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REPORT
OF THE
COMMITTEE ON OCEANOGRAPHY
OF THE
NATIONAL AaA.DElIY OF SCIENCES

-B-

Report of the Committee on Oceanography
of the national Academy of Sciences.

Foreword.

On April 37, 1937, it was voted by the
Academy "That the President of the Academy be
requested to appoint a Committee on Oceanography
from the Sections of the Academy concerned to con-
sider the share of the United States of America in
a world-wide program of Oceanographic Research and
report to the Academy."

The President of the Academy,
Professor A, A, Michelson, accordingly appointed
Messrs. William Bowie, E. G. Conklin, B. M. Duggar,
John 0. Merriam, T. Wayland Vaughan and Frank R,
Lillie (Chairman) as members of the Committee,

-c-

The OoffiiTiittee has consulted persons engaged in various phacee
of 0 0 ec.no graphic research from all parts of America, and secured
the services of one distinguished European explorer and ocean-
ographer, H. U. Sverdrup, for consultation during a period of a
month in Amorica; it has engaged as its Secretary the Curator of
Oceanography at Harvard University, Dr. Henry 3. Bigelow, who
devoted all of his time for several months to investigations on the
status of oceanography throughout the world, and to the preparation
of the accor.panying report. "One of the members of the Committee,
T. Wayland Vaughan, has collected data for the Committee in the
Dutch East Indies, Siam and Indo-China, and has also placed at
the service of the Committee his extensive knowledge of the ocean-
ography of the Pacific. The other members of the Committee have
contributed their experience and knowledge. The reports of the
various oceanographic stations and organizations of the world
are available in printed form, and have been freely consulted;
moreover, each of the m-ore important statio^^s and organizations
is known by personal contacts to at least one member of the
Committee or to its Secretary.

The Committee, therefore, feels that no good purpose would
be served by a more prolonged formal examination of existing con-
ditions. It therefore begs to submit to the Academy the accompany -
ing report, together with the recomiaendations based upon it, con-
tained in Cliapter VII.

Many persons have assisted in the preparation of this report,
either in consultation, or by revision of parts of the manuscript.
The directors of the principal Sea Side Laboratories in Europe as
well as in America, have freely contributed information as to the
organization of their institutions, as have the administrative
officers of all the governmental establishments mentioned in the
report. To all of the collaborators we offer our hearty thanks.

We wish in particular to express our gratitude for special
assistance in the preparation of the several chapters of the
report; to Messrs. L. B. Becking, C. F. Brooks, L. J. Collet,
li. J. Crozier, R. A. Daly, Haldane Gee, L. J. Henderson, A, G.
Huntsman, Alfred Redfield, H, U, Sverdrup, W. H, Twenhofel and
R. dec, \Tard,

Frank R. Lillie,
Chairman.

-D-

Report on the scope, problems and
economic importance of oceanography'-,
on the present situation in America,
and on the handicaps to development,
with suggested remedies.

By
Henry B. Bigelow

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Chapter I Scope and Present Problems of Oceanography 1

I Definition and General Scope 1

II Divisions of Oceanography 1

A . Submarine Geology ^

1 . Submarine Topography 2

2. Submarine Sedimentation 6

3 . Submarine Dynami cs 15

3. Physics of the Ocean 1'^

1 . Temperature and Salinity 18

2. Circulation 24

3 . Penetration of Light 38

C. Chemical Aspects of Oceanography , 38

D . Life in the Sea 42

1. Oceanic Biology ^3

2 . Marine Physiology 50

3. Marine Bacteriology 58

4. Physical, Chemical and Biological Unity

in the Sea 65

E. Oceanography as an Aid to Meteorology GSa

Chapter II Economic Value of Oceanographic

Investigations 67

I The Sea Fisheries 67

II Utilization of Other Marine Products 80

III Navigation 81

A. Studies of Tidal and Other Currents 81

B . Soundings 84

IV Currents as Affecting Harbor Construction and the

Protection of Shore Property 85

V Soundings in Connection with the La^'^ing of S'ubmarine

Cables 86

VI Oceanograph^r and Seasonal Weathsr Forecasts 87

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Chapter III Present Situation in Oceanography in

America 94

I Introducti on 34

II Analysis by Projects 95

A, Active Exploration at Sea 9R

B, Sea Side Laboratories 100

1. Atlantic Coast 100

2. Pacific Coast 101

C, Other Oceanographic Stations 103

D, Coordinating Institutions 105

E, Libraries 107

F, Situation as to University Instruction in

Oceanography 108

G, number of Oceano graph ers in America lOS

III Summary 110

Chapter IV Cooperation in Oceanographic Research to be
Expected from Federal Agencies in America
and from State Fisheries Commissions, with
Summary of their Oceanographic Activities Ill

I Introduction Ill

II Analysis by Subjects 113

A. Detail of Ships for Special Cruises 113

B. Special Investigations to be Carried Out as

Incidental or Secondary Program on Ships

Employed on Other Duties .114

C. Provision of Laboratory Facilities on Shore 117

D. Detail of Personnel Trained in Oceanography 118

E. Advisory Assistance 119

F. Storage and Identification of Biological

Specimens 119

G. Analysis of Submarine Sediments 119

H, Chemical Analyses of Sea Water, and Determination

of its Specific Gravity 119

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I . Instrumentation ^20

J. Publi cation 121

III Analysis hy Institution 121

A. Federal Establisiiraenta of the United States 131

1. United States Bureau of Fisheries 121

8. United States Coast Giiard 125

3. United States Coast and Geodetic Survey 124

4. United States Light House Service 135

5. United States Navy 136

6. United States Shipping Board 129

7. United States Bureau of Standards 129

8. United States Geological Survey 130

9. United States Bureau of Soils 130

B. State Fisheries Commissions '. 151

1, Atlantic Coast 151

3. Pacific Coast 151

C. Canadian Governmental Estaolishments 132

1. Biological Board of Canada 153

2. national Research Council of Canada 132

5. Canadian Hydrographic Service 153

4. Geological Survey of Canada 135

5. Canadian Department of Marine and

Fisheries 153

IV Suminary 154

Chapter V Present Activities in Oceanography in Europe.... 155

I Introduction 155

II Institutions Now Active 156

A . Institutions Primarily for Research 156

B. Coordinating Institutions 157

1. International Council for the Exioloration

of the Sea 137

2. International Council for the Exploration

of the Liediterranean Sea 140

5, International Hydrographic Bureau 140

4. Other Coordinating Institutions 140

I II Sunroary 141

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Chapter 71 Handicaps to the Development of Oceanography,

and Best Remedies 143

I Handicaps 1^13

II Possible Remedies I'i?

Chapter VII Principles That Should Determine the Type
of Organization for an Institution for

Oceanography in Eastern North America 150

I External Organization 150

II Interna.! Organization 154

Chapter VIII Considerations That Should Govern the Loca-
tion of an Oceanographic Institution on

the East Coast of North America 156

I Location of Central Institution 156

II Location of Substations IGO

A. Arctic Substation 160

3. Oceanic Substation 161

ReodBiaiejadations to aco-ampany the Report of the u^mmittee
on Oceanography of the National Academy of Sciences
as submitted to the Aoademy November 18, 1929 164

Chapter I,

SCOPE AilD PR3SENT PROBLSIIS OF OGEAHOGRAPHY

I. DEFINITION AlID GEITERAL SCOPE

Oceanography has been aptly defined as the study of the world
below the surface of the sea: it should include the contact zone_
between sea and atmosphere. According to present-day acceptance it
has to do with all the characteristics of the bottoa and margins of
the sea, of the sea water, and of the inhabitants of the latter. It
is thus widely inclusive, combining Geophysics, Geochemistry and
Biology, Inciusiveness is, of course, characteristic of any _ "young
science, and n;odern Oceanography is in its youth. But in this case
it is not so much youth that is responsible for the fact that these
several subsciences are still grouped together, but rather the
realization that the Physics and Chemistry and Biology of the sea
water are not only important per se, but that in most of the basic
problems of the sea all three of these subdivisions have_a part. And
with every advance in our knowledge of the sea making this inter-
dependence more and more apparent, it is not likely that we shall
soon see any general abandoni^nent of this concept of Oceanography as
a mother science, the branches of which, though necessarily attacked
by different disciplines, are intertwined too closely to be torn
apart. Every oceanic biologist should, therefore, be grounded in^the
principles of Geophysics and Geochemistry; every chemical or physical
oceanographer in some of the oceanic aspects of Biology,

II. Divisions OF OCEANOGRAPHY

In practice Oceanography naturally falls into three chief
divisions: (a) the geological; (b) the physical- chemical; (c) the
biologica.l. Up to recently these three disciplines were handled
jointly. But with improved technical methods, and greater refine-
ment, it has become more effective to examine them separately, and
then to combine the results in an attempt to understand the nature,!
economy of the sea. Thus, students of the sea tend to fall into the
three groups just mentioned,

A rational order of presentation is to consider first the shape,
and composition of the basins that hold the oceans, i.e., submarine
geology; next the physical character and chemical composition of the
waters that fill these basins (Physics and Chemistry of sea water),
and third the nature and activities of the animals and plants that
inhabit the v/aters (Life in the Sea),

A. SUBZiARINE GEOLOGY

This subject covers the shapes of the oceanic slopes and floors,
and the materials of which the sea bottom is composed, the chcuiges
these undergo in the process of deposition, and such chemical P.v.d
physical features of the sea water as affect these changes, directly

or indirectly. In practice it is convenient to divide this general
field into (l) Submarine Topography, (3) Sedimentation, and (3)
Submarine Dynamics.

1. Submarine Topography

Knowledge of the topography of the basins that enclose the
oceans is the rational introduction to the science of Oceanography,
because this is the factor that determines the extent, shapes, and
depths of the oceans, which in turn largely control the whole gamut
of thermal, circulatory and biological phenomena in the sea. This
knowledge is equally needed by the geologist for (as often stated),
all advances in the specific field of submarine geology must be
founded thereon, while it is equally basic to our understanding of
some of the most pressing problems of general geology, for we see
here the modes and results of the earth's deformations in past ages.

In connection with the leading question concerning the strength
of the earth* B crust, for example, much more sounding is needed in
such submarine hollows as the Tonga, Kermadec, and Porto Rico deeps,
which bid fair to indicate the actual strength of the crust, and the
degree of stability of mountains and plateaux. In the same way, an
exact knowledge of the topography of the bottom would establish the
possibility of great rock-slides on the steeper submarine slopes -
a problem recently raised by puzzling rock formations in the Alps,
Appalachians, and other mountain chains, "The bearing of submarine
mapping and its geologic interpretation on the discovery of regions
of submarine volcanoes, and areas of earthquake displacements must,"
to quote from Doctor David White's statement to the U. S. Naval
Conlerence on Oceanography, 1926, "be obvious to all," Fuller know-
ledge of the shape of the bottom should, as he has emphasized, dis-
close the locations where many of the great earthquakes originate;
they should also disclose the centers of submarine vulcanism where
islands may now be building up or the reverse.

Better information on the depth, especially as regards droximed
valleys, etc., would also afford data for deducing the minor changes
of position of shorelines, and for estimating the amount of material
removed from the land surfaces by the various processes of erosion.
In this connection we need to know hov7 deep wave-base is, and how
effective waves and currents actually are, as scouring forces
(Page 32), Until we know more about the exact depths we can not
hope to understand the origin and history of the thousands of oceanic
islands, or the remarkable events that led to the formation of such
islands as the Hawaiian, or Samoan.

The Ooral Reef problem - a hardy-perennial controversy - is also
as much a question of submarine geology as of biology, or more,
because of the fact that the up- growth of these peculiar lime forma-
tions depends on a complex interaction of physical and chemical
factors, in which temperature, salinity, currents, the absolute depth
risings or sinkings of the bottom, and possible changes of sea level,
all play a part.

In considering the origin of any given reef, as well as in the
general reef problem, the submarine topography of the island or

continental slope in question is of first importance. Still aore is
this essential as a basis for weighing the validity of the ass"amed
shifts in sea level that are integral in the glacial- control theory
of coral reef formation. The relation to the coral reef problems of
submarine volcanoes is equally evident. Pendul^on measurements of the
gravity, for some distance out at sea, are also needed to combine
with the _ geologic data above sea level as evidence whether the region
in question be one of recent subsidence, of emergence, or stationary;
i.e., as a test of the crustal stability of the coral reef regions,
especially of the TTest-Tropical Pacific.

This matter of depth, and of the local variations in crustal
stability, is of great interest to the palaeontologist, and to the
zoogeographer, as well as to the dynainic geologist, for its bearing
on possible former land connections which have been postulated to
explain the distribution of terrestrial animals and plants, as at
present existing; equally to account for the continental separations
by wnich the different floral and faunal areas (once continuous) are
now isolated from one another. Changes in the depths of epicontinent-
al seas, and in the degree to which the great oceans have been in
free corjuuni cation with one another in the ^ast, equally concern the
marine biologist as factors controlling the* dispersal routes of many
marine organisms, and as affecting the ocean currents that transport
animal and plant species.

The changes in the ocean currents that must necessarilv follow
any considerable alteration in the level of the sea floor, or in the
shapes of the land masses, also concern the meteorologist, because
of _ their influence on the evolution of climates. Of interest in
tnis connection is the question what confi^ration of the old northern
oceans was reflected by the mild climate of the polar regions in
Socene-IIiocene times; a mildness made evident by the discovery in the
Arctic of fossil remains of animals and plants belonging to groups
tnat can now only live much farther south.

Until very recently so^onding in deep water (carried on with wire)
onnn^ laborious and time-consuming process; to take a soundin-'^ in
2000 fathoms, for instance, required at least an hour after the ship
had been stopped. From this it has naturally followed that our
present knowledge of the sha-oe of the sea floor is inversely pro-
portional to the depth of the water, and to the distance from land;
the less frequented, too, any part of the sea, the less we know about
its depth,

Faturally, information is most extensive for shoal waters near
land. In fact, as pointed out elsewhere (Page 84 ), our charts of
tne more frequented coasts leave little to be desired from the
navigator's standpoint. But the various investigators who have
attempted geologic interpretation of the configuration of the sea
bottom, especially near land, have constantly faced the obstacle
that perhaps no existing charts of the American coast line are whollv
satisfactory, except for one covering a limited area off California
prepared within the past year through the cooperative effort of the
uoast and Geodetic Survey and of the Scripps Institution, The same,
Uith local exceptions) is also true for European waters, while the

4.

situation is ovon moro unsatisfactory for tho loss frcquontod mrts
of the world. Existing soundings, to quote a specific cxarnplo, do
P°L^^i°3 ^^tisfactory mapping of tho shape of the bottom of the'
Gulf^of Maine, _a region made physlographically interesting for tho
glacial geologist by its submarine troughs and banks. Even within
the past year one of the main channels leading into one of its
larger tributaries (Passamaquoddy Bay) has been found considerably
deeper than had previously been supposed.

A multiplication of soundings in depths grcitcr than 100
fathoms is absolutuly^ necessary if the geologist is to discover what
becomes of the geologic structures as they plunge into the seat and
It IS obvious that much of our philosophy regarding mountain rang s
IS dependent on their submarine continuations. '"c might call atten-
tion especially to the inadequacy of existing soundings to show tho
fault scarps believed to exist along the northern slope of South
America, or to outline the und.r-sca contours of the Caribbean vol-
canic arcs and of tho outer Bahamas.

The difficulty is not one of inaccuracy of observation, --on the
contray, the soundings taken by all the important maritime nations
have long boon extremely exact - but of their comparative scarcity
everywhere outside the 50-fathom contour, l/c must remember that

.?.^2, 2°^n'^lngs marked on the chart may seem frequent enough, in
reality ^ they may be many miles apart. Furthermore, as they have been
i.aken with the needs of navigation constantly in mind, it often
happens that just those regions whore tho geologist needs tho closest
survey have been the most neglected, while the approaches to harbors
etc., that have bc.en the most carefully sounded, may be the least
interesting stretches of bottom, scientifically considered.

Tho case is far worse for th^; ocean basins, where we owe
practically all our knowledge of the depth, away from tho slopes of
the continents, to the occasional doep-soa exploring expeditions, to
the surveys made along routes thought suitable for submarine cables,
and^to scattering data from other sources. Of th^se throe sources
of iniormation, cable surveys alone, and a few lines recently sur-
veyei with sonic depth-finders, have yielded data at all comparable,
m closeness, with the surveys that have boon made of shoal v/aters .
The result has been that OL7.r knowledge of tho sea floor is still of a
very generalized sort. And the contour lines laid dovm on the b^thy-
metric charts of the oceans are equally generalized, located on the
assumption that submarine slopes are as a rule so gentle that if
soundings are _ taken every couple of hundred miles th^y will pro'n-bly
reveal the existence of any important ridges or troughs. But r.-cmt
soundings by the "Meteor", by the U. S. Navy, and those now being
carriea out by the ''Carnegie" prove that this assumption is not as
sound as was formerly supposed.

The North Atlantic is, naturally, the best known ocean bathy-
metrically. There is no reason to suppose that oven such detailed
examination as is now possible with sonic methods will seriously
alter the existing picture of it. Even in the North Atlantic, how-
ever, we still lack detailed knowledge about tho important deeps
north of Porto I^ico, and in the Caribbean. i.-'e have recently learned
that the representation on the charts, of the slopes of the Grand

Banks off Newfoundland was far from satisfactory, and it -was only last
year that the bottom contour of Davis Strait was adequately surveyed.

South Atlantic topography is made especially interesting by the
longitudinal furrows in the east and west sides, along which bottom
water from the Antarctic drifts northward. The recent work of the
"Meteor" was the first to yield an approximately correct picture of
these troughs and of the intervening ridge. The unexpected irregula3^-
ities which her sonic soundings brought to light on her several pro-
files of the South Atlantic show the need of lines run much closer
together in latitude than has yet been attempted.

It is when we turn to the Pacific, however, that we most clearly
appreciate the vast amount of sounding that still remains to be done.
In this ocean it is only directly along the cable routes from Cali-
fornia to Hawaii and to Alaska; in the general vicinity of Japan;
along one profile from America to Australia; one from Hawaii to the
East Indies, and on the lines rTin within the past year by the Car-
negie (details not yet available) that the contours have been even
approximately developed for the open basin. Elsewhere we see areas,
greater in extent than most European principalities, marked only by
soundings far apart along the lines of the few deep-sea expeditions,
or scattered here and there. Thus, an area off lower California,
fully twice as large as the Republic of Mexico still remains unmarked
by a single sounding. Another terra incognita extending northward
from the foot of the Hawaiian slope nearly to the Aleutian Chain, and
westward to the Japan deep, i.e., 2/3 of the way across the Pacific,
(larger than the whole of continental United States) is crossed from
east to west by only one line of soundings, along which the individual
measurements of depths are hundreds of miles apart.

The case is as bad in the high latitudes of the South Pacific and
Antarctic, with an area of nearly 3,000,000 sq. miles to the southeast
of Chile in which (up to 1927) only eight soundings had ever been
taken. To the southward of the Jeffrey trough, south of Australia,
and right down to the Antarctic edge, we again find only odd soundings,
while other vast blanks still remain to be explored in the southern
]Bart of the Indian Ocean,

A major problem in this connection is whether the floor of the
Pacific is systematically furrowed on a grand scale, as suggested by
at least one bathymetric map, and how it compares with the floors of
the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Arctic Oceans in this respect.

About six thousand soundings had been taken in the different
oceans in depths greater than 1000 fathoms, up to 1912, an average of
only one sounding for every 33,000 square miles for all the oceans
combined; one sounding for every 7,000 square miles for the Atlantic.
And while a considerable number of deep soundings have since been
obtained, notably in the South Atlantic by the "Meteor," and in the
Northern Pacific by United States and Japanese vessels, the avers.ge
area for each deep sounding, the oceans over, still roughly equals
half the area of the state of Pennsylvania, or more than the area of
Denmark, It may be of interest to note, in passing, that the most
recent pilot charts of the U. S. Hydrographic Office list no less than
127 shoals in the Atlantic, 68 in the Indian Ocean, and 221 in the

Pacific Ocean the position or the existence of which ie etill doubt-
ful.

Mapping the topography of the regions that have as yet been only
plumbed here and there, added to more detailed examination of other
parts of the ocean, \^ll bring to light many ridges, troughs, es-
carpments, and other irregularities of the bottom such as have ac-
tually been revealed by the Panama-Australian profile just mentioned,
by the Meteor^ s traverses of the South Atlantic, and by those of the
Carnegie in the southeastern Pacific.

Now we have at hand a new tool for the purpose, in the recently
developed method of sounding by timing the echo sent back by the
bottom, by which any ship equipped with the necessary gear can take
almost continuous soundings in any depth of water throughout her
voyages, and while running full speed. There is no longer any doubt
as to the accuracy of the method, and it has been tried often enough
to prove its entire practicability. We may, therefore, look forward
to a very rapid development of our knowledge of the shapes of the
ocean basins along all the commercial routes, and on the routes
followed by naval ships. All that is needed is to arouse interest,
and to procure the funds necessary for equipping ships with the sonic
gear. Here it is the task of the oceanographer to accumulate and
tabulate the data, for the geologist to interpret it in terms of the
earth's history,

2. Sub^aarine Sedimentation

Study of the marine sediments has three chief objects;
(a) it throws light on the cycle of matter within the sea, (b) a
knowledge of the sediments now being laid down under the sea is pre-
requisite for interpretation of sedimentary rocks on land; and
(c) better knowledge of the nature of the sediments, and of the rate
at which they are now being laid down, will clarify our ideas as to
the permanence of the ocean basins.

To the geologist a study of sediments and of sedimentation is
essential, because the development of stratigraphy depends upon a
knowledge of the environi-nent of deposition; and this development is
necessary for a correct understanding of the sequence of events in
the earth's history. Furthermore, sedimentary rocks that were
originally laid down under water now cover some 75fo of the surface of
the lands. It is also probable that areas overlayed by igneus rocke
are m nany places underlayed by sedimentary. In fact, there are
probably no large parts of the continental areas that were not under
salt water^at some time in the geologic past. Sedimentary rocks
also contain a majority of our mineral resources. They are, thus,
the most important element in the earth's outer shell as they affect
man's undertakings. If we can safely reconstruct the ecological
relationships of the fossil remains they enclose from analogy with
their closest living relatives in the modern seas, the study of
sediments will tell us much about the climates of the past; will also
give clues to the character of the earth's atmosphere, and to the
chemistry and physics of the sea bottom, during past ages.

The task of the sedimentary geologist, therefore, includes, not

only an examination of the oompoF5ition, texture, chemistry etc
01 existing sedinents, but also the restoration, fro-a these **
characters, and from the factors in the environment that compel the
deposicion of one kind of sediment and not of another, of the con-
ditions as to depth of water, temperature, activity of circulation,
distance irom land, topography of bottom, etc., under which the old
sediments aocui-nulated. For this he needs to know which classes of
seaiments are so sensitive to environmental factors that they are
deposited oniy under special combination of these, and which classes
are eitner less sensitive or are limited by only a single factor,
e.g., -Gemperaturs: tne rocks derived from the first group have a
limite^, tnose from the second a much more general distribution. The
organic secim.entB may be expected to prove especially instructive in
txiis connec-Gion because certain of them seem so closelv bound to par-
ticular envirormients that when their requirements are once comprehen-
dea it will be possible to translate the old organic sediments i'^to
terms of tne physical and chemical conditions under which they were
laia down. Since sediments of different sorts are laid down in
seauence, cnanging as the environment changes (e.g., if the sea floor
rises or sinks), study of the old sediments should also give us the
sequences of such changes in the old seas.

It is, therefore, no exaggeration to name the study of modern
suomarme sediments (as has been done) a geologic necessity, for only
by this meane can geologists hope to understand how the different
classes of sediments, now solidified into rock, were actually accui'iu-
lated, ano. still more important, what chemical changes they have under
gone on tne floor of the sea, since that time. Neither the studv of
modern sediments alone, nor of their ancient prototypes now rs-ore-
sented by tne sandstones, chalks, and limestones can tell the whole
story :_ the two must be examined hand in hand. Systematic dredr-ine
and lao oratory studies of the material so far gathered from the ^-Stto«-
ot the sea are lively to throw a flood of light on such outstanding
problems as the origin of the various kinds of limestone, dolomites,
petroleu:-) deposits (Page 11), and of the valuable deposits of potash
and otner sa.lt s.

The transformations that chemical changes in the im.pregnatins
water may nave caused in the limy sediments"'on the floor of the ocean
deserve particular attention, because we know that while the old
sedimentary limestone and shale rocks were laid doiTn under wate.", and
uxiaer conditions comparable to those existing todav, thev differ
greaoly from the muds and oozes that are now bein? deposited. I-
«'^> °°r®^^°'' new studies on the hardening (diagenesis) of marine
sediments are urgently needed to explain the origin of the old

ol'^^'iot-^'' '"^''i^ T^ ?-'® e^'^'fe-^'s crast. The formation of phosohatic
concretions and of glauconite, also needs study, for its bearing on
the origin of pnosphate and potash rocks.

The importance of the problem of iron in the deep-sea sedir.erts
il°ll^'''^^Ji^'^ ^® remember that most of the iron ores of todav v-ere
al..ost^cerbainly laid down under the sea over a wide range of "

-f?^?"-o-.?!?°'^^- -^-?o§^°^~ -'^°^' ^^^■^^^ °^'^i^ White's report to the
o,T'? o-^ ^^^"""^ oi 1933 ''..e do not know how they were deposited in
sucn enormous amounts, and in their present relations to other
minerals and rocks. I^iat were the water, the biologic, the bottom,

8

and the terrestrial conditions which led to the origin of these
great deposits?" Are deposits of this sort being laid down today?
What, if anything, have bacteria to do with the segregation of iron?
How does the concion association of iron with manganese in modern deep-
sea deposits bear on this problem of iron? How sound are the chemi-
cal reactions that have been proposed to account for the deposition
+C ^l f.^ °^ these minerals, and what conclusion must we draw, as to
the depths of the Paleozoic seas, from the fact that today it is only
m deep water that the bottom sediments contain a considerable per-
centage of either of these metals?

Similar problems also arise in connection with the rarer aetals
the metamorphic limestones, silicious deposits, etc. With sillce
constantly contributed by the rivers to the sea, and with no back
loss either to the atmosphere, or to the land (except in regions of
elevation) it is obvious that the silica of the earth is now tenc^ing
to accumulate on the sea floor. The geologist is, therefore, as
deeply interested, as is the biologist, in the factors that C3,use such
accumulation of silica to take place most rapidly in cold water, and
at great depths, as signboards to the conditions under which accumu-
lations of silica occurred in the old seas.

Analysis of the depths at which coarse sediments are now accumu-
lating, and of the role played in this connection by the scouring
action of waves, tides, and currents as a governing factor, is
instructive from the geologic point of view because the conglomerates
and breccies that were formed in the old seas have their equivalent
in the gravels and sands that are being deposited around the shores
of the oceans today. In like manner, a study of the blue muds around
the continental shoals and on the shelves is important because of the
probability that many of the shales laid down under the seas of old
were deposited in the same way. We think especially of the genesis
of the Paleozoic black shales of vast eztent, as to whose oripin there
are nearly as many theories as students. Modern deposits on the
submarine slopes of the oceanic islands, also bear on the sedimentary
^ll^tL^L^''''^^^^'^^^ ^^ pointed on Page 3 . On the steep slopes
into the abyss, special watch should be kept for rock masses that
have broken away from the shelf and slipped down the slope.

The regional distribution of the different types of oceanic
sediments, when we learn the correct interpretation, will throw lipht

?lmt wh???i'^ °^ '"^^ permanence of the basins. Is'it safe to aasSSe
that where a basin is now floored with red clay (the most typical
abyssal sediment), it has continued deep for geologic ages pastrand
that ^ the presence of the teeth of sharks, and earbones tf whaleL of
species long since extinct that our dredges often bring up fron red
Te?tia?3 ?i^pf ^?^ 1^^"-* ;S* "r^'S^ sediment has sifted down, since
mlv tM J .iTh h ^""F *^-^^ ^^^P^^ ^^^^ ^^^ instruments scrape? Or
reLatellS tppf ^"""^ ^^^ ?'S? repeatedly covered by lime ooze and as
repeatedly freed from the latter by the solvent action of the water
with successive uplifts and sinkings of the sea floor?

tiri.-n!! ^^'^''^^^ly ^"^i"}^' Of -fche terrigenous detritus around the cor-
tSr L! accumulating faster thando any of the oceanic oozes. How,
SfS'/^ ""^ ■^'' interpret the fact that glacial pebbles have often
been dredged, and over a wide range of depths? Is the depth ?o wl Ich

these stones are buried a ueasure of the thickness of depoeition
since Glacial times?

_ The failure of sediments to accumxilate, even in deep water in
regions where the scouring action of currents or waves is strong
le.g.,_the Pourtales Plateau off Florida and the Wyville Thompson
p^^^l^'-V ! io^;th Eastern Atlantic) is also geologically suggestive,
oan tne fact that Devonian strata have been found lying direct upon
Cambrian in certain places, with nothing between, long a geologic
puzzle, be credited to similar local scourings in the Paleozoic Sea?

The presence of glacial pebbles, even boulders, embedded in the
bottom on the off-shore banks, in regions such as have been found far
out trom the land at various localities on both sides of the iTorth
Atlantic, where their presence can not be credited to transport by
iioating ice under present conditions, emphasizes the importance of
relicts of this sort as evidence of the distances to which the ice
sneets of the last glacial period extended out beyond the edges of
the modern continents. The information so far gathered on this point
IS only enough to whet our appetite for more. And the discovery of
?f;° I'^^"^®^ shells in dredgings from considerable depths marks the
importance of submarine evidence of the sort in relation to the
possible existence of former land bridges or other areas of sub-
sidence.

So much information has already been gathered from the numerous
Dottom samples collected by the various deep-sea expeditions, that
further exploration is not likely to seriously alter our general con-
^t^l'-'^'L'^^ the general character of the bottoms of the ocean basins,
^l ntl^'^ peater than, say, 500 fathoms; either as to the structural
or chemical composition of the several classes of deep-sea sediments,
or as to tneir regional distribution. It is true that our present
Charts are largely based on the assumption that within certain ranges
01 depth, and at certain distances out from the submarine slopes, the
f?«f L+o^l ^^^ superficially clothes the sea floor is so uniform
^^^•L £^°'-'^ points as widely scattered as most of the deep-sea
^°i''il'^^^ ^^""f ^^®^- ^° i^ ^^*ii suffice for the intervening stretches.
?hl ^^s^^elationship that the type of bottom bears to the depth, to

?« .n^??^''''J ?°'? iJ^*^' ^'""^ ^° "^^^ plankton of the overlying mters,
ILll ^^""^""J J^^^ ^^is assumption is generally justified, elcept

I?^JL-??r i^^^'-i^'^ soundings reveal unexpected shoals or trou^lis
dissecting the abyssal plain. ^

^.oo TJ^is_ uniformity depends on the rule that the sediments of the

the shetfp''n/;!ir^^* 'f ^?°'''^- ^^ "oceanic" in origin, consisting of
,^SL^ S-^^ of ^pelagic plants and animals that rain down from above
^^'^^^.^S™ r^^%°''^ ''^^''^ ^^® plankton is abundant, of the skeletons
Sitb a^°ni'^.!ii^''^' °;-,°^ ^^^ so-called "red clay" that accumulates
^.i?oo -^ unbelievable slowness from the disintegration of the
?^,^JJ.r°'' J°^°^^^° eruptions, from cosmic dust, and from the pre-
^lllr'^'-?^, of^ manganese and other less common minerals out of the sea
fnl^', l^f ^J y®^ *° ?e ^o^e, however, even in the ocean abyss, to

for tip l^%^f ^""^l^^ ^^^?^ *^^* ^^^^1 ^^^ °^^ °^^^^s, especially
Ihlt^Lll^l-^'' and for the Indian, while work recently done shows
nSeded ^oaification of mapping of Antarctic deposits is

10

lo-^ ^ question whether any of the existing sedimentary rocks were
laid down at great depths is still to be answered. An especiallv
h°^^f °i;^%Pf^l%^' /°^ °^f understanding of geosynclinal ?ocks, and
wh?o? JL--^i. ^^^'^^^ mountain chains, relates to the conditions under
wnicn radiolarian-bearing sediments were deposited. ITew work on the
nS?i?^^=^i''i*^^°?v f?^^®^ sediments would add much needed data on the
intfrml heat "" ""^ radio-activity in the earth, hence of its

.n.+.!'^®+ ""^ ^"""^ ^° ^^® coastal waters, and to the shelves of the
^h?Hi^^?h^^^^T® J^^^^""*^ °^ ^^^^is ^^°^ *he land entirely over-
knnw?Z..ci i°+f shell-builders, geologists need a much more detailed
Knowledge of the sediments than it has yet been possible to attain.
Z^i-f.^^'^J'''^ wide_ regional variations in this zone are associated

much of ""fhrSf r ^^ *^^ ''^^^''^ °^ ^^^ ^°^^^® ^°<=ks on land from which
?^°, °!/5 .? ^^^^^1 °o^fs; this applied equally in the past. But
regional diiferences m tne turbulence of the water, and in the
onS^if'-S^ action of tides and currents are also important in this

of ?hf rin?;.5f''^i^v\^^®y ■g°"'®''^ *^^ ^^S^^® °^ coarseness or fineness
°^ *^^ c^^etritus that can be held in suspension, thus sorting the sand
or mud regionally as it is laid down. & ^ ^ i^

whnc^.^^i!/"?"^® £^®i? ^^ °^ Sreat interest to the paleontologist,
Tm^.?.^ n^°^r ?° ^5^ conditions of depth, etc., Snder which ancient
r2^^io f-^^^^^^ i^^^^ is the nature of the rocks in which their
remains are lound.

In shoal water, to meet the needs of the ffeoloeist a lara-e

SS^p'Lf h'^^^'r °^ '^" ^"^^^^* ^^^* ^^ takef clole togetSef'(many
?hP i5 1 "^^r^f^v^""^ ^^^^ than would suffice in the abyss) 4nd
lll,^^''^l^^,,^^1^^ be taken throughout the entire depth range of the
fj^i?^ in question; they must then be subjected to detailed analysis
'^*Sj.^^^°^f °7- Though this last requirement may seem self-

?nowi Pd^P^'o/'^^ or"" r^ ^°'' ^^''^ ^^'^ localities, because our present
n^JifSJ shoal water sediments is based chiefly on the data given
JSadeau^p'SiiiT^ charts, which in turn, are dra^ from wholly^
if^Si^ 5 ^^P^!^.°^ ^^s ^^en the bottom is described as "hardM
simply from the _ failure of the sounding lead to bring back any sample
at all. Geologically speaking, "hard" or "rocky" is a meaniniless

s?rScv^'!?f; "^ ^°^ "!^n^^" '^ "^^ ^°"^ ^°°^ '^^^^^^^ ?ha?'?£\%'ad
soSdl.d -??S oJr''^'''^ ^T"^ ^^^^ ^y gl^^i^l ^^^i°^- ^ges ago, or
be obtL-aPd T^ '^"^^ '''''^^^? ^^ ^^^^* ^ fragment of the Material
a^ TJtl ni\J S °!^ ^ specific example, the nature of the bottom
iL^ritf ^i^e charts of the Gulf of KaiAe (one of the better
sounded seas), is of very little service to the geologist and even
TorMfTltl ^'^" <^ollected and analysed from loo siafion^ thtrl,
for this very purpose, it proved that serious gaps still remained.

ir^ cylii obvious importance of accumulations of calcium carbonate
true Si^^ll'?;/^ l""^ formation of sedimentary rocks havl^?? is'
troSicIl S^d l^ili'^^^^^'T^ examination of several shoal areas in
AuqtiJfL ? eul>-tropical regions; of the reefs of Murray Island,
n? ;J! i?' ?2^ instance; of restricted localities around Samoa: ?nd
directed of^ar^P^'^t ^T^"" ^^^^"^- ^'^^^-^ attention has afsoS^en
thJsel wa?PT. ?^ ih! % '^•^''^°'P^^^^°^ °^ calcium carbonate from
tne sea water m the Tropics, whether by bacterial or by direct

11

chemical action (Page 41). Similar studies of sedimentation in
restricted areas are also in progress in ..-lOre northern seas; the Bay
of Fijndy, for example, off the coast of California, and around Great
Britain among others. But these isolated projects must be greatly
multiplied, and extended out to the mud line at the edges of the con-
tinents, before re can hooe even to sketch in the very complex mosaic
picture presented by the deposition of shoal water sediments.

Thus, judged even as a descriptive science, the sedimentary
geology of the sea is still in an elementary stage. Compared v/ith
soil science on shore, our knowledge of the muds of the ocean deeps
corresponds in a way to that cf some steppe or prairie region, where
the soil is so uniform over great areas that scattered teste will
give a representative picture of the whole. But we know hardly more
of the bottom in shoal regions tha.n exajnination of a garden plot,
here and there, would tell us of the agricultural possibilities of a
land with vfidely diversified soil.

Knowledge of the agencies active in the complex conditions under
which marine sediments are now being deposited is equally elementary
in many respects, While in the case of an oyster bed, of a reef of
corals, or of a swarm of Globigerinae, the progress of the event by
which lime is added to the sea floor may be easily observed, great
quantities of limy mud are novir being laid down in tropical seas.
Whether bacteria are responsible for the formation of these muds, as
formerly supposed (Page 63), or whether they result from chemical
or mechanical precipitation quite independent of bacteria, as no?;
seems likely, is still a moot question: a question, however, of great
interest, not only for its bearing on events now taking place in the
sea, but in connection with the formation of oolitic limestones.

The orgo.nic content of the sea bottom is discussed from the
biological soandpoint clsoiiThore. It also has a direct geological
bearing from r.an^'- angles. Perhaps rrost imiDortant here, is the
problem of the accumulation of the carbonaceous and bituiainous
substances on the sea floor, from which petroleum, natural gases,
and other hydro-carbons are believed to have been derived. Practical-
ly all geologistsl are agreed that petroleum, etc., is an end -oroduct

1, The materials for these remarks on the oil problem in sedimentatior
are condensed from Doctor Davis White's report to the U.S. Navy Oon-
ference on Oceanography, 1936. ___^

of the natural distillation, under geologic processes, of organic
material accuKiulating in the sediments, whether in the sea, in fresh
water, or on land. It seems certain that in marine sediments more
organic material is involved than the oil of the Oopepods, Diatoms,
etc.; similar though the latter be to petroleum in chemical cojjposi-
tion. But it is still an open question ?jhether it is the vegetable
matter, or the animal fats that are the chief source for the geo-
physical and geo-chemical transformation in question. It is, there-
fore, important to learn to v;hat extent the soft parts of animals are
actually buried, and so preserved in the marine muds and oozes, and
how they are transformed there by bacterial action.

12

The conditions of grov/tla, and the environiaental factors con-
trolling the deposition and the burial in the sea of the remains of
algae that :nake up a large part of the long buried carbonaceous sedi-
ments that now form the Icerosene shales, algal coals, and oil shales,
are still an open question. The fact that these algal deposits grade
into the ordinary black shales, cf marine origin, lends special
interest to the origin of the latter which has re'-.ei-r©d -many inter-
pretations. Is their blackness due to vegetable or to arilma.l ri^.-ri-'ra-
tives, or if to both, in what proportion? And by what ohenical alter-
ations have these shales been derived from the ordinary black marine
muds?

The general problem of modern marine sediments as possible future
sources of oil, and of the oil distilla.ble therefrom, is now being
attached experimentally with the financial support of the American
Petroleum Institute,

Another pressing problem is that of the amount of p/ater that is
contained in the modern sediments of different sorts, and of the
chemical composition of this water, which we have some reason to
believe may differ widely from ordinary sea water. No satisfactory
method of sanipling it has yet been devised. To estimate the rapidity
with which lime sediments are dissolved relative to their rate of
deposition, a knowledge of the degree of alkalinity of this entrapped
water and of that lying directly upon the sea bottom, is especially
desired.

Interpreting "sedimentation" broadly, we may here mention the
assistance that a detailed charting of the regional and depth distri-
bution of the more monotonous communities of animals and plants of
skeletonr-building types, no-^' living on the sea bottom (e.g., coral or
Halimeda reefs, mussel or other shell beds, forests of deep sea
crinoids) would give to the geologist in his attempts to interpret
the age relationships of atrata that contain, in close association,
fossil communities that differ equally widely in character.

The preceding remarks on marine sedimentation center around the
horizontal distribution of the various sediments. We must equally
emphasize the necessity of examining their vertical distribution,
e,g., of penetrating below the superficial layer, and of probing the
underlying mass. Here, however, as in so many submarine problems,
we face a practical obstacle. With deposition proceeding almost
everywhere in the sea (except right along the coastline, and in
certain restricted localities where currents scour the bottom) there
is no opportunity for a direct examination of geologic sections,
because no transversely dissected sedimentary layers are left exposed
there, or are accessible for examination if exposed, Further.nore,
while it is easy enough tc gather mud in any desired amount from
the uppermost stratum, and in any depth cf water, no method has yet
been devised for obtaining vertical cores of the bottom, more the.n
about 3-4 meters long, nor have any yet been obtained in the open
ocean more than a meter long. Picture how far geology would have
progressed on land, had there been no way of studying anything but
the top soill

13

One of the greatest needs today in the stud:" of sedimentation
is the collection of r.ore cores v/ith the rudi-aentary instrur:ents so
far devised, still nore the development of apparatus to obtain
longer cores. Only in this way can we learn anything about thp
thickness of the nodern sediments, and about their variations in
composition with distance belo"? the surface of the nud.

The problems for nhich cores of the bottom are needed rr.av be
classed as (l) rate of deposition under given circumstances; \^2j
constancy or the reverse in the typQ of sediment laid down over long
periods; (3) the cheuical alterations that take place in the deeper
layers of sediment that are protected from the water by the overly-
ing ooze; (4) uplifts or subsidences of the sea floor revealed oy
the presence of" one type of sediment upon another; (5) problems of
glacial geology.

Some interesting beginnings have already been made in these
fields. Although no cores more than about 80 cms. long have yet
been obtained from deep water, those that have been taken in the
north and south Atlantic basins, with their poleward extensions,
show that it is the rule for even this thin s^aperficial stratum to
show a rather noticeable stratification. In this connection, we
think especially of the soundings taken by the Ilordske Nordhaus,
German South Polar, "llichael Sars, " and "Ileteor" expeditions, as
well as by the recent "Atlantis" cruise sent out by the I.!ruseum of
Comparative Zoology. With the stratification usually taking the
form of a difference in the amount of lime contained in the mud or
ooze at different depths downward from its upper surface, its bear-
ing on the formation of sedimentary limestones is obvious, llori^lly,
there seems to be less and less lime the deeper one penetrates into
the mud. How far does this decrease reflect the solvent action of
the entrapped water, i.e., the age of the sediment? Does the decay
of organic matter in the mud give this water such a load of CO3 that
its solvent power is much greater than that of sea water generally?
Can it be that solution of this sort actually limits the thickness
to which lime deposits can accumulate on the ocean floors of today,
by dissolving calcium carbonate from the deeper layers as fast as it
accumulates on top? How does all this bear on the depth of water in
'.vhich the limestone rocks were originally laid dovra?

We know nothing definite about the rate at which the limy oozes
are actually building up in thickness on the ocean beds, or even
whether they are so building up at all. Our only direct evidence as
to the rate of their deposition is the rapidity with which
Globigerina ooze buries and so protects submarine telegrs.ph cables.
But it is certain that the sea floor generally, over all the vast
area occupied by the Globigerina oozes, is not rising at as rapid a
rate (an inch in ten years, or a fathom in every 720 years) as
experience v/ith cables would suggest if D.ccepted at face value. How
do the processes of solidification, of solution within the sedia.ents,
and of the sinkings of the earth's crust as weight increases (co:::-
pensated by uplifts elsewhere) balance the tendency toward ac3U„;ula-
tion?

Does the failure of geologists to find any existing limestones
to which abyssal origin can safely be credited mean that the

14

accuniulation of thick beds of calcareous sediments has always been
confined to shoal waters, or has taken place at great depths only
under special circur^stances?

The few stratifications so far studied have enlarged our views
of cliinatio changes in the oceans in the past especially for high
latitudes, enough to point the need of more nuiuerous probings of the
bottom to greater depths.

The thermal relationships of the various species of Fora.^inifera,
shells of which have been identified at different depths below the
uppermost layer of ooze, have proved highly significant as indices
to changes in the temperature of the ocean. Similarly, the alternat-
ing strata of shell-bearing, and shell-less clays on the bottom of
the Korv/egian Seas emphasize the geologic fertility of studies in
this field. The urgent need for more detailed information as to the
temperature, and other vital optima, of the various pelagic shell
builders here unites the biologist with the geologist,

"^la may also hope to learn much about the changes in level that
the sea floor has undergone from the stratification to be seen even
in such short cores of the ooze as have yet been taken, for we have
an index to the depth of water at which the sediments were laid down
in the fact that the limy oozes (as a class) accumulate only in
depths less than about 2500 fathoms, (shoa.ler still in the Pacific)
while it is only at depths greater than 3000 fathoms that the red
clay, or the radiolarian and diatom oozes are practically uncon-
taminated by limy shells, except in the pacific, when the typ3 of
sedimen is found in comparatively shallow water. Some short cores
suggestive in this respect have already been obtained. The pr?.sence
of abyssa-l red clay overlying Globergerina ooze has been used as an
argument for a very considerable recent sinking of the sea floor in
the mid- equatorial Atlantic, Seven such cases have already been
recorded and we may expect still others, xvhen detailed accounts of
the results of the "Lleteor" Expedition appear. Stratifications of
the opposite sort, i.e., with Globigerina ooze or Diatom ooze over-
lying blue mud, such as even the short cores taken by the "Heteor"
revealed over a considerable area off Tifest Africa, between 13^ N.
latitude and the equator, point to the opposite process of subsidence.
The layers of volcanic ash found in some of the "Ileteor"' sediments
a,lso open interesting problem.s. Sim-ilar cores, and if possible,
longer ones, are desiderata for all the deep subm.arine troughs, and
especially for those that fringe the continents, as possible clues
to the ages of these depressions, relative to the permanence of the
oceans as a Y/hole, and to the ages of neighboring mountain chains on
land.

