaccination
was inoculated with a pure culture of this oval bactertum. It died
in two or three days, with extensive local swellings where the inocu-
lation had been made. Bacteria in all the organs; especially numer-
ousinthe spleen. This case illustrated the fact that an animal made
insusceptible to one disease is not necessarily protected against the
virus of another.

Schiitz was unable to produce the disease by feeding, as the fol-
lowing shows: After starving a pig for twenty-four hours it was fed
with bouillon in which 5 per cent. sodium carbonate was dissolved,
and half an hour later with one liter of blood and pieces of flesh from
a pig which had succumbed to inoculation, The animal seemed
slightly ill for a few days, but recovered.

In continuing these investigations an epidemic came to his notice
in which the early symptoms were diarrhea, sometimes bloody. At
the same time the hind legs became stiff, so that the animal lay most
of the time. On the sixth and seventh day the back became weak,
so that in walking the animals swayed to and fro. They then were
scarcely able to reach their food without tumbling over. Ina few
the ears became red. In all the breathing became labored and hur-
ried. In some twitching and convulsions appeared before death,
which occurred on the eighth to the tenth day. Without giving the
complete autopsy notes it will suffice to say that there was nothing
abnormal in the intestinal tract. The stomach was considerably
bile-stained. The lesions were limited to the thoracic cavity. Inthe
pericardial cavity about 36 grams of an opaque reddish fluid. Peri-
cardium and epicardium glued together by small quantities of a
warty, stringy, elastic substance:

Both lobes of the left lung, with the exception of the upper border and the four
lobes of the right lurig, tough and airless (hepatized). In both pleural sacs about 64
grams of an opaque reddish-yellow fluid, mixed with flakes of fibrin. The pleura
covering the hepatized portions was rough, dull, clouded. These were in general of
a dark grayish red, with interspersed, circumscribed patches of various size and
form and grayish-yellow or reddish-yellow in color. * * * On the cutsurface of
the hepatized portion grayish-red and reddish-yellow areas could be detected, which
were sharply marked off from one another. They corresponded to the circum-
scribed patches on the pleura, were very friable, partly with a pale luster, partly
granulated. They occupied larger volumes of lung tissue, or were sprinkled as
scattered foci in the grayish-red portions. Their extent was limited by the course
of the larger bronchi and blood vessels. The surface of the grayish-red portions was
also granulated, of a faint lustre, and clouded. In these there appeared numerous,
more resistant, reddish-yellow spots, corresponding to the inner portions of the lob-
ules. They were either isolated or gathered into small groups. The interlobular
tissue was filled with a cloudy reddish fluid. In the softer portions of the lung the
pleura was smooth, transparent. The cut surface was smooth, shining, and here
and there provided with small diffusely dark red spots; resistant. On compression a
very fine foam poured out upon the cut surface. The bronchial lymphatics were
enlarged, their capsules reddened.

In a second animal the lesions were the same, almost the whole
lungshepatized. These animals had therefore suffered from an acute
leuro-pneumonia, involving the pericardium in the first animal.
he yellow regions correspond to necrosed tissue, which, extending
to the surface, produces inflammation of the pleura, In cover-glass

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY 681

preparations of the lung tissue the oval bacteria were found in large
numbers. The author infers from the lesions that the bacteria had
been aspirated into the finest bronchioles and alveoli and there pro-
duced pneumonia. They were also found in the pleural and peri-
cardial cavities. The remaining internal organs contained but few.
With portions of the hepatized lungs six mice, five guinea-pigs, two rab-
bits, two rats, two pigeons, and onetowl wereinoculated. ‘The miceand
rabbits died in the usual time, and presented lesions already described.
Three of the guinea-pigs died on the fourth, fifth, and eighth day
respectively. In the two first mentioned the subcutis and muscular
tissue at the point of inoculation (abdomen) were infiltrated with a
bloody, clouded liquid; in the third animal—an old one—an extensive
hemorrhagic and purulent infiltration was present. One of the
pigeons died on the third day. The point of inoculation in the sub-
cutis over the pectoral muscle was infiltrated with a fibrinous, puru-
lent mass, containing a few bacteria. These were very scarce in the
internal organs. One of the rats died on the seventh day with le-
sions similar to those of the older guinea-pigs. Very few bacteria in
the internal organs. With bits of lung tissue from another pig which
succumbed to the same infectious pneumonia the following animals
were inoculated: two rabbits, guinea-pigs, pigeons, and fowls, and one
rat. The rabbits died in one day, the guinea-pigs in two and five
days respectively after inoculation. Thetwo pigeons, which had re-
ceived comparatively large doses, died in one and two days respect-
a The rat and fowls were not affected.

The author also introduced pure cultures directly into the lung:
tissue of a pig through the chest-wall by means of a hypodermic
syringe. The animal died in less than threedays. On post mortem
examination the lungs were necrosed at the point of inoculation;
there was severe and extensive pleuritis and pericarditis. Bacteria
were very numerous in the affected organs, but very scarce in other
organs. In another experiment a pig confined in a box was made to
inhale the spray of a liquid culture for several hours on two consecu-
tive days until 500° had been used up. The animal was killed eleven
days later, after having shown marked symptoms of lung disease.
ae same mortifying pneumonia as that described was found at the
autopsy. .

Sebi te also describes a case in which there was a condition of the
lungs, lymphatic glands, and other organs closely resembling tuber-
culosis. Caseous degeneration of these structures was followed by
a gradual loss of strength, leading to death. In this animal there
was a caseous degeneration of the various joints of the posterior
limb, enlargement and softening of the lymphatics. The oval bac-
teria were present in large numbers in the caseous contents of the
glands. The effect upon the animals when inoculated with this
caseous mass was precisely the same as that produced by lung tissue
or cultures from former cases,

_ The disease disappears at the beginning of winter to reappear again
in the spring. ‘The losses sustained by one owner from the disease in
a single year were very heavy, two hundred pigs having died. It
was found in regions a considerable distance apart, which led Schiitz
to infer that it was a widely distributed disease.

The relation of hog-cholera to this disease.—A careful perusal
of this brief synopsis will convince even those who have only ob-
served the gross pathological lesions that are constantly met with in
hog-cholera, or who have read the post mortem notes as reproduced

682 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

and summarized in this and the preceding report, that this new dis-
ease described by Schiitz has nothing in common with hog-cholera.
We regard the description of the disease as given in these reports as
the basis for this statement, because the hundreds of cases examined
in the laboratory were invariably associated with the same etiolog-
ical factor-—the same bacterium which has been minutely described,
and which is at once distinguishable from the microbe described by
Schiitz. Leaving aside the many differences, a glance into the mi-
eroscope will show us an actively motile bacterium on the one hand,
and on the other a non-motile bacterium. Our investigations have
already shown the existence of another bacterial disease in swine,
which may even be associated with hog-cholera, in the same herd
and in the same animal. From the present standpoint of our infor-
mation it would be presumably absurd to rely upon post martem ex-
aminations in different parts of the country without at the same time
making bacteriological investigations, in order to decide the nature
of a certain class of symptoms and lesions. We have almost invari-
ably found severe intestinal lesions in hog-cholera, producing uleera-
tion and often complete death of the mucous membrane of the large
intestine, involving in the severest cases a similar destruction of
the mucous membrane of the ileum. In the autopsy notes given by
Schiitz the alimentary canal is invariably intact or the slight changes
due to general causes. The lesions are limited entirely to the tho-
racic organs, where the lungs are primarily affected by a ‘‘ multiple
mortifying pneumonia.” Thence the disease may involve the pleura
and the pericardium.

In hog-cholera, lung lesions are quite secondary and only rarely
seen. In the severest hemorrhagic type of the disease we have
almost always observed hemorrhagic foci scattered through the lung
tissue, but these were no more numerous or more extensive than the
extravasations found in most of the other viscera. It is quite easy
to believe that such cases surviving the first severe attack may de-
velop a pneumonia by the gradual extension and confluence of the
separate foci. In all cases where the causation of such lesions is a
matter of doubt bacteriological investigation must now decide.

Relation of infectious pneumonia to this disease.—lt is of con-
siderable importance to find out what relation this microbe of the

szerman Schweineseuche bears to the one which we have recently
found in pigs as the cause of infectious pneumonia. Morphologically
they are evidently thesame. So far as their growth in culture media
and their biological properties have been observed there seem to be
no grounds for regarding them as different species. As to their path-
ogenic properties we find some marked differences. The evidence
which has been brought forward in the preceding pages that the
microbe there described is the cause of a pneumonia in pigs, which
is therefore, from an etiological standpoint, wholly different from
hog-cholera, is not yet conclusive, and will require further investi-
gations. Yet the facts there recorded are strongly in favor of the
view that we are dealing with a hitherto unrecognized disease. The
microbe was obtained from three outbreaks hundreds of miles apart.
In the animals examined pneumonia was present. In the one out-
break hog-cholera was also present, as demonstrated by the lesions
and the specific bacterium. The presence in the same herd of two
diseases, and even in the same animal of two wholly different microbes
which produce them, complicates matters very greatly. The disease
described by Schiitz as Schwetneseuche is essentially a localized dis-

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 683

ease, involving the lungs only. There are no lesions of the intestinal
tract. Is, then, this Schweineseuche the same as the pneumonia
which we have found? Let us compare for a moment the microbes,
Both destroy mice, the microbe of Schweineseuche more speedily and
invariably. The same may be said of rabbits, Inoculation on the
ear caused death in one to three days, according to Schiitz. The
same mode of inoculation produced death with the American form
in nine days, and even subcutaneous inoculations do not prove fatal
in less than three days.* Guinea-pigs are only in part susceptible
to both microbes; pigeons to both when large quantities of virus
are introduced into the system. Fowls are killed by the American
form in large doses. Schiitz does not report the use of large doses
with these birds. Both produce extensive pathological changes at
the point of inoculation in the susceptible animals,

When we come to their effect upon pigs after subcutaneous inocu-
lation marked differences are manifested. Pigs inoculated by Schiitz
died from one to three days after inoculation. Besides producing
rather severe local reaction, the bacteria had multiplied in all the in-
ternal organs and were easily demonstrable in cover-glass prepara-
tions. Those inoculated with the American form at the experimental
station died in from one to two weeks. The quite constant patho-
logical change consisted in acute contraction or cirrhosis of the liver,
followed by jaundice, The bacteria had been meanwhile destroyed,
for cultures from such cases remained sterile. Feeding either in cult-
ures or in animal tissues failed to produce the disease, Schiitz suc-
ceeded, however, in producing pneumonia from-inhalation of cultures.
Our experiment failed, perhaps, because the spraying was not con-
tinued long enough. }

These differences, apparently very wide, may after all depend sim-
ply upon a difference in virulence; and it may be possible for us to
obtain from other outbreaks a microbe which is as virulent asthe one
described by Schiitz. There is every reason to believe that this mi-
rcobe loses its virulence very speedily in artificial cultures, Thismay
have modified somewhat the results, since several weeks elapsed from
the time the cultures were prepared from the affected animals to the
time when the pigs could be inoculated therewith.

Schtitz+ and otherstf are inclined to regard the microbe of Schweine-
seuche identical with the one which has been found to produce septi-
ceemia in rabbits. In this connection it is of interest to mention
briefly some experiments§ made with a microbe obtained from rabbits,
which seems to be closely related to, if not identical with, the microbe
of rabbit septicamia as described by Kuropean observers, and may
perhaps be a moditied form of the microbe found inpigs. This itre-
sembles in form and mode of staining at the two extremities, but it
is, as a rule, somewhat larger. It also differs in forming a more or
less complete membrane at the surface of the culture liquid two or
three days after inoculation. In its effect upon animals, that upon
rabbits is especially characteristic. It destroys them within two days

*The microbe obtained from Iowa is more virulent than this, and resembles more
oer the German form. These lines were written before this had been investi-
ated.
p + Loe. cit.
¢{ Huppe: Ueber die Wildseuche u. ihre Bedeutung fir die Hygiene. Berliner kli-
nische Wochenschrift, 1886, No. 44. ;
§ For a detailed account, see the Quarterly Journal of Comp. Medicine and Sur-
gery for January, 1887.

684 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

when injected hypodermically. There is a slight purulent infiltra-
tion at the seat of injection, varying in intensity with the duration
of the disease. The bacteria are present in large numbers in all the
internal organs, giving the disease the character of a true septiczemia.
Fowls are insusceptible. Of seven pigeons inoculated, three died; of
four guinea-pigs, one. Mice are less susceptible than rabbits, but
more so than guinea-pigs.

We must regard this microbe as more virulent to rabbits and less
so to other animals than the one found in pigs. As regards its effect
upon the latter no extended experiments were made, excepting to note
that doses of 1° culture liquid produced no effect upon two animals.
Perhap. future experiments may throw more light upon the relation
of this microbe to the disease of swine, which we must consider, at
jeast for the present, as a hitherto unrecognized infectious pneumonia.

UNITED STATES NEAT-CATTLE QUARANTINE.

Whole number of cattle received at the various stations from January 1, 1886, to
January 1, 1887. _

THithleton tS tattonined aeyacieiacisn wercieete viet Svahatel alc cielo falorlo/are: ate araleuatel rete axcvovcpavewet ores time
Garfield Station ..... Sie wiviata oe alin ae PNe naTatah ste MiereueRare Lah era la te Lae eNO elaverehe tees oueuare wate ROU
EMMIS OMA Salas oe Pian ss ¢ cclonpive since Hea ete oe imate ieee se ects bie os platens 5 12

1,011

Table showing the number of cattle received at the various quarantine stations for
each month of the year 1886.

Littleton Sta- | Garfield Sta- | Patapsco Sta-
Months. tion, Mass. tion, N. J. tion, Md.

July 36

PNULETLIS Derry tare) siateis elcte' ate cet ieieiaiy iistetsietoteraletaic oeste mele: exeteie esate 62 BU I erelars Sete aos

POPLINE TS ere v cas eeys caystay shih orate are eis]stevolstalen sts alshais eheia\ereie/ieye e/s\|le)aja)eto:sistateyate’sieyeiase 5 fs sie sso clearer

WEDODEL oe eres oa sisie clercislcicia aisiuieie Gistmalsieore ersiacsleae susan 12 QE" |S avaiclal olleceietterelaeaees

NOVELISTS se cisieinse x wins orblcistelove oleialeiele atavotalelele eielelelere, cletansretavete 45 QL |. 'scrsisselisrereeteten

PI COITI CIR i tate) Vee are lola are a atae or alereuaie locate lobes wicks heyshcraia: oe 84 4G |... sic:c\cinatereremieeier
PEMTEUU aye ee. sacar n fal Pereley ake Satara stavelsiclare mito umeteiee ores ie hisiars 495 504 12

Grand total, 1,011.

Table showing the different breeds of catile and the number of each breed imported
during the year.

Name of breed. No.

75
CGE nen eee see he loth tudes oa eiota one ivatsiaiclelafe eiare™ eisle de aibieln e) aloiey ele clalsiclamsletide euseiecien bivicee ee eee CE eee 129

nishiandiand (Black Polled sAmBrs Wye SaeMNss 6 a tere ciare o ciate bevwielefaavel ore tetalelertierele dias alison erste slovene tetera
WEL IO AT hanya %.'s cal ciieh foie lel valve cise’ pebetaroyetele | Lojesinie ats ome sicimar vvere nel e aloaies sisitiniclc oe hie cietee aan ee
TTETOLONG ees cyte os sicenieee BOER GHEE HERS 6 AA cadt CBO AGISS A BEL AL Htc UCM ESTA HN RON nnn A te nisi, cra paco-
Aberdeen-Angus
Simmenthal.........

Ce ee ee

1, 011

No infectious or contagious disease appeared among the animals quarantined at the above stations
during the year,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 685

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Piuatre I.—Ulcerated ecxcum of a pig inoculated with blood from a case of hog-
cholera. The entire mucous membrane has undergone necrosis. Neas
he valve, in the upper portion of the figure, the early stage, that of
ecchymosis, is still to be seen. The valve is slit open to show the intact
mucosa of the ileum. This figure also serves to illustrate the appear-
ance presented by the caecum and colon when pigs have been fed with
pure cultures, the only difference being that in the latter case the necro-
sis is at first superficial. In the figure it involves the entire thickness
of the mucosa, having begun in the submucosa, whither the bacteria
have been carried by the blood.

PLATE II.—Ulcerated execum of a pig fed with viscera from a case of hog-cholera.
The czecum is slit open to show the mucous membrane quite uniformly
necrosed, with isolated deeper ulcerations. The ileo-cecal valve is very
much thickened, the mucous membrane ecchymosed and ulcerated.
The lymphatic glands of the meso-colon and in the angle formed by the
entrance of the ileum into the cecum are purplish, with cortex en-
gorged with extravasated blood. They illustrate the condition of the
lymphatics of both thorax and abdomen in the acute hemorrhagic form
of the disease.

PLATE III, Fic. 1.—Cover-glass preparations from the spleen of a rabbit inoculated
with the bacterium of hog-cholera from Nebraska. Stained for a few
minutes in an aqueous solution of methyl violet, mounted in xylol-bal-
sal. Drawn with camera lucida, Zeiss +; homogeneous, ocular 3. x 1110
The bacteria are seen among diffusely stained cells. They are chiefly
in pairs, in some of which the process of division is not yet completed.

Fic. 2.—Cover-glass preparation from the liver of a rabbit inoculated with the
microbe of pneumonia in pigs. Stained in analkaline solution of methy-
lene blue. Mounted and drawn as stated in Fig. 1. The colored portion
is confined to the two poles, the central region remaining colorless.

PLATE IV, Fic. 1.—Culture twenty-eight days old in a tube of nutrient gelatine of
the microbe causing pneumonia in pigs. The culture was prepared from
the internal organs of a rabbit which had been inoculated from a cult-
ure obtained originally from Geneseo, Ill.

Fig. 2.—Culture eleven days old of the same microbe obtained from Sodorus, Ill.
Both natural size.

Fic. 38.—Colonies of the same microbe on a gelatine plate seven days old. x 60.
The pale peripheral zone, which appears after three or four days in beef
infusion peptone containing 10 per cent. gelatine, together with darker
granular nucleus, is very constant.

Fic. 4.—Gelatine tube culture from the blood of a rabbit inoculated with a cult-
ure of the hog-cholera bacterium from Sodorus, Ill., ten days old.

Fic. 5.—Tube culture of the hog-cholera bacterium inoculated from cultures of
the spleen obtained from Sodorus, Ill., fourteen days oid.

In Figs. 4 and 5 the two modes of surface growth of the hog-cholera
bacterium are illustrated, both distinguishable from Figs. 1 and 2. See
Plate V.

Fra. 6.—Colonies of hog-cholera bacteria on a gelatine plate four days old
x 100.

PLATE V, Fic. 1.—Surface growth in gelatine tubes, enlarged two diameters.

a. Bacterium of hog-cholera, growing as an irregular patch, flattened,
with a jagged margin and occasional slender branches, and as a convex
rounded head.

b. Microbe of pneumonia, growing as a very thin pearly patch, with
lobed margin, often showing faint concentric lines when viewed ob-
liquely. a, twenty days old; 6b, twenty-six days old.

Fig, 2.—Gelatine tube culture of a bacterium which resembles the bacterium of
hog-cholera very closely, but which differs in its physiological proper-
ties, and which has no pathogenic effect on animals. Found associated
with the microbe of pneumonia in the spleen of a pig (Geneseo, H1.).
Culture about a week old. The surface growth is very vigorous, cover-
ing after a time the gelatine completely. The peculiar mesh-work shown
in the figure is a constant character.

Fic. 3.—Growth of the bacterium of hog-cholera on potato twelve days after
inoculation,

686 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

PLATE VI.—Coagulation necrosis in the liver of rabbits inoculated with cultures of
hog-cholera bacteria,

Fic. 1.—Cephalic aspect of the liver of a rabbit which was found dead on the sixth
day after inoculation. The lighter spots are groups of acini destroyed by
the growth of bacteria. The larger patch to the left shows groups ot
acini in which the necrosis has involved only the peripheral zone of the
acini.

Fig. 2.—Liver of rabbit which died on the eighth day after inoculation. The
caudal aspect is shown with two extensive patches of commencing ne-
crosis. In both only the peripheral zone is involved, giving the discol-
oration a mottled appearance,

Piatzs VII to IX inclusive,—Photo-micrographs of the bacteria producing hog-
cholera and swine-plague. Made with the Zeiss camera, using the new
yz apochromatic homog. immersion objective, projection ocular No, 4.
Magnification 1,000 diameters. The preparations, stained either in Bis-
marcl brown or fuchsin, were mounted in Canada balsam, Ulumina-
tion from an incandescent electric jamip,

PuateE VII, Fic. 1.—Bacterium of hog-cholera. Cover-glass preparation from the
liver of a rabbit inoculated with cultures from Illinois, Stained for one
hour in an aqueous solution of Bismarck brown.

Fic. 2,—Liguid culture of the bacterium of hog-cholera from Wlinois. Stained
in Bismarck brown.

PLATE VIII, Fic. 1.—Bacterium of hog-cholera from Nebraska. From a culture in
beef infusion less than twenty-four hours old, inoculated from a colony
on a gelatine plate. Stained for one hour in an aqueous solution of Bis-
marck brown.

Fig. 2,—Micrococci of swine-plague, From a culture in beef infusion about
twenty hours o]d. This culture was obtained from a gelatine tube cult-
ure of effusion and piastic exudate in the pleural cavity. The lungs were
extensively hepatized. Stained for one hour in aniline water fuchsin.

PuaTeE IX, Fic. 1.—Cover-glass preparation from the liver of a rabbit inoculated with
a bit of lung tissue obtained from an outbreak of swine-plague in Iowa,
January, 1887. Stained in Bismarck brown for one hour, decolorized in
4 per cent. acetic acid for a few moments, Note the polar stain.

Fic, 2,—Coyer-glass preparation from the blood of a pigeon inoculated from a
culture of the microbe of swine-plague from lowa. Stained in aniline
water fuchsin,

Plate I.

G Marx, fecit. T.SiNCLAIR & SON LITH PHILA

HOG CHOLERA. ULCHRATED CARCUM.

HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE-PLAGUE .

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SWINE-PLAGUE

REPORT OF SUPERINTENDENT OF GARDENS AND
GROUNDS.

Sir: I beg to submit the following notes on matters pertaining to
this division.

NOTES ON ORANGE CULTURE, ETC,

Recent visits to Florida in the interest of the Department have en-
abled me to acquire some knowledge of the climate, soil, and produc-
tions of that State, as far south as latitude 28 degrees. The following
desultory remarks, the result of observations made, are offered for
what they may afford inthe way of answering some of the many in-
quiries constantly being directed to this division by prospective cul-
tivators and residents of Florida.

For at least nine months of the year the climate over the larger
portion of the State may be considered as being tropical, so that most
of the vegetation of warm countries will find a congenial atmosphere
during that period. Occasionally this tropical season is longer than
that stated above, especially in the most southern parts; but there is
a liability to a brief season of low temperature about the end of No-
vember sufficient to injure tender vegetation, although the weather
may afterwards assume its tropical conditions for weeks, During
the winter months an occasional depression of temperature, running
down to or below the freezing-point, may ocour at any time up to the
end of February or later. These fitful periods of low temperatures
are very injurious to early crops of culinary vegetables, as well as to
al] pleats which haye started into growth.

he early winter frosts are also hurtful to plants which have suc-
culent shoots not sufficiently matured to withstand the low tempera-
ture, This is especially noticeable on young orange and lemon trees
which haye been subjected to constant culture or to recent applica-
tions of fertilizers, causing a stimulation to late growths. Trees of
any age, if so treated, will be liable to injury from slight frost, but
when the shoots of the previous season on old trees are well matured
they are not sensibly hurt by frosts severe enough to injure their
matured fruits; but young trees are more susceptible in this respect,
so that the management of young’ orange groves requires a greater
degree of discriminate care and consideration than is necessary with
trees of deciduous habits,

Orange groves located in the neighborhood of Indian River have
long been noted for their superior productions, and packages of
oranges marked *‘ Indian River” command a higher price than those
from other sections of the State. Inquiries have frequently been
made with a view of ascertaining the cause of the reputed superior
qualities of these fruits, but answers to these inquiries have not been
explicit or satisfactory. A recent visit in that section of the State,
and a studied inspection of the soil, culture, and general condition of

7 (687)

688 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

orange trees in places where the products were typical of the best
results of the region, resulted in the conviction that the superiority
of the fruit was, primarily, owing to the sheltered and shaded posi-
tion of the trees. The soil in which they are growing does not differ
greatly from that in many parts of the State, although it contains a
larger proportion of organic matter than can be found in numerous
locations where orange trees are planted, but even when this defi-
ciency is supplied on lands openly exposed to sun and winds, the
products will not generally compare favorably with those from shel-
tered groves; so that the conclusion seems clear that the superior
quality of the fruit is owing to the fact that the trees producing are
afforded an ample degree of shade and protection. It may further
be presumed that, in any part of the orange belt or climate where
the trees are similarly sheltered, fruits may be produced equally good
in every particular.

In passing through the country the effects of shelter, especially on
young trees, is everywhere apparent. It might truthfully be stated
that the best looking young groves are those which are best pro-
tected.

As the trees increase in height and expanse, they will, in a certain
degree, shelter each other, and so far as they shade the ground and
break the force of drying winds so far will evaporation of moisture
be reduced; but arecognition of all the facts pertaining to the growth
of the orange would tend to the conclusion that the trees would be
benefited by being well sheltered, if not also partially shaded, no
matter what their age may be.

What might well be termed conclusive evidence on this point is
afforded by the localities in which the sour or bitter orange has be-
come naturalized. This plant asserts itself as an example of the
“survival of the fittest” of the Citrus family in this State, under
strictly natural conditions of propagation and growth.

There are, throughout parts of Florida, extensive tracts of rather
low lands, where the palmetto abounds and flourishes, interspersed
with a variety of oaks and undergrowths, Here also is found the so-
called wild or sour orange, luxuriating in and forming a part of
the dense thickets, nourished by a eat rich in organic matter, and
sometimes growing in places where their roots are covered with water
for weeks at a time.

Some of the most valuable orange groves in the State have been
formed by a partial clearing out of these thickets, removing the tops
of the wild orange trees, and budding the plants with the best vari-
eties of sweet oranges. Looking into these semi-naturalized groves
we observe an indiscriminate assemblage of orange trees and tall

yalmettos, the latter towering above the former, which give evidence

be the vivid color of their leaves and the brightness of their fruits
thas they enjoy the shade and protection thus afforded them. The
fruit from these groves is noted for fine appearance and quality, and
if intermixed with ‘Indian River” oranges, the task of separating
them would be difficult, if not impracticable.

The comparative freedom from rust on the fruit produced in groves
where the trees are afforded protection is worthy of special notice.
It is attributed to the ravages of a minute insect, tut I find that
many persons are undecided as to whether the insect is a cause or
only a consequence of a diseased condition which has been produced
by other influences.

It we now direct our attention to thousands of acres of young

DIVISION OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 689

range groves which may be found throughout the State, planted in

Deady atts on high pine eas and contrast their condition and ap-
earance with those which have been described, the difference will
e found as striking as it is apparent even to the casual observer.

In the preparation for planting an orange grove on pine lands the
first process is that of removing all the forest trees, taking them up
by the roots, and cleaning up the land so that it can be broken up
with the plow. After thorough preparation by plow and harrow
the soil is ready for the orange trees, which are carefully set out.
Without shade, shelter, or any kind of protection from the scorch-
ing sun and the arid breezes the young trees are subjected to great
vicissitudes. When rains are frequent vegetation proceeds rapidly;
a week or two of dry weather intervenes and active growth receives
a check for a time; the foliage of the young tree loses its vivid color,
and this is considered as indicating the need of a manurial dressing;
fextilizers of some kind are applied, rains follow, and growth again

roceeds satisfactorily so long as sufficient moisture is present in the
ight sandy soil. e

This somewhat erratic condition prevails in a more or less decided
manner during the active growing period of the year, and may ex-
tend into the early winter with but a slight lowering of the general
summer temperature, until a sudden depression is experienced, and
the thermometer indicates that the freezing-point is reached. The
temperature again rapidly rises, and the scorching rays of the sun,

ouring through a cloudless sky, produce disastrous effects upon the
frost-bitten tender shoots and leaves.