The probability that cores would throw light on the actual rate
of deposition in given circumstances, if some time marker could be
established to start from, gives special importance to such work off
coasts the character of which was determined in the last glacial
period. Circumscribed basins, scoured out by the ice sheet, so deep
that mud is entrapped within them, are especially attractive subjects
for tine-studies of this sort, if compared with the sedir.ents
deposited on land since glacial tii:ies, from materials laid dorm by
the ice itself. Projects are, in fact, under way for obtaining cores

15

in bowls of this sort off He"»v England.

The degree of alteration undergone by the particles that -aake
up the abyssal red clay in its different layers T;ould also shon seine-
thing of the age of tiiis material relative to other geologic pro-
cesses, even if it cannot be measured in years.

Gores are like-rise needed to tell us the relative abundance of
organic natter in the mud, from its upper surface do'.vnrard, a
question that bears on many of the cheiuical reactions that tend tc
alter the rau material sifting dov:n on the bottom,

3. Submarine Dynamics

The study of dynarnc and structural geology has been great-
ly handicap-oed in the past by the fact that t:7o thirds or more of^ the
earth' s surface v/as put out of reach by its covering of water, irnile
it y/as possible to survey the topography of the bottom, and to gather
samples of the sediments, these are only t-;o of the fo.ctors in the
problem of the cause of basins and continents, or of the existence
of troughs, submarine ridges and oceanic islandSo

'7e still lack any means of obtaining samples of the rocks that
underly the oceanic sediments. But studies of earthquakes and of
the volcanic rocks of oceanic islands suggest that the regional
grouping of these may throv; light on the constitution of the crustal
material below the oceans. And the recent development of a mxeaxis
for m.easuring the strength of the force of gravity- at sea {e.s
geophysicists have for many years been able to do on land) opens a
wholly -:-e\u field of oceanic research, for previously there had heen
no way of determining whether the high values of gravity that pre-
vail on oceanic islands did or did not indicate an excess of
material in the crust under the oceans as a whole. And an ans^rer
to this question is prerequisite for any general conclusion as to
Tjhether the state of hydrostatic equilibriujn or "Isostasy" that has
been proved to be the normal condition of the emergent portion of the
earth's surface is equally characteristic of the ocean beds; in other
words, whether these depressions represent uhe heavy sectors of 'Lhe
crust, just as the masses above sea level are compensated for by a
deficiency of material (i,e, likeness of the crust) beneath the
continsnts.

This is a major problem of geophysics because our interpreta-
tion of irre.gu.larities of the earth's surface must depend largely
on determining the relative densities of the crust under oceans of
different depths, compared with lands elevated to different heighths
above the mean crust level. Gravity measurements at sea supple-
mented by analyses of the igneous rocks found on oceanic islands
may, therefore, be expected to throw much light on the causes of
ocean basins and continents, of the sinkings and risings of oceanic
islands, and of the volcanic activity occurring o". the latter 'ao\i
or in the past. Such measurements may also 'oe expected to show
whether the processes that caused broad up-lifts in the past are now
at work under the oceans, to m.ake up-lifts that v;ill appear abO'/e
the sea in geologic ages to come.

other questions equally broad are also involved; for instance,
have the ocean beds tended to sink under their or/n ^7eight r;ith the
lighter niargins of the continents tending to buchle -ip in conpensa-
tion? in areas, on the contrari'-, Y;r.exe the sea botton is rising, is
its lightness coinpared to the surrounding lands responsible? How is
all this related to the weight of the sediuents that accumulate
on the sea floor, and this, in turn, to the new hypothesis (raising
one of the aost vital problems in modern science) that the huge
blocks of the earth's crust that fori:i the existing continents have
aoved horisontally?

For these reasons a net of gravity measureuents is needed over
the oceans. A beginning has already been nade in this direction by
determinations carried out by the Dutch Geodetic Comais si on, frori
submarines, on one voyage from Europe to the East Indies via the
Mediterranean and. Suez Canal, on another across the Atla/ntic and.
Pacific; ;uore recently by the U. S. llavy in the ^est Indian-
Ca.ribbean region Glsev/here . And a gravimetric marine survey :j1
the East Indies is now in progress. These observations have o;T3ned
interesting problems, for while the flatter parts of the sea floor
(along the lines so far run) have given values roughly in accord
with the isostatic principle, decided differences have been foTnd.
between the observed and the theoretic values of gravity over and
near some of the deeper submarine troughs, near oceanic islands and
close to the margins of the continental shelves, LIuch more must be
done before it will be safe to conclude whether these abnormal! jies
of gravity, plus the fact that the grouping of submarine earth-
quakes is similar (the deep troughs seem, in particular, to be the
seats of the strongest earthquakes), really reflects a lack of
isostatic equilibriijim or stability in these parts of the earth's
crust, for other explanations are possible. For instance, the sub-
marine earthquakes may be caused by e:rpansion or contraction of the
crustal material. In fact, the recent discovery Coy sonic methods
of sound.ing) of great submarine escarpments with steep slopes points
in that direction. Or the abnormal values of gravity so far re-
corded at sea may reflect the presence of heavy or of light masses
of material close under the surface of the crust in the imi^iediate
vicinity, rather than liie mean density of the v/hole underlying thick-
ness of the latter, 1 In this case there might be very little

1, In accordance with the gravitationa.l law that masses attract
each other inversely as one square of the distance, a mass of extra
heavy material close to the observing station will cs.use an ab-
normally high value gravity, while a mass of light unconsolidated
material nearby will cause a low value.

horizontal strain in the material underlying the stations in question,

The solution of dynamic questions s'ach as these calls for in-
tensive studies of the ocean deeps, of the regions around the
oceanic islands, and of the m.argins of the continental shelves by
means of gravity determinations in combination with detailed
topographic surveys of the bottom. A combination of the data
secured from the sediments, the configuration of the bottom and the
values of gravity should lead to great advances in this general phase

17

of geophysics,

B. PHYSICS OF THE OCEAIT

Sea water, next to air and fresh water, is the most uniform
of all the common substances on this planet, in chemical and
physical character. Therefore it does not offer to the physicist
the opportunity that it does to the biologist for the solution of
the basic problems that are today most alluring in his particular
field of study. The immediate task of the ocean physicist is not so
much to investigate the properties of matter, as to explain the
existing manifestations of heat, light, and motion within the sea
water.

The problems most immediately pressing in these fields center
about the responses of the water to solar radiation, as well as to
the atmospheric circulation to the force of gravity; and to the
centrifugal force that is set up by the rotation of the earth. These
forces are all directly measurable, and can be stated in quantitative
termSo Essentially, therefore, Ocean Physics is an exact science.
If we are not yet in a position to handle its manifestations in an
exact way, it is more because our regional knowledge of the sea is
still incomplete, and because our methods of mathematical anal-/sis
are not sufficiently advanced, than because of failure to understand
the basic physical or cosmic principles involved.

Sea water occupies the greater part of the surface of our
planet. A study of its physical and chemical characters and of the
circulatory movements by which it responds to external and intarnal
forces, is, therefore, an important item in our gradually broadening
view of the geo-physics of the earth. We also have other impelling
reasons for making Ocean Physics a primary subject in the fact that,
as one contributor v/rites, "virtually all kinds of studies of the
sea are crying for more information on physical conditions \Tithin it,"
The temperature of the water, its chemistry, and the mechanical
manifestations of oceanic circulation, not only govern the whole
economy of life in the ocean, but also produce important geological
results, and go far to govern climates on land, past as well as
present. With these last incentives, it was natural that a tendency
developed to treat physical and especially dynamic Oceanography as a
subject auxiliary to oceanic biology or to geology. The fact that
oceanographic work on the two sides of the Atlantic has long drawn
its chief impetus from the economic pressure of fisheries problems,
has been largely responsible for this relegation of ocean physics
per se, to a secondary position. This tendency, however, has
seriously retarded the advance, not only of our knowledge of the
physics of the ocean per se, but even of the very branches that it
was hoped to further; for it may be taken as axiomatic that only
when a.ny scientific field is considered as a primary object, worthy
of cultivation for its own sake, can satisfactory adsiance therein
be expected.

The effect of this tendency has been that studies of the physical
state of the v/aters have rarely been the primary object in the
oceanographic activities of the past. This has applied, for example^
to many of the deep-sea exploring expeditions; "Blake," "Albatross,"

18

"Valdivia, " and "Siboga, " among others. The programs of the recent
German expedition to the South Atlantic on the "Meteor," and of
the exploration of Davis Strait in 1923 by the U.S. Coast Guard
cutter "Marion," have, by contrast, been primarily physical and
dynamic, recalling the attention devoted to the Chemistry and Physics
of the sea water on the cruises of the Challenger and of the Pola
and this also applies to the current cruise of the "Carnegie."

New vieiTpoints, developed of late, have greatly stimulated
interest in these questions, at all the centres where oceanographic
research is now being actually prosecuted.

In America, where most of the older oceanographic exploration
was sponsored by institutions whose chief interests lay in Biology,
the physical side was even more neglected than in Europe, from the
days of the "Blake" until the renaissance of Oceanography in this
country in the first decade of the present century, described else-
where "(Page ). Since then, however. Ocean Physics has been a
primary object for the Scripps Institution in California, as well as
for the International Ice Patrol operating around the Grand Banks;
also for some of the Atlantic cruises of the Biological Board of
Canada, of the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, of the Museum of Oomr-
parative Zoology, and of the Carnegie Institution.

Until recently Physical Oceanography has been confined to the
stage of exploration; first, because of the fragmentary state of our
knowledge of all the phenomena involved, second, because of any
method for calculating quantitatively, from data obtainable in
practice, the tendency that internal hydrostatic forces exert to
set the water in motion. Until Bjerknes' studies in hydro-d^^Tiamics
led to the development of such a quantitative method, it was
impossible to analyze the relative importance of the internal
dynamics of the water, and of the external forces exerted by the
wind, as the causes of ocean currents. In fact, this still remains
one of the outstanding problems in Oceanography (Page 37 ).

At present, the attention of the ocean physicists is chiefly
focused at present on the following fields: (1) the distribution of
temperature and salinity within the sea, (3) its circulation in
detail, (3) the penetration into it of the sun's rays.

1, Temperature and Salinity

There is as good reason from the biologic side as from the
strictly physical for studying the temperature of the sea, because
this, more than any other one feature of the watsr, directly co.itrols
the distribution of animal and plant life. Because of the important
role of temperature in governing the rates of animal and plant
metabolism, on which we have touched elsewhere (Page 53 ) the
seasonal changes in the temperature of the water present special
problems to the marine biologist in his studies of such events in the
life cycles of animals and plants as their breeding periods, the
duration of the periods of incubation or of larval life, rate of
growth, feeding activity at different seasons, seasonal migrations,
and many others. The temperature-optima and the lethal limits need
also to be determined at different stages in development for every

19

species the life history of which is under eracination Th^' -
f^^h.o"'' '" f Pi'acticel ir^port in th3 case of seve^\r^rtcn± -Pood
£tn?^^^ crustaceans and molluscs. The tn.Bmal knoi7l.n^o.e chat l^le
?aSed lor?! "'' '''"'' °^''' '"' furthermore, of an eltrem^.ly de-

ledge of every phenoaGtion m the sea, the temiDerature of its water
of'^h^^I^Sp.'^? physical oceanographer a:, evidence of the movements
if Ine of ?hP Jl"^"'^" °5 "'L^^^^ ^^-^"^ ^^ ^ ^^^^^^-^-^^e temperature
force! iLltlTfTT^^'''^^ ^^^^ "'T^''-'^ ^-^^^ internal hydro-sta-oic
in thi oceans! ^^^^'^^i^ a system of "oh eimo- dynamic circulation

the Jr?nni°n? Jf ^^i^^ship that e^:ists bettreen the temperature of
the surface of the sea and that of the overlyino- air introduce ne-
the whole broad question of tlie control of lan3"cl.^JateG b? t& fish
of'S ?i?Sn'^fi'?? """ water^cnd by the r.gionardrB??ibS?ion^
for Sdvi-^^?h! ? '''*^-' ^^'""i ^-^"^^ - directly practical reason
lor studying the temperature of the oceans (Page 87).

only tSreb?) '*'the''-?L°n^^ charting of temperature (and approachable
onxy tnereoyj the tuermal proolems now most pressing in the sea
center chiefly around (a) detailed examination of the ?enpera?Sre-
cycles of regions that may be especially interesting from one bi^

pe?a?Se1???^'P' °' ^"°''l?' ^'^^ ^^^ general variltion in tsm^
(c) Ihl ^lltl.iT seasons off shore, especially in the deeper strata,
from vear Jn^it^ non-seasonal _ fluctuations that are known to occur '
irom year to year, or over periods of years, with their causes- ( d) '

above t?"'anffe?'?r''^^^''r^" ^^^ ^''^'^ °^ ^^^ -^ -^- ^"^ ^-
agencies! interplay of the several cooling and warming

o-F ^.rY'^'^^^J^^^.^^^^ heading, empiric studies of the cooling effect

deslred°'^'u?nti^.?'^''"'^' ^^'^^'^ °^ ^''' ^'^ ^'^ ^^^ ^^^^ *o ^^
aesired, ^uantioative analysis of the chilling that Arctic and

tf me?ts%oS?d\'^^^^'^^' ^°r ^"°' theoretically-may) bring aboSt as
11 ^t:^ ^°''S-'^ 5® °^ g^eat value. And tests are urgentlv needed as
to whetner the bottom water of the abyss does, in fSct receive an

ob?er'va??o-ns'sSS^ f I'''' ''''' '^^ underlying earthr'^s'somrrecent
Telohlnl i^fi^i^t ' J,e'^'^u-se ^^arming from below woiad have a far-
reaching influence on the vertical circulation in the deepest layers.

significant''?? ??f ^ differences in the salinity of the sea are in-
Spr.?.^S^ V^ biologic complex, compared to the variations in
ol?ev thP ^^;o^-^°''?^^r-? i\iB now generally appreciated that they
sc2e o?TP; ?.L ^'^^'^^ "J ^^^ qualitative indices to the broad
nflUml^''^^ currents of the ocean basins, and to the sources
respect Jn^l.Jft'^"''^'?"'" Regional probleras now urgent in this
l2'^??nth nf ? n ^ entire oceanographic complex alolg and among the

f?iSiS?seL' iS^ ^^^'^^ ^'^'■^-?^ ^'^'^ °°^^^* °^ Alaslra; tne Asiatic
il uiii^T^P t^^ novements of the bottom wateis of tne Sulu Sea,

ol ?he waL Lrth^?o^^2^°'^^-^2^^"'^' ^^^ erpan.ions and contractions
01 tne warm North Pacific Drift with the seasons: the trar^c^erei-PR

?fw-''' through Bering straits; the up-weJ lings' along a^nioJr^^
likewise in the H'ombolt current along the coasts of ELaiir and Peru

more urgent cases. salinity, to mention only .a few of the

Profiles of temrDeraturp s-nr! oaT-Tv,,-*,, „t
for the Indian and Paci f i c ?ce2it llr i ?; f "^^^ sevova.! meridians
"Meteor" in thp South /tiar,^?^^' ^^"l^-f.^o tnose obtained by the
general circulatory s4t™i?%i'^^ essential for working out the
is also needed ^s to (he e'act 00^0?..°^'"''^''% T'^^* ^^^^ information
salinity, from which to ppi'^^ip^ ? ^^^'^ °^ temperature and
polar margins (whe?e the 5orS?- on n? ^P^^^^^^Sravity around the sub-
believed to take SIce^R^ +f! °^ oceanic bottora water is
pected to occur thoJeipaLlI f^'?? -'^"S ^^lass- sinking my be ex-
difficulty of obSn^re th-« dJ; J\'^ because of the practical
basis for our theories of of r^.%^^^ have so weak an observational
the Antarctic and Irctic ice front s?"" '^ ''"" '"""'^' ""^^°^^ ^^^^^^

most iTJloTlTe^TfltTTe safin?tf ?' ^^^'-'^ ^^^ processes that
namely, rainfall aSd evlpo't'^on'^ aJ"^1 ^^i'^'^ ^^'^ °^ ^"^^^^^'^^ ''^^^^>
a leading oceanographlr Sp ^^mii /"^^^^ ^^^^ recently remarkod by
explanation foS flit fact that thJ S'* an acceptable quantitative"^

whole are considerablv Ip^r L^ "'Jj^'^^^" *^^*^ ^^-^^i"^ Pacific as a
uasiaeraDiy less saline than those of the Atlantic.

the fSSiif of Lrjcf SISvi?'-nS^° "'^?^^ °^ ^^^ ^^^^-^ ^- -hich
specific grivity of Irct^c a-nd L.; ^^^^'®^ ^''^ salinity - henco the

how the process offreeziLafttrfh^'^ ^^'^^' .^^ "^^^^ °°^^ ^^^^^^> ^^^
seas. Conversely, a bettef a^an ?f -«??.'''"'" °^^ composition of those
the surface that is caused h-^?S^-ni'^® Pleasure of the freshening of
and of the difference ?nthh I ^^^""^ °^ ^°^ ^^ l^-^-^^' latitudes,
essential beforfwe L^corrLtlf P^til'^^r '"^^ ^'^^^ ^^^^^^^ i°« i^
process in the salinity complex!: ^^^^'^^^^ ^^^ iaiportance of this

as esslSaJ'asT' |?f? °? ^^^o??; ^^^f^^^^^ - Balinity is also
ocean currents, sIliMtv bPi'fi^^?^^^^^ m every dyna^nic study of
specific .ravi^y^Sf ?J!^.^?S^a^^L^Slef S^J Sf pSJ^^^- ^^

measure?, 'lnr??^L^-o°-5tSc%^Sfr?no°wlS" ^^? °"^ ^ -^^^^^' ^^
not only'to the geographer an? to th^ i "^'P °^ °°°^'^ tonperatures,
as well (as evidfncf of 1L SSrrLf in hl^^f ^^1*? ^^e navigator
early aioDreciRtpH +>,=.+ +' ^urren-c m ...hich he sailed), was so

along a'^ILafvariety o. ??airro.f '}^^'\r'^^^S^ had'^een recorded
century.^ In fact' 2 e^rly Ss 187^ ?.'^ *-'^ ^^^"^ -''^-^- '^'^ ^^^^ 1^^"^^
such observations prlviouslvfni?;^- 2P^°:V ^^^'^-° o^ "he nunber of
an infinite one; ilul^elte^an Lf^.ff • ^^°'-*-'' Atlantic, as almost
100,000 temperature-recorS ?nr v?^^ ^ ^'^^ aisposal riore than
lished in 1870. Great ™bcifnii' ^'^P^'" °''' ^^'° ^^^^ Stream, mb-
gathered from the olhcr ^^e?;! L^il^'^^ terperatures had also been
and have been accun:u-ra?ed sinop t^t^^f.^^'^Sely to Maury's efforts.
Services of the various ma" ?i-o "^t;. -'-'/'^ °? ^^^ Hydrographic

tlon Of t.e e.lstlSg ^S?^? o.^a?tf o?'"-|L^ SS^g^r^rilSIl^^^^^-^''^-

21

However, there is no part of the open sea for which the norr-al
surface te-nperature at any season, or the normal seasonal variations
are yet known in the detail demanded fox the solution of nian^r ■rress-
ing problems. And to trace the irregular fluctuations that exert
wide reaching effects within the sea and in the atmosphere, but of
whose amplitudes we, as yet, kno?; very little, is one of the .nost
urgent tasks tha.t now face the oceanographer. Here are formidable
undertakings, for they required the collection of great nurn.bers of
records over a wide range of localities, with their subsequent
analysis. But no technical difficulty is involved.

Owing to the facts that an accurate and simple method of measur-
ing the salinity is a recent development, and that appreciation of
the real importance of a knowledge of this feature of the water is
of recent growth, it was not until 1923 that an approximately
adequate picture of the mean annual salinity of the surface of the
oceans as a whole could be attemptedo And even this most recent
chart has necessaril3'- been combined for different seasons in different
parts of the picture, and from data spread over so m^.ny years that
not all parts of it are comparable. Parthermore, important gaps
still remain to be filled for the moan state of the surface for the
year as a whole over considerable areas, x;hile much more must yet be
done before seasonal charts of the salinity can be even roughly
constructed for any one of the ocean basins.

For example, all the measurements that have yet been made of the
salinity of the Arctic extensions of the Atlantic, (including the
Baffin's Bay source of the Labrador current, and. the waters north
of North America) have been for the sum^nor months, Neither are
winter records availab'J.e for the off-shore parts of the Gulf of St,
Lawrence, nor has o.nytning yet been published on the salinity of
Hudson's Bay, The mean state and seasonal variations still offer
an equally attractive problem all along the Atlantic shelf of the
United States south of Ghesayeake Bay, in the Caribbean, in the Gulf
of Mexico, and in the outflow from the latter through the straits
of Florida; Information essential for understanding the secular
shifts in the Gulf Stream drift. Knowledge ot the alterations that
the highly saline water of the Sargasso Sea undergoes as it drifts
outward from its center of concentration, with more detailed knov;-
ledge of the seasonal fluctuations in the African side that are
associated mth the seasonal migrations of the trade wind belts to
north and south, is needed D'^-fore we can reconstruct the inter-
movements of the surface waters in the tropical belt of the Atlantic,

Did we know as much about the salinity of the water off iorocco
as we do of its temperature, we could better ^udge the importance
(in the general Atlantic complex) of the water that wells up there
from the deeps, in bringing up a supply of dissolved nutrient:; to
help maintain the fertility of the surface strat'xn for pla.nt life.
The seasonal alterations in the salinity of the surface around South
Africa, reflecting the alternate contractions and e.-spansions of the
warm Alguhlas a.nd co3d Benguela currents, also remuin to be plotted
in detail. And the only general :parts of the Pacific for which an
approximately adequate understanding of the seasonal cycJ.e of
salinity of the surface has yet been gained are the coast v;aters
along California in the one side, Japanese waters and the Javan Sea
in the other.

23

When so much is yet to be learned about the state of the surface
of the sea, it is not surprising that much greater gaps remain to be
filled in our knowledge of the underlying viater. In fact, the only
considerable regions for which oceanographers can yet claia even an
outline-knovrledge of the normal seasonal cycle of salinity co.nbined
with temperature from surface down to bottom, are the parts of the
northeastern Atlantic with its marginal seas (Norwegian, North,
Baltic, and Mediterranean) that have been covered by the cruises of
the International Commissions (Page 138); a much smaller coastv/ise
sector off the east coast of North America between Cape Cod and
Labrador; Californian and Japanese coastal waters; and the Javan
and South China Sea 7/here records were obtained quarterly for the
period 1917-1930. Even for these regions we need a much closer
knowledge of the minor seasonal fluctuations with their causes, es-
pecially of the irregular annual transgressions of one or another
water-mass which often play a disturbing (even destructive) role in
the general economy of the sea.

In the ocean basins, the exploration of the underlying waters
is much further advanced for temperature than it is for salinity,
the thermal state being established in its broad outlines^ So
rapidly, in fact, did it prove possible to learn the abyssal^ tem-
perature, once attention was focused thereon, that while Wyville
Thomson, as late as 1873, found it necessary to combat the view
that the whole ocean basin was filled with water of 4^ Centigrade,
ten years later the basic distribution of deep sea temperatures was
generally understood. So many deep sea tem.peratures have subse-
quently been obtained in the North and South Atlantic that the gen-
eral distribution, at different depths, can now be plotted with some
confidence for these oceans, though as yet nowhere in detail.

But the general uniformity of the abyssal and mid-level temr-
peratures over wide expanses, with the slow rate at T:hich these
alter from season to season, or from year to year, is our only
present warrant for extending any generalization to the Pacific as
a whole. Although a large nximber of serial and of deep bottom read-
ings have accumulated from that ocean, most of them have been con-
centrated along the American seaboard; between California, the
Aleutian Islands and Japan; around the western margin from Japan to
Australia; between Australia, New Zealand and Samoa; thence to
Samoa; thence to Hawaii; around that group; and along scattered
profiles across the basins. The situation is no better for the
Indian Ocean, except for the marginal zones.

Data so scattered allow only the roughest of regional plotting.
In short, the thermal charts of these oceans cannot reach even to the
elementary standard so far attained for the Atlantic until serial
records of their temperatures for all depths, surface to bottom,
have been obtained over a much wider range of well selected locali-
tieso And this minimal rocuirerient would give only a first
approximation to the completed picture that must be aimed at finally.

The gaps ir, present knowledge of the salinity of the ocean
deeps are still m.ore serious than for temperature, partly because
only a fraction as many records have yet been obtained; partly

because ths considerable significance of even the s.nallest varia-
tions (in the study of circulation) and the- unexpectedly complex
regional inequalities that have actually been found to exist, ual:e
it less safe to deduce the salinity of intervening sectors of 'later
from T/idely separated observing stations.

Ilodern standards of research require siciultaneous determination
both of temperature and of salinity fror, the surface down to the
bottom, if an oceanographic observing station is to be classed as
coiTOlete, the tirae having long passed when a surface and a bottor:
reading were thouglit sufficient. And in the ocean basins, (with few
exceptions) these requirements have been met only by the major
deep sea e:cpeditions, whose tracks, reasonably closed-meshed in
the Atlantics, have covered the Pacific and Indian basins (and
especially the Southern Ocean) with only a very sparse web indeed.
Even in the Atlantic, north of 20° N. latitude, only about twenty
such coi:ipl3te serial determinations of salinity coiroined with terv-
perature had been published for depths greater than 1500 fathoms up
to February 1, 1923, a depth-limit including the greater part of the
basin in question. The case is far worse for the Pacific, where
only thirty-one complete observations deeper than 500 fathoms had
been published up to that date for all the vast area from the
American coastline westward to longitude 180°; only 35 so deep for
the entire Pacific basin; and only seven deeper than 1500 fathoais.
And while a large number of serials deeper than 1000 meters_ ( since
published) have been taken in the eastern margin of the Pacific
within the last few years by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, and by
the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, these have all been locat3d close
in to the A;:ierican coast, or around the Hawaiian Archipelago, Up to
1928, a dozen stations, extending out from the coast of Chile, g-ave
the only accurate data as to the salinity of the bottom of th3
Southern Pacific on the American side.

The vmole southeastern part of that ocean was, therefore, nearly
virgin ground with respect to its abyssal cali.-ities until crossed
by the "Carnegie" in 192&-1929; its northeastern abyss hardly lees so.
On the western side we find another vast blank, so far as the .salin-
ity of the deep v;ater (for that matter, all except the surfaca) is
concerned, extending westward from the longitude of the Ha.waiio/n
Archipelago nearly to the Tuscarora deep off Japan, and to th3 basin
between thj Japan and the Philippines, whore a considerable nuiber
of deep records of salinity, as well as of temperature, have boc"u
obtained. This expanse, thousands of miles in extent, is crossed
(cast and wrist) by only one line of five observing stations at about
the latitude of Sa.n Francisco, In fact, along only one meridional
profile, falling between longitudes 140° Vk\ and 160° W. arc data
available for reconstructing the sub-surface salinity of the central
basin of the Pacific; even for this we must turn back to the ob-
servations taken by the "Challenger" half a century ago.^ Not a

1, Existing data have also allowed the construction of such a
profile around the eastern margin of the Pacific.

single really deep salinity-determination has yet been obtained in
the Antarctic extension of the Pacific.

?A

On such ridioulously inadequate data must we needs base our
present views as to the physical and chemical conditions and cir-
culation of the bottom waters of the largest of the oceans.

On the deeps of the central part of the Indian Ocean (an area
roughly as large as Australia) less than a dozen complete serial
observations have been taken though information is more extenBive
around the African, Indo-LIalaysian and Australian margins. Not^^a
single deeo record of salinity has been obtained to the south of
Australia," and only six of abyssal temperature, though the Southern
Indian Ocean further west has been made comparatively well-lcno'-m by
the various Antarctic exploring expeditions.

Thanhs to the "Meteor," we have today a better picture of the
physics of the deep waters of the South Atlantic, in its regional
and bathAz-metric aspects, than for any of the other ocean basins as
a whol3, an interesting illustration of the amount of exploratory
worlv that a single well planned and well equipped deep sea expedi-
tion can accomplish.

The fertility of the results that may be expected from equally
detailed surveys of the other oceans may be judged from the fact
that the meridional salinity profiles of the two sides of the South
and Equatorial Atlantic, constructed from the Meteor's data, have
necessitated an entire reconsideration of the views previously held
as to the circulatory m.ovements of the different strata in the mid-
levels of the Atlantic basins as a whole, especially as to the
northward extensions of water from the Antarctic, and as to the
regions of sinking and up-welling,

2, dirculation

It is as essential for the oceanographer to understand
the circulatory .;^ovements of the water, if he is to comprehend any
of the events that take place in the sea, whether biologic or geo-
physical, as it is for the meteorologist to understand the systems
of winds on land.

In practice, the study of ocean currents can never be divorced
from that of the more static physical features of the water as repre-
sented by salinity and temperature, both because the latter give
evidences of the former, and because the circulation is largely
responsible for the distribution of temperature and salinity, as
actually existing. It is, in fact, chiefly because of the trans-
ference toward the poles of great volii;:ieE of water that have been
heated near the equator by the sun, because of the return movements
toward the tropics of water cooled around the Arctic and Antarctic
fronts, and because of the mass sinkings in high la.titudes, that the
distribution of ter.perature in the sea does not vary directly v/ith
the latitude, but that an as^nrnmstrical distribution is maintained,
warmest in the eastern sides of the oceans in the northern hemisphere,
in the western sides in the southern, and that the abyssal basins

1. This is ccntrolled to some extent by difforences in the efficiency
of alternate eum;:ier warming and winter cooling, in situ, along the
windward and leeward sides of the continents.

25

are keot icy cold.

Cold currents are also responsible for the drifts of ice fron
the Antarctic and Arctic to melt in lov/er latitudes, ^.vith all that
this entails as to sea chilling, effects on terrestrial climates,
etc., ;7hile this same melting process produces circulatory effects
in the nearby waters that have been the subject of much dispute. It
is, therefore, impossible to understand the thermal problems in the
sea if v;e do not understand the phenomena and causes of its circula-
tion, and vice-versa; this applies equally to the problems of salin-
ity; likewise to the regional and bathic variations in the concentra-
tions of oxygen, and of the various solutes. Circulation, of one
kind or anj'cher, also plays an active part in the events of sulo-
marine geology, as it sorts and transports sediments, attacks shore
lines and slopes, maintains conditions approaching equilibriu.n with
regard to the alkalinity, etc., of the water, and so forth.

In short, no argument is needed to justify the study of ocee.n
circulation from the geo-physical standpoint, for here v/e face an
earthly phenomenon of the first rank. Currents in the sea also
intrude constantly on the attention of oceanic biologists; partly
bocausj this would be true of anything that controls the temperaxure
of the water, but also as agencies important in the migrations and
dispersa.ls of a great variety of animals and plants. This phase is
of great concern to the student of the problems of the marine
fisheries.

The mobility of the waters of the oceans (with their high
specific gravity) also concerns the biologist as making possible the
planktonic existence of many groups of animals and plants, while per-
mitting other categories of animals to lead a stationary existence
fixed to the bottom, where they depend on the waters to bring their
food to them, instead upon their own powers of locomotion to carry
them to their prey (Page 45),

The knowledge of currents that is needed by the biologist calls,
furthermore, for examinations of special regions so detailed that we
commence to see the circulatory bases for vital economy in only ?.
few areas, all of them near land; the North, the Norwegian and the
Barents Seas, for instance; the Baltic; the I^editerranean; the Gulf
of Maine; the Gulf of St. Lawrence; the Californian and Japanese
coastal waters.

Currents, like temperatures (Page 89), also bear directly on
human affairs via the disturbing effect that any sporadic departure
from the normal state must have on the temperature of the water,
hence on the te-Tperature and barometric pressure of the overlying
air, to be reflected in weather abnormalities over the neighboring
lands (Pago 90). We also think here of the importance of ocean
currants in navigation; not only as they assist or impede passing-
ships and as the relative directions of current and of wind affects
the heights and shapes of waves, but also as the agencies responsible
for the menace to the traffic lines by icebergs.

In short, there is no field of study, of soa or of its con'ounts,
that is not immediately concerned with the circulation of the v/aoer.

36

We must empliaBlze that this concern extends to every type of circu-
lation takino; place, and to every fores, external or internal, that
is able to set the water in niotion, because every type of circula-
tion that exists has far-reaching effects in all the fields just
mentioned, while because of the almost perfect fluidity of water, a
variety of forces produce motion within it. Furthermore, every
circulatory problem involves both the observable events and their
causes.

Oirculatory phenomena in the sea may be divided into (a) tidal,
set in notion by the gravitational attraction of the sun, of the
moon, and of other heavenly bodies; and (b) non-tidal, including all
other currents or disturbances of whatever sort.

The study of the tides is now so admirably taken care of by the
tidal surveys of all the more important maritime nations that the
tides will be omitted from this discussion.

For convenience, the non-tidal currents may, in turn, be
divided into (a) the progressive horizontal, (b) the vertical, and
(c) the non- progressive oscillations which do more work in the sea
than is generally appreciated. The first of these groups includes
all the more apparent ocean currents, also the slower mass-drifts,
whether at the surface or in the deeps. The second group refars to
the mass sinkings and up~wellings (equally important if less obvious
elements in the closed system), likewise to the violent churnings
taking place along certain sectors of coastline, as for example, at
the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, and over so/ne of the most productive
fishing grounds; it also refers to the turbulent effects of tides
and vifaves in general. The third refers to wave notion, including
the so-called "tidal waves" v/hich are really set up by volcanic
action, or by earthquakes beneath the sea.

Every student of the sea has fully realized the importance of
the horizontal ocean currents in the scheme of things; so has every
intelligent seaman. The problems of this phase of oceanic circula-
tion noT/ unfold along three lines; (1) What is the normal current-
system of the ocean in all its parts, in all its depths, and at all
seasons of the year? (2) ?/hat is the magnitude of the variations
from this nornal state, and how often do they hanpen? (3) '."hat are
the motive forces for th.e continuing system of currents in the sea,
and for the deviations therefrom?

No ono who stops to consider the vast areas covered by the
oceans, the great expense of special expeditions, and the difficulty
of making direct measurements of the current anywhere except close
to land and in vsr:,'- shoal water, will be surprised that even the
mere pictorial representa.tion of the circulation of the surface of
the ocean is still far from complete.

The first important application of currents to be appreciated
was the navigational. From the days of the Phoenecians, or earlier,
ship captains have realized that knowledge of the currents was
necessary for the safety and expedition of their voyages. By the
middle of the last century the gradual collection and digestion of

p. 7

vessels' log books had given the navigator a rough picture of such
of the ii-ajor currents as affected hi^i the most, especially in the
North Atlantic. And while it was chiefly by suiting the sailing
routes to the prevailing winds that the use of Maury's sailing direct-
tions expedited voyages, ^ it is certain that advantage taken of the

1. The average voyage from England to America was shortened by
about ten days thereby, from England to Australia and return by
about sixty days.

prevailing current was partly responsible for the fact that British
ship masters alone are said to have profited ten million dollars
annually by using Maury's and more recent current charts, so long as
sailing ships continued to carry the bulk of the world's commerce.
And while full-powered steamers now run more independently of the
current, co.itinued collection of such data has been considered so
important that the Hydrographic and Meteorologic offices of Great
Britain, of Germany, of Holland, and of the United States had to-
gether gathered more than 27,000,000 notes on the wind, weather,
surface temperature, and surface drift of the sea, up to 1904.

Notv/ithstanding the vast amount of data assembled, even the
surface currents can yet be pictured only in a very generalized \;ay.
This is due in part to the nature of the information available from
log books, in which any leeway that the ship may have made is
usually included in the recorded "drift." But a more serious
difficulty is that ocean currents do not progress like smooth flowing
rivers, but are constantly varying in velocity and direction, eddying,
even terporarily reversed by the wind, in a way so complex that it
is not yet :oossible to state the details for any part of the sea,
at any season of the year. Furthermore, surface data, taken by them^
selves, may give a very erroneous picture of the actual circulation,
because a knowledge of the rr.ovements of the underlying water is
equally essential. In this last respect, reports from passing ships
do not help us at all.

Since it has not proved feasible to use current meters frequently
enough in deep water, or at stations enough, to be of much value
there, it is necessary to turn to indirect methods to learn the
direction of the horizontal flow in the deeper layers. The sorts of
data from which the latter may be deduced are various. The distribu-
tion of oxygen gives us some information. So does the distribution
of the different kinds of sediments on the bottom; also the geo-
graphic distribution of various plants and animals. But far the
most reliable indices to the movements of v/ater-masses belov; the
surface are their temperatures and salinities. Hence it v;as not until
a satisfactory deep sea thermometer was invented, and an accurate
method of measuring the salinity (or the specific gravity, for the
one can be calculated from the other) , that science was in a posi-
tion to gather eL".piric knowledge of the movements that geographers
had long postulated for the bottom waters of the ocean.

We are able, by expansions of cold or of warm water, of high
salinities or of low, to recognize arctic or tropical currents;
land water fanning out off river mouths; the lines of dispersal for
the highly saline waters that result from evaporation at the surface

9.P

8

in certa.in enclosed seas (Mediterranean and Red Sea), as well as in
the Trade Wind belts; the up-wellings from the abyss; the regions
where water, chilled to a high specific gravity, pours downward from
the surface; the regions of active turbulence, where the surface is
chilled, the bottom warmed, etc. The evidence of salinity is
especially instructive with respect to deep currents, because this
feature of a body of water below the surface is altered only if it be
forcibly intermingled with water of some other character, _ whereas
cold v/ater may be warmed, or warm water cooled, by radiation, with-
out any such mixing. And while the knowledge of currents to be ob-
tained from temperature and salinity (each v/eighed per se) is
strictly qualitative, up to date it has given us almost our sole
reliable clue to the movements of the waters of the deeps.

Even with the modern development of quantitative methods of
studying ocean currents, the simpler lines of qualitative evidence
must not be neglected, because the two illuminate different aspects
of the circulatory problem. The former throw light on the direction
and velocity of flow prevailing at the time of observation, and to
be expected as long thereafter as conditions continue stable, But
when we find, let us say, a tongue of cold water extending down along
the Grand 3anlcs from the north, with bergs floating in it, we see the
result of events that have been taking place for some time previous:
i.e., we glimpse oceanographic history. And by plotting these _
simple physical features of the ;^'ater periodically, it is possible to
follow the relative contractions and expansions of different water-
masses as long as these continue. Thus in Physical Oceanography, as
in every one of the geo-physical sciences, the qualitative-des-
criptive method of study must proceed hand in hand with the quanti-
tative, if we are to gain a just picture of events as they actually
occur in nature.

In this case, as is usually true of broad-scale phenomena, the
dependability of the results rests largely on the number of observa-
tions taken, • And as we have to do with dynamic phenomena, rather
than with static, the more nearly simultaneous the observations can
be made the better.

NatU-L-ally, these technical requirements have best been met in
the more frequented and more fished parts of the North Atlantic and
of its tributary seas. Qualitative studies of the currents at
different depths have, in fact, been prosecuted so intensively in
limited areas in the North Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the Bay of Biscay,
the Straits of Gibralter, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Gulf of Ifeine,
around the Grand Banks, and in the Straits of Florida, that the pre-
vailing systems of motion have been v/orked out there, surface to
bottom. This applies also along the coasts of southern California,
likewise around Japan; but nowhere else as yet.

When we turn to the ocean basins, outside the margins of the
continents, there is crying need for the raw data (temperature and
salinity) for current plotting (Page ;:5 ), Lacking this t;o still
fail to comprehend more than the most general aspects of the drifts
over the floors of the abyss - movements that are as important a
part of the picture from every point of view (except the navigational)
as is the circulation of the surface. And our ideas as to the

29

dominant drifts and interchanges in the mid-strata of the ocean^^
basins are only now crystallizing. This is especially true of one
vast and lonelv expanses of the Pacific, which have been traversed
by scientific expeditions only at long intervals, and along tracics
far aoart. Knowledr-e of the underlying circulation of the Paciiic
and of the Indian Ocean might be expected to lag far behind tnat of
the Atlantic, because of the great areas to be covered, and the ^
expense involved, did not their closure to the north (complete lor
the Indian Ocean, nearly so for the Pacific), greatly simplify tneir
circulatory characters. The immediate need here is for the accuniu-
lation of the raw data.

Vertical currents are not as apparent to the causal observer
as are the horizontal drifts. In fact, movements of thi,3 sort are,
as a rule, so slow that they are not to be detected by ordinary
instrumental observation, but only indirectly by their effects upon
the te^iperature and salinity of the surface waters of the regions
in question. Since they are not of direct interest to the navigator
(omitting the mythical or more actual whirlpools in narrow straits,
etc.) their existence vvas not recognized until theoretic discussions
of the circulatory systems of the oceans made clear the necessity
for assiining the existence of something of the sort. Moreover,
such vertical currents were later deduced from wind observations.

Modern oceanograph3/ is, however, much concerned with the up-
wellings and sinkings that are now '-.nown to take place on a vast
scale, because it is certain that the presence of a thick stratuij
of water in the abyss, much colder than the mean temperature of the
underlying crust of the earth, is the resiilt of mass sinkings, near
the poles, of water cooled and so given a high specific gravity
at the surface. Conversely, we need more than our present sketchy
view of the corapensating up-wellings, known to prevail along the
coasts of Ilorocco; of Southwest Africa; of California; of Ecuador,
Peru, and Chile. From what depths do these chiefly draw? What are
their velocities, their seasonal fluctuations, the volumes of v/ater
involved? Just how do they control the physical characters of the
upper strata of v/ater, and what is their effect on the vital oconouy
of the seas where their physical effects are greatest? Only for
the California up-welling can v;e yet answer these questions even in
the roughest way. The South American up-welling offers perhaps the
most attractive problem in general Oceanography tode^y.

Perhaps of first importance in this connection is the role of
these upwellings as conveyors to the surface, of water rich in
dissolved plant nutrients. It seems clear enough (in fact, n^jjierous
analyses of phosphates, nitrates, etc. establish) that an the car-
casses of animals and plants are constantly sinking, the chemical
compounds to T^hich they finally decay would tend to accumulate in
the deeper levels out of the reach of the photosynthetic plant world,
were there no such up-drafts, and no churnings of the water. That
planktonic plants have been found in some abundance at great depths
does not arg^ae against this, any ;aore than does the fact that vre can
grow rhubarb etc., in our cellars, because they have been found -aost
abundant under regions where the surface flora (hence the sinking
carcasses) are also most abundant, suggesting that this abyssal plant
Plankton really represents a saprophitic community. Diffusion in

30

motionless water takes place too slowly, and on too small a scale,
to account for the regeneration of dissolved food stuffs in the
uoper stratum that is known to occur. But in the sea upv.ellingis,
eddy motions, and turbulence of all sorts, by effecting interchanges
of water masses having different properties, produces an effect
agreeing with what would happen if the coefficient of diffusion were
very high. Empiric tests of the actual events are, hov/ever, ir.uch
needed, because theory has far outstripped observation in this field.

Closely associated with the phenomena of mass upwellings and
sinkings are the problems of turbulence, in the shoal marginal seas
where most of the important sea fisheries are concentrated. In such
situations this type of circulation is a physical factor of tho very
first rank, because it there does the same work, in bringing rich
water up from the bottom to the surface, and in maintaining the
circulation of oxygen, that the great vertical currents do for the
ocean basins far from land. In high latitudes the interchange of
water between surface and bottom brought about by turbulence also
plays an active role in the thermal complex of shoal seas, by
bringing cold vvater from the deeps up within the direct influence
of the sun and carrying warm v/ater down in summer, while assisting
the loss of heat by radiation in the same way in winter. The
activity of turbulence at any given time and place is determined by
the interplay of many factors; strength of the tidal current; shape
of the bottom; contour of the coastline; strength of the wind;
height and shape of the x^aves; likewise by the degree of vertical
stability given to the water by the vertical distribution of
specific gravity prevailing at the time.

Turbulence, moreover, varies from hour to hotir with changes in
the tide and wind. Thus wide regional and seasonal variations may
exist in this respect between stations only a few miles apart, ma.k-
ing local solution of the problems of turbulence extremely co:molex,
and the turbulent movements are of such a nature as to preclude
direct neasurem.ent , But interpretation of the local variations in
the thermal and haline cycles in shoal northern seas (where tho
greatest abundance of plants and animals are concentrated), and of
many events in the life histories of fishes and other animals, as
well as of the periods of multiplication for the Planktonic plants,
depend so directly on knowledge of the varying degrees of turbuJ.once
that this general subject deserves much more attention than it has
received. We see a striking example of turbulence as a determining
factor in the Bay of Fundy,

The problem of the distribution of oxygen in the sea is so
closely associated with the general problems of vertical circulation
in the ocean that it is best mentioned here. The intake of oxygen
occurs exclusively at and near the surface, (l) in the surface film,
or within the upper few feet where air buboles are entrapped by
breaking v/aves, and (3) throughout the upper ill-urainated zone v;here
plants carry en photos3mthesis. Quantitative data as to the rapidity
with which any deficiency in oxygenis renewed from these sources
(particularly the efficiency of the latter out in the open sea) are
present desiderata. There are no sources from y;hich the v/ator cm
absorb free oxygen in the deeper levels. On the contrary the deeps
are constantly being roboed of their dissolved oxygen, not only by

31

animals in their respiration, but by the oxidization of th3 docaving
carcasses of animalc and plants, and neasur events of the actual rate
of impoverishment under the varyinr- conditions actually existing in
the sea are luuch v/anted in connection with a variety of biolo-ilc
problens. '''

If th-3re were no ncans of renewing oxygen fron above, the under-
lying ^vater would soon be absolutely stripped of this vital necessity,
as the deeps of the Black Sea actually are, instead of which we find
the bottom Y/aters of the basins nearly saturated v/ith oxygen, con-
trasting Y.'xth considerable deficiencies in the mid-strata under the
Tropical belt of the Atlantic, and generally in the mid-depths of the
Pacific. The onl:-- knovm means by which this state can be maintained,
is by sinking currents, or by turbulence, carrying down into the
deeps the water that has beco:-_:e saturated with oxygen near the sur-
face. We need to learn whether the mass sinkings" of ox^^gen-laden
water, that supply the bottoms of the basins, are as strictly con-
fined to the Arctic and Antarctic Seas, in their respective winters,
as now seeT.3 probable; also how this water comes to be distributed
over the bottoms of the ocean basins so uniformly that the abyss is
about unifornly rich in oxygen over vast areas, in spite of the ride
local variations in abundance of animals etc.

The relationships that the paucity of oxygen in the equatorial
raid-strata of the Atlantic bears to the drifts, toward the equator,
of sinking water from nid- latitudes north and south, that are re-
vealed by^the "Lleteor's" profiles, remains to be worked out; and we
still await a satisfactory interpretation, in terns of circulation
of the poverty in oxygen of the mid- strata of the Pacific. The local
lactors (e.g. abundance of plants and animals, amount of doco:Toosition
01 organic matter taking place at different levels) responsible for
the very notable divergence between the quantitative distribution of
oxygen and tnat of salinity, as revealed by the most recent meridion-
al profiles of the oc:ans, also offer an interesting problem; like-
wise the relative importance, from the standpoint of oxygen intake,
01 coastlines of different characters, with their different types of
wave action and of turbulence. How effective a source of oxygen
supply for the surrounding neighborhood is, for instance, a rockv
headland upon which the surf beats constantly? We have yet to leern
how deep simple turbulence is able to maintain the oxygen supply close
to tne saouration point in different regions under different con-
ditions. How are we to interpret, in this respect, the very rapid
falling off of oxygen, with depth, in the upwelling waters off
Call form a; and is this falling off characteristic of the other rerions
where upwelling takes place on a broad scale?

Finally, the problems of the oscillatory (pure wave) currents
01 tne sea deserve a word. Two classes of phenomena come in question
xiere,_one the ordinary storm waves, when not complicated by tidal
cnurnings, tne other the internal boundary waves' or vertical undula-
tions at sore mid-level that winds and other forces are known to set
in motion and that have been observed, on occasione when no a-Dparent
cause could be ascribed to them. .^i^^ -cno

Although the importance of learning the depth of storn-wave
case, and the efficacy of storm-wave oscillation down to that level
as a transporter of heavy materials, is obvious from the geologic

32

sta.ndpoint, very little is yet known (except for shoal waters) abo-at
the absolute depths to which it is effective. For example, canve
assume as representative of the sub-tropical belt of the Atlantic as
a whole the conditions prevailing on the Challenger Bank, off Bermuda,
where storn waves roll considerable masses of calcareous algae to and
fro, often enough for these to stay alive on all sides, down to a
depth of 50 fathoms or so? How much deeper is effective wave-base
in the Antarctic vihexe swells might theoretically, travel right
around the globe without meeting any obstacle - and perhaps actually
do so? What is the actual speed of such oscillation at different
depths, when set in motion by storm waves of different shapes,
lengths, etc., and travelling at different speeds? For that matter
the shapes and run of the surface waves themselves offer an interest-
ing field; in fact the stereogrammic studies by recent expeditions,
notably those of the "Meteor" have given the first exact topographic
pictures of the very coiioplex corrugations into which the surface of
the sea is thrown by the wind.

Our present knowledge of submarine boundary (or internal waves
in the open oceans has hardly advanced beyond the realization that
such things erist, and that they nay be set up by a variety of
forces. Vj'e need to learn what conditions give rise to progressive
boundary waves, what conditions to standing waves; their periods;
their relation to the free tidal v^ave; and their role in general in
the sea, including such points as their frequency in different
regions at different seasons, their vertical amplitudes, their
lengths from crest to crest, etc.

Perhaps the most pressing of the broad problems in physical
oceanography today, made so by its direct bearing, not only on
events of all sorts in the sea, but on land-climates as well, is
that of the irregular fluctuations of the ocean currents, with the
causes of such events.

It is C'-!rtain that if the present scheme of ocean circulation
were materially to change, the climates of the continents would soon
differ widely from the present stare; and for the worse, so far as
man's welfare is concerned. The effect of the ocean currents on
land climates is so much a commonplace, stressed in every textbook
of physical geography or meteorology, that we need only cite (a
classic example) the effect of the Gulf Stream or North Atlantic
drift, making habitable the most northerly parts of western Europe,
(reflected in the fact that the mean temperature for January is
about 40° F. higher in Northern Norway than is normal for that
latitude), contrasted with the oioposite side of the Atlantic, where
the icy Labrador current from the North chills the climate of the
coastal strip all along Labrador and Newfoundland, making agricul-
ture impossible at latitudes corresponding to those of Ireland and
England. Any variations in the currents that shift the previously
existing distribution of temperature in the sea, as any considerable
alteration is bound to do, will have a still more direct bearing on
animal and plant life in the sea; one almost certainly destructive
to soma species, but perhaps temporaril^r favoring the production, or
extending the geographic boundaries of others. Cases in point are
the almost total destruction of the tile fish off the east coast
of the United States in 1334, presumably by a flooding with cold
water, and the ir-miigration of fishes of temperate thermal affinities

33

into the arctic, north of Europe, in 1922.

In a general nay, the waters of the central parts of the open
basins can be described as extremely stabl3, in their physical
character, froui year to year, and over long periods of years,
pared to the atmosphere. The close correspondence between te.>-
peratures and salinities recorded at several stations in mid-Atlantic
by the "Challenger" in 1377-73, and at nearby localities by the
"Michaal Sars" in 1910, the "Bache" in 1914, illustrates this funda-
mental constancy. Around the oceanic fringes, however, and egpo-
cially toward the outer boundaries of the several currents, condi-
tions are far less constant, not only seasonally, but as a result
of wide scale, but irregular, expansions or contractions in the
currents, or of shifts in their relative locations. The most v;idely
heralded event of this sort that has corco under human observation
in historic times (because its effects or accompaniments both on
land and in the sea were destructive) was the abnormal development
of the warm current from the north along the west coast of South
America in the winter of 1925, accompanied cither by a slackening
of the cold Humboldt current (or upwelling) which normally bathes
these shores, or, perhaps, by its diversion offshore. During that
same winter a westward deviation of the cool Benguela current was
reported as similarly accompanied by an expansion tov;ard the south
of the warn Guinea current along the west coast of South Africa.^
Spectacular events of the same sort have also taken place in high
latitudes, within the memory'" of men now living. Between 1892 and
1897, for exan:ple, there occurred what has been described as a
"tremendous outburst" of ice from the Antarctic, sending so many
floes and icebergs northward into the southern ocean that the
traffic between South America, Africa and Australia had to be
diverted to more northern tra^cks. A similar outburst of Arctic ice
in 1903 is fresh in the memories of Scandinavian fishermen, for it
was followed by temporary failure of the cod and herring fisheries
along the whole length of Norway, north to south. In that year,
Barents Sea was full of pack ice up to May, while ice came closer to
the Murman and Finmark coasts than ever before. On the other hand,
a great expansion of warm Atlantic water was reported to have tak.en
place into these northern seas in the summer of 1922,

It is true that departures from the norm.al so noticeable as
these are rare events, and up to recently it has only been these
major departures that have forced themselves on general attention.
It has long been known, hov/ever, that smaller fluctuations do take
place from year to year in the boundaries and extensions of the warm
North Atlantic drift. Similarly, the International Ice Patrol has
found that the interrelationships of the Labrador and Gulf Streaxi
currents around the Grand Banks are not alike in any two successive
years, either in the seasonal schedule, or in the volmnes, te.apara-
tures, or velocities of the two currents. And these differences are
reflected not onl3'' in the yearly variations in the amount of ioe
drifting down past the Grand Banks, but in the tracks followed b:/
the individual bergs. In fact, wherever ocean currents have oo..\e
under continuous observation for a period of years, they have been
found to var^f, more or less, in a non-periodic, and up to date in an
unpredictable way.

34

Taere is, as yet, no general agreement of scientific opinion
as to the causes of these variations, for all that has yet been
possible, in any individual case, has been to show an apparent
correlation between the event, and some outstanding solar or other
cosriic hapoening. Some students have regarded such fluctuations
as due, in the last analysis, to variations in the amount of energy
(i.e., heat) that reaches the earth from the sun. But others main-
tain that these solar variations are insufficient to account for
phenomena known to take place. And even if the solar control
theory be accepted, the intervening mechanism by which solar varia-
tions might be translated into the variable pulses and curious
dislocations shown by the ocean currents is still to be worked out.
Does this take place via the medium of changes in the prevailing
strength and direction of the winds, caused by shifts in the loca-
tions of the centers of high and low atmospheric pressure? Does
more or less active heating of the waters around the Tropic belt
send greater or lesser volumes of warm water poleward, or is the
Antarctic shelf the cradle of all the world-wide disturbances in the
current systGi^:B of the oceans, as at least one emminent oceanographer
would have us believe?

Or must we conclude, as do some students, that the solar varia-
tions are too small, and the ability of the sea to absorb and
smooth out their effects too great (owing to the great capacity of
water for heat), for fluctuating currents to be explained in this
way? In that case the theory that periodic changes in gravitation
are responsible, caused by the regular secular changes in the rela-
tive positions of earth, moon, and sun, must be critically weighed.

The possibility that events taking place around the sub-
antarctic belt, where vast masses of ice break off, may exert far-
reaching effects, translated in the end into climatic variations in
distant parts of the earth, brings to our attention another problem
with which physical oceanographers have long been much concerned;
namely the relative importance that melting ice plays in the complex
of factors that keep the oceanic circulation in motion. Here the
present need is not so much for rehashing the old arguments, pro
and con, as for much more extensive investigation actually around
the ice edge than has yet been possible. At first sight this might
seem an especially favorable subject for experiment under labora-
tory co7itrol, for one can easily put a piece of ice in water and
observe what takes place as the ice melts. But one of the reasons
why the relative efficacy of melting ice as a causative agent for
ocean currents is still a matter for dispute, is uncertainty as to
whether the results seen in laboratory tanks, or in some small
fjord, do actually simulate the conditions that prevail over the
broad eiq^anses of the open ocean, closely enough (quantitatively
as well as qualitatively) to be accepted as representative of what
actually happens in nature.

The regional and descriptive phases of oceanic circulation
lead naturally to a presentation of the present state of knowledge
as to the interplay of forces that maintain this circulation. New
viewpoints in this field have follov;ed the recent development of
quantitative methods of estimating the relative efficiency of the two
major forces rost obviously concerned; namely, the internal hydro-
statics of the water itself on the one hand, and the frictional

35

effect of the wind on the other. Until mathematical expressions
were made available to take account of all the factors (e.g., wind
and internal friction, regional differences in specific gravity,
deflective force of earth rotation) qtiantitative measurement of the
velocity of currents, in the sea, could be made only by current
meter. But, generally speaking, the use of these instruments is
confined to sl.oal waters near land, i.e., to situations where tidal
currents are not only strongest, but are veering if not reversing,
hence where they so constantly confuse the picture that continuous
observations over long periods are necessary before the dynamic or
other broad scale movements can be distinguished from the local
and temporary ones.

Many such current measurements have been taken on special tidal
surveys along the various coastlines, likewise from light shios in
the North Sea, in the Baltic, and off the east and west coasts of
North America; also in the straits of Florida, where Pillsbury
carried out his classic studies of the volime and velocity of the
outflow from the Gulf of Mexico. But, by the nature of the case,
quantitative estimation of the drift of the whole mass of water for
any considerable area of the open ocean demands more generally
applicable and deductive methods. And for the development of these
we must thank the theoretic advances in ocean physics that have
followed Bjorknes' development of hydro-dynamics, chiefly at the
hands of Scandinavian oceanographers; likewise Eckman's mathematical
discussions of the proble.a of wind currents.

_ Mathematical calculation of dynamic circulation has now been so
simplified that the method can be mastered by any phvsical oceano-
grapner. 5\irthermore, the raw data that are needed are not only
easily obtained but are of a sort that have long been collected in
ordinary routine, i.e., a record of the teiaperature and of the
salinity at a sufficient number of depths-levels, and at a net of
stations sufficiently close, and taken nearly enough simultaneously,
to allow Horizontal projection of the dynamic state prevailino- over
the area as a whole. Unfortunately, however, neither this method
j_nor, for that matter, any other indirect method) can be the cure-all
xnat Its simplicity and its mathematic defensibility might suo-^est
because of certain vory serious sources of possible error. In'the'
iirst place the results are only relative to some other mass of v;ater
which may be taken as the base for calculation. Consequently, unless
hP vlni'^''^*^^ °^ the water chosen as base be measured, or unless it
be know., to oe stationary, the calculated result cannot give the
t^r^i °^??'^?^ /owever, in favorable cases record of temperature
and of salinity for a sufficiently dense network of stations can be
so dealt with as materially to overcome this difficulty. Secondly,
the contour of the bottom introduces a factor that can seldom be
stated nu:-aerically, for if the dynamic current strike a ridge of the
^n?-ffi^SJ'/'' a coastline, it may be given a character quite
different fror.; that calculated for the "free ocean," of which all
oceanograpners speak so glibly, but which no one of us will ever see.

rs^o.^ol^r^'^^'^^i ""'^ urgently need some general expression of the
?h! Jf t? U-'i? ^""^^ calculations are applicable to regions where
the depth differs much from station to station, or to condensate

Stio^^i S? S""^ ^??^"" °^ ^^P*^' ^°^^ numerical allowance more
rational than the arbitrary corrections that have so far been proposed.

36

We also need, as urgently, empiric tests on a much broader scale
than it has yet been possible to make, of the magnitude of the
error introduced into the calculations by the fact that even "the
deepest water-layer is actually not stationary, though it may be
moving so slowly that it is usually considered motionless for the
purpose of calculation.

To check the magnitudes of these several sources of error,
regional dynaioic studies of the sea should be carried on hand in
hand with any direct means of discovering the velocity and the
direction of the current that may be feasible, whenever and wherever
opportunity allows. In the few cases where such a comparative
examination has yet been undertaken the agreement between the cal-
culated drift, and the type of circulation indicated by other lines
of evidence as prevailing at the time, has been close. Thus
repeated comparisons of the actual tracks followed by ice, drifting
down past the Grand Banks, has shown so good a correspondence to
the dynamic current charts made simultaneously by the Ice Patrol
cutters, as to warrant the hope that such calculations offer a
rational basis for predicting the drifts of individxial bergs
accurately enough to be of service to passing ships.

Similarly, a recent dynamic study of the velocity and direction
of the outflow from the straits of Florida, based on observations
taken by the United States Geodetic Coast Steamer "Bache" in 1914,
agrees in general, with earlier measurements with current meters.
Dynamic circulatory tendencies calculated for different seasons of
the year for the Gulf of Maine are corroborated by various other
lines of evidence, direct as vjell as indirect; so, too, for the
Norwegian Sea, and for the northern sector of the Labrador current.
In short, we now have at hand a tool by which it is possible to
approximate, nui:ieriially, the movements of the whole mass of water
at a given time for situations where regional variations in specific
gravity indicate a drift much greater than the probable error, i.e.,
where the current is certainly due to differences in hydrostatic
pressure.

Other quantitative methods are needed, however, for situations
where the dynamic gradients are slight. Thus a method based on the
amount that the surface temperature departs from the value nornal
for the latitude and season, and on the thermal effects of evapora-
tion, recently worked out at the Scripps Institution for Oceanography,
and applied with promising results to the waters off the coast of
California, will probably prove generally applicable to other
regions where upwelling takes place on a broad scale. It also pro-
vides a useful check on horizontal velocities deduced from dynamical
causes.

The perfection of quantitative methods, and the further aaipli-
fi cat ions of them that are to be expected, open tvra chief lines of
attack upon circulatory problems. In the first place, they set the
stage for a rapid advance in our knowledge of the stats of circulia-
tion actually prevailing over large ocean areas, and at all dapths
from the surface downward, especially for regions v/here there is a
wide regional variation in specific gravity. In fact recent dynamic
studies of the North Eastern Atlantic by Scandinavian oceano graph ers
have already materially altered the prevailing concept of the

37

northern boundaries of the general North Atlantic drift, and of its
extension toward the Norwegian Sea. Diiring the svurjuer of 1923,
the U. S. Coast Guard carried out a general d^oiai^ic survey of the
circulation of the region of Davis Strait. And we similarly expect
from the nujnerous observations taken by the "Meteor," in the
Equatorial and South Atlantic, a general circulatory picture for
that ocean, for conparison with the scheme deducible from the dis-
tribution of temperature and of salinity, and from the drifts re-
ported in ship's logbooks.

From the standpoint of ocean geophysics as a whole, however,
the greatest service to be expected from such developments in
quantitative analysis is that here, at last, we have a means of
numerically testing the actual efficiency, as a motive power of
ocean currents, of one of the two great forces that have usually
been invoiced as the underlying causes for the existence of a con-
tinuing non-tidal circulation in the sea. We refer to the regional
inequalities in the specific gravity of the ocean waters that are
maintained by heating at low latitudes, chilling at high, combined
with the regional differences in salinity that result from rivor-
inflow, from evaporation, and fron rainfall.

In this field, the task imm.ediately urgent is to determine, for
as many sectors of different currents as possible, and for as nany
different ocean areas, whether the internal hydrostatic forces at
work are, or are not, quantitatively sufficient, and do, in fact, act
in the diroction proper to produce the general type and velocity of
circulation that other lines of evidence have shown to prevail, Hore
specificall:,^, examinations of particular sectors of the so-called
"Gulf Stream," of the Labrador current, of the East Greenland, the
Benguela, the Alguhlas, or the Japan currents (among others) iwrj be
expected to show how far such highly developed, and definitely
localized drifts receive their impetus from internal archimedian
forces acting along their courses, or how far some other force (i.e.,
the winds) must be invoked to explain their persistence. The
dynamic studies carried on in the Northwestern Atlantic since 1925
have had this as one of their im^nediate objects, and their fertility
justifies the extension of explorations with this definite aim.

Before the frictional effects of the winds relative to that of
internal hydro-statics can be finally established as a major motive
force (scientific opinion has long swung firat to the one then to
the other), wind currents must also be analyzed more searchingly
and on a much larger scale than has yet been possible. The
mechanical principle in question here is simply the downward pro-
pagation, into the water, by friction, of motion given to the sur-
face filiT: by the direct frictional drag of the wind. But it awaited
Ekman's mathematical genius to prove that the earlier concepts of
wind currents were erroneous because, they did not correctly allow
for the doflective force of the earth's rotation, and to explain
the peculiar spiralling of such currents v.'ith increasing depthr;. And
the fact that the wind-drift actually recorded has usually failed to
coincide, by many degrees of azimuth with the theoretic requirements
shows that more critical quantitative treatment is still needed to
establish some numerical expression for the effects of vertical
density gradients and of the contour of the bottom (which have to

38

date, confused the calculations of the velocity, volume and
direction of the current that any given wind will set up in ahoal
water) and to make sure that all the pertinent factors have been
given due weight in the eouations. Known methods of estimating
the effect of a coastline 'in the direction of a wind driven current
account for some of these apparent discrepancies, but others rei^ain
to be explained.

Wlien we turn to the chief problem of the wind as a motive^ force
i.e., how far the great Trans-oceanic drifts under the trade v/ind
belts, and around the Antarctic Ocean, are, in fact, kept in aotion
by the wind, or in what proportion wind friction combines here with
internal hydrostatics, we find few data at hand for quantitative
treatment.

In these and similar cases, theoretic discussion of physical
potentialities can provide a series of accurately solved type
problems. And while the conditions to which such apply are far
simpler than prevail in nature, the basis for synthesis that they
afford corresponds to the actual state closely enough to meet
present needs for the critical examination of test cases,

3. Penetration of Light

Light is so important in the vegetable and animal econony
of the sea that the biologist constantly turns to the physicist for
information as to the depth to which light- rays of different .-jave-
lengths penetrate into the water, with intensity great enough to
serve plants in their photosynthesis, or to govern animals in their
tropisms, and in their metabolism. The theoretic coefficient of
absorption of light by pure water has been measured many times, vrnat
is now needed is empiric tests of what does actually happen in the
sea, at different localities, v;ith the sun standing at different
heights above the horizon, and under the widely differing condi-
tions of turbid.ity that actually prevail. In this, as in other
phases, the stage of quantitative measurement has been reached some
time since; the next rational step is the accumulation of data ever
the widest possible range of latitudes, locations relative to the
coastline, varying abundance of suspended silt or Plankton, different
seasons of the year, etc.

0. CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF OCE^'^NOGRAPHY

The studies of the Physical-Chemistry of sea v/ater that are now
in progress, like those of its physics, chiefly aim at enlarging our
factual knowledge of regional variations and our understanding of
events that take place in the cycle of matter there, rather than at
clarifying the nature of chemical processes as such. They thus bear
to the science of physical-chemistry as a whole a relationship more
subsidiary than do oceanic biology or physiology to current attempts
to fathom the riddle of life. We may also remark that a line should
be drawn between problems in the sea. that involve analysis of the
chemical reactions that actually take place there, and those which
include chemistry only in so far as it is necessary to determine the
amounts of one substance, or another, in the solution or in tne
sediments that clothe the ocean bottom, as adjuncts to other
problems. The first of these categories falls truly v/ithin tho

39

province of the chemist; but the chemical phase of the latter cont-
sists .sorely of routine analyses, and so may concern the theoretic
chemist only in sent secondary stage. As an example of the first
category we might cite the problems of lime chemistry (Page IC ).
Examination of variations in the nitrate content of the sea water
per se might illustrate the second category; it is promoted to the
truly chem cal category Y;hen the cause and the effect of the varia-
tions in the nitrate-concentration come into account.

As the whole cycle of matter in the sea depends upon the fact
that the latter is filled with salt water (a solution not a mere
mechanical mixture), it follows that chemical problems are more or
less inherent in every phase of sea science. Consequently thG_
reader T/ill find repeated references to various chemical questions
in the sections on oceanic biology and on submarine Geology. In the
present chapter we wish simply to outline the sorts of chemical
problems that center around the nature of sea water, and around the
reactions taking place between its various constituents.

The ?v.ost basic of these, as a part of Oceanography, concerns
the processes which cause the extraordinary uniformity in comoosi-
tion of the waters in all parts of the sea. The oceans cover .lore
than t.YO thirds of the surface of the globe; in depth, temperature,
light intensity, and pressure thsy run the whole gamut from v/armth,
bright illuminatiov;_ c,'id freedom from any pressure save that of the
overlying atmosphere, to icy cold, permanent darkness and the sub-
jection to pressures of 400 atmospheres and upwards per square inch.
Furthermore the rivers that empty into the sea contribute solutes
that only vary from river to river in their composition, but that as
a whole differ v;idely from sea water in kind, while organic communi-
ties of different sorts withdraw different salts from the solution
in different parts of the sea. Nevertheless the relative proportions
of the different substances in the solution we name "sea water" are
regionally so uniform all over the oceans that it is customary not
only to regard sea water as a substance practically constant in its
composition, but in practice to employ the concentration of one group
of its salts OS a dependable index to the total saltness.

This conception is not actually correct, for it has long been
known that differences, both regional and seasonal, do exist in the
proportionate amounts of different substances (especially among the
rarer of these) dissolved in the water. Nevertheless sea v/ator is
certainly the most uniform in composition of any of the substances
comm.on upon our planet. And most geologists, ar.guing from the com-
position of the skeletons of marine animals that have lived in the
past, together with that of sedimentary rocks that were laid dovm at
different periods under the sea, believe that comioaratively little
change has taken place in the sea v/ator itself (except in its total
salinity), except that during the earlier geologic periods the pro-
portion of lime salts in solution seems to have been much smaller
than has been the case in more recent times. To unravel the inter-
play of factors (evaluating each) which maintains this uniformity
at present, and has maintained it in the past, is one of the most
attractive problems in geochemistry, for while various explanations
have been proposed, we believe no one would seriously maintain that
any of them is adequate.

40

An iTxtegral part of this basic problem is the rrore specific
one of the chei.dca?. events by which the pre:oonderance of calci-a.r.,
and of carbonates, rhich characteri?^es river water as a v:hole, is
so uriforml3^ altered into the preponderance of sodivim and of
ch?.oridCE that characterizes the sea wator, every?/here and at all
times, even "onder the r.ioct diverse conditions. The fact (recently
demonstrated) that this characteristic state obtains close in to the
mouths of great rivers, although the diluting effect of the latter
may be apparent for long distances, i.e., that the transition is
more sudden with respect to the chenical co.roosition of the water
than with respect to its saline concentration, shows that we have
here to do with something ir.ore fundaiv.ental than with a -.nere with-
drawal of li.ne of shell-bearinp; orga"is.ns, such as would allow
sodium to acc-irrmlate out of proportion.

Contrasted with the processes that succeed in r.iaintainin;5 sea
water so nearly unifor.ii all over the ocean are the chemical re-
actions that affect the regional and periodic variations that do
exist in it, and which involve a wide range of substances, and com-
binations of substances. Basic problems, in this connection,
because of their role in the general cycle of matter in the sea,
(Page 65 ) center around the cherdstry of lime and of carbonic acid,
bound up with the degree of alkalinity of the water. The chenist
has to do here with a very complex series of reactions in which gas
tension between water and atn^osphere at different tomperature.i,
withdrawals of lime and carbon by organic agency, precipitation of
lime, re-solution (which goes forward at different rates for
different varieties of carbonate of lime and different line salts;
and at different rates according to amount of free carbon dio'iide
in the v;ater) and alterations in the degree of ionic dissociation
of different salts in the solution, all play a part.

The importance of this general field in its relation to s^J.b-
m.arine seii;':^.entation, and to the accumulation of lime deposits
generally, as v;ell as in its more strictly biological aspect, is
touched on in another cicjtion (Fage > ). Cne significant chemical
problem hinges on the fact that in spite of all the various re-
actions that tend to alter the proportion of total bases to total
acid radicals, and that are therefore tending to alter the degree
of alkalinity of the water (and do actually so alter it v/ithin
narrov; limits) by adding or withdrawing carbon dioxide and calcium,
or by altering the relative proportions of the normal carbonates to
acid bicarbonatcs in the solution, the balance is so closely main-
tained at all places and at all times in the open sea that the
alkalinity never rises above or falls below the narrow limits -jithin
which the organic life (as regulated to marine conditions) is able
to exist. This phenomenon is as important in ocean economy,
and as deserving of the closest chemical analysis, as i s the
stability of the alkalinity of blood serum in h^jman physiology.

In this instance, as in so m.any oceanographic problems, two
phases are involved. First, the chemical potenoialities in the case
must be determined, and these have naturally been the subject of
much discussion, leading to substantial agreement with regard to
some. The significant task is then to determine in what proportion
the theoretic reactions do actually take place in the sea, in -That

41

order, pnd how induced; a. tas^': made difficult by the low concen-
tration8 of the solutions with which it is necessary to deal.

It is not necessary to mention here the multiplicity of problems
of this sort. Chemical' problerr.e equally fundamental are inhert5nt
in present-day study of the sea floor, for the geo-physicist^ is
directlv concerned with the wl'ole c;aa:ut of reactions that talce place
in the abyssal depths of the sea, it being an open question whether
many of those that have been proposed (although doubtless falling
within the range of potentialities) are actually of the importance
that have baer. accredited to ther/'. on theoretic grounds. With regard
to the sea bottom, as well as with regard to the water itself, first
rank might be given to the problems of lime chemistry, with ramifica-
tions too complex for discussion in this report. The chemical as-
pects of the precipitation of calciiom carbonate in tropical waters
are now being taken up afresh. If this precipitation be chiefly
mechanical, as now seems likely (Page j.l ) , we need to learn which
of the various reactions that have been suggested as the potentiel
causes are actually operative on a large scale in the sea. The re-
actions that accomiDEiny the formation of phosphatic concretions and
of glauconite on the bottom also need further examination, while the
proble:n of the chemistry of the deposition of iron in the sea floor
is a major one and to date practically untouched (Page 7 ).

So, too, the chemistry of the natural distillation of organic
materials in the bottom muds that are/ now believed by many to have
been responsible for the formation of petroleum and other hydro-
carbons.

We have still to learn the chemical character of the water that
is entraioped within the sediments, a very important question because
the alterations that take place there in the solid materials depend
upon its alkalinity, carbon dioxide content, etc., of this water.
We think especially of the re- solution of lime there and in the
abyssal waters generally. Some such process has been widely postula-
ted to account for the fact that there is a limit to the depths down
to which lime sediments chiefly accumula-Ge, and it may explain the
fact thp.t the percentage of lime usually decreases in the oceanic
sediments from the uppermost layer downwards for we have almost no
empiric knoivledge as to the actual details of the solution which
proceeds at great depthsl The problems of lime solution introduce
the basic question of the efficiency of sea water as a solvent, not
only for lime, but for silica, for the various volcanic substances
that accumulate on the sea floor. Solution of a wide variety of
mdnerals is also constantly taking place all around the shores of
the continents, in combination v^dth the processes of mechanical
erosion by the waves and currents. And while this solution is slow,
it is not only unceasing now but has been unceasing for past geologic
ages. In short the total amount of material dissolved in this way
has been enormous. Fu.rthermore, some recent observations with regard
to the concentration of silicates in the water suggest that solution
of even these refractory materials may take place ra,pidly enough to
produce regional differences in the amo^-int of silicates in the v.^ater,
according as different sectors ci the coast contribute more or less
to the sea. It is also certain that the last ?/ord has not ye': teen
said as to the solution of lime from coral formations in tropical
waters, or from the accumulations of precipitated calci'om there.

Af

A vaet -amount of work remains to be done before even an
approximately adequate picture can be gained of the regularly
periodic and regional variations in the amounts of the rarer suo-
stancej in the sea water. But growing realization of the importcnce
of these in the life cycle in the sea raakes this a task so pressing
that a considerable nu.^ber of institutions are devoting their efforts
thereto both in Anerica and Europe. As knov/ledge increases, first
one and then a.nother of these rare substances move to be of vital
irD],^orbance. At the present time attention in this field centers
chiefly around the concentration of phosphates, of nitrates, of
silicates, and of the salts of a.Ti-aonia. Adequate methods have
already been developed to measure the araounts of some of these in
tne water. But we still lack a satisfactory technique for deter-
mining, with sufficient accuracy, the actual amounts of nitrates
that are present in solution. And as attention becomes focused on
other solutes, other developments of technique will be needed,
because chemists have, in this case, to do v/ith solutions so
attenuate that they are close to the lower limit at which accurate
analysis is possible. In fact, some of the rare substances are
known to exist in sea water only because they have been detected in
the bodies of marine animals and plants, which could only have ob-
tained them from their aqueous environment, illustrating the delicacy
of procedure that would be necessary to measure them in the water.

Recent observations have also led oceanographers to turn their
attention afresh to the regional variations in the amounts of oxygen
and of nitrogen-gas in the water, as indices to various physical and
biological events there. Here again the immediate need is for
thorough regional and bathymetric survey for this alone can give a
sufficiently descriptive picture of the existing state,

D. LIFE III THE SEA

'JlTIiile study of whatever manifestations or activity of liie in
the sea is a part of the fundamental science of Biology, differences
in the disciplines employed, and in the nature of the irmriediatc
problems attacked, make it convenient to classify this branch of
science under three headings: (1) Oceanic Biology, (2) Marine
Physiology, (3) Marine Bacteriology.

The first of these is chiefly concerned with the ways in v/hich
the basic conditions of life in the sea are made manifest by the
diversity in structure and in habits of animals and plants. This
includes such subjects as Taxonom.y and its relation to geographic
and bathyiiictric distribution; the dependence of successful reproduc-
tion, growth, migrations, etc., on definite factors in the marine
environment, including the general subject of life histories; the
adaptations tha-t enable various groups to populate particular parts
of the sea; the interdependences of species of animals, and of
animals as a group of plants; the environmental factors that govern
plant growth; and all problems in cognate fields.

Marine Ph^^siolog^i^ covers the study of the general and basic
conditions and phenomena of life that are common to marine ani:7i3.1s
and plants; study of the vital reactions between the cell, or
aggregate of cells, and the external environment; and the intjr-

43

actions between the various bissues, and the blood or lymph which
constitutes what has been named the internal environment.

Mirine Bacteriology covers all the activities of Bacteria in
the sea,

1. Oceanic Biology

This heading covers much the san.e fields as does
Terrestrial Biology; but there are several very good reasons for
studying the oceanic phases of Biology as distinct from the
terrestrial. There is, to begin with, ample justification fro..i^the
empiric standpoint, namely to complete our knov/ledge of the Icinds
of animals and plants that exist on this planet, for many of the
inhabitants of the sea (i.e., of 2/3 of the earth's surface) are
still unhnown, while our hnowledge of many others is still far from
complete, even as to their structures, let alone their activities.
Collecting expeditions, at sea, are therefore still needed, es-
pecially along the less frequented coasts, and in the mid and
abyssal- depths of the ocean basins, hand in hand with which mu:^t
go the study, in Huseums ashore, of the collections so gather 3d. In
this way fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, etc., never before seen,
are constantly being brought to light.

Oceanic Biology also has a very important and direct economic
bearing, discussed in another chapter of this report (Page 67 ).

We find, however, another reason stronger than either of these
for devoting special attention to the plant and animal communities
of the oceans, in the fact that the peculiarities of the oceanic
environxT.ent make it possible to study the basic relationship botr-een
the marine organism and its physical surroundings, and between
different species or groups of anim.als and plants, in a more direct
way in the sea than can be done on the land. The sea is, therefore,
in many respects the most favorable natural laboratory for investi-
gations into the laws that govern animal and plant economy.

The pecu].iarities of the sea that m.ake this true ara: (1) the
simplicity of the marine environment as contrasted with the
terrestrial; (3) its comparative constancy and uniformity in tirae
as well as in space; and (3) the fact that the v/aters of the sea,
as contrasted with the air, are em.phatically a favorable environ-
ment, not only from the cbemical standpoint (discussed under
Physiology, Page 56 ), "but also from the physical-mechanical.

The first and aost obvious physical advantaj^e of rea ?/atar rs
an environment is that it is not dry, lika the air, but is an aqueous
solution. The bearing of this fact is simple. On land every
animal or plant must either develop some protection to prevent its
vital substance from drying up, or its habitat must be restricter'
to places that are permanently damp. The basic value of the barh,
of the rind, or of the impervious shells or shins of one kind or
another, de^.'eloped by terrestrial plants and animals, is not so
much to protect against mechanical damage (although this secondary
purpose must also be served), but to guard against the constant
danger of drying up. Consider, for example, the fate of an earth-
worm, with its pervious shin, when caught out in the sun on the

44

brick pavercsnt. Related to this necessity of reducing to a miniraiKi
the loss of inoieture through the surface, is the equal necessity
that almost every land animal or plant is under, of replacing such
losses 'jy taking in water; i.e., the need of drinking water. It is
a commonplace of school boy instruction that the supply of drink-
ing water, and the dampness of the air, together, go far to control
the relative fertility of different parts of the lands, and the
kinds of animals and plants that can inhabit them.

The very facts noted above, however, enable the land-organism
more, readily to perfect a "milieu interieur" adapted to specific
purposes. Thus the evolutionary attempt, exerted on land, to
escape this control by the water supply, has resulted in a grap.t
variety of protective adaptations, of which the water metabolism
of desert insects, and the storage of water by the stomach of a
camel, or in the stems and loaves of certain desert plants, are
perhaps the most familiar examples. In fact, it is no exaggeration
to say that the life of every aniraal or plant on land is directed
by the need of metabolic water. Even the briefest failure in the
supply is apt to be fatal.

From all this water-complex all the animals and plants of the
sea are. free. Not only is there no danger of their drying up, but
drinking water is never a problem in the sea. Thus marine creatures
are freed, as it were, at a stroke, from needing any of the adapta-
tions requisite in this respect for life on land, and from the
limitations that the water supply there imposes upon regional dis-
persioi-s or colonizations. Free from this compelling factor, living
substance may, in the sea, remain naked, or may cover its outer
surface (in skeleton formation) with a greater variety of materials,
not only with minerals, as lime, silica and even compounds of
strontium, but vdth cellulose, agar, chitin, spongin, and various
solidified proteins, such as the byssus threads of molluscs, and Tvith
protein erudations. Here nature has been able to give free rein to
the process of diversification.

Second, while air is much lighter than protoplasm or than any
of the derivatives of the latter, {e.£.:., bones, shells, etc.), sea
water is of almost the same specific gravity as protoplasm. On land,
because air gives so little support, the vital substances of any liv-
ing being of any considerable size must in sone way be protected
against the pull of gravity, i.e., must have a supporting framevrork;
otherwise,' it will collapse of its own weight. This need for suppor"
is a basic reason for the development of the v;ood, and of the bony
skeletons of land plants and animals. And while the skeleton of a
bird or maunrnal equally serves another purpose, and one which we r;>or-
usually appreciate, (the attachment of muscles), yet it is oni^'' foi^
support that large animals and plants absolutely require complex
skeletal structures.

T':.is necessity for support not only introduces great com-
plexity, but it limits size, for as size increases, so does the
difficulty of providing adequate support: size of land animals is
limir.ed by the strength of bones and sinews.

In the sea there is no necessity for any support, no matter hoTv
large a marine animal or plant may be. No alga, "for example, needcs

45

develop a hard woody trunk. Because protoplasm is about as heavy
as watsr, there is no gravitational limit to size. The only
theoretic limit to the size of marine animals is the necessity for
taking in, through the cor'iparatively small part of the surface
occupied by the mouth, enough food to support the entire bulk.
Correlated with the relief from the force of gravitation, is the
fact that the sea supports animals as large today as it ever has,
and larger than any animals that ever existed on land. The skele-
tons of ma,rine animals, then, serve only for external protection,
or for the attachment of their muscles. And comparison between the
framework'' of a whale, (which collapses of its own weight and
suffocates if stranded on the beach by the ebbing tide), and that
of an elephant, shows at a glance how much less is necessary in the
one case than "the other. In spite of their great muscular power,
even the largest sharks have still feebler, and wholly cartilaginous
skeletons without any hard bones; while an even more striking
example of strength without framework is afforded by the giant
squids, animals proverbially active, swift swiroming, and muscular,
though with only the rudiment of any sort of skeleton. ITo morphclo-
gical development of this sort would be oossible on land; in fact,
sharks and squids, out of the water, fall flat of their own weig;ht.

The fact that living matter is of about the same weight as
water has another very important bearing, for it allows whole
categories of plants and animals to pass their lives swimming or
drifting suspended midway between surface and bottom, an ecologic
category that has no parallel on land. The areal distribution' of
life thus extends to three dimensions in the sea, whereas on land
the zone that is permanently habitable reaches upward only to the
tope of the highest trees, downward a few feet into the soil.

The water of the sea being in constant motion, and carrying
a vast assemblage of living things along with it, there is also a
very much better chance that food will be brought by this pursly
mechanical process within the reach of a stationary animal in the
sea than is the case en land; it need merely await whatever th.-;
current sweeps within its reach. While, therefore, the power of
locomotion is so vital for land animals as a whole that we are
accustomed to think of animals as creatures that move, of plants
as those that do not, self-directed locomotion is not a basic re-
quirement even for carniverous anima^ls in the sea. In fact, whole
categories^of flesh-caters manage very .veil without it there, and
all gradations are to be seen there from such as swim actively to
those that swim or crawl for part of their life, then becoming
stationary (such as the barnacles), to others that are stationary
or practically so throughout their entire lives, such as the stalked
sea lilies (crinoids). And if density of aggre.<?ation, or numerical
strength of individuals be an index to success in the struggle for
existence, the oysters, mussels, clams, etc., the deep-sea crinoids,
tne reef corals, and the sponges find a stationary life highly
successful. This ap-olies, furthermore, not only to sm.all animals,
but to come of considerable size, such as the giant clam (Tridacna)
of the coral reefs.

The constant circulation of the sea water also affords a pui^ely
mechanical means of transportation, whereby the problems of dis-
persal are solved for the floating animals and plants that are

46

carried from place to place. Thus the dissemination of whole groups
of species is assured in the sea v/ithout directive swiuuning on tneir
own part. And even the fishes benefit thereby in their egg and
larval Gtae;es - or suffer if carried into unfavorable surroundings.

Thus, while it is true that nany groups of animals in tho sea
have been controlled in their stractural evolution, and in the
development of their appendages, by adaptations for locoruotion, such
as stream-lined body- forms easy to drive through the water, many
others arc free from this factor in form regulation. The latter
teach us, for example, that the possession of lateral limbs of any
sort, or of the bilateral sym;r.etry with which we are so familiar
that we have almost come to loolc on them as a necessary feature of
an animal, are actually not a basic necessity at all, but merely
adaptations to a particular environment, or way of life.

The morphological simplicity of the many marine animals, even
some comparatively high in the scale, that are freed from the
necessity of this particular control, frees, in the sea, the 3tudy
of the basic relation of animal to environment from much of tho con-
fusion that puzzles the terrestrial ecologist.

Corresponding simplicity in the internal metabolism of marine
animals is associated with the thermal character of the medium in
which they live. The more obvious of the complex ways that this
factor advantages the oceanic biologist, as contrasted v/ith his con-
frere on land, are as follows:-

Living surrounded by air, the thermal capacity of which is^^so
low that it changes temperature very rapidly, and through a wide
range of variation with changes in the thermal determinants
(strength of the sun, direction of the wind, etc.), terrestrial
plants and animals must, by and large, be able to accommodate them-
selves to v;ide variations in tem.perature, or else be able to guard
themselves against the latter. Yi/ith temperature controlling the
rate of many chemical reactions, the activities of any animal liv-
ing where the tem.perature range is wide from hour to hour, from day
to day, or from season to season, are greatly limited if its own
body t9m.perature be the sam.e as that of the surrounding air; still
more so if its surface be pervious to direct solar radiation. A
familiar example of this law is the sluggishness of snakes, turtles,
etc., and of many insects, in cold v^eather, contrasted with their
activity in warm. The only method that nature has yet evolved, by
which animals can free themselves from this limitation of their
vital activities by changes in the temperature of their surroundings,
is by maintaining within their own bodies a comparatively constant
temperature: i.e., by the invention of "warm blood." Contrast, for
example, the efficiency as a vital machine, and the freedom from
seasonal pulses in activity, of one of the higher mammals with the
snake which, in high latitudes, must lie dormant half the year.

While the maintenance of a self-controlled body tem.perature
does not require any general modification of the gross internal
anatomy, it does involve r.ietabolic adjustments so delicate that any
disturbance of the regularity of the control is apt to be fatal.
It also requires that the surface of the body be in some v/ay

47

insulated afgainst the loassage of heat, as by the fur of mammalR, the
feathers of birds. From the need of such thermal adaptations marine
life is freed, because the changes in tet-iperature at any given place
in the sea average not only very much smaller than they do in the
air, but very much slower. Throughout the niost of the ocean deeps,
in fact, the temperature is practically unvarying from year's end
to year's end. And while shoal waters in high latitudes do show
considerable alterations, in this respect, with the change of the
seasons, it is only close to the surface that such changes are
great. And even there any cinimal can reach a nearly constant
thermal environm.ent by merely swimming down a few fathoms to avoid
extremes of summer heat or of winter cold, as many fishes actually
do in their regular bathic migrations.

On the whole, therefore, marine animals have not found it
necessary to provide any specific protection against variations in
temperature. 'The general rule in the sea is that the temperature
of any animal is practically that of its surrounding water, rising
or falling as the latter rises or falls. This, it is true, also
applies to cold-blooded animals on lo,nd. But whereas the latter
pass through alternating periods of activity and of stagnation
everywhere except in the Tropics, no such rule governs in the sec,
each species being attuned to a certain optimum range within which
it pas.:es most of its life, but within which range various phJ-ses
of its vital rctivities, cspecia.Ily of i"!;s reproduction, are iir-
ectly controlled by the teiTiperature. Otherwise expressed, cold-
water xiGhoG i-xiy be quite as active as warm — witness the trouts and
salmons. When, as soretimes happens, a sudden fatal shift in the
temperature onuses widespread destruction ( Page 7C ) , nature's only
provision for the re^^stablishraent of the species in the sea i3 by
the production of many .^ore eggs and young than can survive under
normal conditions. But both the metabolic activity and the theri::-
odynamic efficiency of the organism as a whole are far lower in cold
blooded tJvin iji warm blooded animals. This suggests a field d:c en-
deavor of great interest.