When young trees have been subjected to such casualties it is a
difficult matter to prognosticate the extent of the injuries they have
received; much depends upon the condition of the individual plant;
but in a general way those which have shown the greatest luxuriance
will suffer most. Of course injuries from frost depend upon its
severity. Six to eight degrees of frost may RD fatal, even although
the plants may linger between life and death fora yearortwo. If the
sap of the plant becomes contaminated from that of the frozen shoots
or branches, an early death is quite certain.

A simple precaution, and one that may be looked upon as an effect-
ual preventive from further injury to the frost-bitten plant, is to
remove the injured twigs as promptly as practicable. The longer this
is delayed the deeper seated the injury becomes. The diseased por-
tion will exhibit a discoloration in the wood, and all such parts should
be removed.

The following extract from a recent publication was communicated
by a well-known horticulturist and successful orange-grower, and is
worthy of the serious consideration of every person contemplating
the establishment of an orange grove on forest lands:

I wish to say a word about the plan of deadening the timber instead of making a
naked clearing, which is often referred to asa ‘“‘ shiftless cracker way.” I came
to Florida many years ago with these same prejudices very strong against the
‘‘shiftless cracker” deadening. I cleared off every tree and stump and planted to
oranges and lemons 25 acres of heavy pine timber. I think I have learned some-
thing by experience, and I can now see that the ‘‘ crackers” were right and I was
wrong.

A deadening is vastly superior to a naked clearing in economy and favorable con-
ditions for the growth and health of the newly set grove.

As soon as the timber is deadened it ceases to make damaging drafts on the
soil, and it makes a semi-shade on the ground very grateful to the young tree in its
new iy It ee breaks the sweep of the wind, and thus decreases the evapo-

AG—

699 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

ration from the tree and the soil in which it is placed. After a while the leaves be-
gin to come down and cover the ground with a thin mulch, retaining moisture and
protecting the soil from the blazing rays of the sun. A year or more later the smaller
twigs and fragments of bark are added to the leaves, and when the ground is plowed
a most valuable dressing of vegetable matter is incorporated in a soil whose greatest
want is humus. At the end of three years your grove is well established and the
decaying timber begins to be dangerous, Then chop it down. All the branches
and much of the bark will break into fragments so small the plow will dispose of
them. Cut up the bodies in some ten-feet lengths and pile them in the checks mid
way between the rows. In three years more the sap wood and a large part of the
hearts will be thoroughly rotted and can be spread and plowed in like a manure
pile. Those hearts that remain sound are valuable for posts, rails, andfuel, The
cost of clearing a lot after it has been dead three years is about two-fifths of the cost
of clearing green timber. In fact, the interest for three years on the cost of clear-
ing green timber will nearly clear the deadening. _

But, after all, the great gain is in the superior vigor of the young grove the first
few years and the great improvement to the soil by the shade and added humus,

There are many hundreds of acres of young orange groves which
would be greatly assisted by the introduction among them of some
kind of tree for shelter. Additional trees would involve additional
expenses for manure; the trees should therefore be of such kinds as
would afford some remunerative crop. Peach trees and Japan per-
simmon trees might be tried, although an evergreen tree would be
more valuable. The Loquat, known in many localities as J apan plum,
having heavy evergreen foliage, would afford effective protection; it
is also much hardier than the orange. Perhaps the olive tree might be
profitably employed. Of course any trees used for this purpose would
be removed when their presence was no longer required.

PLANTING A GROVE.—There are numerous methods in vogue for
establishing an orange grove. That most widely adopted, according to
my observation, is to set out trees three or four years from the seed,

These are produced from seeds which have been saved from good
kinds, so that, in the event of the trees not being budded, they will
produce fruit of at least average merit. It is well ascertained that
the orange reproduces its kind more closely than does any other class
of long-cultivated fruits; but there is still much difference in the qual-
ities of oranges from groves where the trees have not been budded,
a fact which purchasers of these fruits soon discover. It is ques-
tionable if this method is the best that can be followed for either of
the two purposes in view; that is, whether these trees are the best for
budding, and, again, whether it is advisable to trust to seedling trees
for the best marketable products,

Trees of the ages mentioned are too old to be set out for budding.
After being set out they are usually allowed to establish themselves
for some time before being budded. By that time they have made a
well-developed top of small branches, all in a healthy and vigorous
condition.

The trees are budded in their main stems at points varying in their
distances from the ground, and seemingly as found most convenient
to the operator, and after the bud has well started the entire top of °
the stock is removed. This is a severe check to root extension. ‘The
ae will make efforts to restore the former balance which existed

etween the roots and the leaves by throwing out young shoots or
suckers, which, right or wrong, are promptly removed, thus throw-
ing the whole force of the plant into the growth of one shoot, which
progresses rapidly, prone large leaves and a bulky succulent
shoot; a condition which maintains until its growth is suddenly ar-
rested by cold nights, and if frosts occur the results are disastrous,

DIVISION OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 691

There are thousands of orange trees in Florida, to my personal
knowledge, which are in stunted, scrubby condition from causes such
as those outlined above, and which should, as a matter of pure econ-
omy, be removed at once, and their places supplied by a better class
of plants.

The best class of trees are those which are produced by budding
healthy stocks not more than two years from seed, and when the
buds have made a growth in the nursery the trees will be in good
condition for permanent planting. In some countries the orange is
mainly propagated by ioalean in Florida it may be said that bud-
ding is the only method practiced.

With regard to the relative merits of the sweet and the sour orange
as stocks opinions are varied. The sour stock is regarded as being
more hardy under low temperatures, and as withstanding greater
extremes in respect to wetness or dryness of soil. The opinion which
is sometimes mooted, that the sour stock impairs the sweet flavor of
the fruit, does not seem to be of much importance, since it is well
known that some of the best fruits are produced on these stocks,
Some growers expressed an indifference as to the kind of stock they
used for budding upon, but the preponderance of answers in reply
to interrogatories on this point was in favor of the sour stock.

Northern orchardists find it to their advantage to procure their
young fruit trees from reliable nurserymen whose business it is to
propagate and supply such trees, healthy as to vitality and authentic
astonameand character. Promotors of orange groves will ultimately
learn that it will prove most economical and in every way to their
advantage to procure their young trees from similar sources.

As to trusting to seedling trees for the best marketable products,
it is found that opinions do not vary so much on this point as they
did some years ago. Consumers are learning that there are differ-
ences in oranges as there are in apples, pears, and other fruits, and
shipments of choice named kinds will take precedence over those
which contain fruits of various merits as gathered indiscriminately
from groves of seedling trees and whose uniformity cannot be guar-
anteed.,

THE PINEAPPLE.

The pineapple cannot be considered as a perfectly safe field crop in
Florida north of the twenty-eighth degree of latitude. Its cultiva-
tion is sometimes attempted a full degree north of this limit with
winter protection, and unless the thermometer sinks below 30° they
will pass through the winter unhurt. Being allowedamplespace and .
freely manured the plants attain large size, and produce fruits from
4 to 9 pounds in weight, varying according to the variety.

Pineapples are commonly protected by erecting a horizontal plat-
form of small poles or laths, supported by posts, and elevated high
enough so as not to interfere with the upward growth of the plants.
This platform is closely covered with palm leaves during winter, and
forms a good protection against light frosts. A slight shade is al-
lowed during summer. This, it is claimed, enhances the value of the
fruit, causing it to be more tender and juicy than it would be if ex-
posed to the full force of the sun throughout the summer. The plants
are usually grown in beds 8 or 10 feet in width; the covering is thus
easily applied.

North of the latitude mentioned pineapple production in the open
field does not appear promising, unless in exceptionally favored places

692 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

and under the best conditions of culture. In the plantations visited,
on an island near the southern junction of the Indian and Banana
Rivers, the plants appeared to be set about 18 inches apart, in masses,
thus preventing effective cultivation. The brown and_bleached
aspect of the leaves indicated injury from cold weather. The fruits
are mostly small, and having to enter markets in competition with
fruits of the same kind imported from the West Indies, which some-
times sell at prices not much above those given for the best oranges, |
the profits are not encouraging. f

When the plants are allowed space for full development, and due
attention given to the slight protection necessary during winter, fruits
weighing from 6 to 10 pounds are produced, and these command remu-
nerative prices.

THE JAPAN PERSIMMON.

In the spring of 1863 the Department received its first importation
of seeds of persimmons from Japan through the agency of the United
States legation inthat country. With the view of testing their adapt-
ability to our climate, these were sown in the open ground in drills, .
similar to sowing peas. They vegetated freely, and the plants at-
tained an average size of 1 foot in height the first year, many of them
reaching over 18 inches. They were slightly protected by covering
the soil with leaves and strawy manure during winter. It was ob-
served that the plants varied in their capacity to resist cold, the
severest temperature of the season being 4° above zero. As growth
advanced it was found that a small percentage of the plants were un-
injured; the majority were killed to the surface of the ground, and all
thai completely destroyed. Subsequent importations of seed, when
planted a) grown under similar conditions, showed similar results,
thus indicating that varieties differ in their ability to resist cold.

Some years after the first importation of seed it was learned that

rafted plants of the best-selected varieties could be obtained in Japan

rom reliable sources. A small invoice of these was secured, and a
number of the plants set out in a sheltered spot, with results similar
to those experienced with the pus raised from seed. Some reached
a fruiting condition, although more or less injured during winter.
Finally, during a winter of unusual severity here, when the ther-
mometer indicated 15° below zero, they were all killed by the extreme

cold.

The first effort toward propagation was in attempting to bud these
foreign kinds (Diospyros Kakz) in stocks of the native persimmon
(Diospyros Virginiana). This was not successful. Grafting was
then resorted to. Young stocks of the native persimmon were grafted
near the ground with success. The plants progressed favorably, but
they were destroyed by the severe freeze mentioned above. Only the
native stock remained alive, the graft having been killed to the point
of junction.

These experiences naturally led to the conviction that the Japan
persimmon would not be a reliable crop in this district.

So many plants from Japan proving hardy enough to withstand
the colds of northern climates, it was hoped the persimmon of that
country would flourish wherever our native persimmon existed. The
Department, however, carefully refrained from recommending the
introduction of the best-selected varieties in northern climates; its
eeepc with plants raised from seeds suggested caution in this
respect,

DIVISION OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 693

The Japan persimmon may be considered as safe wherever the ther-
mometer does not indicate a lower temperature than 12° above zero.
About Norfolk, Va., and southward along the coast, it flourishes and
producesabundantly. In the Southern States it does well everywhere
and is rapidly gaining prominence. Its introduction as a profitable

lant is extending throughout Florida, as well as in other of the

Southern States, where it promises to be a fruit of some commercial
importance in the near future.

The nomenclature of the imported varieties is, at the present time,
quite confused. The same varieties have, from time to time, been
received under different names, and some time must elapse before
see pets can be corrected and the various synonyms properly

ocated.

No. 414 of the United States Consular Reports contains extensive
remarks on fruit culture in the several countries. In connection with
the foregoing notes on orange groves I submit the following extracts
on orange and lemon culture, taken from the above official corre-
spondence, as giving a brief exposition of the condition of this industry
in foreign countries, and perhaps affording useful hints, which may
be of service to those seeking information on the subject:

LEWIS RICHMOND, CONSUL-GENERAL, ROME,

Limes.—The varieties of the lime are the Jewish lime, which bears a small conical
fruit; the Genoese lime, bearing a large fruit, and cultivated along the Ligurian
coast; the Salo lime, cultivated at Urri, at Pegli, and at Finale Ligure; the Floren-
tine, a hybrid of lime and lemon, cultivated in isbn and Liguria; and the Monster
lime, which is only slightly cultivated.

Lemons.—The varieties of the lemon are the Genoese, whose fruit will stand the
longest transportation; the Garden lemon, which can be forced, bearing a hardy and
durable fruit; the Bergamot, a small round fruit, with a smooth thin rind, having
the cells containing the essence of bergamot (this variety is cultivated at Reggio, in
Calabria, and in Sicily); the Neapolitan, a small greenish fruit, very rich in juice;
the Mela-Rosa, a small fruit, showing on the rind the lines marking the divisions of
the lemon; and the Paradise lemon, whose fruit is very large and much used in con-
fectionery. This latter is cultivated in the gardens of Genoa.

Oranges.—The strong or sour orange, Melangola (Citrus Bigaradia vulgaris), pre-
sents many varieties. The fruit called Adam’s Apple belongs to this class. The
principal varieties of the sweet orange are the red-juiced orange, the double-flowered,
and the variegated. The culture of the Mandarin is spreading rapidly in Sicily and
on the Peninsula.

Planting and cultivation.—The trees are planted on the seashore, in valleys, on
plains, and on hillsides. The best results are obtained in those lands lying near the
shore. Trees are grown even upon the sands deposited by the waves. They are pro-
tected from the cold sea-breezes by close hedges, walls, or netted trellises of cane, or
by a thick growth of trees, especially poplars. Generally speaking, irrigation is in-
dispensable for obtaining an abundant yield of fruit. Water is provided in various
ways—by damming up springs, digging wells, making reservoirs, and by artesian
wells. The water from wells is tempered by exposure to the air before using it for
irrigation. Olives are frequently grown together with oranges and lemons, and are
useful to these latter by reason of the shade afforded and the resulting increased
dampness of the grounds.

g the six or eight years succeeding the planting an orange and lemon orchard
the ground can be used for growing vegetables, as the consequent manuring and
watering favors the growth of the trees.

JAMES FLETCHER, CONSUL, GENOA, ITALY.