The discovery of warm blood has never been irade in the 3.^a. On
the contrary, all the warm-blooded animn.ls that now inhabit the sea,
whales, seals, walrus, etc., are descended from warm-blooded ter-
restrial ancestors. To maintain a high body temperature demands
more rinid oxidization within the body, and more food. Thus, not
only is it no advantage in the sea, but it is a positive handicfp
there, because; the high thermal capacity of the surrounding water
malces the maintenance of self-controlled temporaturc miUch more dif-
ficult than it is in the air, for cold water ttilces much heat fror
any warmer body before its own temperature rises equally. A fami-
liar example cf this is the use of water in the cooling systo.ns_ of
automobiles. It is to meet this oroblem. of insulation that i/vialcs
and seals are enclosed in a layer of blubber. But this blubber
means added bulk; bull: not of direct service, except as protection
against outside influences, but actually detrimental because itu,
presence ma'res it more difficult to tjropel the body through the
water; because, too, its maint'?nance requires more food. Contrast
with this the happy condition of the fish for which fat is not need-
ed at all for the ourpose of insulation, but serves purely as a
storehouse for energy that can be drawn on even to the noint of to-
tal exhaustion whenever f. amine may require it.

48

Jud^i'cd iron the standpoints of individual abundance and of ;.bil-
itv to ,.,coplG all :..nrts of tha sea, marine marnn^als have not been go
succes,3ful^•^3 the fishes. On land, on the other hand, the wam-
blooded ma.:L:ials a:id birds have, in the lor'j; run, proven rr.ore r5uc-
cessful than the cold-blooded reptiles or araphibians up to daio.

These t::ierrnal differences between the aquatic and terrestric-1
enviroa::ient i:xke it far simpler to study tne relationchips tha.-": the
activicies of the organism as a ^.^hole (as distinguished from its
several constituent tissues) bear to te:r.perature aiaong m-nrine ■jx
fresh--;/atcr, than anong land ani.aals. And the control that te.-iv'-r-
ature exerts en the life processes i.^a'ces this a very important
question in relation to aniaial economy in general,

Tae aquatic environner^t, by its comp-rative opacity to sol:'r
radiation also protects all of its inhabitants, er.cept such ai live
close to th'i surface, from the effects of sunlight. This fre-s the
organisn from the need of developing any opaque covering to prot ..-ct
it for, essential though the sunlight be in vital economy, the
shorter v;avc lengths are deadly to protoplasm. There is no dan;:cr
in the rea of the sunburn against which every terrestrial ani no.l
must in so/ne way protect i'.-s tissues. One of the chief factors that
controls the development of pigmentation among land animals thus
plays 1 ::.uc:i less im;ortant role in the sea, allowing pigment ..luch
]:!ore di:^'^ctly to reflect the internal metabolic activities. Ooranct-
ed with t-is is the very interest '.ng general rule that, wher.a"! on
land animals living in dn,rknesn are usually colorless, in the ocean-
abyss below the influence of the sun's rays they are as a rule in-
tensely^ pig-''}.ented, and often velvety blach. This difference reflects
in th.=^ one cn-se the loss of pigm.ent previously developed by th'' c'.n-
cestral forms that lived in sunlight, but in the other case the dcv-
elopm.ent of pigment untrammolcd by light, its causes as yet unl:no\7n.

Because of the r-ipid gradation in the strength of light fr' ;.•
the surfcacc of the sea dornv/ard, and be&asue of the ability of :.:■-
imals to escape light by sinking, the sea offers a far better opyort-
unity than dors the land to study the whole category of tropisms
that light stimulation ca.uses; also the natural economy of ani.xls
that live perLa,ncntly in total darkness, as well as the whole cor-
plex of oroblcms that center about animal lixnineseence.

The high specific gravity of s -^a water, the fact that it is an
aqueous solution, its Gom.p.':.ratively constant temperature, th.) pro-
tection that a very thin film, of it gives against sunlight, and its
inces-.ant motion, make:, the whole problem of rcprodiicti n much s'm-
pler for mjarinc than for terrestrial animals. Eggs need less pro-
tection, and the young hatched therefrom, are capable of independent
existence at tt. earlier stage in development thian is the rule -in
land. £o w; find that even the most highly organized of the aaimels
of direct marine ancestr^r (the bony fishes) as a group solve the re-
producbivo orcblem mer ly by producing a grc'^-t many eggs, witiiov.t
any co.uplox arrangements for nursing the latter, or caring for the
young, while larvae developm.ent is m.uch more usual in the sea than
on lanl. It is true that so 'e fishes (notably the shark",) ar : vivi-
parous, but j edged by the usual criteria this does not so;.m; t :> have
been of any great advantage in group evolution in the soa.

49

In tLj sea, in a '.vord, t.11 living beings arc far :.'.ore in-
intimately and directly dependent upon the environrient, and a^ t.^e
same time far nore at its mercy than they are on land.

All the respects, so far discussed, in which the marine en-
viroranent differs from the terrestrial may be classified as
freedo-ri from danger: i.e., as negative rather than as positive
benefits. And it may be stated as a general rule that there is no
respect in which the sea is fundamentally unfavorable for lifi,
fatal thouzh imiuersion in sea water be to all the animals and plants
that through the ages have been attuned to a terrestrial existence.
With relief from unfavorable factors, coupled vith this fundamental
fitness of the sea water as an enviroranent, the evolutionary pro-
cesses are freed from many limitations and barriers in the sea,
allowing free expansion. Thus we find there an opportunity to steady
highly cor-plex colonial devolopments, and manifestations of the
division of labor, among lowly-organized groups.

On the other hand, as a corollary to the freedom that marine
animals enjoy from sor:e of the most serious difficulties that beset
their relatives on land, even the most highly organized of them show
a low degree of mentality. Thus there is nothing among the_
crustaceans comparable to the societies that some of their insect
relatives (ants', bees, t>:;rmitos, etc.) have developed. ITor have any
of the fishes of the sea developed anything of social organization
beyond such rudiments as the tendency of schools to hold together
in their wanderings. Thus in the sea the animal psychologist has
at his co:-uiand an^'ezcellent opportunity to examine v/hat may be
called the basic mental processes of a great variety of animals co:i:5-
paratively high in the evolutionary scale, unobscured by the co:>-
fusing psychic developments that have been stimulated on land by the
struggle against the unfavorable environment.

The problems of large-scale behavior, as illustrated by the
phenomena of schooling, can certainly be studied to best advantage
in the sea - at least they can be most clearly seen there. And the
uniioriiity of the surroundings in which marine animals live malces
the sea a far more promising environment than is the land for
researches into the stimuli or receptive senses responsible for the
so-called "voluntary" migrations.

It is still a mystery how fishes, and other marine anim.als are
able to direct their long journeys, often in darkness, and always
through a mediiom in which temperature, and chemical composition are
so nearly uniform over long distances that the most delicate tests
are needed to reveal any difference at points' many miles apart. The
problem here is akin to that of bird-migration.

In short, the study of the basic life-processes is not
obscured in the sea by all sorts of protective adaptations: we there
come closer to the basic tasks of protoplasm, such as to incorporate
within itself materials from outside; to grow; to reproduce itatlf.
The sorts of biological problems that may be most profitably studied
in the two environments, marine and terrestrial, differ accordingly.
On land the most fertile results m.ay be hoped from, studying the
manifest adaptations by which animals and plants make their un-

50

favorable environment serve their ends; adaptations whether of
structure as examined "by the anatonist and taxonomist, of stages in
develooment, as seen by the enibryologlst, of habits, to be traced
by the' ecologist, or of vital processes, which fall within the
province of the physiologist. For the Oceanic Biologist, however,
the most productive subjects group around the animal forms and
habits that have developed, free on the one hand from the stimulus,
and on the other free from the limitations that are imposed by the
necessity of guarding against unfavorable surroundings.

This freedom we see illustrated by the fact that all of the
phyla of the animal kingdom, now recognized, are at home in the sea;
whereas only seven of them have been able to conquer the terrestrial
environ;nent.

The fac-c that the ocean is the home of the oldest and simplest
types of the various Phyla, and the Exclusive home of at least one
of the latter^ explains why the co-7iparative anatomist must have

1. Of a second, also, if the Ctenophora be considered a separate
Phyliim . .

access to marine organisms. The embryologist profits for the sar.e
reason, while for him certain marine forms, Selachians, Echidoderms,
Ctenophores, and many others, are classic material. When he turns
to experim.ental analysis he finds the eggs of Echinoderms,
Nemerteans, certain marine Annelids, Molluscs, and fishes better
fitted for studies of fertilization, and cleavage than any others,
both because they can be obtained in unlimited quantities, and
because they are laid and will develop in sea water over considerable
ranges of temperature, they are suitable for experimental procedure.
Contrast this v/ith the scarcity in niimber, and inaccessibility to
experiment, of the eggs of m.aimr.als. Except in the water, further-
more, no eggs are laid v;ithout extraneous protective devices.

Oiving to the inherent suitability of the ocean as a home for
life, va.rious marine organism.s offer unique opportunities for
biological studies there, and this has been the consideration that
has lei to the existence of Marine Biolo.^^ical Stations. The history
of these begins with the Naples Station founded by Anton Dohrn in
1373, and with the Penilcese Station established by Louis Agassiz
during that same year. Since that time m.arine laboratories, to
exploit the advantages offered by marine organisms, and therefore
contributing to the biologic aspects of oceanography have multiplied
in Europe a.nd. America, Some of them have been associated with
economiic, especially Fisheries investigations; others, among w'lich
the Naples and T^oods Hole Stations are conspicuous, have served as
headquarters for theoretical problems,

2. Marine Physiology

The general ph^rsiologist, whether he works with m.arine,
with terrestrial, or with fresh water anim.als, seel:s a better under-
standing of the life processes that are comm,on to all animals and
plants, and of the ways in which the basic properties of protoplasm
are translated into all the complex manifestations of anim.al and
plant life that we see about us, on the basis of what can be learned

51

concerning the behavior of living syst-jms. Hence Physiology is not
so much a department of Biolocry as a method of dealing with the whole
of th&t field, insofar as it Gonc;rrns the propc-rties and relations of
living organisms, and p^rts of living org-^nisms. Physiologists,
t"herfcfore,' turn to res-^archss involving marine organisms for reasons
?s Vc-rious as those that influence other biologists. It is the
special advantages offered by see animals and plants as subjects for
physiological study that we wish to emphasize h-re.

In the first piece, they answer the requirement that for many
purposes experimentation shall be carried out under conditions such
that no irreversible changes are induced, and on a lar.Te scale, in
the case of such enerey relations as involve (l) temperature, (2)
light, (3) aravitation, (4) ionic composition of the medium. They
likewise offer the most favorable opportunity for rel^^^ting the
experimental results to the phenomena actually occuring in nature.
The investigation of abstract problems, in these fields, requires, in
the first place, the selection of the type of organism that (so far
as can oe foretold), is the most nearly suitable for the specific
question in hand. For this reason, alon-^, if for no other, the m.a.rine
biolo2;ical laooratories should continue and exp^.nd their functions 3S
foci for much physiolosioal research, since by contrast with the
faunal and floral eauipment of the land, or of fresh waters, the sea
is extremely rich, both as to individual numbers and as to variety of
types. Because, for r-xample, of the abundance and diversity of
luminous forms in the sea, contrasted ^rith their paucity on land, and
practical absenc- in fresh water; oecause, too of the wide range of
colonial animals; and because of the exoression of types of symmetry
other than the bilateral, and of various forms of app-ndages, etc.,
am.ong the marine population.

It is not generally recogniz-d how ?reatly General Physiolop'y is
indebted to the study of marine organisms for progress in some of its
m.ost fundamiental problems. The lar^e size, auundaac-.- , constancy of
physiolosical condition, and simple cultural requirements of the eggs
of sea urchins and st;-rfish, amiong others, miake them incomparable
material for cellular physiology, whether surface processes or in-
ternally colloidal phenomena are in question, and waeth-=:r studied by
temperature variations, by chemical means, or by micro-dissection.
It was, thtrefo-B, no accident th^t general physiology arose in
America at the Serine Bioloaical Laooratory at 'A'oods Hole, or that
its leader, Jacoues Loeb carried on his studies in artificial parthe-
nogenesis, in balanc^^d solutions, etc, there, and at Pacific :>Tove,
rather than at some inland laboratory.

The activities of individual marine organisms, especially those
of the littoral zone provide the widest variety of subjects. Y^ry
attractive opportunities are open for rc:saarches concerning the many
shoal wat.r animals that are of commercial im.port^nc^ , the sane con-
servation of which d-p-^nds upon knowledge of life history. Unfor-
tunately much of the work so far attempted in this field has failed
to command full confidence, Doth b-cause of technical procedur-', and
because of the character of the result sought. The incentive to put
such matters on a miore sound basis is, therefore, strong. This
cannot very well be dene unless students are brought into direct
contact with marine conditions during their formative years.

There has never yet been an opportunity to study the physiology
of the animals that live in the depths of the oceans, by the help of

52

which many si^rnif icant matters miq-ht be approached, if it could be
made feasible to control the.n in the Istoratory.

FhysiolOR'y, furthermore, is concerned, not only with the
activities of individual forms, both as such, and as they illuminate
specific problems, tut also with the inter-connected activities of
different organic groups. The sea offers the readiest subjects for
such investigations, and those likely to provide results of the
widest significance.

The most impelling lodestone to draw physiolo'2'ists to the sea is,
however, the physical and chemical nature of the salt-water environ-
ment. This aspect of the case has often b'^en emphasized of late,^

^3ee especially j. H. Henderson. "The Fitness of the Environment".

Te need m^^-rely point out that, protoplasm being organized as it
actually is, seb water is as nearly p-rfect a medium for it we can
conceive of. In fact, it is this very fitness alone that makes life
possible anywhere in th^ sea outside as well as inside a very narrow
coastal strip, for were sea water not nearly as heavy as protoplasm
(thus making flotation easy) and did it not carry in solution a
variety of chemical compounds usable by plants as food, the abundant
plant life of the s-as could not exist at all except close to the
lands. Without plants thrre could be no animals there, so that the
whole oceanic basin would be a desert.

Marine Physiology, therefore, centers around sea water as an
environment for life, and, as has bi-en pointed out by others, sea
water is a fluid of quite special inter-st, both oecause it is the
commonest substance in the world, and because it so closely resembles
protoplasm and Mood plasm, minus their organic constituents. This
■^'ntails studies of the sea water itself, because our knowledge of its
physical and chemical conditions is still incomplete, and our know-
ledge of it as a system v-^ry meagre. A.nd it is upon the picture of
the major cyclic changes there occurring, as a background that the
physiologist must diagram, in quantitative terms, the rhythmic
changes of significant ch^-mical constituents, before he can consid-r
the part that organisms of various types play in the ocean-equilibrium.
From the physiological standpoint, we only now begin to understand
the progressions of nutritive substances ynd the resulation of their
level of concentration, as related to depth, to distance from land,
to season&l periodicities etc.

The marine environm'^nt also offers very practical advantages for
physiology, because of affording the most convenient working condi-
tions, depending upon avail'ibility of a wide variety of orer-anisms
throughout the year, which is a primary requirement.

As a final thought on a somewhat different plan, contributed by
a leading physiologist, we may point out that one of the present
duties of physiology is the revivification and modernization of
general natural history. Long experience with fragmentary investie-a-
tions of the sea has at least made it clear that this association of
interests is desirable, and that life in the sea is one of its most
fruitful fields. Perhaps this is due to the fact that a certain men-
tal hiamility often follows contact vvith the ocean, its complexity and
its immensity.

53

its im.ii'T'ncity.

In presenting cert-iin of the more specific opportunities open to
marine physiology) we may for convenience cItss these under two
headings: (a) those phases oest att?cked vi'^ the r-^letionship
between the tissue and the blood or lymph, and (b) that between the
protoplasm of the cell -^tnd its immrdiate -nvironm nt.

Under the first of these subdivisions th'i applic^-tion to the
comparative physioloey of m•^rine animals of the methods now practiced
in the investigations of the respiratory, circul-tory ^nd blood
physiology of mrm offers a most promising field. An emminent
physiologist, indeed, gives it as his opinion that this is one of
the great scientific opportunities of the coming holf-c rntury ; and
that voyages of well equipped expeditions, making use of experimrntal
methods of this kind, promise to put the natural history of the sea
on a new level.

Thus, to take perhaps the most obvious example, we know very
well that the ■' istribution of marine animals, in fact their whole
economy, is largely controlled by temperature. All of them have an
optimum range within which they live, with lethal limits above and
below. But in many cases the v-getative metaoolic activities (ex-
pressed as growth) and the reproductive proceed most successfully at
different temperatures - witness the growth of the lobster to large
size in cold water, but the inability of its larvae to survive at all
except in warm.

The ciuestion ho^ this temp-^-rature control works on the internal
activities is now to the fore. Is this a simple matter of difference
in the rates of the chemical reactions involved (for certainly the
m.etabolic rates do vary with temperature) or is something more at
work?

Study of the effect of temp.-rature on the respiratory processes
of various m.arine animals also offers a fertile field, and a very
attractive one, because this effect is srreat enough to render tissues
that are adapted to the harmonious exercise of respiratory functions
(i.e. to the transport of oxygen) at on- temp-rature quite worthless
at another, no m.atter how much oxygen there may be dissolved in the
water. A study of the temperature factor in this relation m.ay
contribute to an understanding of the thermal control of geographical
distribution. May this, for example, be one cause of the'^great
diffrrences in thermal requirements between closely related species -
or between geographical races of a given species, such as we know to
exist among the cod fish and the herring, which find their optimum at
one temperature in one region, at another temperature in another?
In the Straits of Brlle Isle, for example, the cod prefer and seek
much lower temperatures than they do on Nantucket Shoals.

Especially intriguing in this connection are the specific
properties of the respiratory proteins as determinants of the
pressure of oxygen gas- in "he blood. In fact, the whole ouestion of
the oxygen reouiremients of different animals and of the same animal
at different temperatures is little understood. Wh^t, for instance,
is the diffTjrence between the blood of active fishes and molluscs,
such as trout and squid, and that of their more slus-gish relatives,
and the d if fere "ice between the tissues that perform^respiration among

54

aniR-.als v-ith different thermal optima that have no blood, but take
in oxygen directly throu^rh their epithelial surface, all of the
coelenterates , for example?

Very little, too, is kno'vn aoout the respiration of the marine
majnmals; sundry interesting problems spring to mind in this con-
nection. How must we assay as factors governing the distrioution,
the seasonal activities, and a host of other phenomena that are
controlled to a greater or less degree by temperature, the existence
of well defined critical temperatur-s such as have D^en made out,
both in a Natural History way, and experimentally?

Te even know very little about the actual internal temperature
of marine animals compered to thtt of the watrr in which they live.

The tempe^rature problem is not only one of the most important in
vital econom.y, but has the added advantage (from the practical
standpoint) that temperature is a convenient factor with which to
work, being readily controlltd under experimental conditions, while
the effects are readily measured.

Other comp.rative studies of this sort, which can favoraoly be
carried out on s--a animals, mia-ht prove of assistance to the human
physiologist in his attempts to interpret the phenomena he has to
deal with. Especially interesting in this connection is the occur-
rence in maiTamalian blood of salts in proportion similar to sea water,
with the contrastins: fact that while, in sea fishes, the body fluids
are nearly the same as s-a wat-r in this respect, they are never
precisely so. The whole Question of the physiological significance
of the different salts is, in fact, a most important one, to explain
which no satisfactory theoretic basis has yet been arrived at. For
studies in this field sea water is again the most favorable environ-
ment. Here new lines of attack are opened by recent advances in the
physical-chemistry of salt solutions, for Fhich marine animals,
because of their simplicity, are the most promising subjects.

In like manner, the key to the riddle of the secretion of gas,
over which there has been much controversy in the field of pulmonary
respiration, m.ay well be found in the physiology of the swim bladder
of fishes, about which little is yet known with certainty. Many
Questions of nutrition, too, such as might well be attack:;d in
marine animals, would find their reflection in the physioloay of the
higher animals - so, too, the manner of excretion of waste products
by the anim^al groups that have no special organs for that purpose.
This, for example, would include the intra-cellular pigments, and the
crystalline secretions of medusae.

Calcium; metabolism, as reflected by the deposition of limis salts
in bones, is another field on which studies in marine physiology
should throw much lisrht. Thus the rele^tion betw-en oc'^^an tem.p^rature.
the occurrence of lime-secreting animals, and the amount of lime they
secrete, sua-grsts th i importance of investigations into the role
played in calcium secretion by the effect that other electrolytes may
have on the solubility of calcium carbonate.

In the whole field of the physiology of licrht, too, especially
attractive subjects are to be found among the great variety of marine
animals of widely divergent groups thot liv- normally in regions of

55

very dim light, or of darkness, and so have developed no adaptive
physiologic protection against the lethal or other metabolic effects
of the whole of the sun's spectrum, or of any part of the latter.
This in turn, lends to the very interesting problem of luminescence,
so highly developed a'flong marine animals.

The physical simplicity of the marine environment also opens to
the investor many promising lines of attack upon the problems center-
ing around the widely diverse functions of the different classes of
organic substances that we group together as "pigments", simply
because they chance to possess absorption bands falling within the
region of wave frequency to which the human retina is sensitive,
which does not necessarily mean that they are similar ?ither chemi-
cally or vitally.

The basic nature of the respiratory pigments, for example, is a
subject that has hardly been touched on as yet, from the standpoint of
specific differences within a given group of animals, or of larger
differences between different groups. Crustacea, worms and fishes
especially lend themselves to investigation h^re. For example, study
of the qualities rith respect to oxygen of the compounds, that in
lower animals, a.re analogous to haemoglobin in the higher, may lead to
better understanding of the blood physiology of raajr-mals, and so of
man. Respiratory pigments are only one of a great number of sub-
stances that cry for study from this point of view. In fact, the
whole relationship between chemical composition end systematic rela-
tionships ejTiong different groups of animals and plants is still a
practically virgin field, and one offering most fertile possibilities
to the marine physiologist.

Carrying the chain a. link further, what is the oxidation-reaction
mechanism of the pigments of the marine and fresh-water animals, such
as the green Serpulids, the Sipunculids, etc., and the plankton
inhabitants (belonging to many groups) of the mid-depths of the North
Pacific that live in very lew oxygen tensions? a large number of
marine bacteria are also colored. Do these pigments also possess
oxido-reductive power?

This introduces us to the still more basic problem of photo-
synthesis, an energy capturing process in which, so far as we now
know, certain pigments invaria.bly play an active role. This, it is
true, is not specifically a marine problem, but it is in the marine
environment that photosynthesis shows its greatest variation, for in
the ocean the pigments concerned with photosynthesis are developed in
greatest diversity. An intensive study of the properties of these
pigments, chemical, physical, and physiological, is one of the major
tasks that now faces the general physioloQ-ist ; a task whose accom-
pli ehraent would throw light on our present ignorance of th=^ ways that
solar energy is turned to the service of living beings en our clanet.

It is not necessary to list more examples, for there is gen-ral
agreement as to the opportunity that marine organisms, in their sea-
water environment, offer the comparative physiologist. But for him
to make the most of these opportunities (and especially in America)
has heretofore been difficult, chiefly because the problems are tech-
nically too elaborate to be successfully attacked as isolated projects

56

during the brief and discontinuous periods of study to which most un-
iversity professors must limit their researches. As headquarters
for such work a shore laboratory is needed, equipped for first-class
investigations of the chemical and physiological problems that will
arise from prelim.inary and exploratory studies made on shipboard.
A further obstacle is the need in most of such problems for continu-
ous cooperation between students specializing in different fields. :

The sea water environment offers even a better opportunity to
expand our knowledge of the reactions of the protoplasm of the cell
itself to the chemical solution that forms its immediate surroundings,
by furnishing large, free living cells, as objects for experimenta-
tion. Reference must be made on the one hand to the considerations
which led to work upon balanced solutions, and to the recent and
very suggestive work on selective permeability and accumulation of
ions. It is from knowledge gained' in this field that we see our
greatest hope of comprehending the processes and reactions that set
all living matter apart from all non-living.

Sea water being not only a favorable, but what is more important,
a complete environment (for it contains in solution all the known
elements not only in simple inorganic, but in organic combination),
having properties, i.e. temperature, total salt content, concentra-
tions of different solutes, ionic dissociations; osmotic pressure,
etc. that can be precisely defined, measured and altered at will under
controlled laboratory conditions, it offers our best opportunity to
study all those interactions between protoplasm and its surroundings
by which life is sustained, none of which can be directly traced in
the air, nor could be in fresh water unless the latter carried
substances of some sort or another in solution. In fact, it seems
probable, if not certain, that the quantitative treatment of the
problem of cellular interchange with the environment must always be
founded in large part upon the use of sea water. However, while we
now have at our service methods by which the physical and chemical
properties of sea water can be measured with a high degree of refine-
mient, we still need, for a rational beginning, a physiological inter-
pretation of what sea water really is. As one contributor points out,
we know that it is frequently far from being in equilibrium with the
atmosphere. At times and places it is supersaturated with oxygen and
with calcium carbonate. On the other hand, while sea water carries
in solution every known element, many of these are in such attenuated
concentration (and p:;rhaps entirely ionized) that they have defied
detection by ordinary chemical analysis, though their presence in the
shells or tissues of m.arine animals proves that they exist in the
solution. As examples of xhis we might mention the Strontium in the
shells leid down by certain unicellular animals belonging to the
group Radiolaria; the VanadiuiH recognized in the blood of /^scidians
and in Holuthurians; the Cobalt in the tissues of lobsters and mussels;
the lead found in the ash of various marine organisms though not yet
detected in the water itself.

It seems that some of these rare substances are of great vital
importance. And the Question by what meGha.nisra the cell is able to
select them out of the water opens the whole problem of the specific
affinity of different cells for certain chemic?,ls, which forms the
basis for all the structures that protoplasm maruf^o-t-ur^s. We n"ight

57

mention the secretion by spons^es and diatoms of silica (en element
rare in sea water) in such great Quantity as almost to exhaust the
water of it; the ability of sea weeds to draw iodine and potassium
from the surrounding water so much more efficiently than man can,
that is is far more econoraicsl to obtain these substances from the
ash of sea weeds than it would be to concentrate them direct from
the water by any method yet perfected, or likely to be dt;Vclop-.d.
If any sea weed made equal use of gold, the extraction of gold from
sea water (in which on the av^^-rage there are about 5 mgra. p.r cubic
meter) v/ould not be th. will-o-the-wisp it has actually proved. k
more familiar example of th-r ability of tho living cell to s^lcCt
particular substances from the outside is the secretion of limy
shells by a great variety of plants and animals, an ability respon-
sible for vast deposits of calcareous sediments, of lim.estone rocks
and of the modern coral reefs.

Why is it the organisms withdraw more lime in hin:h temperatures
and shoal water, more silica in low temperatures and in the deeps?
The chem.ical reactions that have been proposed to account for this
do not wholly explain it.

The degree of p^rm-aoility of membranes for differ^^nt solutions
also holds the key to the riddle whether marine animals can feed
direct on the organic substances in solution in the water that have
not yet been reduced to their constituent nitrates, carbonates, etc.
The theory that they do so (the so-called "?utt-r's" th-ory) has
been much discussed, but is still op^n.

This, too, introduces the whole qu:-stion of basic nutrition; such
as the natuTrr of the substances in the oil of copepods and diatoms,
and of the carbohydrates of unicellular marine plants, which, in the
words of on.; contributor, form "the daily fare of most thinsrs in the
sea. "

A.llied to this is the question of the selection, oy different
vegetable cells, of specific solutes for their nourishment, or of
the sam.e solutes in different proportion. The vital mechamism back
of this selectivity (perhaps the most fundamental of all the peculi-
arities of living suDstance) is still a mystery to us. But thouerh
its solution (akin to the solution of life itself) may never be
reached, it is certain that its manifestations can be most directly
studied in the sea, where, for example, we often find one 0:roup of
unicellular plants thriving in water that some oth-r ccroup^had
already rendered barren for its-df by denuding it of the chemical
on which it subsisted.

ic;

In fact, the whole range of phinomena associated with th^
specific affinity of these simpl, organisms for particular substanc-s
is best studied in th.; sea wher-^ is is carried out on a lare-r scale
by the simplest organisms. And such studi-s off:'r th.-: best oppor-
tunity, now in sight, to learn how it is that our own body cells
select one substance or another from our own food vi'^ the blood
stream, a question about wnich we are still almost wholly in the
dark.

In a broader a?peGt, adds one contributor, is it, after all,
inherent character of living substance thst the specific chemical
solution we call sea water should prove so much more favorable an

an

58

environment, julged by the variety of animal forins that have develoo-
ed in it, than the other natural brines of very different character,
such as the salt lakes, that also support life? Or 5oes this merely
reflect a colonization of the latter by protoplasm, the character-
istic properties of which reflect a marine or terrestrial origin?
The study of such brines should, by thriir abnormality, enlie-hten us
as to the oceanic environment.

All of this converges in turn upon the basic riddle (of the
real answer to which we have not yet gained f::ven an inkling) of the
basis for the group and specific differences in protoplasm: differ-
ences that are reflected in all the diversity of life that has
existed on our plant t.

3. Marine Bacteriology

Pres<^nt-day femiliprity with medical science makes us
prone to think first of Bacteriology in its relation to human
diseases. The problem of disease, however, seems not to be of great
moment in the sea. Thus, while fishes (and no doubt other marine
animals) do suffer from a variety of bacterial inflections, and while
the hutnan aspects of oacteriology do r-ach into the sea to some
extent, when typhoid - and other disease-bacteria, coming from the
land, gain foot-hold in the bodit-s of oysters, clams, and other
shell-fish, most of the pathogenic bacteria (though capable of liv-
ing and multiplying in sea water, with added nutrients) have been
found to succumb rapidly in normal sea water. By and larre, the
disease-bacteria of man nd of the higher animals do not thrive in
the open sea.

The proDlams of Karine Bacteriology th?t we wish to emphasize
here are more akin to those of soil bacteriology; they center around
the role that bacteria play in keeping in motion the cvcle of matter
through its organic and inorganic stages in the sea.

If we write less confidently on this subject that we have on
Oceanic Biology (pa?e 43). or on Marine Physiology (^ase 50 ), it
is because our knowledge of bacteria in the sea is still scant.
But such glimpses as we have gained of their activities there are
enough to show that these must be assayed before we can hop^ to under-
stand the maintenance of organic fertility in the oceans.

The simplest task of Marine Eacterioloj?:y is perhaps to trace the
airecu service these lowly organisms render 'to the higher, in orovid-
ing_ the latter with proteid food. That protozoans do'feed on bacter-
ia in the sea is established. In fact, recent studies su?g-st that
m this passive way the bacteria that thrive on the organic detritus
that accumulates in shoal waters, and the protozoa that prev upon the
bacteria are essential links in the food chain of coastal waters,
where the molluscs and other animals that feed on detritus gain their
nourishment, less from the food stuffs therein contained, than from
the bacteria and protozoa eaten at the same time.

This question is a Quantitative one; the answer depends on th-^
numerical distrioution of bacteria regionally and with d-p+h In
general, the sea water is much richer in bacteria near shore, where
land drainage maintains a state m.ore fertile for them, than out in
the open ocean; especially is this true of the forms that subsist on
the excreta of animals. But viable bacteria are also known to exist

59

in '''he open sea, away froffi coasts, increasing in number doTvn to a
certain depth, while many of them at least are kill-d. bv strong sun-
light. It is certain, too, that bacteria ar^^ abundant in many of
the muds in moderate and in considerablf^ depths. Do these serve the
whole category of mud-eaters as food on the sloped of the continents,
and should bacteria be regarded as the primordial meat supply of
that celt of the ocean; or is their role in this respect important
only locally? We know nothing of their relative abundance at great
depths, or in the abyssal mud, except that there, too, they ^xist;
but it is here that th- problem assum'-^-s the greatest importance,
because of the absence of plants.

If we trace the food chain back anoth-r link, we face a problem
far more signifioant than this simple one of bacteria as prey for
animals, namely, their relationship to the circul'ition of nitrogen
through its organic and inorganio phases in the sea. 'Yhile the sea
water has been found n:'arly saturated with nitrogen gas, none of the
ordinary marine plants, so far as we know (and certainly none of the
marine animals) can use nitrogen in this elem-'ntal form, though
every one of them requires nitrogenous nutriment. For the animals,
this food comes in the long run from the plants; and so far as we
know all marine plants (except certain bacteria) depend for their
existence on the presence of certain salts of nitrogen (chiefly
nitrates) in solution in the sea water.

It has long been known that in the soil certain bacteria are
able to assimilate atmospheric nitrog-n, and to fix it in compounds
usabl^ by ordinary plants, if they are supplied with other non-
nitrogenous sources of energy. These same kinds of bacteria have
also been found widespread in the sea in shoal water, at localities
as far apart as the Baltic, the North Sea, and the Indian Ocean; ,
also in the Plankton where the organic carbon going into solution in
the water from the break-down of the bodies of defunct animals and
plants supplies them with the chemical energy that they require to
carry on nitrogen fixation. In f?ct, we h::-.ve experimentgl evidence
that they do fix the nitrogen gas with which sea water is saturated,
just as they do the atmospheric nitrosen in the soil, on land.^ So
far as it goes, their conversion of nitrogen to nitrates must beof
direct importance in marine economy, by making available- for marine
plants this gaseous source of nitrogen. But we have yet to learn
how to assay, in terms of marine economy, the frequency with which
such bacteria have been found associated with se3 weeds in shoal
watprs (where the concentrations of life ar^- the greatest), for we
havp no direct information as to the scale on which they actually
operate in the sea. In fact, there is no general agreement as yet
as to the actual importance of such of the nitrogen fixers as live
free in the soil on land; and this is the group to which belong the
marine nitrogen fixers so far known. Neither do we know whether
there is anything in the sea comparable to the symbiosis oetween
other nitros-en fixers and leguminous plants that exist on land.
Solution of'the 2-eneral problem of nitrogen fixation by bacteria
in the sea would-be one of the great gifts that marine bacteriolo-
gists could offer to Oceanic Biology.

Opposed to these nitroeen-f ixing bacteria, are the denitri-
fying bacteria, that (so far as they operate at all in the sea) tend
to reduce the concentration of nitrates (i.e. of available plant
food) held in solution in the water, by breaking these down to
nitrite, am.raonia, or even to nitrogen and its oxides, and so putting

60

them out of reach for ordinary plants. Eenitrifiers exist in the
sea, and much discussion has centered around their supposed activi-
ties there. But, lecking- quantitative inforrriation , we have no clear
concept of the scale on which they actually affect such losses in
the open ocean, both because of our iernorance of their actual abun-
dance in its different parts, and {mor:^ important) because the
factors thot govern their denitrifying activities there erf not yet
fully understood. It has long been supposed that b^icteria of this
group operate more efficiently at high temperatures than at low, .
Hence it has often been suggested that the scarcity of nitrates
actually recorded in the tropics, as contrasted to cold'^r wat-rs,
reflects the greater activity of these bacteria, in Vijsrin s"as, end
consequently that the regional differences in the losses of nitro-
gen that they affect are responsible for the genral paucity of
phytoplankton in the Tropics, as comp--;red with higher latitudes.

But this theory, like m?ny others that hpve b^en set up in
Oceanic Biology, is based on only one factor in the environment,
when actually others mny be more import'^nt; and on a numerical abun-
dance of the organisms concerned, which, while, easily maintsinid in
the laboratory, may never exist in the open sea. Recent experiments,
for example, hav; suggested that while temperature controls the rate
of activity of the denitrif iers, perhaps they actually attack
nitrates only when oxygen is deficient. If true, this points to
great possiblv. losses of nitrogen by their activities in the oottoms
of certain enclosed basins, in the mud generally and wherever oxygen
is relatively scarce in the raid-strata of the oce^ins, but to little
or no activity on their part in the surface layers which are nearly
saturated with oxygen. If, however, these bacteria are active in
the mid-depths, the results of their cumulative work there may lead
to a great loss of nitrogen, that must oe made up in some other way,
for most of the decomposition of dead carcasses sifting down from
above, takes place at this level. What is needed here is not theo-
retic discussion of what might happen, so much as empiric determina-
tion of what actually does happen.

How active the denitrifiers are in the mud is equally a live
question, because the sediments on the sea floor, in deep water as
well as in shoal, contain considerable quantities of organic nitro-
genous compounds, which, so long as they continue in chemical conn-
binations, are a potential food supply, that may be brought to the
plants in the upper waters by vertical currents. In the '7ulf of
Maine, for instance, the bottom muds contain on an aver^.;= e about
as much nitrogen as good garden soil, much of which is distributed
throughout the water at the seasons when vertical circulation is
most active. It may be assumed that a scarcity of oxygen everywhere
in the mud below the superficial skim sets the stase for the destruc-
tive effect of the denitrifiers there, unless the temperature be too
low for them. But v;e are still entirely in the dark as to how
effectively they act in the mud, i.e. what role they play in pre-
venting the accumulation of nitrates in the submarine deposits, for
while these salts are extremely soluble in the sea water, organic
particles teid to be trapped in thi mud wherever sedimentation is
rapid, and thereby protected from the action of the water. A.ay
nitrogen locked up in this way would be a dead loss to the oceanic
complex until it should in some way be brought again into circula-
tion.

While bacteria of certain sorts may perhaps be acting constant-
ly to denude the sea water of its nitrates, the fact there is any

61

nitrate or nitrite at all there, in solution, reflects the activity
either in situ, or on land, of other groups, not only the nitrogen-
fixers just mentioned, but of the putrefactive "bacteria, and of the
so-called nitrifiers. A.nd until the complex protaids and carbo-
hydrates from the bodies of dead animals are reduced to simple com-
pounds, they are usable only by animals, by fungi and by bacteria,
not by the photosynthet ic plants. Great amounts of nitrogen, it is
true, in combinations directly usable by plants, are contributed to
the sea by the discharges of river water that carry with them the
drainage from the land; also fro.m air. But a greater potential
source is the decomposition of the carcasses of marine animals and
plants. Bacteria of decay seem to be as ubiquitous in the sea as
they are on the land; witness the rapidity with which carcasses rot
in the water at moderately high temperatures. And not only can they
usually bs isolated from decaying fish, out certain of them are
normal intestinal inhabitants of Haddock, no doubt of other species.
But how do temperature, darkness, pressure and the supply of avail-
able oxygen affect the activities of this putrefactive group in the
deeps?

This question is important in oceanic economy because the
rapidity with which decomposition takes place (one of the two
factors that in the end control the fertility of the sea) controls
that state in which organic detritus reaches the sea floor in its
descent from the upp^r layers, to maintain the reserve supoly of
dissolved phosphates, etc. , in the abyssal water.

A very important question in connection with the r6"le of the
nitrifiers is to what extent marine plants can use the ammonia
compounds to which the putrefactive bacteria reduce the complex
animal and vegetable proteins, and the ammonia which the sea absorbs
from the atmosphere and from atmospheric electric discharges. What
evidence has yet bien obtained suggests thst sea weeds (differing in
this respect from land plants) ca.nnot, as a group, utilize ammonia
salts directly, but only after the latter have been altered to
nitrates or to nitrites, Thie alteration is the task of the nitrate
and nitrite bacteria. It has been proven that this nitrigying o-poup
does exist in the sea i,e. that the ammonia salts formed there in_
_situ and received from the air, are actually a potential source of
plant food locally. We have here both the indirect evidence that
when the store of nitrates in the water is exhausted by rich growth
of plnnts, it shortly becomes renewed when the latter die out, with
experimental knowledge of the chemical reactions that this group of
bacteria affect in sea wat<=r under controlled conditions in the labor-
atory, and the direct evidence that members of this group have been
discovered free in the sea water as well as in bottom deposits from
many localities over a considerable ransre of depth. However, empiric
knowledge of the seal-- on which they actuallv oo-rate in the sea is
still practically nil.

■A'e can safely interpr^^t their responses (in rate of multiplica-
tion and efficient action) to variations in temperature, lir^ht,
ozygen and state of the ammonia and other ore-anic compounds "pres.^^nt ,
by analogy with their activities on land? Or do they" follow differ-
ent laws in the sea? 'JVhat is their relative role in deep and in
shoal water, under the conditions actually existent? These questions
(about which different views are held) must be answered, before we
can assess the relative importance of different depth zones in the
ocean as sources for the renewal of nitrates and nitrites. What

relationship in maintaining- and renewing the nitrates for photo-
synthetic plants do the activities of these bacteria in the sea
bear to the oontrioutions of nitrates and nitrites that the sea
receives from its tributary rivers? This question is of direct
practical ifflportance if we are to understand the regional variations
in the abundance and season of multiplication of floating plants
along our coastlines.

Yeasts and other fermenting organisms have been found in the
sea water, although they do not a':pear to destroy su.ears and fats
there according to the customary chemical schemes. their existence
and enzymic activity there is indicated bv the fact that carbo-
hydrates, and fats, like prot-ins, disappear in the sea (just as on
land) after the death of the animal or plant. But how do they actual-
ly work in different parts or levels of the sea? How do they play
their part in m.aintaining the circulation of carbon, the draft on
which, by plant growth, must be as constantly replaced, either by
the absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, or by reduction
in the sea of organic compounds of carbon to their end states, CO3
and water? What part, if any, do bacteria play in the break-down of
oil?

It is because of the generally accepted belief that animal life
in the modern ocean depends on the presence of photosynthetic plants
for its ultimate food supply, that we have so far stressed the
general problems of the role that bacteria may play in keeping the
sea water fertile for these plants by maintaining the stock of dis-
solved nitrates and nitrites, or by replenishing the water with these
substances when they have been locally exhausted.

But in attempting to interpret the life cycle in the sea,
bacteriologists must also take into account another possibility,
namely, that the sea may harbor enough bacteria of the sorts that
can change carbon dioxide to organic carbon without sunlight, to
form an important food for animals and so to short-circuit the line
from animal to plant and back to animal. The nitrifying bacteria
just discussed fall in this autotrophic cateffory, being'able to ob-
tain all their vital requirements from inorganic chemical compounds.
And there are other groups of bacteria similarly chemosynthetic ;
for example, the methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and sulphur
bacteria. Beyond che fact that the nitrifiers and perhaps some of
the others do exist in the sea, we have as yet no em.piric knowledge
as to how important they are as direct links in the food chain in
the sea, or, in fact, what vital rOle they olay there. This ae-ain,
is a quantitative as much as a qualitative problem becaiase the'
numerical abundance and regional distrioution of such bacteria, more
than their chemical potentialities, would ^lovern their importance as
direct sources of food for animals, and hence determine the degree to
which they free the latter from dependence on the activities of
photosynthetic plants. It is with regard to the inhabitants of the
abyss where no ordinary plants can exist that this question is the
most intriguinQ-,

We also need to know what part bacteria play in breaklnsr down
the refractory organic substances that would accumulate on the bottom
of the sea if there were not seme mechanism to disintei^rate them and
to bring them into solution in the water. Specifically, what bacter-
ia in the sea, if any, are responsible for the mass destruction ox
the agar from the stalks and fronds of ssa weeds that is constantly

63

taking place under wat?r; a substance so resistant to ordinary
bacteria that it is commonly used in the laboratory as an indiffer-
ent substance for solidifying culture mi'dia. The agar liquifying
organisms now knojvn have actually come from sea water, but the con-
ditions necessary for their growth do not seem to prevail in the
ocean. Is this a case of bacterial action at all, or does the
annual disintegration of millions of tons of kelp, etc. simply
reflect the solvent action of the sea water itself? We face this
same problem with regard to the destruction of the chitin in the
shells of dead crabs, shrimps, and other crustacean. Benecke's
Bacillus chitinivorus will digest chitin in the laboratory, but
apparently not under conditions met with in the sea.

All this bears on the composition and structure of these
refractory organic compounds, whose constitution is still chemically
unknown. It msy be possible, by m:^ans of the organisms that attack
agar and chitin to unravel the composition of the latter, and during
the breakdown to recover substances of commercial value.

How, too, is the oil destroyed, that is formed by diatoms,
algae, Copepods, etc.? Poes it undergo fermentation through aner-
obic organisms to hydrogen caroons in the bottom muds, or is it
oxidized as in the animal organisms?

Bacteria also play other important roles, of which we, as yet,
have only glimpses, in the chemical changes following the altera-
tion and decomposition of organic matter that takes place in the
deepest water and in the bottom sediments. Here we think at once of
the for.ns that reduce sulphates in the absence of oxygen to sulphides,
of whose activities the vast deposits of stinking mud in shoal
waters (especially in enclosed basins with little circulation) bear
witness. Bacteria, too, ere indirectly responsible for the accumu-
lation of sulphurated hydrogen in the deeps of the Black Sea and of
certain fjords. 'He greatly desire more detailed Bacterio-chemical
studies of the deep water of other such basins, e.g. of the Sulu
Sea. The activity of these same groups needs to be studied in the
open ocean, where, becaust: of the active circulation of the water,
their effects are not so apparent. We know almost nothing aoout the
rSle bacteria play in other chemical changes that take place in the
abyssal muds.

The whole question of calcium precipitation in the sea is still
an open one, and one so im.portant that it is now being made a major
subject of investigation at the Scripps Institution. But this
necessarily involves companion studies of the physioco-chemical
relationships in the sea water, to show what chemical changes such
precipitation involves. When this is known it will not be enough to
find out whether bacteria can bring these changes about; we must
also learn whether they are associated with the mass precipitations
in the sea in significant numbers; also whether there is sufficient
nutrient in these situations to support their growth. The necessity
for uniting several disciplines in this esse illustrates how bread a
view we must take of bio-physical and bio-chemical problems as a.
whole in the ocean.

A few more live problems that have a general bearing both on
bacteriology per se and on the science of the ocean, may be mention-
ed. What, for instance, are the energy relationships in the sea, the

64

thermophilic associations, end pigment function of the widespread
purple bacteria? Wh?t r6''le is played by the luminous bacteria,
whether as saprophytes or as normal symbionts with animals and
plants? Do these bact^rin exist at absyssal depths? If so, are
they sufficiently abundant for their luminescence to be important
in the vital economy of deep sea animals? To they, perhaps, help
to make vision possible for the large eyed benthonic fishes of the
abyss, most of which are non-luminous thems^'lves?

The marine anaerobes have received scsnt attention. Here the
recent discovery that CO2 tension rather then oxygen tension is the
requirement th^t distinguishes them from aerobes, emphasized txhe
necessity for further information as to chemical conditions in the
water.

k bacteriophage has also been found in the sea by French ocean-
ographers. How generally this principle (destructive to bacteria)
is distributed in the sea, and how effectively it combats their
manifold activities th^r, if at all, remains to be leerned.

Finally it should be said that microorganisms other than
bacteria have been found in the ocean and that they may have a
quantitative importance in the chemical processes th'jt have been
enumerated, comparable to that of the bacteria proper. This rela-
tionship has been well ■established in the case of soil micro-biology.
The Actinomyces may bs cited as a group that are as -worthy of
attention es are the bact-ria themselves.

The answers to the principal questions that the oceanographer
may properly ask of the bacteriologist are not as directly available
as their mere enumeration might suggest; for it seems certain that
no great headway can be made toward appr-cietinsc the role of bacter-
ia are perfected.

No on- instrament will solv-.: the proolem of bacteriological
sampling in the sea. For purposes of enumeration the sample must
be large and not necessarily taken with utmost bacterial precaution.
Concentrating the sample prior to microscopic enum.eration is a more
difficult task. It would appear that a sound procedure for this
purpose has been introduced in Russia primarily for fresh water
work, but capable of adaptation to the sea. Th= sampling of water
for culture work, when small volumes suffice, presents few obstacles.
More difficult is the sampling of mud for in this case it is neces-
sary to recover an undistrubed specimen so that the sample can be
examined serially, commencing for example with the top millimeter,
unmixed with lower layers and unwashed by superposed water on the
asc ent .

And it should, in general, be emphasized that random procedure,
and approximate technic can never serve as the basis for evaluating
the general shar^ of bacteria in the economy of the sea. We have
also to learn what modifications of the routine media, or of those
favorable for soil organisms, will give the maximum counts of
bacteria from a given sample of ocean water. We shall not be able
to assay the significance that should be attached to the physiologi-
cal activity of marine bacteria until we are able to grow most of"
the organisms th^t can be found in the water. The f^^ct that this
will certainly require study both of pure and of m.ixed cultures is

65

an additional reason for the development of efficient madia.

4. Physical, Chrmical and Biological Unity in the Sea

In the preceding pa2:es we h^ve, for the sake of clarity,
outlined certain underlying oiologic aspects of Oceanography as
though the marine environm^^nt were physically and chemically a
stable thing, controlling while in no way affected by the activities
of life within it. But this is far from the truth. In a practical
way the biolo2:ist may, if he chooses, regard Biology as the apex of
the oceanographic pyramid, with Physics and Chemistry as its bases;
actually, however, the oceanic situation is dynamic, not static,
better represented as 9 vortex (mioved by the activities of organisms
and by solar energy) of materials through living matter back asrain
to the inorganic physical and chemical end-states. That is to say,
while the nature of the sea water governs the lives of the animals
and plants that inhabit it, at the same time the functions of the
latter are as constantly altering the nature of their environment
in a way to which we see nothing comparaole on land. Perhaps the
most obvious exarr.ple of this (one alres.dy mentioned) is the constant
draft that so many animals and plants make on the water for the
materials with which they build their sleletons. As a result of
these drafts vast quantities of lime and of silica are constantly
being withdrawn. And while some of this g-oes back into solution
when the organism.s die, other vast quantities accumulate on the sea
floor, in deposits of lime compounds, and of silicates.

On the whole, by this process, lime is accumulating toward the
equator, and around the coast lines, silica toward the poles and in
the ocean deeps. But, although we may temporarily find the water
nearly denuded of one or another substance, on the whole the rela-
tive proportion of its solutes is close to constant over all the
oceans. How, then, is the loss made 0;oodT A.ni what part does liv-
ing matter play in transf ormiing the great preponderance of carbon-
ates that characterize the saline load carried into the sea by river
water, into the great preponderance of chlorides that is everywhere
and at all times characteristic of sea water and also characteristic
of protoplasm? '<Vhy is it that lime accuaiulst^s more rapidly on the
bottom in shoal water than in deep? Is the solvent power of deep
water the greater, as has often been supposed, or have we to do with
somie bacterial action? While land drainage, added to whatever salt
may have been in the sea from the beginning aids in the maintenance
of the present stable stat^, the agent back of the stable state is
life; hence, at bottom the composition of the sea water is a biolog-
is as much as a chemical problem, even thourrh in many cases its
solution may come only via Chemistry.

The mass productions of plants in the sea withdraws temporarily
from circulation the nutri^^nts they need, and there is a certain
permanent loss after their death, as of nitrates decomposing to the
gaseous state, and of phosphates going into che;nical union with
bottom sedim^ents. Just how are these losses made up so that the
balance is maintained? How far is the pulse in the availaole supply
of these nutrient substances in the sea responsible for the sudden
outbursts of unicellular plants in such unbelievable num^bers that
they are the most spectacular events in miarine economy: "explosions
de la vie" as these sudden developments of great miasses of livinsc
matter have been named? Is it their exhaustion of the water that

66

destroys them, or are they self limited in some oth r mysterious
way? In like manner, while the degree of alkalinity of the sea like
that of our own blOod-S'^rum is constant within narrow limits and any
wide variation msans death, the great drafts of carbon that plants
make in their photosynthetic activities, added to various other
biologic and chemical happeninQS are as constantly tending to alter
the ionic concentration of the various electrolytes in the solution,
and thereby to raise or lower the alkalinity. But while alterations
so caused may actually progress to the fatal limit in .^nclos^d pools
this never happens in the open sea, 7'hat role in maintaining this
fundamental balance, against their own tend-:ncy to upset it, is
played by living creatures, and how do they affect the cognate matter
of the COg tension of the sea water relativr to that of the air?

As an eminent physiologist has asked, what underlying geophysi-
cal changes allow the ^"-ive and take of this vast cycle of matt, r to
be continuous; a continuity upon which depends the continuity of
life in the sea? Are the events involved similar to those observed
in the soil on land, or are they sui-g^neris?

This, then, is the real goal of th:- marine biologist - to under-
stand the cycle of riiatter and of energy in tne ocean. But he is
helpless without the assistance of the chemist, of the physicist, of
the bacteriolos'ist , of the geologist.

66 a

E. OCEANOGRAPHY AS All AID TO lETEOROLOGY

Tlie relationship between Oceanography and Meteorology
is of an oTder different from that between it and Geology,
bscause nieteorologic events do not take place v/ithin the
sea, as geologic do. But the state of the surface of the
sea so directly affects that of the air above it that
meteorologists are -much concerned with certain phases of
Oceanography, as Professor 0, F, Brooks explains in the
following statement :-

"Oceanography can contribute much to meteorology, for
nearly three-quarters of the atmosphere rests on the ocean,
the heated surface of ?;hich provides all the vapor for the
air and controls its temperature to a considerable height.
The oceanic factors involved in this discharge of vapor and
in this heat regulation are not only the temperature of the
surface, f but ^il3o the salinity of the surface, the storage
of heat below the surface and, through convection, its
availability to the surface, and the horizontal movements
of these waters in currents and drifts.

Since, because of their high thermal capacity, the
surface \Yaters of the oceans contain enormous amounts of
available heat, they exert a steadying and moderating effect
on the climate of the world. The oceans take in and give
off heat slowly and regularly, and temperature conditions
of the imter tend to persist ^ long time and to travel
slowly. Sea temperature observations across the ocean in-
dicate the persistence of unusual warmth or coolness of
extended masses of water for months - even for a year, or
perhaps two - as, carried in the various currents and
drifts, they make the circuit of the North Atlantic, or
cross the Pacific, This leads one to believe that (quoting
Petterson) "besides trying to predict the extremely var-
iable state of the fickle atmosphere, one should give more
attention to the conservative element of meteorology, the
surface sheet of the ocean, where changes at one place
may be observed months before " they reach, and affect the
weather of, some other region.

Indirectly, the sea has another effect on v/orld weather.
Differences in vapor content and in air temperature determine
the contrasts in de?3sity and, therefore, in pressures of
the atuosphere between different portions of the oceans and
betvfeen the oceans and the lands. And these pressure diff-
erences rake the winds, Th^js the temperatures of the sur-
face of the soa, and their background, the storage of heat
in the sea and the currents that carry this stored heat,
are fundamental to meteorology.

The planetary belts of temperature, pressure, v;ind, and
storm are best developed over the sea, and dominate the
viorld' 3 climates. The general homogeneity of the sea sur-
face favors approximately equal humidities and temperatures
along any parallel of latitude as the sun goes through its

66 b

seasonal swing north-»7ard and southward. And this even
distrioution of humidity and teinperature (except near ths^
continents) favors rather uniform belts of pressure and of
winds, with their fair weather where the pressure is high,
in latitudes about 20® to 40°, and their showery or stor/iy
weather where the pressure is low, near the equator and fron
high middle to sub-polar latitudes. Furthermore, the flat «
nees of the surface of the ocean permits the maximum devel"
opnent of rotary storm movements, such as the winds of a
West Indian hurricane,

^{tiexe lands lie athwart these wind and storm belts
they receive a full measure of oceanic weather on their
windward margins, as on our ITorth Pacific coa.st. If, how-
ever no high mountains, like our western ones, form a
barrier, marine influences are felt hundreds, even thousands
of milss inland, as in Europe and the eastern United States,
Winds and storms from the Gulf of Mexico and other tropical
waters of the ;vestern Atlantic thus traverse eastern North
America and provide the rainfall for this vast agricultural
region.

The continents throw a diverse land surface across
the lacitudinal belts of moisture, temperature, pressure,
winds and storniness fostered by the oceans, and thereby
interrupt the continuity of these belts. The lower hum-
idities of the air over land, the high temperatures in
sur.-urer and the low ones in winter favor strongly contrasted
pressure conditions in the warm and cold seasons. In sumr-
mer the continental air is expanded and a considerable
quantity is forced to overflow into the cooler oceans; in
winter the air over land is chilled and contracted so much
that groat masses of -^ir return aloft from the sea. Thus
continental air pressures tend to be lovi in summor and high
in winter, while oceanic air pressures tend to be high in
s^oiraer and low in winter. The major areas of high and low
pressure, whi^h are essentially the oceanic and continental
sections of the planetary pressure belts modified, as just
outlined, by the contrasted humidity and temperature coi>-
ditions, have long been known as the grand centers of
action, Th^iy are the large areas of high or low pressure
around a.nd from which or around and into ?;hich the prevail-
ing winds blow.

Recalling that onl^y one of the half dosen centers of action
by which our Atlantic seaboard, in fact, the eastern half of
the United States, is dominated either in winter, or in
surxier, is continental, the importance of the oceanic centers
i s at once apparent.

If these centers of action went through their seasonal
transformations v;ith consistent regularity year after year,
their nature and underlying causes would not give us much
of a challenge; but such is not the case.

It is, of course, easy to surmise that if appreciable

66 c

variations in sea surface tenperature over large areas
occur irregularly there should be, through the changes m
vapor discharge to the air and in the temperature of the
air, a greater favoring of high atmospheric pressure uhen
the sea is colder and of lo';7 when it is warmer, European
meteorologists have long recognized this relation in the
northeastern Atlantic, Two apparently significant
exarToles niay be cited from our Gulf Stream, A body of un-
usually v--arn water coming through the straits of Florida
in Januray 1Q16, on spreading over the western Atlantic goutn
and east of ITew England appears to have been responsible
for the eastward deflection and intensification of_many
western lov; pressure areas that reached the Atlantic sea--
board. Consequently, northerly winds, cold weather and fre-
quent snows prevailed from Pennsylvania to Nova Scotia,
la the same manner, unusually warm water passing through
the Straits of Florida in October, llovember and December
1925, paradoxically favored storminess and coldness during
these and later months in the eastern United States,

Recognizing the importance of a knowledge of the sur-
face temperatures of the western Atlantic, from the
m3teorological vier.-point, the U,S. 'leather Bureau, the
Canadian Meteorological Office, the International Ice
Patrol, Clark University, and the American Meteorological
Society have, within the past three years, installed_ eight
se?water thermographs to record several surface profiles
regularly across the area from the G-rand Eanhs, Bermuda
and Porto Rico westward to Canada and the United States and
south-westward to Cuba, Honduras and the Canal Zone, A body of
accurate sea surface temperature data is thus being assembled
for comparison with seasonal weather abnormalities and for sLudy
to reveal s'ach progressive movements and persistence of sea
surface temperature departures as there may be in the Gulf
Stream and Antilles Current,

The regular recording of surface temperatures should be
extended, and regular determinations of the heat storage
in the top 35 to 100 m.eters, and of the horizontal move-
ments of these waters, should be made. Investigations
should be made of the dependence of atmospheric humidity,
temperature and pressure' distribution, on the tem.perature3
of the ocean surface, and atter.pts to relate the results
to seasonal weather abnormalities in ve.rious parts of the
world. The em.pirical seasonal rainfall indications cautiously
issued by the Scripps Institution, from the results of the .
investigation of the Pacific, and the forecasts of seasonal
rainfall issued by the governm.ent bureaux of India and Java,
all depend on oceanographic studies for their advancement,,

7e may also point out that oceanographic expeditions to
the less travelled seas offer excellent opportunities, at
little estra cost for obtaining a wide variety of meteoro-
logic data.

6?
Chapter II

ECONOiaC VALUi OF OCSANOaRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS

There is hardly an aspect of Oceanography but affects one or
another phase of modern civilization; and naturally soj for this
science is concerned with the physical and biological economy of some
seventy percent of the earth's surface.

When Oceanography is considered from the severely practical stand-
point of human economics, a distinction must be drawn between the study
of such oceanic phenomena as exercise a basic control over the habit-
ability of the lands, and of such others as man can turn to his benefit
by his own efforts, but which will neither serve nor harm him other-
wise. The first category includes the general influence that the
oceans exercise on the climates of the continent. The second covers
all the ways in which man can draw raw material for his use from the
sea; also it covers the knowledge he needs to make the latter a safe
high7;ay for his commerce. It is with this second category that we are
now concerned.

Food and safe navigation always hav: been, and now are man's most
urgent demands from the sea. The lines of oceanographic study from
which the most direct and economic advantages may be hoped are, there-
fore, investigations into: (l) the biology of the animals that
support the commercial fisheries; (2) the various events in the sea
that affect navigation. In fact, it has only been as knowledge has*
increased, with the progress of civilization, that greater and greater
utilization of the biologic resources of the sea (fisheries) has be-
come possible, and that navigation has been made reasonably safe. With
th. increasing: press of population all over the habitable globe, the
demand for more complete utilization of the fisheries resources of the
sea grows more insistent, a dem.and that can only be met by a more
complete understanding of the pertinent phases of Oceanography. With-
out this our efforts must be hit-or-miss, as so many fisheries under-
takings have been in the past. Investigation as to whether the rela-
tionship that the temperature of the sea water and its circulation
bears to the temperature, pressure and circul-jtion of the overlying
air, can be made to afford a basis for long-range forecasts of
climatic variations, is also an economic proolem.

A partial list of other subjects less promising of immediate
commercial advantage, but which may eventually lead to useful develop-
ments, includes: (l) study of the characteristics of coastwise
currents, as affecting harbor construction, etc. along sandy shores;
and (2) more detailed explor?tion of the contour of the bottom to make
easier and cheaper the construction of submarine cables, and (3) the
possibility of profitably extracting from the total sea salt, that
has so long been an important object of commerce, or from sea water,
direct, the many other substances that it contains beside sodium
chloride,

I. THE SEA FISHERIES

Much has been written of late about the total productivity of the
sea, and the fact that this may be greater (per unit of area) than
that of the land has been emphasized repeatedly. Under present

68

conditions of civilization, however, the great majority of the species
of marine animals and of marine plants must be left out of account as
promising sources of human food. And even if economic pressure should
finally drive the white races to turn to such unfamiliar sources as
sea urchins, holothurians, or sea weeds, for important additions to
the food supply?- it is safe to pr-dict that the land will always he
the chief source for human food, gt least fer as long a period as it
is worthwhile to be concerned with the future course of events.

^All of these are eaten, more or less, in various parts of the world.

It is not necessary, however, to credit the sea with any fanciful
possibilities in order to bring out the great importance that sea foods
have always played in human economy. Each year man draws an enormous
amount of human and stock - food from fishes, crustaceans, mollusks,
even from sea weeds; also oil from fish as well as from the blubber of
seals and whales; and fertilizer, while the manufacture of leather
from shark skin is growing to an industry of considarable proportions.
The increasing pressure of population upon agriculture on the land
makes expansion and the proper conservation of the harvest of the sea
every year a more pressing problem. We must assume that this pressure,
not only on the resources of the Atlantic, but of the Pacific and
Indian Oceans as well, will continue and become more intense, for as
populc^tion multiplies in the countries bordering on those seas,
fisheries will correspondingly advance in efficiency of method, and
in intensity of effort, extending at the same time farther and farther
to regions where the supply has hardly been tapped as yet.

The following statistics may make the economic value of these
products of marine animals and plants more concrete. The sea food, for
example, taken in an average year within the confines of the Gulf of
Maine (comprising the 300-mile sector between Cape Cod and the Scotian
Banks) amounts to about four hundred million pounds, or enough to give
one hundred pounds, m.ore or less, to every inhabitant of the ITew
England states, and of those parts of the maritime provinces that
border on this sector of the sea. The fisheries of California on the
opposite side of the continent yield about one hundred million pounds
annually. The combined yield of the fisheries of the United States
and of Canada is about three billion three hundred million pounds
annually, worth more than one hundred million dollars to the fisher-
men. The annual catch of food fishes off the Atlantic coast of the
United States is six to seven hundred million pounds; of fish for oil
and fertilizer, about as great; of shellfish (without the shells) more
than one hundred and forty million pounds. The catch of cod alone in
the western north Atlantic has averaged annually about one billion one
hundred million pounds for the past forty years. As long ago as 1904
the value of the fishes of the countries of northwestern Europe was
about ninety million dollars. The annual world yield of aquatic
products (most of it marine) is more than twenty-seven billion pounds
in weight, and more than a billion dollars in value. Surely, an
industry of this magnitude deserves the most intelligent management
possible.

The correct management is predetermined by the fact that most of
this vast supply (mostly utilized as human food, but also including
important by-products), is a truly natural resource, as contrasted

69

with the yields of agriculture on land, because rr.an has nothing v/hat-
ever to do with its production or .-naintenance, but merely takes a
part of the wild crop that the pastures of the sea nourish. It is
true that numbers (that seen enormous by any absolute standard) of sea
fishes have been artificially propogated, and returned to the sea
every year, but it is doubtful if these efforts have had any appreci-
able effect on the stock of any important commercial marine species;
this is recurred to below (page''/f), and while shellfish are cultivated
to some extent, this industry is in its infancy. The sea fisheries
are thus more nearly on a par with forestry than with agriculture; and
the methods of management, to be successful, must conform more nearly
to the procedure followed in a forest where natural reproduction is
depended upon to maintain the supply, then to the managem^ent of any
cultivated crop.

We see a measure of the productivity of the sea-pastures in the
fact that while no wild crop on land, plant or animal, can long with-
stand intensive harvesting, unless replaced by human effort, we still
fish for cod on the Grand Banks as successfully as did the fishermen
who first ventured to the shores of Newfoundland.

Vast, however, though the supply of fish and shellfish be,
fishermen have long appreciated that the stock of fishes in the sea is
not inexhaustible; the rapid disappearance of whales almost to the
point of extinction, when they are hard hunted, is a warning. And
greatly though the extent of the oceans exceeds that of the lands, all
the great fisheries (except for whales) are confined to the shelves
and to the slopes of the continents, in comparatively shoal water. On
the American side of the North A.tlantic, for exa.mple, the outermost of
the productive fishing grounds lie only about 250 miles out from the
land (off the shores of Newfoundland). And the grounds or banks on
which the important commercial species are plentiful enough to
support profitable fisheries occupy only a frection of the are? be-
tween the coastline and the continental slope that marks their off-
shore boundary. In the deeps outside the latter no great fishery has
ever been developed, nor is there any hope of such.

The case is similar on the opposite side of the North Atlantic.
In fact, the whole basin of the North Atlantic outside the 1000-meter
contour is barren from, the fisheries standpoint. Nor is this barren-
ness due to distance from, land or to the difficulty of fishing at
great depth, but to the fact that, in spite of the long list of fish-
species that people the open oceans at all depths, these are few in
individuals com.pared to the population of the in-shore grounds, while
most of the oceanic species are s.mall. Consequently, there is no
reason to hope that any deep-sea fish will ever support an important
fishery, or that great fisheries will ever be developed in the North
Atlantic much farther out from the land than at present.

In the South Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans a still smaller
part of the total area offers commercial fishing possibilities than in
the North Atlantic. In short, only a small fraction of the total area
of the sea supports practically all the fish species (and individuals)

70

face of even a moderate kill, not how to utilize them more fully, is
now a crying problem.

The past quarter century has seen a rapid increase in the inten-
sity of fishing in the North Atlantic, in response to the increasing
demand for fish, favored by more effective rxiethods pf harvesting the
catch, by improved transportation, and by teetter systematized market-
ine. For all these reasons the demand for sea food, and for the by-
products of the Fisheries (oil, soap, fertilizer, leather, etc.) will
continue to increase; to meet this increasing demand, the stock of
herring, cod, haddock, halibut, lobsters and the rest will be subjected
to a more and more intensive drain. The intensity of the British
Steam Trawl Fishery, for example, increased by lljo from 1913 to 1920.
Yearly, more and more fishing is done on the American side of the
Atlantic with better and better gear, resulting in a corresponding
increase in the yearly catch. And wherever in the sea fishermen can
catch their fares, the story will soon be the same, if it is not so
already. Under these circumstances, the questions immediately urgent
of solution are: (l) how m^uch fishing can each species stand without
depletion at the hends of man; (2) what measures of regulation should
be taken to prevent depletion when danerer of the latter seems imminent
or to restore a depleted stock; (3) what is the possibility of extend-
ing the fisheries to new erounds; (4) what hope is there of marketing
fish, or other marine products not utilized at present; (5) can we
find a rational oasis for predicting in advance the great fluctuations
in the abundance of fishes that are known to occur from natural causes
and thus order our fishing efforts more economically.

The first of these questions is the basic problem in all economic
fisheries research, for on the answer to it must depend the whole
scheme of intelligent use and conservation. But the answer in any
given case can only be reached by intensive study of the general
biology of the species in question, combined with actual experience as
expressed by the statistics of that particular fishery.

The history of the fisheries includes sundry examples of deple-
tion; not only of the whales, just mentioned, but also when one or
another fish, crustacean, or mollusk has been fished down to a point
where pursuit was no longer profitable on grounds which yielded abun-
dant fares when first exploited.

In North toerican waters the halibut perhaps affords the most
striking example of this. For the Atlantic, the annual catch brought
in by the New England Fishermen from the Banks off the Gulf of Maine,
off Nova Scotia, 'and to the north and east, having fallen from about
fifteen million po^onds in 1379, to three million pounds in 1926.
In the North Pacific, too, it is certain that a decline in tne cgtch
of halibut on the older grounds from nearly 300 pounds per unit of
gear in 190S to less than 50 lbs. in 193S, and the fact that no m.ore
fish are now taken off an 1800 mile stretch of coastline than were
formerly caught along SOO miles, has directly resulted from over-
fishing. The speed with which an over-drain on the stock is reflected
in the'^fishery for the halibut may also be illustrated by the fact
that newly developed grounds in the Pacific that yielded 160 lbs, per
unit of gear in 1923, yielded only 100 lbs. three years later, and
less still in 1927. It seems equally certain that the great decrease
in the catch of albacore off California also reflects too intensive

71

fishing. Similarly, the striped bass has been practically extermin-
ated on parts of the New England coast, though holding its ot.ti better
along the southern shores; the catch crf lobsters per unit of effort
has greatly declined since early days, and the smelt fails to hold its
o'Jm. In north European waters this is equally true of the plaice.
In this case the avere.ee size of the individual fish caught has also
declined, and it ^vas this decline in the plaice fishery, with the fears
felt for the future of other equally important fisheries in the North
Sea, that led the nations bordering on the latter to organize the
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea in 1902 (page 1)3.7 )

Other coiT.mercial developments on land may also damage the fishery.
The effects, on shell fish beds, of pdELution either by sewage or by
industrial wastes is often serious; sometimes directly, sometimes in-
directly as when the oysters or clams are contaminated with bacteria
of diseases. The damming of tidal estuaries may also have a destruc-
tive effect, not only within, but by altering the circulation of water
in the general vicinity. The probable effects of one project of this
sort on the "sardine" fishery and packing industry for young herring
in the region of the Bay of Fundy (a two-million dollar industry, based
on one of the most important local fisheries of the Atlantic coast of
Forth America), is now causing concern to the Fisheries Services of
Canada and of the United States. The difficulty is that the detailed
understanding of the biology of the herring, and of the hydrography of
the region that is needed for positive prediction, is lacking.

It is obvious that when any species is being fished down below
the limit of safety, the rem.edy lies in regulation of the fishery,
in order to allow the stock to recover; whether by closed seasons, by
closed areas, or by otherwise limiting the catch. 3ut regulation of
this sort invariably must cause great disturbance, loss ajn.d hardship
to the fishing industry. It is, therefore; of great importance fromi
the eccn^uic standpoint to be able to state whether a shrinkage in the
catch of one or other of the important species does actually mean that
depletion i-s in progress. It is true that in the past any sudden
decrease in the yield of the fisheries has usually been blamed, forth-
with, to overfishing, or to the development of modern m.ethods more
effective than those of the past. In fact, whenever any improved
method of fishing is introduced, a wail of calamity arises; it is
claimed that the young fish are destroyed, the sea bottom disturbed,
etc. etc. and investigation is demanded. Such an investigation of the
otter-trawl fishery is, in fact, in progress in Canadian waters at
present, though this method has been employed for many years off the
United States"and northern Europe. But when it happens, as it often
has in the past, that the stock of some fish that had been at a low
ebb over a period of years, reestablishes itself in the face of a
fishery perhaps even increasing in intensity, it is clear that some
factor other than overfishing is at work. In such cases it is the
industry that requires protection more than the fish. It has, indeed,
been amply proven that the stocks of many sea fishes (perhaps of ell}
may vary greatly in abundance from year to year, or over perj.ods of
years, from strictly natural causes, with which the hand of man has
had nothing whatever to do.

Natural fluctuations of this sort have been so freely discussed
in fisheries literature during the past quarter century that only a
few instances need be m.entioned here. In general, they mirror the fact

73

that a ypar of highly successful reproduction is a decidedly rare event
for manv species; and that when (by a happy combination of circu.ii-
stances) such an event does occur, its product dominates the stoclc
fo- a lonff period thereafter, either until they drop out of the
picture by the natural d-ath rate, or until 3nother rich year class
is produced. Thus, the fish hatched in 1904 dominated the stock of
s^a-herrinff in Norwrieian vjaters until 1319, having supported the
fisherv for 15 yearst Had thev not been succeeded by another abun-
dant year class before they died (or were killed off), the Norwegian
He--ring Fishery would have failed utterly for the time being; and no
hu-nan endeavor could have staved off the cala.:iity. Off the IJewfound-
land coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence the crop of 1904 was likewise
responsible for most of the commercial catch of herring as late as
1915. Even a more striking example of fluctuations in abundance is
afforded by the mackerel, causing vicissitudes to the fishing industry
that have become proverbial. Similar, if less spectacular, fluctua-
tions in abundance have been recorded for cod, for haddock, and tor
other species as far back as tho' history of the fisheries runs, and_
long before the latter was intensive enough to make any serious dram
on the stock.

Perhaps the decline and recovery of the Blue fish off southern
New England in the late 1700' s and early ISOO's is our best local
illustration of the fact that events of this sort may be wholly
independent of the acts of man, for decline, total disappearance, and
Subsequent recovery of this species took place before any intensive
fishery for its species had developed. Similarly, the recovery of the
stock of mackerel in North American waters, from its lowest eoo m
1910, occurred in the face of a very intensive fishery. In l^orway,
too, the historic record discloses a succession declines and recover-
ies in the stock of cod over a long period of years. In Scotland tne
Haddock failed in 1792; but recovered thereafter; the French (true)
sardine has also undergone wide fluctuations in abundance, while many
other instances of thii sort might be mentioned, the economic sequellae
of which have been far reaching, alternately bringing prosperity and
disaster to the fishermen.

^he stock of ^ given species may also be suddenly reduced almost
to the vanishing point by some unfavorable shift in the environment;
most often by abnormally low temperatures. ^Fe have record of sucx. an
event as far back as 1789, when seafarers brought Dack word that the
surface of Barents Sea, north of Europe, was covered with 1-rge _
haddock and coalfish in dying condition; prob-bly they had been chi^lle.
by some sporadic flooding of the bottom by kxtlc water. A more -ecen.
pnd much herelded instance of destruction of this same sort was that
of the tile fish off the eastern United States. In tne spring o^
1882 vessel after vessel reported these fish dead and dying on the
surfac- I^ fact, the destruction was so nearly complete thatiu was
not until ten years later that a single live tile fish was again seen.
But by 1893 they were again as plentiful as ever. These events nave
in no way depended on the fisheries.

Most of +he clear cases of depletion or of indirect damage by
industrial developments have affected species living so close to land
as to be especially vulnerable. In fact, it is doubtful whether t..e
hand of man has, up to the present time, been able appreciaoly to
damage the stock of any of the species that support tne great oil-

73

shore fisheries, except for the plaice and the halibut. But acute
ajyprehensior. is nor fslt for the haddock in iVtr.erican waters, because
its concentration on grounds v^here stearc trawlers can easily work
ciakes it especially vulnerable to a rapidly expanding fishery.

With the stock of any species of fish in the sea likely at any
time to diminish, and to stay at a low ebb for years, from natural
causes, as well as standing in danger of depletion by man, it is
economically of great importance to be able to state whether a shrink-
age in the catch falls in the one category or in the other, because
the procedure proper for the industry to follow is quit_- different in
the one case than in the other. If depletion is taking place, regula-
tion, as already remarked, is in order, for it is certain that we
cannot maintain any of the true marine fishes by artificial propogation
if tney be overfished. Boast as we may of the billions of young cod,
haddock or pollock that are dumped into the sea by the government
hatcheries, these are less than a drop in the bucket: the product of
only a handful of parents in populetions to be numbered by the million.
But if fish dim.inish as some one dominant year class dies off, before
another year of abundant production has come, the fishery itself needs
to be safe-guarded against the disastrous results of the sudden
cessation of the supply. Theoretically, extensive protective regula-
tion might seem called for in this case also: practically however,
this has not proved to ce the case, because we know of no instance, up
to the present, where the stock of a species that has shrunk from
natural causes has failed to recover from, such a decline in spite of
the drain upon it by the fishery. When fish are scarce there is less
fishing done, so that this side of the picture takes care of itself,
^nd the oceanographer stands in the best position to guard the fishery
(and the con3um.ing public) against fluctuations of this sort for he
alone has the opportunity to discover a rational basis for predicting
such events in advance. Until that can be done, we can only proceed
"hit-or-miss" .

The basic fisheries problem, then, is to make the greatest
possible use of the food recources of the sea that is compatiole (a)
with avoiding the danger of overfishing; (b) with safeguarding the
industry against the disastrous effects of unpreventable fluctuations
in the available supply of fish.

Although the problems involved in these two cases are fundamen-
tally distinct, in each case the solution can only come from investi-
gations of the life histories of the fishes involved, and of their
reactions to their environment, animate and inanimate, combined with
statistical study of the commercial catch. In other words, the
technique of oceanic biology must be employed, whether the aim be
protection or prediction.

Whenever any fishery increases greatly in intensity, as is now
hapT^ening with the American haddock fishery, the immediately practic-i.l
task is to estimate the strain of fishing that the species in question
may reasonably be exp-^cted to withstand; or when any fishery shows a
serious decline, to determine whether this reflects overfishing, or
results from a natural decrease in the stock in the sea. In either
case the species concerned must be studied as populations, not as
individuals, by m.ethods similar to those developed, in the science of
Vital Statistics, This part of the economic fisheries problem is

74

already being tolerably rell handled; the technique is constantly
bjxng- dGveioped in America by the Fisheries Services of Canada and of
the United States, and has oeen carried still farther by the Inter-
national Council for the Exploration of the Sea in l^crth Europe. In
fact, the statistical studies of various fisheries that have been
published have already reached proportions that make analysis almost
impossible. But for reaeons inherent in the governmental operation of
scientific establishir.ent s, these bureaux hsve"'not been able to make
comr.ensurate progress in the biological side of the matter, without
which the attempt to interpret the trends that the statistics of the
catches disclose, whether up, down or stationary, will probably prove
idle or even misleading. Thus there is no general agreement as to the
meaning of the fluctuations in the plaice fishery as a whole, nor in
the relative abundance of small and large plaice in the commercial
caoch, one school explaining the recorded phenomena in one way,
another in another, although this fish has been under statistical
examination by m^any hands for many years.

In fact, it is not too much to say that if we regard the time and
effort that hes been expended on investigptions of the sea fisheries
as capital, little has yet been returned as interest to the fishing
industry, or through them to the consumer ashore.

The reason for such a poverty of result from so great an effort
has been our ignorances of the interrelationships of the very complex
chain of events in the sea that govern the comparative success or
failure of its inhabitants in the struggle for life. Nothing in the
sea falls haphazard. If we cannot predict, it is because we do not
know the cause, or how the cause works. The obstacle to the advance
of knowledge, here lies in part in the technical difficulty of carry-
ing on the needed investigations into the basic biology of the commer-
cial fishes on a scale broad enough to serve as foundation for the
easier-gathered statistical data. A more serious obstacle, when seek-
ing support (intellectual or financial) for such work, is that in
every case the matter is so obscure that it is impossible to predict
in advance what particular .phase in the fishes' life history will
prove to be the vital one, or even that knowledge of any one is more
important than of any other. The whole life chain must be traced link
by link before any sound understanding of it can be reached, which
calls for critical and protracted investigations in biology (including
physiology), often ramifying inxo chemistry and physics. Thus, if the
conservation and development of the marine fisheries is to rest on a
sound basis, many problems m^ust be attacked in the sea that seem at
first sight utterly remote from any practical application. But at
present it is almost impossible to secure the necessary financial
support for such work ov3r a period long enough for the study to reach
a productive stage. The result has been that in fisheries investiga-
tions the statistical has far outstripped the biologic, whereas logi-
cally the reverse ought to be the case. In short, we have too often
been building the structure from the roof downward.

This one-sided development has its reflection in the fact that
great as has been the emiount of thought and effort centered on fish-
eries problems during the past quarter century, and great the a:r:ount
of money expended, we do not yet know what precise combination of
factors favors or opposes a good year of production for a single
species of marine fish. Worse yet, from tne economic standpoint, we

75

do not know at what aa^e it is wisest to catch and market ths crop of
any species, i.e. '.-hetn^r the beet yields will result in the long run
if. the fish are taken near the loTier limit of marketable size, or
whether they should be allowed to grow larger and to spawn several
tines.

Obviously, if a species is to persist so.me individuals .must grow
to breeding age. But as only a fraction of each year's crop can do so
in any event (else the universe would be a solid mass of fish) in some
cases' it may be wise for the fishermen to utilize the smaller sizes,
.most of which could not mature. For instance, we are totally in the
dark as to whether the great destruction of immature fish, too small
for the market, that is^wrought by the otter-trawlers, and by the
pound nets along our A.tlantic coast, so often heralded by calamity-
criers, does any real dgmpge to the stock; it may conceivably be a
benefit, paradoxical though this may seem. To be more specific, there
is no positive evidence that the annual capture of a billion or more
of small herring in the Gulf of Maine, to be packed as "sardines",
year after year7 has had any effect whatever on the numerical strength
of the stock of adults breeding there. Could a large catch of the
latter have been made with equal impunity? Te cannot answer.
Similarly, it is now a moot question whether it is wiser to protect
the small lobsters and market the large, or vice versa ; nor can this
be settled correctly/ by acrimonious argument, any more than can the
question whether large catches of small plaice in the ITorth Sea are
really as destructive to the stock as has often been supposed.

For few species can we yet so much as glimpse an answer to the
question "Where ought the fish to be caught", though this may be an
important one in the maintenance or development of any given fishery.
Practical fisherm^en have long feared the results of hsrd fishing on
the sparming grounds, especially in the case of the flat fishes,
though economic pressure has forced them to do just this for it is
often on the spawning grounds tht-t drift-netting and otter-trawling
are the most productive. Certainly it is safest to kill breeding
fish just after, rather than just before sp-iwning, so ensuring at
least that one crop of eggs. But to translate this academic theory
into practical regulation calls for a kno^^'ledge of spawning grounds
and seasons which can only be gained in sufficient detail by intensive
study at sea.

On the other hand, we already know that there are certain
grounds where no a.mount of fishing for certain species (even to the
verge of temporary extermination) will have any permanent effect upon
the general stock. This applies in cases where there is a regular .•
emiigration away from the spawning areas to grounds far distant, with
no return migration. Thus the lobsters that stray to the Bay of
Fundy cannot reproduce in the low te.mperatures prevailing there,
though they find these cool conditions favorable to mature growth.
It would be pure econo.mic waste not to catch the.m. The case is
similar for the Rose Fish (Sebastes) off the west coast of Greenland,
which are recruited fro.m fry produced in higher temperatures in the
Atlantic to the south, with no r'=turn movement. In instances of this
sort the only sound lim.it to fishing is the economic one. But the
understanding of such cases involves a knowledge of the lines of
dispersal and migrations in general, which in turn dem.ands long

76

continuing study (by all available methods) of ocean currents as
carriers of eggs and larvae; and of the length of time during which
these latter drift at the mercy of the current; information which,
again, can only be gained at sea.

At first sight it might seem that the question "how" best to
vest the crop'would be purely economic, not biologic. Actually,
_ ^ ^,. _ ^_, ^^„„^„„ Thus, different

epth-

se
xo ine sux'iace, axiu m amuu i^n v»ca oihtj. , the pound— ne u or weir oi^-Ly
close to the shore-line, and only during the warm months if ice forms
during the winter; hook and line only where fish are feeding, etc.
'Vhether the grounds, depths or seasons, so determined by the method
adopted, are wise from the standpoint qf conservation, or the reverse,
can be settled only by knowledge of the life history of the particular
fish.

For these same reasons, statistics of the amount of fish caught _
may give a wholly erroneous picture of the abundance of the species
in the sea. ^hen the purse seiners report "no mackerel", for example,
it may merely mean that the fish are keeping down deeper in the water;
when otter-trawlers report "few cod" the latter may simply have con-
centrated on the rougher bottom where the trawlers do not fish.
Similarly, the reported landings, as classified by localities, _may
give e false im.pression of the regional abundance of the fish in the
sea, unless the actual locality of the capture is stated, which it
has seldom been possible to do except in a very loose way.

"How to fish" has another biological aspect that cannot be
neglected: namely the effect that the fishery may have on enemy-
species that are caught incidentally, or on species upon which the
commercial fishes prey. Any method that will take and destroy large
numbers of destructive species may actually benefit the primary object
of the fishery, in spite of the draft that fishing makes on the
latter. In North American waters this applies especially to the
destruction of the Tog fish, of Skates, and of the Goose, - or Monk
fish. But off other coasts, where the last two are used for food,
the relationship is different. To destroy annually several hundred
million Menhaden, as is done to supply the demand for fisn oil and
for fertilizer, may seriously lessen the food supply for the Blue
fish, and so react against the latter. But the lives of so many
Menhaden are saved whenever a Blue fish ie caught that the death of
the latter may be economic gain. The interrelationships of aifferent-
species, as food or enemies, is thus a vital factor in the situatiocr
to disentangle this skein falls directly within the province of the
oceanic biologist.

Ever since man first cast line into the sea> "can we broaden ov\
fishing grounds?" has been a live question. With the passage of the
years one new fishing bank has been developed after another, and no
one can dispute thst the discovery of new grounds and of new bodier
of fish from which no toll has previously been taken, is so much pure
grain. Every fisheries bureau is therefore interested in testing the
possibilities of unfished parts of the sea by actual fishing

77

experiments, hoping to discover new banks, as the U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries has recently done off the CA3'olinas. Less direct methods
have a] so proved ferti].e from this strndt^oiiit. For example, highly
productive cod grounds have been developed off Norway by deducing the
existence of spawning schools from the distribution of their eggs
floating at the surface of the water. And while it is certain that
the major fishing grounds off the Korth Atla.ntic coasts of ilorth
America and of Europe are already?- being exploited - so, too, off cur
North Pacifj.c coast - great possibilities of expansion still remain in
the Galf of Mexico, in the South Atlantic, in the eastern and western
Pacific, and in the Indian Ocean, as well as in Arctic and Antartic ,^-^.
seas. i ^

\ -

The question of extension of grounds is, however, not a simple \ g'

one of exploration, because expansion luight in certain cases prove \^
detrimental to some of the most important species. If, for example, ^^^
the wintering grounds of the American mackerel, of the Weakfish,.-'6f" ^i
the Scup, and of various other fishes that vanish from the eastern -^
coast of North America during the winter, were to be mapped, and the ™
fishing of the species extended throughout the season, it is question-
able whether the stocks would stand the added strain.

To what extent, too, do grounds where cod, haddock, etc. are
little fished at present serve as reservoirs of supply for banks
fished more intensively because more accessible; and what protection,
if any, should they receive on this score? That banks do serve as
reservoirs for one another in this respect is certain, because when
sm.all grounds close to land are so fished out that it no longer pays
to fish there (as happens often, and sometimes very soon) they present-
ly recover if the fishermen abandon them for a term of years. In fact,
a power of rapid recuperation seems almost an invariable law in the
sea; any species, indeed, that did not possess this power would soon
vanish from the scene, fishing or no fishing, by so many dangers and
so constant are they all beset. 'What role in this recuperation is
played by imm.igration from surrounding grounds, what by local repro-
duction? In the case of the Pacific halibut this is a live question
today, and the answer to it will govern the regulations to be adopted.
Its solution can only be reached through a study of migration, and of
the factors determining the success of breeding, so that the Interna-
tional Fisheries Commission is governing its procedure accordingly.

The possibility of discovering new fishes, or of mapping the
centers of abundance for species whose existence has long been known
but which have not been made the object of any regular fishery, be-
cause their abundance is not suspected, is closely associated with the
development of new grounds. One might hardly have expected that the
existence of a large and valuable food fish, in great abundance, and
close to the fishing ports of the eastern United States, would have
remained unsuspected until 1879. Such, however, was the history of
the Tile fish. While the first specimen of this species was brought
in by a fisherman, it needed the explorations of the Federal Bureau
of Fisheries to make its geographic distribution and abundance knowc ,
and to introduce it to the market. Thanks to these efforts, the tj .'.f
fish has of late yielded much good food. And while history c?.n nardly
he expected to repeat itself in this spectacular way in the Wcrth
Atlantic, unlimited possibilities lor this sort of expanc-ion are sti'''.

78

open in the other oceans. In fact, the sea is certainly capable of
yielding vastly more food to man than at present. Expansion of this
sort also offers attractive possibilities for fish products other than
food, especially for fertilizer, for stoci food, for oil, for glue,
etc. and for fish skins as a source for leather(^is^.^^'-he:^e) in fact the
catch of one species alont (the Menhaden) used exclusively for fertil-
iser, scrap, and oil along the Atlantic coast of the United States, is
about 700,000,000 lbs. yearly.

In the case of the shell fisheries (for clams, oysters, mussels,
abalones, pearl-oysters, etc.) the great problem is to guard against
depletion by overfishing, or to maintain the stock by cultural methods.
This danger is much more imminent for the molluscs than it is for most
of themarine fishes, both because all of the shellfish now used for
food live close to shore in shoal water, and because they are so
B-:ationary that once a center of abundance is found it is soon fished
with great intensity. The result is that the maintenance of the
stocks of oysters, cl-ms, abalones, etc. around our coasts is already
an urgent matter, and it has been found necessary severely to regulate
the pearl fishery, wherever this is carried on in the Indo-Pacific.
To emphasize the economic importance of the shellfish (molluscs,
lobsters, crabs and shrimps) we may point out that they form about
one-fifthl of the total sea foods harvested from the Atlantic Coast of
the United States, while oyster shells also yield about 6,000 tons
of lime as a by-product yearly.