Oranges.—The varieties of oranges generally cultivated in this province are the
Mandarin, the ee of China, and the pe apn Sweet. :

Citrons.—Two kin is of citrons are cultivated: The Rugosa, having wrinkled fruit,
very good for preserving, and the Cedrato, a very precious and aromatic fruit, also
goed candied.

mons.—The best are the Tenno, a lemon of gentle rind, fruit rich in acid, but

694 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

tender for transportation; the Oblongum, an oblong lemon, considered very valuable
on account of the quantity of acid it contains, : 4

Planting and cultivation.—Before the malady Gomma manifested itself it was
preferred to multiply the trees by burying the ends of shoots in the ground at proper
distances; these shoots soon. took root. But now the seed of the sour orange is
planted, into which, when the plants have grown to a proper size, the kinds desired
are grafted. :

Orange and Jemon orchards in Liguria are all on the seacoast, Flat and hilly
lands in orchard are alike protected by lofty mountains from northern winds.
Orange and lemon groves can be and are cultivated inland, but the temperature in
such places must not reach higher than 104° F. in summer nor lower than 82° F. in
winter. Inland orchards usually do well around lakes on account of the constant
climate. Groyes are also to be seen on table-lands, but always on the south side of
mountains, Bearing trees need a damp soil, and if the land does not contain suffi-
cient moisture it is impossible to obtain a good crop. On naturally dry soil, there-
fore, water near by is of great value.

Orange and lemon groves, on account of the irregular formation of the surround-
ing country, are necessarily small, and they are owned by many people, The soil
on which groves are planted is what the Italians term strong, and it is claimed for
it that it retains moisture for a long time. An idea prevails that springs are of no
great depth, and that the water courses through the earth at no great distance from
the roots, and surface waterings are not needed. At Nervi, a few miles along the
coast from Genoa, orchards thrive with but little irrigation, and this state of atfairs
is noticed even in the driest seasons, Unless groves have strong soil, as above
mentioned, and are moistened by an unseen water-course, they will prove unprofit-
able if the owners do not nourish the roots as often as once in eight days.

Oranges and lemons are not raised in such quantities in this consular district as.
to admit of large exportaticn,

GEORGE RAYSON, CONSULAR AGENT, MARSALA, ITALY,

Oranges.—The varieties grown are Mandarins, Vaniglia, Blood, Seville, and com-
mon Sicilian, of which the Mandarins are considered the most valuable. The trees
are produced from seeds of the bitter orange, and budded with selected varieties
afterward. The trees are troubled with lice, to destroy which flour of sulphur is
used. The gum disease also affects the trees, and this is cured by peeling off the
bark which has become diseased. ‘Trees do best at a distance from the sea, where,
sheltered from all strong winds, yielding best in a valley. No orange orchard here
thrives near the sea, and no trees are planted within a mile or two of the seashore.
The groves are watered by artificial means, and up to the age of five or six years
proprietors generally grow vegetables between the rows of trees,

Orange and lemon trees produce two hundred fruits at five years after budding;
ae that, if healthy and well cultivated, each tree is expected to produce one

ousand,

The cost of cultivation is difficult to determine; it is very much dependent upon
facilities and arrangements for watering, The average cost may be calculated at
$30 per acre per annum,

ALBERT WOODCOCK, CONSUL, CATANIA, SICILY.

Oranges,—Of these there are four varieties: the Round and Oval, the Mandarin
and the Bitter. The oval is preferred for commerce, being more durable. The round
is sweeter and larger. These two kinds are the fruit of export. The mandarin is.
more perishable, and is used for home consumption. The round orange begins to
ripen in December, the oval in January.

The bitter orange is very hardy, and is grown for the purpose of propagating the
other varieties by budding or grafting them upon its stock. Its fruit is used for the.
manufacture of preserves.

Orange and lemon trees begin to bear full crops when they are from ten to fifteen
years old. Some say that the orange and lemon budded upon the bitter-orange stock
will remain fruitful from one te two centuries; others say from fifty to a hundred
years. When not thus budded upon the bitter-orange stock, but raised from the
seed, the trees are short-lived. They become diseased; a gummy substance exudes
from them; a disease cankerous in its nature attacks the wood, and they soon die.
The budding process is generally in practice; grafting is but little resorted to.

Planting and cultivation.—The process of starting an orange or lemon grove is
commenced by first planting seeds of the bitter orange, and when the young plants
are one year old they are transplanted in nursery rows, When they have grown

DIVISION OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 695

to be about 1 inch in diameter they are removed and planted where they are to
remain. When they become well rooted and growing they are budded with selected
varieties. Two buds are generally inserted, and upon opposite sides of the stock,

Orange and lemon trees grow luxurianily in the valleys, and fringe the sea-coast
almost to the water line. Those orchards yield the best results which are most dis-
tant from the sea and are not of such an altitude as to be affected by the frost. The
rich valleys above the sea level, where an abundance of water can be had for irrigation,
abound in the best orchards. The trees near the sea are more liable to disease, and the
quality of the fruit is not so good as that of the orchards more distant.

Artificial irrigation is necessary in this climate. Streams that tumble down from
Aitna are utilized for this purpose. Where this is impracticable, water is elevated
from wells by power.

The ground of the orchards between the trees must be cultivated; it is necessary
that the ground be kept perfectly clean, The soil should be worked at least five
times a year, commencing in March and ending in October,

The Sicilians regard the month of November the best time for gathering the fruit
for export. The fruit is carefully picked from the tree by hand, caution being
exercised not to injure it by rough handling. The fruit is gently placed in a basket
lined with cloth. ‘The box used here is generally capable of holding from 240 to 300
fruits, there being a partition in the center. Itis lined with common silk paper.
Hach individual fruit is incased in the same kind of paper prior to boxing. The
boxes are not made air-tight, but interstices are left between the boards for ventila-
tion. Lemons gathered in the month of November and thus boxed are supposed
to keep without spoiling for six months. Oranges will not keep so long. The boxes
are occasionally opened and any infected fruits removed; especially is this done just
prior to shipment,

During the years 1882 and 1883 there were exported to the United States from
Catania 469,964 boxes, of which the invoiced value was $765,512.56,

M’WALTER B, NOYES, CONSUL, VENICE, ITALY.

Lemons.—The lake of Garda, the largest of the Italian lakes, while penetrating
with its northern extremity far into the mass of the Great Alps, opens out into the
pes from the south with barely the difference of level necessary to contain its wa-
ters, and the more completely it allows the warm air of the plain to penetrate into
its deeply embedded mountain recesses the more completely is the tepid element
sheltered and isolated from the colder currents of the north. Bathed in this genial

‘atmosphere, the precipitous shores form a range of natural espaliers, exposed to the
southern sun in all its course and enjoying a climate of their own, where the cul-
tivation of oranges and lemons has been a profitable industry for several centuries.
Tt is on the western shore of this lake, in the region of Brescia, that both fruits are
produced with success, while to the east, and properly within the Venetian terri-
tory, the lemon only is cultivated to any extent for commerce.

An analysis of the trunk and fruit of the lemon shows in the fruit the presence of
47.48 per cent. of potassa, 22.82 per cent, of lime, and 11.57 per cent. of phosphoric
acid; in the trunk, 55.13 per cent. of lime, 17.09 per cent. of phosphoric acid, and
14.76 per cent. of potassa, with smaller proportions of other substances.

Culture and propagation,—Italy is not the natural home of the orange and lemon,
for ae they thrive well in the open air during summer, they require protection
in winter.

Propagation is commenced by sowing orange seed in rows, and the young plants
are grafted with good varieties. Great care is given to the atte of aa soil
where trees are to be transplanted, A broad ditch is dug out the whole length of
the proposed line of trees, and the earth is broken as finely as possible, The plants
are removed with a mass of earth adhering to their roots. The young trees are shel-
tered during the winter, and a ere of manure is well worked in about the roots
of the trees in spring. The yield here is precarious, and is always liable to be pros-
trated by any extraordinary severity of the season, It is estimated that the average
yearly yield is 500,000 lemons, worth about $3,000,

RICHARD LOWENSTEIN, CONSULAR AGENT, GRAO, SPAIN,

The system of propagation adopted in this province is that of grafti
i is province is that of grafting on stocks
of the bitter orange. The buds for grafting are taken from iis eaten ti the tree,
= props Sees wes if eee aoe genesis part the branches of the tree pro-
e towar e earth, and young twigs are not liked, as th
duce large trees, bearing but little fruit, : oars

696 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

With regard to culture, as soon as the trees are bare of fruit the pruner com-
mences his work. All dead branches are cut out, as also are all rickety shoots and
the crooked branches which cross one another. After the pruning is finished the
surface of the soil is manured and cultivated and the ground irrigated. The soil
between the trees is plowed slightly twice during summer, but not after the month
of October, when the fruit begins to turn yellow. If the weather be cold the grove
is irrigated, and thus the trees suffer less. As to irrigation in general, it is the ex-
perience of cultivators about Valencia that the groves may pass from four to five
weeks during the summer season without being irrigated. In the winter the ground
can be well left for eight or nine weeks without irrigating.

Among the diseases of the orange tree the Mal de Goma is the most to be feared.
This disease consists of a gummy oozing, generally occurring either in the spring or
in the autumn. It attacks either the trunk of the tree just above the surface of the
soil, or else the roots themselves. This disease commences to show itself by some
drops of gum appearing on the trunk, which still appears sound; but this spilling
continues increasing, the bark is perforated, and the flow of gum augments, being
fluid, turbid, and grayish in color; the bark then raises, drying or rotting on the
roots, and the plant, which commences turning yellow, weakens and dies.

Recent studies of this disease have proved that its existence is to be attributed to
a microscopic fungus belonging to the group of spheroids. The best remedy for it
is sulphurous acid, mixing 15 bulks of the acid, concentrated at 66° Baume, with
100 liters of water.

ERNEST L. OPPENHEIM, CONSUL, CADIZ, SPAIN.

The orange tree, when raised from a cutting (which is the most usual mode), comes
into bearing five years after planting, though the acme of productivity is not reached
with most varieties before some ten or twelve years more. How long they remain
fruitful is an undetermined question; that is to say, when the trees are in favorable
environment and well cared for. There are in the garden of the Alcazar, at Seville,
several orange trees yet in bearing to which very old age is attributed, one bein,
said to have been planted at the time of King Pedro I, about 1350 to 1866; sever:
others dating from the time of Charles I are in a better state still. The age ascribed
to them is about three hundred and forty years.

Propagation and cultivation.—The trees are occasionally raised from seed, but
this mode, although practiced by careful growers, is not generally resorted to in this
district on account of the longer time required in bringing the orchards into bearing.
In Seville and adjacent provinces the seed of the sour orange is preferred to
others, as it appears to develop more rapidly; the trees thus raised are used for
stocks upon which selected varieties are grafted.

The general mode of propagation is by cuttings. Large fine twigs of the previous
summer’s growth are planted, either in November or in February. In Western Andu-
lusia the cutting is originally chosen from the variety which it is desired to repro-
duce, and of course no grafting is necessary. In Valencia, however, and adjacent
districts the cuttings are taken from kinds which are considered best for stocks,
and these are grafted or budded with the best-selected varieties.

The orange tree, which in the interior of Andalusia is hardly found beyond lat-
itude 37° 30’, thrives on the Mediterranean coast of Spain up to 42°. This is ex-
plained by the well-known moderating influence which the vicinity of large bodies
of water has upon the climate. It is generally admitted that orange culture cannot
well be carried on where the mean winter temperature is much below 9° to 10° C.,
or where a fall below —4° C. is experienced. There are some very fine prolific
orchards in the rear of Tarifa, on the Straits of Gibraltar, as well as on the delta and
the lower reaches of the Guadalquivir. On hillsides or uplands the trees thrive
well, provided the altitude is not such as to act virtually in the sense of latitude. It
is also considered desirable to have the trees sheltered from very strong winds from
any quarter. Very steep hillsides are an undesirable locatign on account of the in-
sufficient retention of moisture; very low grounds are open to the contrary objection,
and though large yields are frequently made in such localities, the trees are apt to
suffer in wet seasons, and drainage is usually imperative.

Orange groves in Western Andalusia require irrigation during the hot season at
intervals varying from ten to fifteen days, according to the greater or lesser porosity
of the soil. The first irrigation commonly takes place after the dropping of the
blossoms, though many practical growers recommend that it be not begun before
July, alleging that irrigation before that period is generally hurtful. Irrigation is
to be discontinued in October,

March is the month when plowing is first done in the orchards, at which time
the irrigating ditches are restored or renewed, The second plowing takes place at

DIVISION OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 697

the end of May. In August the soil should be hoed thoroughly; this process to be
repeated in September or October. The best growers affect the use of the harrow
after each plowing, as it leaves the soil in a mellower condition, breaks up the clods,
and destroys the weeds.

The raising of successive orange crops year after year must necessarily end in
withdrawing from the soil all available material for such culture; hence the atten-
tion of agronomists has long been devoted to devising means for ascertaining the
exact nature of the constituents withdrawn, as well as the best mode of resupplying
the soil with such constituents or their equivalents in an assimilable form. The
following analysis, taken from a recent treatise by the well-known Spanish agron-
omist, Don Luis Maria Utor, show what these constituents are and their relative
quantitative proportions. The ashes of the fruit of the orange tree show the follow-
ing constituents: Potash, 20.15; soda, 10.22; lime, 30.12; magnesia, 9.02; phosphoric
acid, 20.04; sulphuric acid, 1.08; silicious acid, 4.50; oxide of iron, 4.25; residue un-
accounted for, 0.62.

The ashes of the trunk, branches, and leaves of the orange tree show the following
constituents: Potash, 14.15; soda, 16.67; lime, 31.57; magnesia, 10.64; phosphoric
acid, 18.82; sulphuric acid. 4.89: silicious acid, 2.82; iron and unaccounted residue,

The yield of orange trees, admitting all other conditions to be equal, must neces-
sarily vary according to ageandkind. In Castellon the product is stated at from 400
to 500 oranges per tree at ten years old, but full productivity is not reached before
sixteen to twenty years. Very large single trees give occasionally extraordinary
yields. ‘ There are in the province of Seville two colossal trees, known as ‘‘ Los Mi-
pecietes.. of which each has been known to yield up to 38,000 oranges in one year.

ge and robust trees frequently yield from 2,000 to 5,000 each, but, on a large scale,
from 800 to 1,000 per tree is all that can be assumed as a fair average yield.

H, C, MARSTON, CONSUL, MALAGA, SPAIN.

Oranges and lemons.—The trees are grafted upon stocks raised from seed from the
sour orange. In the orchards they are planted about 24¥eet apart. The orchards
are inland, valley, and table-land, and some upland; valley and table-land yield the
best results. The nearest orchards to the sea-coast are from 4 to 5 miles distant.