-'-Footnote; oysters and clams figured without their shells.

The stationary nature, however, of the shell fishes, and the
possibility of cultivating them, as is now successfully done for
clams and oysters, makes it easier to safeguard them than the fishes.
But detailed knowledge of their lives and ecological relationships is
an absolute essential, not only for cultivation, but equally for regu-
lating the catch from grounds, or of species the cultivation of which
is not practical. And this knowledge can come only from detailed
studies falling in the field of marine physiology.

In short, every problem of the marine fisheries, except such as
center directly around the education of the human palate to appreciate
new foods and of human industries to employ raw products from new
sources, or around improved methods of distribution, handling, and
marketing, is a problem in oceanic biology, just as every problem in
plant or animal husbandry on land is one in terrestrial biology:
consequently, a problem falling directly within the direct scope of
Oceanography. Every such problem demands for its solution precisely
the procedure that would be employed had it no economic bearing
whatsoever; results gained in any other way can never be better than
haphazard; i.e. of the sort proper to a past age.

This means that whatever marine animal be in question, and what-
ever be the question regarding it, an understanding of its whole life
cycle is needed for the answer, because only when the whole chain 1e
known can we hope to distinguish its strong from its weak links.
iTisheries-biologists have long appreciated^this truth. And a growii.g
demand for information on such points as spawning grounds, rate of

79

growth, feeding habits, and migrations, makes it evident that the
fishery-industry is also coming to appreciate it.

It is no reflection on science that only certain of the links
in the life chain are yet known for any single fish in the sea, for
every case is one of great complexity. Each investigation also
involves the life histories of all the species of plants and of
animals, that may either serve the fish in question as food in one

ary would xcau. j.iuiu one tvuiuiai-'ii lUQ^ivcxcx oi.j.0.-^ r. uw uxis^ jiiu^ j. j-vj uj.^ ^ .^ j. j. ._> -^ *v

on which it feeds in part; the latter may feed on young mackerel; the
mackerel on larval herring, the latter on shrimps; these last on
copepods; the copepods on unicellular pelagic plants; while the
existence of the latter depends on the supply of nutrient salts in
solution in the sea water. Whatever reacts favorably or unfavorably
on the one, will react likewise on all the rest. The most important
problem for every individual fish, as for every man and woman on land
is that of food. Consequently, the welfare of the minute creatures in
the sea on which young fishes feed, finally harking back (via their
own food) to such elemental matters as the salts in the sea, and the
ajLount of sunlight falling on the surface of the water, is a matter of
practical importance to fishermen, and so, in turn, to the purse of
the consumer.

The study of the life history of any marine fish involves the
physiological state of the parent as determining the viability of the
eggs and sperm; temperature ajid salinity as governing the hatch; the
character of the eggs whether buoyant or not; the duration of incuba-
tion, and the drift of the water as governing their dispersal; as
well as the supply of food (unicellular plants or minute animals)
available when the little fishes hatch (this last is probably the
most vulnerable stage, and the one most vital link in the life chain).
The toll taken of the larvae by enemies is also important. Probably
these headings include the factors that chiefly govern the relative
success of reproduction from year to year; hence knowledge of these
is essential for understanding the annual fluctuations of the stock,
and it is about precisely these matters that we still remain in the
deepest darkness.

The direction and duration of the involuntary migrations of the
larvae, their food, their rate of growth, and the age at which they
either take to the bottom or begin to direct their own journeys, is
one factor; wanderings of the older fish the other, that governs the
interchange of fish between different banks, and the degree to which
certain grounds serve as nurseries for others. This with the impor-
tance of temperature as a vital factor, makes the study of the ocean
currents perhaps the most important single item in fisheries research
Knowledge of such matters as the food and spawning habits, the rate c
growth, the dominance of particular year classes, the enemies, the
general distribution, and the optimum temperature and salinity for th
older fish, are equally essential for intelligent management of the
fishery.

There is nothing fanciful or extreme in the foregoing: the whol
field must be covered if effective remedies are to be found for even

80

the clearest cases of depletion. This is now accepted by all who
concern themselves vjith the preservation of the deep-sea fisheries,
as illustrated by the prograr:^ of the International Fisheries Commis-
sion, now charged by treaty between the United States and Canada
with the proper regulation of the halibut fishery off the northwest
coast of North America, Rapid depletion makes regulation necessary
in this case, as already remarked (page 7C),In fact, as the U. S.
OommisBioner of Fisheries has pointed out, the fishery is in a very
serious condition from overfishing. But to arrive at a basis for
action the Commission has fo^and it necessary to search for the eggs
and larvae, to map the drift of the same, to examine the dynamic
oceanography of the region as governing this drift, to trace the
wanderings of the adult halibut, to chart the spawning grounds, and
to trace the interrelationships between the stocks of halibut on
different grounds.

When seeking a basis from which to predict the productivity of a
fishery in advance, the method of procedure is essentially similar.
The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has for exampls, undertaken an inten-
sive study of much these same phases in the life history of the
American mackerel, hoping to enable the industry to guard itself a-
gainst the disastrous effects of the violent but uncontrollable
fluctuations in the supply that come from natural causes. And though
this study has been in progress for only two years, prediction of the
mackerel fishery for 1928, based on the state of the stock in 1927,
was close to correct. Predictions of the abundance or reverse of
herring and of sardines in European waters, based on similar studies,
have also been successful enough to justify the hope that they will
be of great value, when a better knowledge of the governing causes
has been gained.

It is idle to suppose that oceanwide expeditions, undertaken at
long intervals, will be of much value in advancing investigations of
this sort. What is needed is intensive study either of regions, of
individual species, or of particular fisheries, as the case may be.
These must be so long continued (because covering so wide a field and
concerned with the natural economy of generation after generation),
and so intensive (because of the nature of the problems involved),
that individual investigators can make but slow progress. In no
field, in fact, are joint efforts, and the services of cooperative
agencies more needed in American Oceanography, than in fisheries
Biology. The work of the Federal Fisheries Services of North America
would benefit greatly by the assistance of any institution that
could initiate and encourage research in the basic fields of oceanic
biology, to which the governmental agencies cannot give due attentici
because of legislative allocation of their funds to objects that maj
seem more directly profitable from the economic standpoint.

II. UTILIZATION OF OTHER MARINE PRODUCTS.

At the present time the problems involved under this heading
are more Technological and economic, than oceanographic. At present.
too, it is impossible to foresee how rapidly the exploitation of the
sea will develop in this direction. We think it sufficient therefcie
to point out that the status is covered by D. K. Tressler, in his
book "Marine products of Commerce".

81

III. NAVIGATION

In a general way, the sea, as a high road for commerce, now
serves man's purposes adequately. But now and then, even today in
the era of full-powered steamers, and elaborate safety devices, we
have brought home to us in a tragic way that the sea has its dangers.
We may be shocked to hear of a collision with ice, as chanced to the
Titanic in 1912; of the foundering of a steamer, its pl?tes stove in
by the force of the sea; or of the stranding of some ship put out of
her reckoning by an unexpected currant. The high rates of marine
insurance, as compared with insurance on goods in transit on land,
mirror the risk to property run on every passage; the risk to life is
equally grave.

.A. STUDIES OF TIDAL AND OTHER CURRENTS

Probably the greatest gain that Oceanography could offer in
cheapening, expediting and safeguarding commerce on the seas, and the
only considerable gain to be hoped from it in this respect at present,
would come from adding detail to our knowledge of ocean drifts and of
tidal currents, and of the depths of water off coasts not yet accur-
ately charted.

The importance of ocean currents in ordinary day-to-day naviga-
tion is so obvious as to need no emphasis here. Ignorance of the
direction and velocity of the current is responsible for some of the
discrepancies between the true position of the ship as determined by
astronomical sights and that calculated for her by dead reckoning,
though log errors, bad steering, leeway, etc, , all enter in. A
recent example of the tragic effects an unrecognized drift may have
is afforded by th= difficulty that ships coming to the assistance of
the ill-fated V-stris had in finding her; the fact that she was more
than 30 miles from the calculated position, in a run of only two days,
being best explained in this way. Many wrecks have b_en caused by
ignorance of the direction and strength of the current near shore at
the time.

It is self evident that to follow a favoring current hastens, to
st;m a contrary current retards passages. Thisisri^adi particularly true
off the east coast of the United Statt s by the proximity of the so-
called "Gulf Stream", the drift of which must always be taken into
account. Every hour wasted steeming against the current entails so
much extra cost; wherever it is possible to go with the drift fuel is
saved. And either small savings, or small losses, when cumulative,
reach staggering proportions in the course of years. This factor is
of far greater moment for the slow freighters, in which most of the
world's maritime commtfrce is carried, than for the fast passenger
liners which can often disregard the current. In parts of the South
Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans we still lack sufficiently de-
tailed knowledge of v.vlocities and precise directions, of the eff-cts
on these of varying winds, and of seasonal variations, to allow
intelligent planning of routes for slow ships, even though the
general characteristics of the oceanic circulation are understood.
The aggregate economic loss from such ignorpnce, if measured in
dollars and cents, would be very large. Even if the current arrows
are true enough ts an indication of the mean direction, the actual
drift at any given date may differ widely from that shown, and this is

82

what the navigator needs to know.

The need of bettering present knowledge of the major currents is
fully appreciated by the Hydrographic Services of the seafaring
nations. For this reason the United States Hydrographic Office, the
British Admiralty, and the German Marine Observatory are continually
accumulating a vast aj:nount of data from vessels' log books, as well
as from all other available sources, in the hope of improving their
yearly and monthly current charts. This, of course, is most important
for the regions where the direction of the dominant drift reverses
from season to season, as in parts of the Indian Ocean; or which fall
within the sweep of a great current at one season, but not at another;
or over which the daily velocity varies greatly from season to season
with varying winds.

In certain regions, especially along the west coast of (Africa,
rapid advances in knowledge of the currents have been gained within
the last few years. But to illustrate the urgent need of still
further improvements in more travelled seas, we need only instance
the pres-.-nt vaguiness of our understanding of the secular variations
in the geographic location of the inner edge of the Gulf Stream drift
off the .-ast coast of North Ame^rica, and of the eddying movements plus
counter drifts that confuse the orderly procession of that body of
tropic water toward the northeast. That the Gulf Stream has shifted
its position is a frequent report; one, too, that includes more than a
grain of truth.

Knowledge of the southerly drift along the west coast of North
America is still vague. Mor- detailed information is made especially
urgent there for th; sake of safety at sea by the scarcity of good
harbors of refuge along the coasts of Oregon and California. And
"sketchy" fairly describes our present picture of the currents among
the Polynesian, Philippine ?nd Malayan Archipelagoes, to mention only
striking instances.

Ocean currents affect navigation indirectly as w:ll a directly,
and in a disastrous way, by bringing icebergs and field ice down from
the Artie, a frequent menace to the shipping lanes between America and
Europe. This menance the maritime nations now meet in part by main-
taining the International Ice Patrol, during the danger season, in the
region of the Grand Banks, where the steamer routes between the United
States and Northern Europe touch the principal lane followed by the
bergs in their drift southward from Eavis Straits. But betterment of
the Patrol demands more detailed examination of the variations in the
two great currents (Labrador and Gulf Stream) that meet there, the
first bringing the bergs, the latter melting them. To gain a better
understanding of the factors that control the journeying of the bergs,
the Patrol has recently expanded its activities to include a dynamic
survey of the whole region between Labrador and Gr;cnland, as described
in another section (page ). And should the Patrol be extended to
include the more northern routes it will become increasingly important
to m.ake periodic surveys of these northern waters in the hope of ex-
plaining, and perhaps predicting the wide variations in the amount of
iCe that comes southward from year to year, and the varying tracks
that the bergs follow.

As demands grow for an extension of maritime trade routes more

83

and more to the north, the need of more detailed information as to
the Stat- of the Artie ice from season to season correspondingly
increases. Thus it is a liv.-" question how many months in the year
opn wnt^r can be depL^nded upon in Hudson Strait and in the northern
and northeast.rrn parts of Hudson Bay. The answer will detvrmine the
practicability of developing the harbors on the B^y ^s export centers
for whe?t, ttc, from th.- Cynadien North-West, in competition with
the harbors in the Gulf of St. Lawrcnc-,- and to the southward. In'
this case, it is th. drift of ice from the North that will govern,
not the ice frozen locally in these comp^retively low latitudes.
This drift, in turn is det-rmined by th-, dominant movement of the
water in its course out of the Bay, and through the Straits. The
Canadian Government is fully »ilive to th^- importance of this matter,
has already sent several expeditions to th: Straits, and has done so
again in the summer of 1929.

A.t the Conference on Oceanography at the U. 3. Navy Department
in 1936 the United States Coast Guard urged the importance of a study
of the expansions and contractions of polar ice through Bering
Straits, to safeguard the voyages of the whalers to the ft.rctic coasts
of Alaska and Canada.

The rapid development of air navigation, leading to attempts to
develop safe flying routes over the top of the '.-iiorld (to shorten the
distance from America to northern Europe), gives added significance
to the state of the ice in the Arctic, especially to the northward of
Spitzbergen, from season to season, and fromi year to year.

For all these navigational reasons, as well as in the interests
of the fisheries (page 6-7) , and for the general advancement of science,
we need not only a better knowledge of the circulatory events in the
sea, but bett-r understanding of the underlying forces that keep the
ocean currents in motion, as well as of the relative effects of the
conflicting factors that influencd their set gnd drift. This under-
stsnding cannot be gained by continued compilstion of log-reports, no
matt-r how extensive, because the underlying wsters are involved, as
well ns the surface. Quit; e different proceding is celled for; one
that finds its most mod.-rn expression in mathematical inalys-s of the
dynamic factors in the sea, such as are now being actively undertaken
3t various Cc:nt5rs in 2urope and North America. Work of this sort,
howev.r, can hardly be attempted on a Irrge sc?le by sny governmental
establishment, because the difficulty of demonstrsting *tn immediete
economic result mak:s legislative support difficult to win. And whil"
the development of methods of attack, etc., often draws inspiration
from one or anoth -r isolated cent^::r or individual, successful ppplice-
tion to the oceans demands coop--ration betw-en many institutions,
becaus, the field is oceanwide. Observations must also be carried on
for many years to trace the long-time fluctuations that are alre'^'dy
known to occur. Som:- Ccnt-r of inspiration and coordination is sorely
needed to encourage work of this sort in America.

In many parts of the world the tidal currents run with velocities
much greater than those of the ocean drifts on the high seas, and
they are usually strongest n^^xt to th r land, just where ships meet
their greatest danger. ^ in fact they may play their greatest economic
role within busy harbors.

IContrary to the belief common among landsmen, the well-found ship is
safest when far out at sea: when skirting the land she is in con-
stant risk.

84

It is easizT to study tidal currents thnn oc _:an drifts bacause
most of the work can be don^ noar land, in shallow, and often within
enclosed wat-rs. Undar such conditions the direction and speod can
be measurf.d directly from hour to hour as th- tide ebbs and flows by
current meters, by chip-log, or by float. And an enormous amount of
this work has bion don? by the tid?l service of the different
countries, including continuous observations ov-r p^riods of manv
weeks or months at strate<Tic locations (lightships, for instgnce).
But while th- stag; of the tide can now be predicted in advance for
any time of the day with great accuracy for most of the iraport<int
harbors of the world, in few c-jses (and perhaps nowhere off op-.n
coasts) is it yet possible to do this for the velocity or precise
direction of the current, because the latter is so often complicated
by the wind, and by whatever non-tidal drift may dominate the
particular region in question.

Rapid advances are being made in current work alono- the coasts
and in the harbors of the more important maritime nations. Thus the
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey is making comprehensive current
surveys of the more important harbors and waterways of the United
States. But this is necessarily slow work with the appropriations
available. Hence present knowledge is in many frequented waterways
insufficient-witness the necessity the engineers for the projected
tidal -power developm'.nt in Passamaquoddy Bay have been under of making
their own survey of the strengths and directions of the tidal currents
there. And for administrative reasons the coastal and tidal surveys
of the different governments are seldom able (never able in the case
of the United States) to extend this work beyond their own coasts or
those of their dependencies. It follows that there are sjrious gaps
in our knowledge of the tidal currents around the shorelines and in
the bays and estuaries of all the countries that are more backward in
this respect. And what is known of such regions has necessarily been
gained more or less haphazard, as opportunities offered for some man-
of-war or other ship to take current measurements while on foreign
station. The paucity of detail as to the direction and velocity of
the tidal currents given in the sailing pilots for the South Atlantic,
for the Central Pacific, and for the Eastern Archipelago will make
this clear. Here a wide field lies open for oceanogra.phic research,
where knowledge gained will sooner or later be of practical advantage
to the navigator.

B. SOUNDINGS

Knowledge of the topography of the sea bottom, i.e. of the
depth of the water along the coast, is, to the navigator, as impor-
tant as is the detailed charting of the coastline itself. Not only
does his ability to enter harbors in safety depend on this knowledge,
iBut by sounding he can feel his way, and often can locate his position^
when fog or storm hide every visible land mark, terrestrial or
celestial.

Until very recently it has chiefly been in comparatively shoal
water, say less than 100 fathoms, that soundings have been helpful
to the navigator, and the importance of mapping the depth near land
in the greatest possible detail has so long b; en fully appreciated,
and so much effort has been devoted to this, that existine- charts
leave little to be desired for navigational purposes, for the more
frequented coasts.

85

An example of the accuracy of some of the older work is afforded
by the fact that charts of the Maldive Group in the Indian Ocean, . '
based on soundings taken nearly a wentury ago are so accurate that we
found no appreciable error, in 1901-1902 except such as would natur-
ally result from subsequent growth or death of coral heads. Even off
the coasts of the northeastern United States, however, pinacle rocks
have recently been discovered, and surveys must be repeated at fre-
quent intervals off sandy coasts and inldts where bars shift, and
channels change. In fact, few laymen appreciate the extent of the
coasts where knowledge of the depth is still more or less imp-rfect.
For an example we need seek no further than the east coast of
Labrador where soundings are not only so few, but are so often
inaccurate, that a stranger must proceed with the greatest caution,
while considerable stretches of the coastline itself are still to be
filled in on the chart. In Alaskan waters employment of the "wire
drag" method has rc;cently added much important information, especially
as to the location of pinnacle rocks, such as ar:: apt to be overlooked
in oth-r kinds of surveys.

Now that sonic methods of sounding have reached the stage of
practicability the application of measurimf.nt of depths to navigation
enters a new phase. In the first place it is now possible- to survey
a given ar-a much more rapidly than by thr old methods. In the
second, detailed information of the :-dges and slopes of the contin-
ents becomes more important, for as more and more of the larger ships
install sonic g-ar with which they can sound at any depth whil^
running at full speed, they find it more and more helpful to pick up
the slope as an index to their distance from land, in thick weather.
Thus the Ice Patrol, during the season of 1928 found the sonic fatho-
meter of great assistance in navigating in the fog around the slopes
of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. But at the same time the Patrol
cutters also found thst had these slop,-,s been better charted, they
could have placed much mor^ dependence on the positions indicated by
their own soundings.

IV. CURRENTS AS AFFECTING HARBOR CONSTRUCTION, AND THE
PROTECTION OF SHORE PROPERTY

We can only reiterate what was pointed out at the Conference on
Oceanography at the U. S. Navy fepartment in 1924, by General Edgar
Jadwin, that the direction of the current must be taken into account
in planning harbor entrances on sandy coasts in order that the
entrance jetties may be designed and constructed either to catch and
hold the drifting sand, or to divert the latter past the entrance so
as to prevent the filling of the channel with sand. The currents of
importance in this case are those close along the tide line; and at
the times when these are strong enough to drift the sand along the
shore, they may either be parallel to or opposite to the general
dominant drift off-shore, depending on the direction from which the
storm waves travel, and the angle et which these strike the coastline.
At the tip of Cape Cod, for example, the only storms that drive heavy
enough seas against the be«ich to move much sand are from the eastern
quadrant. Consequently, the beach-drifting is toward the west and
southwest, whereas the dominant movement of the water only a short
distance off-shore is in the opposite direction.

In any given case, therefore, a more detailed knowledge of beach
drifting is requisite than has yet been gained for any considerable

sector of the North Ajnerican coastline. An attempt recently made to
reopen New Inlet, Dare County, N. C. affords an excellent example of
what is apt to happen when harbor work is undertaken in ignorance of
the beach currents. This Inlet, which had recently closed, was
dredged open by the State of North Carolina at a large expense. But
because of ignorance of the movements of the water along the beach,
the channel was not protected against the resultant drift of sand.
The result was that before three months had passed the cut had entire-
ly closed again, all the money that had been spent on th3 work was
wasted, and~the benefits that reopening of this Inlet would have
brought to the local fishery were lost. A small sum spent on study-
ing the beach drift there, during storms, would have safe-guarded
work worth many thousands to the State.

All this applies equally to construction undertaken to protect
shore property, much of which has defeated its own purpose, by
setting in motion unexpected currents that have cut into the vcry
stretches of beach they were planned to protect.

V. SOUNDINGS IN CONNECTION ilJITH THE LAYING OF SUBMARINE GABLES

According to a statera-^-nt by Col. C. k. Seons to the Oceanograph-
ic Conference, 1934, it is usual to allow lOfc of length in excess in
cable laying for what is termed "slack", and it is not likely that
any cable had been laid over a long distance with less than 8fo of
slack, until methods of sounding by echo were developed. Taking
advantage of this improvement through surveys made oy the U. S.
Navy, the U. S. Army was able to relay its Alaskan cable with con-
siderably less slack than ever had b°en done before, at a correspond-
ing saving in cost, thanks to the more detailed knowledge of the
topography of the bottom so gained.

Many other cable routes in different p.'rirts of the world have
leeen projected and cables will be laid as the commercial demand
increases. If surveys of the routes can be mode by the echo method
(allowing far more detail to be learned in far less time than could
ever be possible by the old methods), not only will the expense be
considerably lesS) out the c«'blc routes can be planned to better
advantage in avoiding the ridges pnd depressions of the bottom. It
is stated that an adequate survey of the Japan Deep and of neighbor-
ing regions would be especially valuable from this standpoint, because
lying in the route which will probably be chosen when additional
cables are laid across the North Pacific. Projects to connect up the
American with the British Trans-Pacific cables will entail surveys
between the Hawaiian and Fanning Islands. According to Col. Seone's
statement a survey is also needed direct from^ the Panama Canal to
Honolulu; also additional information all along the Pacific coasts
of South Central America, and South America, including those of out-
lying islands, (the Galapegoes for instance) that might sometime be
chosen for relay stations. A.s soon as commercial development in the
southern hemisphere demands the extension of the present cable
systems across the South Atlantic, South Pacific and Indian Oceans,
information far more detailed and accurate than is now available will
be certainly required as to the depths and shapes of the bottom. The
recent expedition of the "Meteor" has already given 9 satisfactory
prelim.inary picture of the bottom of the South Atlantic, but we
believe we are correct in stating that until the "Carnegie" undertook
her present cruisr, only one line of sonic soundings had been run

87

across the South Pscific. To this thc3 C'^rn-^gie has alr-ady =idded
scvtrTBl lin>3s in that ocean, witn othc.-rs in prospect. A.nd as this is
the only method yet discovcrc-d by which detailed surv?ys of large
areas of daep ocean can be made v^conomically, important additions to
present knowlcidgc of submarin.- topcsraphy ar:^ to be r-xp^cted from her
projected passages across the North Pacific and Indian Oceans.

VI. OCiA-NOGRAPHY, AND SEASONAL vVEATHSR FORECASTS

The question whether, ox- not, a rational basis for forecasting
certain features of the weath^^r, for any part of the world, can be
found in the variations that take place in the temperature of the sea,
has been much discussed of late, both by meteorologists and by
oceanographers.

In introducing this miatter we must point out that its economic
status falls in a category quite different from that of the phases
of Oceanography already discussed in this chapt-r. The economic
bearing of the exploration of tidal currents, for example, of the
charting of coastlines and harbor-approaches, or of the sounding out
of shoals is not only direct but immediate; that of m.any specific
problems in fisheries biology is equally direct, if less immediate;
and the practical importance; of the mor? general phases of oceanic
biology is unquestioned, if more remote. But thore is, as yet, no
general agreement wheth-r, or to what degree, forecasts ;f the
weather, based on the temperature or on any other feature; of the
Water, can ever be made reliable enough to prov^- of general service
to man, unless it be in specially favorable regions.

The first economic problem, then, to be solved in the general
investigation of the interaction between sea and air is whether this
does indeed off.'T reasonable prospect of yielding dirict practical
benefits, with s favorabl.- answer pointing th- need of analyzing
the possible methods by which such benefits might be attain-d.

Furthermore, a cl-ar distinction must be drawn betw^'en the type
of weather prediction that could be furthered by studies of the
atmosphere itself over the oceans (this is not a part of Oceanography),
and the type for which som^e meteorologists believe a rational basis
can be found in the variations of the thermal state of the water. The
first type corresponds mostly to the sort of daily weather charting
and forecasting now carried out on shore. If enough stations can be
arranged for, and properly distributed over the oceans, it would be
possible to forecast the tracks of storms, directions of winds, and
state of the weather a day or two in advance over the sea just as is
now done on land. Meteorologists - the shipping interests too, have
long realized the desirability of such forecasts; the reason that
their development has lagged in the past has been the difficulty and
prohibitive expense of organizing a sufficient number of recording
stations, the necessity for taking all observations from ships which
makes it impractical to establish fixed stations, and the weakening
of the chain that would result from a failure to obtaining regular
reports from the less frequented seas. An attempt to meet these
difficulties is now being made by the several weather services, by
the designation of Cc:rtain ships as reporting stations according to a
uniform plan. The date so collected may be expected to s^rve as the
nucleus for statistical studies, embracing also the vast amount of
data that is concurrently collectc:d by the great maritime nations.

88

There is no roason to suppose that pny study of the surfoce
temperature of the sea, of th- evaporation, or of the variations in
the ocean currents, no metter how detailed, could ..ver assist the
gen -ral daily forecast, wheth-^r for sea or for land, because what-
ever chang-es take plvsce within the- s;a (=ithrr with the alternations
of the seasons or following cxtrs-torrestrial caus-^s) are events
inordinately slow as contrasted with the sudden fluctuations in the
atmosphere. Tho goal th^tt som? students believe attainable here is
quite a different one, namely, the prediction of the seasonal weath'=r
character over the adjacent lands to leeward.

Ordinary weather forecasting, such as is now carried on by most
of the civilized governments, has become so much a matter of course,
is usually so well verified and is so universally used as a guide,
that there is a constant demand for longer range prediction of just
the sort that the proponents of forecasts based on sea temperatures
hope to see realized; namely, to tell us weeks or months in advance
whether high or low temperatures, much or little rainfall will pre-
vail. Even in regions where the weather fluctuates widely from day
to day it would, in many cases, be of great economic value to know
in advance the direction of abnormality to be anticipated in these
respects, even if its amount could not be foreseen. Thus a departure
of a d.cgree or two, plus or minus, from the normal temperature in
winter may govern whether most of the precipitation of a northern
region comes as rain, or as snow, correspondingly affecting the ease
of transportation, etc. In short, advance information of this sort
would be so helpful a guide to many industries (we need only instance
the clothing trades, power and transportation companies, and certain
branches of agriculture) that attempts in that direction are constant-
ly being made. And proof that industry as a whole would actually
welcome assistance of this sort is found in the fact that many con-
cerns are willing to pay high for such forecasts, even while realiz-
ing that their dependability is doubtful, to say the least.

Forecasts of this sort are given out from one source or another
in all parts of the world, but most of them soon prove worthless.
In fact few of them have had any physical basis, while the sponsors
of those few would be the first to declare that the data for their
calculations have been far from adequate. Even such of the long
range forecasts as are based on tangible factors hav5, as a rule,
been purely empiric: deduced, for example from Astronomical cycles,
(planetary or solar), from correlations, or on the assumption that
a periodicity recorded in the past will recur in the future. In
most cases the publication of long-range forecasts has been abandoned
before long, discredited by too frequent a failure, on the part of
the weather, to substantiate the predictions. (it is necessary to
except India from this statement, government forecasts of the summ-^r
monsoon rainfall, based on oscillations in atmospheric pressure at
stations bordering the Indian ocean, having been reasonably success-
ful in the long run, and well verified in occasional years, though
poorly in other years. )

In short, no one has yet worked out a dependable sequence from
antecedent events, whether in sky, in sea, or on land, from which the
weather to come can yet be forecasted far in advance for any consider-
able part of the earth's surface, reliably enough to serve as a
trustworthy guide to man's activities, year after year.

89

It has often been suggested, however, that at least a partial
basis for such a sequence could be found in the sporadic variations
that are known to take place in the surface temperature in various
parts of the sea, combined with any corresponding expansions or
contractions of the ocean currents, and with the rate of evaporation
from the surface. This suggestion has been removed from the realm
of purely theoretical potentiality to the stage of actual test by the
comparisons between the physical state of the sea water and the local
weather that are now being carried on, esptcially in thj North
A-tlantic, in Canada, in California} and in Java, For example, marine
temperatures are now being used in an attempt to determine whether
the Weather in the South /Atlantic states or in Europe shows dependence
on conditions in the Gulf Stream. /^nd predictions of the weather of
southern California developed at the Scripps Institution from the
temperature of the adjacent sea during the preceding months (as an
index of the strength and permanence of the north Pacific high) have
been verified to an encouraging degree for the past twelve y.iars.
H'-cent investigations also show a sequence in tem.peratures of pressure
and temperatures across the Pacific Ocean, extending over some months,
which suggest the effects of a transportation of heat by ocean
currents.

It is obvious that studies of this sort, if looking toward
weather prediction, presuppose the occurrence of longer or shorter
term fluctuations of temperature in the sea, of a sort that cannot be
described as regularly "seasonal". i^nd as pointed out on page ., this
supposition is justified, variations of this sort having been ooserved
so freauently that they must be accepted as characteristic of every
part of the sea where the temp-^rature has been studied in detail.
But before the claim that these events can be used as a basis for
weather prediction can be upheld, it is necessary to establish, not
only that a regular correlation exists between the two classes of
phenomena for th- parts of the earth in question, but that the
changes in the sea regul-rly antedate the changes in the atmosphere,
and not the reverse; also whether the former are so great that their
effects are not entirely masked by the complex atmospheric phenomena
that immediately control the weather.

This quantitative aspect of the problem is especially pressing,
because meteorologists and oceanographers have to do here mostly with
minor fluctuations in the th':rmal state of the sea, seldom with
major alterations of a sort that would strikingly be reflected in
the weath-r of some part of the v/orld, such as the heavy rains over
parts of the Peruvign d-Esert early in 1925, or the droughty and other
consequijnces of unusual outbursts of polsr ice. While th^se minor
fluctuations are known to occur commonly, little is known about them
except in the marginal seas in high latitudes (where they may be
expected to reach their widest range), A.nd while a progressive move-
ment of such temperature abnorm-alities as develop m.ay be expected to
take place along the tracks of the major ocean currents, precise
information on this point is much needed.

In the northern hemisphere, for example, easterly movements of
this sort have, for the most part, been traced in high latitudes
north of the 40th parallel. But this may partly be because the
temperature abnormalities so far actually recorded (not surmised)
have been much greater in high latitudes than in low, allowing their
progression to be followed more certainly. To illustrate the

90

difficulty of trsicins, across th^ oceans, thj sm^ll thirmel vnri?tions
that hsve been recorded in th>- tropics, from the usu«l records
supplied by passing ships, Wc may instance the Caribbean Sea v/here
data tabulated Dy the United States Weather Bureau for the nine years
1920-1389 showea a maximum monthly departure of 1.2° F from the mean;
with only 39 months of the 108 showing deviations greater than 0.5'^ F.

The crux of the matter is, however, to establish whether or in
what parts of the ocean, temperature-abnormalities or other changes
in the water do actually anti'date alterations in the weather of the
over-lying air. Nor can any general rule be assumed to apply in this
respect whether regionally or seasonally, the whole question being an
extriraely complex one. In the Gulf of Maine, to note a simple example,
it is sufficiently d -monstrattd that the tem.pcrature and direction of
the wind largely control the temperature of the wat^r in winter.
However, the subsequent effects on New England weathrr of these
weather-produced wat . r temperatures are unknown.

Off Southern California again, the wind affects the temperature
of the surface both by producing upswelling from below, and by
sweeping cold watrT down from the North. How these Temperatures
react on the T-mp.-rature of the air, and so on the weather, is now
the subject of active investigation at the Scripp's Institution.
In most cases, in short, the sequenc.^ is not clear, even for regions
where sea and air temperatures have been under observation for many
years. In Scandinavia, for example, it has often oeen stated that
various atmospheric and terrestrial phenomena follow the cycle of s-^a
temperature. But recent students have found the sequence to be the
reverse, for while a close correlation exists between air and water
temperatures along the coast of Norway, it now s-ems that the varia-
tions in air temperature precede those in the water. Nevertheless,
this does not necessarily indicate that the atmospheric changes are
the primary on-;s> for the Kore mobile air may bring departures in
Temperature to a given coast more rapidly than the possibly activating
warmer or colder watir can come.

This uncertainty as to the true sequence applies not only to the
states regularly prevailing over one part of the sea or another, but
even to sporadic events that have often bjen invoked as evidence of
the climatic effects of marine abnormalities; to the torrential
rains, for instance, that accompanied the abnormal development of the
warm "El Nirlo" current along the coasts of Ecuador and of northern
Peru early in 1925. Although most, if not all, stud-^nts who have
published accounts of this uVcnt, have looked to the high temperature
of the seas as the cause of the exceptional rainfall that attended,
it has been pointed to us that no definite proof of this has yet been
brought out, but that while the alteration of ocean currents in the
regions were probably a contriouting factor, it is also likely that
both events were coincident results of a marked reduction in the
strength of the trade winds.

Uncertainty of another sort as to which is cause, which effect,
is illustrated in the North Atlantic where recent and very searching
investigations point to the direction of the wind as the cause of
variations in the winter temperature of the surface of the sea, but
where the winds in turn reflect the locations and intensities of the
pGrm.anent or semipermanent centers of high and low atmospheric

91

pressuTts, w/liich may themselves b-'-? more or less affected by suah
changes in the t-jmpero.tiir^. in fact, alterations in the best known
of these centers of atmospheric permanent high or low pressure, the
"A.zores high" and the ''ICL-landic low" have been explained on this
basis by some students. But here no general agreement has been
reached, this being one of the cases (common in geophysics) where
postulotion has been much e8Si._-r than demonstration.

The Northeast Pacific semi-pcrmanent hieh is also known to
shift north in summ:-r, south in winter: and storms moving from the
Meution region toward California sometimes linger over th^ northeast
Pacific for five to ten days, during which time it is only reasonable
to suppose that their intensity is affected by evaporation from the
water, and by the accompanying surface temperature. But very little
is known as to the less regular shifts in position of this or of other
oceanic highs or lows, or to what extent these shifts are caused by
changes in sea temperatures if at all.

Solution of the general relationship in this respect between
sea and air is an essential preliminary to any attem.pt to establish
whether or not oceanic variations are actually translated into
weather abnormalities, except, perhaps, for localities where the
climate is strictly oceanic (as on some islands), or where the wind
constantly blows inward from the sea over the land.

To add to the difficulty that attends synthesis in this general
field, alterations in the atmospheric centers m^ay have climatic
effects quite the opposite of what the uninitiated might expec-^.
Thus it has been pointed out that in the colder months unusually
warm water off the southeastern United States may be expected to
favor oceanic low pressure and cold weather in the eastern states,
not warm. On the other side of the Atlantic, however, any intensifi-
cation of the Icelandic low m&y be expected to bring warm weather
along the land by strengthening the southerly component of the winds.
Nor is the tem.p-rature the only element of climate affected by such
alteroticns in the winds as raoy follow shifts in the highs and lows,
for effects on the rainfall may eoually be expected. Thus variations
in the mean air temperature and rainfall for India may hark back, in
part, to variations in the amount of ice melting from year to year
in the Antarctic Sea; variations in the rain that falls on the south-
central part of the United States may in part reflect variations in
the evaporation and air movement from the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of
Mexico; while evidence so far obtained suggests that the dampness and
temperature of winds blowing in from the sea (consequently the
temperature of the ocean surface for a considerable distance up wind)
has a part in governing the rainfall of Bouthern California.

Sir Napier Shaw, in his book "Forecasting Weather" (1323, F. 160)
has recently remarked that actual analysis of^North Atlantic weather
"has been destructive of any hope of simple rules of weather sequence
or for the movement of high and lov; pressure areas. The atmosphere
over the North Atlantic is shown to be throughout the year in a state
of turmoil which defies simplicity of description, and it is clear
that something more than a process of classification is required be-
fore the sequences will become amenable to form:Ulated lav*'." This
statement by one of the m.ost eminent of living" meteorologists
sufficiently emphasizes the difficulty with which any institution -
far more any individual - is faced who undertakes serious investiga-
tion of the role that sea temperatures may play in the weather somplex.

93

A.lthough surface-terr.peratarss al.nost past counting have been
collected in the ppst, it has been rppreciated for many years that
one of the difficultiss of such investigation lies in the need for
gathering reliable observations at shorter intervals, for various
parts of the ocean, for only by such data would it be possible to
follow, in detail, just v;ha"t changes do occur in the sea.

It is pertinent here to consider how far the machinery that
would be necessary for analytical investigation in tali- field now
exists. So far as physical eauipment roes, the answer would be
encouraging for the North Atlantic where steamers are regularly on so
many routes that a close net of continuous Oc-anogrsphic data could
be obtained easily, if thermographs, barographs, etc, could be
installed on a sufficient number of ships and if arrangements could
be made for the ships' officers to give these instruments the needed
attention; also to care for the records. In fact, continuous sea
water thermographs have already been installed on steamers running
in various parts of the world under the observations of several
different institutions with highly instructive results. The hydro-
graphic services also receive a continuous stream of observations
from a variety of sources, and the weather bureaux are now developing
a scheme of coordinated investigation as noted on Page , In the
other oceans data are much needed from regions that lie outside the
resrular steamship tracks, hence, cannot be obtained without special
arrangement.

The most serious obstacle to the advance of knowledge as to the
general relationship between sea temperatures on one hand, and
atmospheric temperatures and pressures on the other has not been any
intrinsic difficulty in obtaining the marine observations, but the
inability of any existing agency to undertake analysis of the enormous
mass of data that has already been amassed, and that will continue to
accumulate at an appalling rate if continuous observations are taken
on many ships running along as many different routes. For such
investigation to be of any practical value whatever, this analysis is
essential. I^nd it is necessary to face not only the volume of work
entailed, but also its extreme complexity.

Thr magnitude of such an undertaking, if it were to be applied to
any one of the ocean basins as a whole with the fringing lands, is
quite beyond the capabilities of any private institution now exist-
ing- or likely to be established. At present it is equally bayond the
reach of any' of the governmental weather services. The United States
Weather Bureau is now appealing to Congress for funds for the task of
compiling and analyzing its ocean temp-rature records. But as meteor-
ologists", as a body, cannot promise the legislatures th^t such
analysis (even if continued for ten or twenty years) will produce
commensurate economical results, it is not likely that governmental
funds can be secured for large-scale investigations of this sort.
Furthermore, there could be no attempt at official long-range weather
forecasting based on sea temperatures (except perhaps for some local-
ity especially favorable) until a rational basis for prediction be
established by the proof thst a correlation exists; until a sound
method for translatin:: such correlations into terms of weather be
found; and until arrang;:.mcnts be made for the regular collection of
the necessary data. 2ven assuming these requirements to be met,
official forecasts could hardly be given cut until the methods had
been tried out for a long term of years, because such forecasts to

93

engender confidence, must be verified by the event in a substantial
majority of cases.

These difficulties urite to make this a field in which fertile
results may be soonest expeoted from the "case system" of investiga-
tion, while the extieme complexity of the basic problem makes it
essential that the simplest cases be the first attacked, thus approach-
ing as nearly as possible to the laboratory method. Furthermore,
the impossibility (if we are to be intellectually honest) of promis-
ing direct economical benefits therefrom, m.akes research institutions
particularly appropriate centers for certain aspects of such work, in
cooperation with the governmental weather bureaux. The very encour-
aging progress that has been made in the experiment now being carried
out by the Scripps' Institution corroborates this view.

The results of twelA'^e years" work there, to date, appear to show
that in that region a useful correlacion does exist between oceanic
conditions in the offing, and the weather ashor:, for (over this
brief period of years) when the sea surface near southern California
has been cooler than normal from .\ugust to October, but the mid-
Pacific warmer, the rainfall of southern California hes been greater
than usual during the following winter; and vice-versa. attempts to
predict the amount of rainfall have been about 75fc verified. Thus it
appears at present that, for southern California at least, tempera-
ture departures in the various parts of the Pacific are one of the
classes of indicators that can be combined into cumulative forecasts
of seasonal rainfall and perhaps of temperatures.

Much work yet rem.ains to oe done to uncover the effect of other
factors that are undoubtedly concerned, and to place the system on an
assured basis. But the suggestive results of this attempt, to date,
not only justify the continuation of this line of work in southern
California, for which the Scripps' Institution has plans, but point
the need of investigations of the same sort in other representative
regions chosen on the basis just stated (Page ). The relationship
that rainfall in Ecuador and northern Peru bears to ocean tempera-
tures off that coast offers a very promising case for study. Other
American vantage points that seem favorable, because interpretation
promises less difficulty there than m m.ost parts of the world,
appear to be Northeastern Brazil, British Colum.bia, Southern Alaska,
and the Gulf coast and south Atlantic Soeboard of the United States.

It is obvious that efforts to work up the great mass of ocean
Temperatures already accumulated at several places would be an
essential item in any broad-scale research in this general field.
And all institutions so doing, whether governmental or private should
>e encouraged to follow a comimon plan.

All such data should also be published promptly, in order to be
generally availaole, again according to some general plan.

. _ . . ■ 94

CKA.PTSR III

PRESENT SITUATION IN OGSAKOGRAPHY IN kmZRlCk

I, INTROrijCTION

The last hali" of the past century may be named the heyday of
the deep-sea explorin:? expedition, in '.vhich phase of oceanography the
United States played a leading role with the cruises of the "Blake"
end "Albatross", It was then" that the brosd relief of the submerine
floor wDs mapped, the general nature of its sediments determinea, and
the general character of the deep-sea fauna explored. In all this
American ships and oc eanographcrs took a leading pert. But there
followt;d in America a period of stagnation, when the day of pioneer-
ing passed, and when continued exploration in thes: preliminary lines
proved more corroboretive than nov^l. A.s in many a new science, so
in Oceanography in America, a period of quiescence succeeded s peak
of activity, as soon as persistence in the old methods and habits of
thouRht no longer yielded new and wonderful discoveries. In Europe,
however, synchronous with this American decline, there had arisen new
schools cent'^ring their attention not so much on refrional surveys of
the oceans as on the biologic economy of its inhabitants as governed
by their physical and chemical environment. This change of viewpoint,
from the descriptive- to a conscious att'.mpt to interpret oceanic
phenomena in terms of its organic inhabitants, marks the beginnine- of
the modern science of Oceanic Biology, trnd it is interesting that the
real inc-ntive came, in this case, from the demands of declining
fisheries for betterment, i.e. from econom.ic necessity.

At the same tim.e, the foundation was being laid in Scandinavia
for our present-day understanding of ocean dynamics which was destined
to raise the study of the circulation of the sea to a new plane.

A.t first the op.-ning of these new gateways to an understanding of
life in the sca, and of the physics of the latter, seemed to have
passed almost unnoticed in America, at least so far as translation of
recognition of the new viewpoint into active participation is con-
cerned. It is, in feet, hardly an exaggeration to describe Oceano-
graphy in America during the first yt;ars of the pr-sent c-ntury as
"dead", with the old ways no longer yielding advances commensurate
with the effort. This period of stagnation, hovifever, was short, and
the awakening- that followed must fairly be credited to the example of
the International Committee for the Exploration of the Sea, in North
European waters.

As is so usually the case, the first evidences of this reawaken-
ing were not only several, but these several nearly simultaneous.
Modern Oceanography in America may, we think, be dated from the
following events: the establishm-:nt , in 1904, of The Tortugas
Laboratory of the Department of Marine Biology of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington; the adoption of a regular pro.eram of
oceanographic study at the Scripps' Institution for biologic research
at La Jolla, California in 1908; the institution in 1903 of studies
of the bottom sediments, shore line geolosry -ind physics of the wat-^rs
around Florida and the Bahamas, of which the Committee on Sedimenta-
tion of the National Research Council wa? an outscrowth; the inception
of the cooperative study of the natural economy of the Gulf of Maine
by the U. S, Bureau of Fisheries, and the Museum of Comparative .

95

Zoology in 1912; the development since 1910 of oCr.-?nio biology 9S a
miior "project at the St, Andrcv:s Lb>ora-ccry of the Biological Board
of' Canada leading directly to the 0-.nadi<n Fisheries expedition in
1915; and the inclusion by thcr Incemational Io_ Patrol of studies of
oceanic circulation as p?rt of its regulc^r duties since 1914. The
rapid d.-.:Vclopmcnt of o-i.:- en io biology, dynamic oceanography, and in
submarine geology (this lest nioTera,.'nt one of the most important for
the promotion of Oceanography in the United States) which has follow-
ed in American wat-^rs has b-^en l'rg-.,ly as an outgrowth from these
scattered beginnings.