Artificial irrigation is commonly practiced and various methods are in vogue for
distribution of water. The ground used as orange and lemon orchards is always
cultivated for the growth of garden vegetables, or any food for cattle which is to be
cut green once or twice a year.

In the best orange orchards an average crop would be from 80,000 to 100,000 oranges
Bo00 tn gon annum, the proceeds of which would amount to, in the orchard, from

te) .

S. W. DABNEY, CONSUL, FAYAL, AZORES.

Oranges and lemons.—The lemon, never raised in large quantities in the Azores,
has become quite extinct as an article of trade, in consequence of the liability to dis-
ease of the tree-roots. ‘

The orange of the Azores, the China orange, is a fine fruit, but of so perishable a
’ nature as to be incapable of resisting a long voyage.

In Fayal and Terceira it has ceased to be exported, not being able to compete in
price with oranges sent from other countries in the markets of England, the only
markets really within the reach of so delicate a fruit.

At thé island of St. Michael, which has always been immensely in advance of the
others in point of quantity produced and exported, the trade, although yet an im-
portant one, has diminished very seriously.

The varieties preferred are the Selecta and the Navel. They are grafted upon
stocks raised from seed.

The orange tree at St. Michael appears to be subject to a drying up of the branches
without any apparent cause and without the presence of any insect or fungus, and
no remedy has yet been discovered for this disease.

It is customary to set out orange trees about 25 feet apart. The best orange gar-
dens are some 2 miles from the coast line. The spaces between the trees are some-
times filled with corn and vegetables, but the more sagacious cultivators abstain from
this. Where the garden is devoted exclusively to oranges it is hoed twice a year,
but as a rule not manured, and never irrigated.

The Azorean orange has been, with few exceptions, packed in corn husks, it being
found that, liable as it is to decay, the husks, being thicker and firmer than paper,
protect the sound ones more effectively from a decayed comrade,

698 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

The soil of these islands, though generally thin, is fairly productive if rain does not
fail too much during the summer months; and it is observed that the best oranges
are raised on rather a sandy soil; those from richer ground being thicker skinned and
deficient in flavor.

The climate is decidedly a damp one, but equable in temperature. The mean an-
nual temperature, deduced from three daily observations of a Fahrenheit thermom-
eter properly placed in the shade, I found to be 62°, the maximum observed bemg
80° and the minimum 44°,

G. H. HEAP, CONSUL-GENERAL, CONSTANTINOPLE,

Oranges and lemons.—The orange and lemon are grafted upon seedling stocks of
the wild orange, as it has been found that the wild tree bears the cold better, The
trees are usually planted about 18 feet apart. .Orchards and orange gardens are to
be found thriving in almost every situation for the cultivation of the grape, but they
give the best results when situated on hillsides or gentle slopes, where, together with
a good supply of moisture underground, they are exposed to a gentle heat by day, ~
and fresh cool breezes by night. They never prove successful when the ground is
damp for long in the summer or is not properly drained. Both oranges and lemons
thrive on a rich soil, and succeed well on strong clay with moderate care and atten-
tion.

Although it is not the best situation for them, both lemons and oranges can be
grown close to the sea-coast; they flourish almost anywhere as long as their roots do
not come in contact with salt water.

There is asystem of irrigation in general use. When the trees are young they are
generally well watered by hand during summer if rains are not frequent,

Oranges, when gathered for export, should not be quite ripe. Those fully formed
and with the color just turning from green to yellow are chosen. They are wrapped
in fine paper or in the husk of Indian corn. A tree 20 feet in height and occupying a
space of about 20 feet in diameter will frequently yield from 3,000 to 4,000 oranges
annually. Many trees live from one hundred to one hundred and fifty years. As
lemons are more profitaMe to grow than oranges, on account of their keeping qual-
ities and their being less liable to injury during voyages, their cultivation is pre-
ferred in many parts of the Levant. The lemons are gathered green; the finest are
picked out and packed in cases containing about 420 fruits; also in boxes, three of
which are equal to two cases, each lemon being separately wrapped in paper.

The little island of Andros produces 10,000,000 of lemons annually; they are ex-
ported to Constantinople, the ports of the Black Sea, and those of the Danube, real-
izing an average price of $4.80 to $5.75 per 1,000, A similar quantity of excellent
quality is exported from the larger island of Chio, where they are gathered in May,
and a second crop in November and December.

Great numbers of sweet lemons are grown in the islands of the Archipelago and
the districts around Smyrna. The juice of these is sweet, and is much used by calico
al in patterns with dyes containing iron, to produce greater clearness in the
white parts. : é

The greater part of the oranges are grown in Candia and in Syria, especially in
the neighborhood of Jaffa. In Paros, Mitylene, Tenedos, and Samos both oranges
and lemons are largely cultivated for exportation. The dried and candied rind of
the bitter orange, known as ‘‘ orange-peel,” is largely used in flavoring confectionery.

M. M, FOTTION, CONSULAR AGENT, MYTILENE,

Every variety of orange and lemon tree is grown here, but the most valuable are
the Parakila orange trees, so-called from the village Parakila, and the Kau orange
trees, so-called from their blood-red color. The Parakila trees produce large fruits;
the fruit from the Kau trees is very sweet. The orange and lemon trees here are
either budded or grafted. They come into bearing the fourth year and remain fruit-
fal for fifty years. Orchards are found in every place, but they yield best results on
the sea-coast. No system of artificial irrigation is lpaesb oe hey prune here at
the end of March, with very great attention, and they give to the tree regular, ele-
gant, and graceful forms. As soon as the pruning is finished the working of the
soil is commenced, and they dig the soil with a spade to the depth of 25 to 30 milli-
meters in the clear spots, but only 2 or 3 inches deep in the vicinity of the trees.
Later, two or three baskets of manure are distributed around each tree, and at the
end of May the ground is irrigated once in every week or two weeks, according to
the season, the position, and quality of the ground in summer, Irrigation is sus-
pended during the autumn and winter,

DIVISION OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 699

The value of the yield per acre per annum in the best orange orchards is about
$80, and the principal portion of the orange and lemon product is for home consump-
tion; the export is insignificant.

JACOB SCHUMACHER, CONSULAR AGENT, HAIFA, SYRIA.

Only one variety is cultivated in my district, called the ‘‘Accawy.” It has the
form of the round Spanish orange, with reddish-yellowish flesh; it has a fine flavor
and is very juicy; itis about 34 inches in diameter, the skin is smooth, thin, and con-
tains considerable oil.

We have two kinds of lemons, sweet and sour. The orange is grafted upon stocks
of the sweet lemon, and this is supposed to be the most profitable, as it is said to in-
crease the size of the fruit.

Orchard trees are planted 10 to 12 feet apart in each direction, Both orange and
lemon trees are planted as shrubs in such manner that several stems come out ot the
ground together, although there are some orchards where the trees have but one
stem; those, however, planted as bushes, protect the fruit better against the influ-
ence of the wind,

The orchards are planted, as a custom, along the sea-coast, where they yield most
abundantly on level land; inland orchards never do so well, As the orchards require
a sandy soil, they are planted as near as one-fourth of. a mile up to some miles dis-
tance from the sea-shore. Every orange or lemon orchard is cultivated by a system
of artificial irrigation applied two or three times a week. The ground in orchards
between trees is cultivated twice a year; in the fall, before the rain comes, and in
spring, when the rainy season is over,

The value of the yield of an acre per annum of best orchards amounts to from $80
to $100. The returns would be much larger if the oranges were exported to Europe.
The above statements therefore relate only to home consumption,

S. ABELA, CONSULAR AGENT, SIDON, SYRIA.

Oranges and lemons.—One variety of orange, called Bisry, is always grown from
seed, All others are grafted upon the wild or bitter orange, and in two or three
years after grafting begin to bear fruit.

The order of the soils best adapted to orange culture is as follows: the best being
light earth, then dark loam, then sandy, and finally clayey.

All the oranges and lemons of Syria are grown very near the sea-coast, whether
at oe ya Sidon, or Jaffa; and I know of no extensive successful cultivation more
than 4 miles from the sea, and some of the orchards are within 20 rods of salt
water. When the trees are set out they are placed 18 feet apart every way when
the soil is good, 16 feet when the soil is only average. Trees placed behind a shelter,
as another line of trees, prosper better than those exposed to severe wind.

_ As there is no rain from May 1 till October 1, irrigation is the only means of kee
ing the trees alive. Each tree is surrounded by a little bank of earth to keep the
water about the tree. The trees are eft without irrigation till the last of June, till
the leaves curl a little, then they are watered three times for periods of seven days,
and after this every fifteen days. The irrigation of the river coming from Mount
Lebanon is better than from the wells, as the last has a taste of brackishness.

ue good orchards the average yield is estimated at from 1,500 to 2,000 oranges
per tree,

ELIE AVANIA, ACTING CONSULAR AGENT, TARSUS, SYRIA.

Oranges and lemons.—These are merely distinguished as Sweet and Sour. The
most valuable are the sour lemon and the sweet orange fruits, the usual value of
which is from 1 to3 centseach. The trees are grafted, and are planted at a distance
of from 18 to 16 feet between each plant. Sour lemons and sweet oranges are most
sensitive to a cold temperature, especially the former, Which are sometimes com-
pletely ruined by cold.

The cranes and lemon groves are generally situated in the interior or on the
coast, but always in the vicinity of towns, in order to be sheltered from cold. The
plain lands are rather suitable for the plantation and conservation of these trees,
but the best results are obtained on the coast, where the soil is more or less sandy
and light. Even at a distance of a quarter of a mile from the sea these trees pros-
ae quite well. The system of irrigation used in this country is the running water.

those places where such water is lacking wells are dug, the water of which is
used for watering the gardens by means of wheels mounted with buckets. In the
places where the soil of the groves is cultivated, watering is necessary in summer

700 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

and autumn when rains are late, and this is done repeatedly. It is commonly cal-
culated that the average yield of these trees is worth about $3 each. No exporta-
tion of oranges or lemons is made; on the contrary, large importations are made
from Syria.

A. G. STUDER, CONSUL, SINGAPORE, INDIA.

Lemons.—In lieu of the usual lemon known to us in the United States, we have
here the ‘‘Citronella lime,” a small fruit, a trifle over an inch in diameter, of pale
green color, very acid. This grows well, without much care, almost everywhere in
the Indo-Malayan Archipelago and in India also; it is very plenty and cheap. This
tree has the advantage of not only yielding its valuable fruits (valuable not only for
cookery and lemonade, but for many medicinal purposes), but for the strongly cit-
ronella-charged leaf, out of which citronella essential oil can be extracted, forming
as it does a very important article of export.

Oranges, Straits Settlements.—The cultivation of the orange here is not at all ex-
tensive, and met with here and there in fruit orchards, the trees planted closely
together. The oranges are utterly unlike those produced in America or Europe.
Here the orange is of deep green color, of the size of an average apple. There are
two kinds, one rather sour and emitting a strong peculiar odor partly orange and
citronella, and the other resembling this in color and size, but of a sweet, insipid
taste. ;

The Pomelo, or Pampelmus, is an indigenous fruit of Indo-China, the Malay Pe-
ninsula, and most islands of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago. Its form is slightly
pear shaped from the middle downwards to the stem; it is of large size, average of
about 5 inches in diameter; its color is of pale green; skin thick, but peels off
quite readily, and is of a slightly warted and punctured appearance. It is vinous, of
sweet taste, with pleasant subacid flavor, and is a very refreshing and wholesome
fruit. The color of the juice is from light to dark amber, with a reddish subtint;
those from Java being the darkest colored and considered the best, and those from
Siam the next best.

China oranges.—The quantity of oranges consumed in the ports is enormous, and
by far the largest portion comes from China. Of Chinese oranges I have noted es-
sentially three kinds. All of them have the true orange color and resemble the
Italian orange, only that they aresmaller. The first is known as the Swatow orange,
and it is the largest of the Chinese oranges. Its skin is not very thick, comes off
easily, and the fruit is juicy, sweet, with light subacid, and of excellent fiavor.
Two kinds are known as the Hong-Kong orange. One of these is called the Sucking
orange, because the skin cannot be peeled off, adhering as it does close to the flesh.
The other is known as the Coolie orange. It issmall, like an average-sized tomato;
it peels easily, but has a thick skin, and while juicy and refreshing, has rather a
strong subacid taste.

Siam oranges.—The average size of this orange is a little over 14 inches in diam-
eter; in color it resembles a lemon rather than an orange; its skin is thinner than
that of any orange known to me, and peels off with great ease; it is very juicy and
fairly sweet, with hardly any subacid. They don’t keep as long as any of the Chi-
nese oranges,

JOHN A, SUTTER, JR., CONSUL, ACAPULCO, MEXICO.

Oranges and lemons.—Sweet and bitter oranges, navel oranges, lemons, limes,
shaddocks, and citrons are grown here, but limes and sweet oranges are the most
valuable. Some 15,000 boxes of limes are exported annually to San Francisco.
Only small quantities of oranges are exported to San Francisco from December to
February, before the crop from the islands in the Pacific overstocks the market.

Lime trees, which are allowed to grow like a bush, with branches rising from the
roots, commence to bear at the age of four years, and are in full bearing when eight
years old. Orange trees are all seedlings; they commence to bear at the age of five
years and are in full bearing at the age of ten years. They are planted mostly in
moist places, along small streamlets or gulches on the hillsides, in low bottoms along
rivers, or near the seashore; in sandy black loam they yield the best results; the
sweetest and thin-skinned oranges usually grow on hillsides, whilst the fruit of low-
lands is generally thick-skinned.

Some orchards are in close proximity to the seashore, in sandy black loam, in some
instances with lagoons of brackish water on the side opposite to the seashore, and
give very excellent results. Thus situated, there is one orchard newly and regularly
' planted of 8,000 lime trees and 100 orange trees, with room for many thousands
more. Few of the orchards are regularly planted; the trees are scattered here and
there, without any regard to economy in land occupied, land being but of nominal

DIVISION OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 701

value. The ground between the trees is not cultivated, but merely kept free of
undergrowth and weeds, and no system of artificial irrigation is in use.

A. WILLARD, CONSUL, GUAYMAS, MEXICO,

Oranges.—The orange commences bearing about the fourth year,and continues
fruitful for twenty-five years, and is more productive in a heavy loamy soil. The
bottom-lands of the valleys inland yield the best results. There are no orchards
near the seashore. A system of artificial irrigation is used. Trees are usually
planted 20 to 26 feet apart, and the ground in the orchards is sometimes planted in
corn and vegetables. The variety grown is known as the Sicily, though climate
and soil have changed it somewhat, and the variety is not clearly marked.

The oranges of this consular district are known for their sweet flavor. The pro-
duction in the State is somewhat in excess of the home consumption, and some are
shipped from in and around Hermosillo, over the Sonora Railroad, to Arizona and
New Mexico. ‘There is said to be a large margin of profit on the crop, now that it
can be transported by rail to the United States. :

GEORGE E. HOSKINSON, CONSUL, KINGSTON, JAMAICA,

Orange culture in Jamaica.—The varieties principally growing and bearing are
native seedlings. Many of the trees now furnishing fruit for exportation are the rem-
nants of those which were, prior to emancipation, planted by the slaves near their
dwellings, such as the irregular groves now to be found on sugar estates and coffee
plantations; other bearing trees are seedlings, which have come up spontaneously in
pastures and guinea-grass pieces. Since emancipation the colored people have
planted orange trees in their small freeholds in the mountains. This has been done
to a large extent in the parish of Manchester, where sweet oranges of good quality
have been long grown and where the soil and climate conduce to excellence in the
quality of the fruit. These are admitted to be the best in the island, on account of
size, sweetness, fiavor, and for their good keeping qualities. It has also been main-
tained that they bear handling, packing, and the sea voyage to New York better
than varieties grown elsewhere; for example, better than those grown on the north
side of the island. The botanic garden authorities have introduced many good va-
rieties, among others the Tangerine. These are all either grafted or budded. Seed-
ling trees begin to bear at eight, nine, and ten years, and are in full bearing at fifteen
or twenty years. Grafted or budded trees come into bearing a little earlier from the
time of planting out. It is only latterly, that is, since the development of the export
trade, that budding and grafting have been resorted to.

Most of the trees in pastures and on sugar estates and coffee plantations are isolated.
In close plantations the distances are between 20 and 30 feet. Wider planting is pre-
ferred by intelligent growers, as tending to the best results. Tangerine oranges are
planted at 22 feet apart, and larger sweet oranges at 25 to 30 feet apart.

Plantations of oranges are made principally at elevations above 1,000 feet. In
Manchester the elevations will average 2,000 feet. Undulating valleys are selected
on account of the greater depth of soil to be found in such spots, also on account of
its greater richness. The soil principally selected is that of the white limestone for-
mation of Jamaica geology known as “ honey-comb rock.” The resulting soil is a
strong red earth, calcareous and ochery, owing to the presence of red oxide of iron.
Orange trees yield the best results on the limestone soils, both on account of con-
stituents promoting fertility and on account of the perfect natural drainage of such
soils.

Proximity to the sea-shore is avoided. The powerful sea-breezes are hurtful to the
blossoms and tender branches. At an elevation of 500 feet the sea-breeze ceases to
be troublesome. The sea-shore is also too arid; and, as a rule, the soil of the coast-
line is sterile and unsuitable.

Artificial irrigation is only practiced to a limited extent in the plain of St. Cath-
erine, and must be regarded at present as experimental merely.

‘She principal crop cultivated between orange trees is guinea-grass; but some of
the best growers prefer to keep up a clean cultivation. The general practice, how-
ever, is to allow the grass to grow, and to keep weeds and shrubby undergrowth
cut down by means of a bush-knife. In the grounds of the peasantry the whole list
of cultivated crops in the tropics might be enumerated as crops cultivated between
orange trees. The “ yard” or ‘‘ provision ground” of the peasant is generally a per-
fect medley of vegetable growth, including, besides orange trees, almost everything
else. In such places the cultivation of the orange tree is associated with the stirring
and cleaning of the ground necessary for the smaller crops,

702 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE,

During recent years a new character has been given to orange culture in Jamaica
by systematic planting and increased attention. The climate in the elevated por-
tions of the interior is believed to be exceedingly well adapted to the orange, and the
soil also. When cultivation is bestowed the first effect is to increase the size of the
fruit. Manuring is much neglected, but when manures are applied the increased
yield and the more rapid growth of the tree are very noticeable.

The orange season is from September to April. Those who are experimenting
with irrigation entertain the idea that the season may be controlled so as to produce
fruit at any desired time of the year by its aid. The yield in a tropical climate may
be described as more continuous than in a warm, temperate, or subtropical region.
The tendency to continuous flowering is so strong, that every copious shower may
be said to be followed by a growth of young shoots with their flowers.

FELIX A, MATHEWS, CONSUL, TANGIER, MOROCCO.

Oranges and lemons.—In any country where the medium temperature in winter
is superior to 40° and in summer rises to 85° the cultivation of orange orchards can
be made lucrative.

Here orange trees are planted both inland and on the sea-coast, on valleys, hill-
sides, and uplands. They yield best results in well-drained low-lying lands sheltered
from the cold north winds. They are not particular with regard to soil; they grow
luxuriantly in the sand, provided they are manured and copiously watered in the
summer.

Seedlings are preferred, as they stand cold weather and yield largely, If the seeds
are from the finest fruits, there will be no necessity to bud them.

The best stock for budding upon is the bitter or sour orange. There are numerous
varieties of the sweet orange: the Balearic or Mallorea orange, large, smooth, thin
skin, of vigorous growth; the Portugal or China orange, of less growth than the
Balearic, but producing very large fruit; the orange of Nice, highly favored in
Provence for its elegance and beautiful fruit; the Maltese or Blood orange is very
rich, and also an abundant bearer, having a pulp stained with crimson,

The fogs and white frosts of spring sometimes cause an alteration in the orange
tree, which afterwards is shown in the shape of reddish spots on the exterior part
of the skin of the fruit, which render it unfit for use.

SELECTED EXTRACTS RELATIVE TO ORANGE CULTURE IN AUSTRALIA,

Without a suitable location you cannot grow oranges profitably. What is wanted
is this: a sheltered site, with natural drainage and a light porous soil. One of the
best groves I know of is situated in a nearly perfect basin, the rim of which is sur-
rounded by a belt of trees. It is thus sheltered from every wind, and to a consid-
erable extent from the morning sun, which is an important consideration, The
formation of the land on this estate consists of a number of stratified sandstone
shelves or natural terraces. The soil appears to be pure sand, and in some places it
is quite shallow, but the trees do very well on it. The best of the soil, however, is
sandy loam, and in one sheltered nook, where there is a depth of about 9 feet of
this on the bank of a creek, there are four trees growing, the tallest of which is 37
feet high.

In selecting an orange site it is necessary, among other things, to see that it is
favorably situated in regard to frost. Frost is very eccentric in its movements. It
strikes one point and misses another close by. An air current, like a current of
water, flows along till it meets any obstacle, and then, like water, it flows over or
around it. Where afrosty air current meets a hill the volatile flow goes either over
or around it, falling here and there on its direct course, while to the side eddies form
and set up a circular motion, gradually decreasing in strength as the distance in-
creases from the main current.

The importance of shelter in orange growing is paramount, not only as a protec-
tion against cold winds, but more particularly as shade from the morning sun. The
rays of the morning sun falling on a frosted tree do much harm, and most orange-_
growing countries are subject to frost more or less. The Azores, a number of vol-
canic islands in the Atlantic, are situated between latitud>- 36° 55’ and 39° 44’. The
orange districts of Spain lie between the 36th and 40th degrees of latitude. Portugal
can grow oranges as far north as Oporto, in latitude 41° 9’. New South Wales
orange districts lie chiefly between 33° and 34°, and in Malta to 35° 50’.

No doubt most orange-tree planters of the future will seek out situations naturally
sheltered, where the forest will answer as the break-wind and sun-shade, and when
such situations can be found with suitable soil their value will be very great.

As to soil, in Australia a sandy loam is considered the best, and a heavy clay the

DIVISION OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 703

worst. In the Azores, where some of the finest oranges in the world are produced,
the soilis volcanic. Orange trees grow in clay land, and in some cases do very well;
nevertheless it is the worst land for oranges, in that it is the most retentive of water,
very liable to crack on the surface in summer and break the fibrous roots. In addi-
tion to this, it is held that clay land produces sour fruit. The lighter the soil, the
sweeter the fruit. In the orange districts of New South Wales the orange is grown
on sandy loams, which, asa rule, are underlaid with marl or shale strata.

One of the oldest and most successful orange-growers in Australia explains his
method of planting as follows: ‘‘I plant the orange tree as near the top soil as pos-
sible, not more than 38 inches from the surface. I collect the soil around to cover
the roots. The soil under the tree should not be worked so deep as that farther
away. For about three years I plow the ground, and every time I plow towards the
tree, so that I collect a good depth of soil. This brings it to a nice roynd, and leaves
a surface drain for the water. I advocate plowing until the fourth year. The tree
should be planted as shallow as possible, and every time the ground wants cleaning
it should be plowed towards the tree, leaving*a furrow drain between the trees. My
furrow drains are a foot deep. When the trees are bearing the ground is never dug
up, but chipped over with a hoe—just scraped, in fact. I also bend the tap root, and
sometimes put a slab under it.”

Respectfully submitted.
WILLIAM SAUNDERS,
Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds, &c.
Hon, Norman J. COLMAN,
Commissioner.

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IND het

A,

ABELA, S., report on citrus fruit in Syria, 699.
Abutilon avicenne, 88.
Acknowledgments of pomologist for assistance, 276.
Adulteration of spices and condiments, 291.
Agricultural Chemical Association, 11.
exchanges, 435.
Experiment Stations, 10.
exports vs. imports, 4382
Agriculture, American, progress of, 7,
experimental, 9, 14.
Alabama, number and value of farms in, 424,
Albuminoids, by the KLEEMANN process, 840,
Alfalfa, reports relative to, 49,
Ambrosia artemisicefolia, 87.
.Ammophila arundinacea, 73.
Analyses, method of HEHNER and ANGELL’s, of fats and butter, modified, 282.
methods of chemical, of fats and butter, 282,
of apples, 350, 354, 355.
butters and butter substitutes, 285,
butter substitutes, tables of, 286.
table of, 287.
carbonated juices from sugar carie at Fort Scott, 320
cored and peeled apples, 354, 355.
diffusion juice, 311.
juices at Fort Scott, 319.
doubtful butters, table of, 286.
first sugars made from sugar cane at Fort Scott, 321.
juice from sorghum chips, 308-310.
KOETTSTORFER’S process for fats and butter, 283.
musk-melons, 347. .
REICHERT’S method for fats and butter, 284.
semi-sirups from sugar cane at Fort Scott, 321.
sugar cane at Fort Scott, 319.
sulphured juices from sugar cane at Fort Scott, 320,
waste waters and exhausted sorghum chips, 311.
water-melons, 348, 349.
Analysis of Lake Parkinson and Potomac waters, 326.
soil suitable for celery, 342.
sugar beets, 341.
water from the sugar works at Fort Scott, 325,
Analytical data of canes, &c., at Fort Scott, 306.
Animal Industry, Bureau of, work of, 14.
Animals injured by Southern Buffalo Gnat, 497,
Anthracnose, 112.
the fungus of, 113,
Anthrax, sp., 577.
Apicultural Station, 20, 462.
Apiculture, report on experiments, 583,
Apparatus for stifling cocoons, 551,
Apples, analyses of, 350, 354, 355.
method of analysis of, 350,

105
45 AG—’86

706 INDEX.

Apple, the, 268,

Antonovka, 272,

Arkansas black, 268,

Boardman, 272.

Burlington, 270.

Crawford, 269,

Elkhorn, 269,

Northwestern Greening, 271.

Pilot, 270.

Scott’s Winter, 271.

Shannon, 269,

Siloam, 269,

Waupaca, 271.

Wolf river, 271.
Arbor Day, 181.
Arctium Lappa, 86.
Argentine Republic, distribution of trade of, 445.

imports and exports, 444.
Arkansas, number and value of farms in, 426.
Arsenical poison for Fall Web-worm, 536.
ARTHUR, J. C., report on pea blight, 125.
table of fungi by, 132-135.

Asclepias tuberosa, 78.
Ascomycetous fungi, 128.
Astragalus mollissimus, 5.
Australian bug. (See Cottony Cushion-scale,)
Australia, sytematic forestry of, 184,
AVANIA, ELIE, report on citrus fruit in Syria, 699.

B.

BABBITT’S lye, experiments with, 566.
Bagasse burner and consumption of fuel at Magnolia, 8380,
uses and value of, 327.
Barbarea preecox, 92.
vulgaris, 92.
Barley, crop of 1886, 379,
insects, 578,
report on, 50,
Bear grass, 76.
Bee culture, 462.
Beef fat, 142.
Bees, control of reproduction in, 587.
fertilization of, in confinement, 590,:
quaking disease of, 583,
Beggar-weed, 75.
Benne oil, 144.
Berberis trifoliata, 77.
BIELBY, C.F. A., on Orange-leaf Scab, 120.
Birds and mammals, circular for collection of stomachs of, 233.
circular on the food-habits of, 230.
distribution and migration of, 250.
habits of, with Cottony Cushion-scale, 483, 484.
Bisulphide of carbon, experiments on fumigation, 560, 569,
Bitter-weed, 87.
Black-billed Cuckoo, 526,
fly, 492.
rot, 109, 116.
Blood sucker, 527.
Blue thistle, 90.
weed, 90.
Bobolink, 39.
Borax, the physiological action of, 140.
Botanical Division, history of, 69.
report of, 69.
work of, 25.
perfect specimens necessary, 81.
specimens, preparation of, 81.

INDEX, 707

Botany in connection with chemistry and entomology, 80. __
Seed and Horticultural Division, 80.
Brick-torch, 536.
Bromus unioloides, 73, 77,
Buchle dactyloides, 72.
Buckwheat, crop of 1886, 380.
insects frequenting, 573, 576,

Buffalo Gnats and overflows, 492, 515.

carbon-bisulphide against, 500.

flight of the species, 496.