II. ANALYSIS BY PROJiCTS

Discussion of the s>:;veral distinct lines of activity today will
sivi 8 better picture of the present status of Oc . -^nography in
^m-'-rica than would ^i regional or institutional examination. From
this st-^ndpoint marine investigations may be classed rathir arbitrar-
ily as: (e) active exploration at sea; (b^ invcstigstions in seaside
laboratories or at other shore centers; (c) coordinating institutions;
(dj opportunity for instruction offered by universities, and (e) last
bMt not least, aval] able lioraries.

■ A. ACTIVE EXPLORATION AT SEA

Oceanographic exploration, whether its aims be bioloo:ic or
physical, has by natural process of evolution developed along tv;o
lines. It may be carried on by great deep-sea exploring expeditions,
oceanwide in scope, but comparatively short in duration; and sent out
as more or less isolated events in the general progress of science.
;^s the need of more intensive knowledge developed, continuous or at
least periodic study of areas within a few hundred miles of the home
station have proved more and more fertile, such as can be carried out
on a small vessel at sm.all expense. It is this procedure that has
contributed most to the modern advance of Oceanic Biology. The deep-
sea expedition was the method of early days of the science. ks just
remarked, the day is passing for expeditions of this sort, except in
the realms of physical and ch.-raical Oceanography. Hare, when it is a
case of examining great areas of the sea, an occasional extended
expedition is essential, vide, the contributions recently m.adcs to our
knowledge of the circulation of the South A.tlantic by the "Meteor".

The last few years have seen a reawakening of interest in such
cruises in America, and we find evidence that Ararrican science is
alive to their value in last summ-.r's dynamic exploration of Tavis
Strait oy the Coast Guard Cutter Mt^RION (Page 96); in the Museum of
Comparative Zoology cruises in the iVtlantic, (Page 97 ); and more
notably, in the prisent cruis-.- of the GARNEOIS sent out by the
Carnec:ie Institution of Washington. This last is the most ambitious
undertaking of the sort sponsored in America for many years, and the
expansion of the activities of the Tepartment for Terrestrial Mag-net-
ism of the Carnegie Institution into the realms of Oceanography
deserves cm.phgsis, as illustrating the present-day virility of ocean
sci-nce in the United States. This expedition is planned for three
years, to cover a net-work of 110,000 miles across all thj great
o<»eans. In addition to the regular magnetic work, and to observations
of atmospheric electricity, an extensive program of physical oceano-
graphy is plann'^d, including soundings in little-known parts of the
ocean basins, dynamics of the water along the tracks covered,

96

coilecticn of bottom sodirr. -nts, and sp-3cial study of th^^rraal inter-
c;i<ing-t: bctwBen the surf'icc of the s-: a 3nd th^ or^rlying air. The
biological progrem, as d'->scrlbf..d by thj biologist of tha -;xpjdition5
is to b: diri'Ctsd chiefly to«y''rd the study of the chemical and
pn^'sical environm .nt of th;- plankton, sind of some of tha physiologi-
cal conditions of exist :,ncc of individu-^l groups of animals, for
which fi -Id observations c?n be linked with laboratory experiments.
Other collections -vill also be made as opportunity off.rs.

Whether this expedition is to be the precursor of continued
activities in the oceanographic field by the Carnegie Institution of
"Jaohington, it is too early to prophesy.

' The incentive for the Davis Strait expedition of the Coast Guard,
1930, just mentioned, was fundamentally economic: to gain better
understanding of the ocean currents that are responsible for the ice
menace to vessels passing the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, and so to
better the actual patrol. But the fact that to attain this end it
was thought necessary to apply the most rigorous technique of modern
Oceanography to a dynamic study of the area in Question proves the
growing appreciation in A,merica of the practical value of marine
researches. A. general dynamic exploration of the oceanic triangle
Hatteras-Bermuda-Nova Scotia during the summer of 1937, and a traverse
of the North atlantic during the sumra-r of 1938 under the auspices of
the Lluseura of Comparative Zoology, extend this method of attack to
other areas, and link up with similar cruises from "2urope.

The "Arcturus" ExtJedition of the New York Zoological Socijty to
th-- Sarcrasso Sea and the Galapas-oes region in 1935, by contrast,
revived the more discursive methods of the past era, while it is too
early to comment on the explorations around Bermuda carried on by
the Society luring summer of 1939.

F-rtile, however, though such expeditions may be, it is by the
method of periodic surveys of definite areas, or by continuous
attack on definitely limited problems, th^t Oceanography in American
waters is most rapidly advancing at present, and may be sxpected most
rapidly to dev-lop in the futur^j. This phase is perhaps best pre-
sented on a geographic basis.

Following the North-jastern American shelf, from the Artie south-
ward, we find first, the Canadian Hydrographic S-rvice obtaining
physical data, and measurements of magnetic variation in Hudson Bay
and straits; likewise off the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawr^.-nc,..
In Newfoundland, the program of the pr-^sent government includes
support of scientific work in connection with the Fisheries. But
work has not yet b-en und^^rtaken th^re on a serious scale.

The International Icc Patrol op-rated by the U. S. Go^ist Guard
yearly carries out a detailed dynamic survey of the circulcition of
the wat-.r-mass;s in the vicinity of the Grand Banks, /dth the severely
practical aim of guarding shipping from th; ice menace;. Here the
most advanced methods of dynam.ic oceanography are put to practical
use in plotting the periodic variations in the direction and velocity
of th'.r flow that carries floating bergs, and it is here, at the hand^
of the U. S. Coast Guard, that the soundness of this method of attack
has received its m.ost impressive confirmation. The recent extension
of this survey northv/ard to the narrows of Davis Strait, as mientioned

37

above, (pase 35 ) 5 preo^c-es future study of the physics of this ^rtic
expansion of the "/estern Atlantic.

The sphere of activity of The Bioloe-ical Board of Canada overlaps
the cruising areas of the Ice Patrol. The marine researches of this
Board have a different ultimate aim, being centered about oceanic
biology, especially in relation to fisheries proolems. But in this
connection, the Board likewise attacks a broad range of physical and
chemical problems, because of their bearing on the natural economy of
the sea. Surveying its field of -ictivity from north to south, we see
it sponsoring physical and oiological observations (temperatures,
salinities and towings) in the Labrador curr-:>nt-Baff insland -Hudson _ Bay
reeion at tim^s when special expeditions off-r opportunity. In this
way, a considerable body of material is being accumulated which will
eventually be of great value. Further south the cruises of the Board,
since 1915, are making the ?rulf of St. Lawrence, with its entrant
straits, fairly well known both physically and biologically; and very
significant results of economic value have already been gained as to
the dependence here of the local cod, in their migrations, on the
temperature of the water. The Bourd has in progress a continuing
study of the circulation of the coastal waters from Hudson Strait to
the Bay of Fundy , by drift bottles, put out cither by its own boat or
by governmental and commercial vessels. In the Bay of Fundy region,
by short cruises and periodic observations at standard stations, it
carries out an intensive study of the physical effects of the churning
of the water by the violent tidal currents, and of the biological
reflection of the latter.

The Board itself operates small vessels only. Whan expeditions
too extensive for their capabilities are to be undertaken (as in the
case of the Canadian Fisheries Expedition of 1915) arrangements are
made with related government Services for th- use of the larger Patrol
ships. The Board has been very successful in carrying out tagging
experiments from commercial fishing vessels.

A,nd by cooperation with the Canadian Hydrographic S-rvice and
with commercial shipping companies, it has begun gathering continuous
readings of the surface^ temperature by recording thermograph, along
various trade routes in the '.T/est-^^rn /Atlantic, while the meteorologi-
cal branch of the Canadian Pepartment of Marine carries on similar
work in the North Pacific.

In the Gulf of Maine the U. 3. Bureau of Fisheries, jointly, with
the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard University, has, for the
past sixteen years, prosecuted a general oceanographic survey, cover-
ing the interrelationship that the physical state and circulatory
movements of the water bear to the Plankton and to the Biology of the
local fish fauna. The procedure here has been by p-c-riodic cruises,
successively by the "Grampus", the "Halcyon", the "Albatross"', and
the "Albatross II", taking ooscrvations , physical and biologic, at
standard stations, at different seasons; a program modvllcd on that
followed by the International Council for the -.xploration of the p.-ja
in the Northeastern Atlantic. This exploration is now being eiiteudeo
to the coast sector Cape Cod to Che^^apeake Bay, by the periodic
cruises of the Fisheries steamer "Albatross II", along repreGentabi'. e
profiles, combined with tagging and other fisheries experiments.

The chief limitation to the oceanographic undertakings of the

93

Bureau is the necessity of confining most of its cruises to the
waters over ;:he continental shelf, in comparatively shallow water and
near land, where practically all the important fisheries are located;
for as explained elsewhere (pag-e l£l) , it is to these fisheries that
the Bureau must devote most of its attention. In the past, when
funds have been available from other sources for fuel (which is the
chief item of expense) long voyages have been made on the high seas
by the vessels of the Bureau. And there is every reason to suppose
that the Bureau will continue this policv whenev-r cooperation with
outside agencies makes funds available, bccausr it is now fully
appreciated that the key to many of the riddles of marine economy in
our sho^l watirs is to be sought in the fluctuations in the "flow and
in the temperature of the waters of the oceanic basins.

No program of regular oceanographio cruises is now in progress
off the A.tlantic coast of the United States south of Chesapeake Bay,
or anywhere in the Gulf of Mexico. But a general oceanographic :'-x-
ploration of the triangle Katteras-Bermuda-Florida was made by the
Coast and Goedetic Survey jointly with the Bureau of Fish.-ries on the
BAGHE in 1914; while the ALBATROSS in 1920 again ran profiles across
the Straits of Florida. Thes^, with the intensive study of various
problems in the chemistry of sea water, sponsored from the Tortugas
Laooratory of the Carnegie Institution (pagelCS), may, W2 hope, be
forerunners to futuii activity in that very interesting oceanic
province.

So far as we can learn, no regular continuing program of oceanic-
exploration oth^r than the collection of surface temp'^ratures and
salinities, is now being sponsored anywhere from the east or west
coasts of South America, and it is too early to foresee how much work
of the sort will te done from the Fisheries vessel recently acquired
by the Argentine Government. The "Discovery" Expedition, recently at
work in the Atlantic, and continued in 1938-1339 by the "William
Scoresby" from headquarters in the Falkland Islands is British, and
in any case falls, rather, in the category of occasional exploration.

Neither are there any centers of oceanographic exploration along
the west coasts of Crntral America, or Mexico. But serial measure-
ments of temperature (v/ith water samples) are tak-n oy the survey
ships of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey on their cruises
between the cast and west coasts, as wdl as north and south along
the latter.

Oceanography is w-11 served in the coastal b.jlt along southern
California, and for a couple of hundred miles out to sea, by the
periodic cruises of the Scripps' Institution of Oceanor=rraphy of the
University of California, which constitute the most extensive con-
tinuing program of the sort now in progress off the Pacific Coast of
North America. The institution'? vessel, of th-- typ? usually used
for fishing in that region, is fully eouipped for the collection of
all sorts of routine data, biological as well as physical-chemical>
down to considerable d-pths (about 1800 meters). An3 thanks to the
narrowness of the continental shelf there, she is able to extend her
cruises out into the ocvsn basin, as w-11 as for considerable
distances along the coast to north and south. The temperatures,
salinity and chemical state of the water of th.- area thus r?ccrd2d:
and collections of Plankton obtained, form the basis for man^.^ of the

99

studies carried on at the Institution's Lalooretory, summarized on
pase

In ooop-ration with th-i United States Lighthouse Service-, with
the United States (.'cast and G.odstic Survey, with the United States
Navy > with comm-rojal vsi^se'is running on various routes, and with
private yacht owners, the Institution is able to jxpand the work done
from its own vessel by the colleot'icn oi extensive series of surface
temperatures and water Barr.pl. S; both at shore stations and widespread
over the north and south Faoific. Kcv? successful this auxilli?jry
program has proved is me.de clci-.r by the receipt of no less than
2.785 water samples (salinity deteimined. at the La Jolla laboratories),
and 12,237 readings of tempe-a-curos during the year 1937-1928 (report
of the Comimittee on Suoraarine Configuration and Oceanic Circulation
of the National Research Council for 19^8,) The Institution's
efforts represent, in fact, the most successful project of this sort
yet undertaken by any ft.;iierican agency since the days of Maury.

Further north, the California coast is now seeing the birth of a
new project, in the exploration of the oceanic biology of Monterey
Bay and of its offing, by short cruiees throuf?:h the joint efforts of
the California Fish and Game Commission and of the Hopkins Marine
Station. It is yet too early to do more than point out that a work-
ing agreement has oeen arrived at, that special attention is being
paid to the biological side, and that the observations are to be
taken periodically from one of the Patrol boats of the Commission at
standard stations.

The Friday Harbor Station of the University of TJashington is the
site of increasing oceanographic activity, especially in chemical
problems, in ocean Physics, and in studies of the Plankton. Important
physico-chemical observations and plankton studies are now regularly
obtained in the neighborhood of the r-acific Biological Station of the
Biological Board of Canadn at Nanairao, 3. C. , (jointly with the
University of British Columbia) on a considerable scale, as more
fully described below (pagelC?.). knd while no attempt has yet been
made to ..extend these out into the oceanic basin off this sector of
the Pacific coast, the International Fisheries Commission, op-rating
under treaty oetween Canada and the United States, has undertaken a
program of sub-surface sections off the A,laskan coast (supplem=!nted
by current measurements) to serve as the basis of dynamic calcula-
tions of the movements of sub-durfa^je waters in connection with its
studies of the life history of the halibut. This last is an isolated
project with no assurance of its continuance. But the thoroughness
of the work, not only in ocean physics but especially in its biologi-
cal aspects, make it a most important contribution to our knowledge
of the natural economy of the northwestern pacific.

The topographic explorations of the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey, along the two coasts of the United States, and in
the Hawaiian and Philippine Archipelagoes, fall in a different
category. Here the individual cruises are units in a continuing
program, but various projects are successively attacked. o"':f or.c part
of the coast or another as need arises. In the fields covered,
(tidal studies and hydrographic surveys) the sea-work of the Ciarvey
sets the standard.

It is not necessary to mention here in detail the occasio-xol

100

cruises carried out on private- yachts, on which a certain amount of
biological collecting is c-one, for oceanographic work is in this
case only incidental. Fur then.iore . it is difficult to estimate
whether the increasing frequency of such undertakings reflects any
corresponding appreciation of the value of marine research, or
whether they simply evidence the inter...3t that some persuasive
Museum Director has been o.ble to arouse in the individual yacht
owner,

B. SEA-SIDS LAB0RAT0RI2S, A3 HEADQ,UiiRTW:S FOR OCSANOGRAPHIG

INV2STIGaT1CN3

In addition to the ship work just sammcirized , certain fields
of investigation, especially in oceanic biology, and in chemistry,
are now being prosecuted at sea-side laboratories on both coasts,
and at oth^r'stations, the more important of which must be mentioned.

1. Atlantic Coast

On the Atlantic Coast these phas'^s of Oceanography are
being actively attacked at the ft.tlantic Biological Station of the
Biological Board of Canada at St. Andrews, and Y/ork in this
direction is projected for the new marine laboratory of the Board
at Halifax, W. S. The station-proirrs-r. here incluU-s investigations into
many fields where fisheries Questions are most obviously dependent
on the underlying problems of organic production in the sea. It is
not necessary to list these here; they have to do chiefly with the
general physiology of marine organisms, and (on the oceanographic
side) include studies on the penetration of light; on the circulation
of the water as making the dissolved food stuffs available for
plant production; on the sources of these food stuffs and, (at St.
Andrews) a very detailed study of tidal currents as agents in main-
taining the great organic fertility of that region.

The Mt. resert Island Biological Laboratory has, during the
past year, undertaken a joint exploration of the local waters, in
cooperation with the Buffalo Society of Natural History, to include
both the Biological and the Physics-Chemical aspects. The Woods Hole
and Beaufort Laboratories of the United States Bureau of Fisheries
and the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole are also centers
for such activities.

At the Woods Hole Laboratory of the Bureau of Fisheries, where
for administrative reasons it has only recently been possible to
outline any definite station program, the problems under study are
fundamentally similar) with especial emphasis on the life histories
and general ecology of individual species of comimercial importance.
This laboratory has been made the head-quarters for various of the
projects attacked on the periodic cruises. Thus the investigations
on the Physiology of the oyster have recently centered here, like-
wise those on the life history of the mackerel, on the distribution
and dispersal of fish eggs and larvae by ocean currents, on the
migrations of the cod fish, and on fish metabolism, to mention only
a f ew. -'■

-'•The Woods Hole Laboratory of the Bureau of Fisheries also ad.nits
outside investigators many of whose problems are not oceanographic. _

101

Little oceanographic work is being Eponsored at present from the
Tortugas Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, which is operating
on only a modest scale. But this Laboratory offers unique advantages
for tropical work under the flag of the United States, and during
the past fifteen years it has been an important heed-quarters for
reseach on marine sedim-:nts, reef- forming organisms, and marine
geologic processes, including the chemistry of sea -water. Besides
routine record of temperature, salinity, hydrogen in concentration,
etc.; the projects (too numerous to detail) have included repeated
investigations of the precipitation of '^alcium carbonate in the
Tropics; carbon dioxide tension; -electric conductivity, alkalinity
of ocean waters, soluDility of calcites end calcareous sediments,
and investigations of marine bacteria. This Labort-tory has also
sponsored coral rsef studies in the Pacific, and in the region of
Torres Straits, as well as in th.-; Atlantic.

Th: newly established Laboratory of Professor Conseil, at Fort
au France on the Island of Bartinique also includes oceanographic
research in its program. But it is too early to estimate its
accomplishment in this field.

2. Pacific Coast.

The Scripps' Institution of Oceanography of the University
of California occupies a position at present unique in American
oceanography, because it is the only establishment on the continent
that is exprr'-'ssly organized and maintained for the investigation of
the problems of this science, without e'^onomic bias. The Institution,
at its headquarters at La Jolla, California maintains a marine labora-
tory excellently equipped for physical ,. chemical , and marine sediments
as well as for a wide variety of biological investigations, and
operates a research vessel as described on page

Using the data gathered on the cruises of the station boet, and
otherwise, as just described (page 98), the station centers its
efforts on such subjects as the celculation of dyn?mic circulation in
the region studied, the development of new mathematical m.ethods of
analysis, and to attempts to discover whether CaliforniDn weather may
be forecast from the ocean temperatures. Chemical analyses of the
water are here perfoTmed in routine as indices to its varying fertili-
ty as a food medium for the plankton. !Tew methods of analysis are
developed, and this general field is being constantly expanded.
Studies of the variations in the ajnount of plankton in local waters,
seasonal, regional, and bathymetric, compared with the amount of
dissolved food stuffs in the water, are a regular p?rt of the program,
and this has recently been expanded to include studies of oacteria in
the sea. The biological investigations also include the physiology of
fishes ?;nd pelaaio fish eggs f.nd larvae. Tne study of m&rine bottom
deposits is also a part of the regular progr8.m of the Institution.

The activities of the Institution find expression in a regular
institution program carried out continuously by the members of the
staff assisted by visiting investigators. In developing tnis pro3:r3m
the physical and dynamic aspects of the seg, chemistry , biolocy, and
geology have each received coordinate attention, so thc:t the institu-
tion is now making the most concerted effort in \merica tow^.rd the
theoretic synthesis of thes-^ several fields of sea science. By

102

tradition, ^nd present activity, the Institution leads Oceanoffr phy on
the Pacific coast.

It is only within the l = st ye-a- th-t the Hopkins J/.arine St-^tion
at Pacific Grove, C3lifornia, haw definitely expanded its pros:rqm to
include Oceanography. But arrangements have now been made to'carry
out Plankton and other biolo^rical studies with chemical analyses of
the water in connection with the periodic cruises just mentioned
fppge 99). And at the new Jac-ues Loeb Laboratory of the Station,
plans are maturing to devote special attention to problems in the
physiology of marine animals and plants, likewise to marine bacteri-
ology. This Station may, therefore, be expected to serve before long
as one of the centers for the development of oceanic biology.

Important
ton are now in
of Washington,
also been made

studies on the chemistry of sea water and on the Plank-
progress at the Friday Harbor Station of the University
where measurements of the penetration of light have

The Laboratory of the Biological Board of Canada f.t Nanaimo , B n
IS the headouarters on the Pacific coast of Canada, for participation
by various uniTercities in the «.arine investigations of the Board,
just as St. ..ndrews Laboratory is in the ^itlantic coast. The oceano-
graphic work being most actively prosecuted at Nanaimo centers at
present about the physical and chemical factors influencing the Plank-
ton m the Straits of Georgia and adjacent waters. Observations are
made through tne year, with special reference to temperature, salinity,
hydrogen-ion concentration, oxygen content, etc; correlated with the
circulation of the Water and with the distribution and character of
the plankton. Records are also beine: taken less retrularlv in other
nearby localities. .nd since 19^6 these have been extended to the
open Pacific off the Fraser River mouth. Physiological problems,
oceanic ^n bearing, are also actively attacked from the Nanaimo Labora-
tory, as uhcy aifect the economic species of fishes and crustacea, and
a great variety of more strictly bioloffical problems are constantly
under investigation. ' ^

The Biological Laboratory of the University of Hawaii must also
be mentioned, as headquarters for extensive experiments on the Scoloev
01 corals, °"'

rn .+?° ^.^L^"" "'' ''^'' l3arn, no other seaside Laboratory in America
(^'■^orth, iiddle, or South\ other than those mentioned above, is now
regul-rly carrying on oo eanographic investigations as a primary object,
although several others are admirably situated for this, and have
boats large enough for work in their local waters. On the east coast
01 the United States, the new estaolishment of the University of N -w
Hampshire at the Isle of Shoals, is especially well situated for in-
tensive studies in the northern sector of the coastal water; th. marine
Biological Laooratory at A'oods Hole for the sector next to the South
The Beaufort Laboratory of the Bureau of Fisheries is eoually well
situated for the South Atlantic Sector. Should pres-nt plans for the
r..organization of the Bermuda Biological station successfully mature,
Its location would give it a unique opportunity to serve as headouartt-
th^ iS?f' n'"'' f Pl°^^,^ie^ °f the chemistry, physics and circulation q::"
^n?. ?^ ^^ ^^'^-^^ °^ ^^' Atlantic, and of th. physiology of d.ep-sea

103

How far these Laboratories may expand their activities in this
direction the future we or.n not predict, nor is it necessary to
consider here the occasional problems, related incidentally to
oceanography, that are studied from time to time at one or another
of them by visiting scientists. We must, however, emphasize the
influence that the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole has
exerted, in preparing the way for systematic investigations in Ocean^
ography such as are now proposed. If it has not constituted much in
a dirf.ct way to Oceanography as nov/ defined, this is because the
subject is still poorly djvtloped in /America at the present time.
This, and the oth-.r Larine Biological l-aboretories are the most
important organizations for the development of Marine Physiology, as
here defined (page 50 ).

C. OTHER OCEANOGRAPHIC STATIONS

No picture of the present status of Oceanography in America
would be complete without some account of such phases of the oceano-
graphic activities of other institutions, not at the sea shore, as
are not covered in the preceding account of current expeditions and
of periodic nruises. To avoid any implication of relative importance,
these are here arranged alphabetically.

The American Museum of Natural History, New York while not
regularly engaged in Oceanography, has recently sponsored studies of
the surface temperature, etc., along the west coast of South America,
in relation to the periodic development of the warm "El Nino" current
there. It has also pbrticipated of late in explorations in Artie
waters.

Brown University enters the oceanographic field only by offer-
ing instruction (olacvherc,) .

The Buffalo Society of Natural History, recently organized, has
already participated in an investigation of the sucmarine sediments,
and plankton, of the Bahamian region, jointly with Princeton Univer-
sity (elsewhere), and is now engaged on a joint program, in the Gulf
of Maine, with the Mt. Desert island Biological Laboratory. Its
program contemplates considerable expansion in this direction,
especially in plankton studies in North rn Seas.

The Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie
Institut: on of Washin(?ton is the home office for the expedition of
the CARN:^>GIE (fslsewbae), and for the publication of the reports
thereTrom, several of which have already appeared; it now includes
a Laboratory and instrument-shop for the design of methods and in-
struments for work at sea.

The plans of the Carnegie Institution relative to Oceanography
have not yet been defined specifically. In general it is the policy
of this Institution not to attempt to cover completely any large
field of scientific research, but to arrange for its work to fit
readily into the larger schemes already under way, without conflict-
ing with other agencies. The Institution touches Oceanography at
three points: namely, by the development of the marine laboratory a+
Tortugas, by s^^ientific researches regularly carried on di.stoms, anJ
by the present cruise of the " Carnegie. " We are informed tnat it
does not (at present) contemplate extending these researches beyond

104

the range just indicated; nor is it likely that the Institution will
continue to op-^rate the Carneaie as an oceanographic research ship
after the summer of 1931. But the Carnegie Institution has offered
to put the ship, for a term of years, at the disposal of the Scripps
Institution if the latter can raise funds for her running expenses.
And it may De taken for granted that the Carnegie Institution would
gladly correlate its work with any gen^^iral program of oceanographic
study that might be developed in kaievioa.. The oceanographic activi-
ties of the Tortugas Laboratory are mentioned on Page

Clark University has recently arranged for the installation of
re'^ordine: thermographs on steamers running on commercial routes in
the Atlantic. And while; the immediate purpose here is climatologic ,
not oceanographic, the continuous record of surface temperature now
being obtained ia an important addition to present knowledge of
secular fluctuations in thr parts of the ocean beiner covered.

Th^, Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, from
its foundation in 1859, has held Oceanography as on; of the major
fields of activity; by inheritance and tradition this is equally true
today. Its present participation in active exploration is touched on
above (page ^V), and its cooperation in this respect with the U. 3.
Bureau of Fisheries and with the U. S. Coast Guard (through thtj Ice
Patrol), has long been most happy. There remains to be mentioned the
service of its oceanographic laboratories as neadquarters for the
study of the plankton collections and for the synthesis for the physi-
cal and chemical data collected on the p-riodic cruises in the north-
western Atlantic just mentioned (page 97). Here ard being worked up
recent explorations in the- Pacific; the studies of the Bureau of
Fisheries on the voluntary and involuntary migrations of the ood
based on the tagging experim;^nts, and other studies on the biology of
fishes; the dynamic analysis of the waters of the Grand Banks area by
the Ice Patrol; -:nd the results of the Museum's own recent Atlantic
expeditions. Studi'ss of subraarin; sediments ar.- also being carried
on in the Museum, stimulated by improvements in the methods of
collection that make it possible to obtain long cores in deep water.

The New York Zoological Society, through its Bepartment of
Tropical Research, is headquarters for the preparation and publica-
tion of the reports on the collections brought in by the "Arcfcurus"
expedition, and for Bermudan explorations carried on during the
summer of 1923.

The only present oceanographic project sponsored by Princ eton
University is its cooperation during the summer of 1928 with the
Buffalo Society of Natural History in studies of submarine sedimenta-
tion in the region of the Bahamas.

Active participation by the Smithsonian Institution in Oceano-
graphy, is through the National Museum, several of whose staff are
concerned in the biologic aspect of oceanographic problems, though
the researches carri'^d on in the Museum are chiefly taxonomic. At
present the Museum does not, of its own initiative carry on Oceano-
graphic exploration; nor does it m.aintain ships for the purpose.

The Washington office of the United States Coast and Geodetic
Survey is the headquarters for the study of tidal currents near shore
and for the charting of the topography of the bottom froin the coast-

105

line out to the continental edge of th-; United Stat-i^s and of its
insular dependencies; for inshore certography ; end for geodetic and
isostastic studies. The standard of exoollence is here so high that
it would be unwise for any other institution to ent„r these fields
except in cooperation with th^; Survey. And gny expansion in this
direction should be through assistance offered directly to the
latter. For additional description of its oceanographic activities,
s-e page

The U. S. Hydrographic Office, with its local branches in many
cities has long served as the shore C5nt..r in the United States for
the synthesis of data collected from many sources as to the currents
of the high seas, and as to other oceanic phenomena, just as the
Coast /nd^Geodetic Survey serves for the coastal W3ters, as well as
for the publication of ocean charts, geophysical (magnetic) charts,
sailing pilots, pilot charts, etc.

The University of Minnesotri has of late sponsored occasional
researches, of oceanographic import, in the Pacific, in such subjects
as submarine illumination, plankton, animal physiology and general
ecology.

The University of "iVashington, through its College of Fisheries,
offers opportunities for research in Oceanography as related to the
Fisheries; and studies in this field are undertaken from time to time
at its LaDoratory at Friday Harbor in Fuget Sound, in addition to
other oceanographic activities (p. 102).

The University of '.Visconsin is at present the headquarters of
the committee on sedimentation of the National Research Council of
the United States.

Yale University at present carries on no field work in oceano-
graphy and offers no instrui^tion; but by arrangements made recently
with the Bingham Oceanographic coll-ction, Yale may within the next
few years be expected at least to cooperate in field studies of the
biology of marine fishes, which may develop into a broader ocei'no-
graphic program in the future.

r. COORDINATING INSTITUTIONS

The rapid advances in Oceanography that have taken piece in
northern Europe in the last quarter century have largely drawn their
impetus from the fact that the maritime nations there comnine to
support two institutions with the definite purpose of coordinating
the efforts of all p-^rticip-nts in the fields of fisheries research;
and underlying the latt-r, in Oceanography in seneral: the older of
these, the "Conseil Interns tion'^il pour 1 ' Exploration de la Mer'' ,
with headquarters in Copenhagen, has largely dominated sea-sci-rnce in
northwestern Europe for the p?st quarter century. The younger, the
"Council for the Sci .^ntific Exploration of the M.diterranean Sea", is
now functioning as an effective liaison between the nations bord-ring
that body of water.

No such institution existed in America until thr foundation of
the North American Committee for Fisheries Investigations in 1920.
The membership of this body is intended to include representatives

lOt

o

Id

from the governments of the several natione that participate in th.
p-reat sea^ f i sheries of the northwestern Atlantic, selected as a rule
(but not necessarily) from the Fisheries Services or other govern-
mental scientific establishments. At present Canada, Newfoundland,
France and the United States are represented on the Committee. This
body receives no appropriation from any source, constquently.it has
no executive powers but is purely advisory. On ths oth^r hand, its
functions in that respsct are unlimited, and it has proven effective
in coordinating the scientific investigations of the several govern-
ments in those fi-;lds of oceanic biology where all have a common
interest. Its actual accomplishments have been to unify efforts in
su';h problems as the migration of the mackerel, cod and other fish;
the dispersal by currents of fish ^crgs and larvae; the study oy drift
bottles of the dominant non-tidal circulatory movements of the water
along the i^.oast of north-eastern America; the secular variation in
temperature, etc.; as well as of subjects more directly concerned with
the Fisheries that need not be listed here. ^nd the success it has
enjoyed without powers of any sort is one of the strongest arguments
for the establishment of the proposed Institution.

Cooperation in encouraged in a somewhat different way by several
committees of the National Research Council of the United States and
of Canada, likewise of the Pacific Science Association. Four of the
committees of the first of these councils have direct oceanographic
contact, namely, those on sedimentation, on shore line investigation
of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, on features and changes of the shore-
line of the Pacific coast, and on submarine configuration and oceanic
circulation, under which there is a subcommittee on the submarine
topography and structural history of the Caribbean-Gulf region.
These are consultive rather than executive bodies, though the com-
mittee on sedimentation has been able to give financial support to
actual projects from royalties realized from the sales of the
treatise on sedimentation and color chart for description of sedi-
ments published by the National Research Council. Other puolir^ations
(dealing with land geology) are also in course of publication by it.
And its work has led to the development of courses on sedimentation
in several colleges and universities. The committee on shoreline
investigation of Atlantic and Gulf coasts is carrying- on studies of
variation of sea level in cooperation with the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey. The most useful contrioution to Oceanography
that the other committees of this group are now makinsr is through
their annual summ.aries of the various projects that are actually in
progress around, the coasts of America and in other parts of the world]-

-'"See annual reports of division of Geolotry and Geography, National
Research Council, Tashington, D. C.

We wish especially to call attention to the annual report of
the committee on submarine configuration and oceanic circulation,
which makes it possible for independent workers to k=ep in touch
with all the more important projects falline' within its field.

The committee on Oc eanograohy of the Canadian Research Council
Was appointed to coop.-rate with the several committees ortranized
under the Pacific Science Congress at a meeting in Japan in 1936.
It has b^en concerned chiefly with developing ways of miakine: avail-
able the data that have been accumulating in various departm.ents of

107

the Canadian Government,

The Pacific Science Association, at the Conqress at Tokio in
19S9, established two international committees (since mero;ed into
one) on the Oceanography of the Pacific, which has proved highly
effective in promoting and unifying Oceanographic projects in that
ocean.

It purposes, carried on through national committees and sub-
committees are as follows:

1. To assemble for each county inform^ation as to the oceano-
graphic programs and investigations, private and governmental,
then in progress, and to make the information available to
the countries interested.

2. To aid in the standardization of oceanographic methods, so
that the results ootained by any one group will be useaole
by any other group.

3. To aid in coordinating the researches of different countries
on the Pacific, so that the program of each will fit into
the program.s of all the others.

4. To stimulate researches in subjects to which adequate
attention is not being paid, and to suge-est programs of
more extended scope.

The committee has no funds, but is actively functioning as an
advisory council for Oceanographic research in the Pacific.

Its more important accomplishments have been the establishment
of the publication "Records of Oceanographic 'A'ork in Japan" by the
National Research Council of Japan; work on ocean dynamics off the
Coast of Alaska in connection with the International Fisheries
Commission; stimulus for the extensive program of research that has
been formulated by the Russians, and the development of a general
program for the exploration of the major oceano.Qrraphic features of
the Pacific.

E. LIBRARISS

Fortunately for the oceanographer , American centers of learning
are well provided with the literature that he espc;Cially requires.
In part, this is of course due to the fact that publication of
oceanographic studies has largely been in the serials of learned
institutions, which the mor^ important scientific libraries in
America regularly rec -ive in exchange. The other most important
vehicles for such puolication hav-^ been the Hydrographic bulletins of
one sort of another issued by maritime nations. These again are to
be found in many of tho large libraries both public and private.

Special efforts to accumulate oceanographical literature have
also been made at all the institutions, governmental and educational,
that participate at all actively in this^fidd, ooth in the United
States and in Canada. The r.,suit is that extensive collections on
this subject are, for example, to be found at the Laboratories of the
Biological Board of Canada; in the libraries of Harvard University,

103

which contain nearly .very oceanographic p'-^p-r of importance; in the
Liorary of Congress; in -^he U. S. Burpsu of Fisheries at Tashington
and Woods Hole; in the Marine Biolosical Laboratory at Toods Hole, at
the U. S. Coest and Geodetic Survey; at the U. S. Hydroerraphic Office;
at the Scripps Institution of Oc 5anO'2:raphy ; at the Fisheries Labora-
tory of the Californian Fish CoTunission ; at the Departra-nt of Tropi-
cal Research of the New York Zoological Society; likewise in many of
the laro-e Libraries of Universities, scientific Societies, and in
Puolic Libraries. In short, thanks larg-ely to the newness of this
field of research, Oceanography is perhaps as well served in /America
from this standpoint as is any other science,

F. SITUATION AS TO UNxvERSITY INSTRUCTION IN OCEANOGRAPHY

In this respect the advance of Oceanography in America now
suffers from one of its gr-attst handicaps, for progress in this
science is a matter not only of ships, laboratories and money, but
far more of men, which implies opportunities for education. And it
is of men that there is now the most serious shortage.

Examination of the published announcements, correspondence with
the Dtrans of instruction of most of the important American Univer-
sities makes it evident that where the descriptive phases of Physical
Oceanography arc presented at all in undergraduat -, instruction, in
more than the most cursory way, it is usually in connection with
courses in general Geology, Physiography, ifleteoroloecy , etc.

The general paucity of opportunities for instruction in this
general field is so obvious that it needs no detailed survey for
corroberation. We need m.srely add that so far as we have osen able
to discover from a cursory survey, no American University today
offers a satisfactory course to undergraduates in oceanic Geophysics,
as a concrete and sufficiently inclusive subject. Neither, we
believe, does any American University cover the v-;-rious phases of the
subject, in courses under oth-r nai.es, in detail enoua:h for the
average undergraduate to gain a sound grasp of it through formal
instruction.

Oceanic biology is better served, both by courses in general
biology, Tcology, hydrobiology , etc., and by those food fishes and
allied subjects offered at the Colleges of Fisheries.

The graduate stud-nt, suf f icirntly devoted to the subject to have
mastered these difficulties, and fitted for advanced instruction or
research, finds several av-rnues open, though far fewer than the
importance of this field of science demands.

Here, again, it is not worth whil„ to pr.-.sent a detailed list,
for no doubt graduate students of certain pnas-s of oceanic oiology
would be acc-.pted in the biological laboratories of most univ.rsities,
and the situation is somewhat similar with regard to submarine
g-:'Oloe:y. Naturally, however, seaside connections of some sort are
almost essential for efficient advanced instruction in these marine
fields, while but few .American Universities now number activ:;
investigators in Oceanography among their teaching staffs.

Among these few, advanced instruction and research courses under
direction, leading to the higher decrees, are regularly offered in

109

Physical Oceanography, in the Chemistry of sea water and in several
fields of oceanic biology and submarine sedimentation by the Univer-
sity of California at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
Harvard University offers research courses (but at present no formal
instruction) in these same subjects; the University of Washington
offers Oceanography as related to the Fisheries; the University of
British Columbia teaches both the physical and biologic aspects;
while the Universities of Iowa and 'iVisconsin offer courses and
opportunities for advanced work in marine sediments.

Opportunities are also afforded to students from Canadian
Colleges and Universities in general for supervised research, lead-
ing to degrees, at the Laboratories of the Biological Board of
Canada. A.nd this opportunity, largely taken advantage of by students
from most of the important Canadian schools, is an especially fertile
contrioution to the problem of oceanographic education in America
t od ay .

As the foregoing suggests, opportunities for university instruc-
tion in Oceanosrraphy as a separate science are extremely scanty in
America, as compared with oth^r sciences. It is, in fact, one of
the most serious obstacles to advances in this field that it is not
now possible for a student to obtain a course of instruction,
prop-rly graded upward from the elementary introduction to advanced
research, in any one American University. In America the oceano-
grapher must today be largely self-taught in the basic aspects of
his subject.

G. NUMBER OF OCSANOGRAPHSRS IN AinERICA

To a certain extent, the activity in any field of science can
be estimated by the number of investigators and teachers engaged in
it. This number cannot be stated precisely for Oceanography in
America, oecause of the impossibility of defining the term, for every
student of marine biology, of marine physiology, of marine plants or
animals, of seism.ology, of isostasy, of structural geology, of coast
lines, or of ocean meteorology touches the fringe of Oceanography,
and so, is, to some extent, a potential oceanographer. This general-
ization is illustrated by the fact that while the "Liste des ocean-
ographes" of Canada and of the United States, compiled bv the Inter-
national Geophysical Union in 1935-1937 (Bulletin 3 (a,b) Conseil
Internationale-Union Goedesique et Geophysique Internationale) in-
cludes 124 names, certainly not half of these find their chief inter-
ests in the ocean itself. Thus the membership of the section of
Oceanography of the American Geophysical Union, which includes
practically the whole roster of American Physical Oceanographers, as
well as several whose interests are primarily bioloe:ic , numbered
only 31 in 1937.

Probably it is safe to assert that the number of students in
North America whose studies are devoted to the physical, geologic,
chemical or biologic aspects of the ocean as an entity, as contrasted
with those to whom the oceanic aspect of the projects in which they
are eneraged is secondary, is not greater than fifty, all told. And
fewer still are actually engaged in oceanographic investigation.

While the number of gre^^u^te students v/orking in problems bear-
ing on Oceanography is considerable, there is no immediate prospect

110

of any rapid increase in the number of ocean&g-raphers in A.m;jrica ,
becaus;'- very few professional openings for teaching or investigation
are open, except in the very special lints of work carried on in the
government service.

III. SUMMARY

Oceanogra.phy is today a "live" science in A.m--rica, but at the
same time an "infant" science, struggling against many and serious
obstacles to its growth. These obstacles do not result from any lack
of general interest in the subject, as evinced at scientific gather-
ings, etc. , but from a complex of practical oostacles which hold to a
minimum the amount of occanographic effort now actually being exerted
in America.

True, it would b "' possible to prisent the foreaoing survey in
such a way as to suggest th';t Oceanography is today w-11 served in
America. This, in fact, is true, so far as Libraries, and opportun-
ities for la:3oratory study of data otherwise e-athered, are concerned.
But in every other way Oceanography, though very much alive, lags
far behind all the other sci'^^nces with which it is commensurate in
importance.

Consider, for example, the paucity of effort directed primarily
toward oceanic exploration, as m93cur=>d by th'= fact that in America
today there are only three research institutions outside the srovern-
ment services and state universities th^t eith^er devote their chief
energies to Oceanography (physical or biclcgical), or include this
subject as a major item in their fields of investigational activity.

It is too early to prophesy wheth-r the recent entrance of the
various other institutions, mentioned aoove, into Oceanography, by
individual projects, actually presages the dawning of a bett-r day;
this will depend largely on how soon the practical obstacles analyzed
elsewhere (page 143) can be ov^rrcome.

Ill

Chapter IV.

CaOPEHATION PI OCSANOOFAPHIC Fi^GlilARCH TO BE EXPECT-
FJ> E^OM FEDERAL GOVEFIIMENT AGENCIES IN
AMERICA, A^'^D FROM STATE FISHERIES
IS, WITH SUM^TARY OF THEIR
OCEANOGRAPHIC ACTIVITIES

I. INTRODUCTION

Sever".] government burenux In Americr-, prosecute oce^nogr.'aphlc
investigations as r p-^rt of their regvi^^r duties, ns rlescrihed in
f. previous ci-aptor. Fro'n ti^ne to tirne in the past, hrond schemes
of oceanic exnloration h^vo heen undertnkon to "bo carried out eith-
er hT some one government bureau, or by several in cooperation. As
the most notable example of thaso, in America, we may cite the ex-
plorations of t^-e U. S. Coast -nd Geodetic Survey steamer PLAKE off
the oast cor. st of the United St.^'tcs and in the West Indian Carib-
bean region from 1877 to 1R80. A more recent example is the explor-
ation of the oceanic triangle between Ches.^peake Bay, Bermuda •"'nd
the Bahamas, candied out in 1914 by the Survey on the BACHE in coop-
eration with the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. But all these instit-
utions must devote f-'eir energies prin-^rily, and in ^nost cases the
whole of their .appropriations, to the special field foi which thoy
"/ore pri-ri-'.rily ostablisi-'ed, and for which Congress or Parliament
supports them.

There is also '^- natural tendency to concentr.r' te their efforts
in the aro'^s of particular- rrtional importance. F\irthermorc scient-
ific institiitions supported by public funds arc, for t'' .j most p^rt,
organized for t' o pr: atical applications of scientific research.
And w'lile increasing intero;"'t on the p^rt of t'''e public makus it
llkelv th'-'t government agencies will be given more sT:ipport for pure
research in the future, t^^e demands for funds to sup "^ort investiga-
tions diroctlv economic in "".im .'^re now and incron singly so insist-
ent thr-t Legislatures are not likely for ye'^rs to come to lend ear
to ple.^s for marine investigations in "puro science" on any bro."d
sc?. Ic.

For t^'ose ro.-i^sons it is not to bo expected thnt ■" ny of the ser-
vices of f-e Federal government, whether o^ the United States or
of Canada, either sep-'r-^ telr or jointl"", will be in " position much
to ex'O^nd their oce'^nop:raphic progr.^ms , at least for m.^ny "■^.,3ars,
without outside stimulus or encouragement of some kind.

Thus, tl'O proposed N^.val Oceanographic Expedition Planned at
the Conference on Ocennography hold at the U. S. N'^^vy Dop'-rtment
in the sum^aor of 1924, failed of fruition because it demanded a
large grant from Congress which was not forthcoming, rnd which, in
fact, there w"s no reason to expect would bu forthcoming.

■"Vithout " c'-'.^need attitude on the p-rt of t^o Congror^s of the
United St'^tes, or t>^e r.^rli'~me?'its of Cf^nadr' or of Newf oundl.'^nd to-
'w^rd such scientific invustipations ns bear only remotely on ocono-

- ■ ■ ■ ■ 112

mlc problens, tho Feder?.l Governments c'^nnot he expooted tc und r-
t^ke hrondlv orgnni^^.o'^ or long continL^ing cxplorrtion of t^o h-^-sJc
problems o ■" physic^.l ■^nd biologic Oconnogr.-iphy . Undor present cor-
ditions private Institutions, ".lone, or tbo st'ite -universities, 0"n
originate "■nd c^rry on ^. coordin'^ted ntt"ck in f- is field, -"ini it
is by helping to fill ti"<is gap thr.t the proposed Institute would
hn.ve its grertest u.sefi^^lnes'^ .