Southern, 20, 461.
Bugloss, 90.
Building material, 157.
Burdock, 86.
Bureau of Animal Industry, Report of Chief, 593.

work of, 14.
Bush & Son, letter from, on fungicides, 101.
Butter, crystalline formations of, 141.
tests corroborated, 145.
Buttercup, 92.
(BY

California Timothy, 73.
CAMPBELL, C. W., on Orange-leaf Scab, 120.
Canada thistle, 85.
Capsella bursa-pastoris, 93.
Carbonatated juices, from sugar cane, analyses of, at Fort Scott, 320
Carbonatation apparatus, 305.
modification of the process of, 315,
tanks for Fort Scott, 306.
Caustic potash, experiments with, 554,
Ceanothus americanus, 77.
Celandine, 93.
Celery culture, at Kalamazoo, Mich., 348.
leaf-blight, 117.
soils suitable to the culture of, 342.
Cercospora Apii, 117, 119.
Cereals, crop of all, for 1886, 880.
Charbon, 497,
Chelidonium majus, 93.
Chemical Division, miscellaneous work of, 358.
work at Magnolia Station, 330.
Chemist, report of, 277.
Chemistry, Division of, 16.
Chenopodium album, 91.
Chickens eating Cottony Cushion-scale, 484.
Chili, imports and exports of, 446.
Chip-elevator, work with, on sugar cane at Fort Scott, 318.
Chips, exhausted, disposition of, at Fort Scott, 314.
from sugar cane, analyses of, at Fort Scott, 320,
Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, 88.
Cinnamon and cassia, falsifications of, 300.
Circular on distribution and migration of birds, 250.
Downy Grape Mildew, 99.
the collection of stomachs, 233.
‘economic relation of mammals, 231.
English Sparrow, 231.
food-habits of birds, 2380.
to rice-growers, 234.
Circulars and schedules distributed by Ornithologist, 234,
Citrus fruit, report on the culture of, in Australia, 702.
Azores, 697.
Constantinople, 698,
Genoa, 693.
India, 700.
Jamaica, 701.°
Malaga, 697.
Marsala, 694.

708 INDEX.

Citrus fruit, report on the culture of, in Mexico, 700, 701.
Morocco, 702,
Mytilene, 698.
Rome, 693.
Sicily, 694.
Spain, 695, 696.
Syria, 699.
Venice, 695,
Cladosporium, 120.
Claviceps purpurea, 129.
Clover (Alsike), report on, 50.
Japan, in Louisiana, 51.
(Melilotus alba), report on, 51.
native, 82.
stem-borer, 574.
weevil, 581.
Cloves, falsifications of, 300.
Cnicus arvensis, 85.
Coca plant, 78.
Coccid-eating Dakruma, 485,
Cockle, 90.
Cockle-bur, 87.
Cock’s-foot, 84.
Commercial fertilizers, 17.
Commissioner, Report of, 7.
Companion Wheat-fly, 573, 574.
Comptonia asplenifolia, 77.
Conclusious, general, of the work at Fort Scott, 315.
Condiments, 16.
Congress, International, on fungicides, 102.
Co-operation, progress of, as to pleuro-pneumonia, with infected States, 601.
Coppice management, 214.
standard, method of management of, 215.
Cork-oak acorns, 76.
Corn and wheat, supply and demand for five years, 406.
“crop of 1886, exportation of, 372.
proportion and value of, 870.
of merchantable, 369.
value of, 371.
distribution and consumption of crop of 1886, 366.
local, 368.
report on, 51.
statistics of, 365.
stock on hand, 409.
the coming crop of, 416.
Correspondents, directions to, 80.
Cotton, crop of 1886, 382.
last year, 384.
industry, 41.
price of seed of, in 1886, 384.
report on growth and yield, 51.
seed oil used in Oleomargarine, 144,
Cottony Cushion-scale, 459, 466, 552.
‘ enemies, 484,
food-plants, 471.
geographical distribution of, 466.
insect, 20.
mode of spread and distribution, 483.
remedies, 553,
Maple-scale, 455.
Cows, numbers, varieties, and uses of, 402.
Crop estimates for 1885, 386.
reporting and speculation, 360.
statistics, current, 365.
Croton plant, 76.
Crystals, forms of fat, 278. *
Cuscuta, 72.
Cutting-machine, work with, on sugar cane at Fort Scott, 318.

INDEX.
Cyclone nozzle, 490, 553, 558.
Cymopterus, 75.
Cyperus rotundus, 78.
D.

DABNEY, S. W., report on citrus fruit in Azores, 697.
Dactylis glomerata, 129.
Dairy, 40.
products, 16, 277.
Deforestation, effects of, 152, 154.
Departmental methods of administration, 8.
Reports, 43. :
Desmodium, 6.
Difficulties encountered in working sugar cane at Fort Scott, 325.
Diffusion battery, apparatus for delivering and removing chips, 304.
description of, 302.

feed-tank, work with, on sugar cane at Fort Scott, 319.

juice, weight of, as compared with weight of cane, 3824.

juices, analyses of, 311.

from sugar cane, analyses of, at Fort Scott, 319.
Distribution, improved methods of, 48
Division of Chemistry, work of, 16.
Gardens and Grounds, work of, 24.

Dodder plant, 72.
Dragon fly, 510.
Ducks, 484, 525.

E.
Earwig, 487.
Echium vulgare, 90.
Economic Entomology correspondence, 20.
' Division of, work in, 38.

Egg-parasite, 530.
Elm Leaf-beetle, 461, 586, 537.
Emulsions, experiments with, 588, 561, 562.
English Sparrow, 525.
Entomological Division, report of, 459.

work of, 18.
Entomologist, Report of, 459.
Entomology, publications during the year, 464.

work of the Division, 464.
Ephedra, 77.

Eragrostis ciliaris, 79.
cynosuroides, 79.
Ergot, 129,
Experiment Stations for grasses, necessity of, 78, 74.
reports of, 47.
Exports of the products of domestic agriculture, 483,
to South America, 443.
Exposition work by the Botanist, 70.

F.
Fall Web-worm, 461, 518.
characters, 518 to 529.
: remedies, 535 to 5388.
Farm animals, estimated number and value of, 401.

January 1, 1887, 404,
of the world, 448-451.
forest, and other land, table of comparative areas of, 185.
statistics, foreign, 451-458.
Farmers, debts of, 417,
frauds upon, 428,
Farms, conclusions in reference to, 427.
_ humber and value of, in different States, 418.
Fat in milk, determination of, by the centrifugal method, 288 to 290.
estimation of, 287.
gravimetric estimation of, by ADAMS’ method, 290,

709

710 INDEX.

Fats and oils used in adulteration of butter, 277.

crystals of, 141.

how to mount, 141.

melting point of, 281.

specific gravity of, 280.
Fertilizers, commercial, 17.
Field sorrel, 90. _
Filter presses at Magnolia, 334.

for Fort Scott, 306.
pump, the Bunsen, 144.

Filtration, experiments in, at New Orleans, 338.

‘test of the KLEEMANN process at Magnolia, 339,
FLETCHER, JAMES, report on citrus fruit in Genoa, 698.
Florence International Exhibition, 464.

Florida, number and value of farms in, 424.
Forx, M. G., letter from, on fungicides, 102.
Forest cleaning and thinning, 220.
Commissions of different States, 178.
Department, plan for a, 164.
insects, Dr. PACKARD’S report, 465.
management, 214. /
planting and management in the United States, 171.
in echelons, 218.
policy, 183.
difficulties in changing, 167.
products, imports and exports of, 158, 161.
for consumption, 159, 160.
property, farmers’ interest in, 169, 170.
regeneration, method of, 219.
the timber, 216.
Forester, what he should plant, 190.
Forestry, 31.

Associations, 182.

condition of, in the United States, 154.

Division, report of, 149.

work of, 174.

important general principles of, 186, 190.

instruction in, 182,

legislation in regard to, 179.

literature of, 183.

publications on, 226.

Forests, area of, required, 155.
biological studies of, 177.
climatic influence of, 152.
mechanical influence of, 151.
other methods of management, 222.
phenological observations on, 176.
private, 166.
significance of, 150.
statistical inquiries relative to, 175.
Fort Scott, results of work at, 312.
Fortion, M.M., report on citrus fruit in Mytilene, 698.
Foul-brood disease, 584.
Frosts, effects of, in Florida, 687.
Fruits, collection and distribution of, 260.
names and description of new, 267.
Fungi of plant, 95.
Fungous diseases, investigation of, 80.
: of plants, 28.
Fungus, action of the, 98.
of the Celery-leaf Blight, 119.
Fusarium, 121.
Fusisporium solani, 122.

G.

Galium hispidulum, 76.
Gardens and Grounds, Division of, 24.
Report of Superintendent of, 687.

INDEX. 711i

Georgia, number and value of farms in, 424.
GILBERT’S relief grass, 73.
GILLETT?’s lye, experiments with, 566.
Ginger, falsifications of, 300.
Glassy cut-worm, 573.
Gnat-oils, 500.
Government action in regard to its own lands, 172.
plantations, 165.
timber land, 162.
Grain Aphis, 576.
Grains and grasses, insects affecting, 578.
Grape crop, shrinkage of yield of, in Ohio, 116.
Grasses, reports on, 52.
work on, by Botanist, 70.
Grass fungi, 129.
Gravity, specific, of butter and fat, 285.
Guinea grass, 74,

H.

Harvest-mite, 495.

Hawk-fly, 510

Hawks and owls, value of, to the farm, 228.

Hay, crop of 1886, 381.

HazzarpD, Capt. W.M., on Rice birds, 249.

Heap, G. H., report on citrus fruit in Constantinople, 698.

Hessian fly, 539.

HieH, Geo. M., letter from, on fungicides, 101.

. Hints on killing weeds, 85.
Hog-cholera bacterium, experiments upon other animals with, 619 to 621.
of, in different localities, 622 to 630.

biological facts concerning the bacterium of, 608.
experiments towatds immunity, 683 to 637.
how prevented, 654.
in Illinois, 630 to 633.
pathogenic properties of the bacterium of, 611 to 619.
resi-tant spore state in the life-history of, 610.
virus, how introduced into food, 655 to 659.

Hog weed, 87.

Hop Aphis, 462.

Horse nettle, 89.

Horses, numbers, varieties, and uses of, 401.

Hosxrinson, Gro. E., report on citrus fruit in Jamaica, 701.

Hoskins, T. H., M.D., report on orcharding in Northern New England 274

HUBBARD’S formula for kerosene emulsion, 538.

Hungarian Millet, 74,

We

Ilex cassine, 7.
Illinois, number and value of farms in, 421.
progress of pleuro-pneumonia in, and action taken, 595,
Imports of agricultural products, 434.
the United States from South America, 442.
Indiana, number and value of farms in, 421.
Indian blood-weed, 76.
Mallow, 88.
TInoculations with unattenuated cultures, 648 to 654.
Insects affecting grains and grasses, 573 to 580.
International Exhibition, 464.
Investigations abroad, 42.
Irrigation, 40.
Isosoma, alternation of generations of, 543.
Jo
Johnson pump, 554.
Joint-worm, 462, 539.
_ worms, chalcid parasites of, 540.
Juice from cane at Magnolia, composition of, 331.
Juices, comparison of raw and clarified, 332.

wee | INDEX.

K,

Kansas, number and value of farms in, 423.
Kentucky, number and value of farms in, 420.
progress of pleuro-pneumonia in, and action taken, 503.
Kerosene emulsions, 460-570.
MANN process, advantages of, 340.
of filtration, test of, 339.
Knorr, A. E., on the examination of meats, 355, 256,

L.

Laboratory, building desired for, 40.

Lamb’s quarters, 91.

Lard, neutral, 148. ,

Legislation in regard to Sparrows, 245.

Lime kiln, for use at Fort Scott, 305.
quantity used, in juice from sugar cane, at Fort Scott, 325.
water, experiment with, 566.

LINTNER, J. A., on the tussock moth, 243.

LITTLE, FRANK, essay on celery culture, 348.

Loco plant, 75.

London purple, 537.

Louisiana, number and value of farms in, 425.

LOWENSTEIN, RICHARD, report on citrus fruit in Spain, 695.

Lychnis Githago, 90.

M.

Magnolia, results of work at, 341.

Mammalogy, Division of, 38.

Mammals, circular on the economic relations of, 231.
effects of, on agriculture, 252,

Management in echelons for forest planting, 218,

Marston, H.C., report on citrus fruit in Malaga, 697.

MATHEWS, FELIX A., report on citrus fruit in Morocco, 702.

Meat analyses, table of, 357.

Meats, examination of, 355.

Michigan, number and value of farms in, 421.

Micrococcus amylovorus, 125.

Miscroscope, arrangement of, for examining butter, &c., 140.

Microscopical Division, work of, 36.

Microsopic examination of tissues of infected animals, 621.

Microscopist, Report of, 189,

Milan races of silk-worms, 550.

Mildew, grass, 105.

op, 105.
Lilac, 105.
remedies in France in 1886, 101.
the Downy, 96.
Powdery, 105.
action on the vine, 107.
white, 105.
Mildews, distribution and severity of, in the United States, 115.
the, 115.

Millet, report on, 52.
Mills, accident to the, at Magnolia, 330.
Mississippi, number and value of farms in, 425.
Missouri, number and value of farms in, 422.
Molasses, analyses of, at Magnolia, 336, 337.
MorGan, J. M., report on Australian rabbit, 255,
Mosquito-hawk, 510.
Musk-melon, report on, 52.

-melons, analyses of, 347,

composition of, 345,

Mustard, falsifications of, 298,
Mycological Section, 28,

INDEX. 713

N.

Nebraska, number and value of farms in, 423.
New York, number and value of farms in, 418.
New Zealand, law for suppressing rabbits, 255.
Nicotana quadrivalvis, 76.
rustica, 76.
North Carolina, number and value of farms in, 423.
Noyes, M’ WALTER B., report on citrus fruit in Venice, 698.
Nut-grass, 78.
Nutmeg and mace, falsifications of, 301.

O.

Oats, Bohemian, 429-482.
crop of 1886, 377.
reports on, 52.
Ohio, number and value of farms in, 420.
Oidium, 106.
Oil of tar against black fly, 500.
Oleo, 142.
Oleomargarine, 143.
extraction of cotton-seed oil from, 148.
OPPENHEIM, ERNEST L., report on citrus fruit in Spain, 696.
Orange budding, relative merits of stock for, 691.
culture in Australia, 702.
grove, planting of, 690.
groves, preparations for planting, 689.
leaf Scab, 120.
description of the disease, 121.
the, 267.

Bahia, 267.
Oranges, cause of the comparative freedom from rust of, 688,
superiority of ‘‘ Indian River,” 687.
Orchard grass, 74.

a spot disease of, 129.

Orcharding in Northern New England, 274.
Ornithologist, Report of, 227.
Ornithology and Mammalogy, Division of, 464,

Division of, 38.

importance of, 227.

work in the Division of, 229.
Osage orange as a food-plant, 547.
Osier Willow Culture, 223.
Owls and Hawks, value of, to the farm, 228.
Ox-eyed daisy, 88.
Oyster-shell Bark-louse of the apple, 483.

P.

PACKARD, Dr., report on insects, 465.
Panicum erus-galli, 84

maximum, 74,

Texanum, 72.
Paris green, 537, 557.
Paspalum dilatatum, 71.
Peanut oil, 145.
Pear blight, 124, 125.

preventives of, 127.
the, 268.

Le Conte, 268.

Pennsylvania, number and vlaue of farms in, 419.
**scalp act,” of 1885, 228.
Pepper, Cayenne, falsifications of, 300.
falsifications of, 299.

Percentage, statistical, explanation of, 361.
Peronospora viticola, 96, 115,

714 INDEX.

Persimmon, Japan, adaptability to our climate, 692,
propagation of, 692.
Phoma uvicola, 116.
Physalospora Bidwellii, 109.
Phytopthora infestans, 121.
Pig-weed, 91.
Pine apples a safe crop in Florida, 691.
how to protect, 691.
Plant diseases, table of, 132-135.
Plants, investigations of the fungous diseases of, 28.
Russian forage, 54.
Plates, Animal Industry, description of, 684, 685.
explanation of Microscopist’s, 146, 147.
Mycological, 136-138.
Pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, 14.
progress of, and action taken, 593.
co-operation with infected States, 601.
Plum, the, 272.
Plum, the KELSEy’s Japan, 272.
Pneumonia, infectious, recent outbreaks of, 675 to 677.
relation of, to swine plague, 682.
Poa australis, 79.
Pomological Division, the future of, 259.
work of, 37.
exports versus imports, 260.
investigations, summary of, 260 to 267.
Pomologist, Report of, 259.
Potatoes, crop of 1886, 380
Potato rot, 121.
seed, reports relative to, 53.
Press cakes, analyses of, at Magnolia, 335.
at Fort Scott, 312.
commercial value of, 835.
composition of, from sugar cane at Fort Scott, 325.
Production, increase of, 238.
results of, 8.
Publications on forestry, 226.
Pump for use at Fort Scott, 305.
Pyrenomycetes, 181.
Pyrethrum powder, 500.
roseum, 58.

‘ Q.

Quarantine, Garfield Station, cattle received at, 684.
Littleton Station, cattle received at, 684.
monthly record of cattle received at various stations, 684,
Patapsco Station, cattle received at, 684.
United States neat-cattle, 684.

R.

Rabbit importation should be guarded by law, 257.
Rabbits, losses sustained by, 254.

of the United States, 256.

remedial measures against, in Australia, 254.

the Australian, 253.
Rag weed, 87. ;
Railroads in South America, 447.
Ranunculis acris, 92.

bulbosus, 92.
Rates of transportation, 436.
RAYSON, GEORGE, report on citrus fruit in Marsala, 694.
Rear-horse, 526.
Reforestation, management of, 218.
Remedies for Anthracnose, 112.
Black-rot, 100, 111.

INDEX. 715

Remedies for Celery-leaf Blight, 119.
Downy Mildew, 99.
Orange-leaf Scab, 120.
Pear blight, 124, 127.
Peronospora, 100.
Powdery Mildew, 108.
Report of Botanist, 69.
Bureau of Animal Industry, 593.
Chemist, 277.
Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 593.
Commissioner, 7.
Entomologist, 459.
Forestry Division, 149.
Microscopist, 139.
Mycological Section, 95.
Ornithologist, 227.
Pomologist, 259.
Silk Division, 546.
Statistician, 359,
Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds, 687.
Reports from correspondents on seed trials, 58-66.
Rescue grass, 73.
Resin compound, 490, 559, 567, 572.
Results of work at Magnolia, 341.
Rice bird, 39.
birds, ravages of, 246.
consumption of, in the United States, 247.
growers, circular to, from Ornithologist, 234,
produced in the United States, 247.
RICHARDS, EDGAR, analyses of apples, 350.
RICHARDSON, CLIFFORD, on adulteration of spices and condiments, 291.
RICHMOND, LEwIs, report on citrus fruit in Rome, 693.
Roman wormwood, 87.
Rules and regulations for co-operation between the Department and the States as to
pleuro-pneumonia, 599.
Rumex acetosella, 90.
Russian forage plants, 54.
Rust-mite, 482.
Rye, crop of 1886, 379.

Salt in butter, determination of, 286.
San José nozzle, 490, 587, 553.
Schrader’s grass, 73.
SCHUMACHER, JAcoB, report on citrus fruit in Syria, 699.
Scolecotrichum graminis, 129, 180.
Screech-owl, 525.
SCREVEN, Col. JOHN, on Rice birds, 248.
Scurvy grass, 92.
Seed Division Library, 48.
Report of Chief of, 47.
work of, 34.

Seeds, distribution of forest trees, 33.
Semi-sirups, analyses of, from sugar cane, at Fort Scott, 821.
SERRELL automatic reel, 462, 548. rs
Sheep-dip, experiments with, 557, 560.

numbers, varieties, and uses of, 402.

sorrel, 90. *
Shepherd’s-purse, 98.
Sida stipulata, 77. , 3
Silk culture, 462, 548, 546, 549 to 551.

experiments in reeling, 21.
worms, Milan races of, 550.

SKAWINSKI's Insecticide, 104.
Smilacina stellata, 77.
Soap, experiments with, 555, 562 to 571,
Solanum Caroliniense, 89.

716 INDEX.

Sorghum cane, apparatus for delivering and removing chips of, to and from the
battery, 304,
machinery for handling, 305.
ratio of seed heads and chips, 313.
chips’ juice, from cutters, analyses of, 308-310.
exhausted chips and waste waters, analyses of, 311.
experiments in the manufacture of sugar from, 302.
improvement of, by seed selection, 316.
sugar, causes of failure in manufacturing, at Fort Scott, 315,
White African, 55.
South America, foreign trade of, 440.
Carolina, number and value of farms in, 424,
Sow-thistle plant, 74.
Sparrow, circular on the English, 231.
the English, 38, 235.
an enemy to grape culture, 240.
native birds, 238.
the gardener and fruit-grower, 239,
grain-grower, 241,
effect on architecture, 242.
failure of, as an insect destroyer, 242.
Introduction of, 236.
method of diffusion of, 287.
rate of increase of, 236.
spread of, 237.
Sparrows as an article of food, 246.
destructive habits in foreign countries, 245.
English, cause an increase of caterpillars, 248.
how they protect the caterpillars, 244.
reccmmendations for destruction of, 245.
legislation in regard to, 245.
SPENCER, GUILFORD L., report on manufacturing sugar at Magnolia, 828.
Sphaceloma ampelinum, 112, 118.
Spices and condiments, adulteration of, 291.
experience in detecting adulterations in countries having
public analysts, 295 to 298.
in this country, 295 to 298.
character of, in the District of Columbia, 301.
Sporobolus crytandrus, 79.
Indicus, 71.
tenacissimus, 79.
Statement of seed issued from Seed Division, 67,
Statistical county reporters, 359.
percentages, explanation of, 361.
reporter at London, 359.
Statistician, Report of, 359.
Statistics, Division, work of, 22.
old fashion of reporting, 862.
Stipa setigera, 72.
Storm and flood signals, 41.
StupgER, A. G., report on citrus fruit in India, 700.
Sugar beet, 55.
beets, analysis of, 341.
description of samples of, 341.
cane, experiments with, 18.
at Fort Scctt, 318.
canes, analyses of, 319.
experiments in manufacturing, at Magnolia, 328.
the manufacture of, 17.
from sugar cane, difference of results at Magnolia and Fort Scott, 323,
results of analyses at Fort Scott, 323.
yield of, at Fort Scott, 322.
house and plantation, improvements in, at Magnolia, 329.
percentage of total, obtained from sugar cane, at Fort Scott, 321.
Sugars, analyses of, at Magnolia, 336.
composition of the first, from sugar cane, at Fort Scott, 321.
first made, analyses of, from sugar cane, at Fort Scott, 321.

INDEX. (17%

Sulphur apparatus for Fort Scott, 306.
as a fungicide, 96.
Sulphured juices, from sugar cane, analyses of, at Fort Scott, 320.
Summary of data collected at Magnolia, 337, 338. _
SuttmrR, JOHN A., jr., report on citrus fruit in Mexico, 700.
Swine diseases, foreign investigations of, 677 to 682.
investigation of, 603.
numbers, varieties, and uses of, 402.
plague, 15. :
general characters of the microbe, 671 to 675.
investigations concerning, 659 to 671.

hs

Table of analyses of butter, 287.
substitutes, 286.
doubtful buiters, 286.
juices before and after the KLEEMANN process, 340,
analytical data of canes, &c., at Fort Scott, 806, 307. ,
cells cut at Fort Scott, 312.
comparative areas of farm, forest, and other land, 185,
corn on hand, with local consumption and shipment, 368.
crop of all cereals for 1886, 380.
barley of 1886, 379.
buckwheat of 1886, 380.
cotton, by States, of 1886, 383.
hay of 1886, 382.
oats of 1886, 378.
potatoes of 1886, 381.
rye of 1886, 379.
tobacco of 1886, 382.
estimated number of farm animals, &c., 401.
January 1, 1887, 404,
exportation of wheat, 377.
exports to South America, 443.
imports of agricultural products, 1886, 434, 435.
the United States from South America, 442,
‘meat analyses, 357,
plant diseases, 132.
proportion and value of corn crop of 1886, 370.
stock of wheat on hand and amount retained for home consumption, 375,
the ninety most important timber trees, 193 to 212.
products of domestic agriculture, 433.
value of the crop of wheat from 1875 to 1886, 375.
weight per bushel of wheat of the crop of 1886, 376.
showing average cash value of farm products for 1885, 398.
yield and price of farm products for the year 1885, 397.
estimated number, value, &c., of farm animals for 1885, 399 to 401,
general summary of farm products for 1885, 399.
imports of rice, 247.
number and different breeds of cattle imported, 684.
of cattle received at various stations, 684.
product of cereals, &c., 386 to 393.
results of experiments with mildew remedies, 102.
summary of product, value, and area of each crop for 1885, 394 to 896,
Tables of analyses of sugar and molasses at Magnolia, 336.
water and musk melons, 347 to 349.
comparison, juices and sirups, 331 to 334.
parasitic diseases of cultivated plants, 133, 134.
rates of transportation, 4387-440.
Tabular list of fungous diseases, 135,
local reports on fungi, 131.
Tall crowfoot, 92.
Tarnished Plant-bug, 539.
Tea farm, the Government, 41,
Teosinte, 56.
-Test, simple qualitative, for artificial butter, 284.

718 INDEX,

Texas blue grass, 74.
millet, 74.
number and value of farms in, 426.
or splenic fever, 16.
Timber culture act, 180.
se deadening” instead of clearing for orange groves, 689.
trees, preliminary list of, 193 to 212.
Timothy, insects affecting, 578.
Tobacco, 56.
crop of 1886, 882.
culture, 40.
wild, 76.
Transportation rates, 436,
Tree planting, inspection of Western, 178.
Tartarian maple, 57.
Trees, exotic, for the Western plains, 218,
hints as to planting of, 191.
specially valuable, 192. ;
TRELEASE, WILLIAM, on spot disease of orchard grass, 129.
Tr ifolium, 82.
Carolinanum, 84.
fucatum, 82.
involucratum, 88.
megacephalum, 83.
stoloniferum, 88.
Turkey Gnat, 461, 492.
Turnips, report on, 57.
U.

Uncinula spiralis, 105, 115.

Uruguay, British statistical abstract, 446,
imports and exports, 444.

Ustilaginece, 129,

Wie
Vanilla beans, 76.
Velvet-leaf, 88.
Vinegar, experiments with, 557.
Virus on pigs, tests with heated, 688 to 648,

W.

Water-melons, analyses of, 348, 849,
composition of, 345.
WEBER’S, Professor, experiments with fats, 279, 280,
Weeds, hints on killing, 85.
of Agriculture, 84.
Wheat and corn, supply and demand for five years, 406.
area of, 372.
commercial supply of, 412.
consumption and distribution of, 374.
crop of the world, 451-458.
European stocks on hand, 4138, 414,
exportation of, 377.
fly, Companion, 573.
insects affecting, 578.
midge, 539.
present acreage of, 410.
production of, in Europe, 411.
reports upon trials of seed, 57.
required for consumption, "408.
European demand, 410.
stock on hand, 407.
and amount retained for home consumption, 875.
straw Isosoma, 542, 573.
surplus and distribution of, 374.
the coming crop of, 415.
value of the crop, from 1875 to 1886, 375

INDEX.

Wheat, weight per bushel, of the crop of 1886, 376.
yield of, 373.
Wheel-bug, 526.
White clover, 573, 580,
daisy, 88.
eye, 484.
grub, 575.
weed, 88.
WILKINSON, T.S., on Rice-birds, 249.
WILLARD, A., report on citrus fruit in Mexico, 701.
Willow, culture of the Osier, 223.
Winter cress, 92.

Woman’s Silk-culture Association of Philadelphia, 546, 551.
Woopcock, ALBERT, report on citrus fruit in Sicily, 694.

Work in the Division of Ornithology, 229.
results of, at Fort Scott, 312.

xX.

Xanthium Canadense, 87.
strumarium, 87.

Yellow-billed Cuckoo, 526.

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