Nevertheless, ^-n^.lY3xs of the progr".ms of the severr'.l Federr.l
bureraiJc vv'^lch cnrry out m'-'rine work shows in Cn.np.da and the United
St-^tes tb"t they are in a position to offer pr"ctic-"l assistance cf
various sorts in an;/ I'-rge plan for oceanograpl^ic study that might
be initiated elsewhere under authoritative auspices. In this con-
nection t'-^e vague predictions of "full cooperation ■' s far as facil-
itis allow", such as inquiry would elicit from any of the Federal
agencies at all concerned with exploration of tie ocean, are of no
real help. What is needed is a definite estim'^te of the fields in
which the several bureaux c^n lend active aid and of the amount of
such assistance that can actu'-].ly be expected from. each.

An important factor in making such an estimate is that the Fed-
eral Government of the United States, by "cts of Congress of April
12, 1892, and March 3, 1901^, allows t^-e us e of the Scientific — d
■?'- Supplement to Revised Statutes of the United States, Vol. 2, 1892-
1901, pp. 71, 72- "nd Deficiency Appropriation Act, Ori-p. 8?1, Vol.
2, 1892-19r'l; Supplement to the Revised Statutes, p. 1552.

and Technical research facilities of the Government h-r pri^^- te in-
vestigators or institutions.

And since most of the U. S. Federal est" blis>^ments of present
concern "re exprnssl:,^ included j.n these "cts, "s aro the rest h-\r
iriplication, it is not too much to st"te that the United States
Government is definitolv committed in advance to the general policy
of coope;-"" tion in scientific undertakings as a whole,

Ever^r governm.ental institution now at all concerned in ©ceano-
graph:?-^ whather Canadian or United 3t"tes, would, no doubt, gladly
expand its operations in that field if its appropriations would al-
low. For the reasons st"ted, hovirever, gre-iter liberalit:* in th"t
direction c"nnot be reckoned upon. Equally, without additional
funds fro.'T som.e source allocated to that particular nuri:ose, none
of them, can so expand. And any considerable p"rtiGlpatinn in a gen-
eral progr"m wo-'ild result in " dr"in on tho Bureau concerned both
as to the tnm.e of its personnel, and otherwise, which could be met
onlv on a s-Tiall scale, unless combined with regular duties.

It is t>en, not so much a question of willingness in this re-
spect (this miay be postul"ted in advance), but the more practical
one of fie extent to w^-ich existing f-ciliti-.s ^'.n6 administrative
limitations will '^llow f^e government ost"blishment3 to lend active
assistance.

An important factor- here is that f'"6 functions of each, of tho
bureaux is definitel" laid down, and that each, of them h"s been in
operation for so many ^-eopg that a precedent is established i^ t^- e
■es not only of le^isl" tu-'^er but of t^Tj nuh'ic. Conseauentl -'•.

t>-'ra <

113

there is every repson to expect tbit their r^ctivities will continue
for r. long period in the future to follow the snme lines nlong
which the^r h^ve developed in the p"st. This rigidity of orgnniz.".-
tion makes it more .-^llowihle to predict the extent to which they
mcj be expected to t"ke p'^. rt in ,1oint proiects thr^t night he spon-
sored b'^'' the proposed Institute, and to foresee the fields within
which each Bureau will be forced to confine its activities, than
would be t^^e c-^se for private institu+"ions, the Dolicies of which
often change abruptly v/ith changes in ^'he point of view of the con-
trolling personnel.

Consequentlr , t'-e following estinate gives little weight to
the active s^nnpathies toward Ocernogr-^phy of the Officials at pres-
ent In control of tl^e Rireau of Fis]-;eries, t^-e Coast and Geodetic
Survey, t^'e Bureau of Stand'^rds, etc., but is bnsed rather on the
established fields of activity, and on the legal limitations v/ith-
in which these Btireaux operate.

The c'^-se of the U. S. >!'-vy, however, is of^herwise. For it,
research in Oceanography murt always be incidental to the naval
duties for which the Service is raaintained. At the same time the
numerous cruises carried out by naval ships offer frequent opaort-
unity for verA- important explorations of the se" water without much
additional expense. The degree of cooperation to be expected from
the Navy will, therefore, depend on the inclination of the officers
influential in the Service toward such undertakings, combined with
the possibility of meeting the extra cost. This also ap-'-lias to
the United States Shipping Bo"rd and to the Lighthouse Service.

The question whether federal bureaux are "llowed to utilize
funds that may be provided from outside sources is important* for
instance, for the expense o-^ fueling ships, or for the purchase of
supplies.

II. ANALYSIS BY SUBJECTS

The several, fields in which an important degree of cooperation
may be expected from the government can be summarized ps follows •-

A. DETAIL OF SFIPS FOR SPECIAT, CRUISES.

In any scheme of marine exploration f^e moat expensive item of
equipment is the shin '^nd her navigating personnel. T'^^is item, too,
is difficult to stipply -^ t s^'ort notice, even if money be available.
Under present conditions no governm^ental agency, whether Canadian
of United States, is -"hie, without contributions of outside funds,
to send a ship on special ciniises of any gre-^t length, unless f-'ese
can be combined with regul-^, r duties.

Provided f^e expenses of a deep-sea expedition could be met,
past precedent m^kes it safe to aasume th^t a sea-going ship could
frequently be detailed b-^ th.e Bureau of Fisheries stands in a pe-
culiar '^osition, as explained below (P"gel21). As the Fisheries
Research Steamer is in active service for only p-^rt of the vear, it
is often possible to detail her for special cruises of considerable
duration, wit'' out in "^ny w'-^ interfering with her regular riuties.
This, in fact, the Bureau h"S frequently done in t>^e past, with

114

very s-^ tisf-^ctory resijlts. Thsre being no leg'i] "b-rrler to prevent
the Rurenu'r. shins fron: opem.ting nn7r>'.'here on the high se"s, t^^e
proposed Institute "^lirht thus -.rrnnge loint periodic cruises ilong
reprerentf'.tive profiles in the Atl.intic P^s-in off the United Sbntes
of ,iust f^^e sort that .".re now "lort needed to shov f^-e secul^-.r c^'^^n-
ges ti^:. t t'lke pi' ce there, not only in the physical st"te of the
v/ater, hut also in its organic comirunities.

How far the U. 3. N-vy can undertake special service of this
sort, will he governed by a complex of factors, such "s the possi-
bility- of sp'^rinr; a ship and personnel fron regular duties: the
nossihility of combining the proposed exploration wit}- one of the
regular practice cruises: and laost irrmortant of all, the attitude
of the higher of.-Picers of the 'lavy toward mrrine explorations -^t
the time. The growing interest within the service, in oceanic ex-
ploration is now crystallized into -^^ definite policy, which includ-
es recommendation, bv the Naval Po^r-'' en oce.-^nography , that a n v.^1
vessel, specially fitted, he employed exclusively for oceanographlc
investigation if, in the future, circTi.mst'^nces so permit.

By the adoption of this oceanographic program t'-ie navy is com-
mitted to increasing pr^rticination . But no Nav" 1 vessels ar ' '^■t
present equipped v/ith I'-borator-- f-^cilities, or with '^n^ of t^e
'^ppnr^'tus rised in Oceanography, except for sounding* nor does the
Service at present include ■^nj trained oceanogr^phers among the
^ouni2:er officers. Consequentlv, it would be ne^ess-^r^" to sr.pply
scientific personnel to '^ny Naval vessel undent -king p'eneral ocean-
0 g r a pli i c ' v o r k .

No federal institutions of the United Stntes, other t'^an the
Navy and f--'e Bureau of Fisheries, c" "^ now !='p'ire ships from their
regul'r dvti-iS for more than r sho"t time. In tbe con-rr'^.rY, f-^e
demands on the vessels both of the Gor.st Gu-rd, Coast and Geodetic
Survey and Lighthouse Service ar greater than can be met, nnd these
demands grow so rapidlv thnt t^^e building of new s'"' ips has h-'-rdlv
kept p 'ce with t^-e expansion of their duties.

No -^ssistHnce \)nder t^o'-S crtegor^- is to be expecteo from the
State Fish Comm.lssions on the Atlantic coast of the United States
under present conditions. On the Pacific co-^st, however, the pres-
ent p^rticipat mc- of the C.•^lifornia F?-Sh Com.raission in r ioint
scheme of explor^' tj.on of the ';Tonterey region, and its generally
close relationships with scientific institutions, m"ko it likely
that it will occasionally be willinp- to detail one of its D'-,trol
boats to s'"'0rt cruises in the coastal waters off California, r.s ex-
plained below (p"gel511. Occasional Goop?r'^tlQn of the same sort
in pro.it.^cts proper ly sponsored, may also be expected of the Cana-
dian Department of Ma dne and Fisheries, and of the Canadian Hydro-
graphic Service, if an'y-^ of their vessels could he spared from, their
regul'^r dutios "t t^'-e timie.

B. SF-iCIAL OBSE^VATIG:hS TO PE CARRIED
OUT AS AN INCIDETN^TAL OP 3EC0NDAPY
PROGRAM ON STRIPS EMP^^CYED ON OTHER
DUTIES

More or Des^:; cooioeration under tbis he^dinp: m"^y ho expected

115

from rll the government regencies th'^.t cpor'^te s^i^ips on the high
seas, not only United Stntes but nlso C^n^di-^n, especially h^' tlie
U. S. ^Tovy, the V. G, Go^.st r:nd Geodetic Surve^-, -nd the TJ. S.
Light House Service. It is undei' this ^^e'^.ding thr^.t coopemtion with
the Government m^y he expected 1:.o prove most proriuct ive.

The U. S. Np.v-"^ now h^:s definitely u.ndert^ken ■^ progr-^m of sound-
ing (hy the echo method) on n much wider sc'^le th"n heretofore,
(Pr^gel27), hoth or the regular cruises, and whenever feasible, in
regions unsurve^/'ed, or especially interesting for other reasons.
Continuous rea'li^ic-s of t'-e surface temperatvmes by recording therm-
ographs piong the mnny tra.ns-ocennic routes traversed bv the vessels
of the U. S. Shipping Ponrd, could be depended imon, v/ere the expen-
se o^ f-'s instruments "nd install"' tion miet from ot-tsi'^le sources-
The st-itement m.'-de bv i-epresenta tives of the Shinpinp; Eo^. rd to the
Naval Conference of 1924 makes clear thr't there need be no ".porehen-
sion on score of cooper''^ ti on. And even without such nssist^nce, tl-^e
installation of Thermogrnphs may fall within the present oce^no-
graohic program of the Navy. Dat.i so gathered woiild be of the
highest v""iue in connection with clim-^ tological studies, consequent-
ly o^ econom.ic impo--t'^.nce.

The opor-^tion of such instruneats does not reaui'^e a tr-^ined
scientist, but c^n be carried out by a competent qu-'^rterm'" ster
or iunior wntch of'ficer. Excellent thermogr-^phs en now be h/^d,
nor is +he cost of their pi^.rchase and installation prohibitive.

In many p-^rts of tbe oce^.n, not-^bly in the Pacific, ver^" v"l-
u'^ble rdditions to our kno".'ledgQ of temperature •~i-e still to be ob-
tainer] bv surf--'ce readings with ordin'''.ry thermometers such r^ s "re
taken rt intervals of two or four hours on mnny stenmers as p-rt
of the ordin'~r^.^ routine of n^vig^tion. The cost of such instru-
ments is negligible, "nd observations of this sort ^.re taken on so
many s^ips that they a-'p easily be "-rr^nged for. Put for recor^^s
oV)t"ined in this W"v to me'^sure up to modern st'^nd^rds of accuracy,
thev must be t^ken with much gro-ter c-re than is ordinarily done.
To insure this on com-nercial vessels it would be recess-" r^ ( r, ) to
arouse ^ snecial. interest, "rd r.n ■' ppreciation of f^o need for -'c-
cur^cy, on the p":rt of the Quartermasters of Wrtch Officers who
would actu''^ly r-^p.d f-^e instruments* (b) to train f-em to read ■ac-
curately, for, simple f^ough this be, it renuires some instruction.
Unless some such precautions -^re taken, ordin'^rv thermometer re-d-
ings -^r"^ -'pt to be so ro\?.a:h that only b^ 'rveragi-ig 1-^rge numbers
of th ,yn c "n "'n apnroxim"^ tely correct v^.lue be'-rrived '~t. And the
d^'y for work of this sort is p-^. st, except for c~;rt". in ver"^ lonely
p-^rts of f' a pacific -^.'id Antarctic.

The U. S. TJavy now definitely provides in its ocernographic
program for the coj lection of surf.^ce Temperatures, with stT.finrd-
ized instruments, ^^.nd for f'is subsequent an.- lysis m the H^'dro-
grarhic Office.

Collections of wtor samples along thi.- spme routes ccild doubt-
l.;ss be arranged for b^ com.mercial vessels, especi^ll" if some
small compensation be given to f^e Quartermasters or other 'Potty
Officers c-''"" ged with t-'is duty. More important, the U. 3. 'Javy
hn s ^efinitelv expr sscd to -'tout committee its villingness to coop-

lis

ernte in f-e collect: on of surf:".ce s' mples hy its vessels in trr.n-
sit.

The gre^^t su'ioess or th.e Scripps Ins'^itiitior of Ocennogr'^-'^hy
in developing coopemtion ^long these lin3s within tlie p-^st few
yeprs illustrates the possi"" dlities.

The possihlllt:/ of m'^kine pendulum Tier- surements of grrvity rt
sen., from suhriir^.rines , emhles the Navy to render great sclenttific
service, on its regular cruises, if personnel ^nd an-:)"ratus he sup-
plied. Sixcl measurements h",ve, in f'^ct, heen recently- carried out
on n P. S. Suhm'rine, under t>e ;oint ciii-ect^on of the Nr^vrl Ohser-
v^tor- "nd of the Carnegie Institution.

Serinl observ tions below the surface of w'-atever kind ar^ so
tinieoonsuming and interfere so seriously with ordinar^^ routine,
that thev could never he exnected from ships running on schedijled
routes: fo^^ t^'e srme rerson they are not always feasible even from
vessels emploved in sotindin,fT. To be crried out on a I'^rge scale,
they must be regarded as a prim'-rY part of t^^e progr^im. Fowever,
the Const and Geodetic Survey and the Canadian Hydrogrr.phic Service
will in the fixture, as the^J- h"ve in the p^st, be able to obtain
seri.al temperntures n:id water samples in connection witb tt^eir cur-
rent measurements rnd hydrogra^^hical work. But V-e^r will ixsvm.lly
be forced to restrict this to tbe routes covered in their routine
duties, whict v/ill often not be those m,o<~, t interertine fron other
points of view.

More assistance in t- is p-'rticulnr respect may be depended on
from the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries wif'in the areas w^^ere its m'-'.r-
ine investig-- tions r^re concentratedr which, in f'^ct, would be but
continuing its present policy for the collection of serinl dnta
from the surfnce to t'^c bottom is now a regular routine duty on
Albatross II r one too, that could equnlly be undertaken on the Rxr-
eau's vessels on the Pacific coast. And the Biologic"! Bo-^rd of
Canada is constantly collecting drta of this sort in connection with
various special problems in oceanic biology.

Unique op ortunlties for obtaining continuous sub-surface re-
cords, both physical nnd biolop-ic, of the sorts now most needed in
IJorth American coastal W'^ters, are offered by the V. S. Lighthouse
Service from its lightships o.s explained on p'^ge : opaortunities
in f?ct, that could not be equnl''ed in rnj other wry without 'Alto-
gether prohibitive expense. And p'^st experience suggests great
v/ill in^ness on the pnrt of this Service to coonerate in this way
(page ). Similar coopernticn can be expected of the Canr.dian
Lighthouse Service. But for the fvll development o^ such, work not
only must all npparatus be supr^lied from outside sources, and some
small compensation be offered to the crews for the extra work, but
trained observers ^s well. Without the latter the regular personnel
of the lightships can only be expected to use aoorratus th-^t is
simple in operation and not too time-consuming.

The U. S. Coast Gu-'^rd has in the nast (rnd so m-^y in f-'e fut-
ure) "dded the collection of plankton on a sm.nll scale to its
routine dAmaralc surveys in the ice regions m the North Atlantic.
Much wider cooperrtion in this field is nature l^-"- to be expected

11^

frcn the U. P>. pLire^.T' of Fisheries, not only 'by the speclnl detfLil
of its ships, hv.t -^Iso on its roiitine criTises in continental wters
in connection 'vith fisheries st^idies. In t^^is field the Biolop-ic".l
Fo-,rd of CanndP.. is "^Iso nn nctive le^'der.

C. PrOViaiCN CF LAPCPATOFV FACILITIES Oil SHO^E

Acts of Congress (PngellSy .luthorize t^'e una of the research
fr'-cilities (hence the scientific Ip-borptories ) of the U. 3. Govern-
ment Yr- scientific Investipn tors generpll:-", so f.^r •^s the officers
in ch-rge m".y determj^ne.

The Eure'^u of Fisheries, ^^.t its t^vo nin.rine Ir-hor^.tories rt
^'''oods Hole, M^^.ss. an'-i at Beaufort, :T. C, offers facilities fo."
visiting students of marine prohle^ns and supplies' them with pj i
apparatus, etc. , demanding onlj V''-'^ t their researches s'^^all in sorre
way be germane to f^e "biological problems with which the Bureau is
concerned, r. proviso that covers practically t' e \v'"o].e field of
Fiodern Oceanography. Gimilrr f-.cilities are of-^ered, with a simi-
lar proviso, by the Biological Boprd of Can-'da at its biological
laboratories nt St. Andrews, N. B. , at Halifax, H. S. , p.nd at Ean-
almo, B. C. The Scripps Institution of ocennogrrphy at La Joll'" ,
C-^lifotnia (belonging to t'-'e st-.te supported University of Cali-
fornia^) ^.Iso offers the hospitality/ of its l-^borrtorv to workers
who •■'.re qu'-lified to carry on investigations in vrrious phases of
oceanogranhy, as does the Friday Harbor Station of the University
of Wa sh inn-t on .

All these l."boratoriea , being situated -^ t the sershore, of.'f'er
temporrry headquarters for .^ny sort of m.'^rine exploration that
might be carried out xn these n^rtici-"^ "!r sectors under the auspices
of the proposed institution. In t}-'is one respect the requirements
.^re f-erefore fairly well covered for isol-^ted proiects. The gen-
eral rel^'tionsiiip th-at the Bur-.^au of Fisheries m"lnt';,ins with educ-
ational institutions throurhout Americ^^ "■Iso warrants the prophesA''
th.^t it would always be able to find t.^.ble sp^ce ( ". s it "/ov"id cer-
gainly offer the fncilities of its Librar-^) for tl^e visiting ocem-
ographer at its Washington headquarters, o^^ercroviz-ded though this
now i 3 .

The C'-Iiforni" Fisheries Com-"^:' ssicn can nlso accomodate an oc-
c". siona] visitor at its Fisheries Laborator-' "t Terininnl Is]'^nd,
near S-n Pedro, G"l., where he wil] find si'' nle accomodation nnd a
convenient Library.

The U. S. N'-tional ¥useum also offers hospitality, and expert
assistance, to students engaged in classifying "nd describinE coll-
ections of marine animals.

In the fie.ld of instrum.entM] development--one of the m.O'^-t im-
portant in modern Ocea.nogr'^'phv--the nrospect for governmental ass-
istance is equ'".ll7)r rosy, for the U. S. Bure'^.u of St^nd^rds offers
unique laboratory- facilities, and already has xn successful opern-
tion a nlan for cooperative rase arch in this field. Under this-'-
-"- Quoted from Circul^'r 2Po, Bure^'u of Standards, Foreword.

"it m' has research possible for an^" organization b" loaning equip-

118

merit, pr-ovidin:?; q-u-^rtors, -"nd '^ffo-rding frcilitles, d.-'t''-- r.nd super-
vision, giving to qupJified workers trr.ininp "nd experience in re-
sB'irch under Bureau ^.uspices "ind cooper^.tlOR. " This is effected
hy the reception b'* the Bureau of research ossoci'^tes from comner-
cir'l or education'."".! institutions, p-^ id by the I'^tter, hut working
in the well equipped laboratories of the Bureau under direct over-
sight by specialists in thoir p rticulrr fields. This opens M.n op-
portunity for the improvement or devising of instruments of pre-
cision that could h"rdlv be equ' lied in any other way. The Canadian
Research Council is now developing N.'.tional Laboratories '"her'.; sim-
ilar assistance may be expected.

Express mention of the Geological Survey in the enabling •■ct
of 1892 equally authorizes reception of outside students. And \"e
are informed by the Surve:;- that it c"n offer the hospitality of its
I'^bomtories to investigators from priv:-te institutions If no ex-
pense to the. Survey is involved. T''^ is opens the v/ay to studies of
sediments, etc. under supervision; bu.t present facilities ^llow the
reception of only "bout three such visitors to the physical and
chem.ical lai-ioratories of the Survey, and the demand is so constant
that tlere v/ould only be room occasion'^lly for " visiting oceano-
grapher. Little assistance, then, can be expected from the Survey
in this v/a", unless its facilities should be considerably expanded
of which there seem.s no i-nmedi'' te prospect.

The Geological Survey of Canada, also i^ve '-^re informed) would
offer the hospit^. lity of its laborator-, library, and of^er facil-
i.ties in ;)tt,-'wa to qualified students.

The Tj. 3. Tiava] Observatory is also, by law, authori'^^ed to re-
ceive outside stiidents, but its special fields of -^.ctivity are so
remote from most of the problems now urgent in Jceanograph^r that the
facilities it might offer ■-■re h':rdly germane to the present dis-
cussion. The Observator77' is the only scientific division of the
Navy in which extension of research facilities is definitel^,^ auth-
orized; nor could such general hospitality fairly be asked of the
Naval Research Laboratory because of the danger that confidential
information of military value might be disclosed.

D. DETAIL OF P.-^RSON'^IaJL TR;.INEr IN OCEANOGRAPHY

Little assistance can be expected from the Governments in this
respect. The Federal Services do, it is true, include a consider-
able number of scientists trained and experienced in one or another
field of Oceanography; but rarely could, an'/ of these leaders leave
their regular duties, even temporarily, without disrupting the pro-
jects for which they are officially responsible.

The U. S. National Museum would, on occasion, detail a biolo-
frist to care for the collections on some important expedition! the
h. S. Bureau of Fisheries, or the Biological Bo'^rd of Canada might
temporatily contribute an expert to oversee the handling of collect-
ing gear* the U. S. '''eather Bureau and the Canadian '.leteorological
Service, a meteorologist, etc. But this would ap-'^ly only to isol-
■^.ted pro.iects. Oceanographers, to c^.rry on long continuing explor-

119

ations, mv;st be found elsewhere- and the scT-rclty of students in
this field has heen one of the drags on the development of this
science in America.

E. ADV1E3RY ASSISTATJCE.

Constant assistance c^n "Iways he depended upon in tbis respect
in all the fields of marine research in which Governments regulnrly
take part. And it is perhaps by its expert advice that they can
most forward the general progress of oceanogrnphic science. Re-
quests for cooperation in the development of working programs, for
instruction in the use of instruments, etc, and for general advice
in working; up the results of field data, would r lwa".'s be gladly met
b^^ the bureaux concerned. The Const and Geodotic Survey and the
Hydrographic Office will, for example, give expert advice -^s to
sounding procedure, the exploration of submarine topography, ■-'nd the
measurement of currents; the Geological Survey as to sedimentation;
the Coast Gunrd as to dyn'-mic surveys of ocean waters* the Bureau
of Fisheries and the Biological Board of Crnada ns to marine ecology
in general. All those est'^blishments do, in fact, nnswer frequent
calls for such assistance.

F. STOFAGE AI^ID IDEKTIFICATICN OT? BIOLOGIC iL SPECIMENS

Tbis is the n.^rticitlrr province of the U. S. N-'tiona] Museum,
v/hich is, by law, t>''e repository for r'll specimens collected by
governmental expeditions of the United State:-. Great assistance in
identif icption of specj.mens m.ay be expected from the staff of the
Museum. At present the Canadian "National Museum has no specialists
in Marine Biology. And it m.ust be realized that no one museum,
whether governmental or private, caa ever carry on its staff spec-
ialists in oil groues of m-rine animals and plants. Consequently,
it will be necessar:^ in the future, as it hcs been in the p^-st, to
send collections to the students who are best fitted to work them
up, wherever tliese authorities m^y be located.

G. ANALYSIS OF SUBMAPINS SEDIMENTS

The U. S. Geological Survey j we nre informed, would always be
inclined to nssist in the analysis and geologic stiadv of submarine
sediments, especinlly of those from the continental shelf of North
America, but also of collections from the ocean beds in general.
Put only to a s-^iall extent coiald such assistance be depended upon,
because (with its present facilities) the 'Survey could undertake
such studies only by displacing some other project thnt might well
be more directl;^.^ germane to its major fields of activit:;-. The Can-
adian Geological Snvvej also informs us that it could undertake some
analytical work, its extent depending upon the interest taken by
the Survey/- in each pj^rticular investigation.

H. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF SEA i":T.^R AND DETERMINATION OF ITS

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

No government agency could reasonably be expected to undertake
routine determinations of salinity and specific gravity for outside
Institutions. But on the rare occasions where such determine tions
of thie highest possible degree of accu.racy are needed, in the stan-

130

daivjj.zation of instrrjnients or of methods, the U. S. Bureau of Stpn-
dards Is willing to make such tests. At present it is perhaps het-
ter fitted to do so than any other agency in America,

V;'e may hope (from precedent) that the chemical laboratory of
the Geological Survey migl' t similarly make occasional chemical anal-
yses in connection with problems of outstanding interest or in the
development of new methods. The present limitations of personnel
and facilities make it irripossible for the Survey to undertake such
work except rarely and on a small scale. But, as it is able to ac-
cept outside funds (Page lis), ri development of cooperation in this
chemical field is possible. In this field assistance may niso be
hoped from the Laboratories now projected b:/ the "Wational Research
Council of Canada.

I. riSTPUM.<]NTATI3N

The progressive development of instruments of precision has
played an important role in the advance of Oceanography. It is, In
fact, hardly too much to say that modern knowledrre of the physics
of the sea dates from t>ie perfection of the deep-sea thermometer.
And the increasingly rigorous demands of oceanic science can be met
only by a corresponding development of apparatus. A striking case
of this is the method of determining salinity by electric conduct-
ivity, recently developed at the Biareau of Standards to/meet the
needs of the International Ice Patrol Serx'ice. Recording instruments
for continuous record of the density of the sea-water along a vessel's
track are also much to be desired, as are im.provements to the pres-
ent t-^pe of deep-sea thermom-=ter.

All this falls directly within the province of the IT. S. Bureau
of Standards: in fact, any oceanographic institution in the United
States viTill find itself foraed to turn constantly to the latter for
assistance in this field. And while federal and state agencies have
prior claim on its services, the Bureau is in a position and willing
to do much work of this soi't if reasonable time be allowed it. All
the Reversing deep-sea thermometers used b7^ the U. S. Bureau of Fish-
eries are stand ^'rdized by the Bureau of Standards, and it is desir-
able that all instruments of this sort used by other institutions in
America receive this same test. H'/droraeters equally require stand-
ardization, as do current-meters and various other pieces of appara-
tus.

In the development of new apparatus the most extensive coopera-
tion that the Bureau can offer is through its system of research as-
sociates, explained on page , but as work of this sort is expen-
sive, funds must be prox^ided from other sources, for any extensive
project. The Canadian Research Coimcil is also in process of devel-
oping a system of National Laboratories corresponding to t>"Ose of the
U.S. Bureau of Standards. And when these are in operation they will
afford assistance in the general field of instrumentation, and hos-
pitality to student workers of the same sort as is now provided by
the Bureau of Standards.

131 ■

The U. 3. Coast and Geodetic Survev would likewise assist 3n
the improvement of instruments for mensuring ocean currents (now
much needed) is well as for taking soundings, both hv expert in-
struction and (funds being provided) by the construction of exper-
imental models in its own shops. Similarly, the Naval Research Lab-
oratory can often help b^^ consultation, and can be called upon for
aid in particular cases, if not endangering militarv secrets.

J. PTTBLICATION

Little assistance can be expected from government agencies in
publication of the resuD.ts of general oceanographic investigations
carried on by other institutions, their funds for pul)]ication being
too definitely allocated to other purposes. The IJ. 3. National
Museum, would, no doubt, be willing to publish accounts of such bio-
lop:lcal collections as mie!;ht come into its possession. And the IT.
S. Geological Survey can publish in its regular series the results
of any studies tint its ov/n staff rai,!--;;ht make in the fields of sed-
imentation or submarine geology generally. Put publication of out-
side work on any large scale, b:- these or other bureaux, would de-
mand provision of funds from outside sources. And assuming that
such funds could be accepted, the question woi.ild arise whether other
scientific serials would not provide a more fitting vehicle.

Ill ANALYSIS BY INSTITUTI )NS

The folloviring remarks on the scope and limitation of the sever-
al governmental agencies from which the greatest amount of coopera-
tion is to be expected, will serve as explanation of the foregoing
survey. These have been prepared in each case in consultation with
their administrative officers.

A. F":iDi:R/^iL ESTABLISHMMTS OF THE UNITED STATES

1. United States Bureau of Fisheries.

The Bureau of Fisheries stands ?'n a position toward Oceanogra-
phy different from any other governmental insitutlon in the United
States, for its entire program of research, and of conservation of
the marine fisheries, is intimately bound up with basic oceano-
graphic problems. There is perhaps no field of Oceanography, biol-
ogic or physical, in which the Bureau of Fisheries has not parti-
cipated to a greater or less extent in tl^e past, nor has there been
a time, since the Bureau was founded, when it has not had some sort
of oceanographic investigation under way.

In the original ,ioint resolution of Congress, approved Feb. 9,
1871, providing for the appointment of the first Commissioner of
Fish and Fisheries, it was resolved; "that it shall be the duty of
said Commissioner to prosecute investigations with a view to as-
certaining v;hether any and what diminution in the num.ber of food
fishes in the coast and lakes of the United States has taken place,
and if so, to what causes the same is due: and also ivhether and
Vvhat particular prohibitory or pi'ecautionary methods should be
adopted ." Vi^ith so broad a statutor^;^ programi, the activities of

132

tlie Bureau of Fisheries m-^y th\is be sold to cover the whole blolog-
icfil eoonoRP^ of //nerican seas.

The fundamental marAne fishery problem is today the estimation
of the actual abundance of the stock of fishes in the sea, of the
drain to which they are now sub.iected with commercial fisheries, and
of the strain w'-ich the:/ Vi/ill safel^," stand. Consequently, the ulti-
mate aims of most of the pro.iects undertaken by the Btireau in its
marine work must be primarily economic. To reach this goal, however,
the only sound route is throu.'-h the study of the biology of the
specios in question, which leads far "field into the realm.s of phy-
sical and chemical oceanography, as explained more fully in another
chapter (Page 67 ). This applies equally to two other groups of
problems now facing the 'Burea'a: namely (1) attemipts to explain or
to predict the great temporal f luctiiations now known to occur in the
stocks of m_any of the most important commercial fisheries: (2) the
development of artificial propogatlon for such animals as can be so
maintained, --the oyster for example.

Consequently-, the Eureau must necessarily devote much of its
resources to the investigation of what is often called "pure science"
concerned with basic problems in the natur'^l eoonom7r of the sea.
And the m.ore urgent the practical problems of conservation become,
the more im.peratlve will it be for the Eureaii to keep in close touch
with all advances in the science of Oceanograph:/, even if limitation
of its resources prevent it, as an institiition, from, expanding its
own efforts into the fields which at the mioment seem, the more remote
from practical ap-^lication, but which the future may prove to be of
the m.cst vital importance.

The allocation by Congress of the funds of the Eureau to certain
fixed obiects m.akes it impossible for the B;areau itself to undertake
broad oceanographic explorations. And this condition will probably
continue because of the imminence of the problems InLmediately vital
in the conservation of misrine resources , and of tbe grO'Ving aoprecia-
tlon by Congress that these problems must be attacked.

But it is safe to assume that for as long a period as it is
worthwhile to attempt to predict the course of human affairs the
Bureau of Fisheries will always be read^,^ to participate, so far as
its resources allow, in the oceanographic prcgrr.ms , whether biologi-
cal or nhyslcal, of private institutions, or of other governmental
bureaux, especially within striking distance of th:) coasts of ^^orth
Am.erica.

There is, in fact, a precedent of long standinr for such coop-
eration b"- the Bureau* for instance the cruises of the Albatross in
the Pacific under the direction of Alexander Agassiz- the recent
exploration in the north-western Atlantic in coopej^ation witli the
Museum of Comparative Zoology: the fioint exoedition of the Bureau
and of the U. S. Coast and aeodetic Curvey to the oceanic triangle
between the United States , Bermuda and the Bahamas In 1914; and the
expedition to the Galapagos Islands in the winter ot 1928.

For man7f years the BureaiT has maintained a sea-going ship cap-
able of long-sustained cruises with a well arranged laboratory ful-
ly equipped for dredging, towing and other biological work as well
as for the ordinary routine observations of temiperature, salinity.

123

etc. , and manned by a personnel ful^T trained in oceanographic pro-
cedure. The Fisheries Steamer "Albatross II" is now actively em-
ployed in studies of the biology and especially the migrations of
cod, rackerel and other food fish of the north-western Atlantic. In
the Pacific the Bureau maintains vessels for the patrol of Alaskan
waters and for the transport of supplies to the Prihilov Islands,
hut which co^jld add oceanographic work to their routine duties
without serious interference. And on both coasts it has several
smaller craft, fit for research wo-^'k in the coastwise waters.

The Bureau's activities are not limited b-^ statute to territo-
rial waters, but can be extended to fe high seas, ard experience
in the past justifies the assumption that the Bureau will ofte^i be
ready to detail its vessels for Vk'ell considered exploration, if
they can be spared from other duties, and if the cost of fueli'ig
and the other expenses incident upon withdrawal from f^eir ord3,nary
routine dutie-^, can be met from outside sources,

!^ .

Besides its ships the Bureau maintains well equipped biologi-
cal laboratorie'- especially for the studT of fisheries biology, at
Woods Hole, Mass., and at Beaufort, T^ . C, w'here pro])lems in ocean-
ic biology are constantly under study. At all of th-'^se laborntories
visiting scientists are mpde welcome, and provided with full facil-
ities up to the Bureau's capacity.

More specifically, the Bureau wn 11 cooperate b^^ advice in the
development of nrograras of research: b^- the occasional detail of its
vesells and their crews (when expenses can be met)* by detailing
members of its staff, from time to time, to direct the acttial work
at sea: by the loan of annaratus (this has proved most helpful in
the past): and by freel:^ offering the facilities of its laboratories,

2. United States Coast Guard

Scientific research was not among the duties for which this
Service was originally esta"^ilished in IVQO, its entrance into the
field of Oceanography was occasioned by the deD.Ggatlon to it ' of the
duty of maintaining the International Ice Patrol in t>^e North At-
lantic, as a result of f^e International Corference o^-^ Safet;/ of
Life at Sea, held in London, Nov. 12, 1913. A convention signed
on Januar-r 20, 1914, provided for the inauguration of an internat-
ional derelict destruction, ice observation, and ice patrol service
to patrol the ice regions of the Nortli Atlantic during the season
of danger from icebergs. The Government of the United States was
invited to undertsi-^e the management of this service, the expenses
to be defrayed by the f irteen powers interested in trans-Atlantic
navip'.ation: and on February 7, 1914 t^-^.e Pre-i'^ent of the United
States directed the Bevenue Cut+er Service (now the Goast Guard) to
begin the international ice observation and patrol service that has
been -^.ainta ^-ned ever since.

In addition to f!'e routine work of locating icebergs and warn-
ing the passing vessels of the danger limits, t^e Patrol is also
directed to make a stud^^ of fhe ice situation, particularly as to
the currents in the vicinity of the Grand Banks, and of f^e physi-
cal properties and drifts of tho ice. Beginning; in 1^14 t^^e Bevenue
Cutter Service (now the Coast Guard) thus undertook the stud- of the
ph^/sical oceanography of the north-western Atlantic in that general

124

region, with special reTerence to fie interrelationships of the Lab-
rador and G-i-'lf Stream currents there. And tv^is oceanographic pro-
gram has ever since heen continued as a regul:ir p^rt of f^.e routine
duty of the Coast Gunrd.

On the Patrol t^^.e Coast Gu-; rd has cooperated with the Hydro-
graphic Office, and has offered the hospitality of its s^-^ips to re-
presentatives o^ the Wenf-er Bureau, of the TJ. S. Bureau of Fisher-
ies and of t^' e Museum of Comparritive Zoology, arranging for the
installation of the necesn'-'rv meteorological instrum-=^nts , nnd add-
ing t>-'0 co]lectpon of plnnhton to its regular program. ^ooperntion
in wavs such as these, f^8t do not interfere with the practical
duties of the P'^trol, can ho depended upon in t'^'-e future. But f^is
will he limited to f'-e Grand Pan'-s region and to t^'O season of ice
menace (usually April to June), while the constant necessity- of de-
voting the energies O''^ the Patrol to the practical tasks of" loc.-^t-
ing the position of f!-'e ice and of broadcasting warnings to s''iip-
ning means that oceanogr'3phic ohserv.itions can be taken onl""" as cir-
cumstnnces permit.

The demands on the Coast Gu, rd for the ser-'ices of its vessels
in the various fields over which its activities "re now. spread nre
so insistent th;^t there is no possibility of its devoting a ship
primaril7/ to scientific researches. Neither do the cruises of its
cut't'ers or patrol boats (except those on Ice Patrol) follow sche-
dules or tracks regular enough for tiie development of a prom.ising
program of incidentnl observations (on the temperaturt^ of the ^vater,
etc.) of the sorts that offer such attractive possibilities in the
case of the Tlav^f, the Shipping Board, and Lighthouse Service. The
barrier in this case is not onlj the cost of operating the cutter
on special service, but, more serious, the impossibility of with-
drowi.ng ships or personnel from their primnr:: duties. But whatever
ioint or independent researches this service can undertake will be
prosecuted with first-class efficiencv b-^'- its big], ly tr?ined com-
missioned nersonnel.

And tho Coast Guard.' s experience i.n f^e operation of t^'^e Ice
Pi^trol, with the presence in the service of a trained nnd exper-
ienced phvsical oceanographer enable it to render direct and pract-
ical advisor7f service in the organiznti.on of oceanographic cruises,
as wall as in th-} management of researci" vessels generally.

3. United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Certain restricted lines 01" oceanographic researc''^ occuny an
imnortant place in t'^^e regular functions of ft^is Bureau.

The m--'-rine activities of the U. S. Const and Geodetic Survev
nre, by stntute, devoted c^^iefly to (a) hydrographic surveys o-^ the
coast lines end slopes of the United State? and dependencies for the
purpose of cartography: and (b) to the study of tidal rnd ocean
currents as these affect shipplnc:.

The oceanographic field of thi s Surve"^'" is t'-^us much narrower
than that of the Bureau of Fisheries. Put within this field it
constantly cr. rriss on important oricrinal researches, snd in the

135

pqst It. hos olvjp-YB shown itself reo.r\j to coop.?r-te v/ith otver -uren-
cies in investigations of t^- e coc?t"Jise wnters of tl^o United Str.tes,
so f^r as fi^is >rs not interfe:-'ed with its routine duties." T:^e
^With tio "Bureau "on^ishsrioF, for ex-'cn^lo, th- f'useum of Comp.-rr,-

tive Zoology, and t'^e Scripns Institution for OcGanogr- phy.

Survev woul'd undoubtedly he glad to extend its studies of currents
"'Oil out into W-e T^aclfic -^nd Atlantic, if funds were available,
appreclrtlhe: th - 1 the drifts of the w-ters closor in to t^-^e coast
-r.'^ hut a p-rt of t>ie general circulatory scheme of thv oceans,
hence to he understood must he studied as a part of thb latter.
And there appears to he nothing in ti-^e Act of T^ehru-r^^ 10, 1807
(of which the Survey is an outgrowth) to restrict its activities
to territorial waters. The vessels of the Survey have done much
wire sounding in deep water m the pa at. And a number of thorn are
now^eouipnGd~^'"ith Sonic soundin.f^ apparatus, enabling t^em to carry
out Topographic surveys of the bottom at great depths economically
and in great det-il. "They have recently taken a largo number of
serial observations of temperature in salinity down to considerable
depths and have gathered man^ samples of the sea bottom. T>^e Sur-
vey also devotes much attention to the study of Isostasy and may be
expected to lend assistance in this field to any well considered
program at sea, both by the use of its vessels, when these can be
spared from other duties, and b-- suonlying trained personnel. "'ith
regard to the latter, i.e. personnel, it should be nointed ont th-t
in the stud^r of ocean currents by direct meti-ods of observata. on,
especially by current met:irs, the personnel of f-e Coast and Geo-
detic Surve-^ is notably efficient, as it is in all its scientiPic
operations. It maintains excellent sea-going ships and the offic-
ers and crews ar • thoroughly trained m surveying procedure.

In short, t-o Co-rt and Geodetic Survey ma-^ always be expected
to cooperate eordially in any studies of tidal -m^ other currents
in the territorial waters around the United States and in study
of the topograph-^- of the sea-bottom, b"^^ assisting with the prepar-
ation of apparatus, and b-^^ carrving out such obser^-ations as vnll
not interfere too seriousl-r with its regular routine d.utiea. Fed-
erate contributions- of m.oney from outside sources would not of
themselves enable it to undertake any considerable oceanograiV-ic
progr-m. other than th- 1 just outlined, even within territorial
waters, because its sh ' ps :-'re fully emploved in their reguJ-r dut-
ies, tT-e demands on t^-em constantly being greater than can he met.
However, the Survey is one of the bureaux t^-at has shown ver^- rapid
P-rowth in the past. It is now making rapid progress in the chart-
ing of the pacific co-at of the United Statea and will wit^^m a
few years complete the first survey of the Hawaiian and Philippine
Archipelaeoes, when a vessel might be spared from the charting work.
In that case, according to its acting Director, no obiection need
be anticipated to her omplo^^rment in Oceanography if the necessarv
appropriation could be obtained for h --r oparating expenses.

4, United States Lighthouse Service.

The regi^Tlar duties of the Lighthouse Service do not include
work of direct oceanogranhic importance. Nevertheless, t>^is S' r-
vice is in a better position to make certain sorts of oceanic ob-
servations than is any other agencv in the country, go^rernraental
or private. IVe refer here to such observations as can be taken from

126

the lightships. The Service nr int-.ins 'i considerable number of the.-e
on the Atlr„ntlc ond Prcific coasts, severr 1 of th -m beiiip- strJ-ioned
so fr,r o\^,t nt sen -'nd in suob exposed positions th.".,t, the^r offnr uni-
que stations from which constant record of the state of tbe ocean
cnn be obtained.

Tbe personnel of th - lightships -re not trained in special
scientific procedure, but are skilled in t>.e h-ndllng of various
signalling and navigational ar^p-ratus. If methods of observation
can be strnd'-^rdized rnd simplified sufficiently to be carried out
by nersons of reasonrble intelligence, lightships offer opportuni-
ties wbich could h 'rdly be m-tched for tl^e continuous record of _ the
temperatures of the surf-^ce such as can bo obtained with recording
thermographs: for periodic record of the deep water temp-ratures :
for measurements over long periods of the velocitv and direction of
the currents: for Periodic collection of wnter samnles at various
depths for future analysis in soiro laboratory nnd for meteorologi-
cal observations. Biological collections could also in many cases
be obtained from the lightshins bar the simple process of streaming
townets from tbe ship with the tide.

In the past the Lighthouse Service has shown itself ready to
cooper 'te by arranging for its personnel upon the llghtsliips to make
temper- ture' observations, many of w>' ich have been accumulated. And
as the important lightship st-.tions ^re re-son-iay permanent, such
general cooperation may be expected in the future.

Furthermore, if observations of an intricacy beyond the capabil-
ities of the crews of the lightships were .desired, arrangements could
no dovbt be made to st-tion special observers on those ships for
longer or shorter periods.

Records of temper-turc h-ve also been taken from lighthouses
along the co-st. And, while it is difficult in such situations to
obta-LP resvlts accur;-te according to modern requir^^ments , v/ith a
little care they mav prove useful to illustrate seasonal -nd annual
va-iatlons. Here again experience In the past shows that ready co-
operrtion js bo be expected. In fact tv^e Lighthouse Service utiliz-
ing lighthouses, lightships and vessels, is now actually cooperating
with the Scripps Institution for Oceanography in an extensive pro-
gram of investigation on the Pacific co-,st in the collection of tem-
peratures, water samples, plankton, and meteorological datar also
with the TT. S. Bureau of Fisheries as well.

5. United States Wavy.

It is less easy to predict the cooperation to be expected from
the United States Navy than for the other government bureaux so far
discussed, because its marine explorations must always be incidental
1 0 other du t le s .

There is pr>ecedent for participation by the Nav^^ in many fields
of oceanic exploration. "'e need only mention Lieutenant Maury's ach-
ievements when, "s he-d of the Naval observatory, he laid the found-
ation for our modern knowledge of the circulation of the surface
waters of the oceans.

137

From the enrly years, in fact, the ?Tavy has taken active n?rt
in scientific expeditions: sometimes of its- own initiative* some-
times suQ-Qorted hv special act of Congress-"-; so"etirn.gs in cooporr.-
^;~~^ CaJ "Act of Congress of ^Tav 14, I806, authorizing the U^ S. Ex-
ploring Expedition in the Pacific Ocean and t^-e South Geas.
(h) Act of'congress of March 3, 1849, authorizing the test of
new routes and perfecting the discoveries of Maury in the
course of his investigations of tie winds and cur'-ents of
the oeean,

(c) Exploration and Surveys in tlie Valle-^ of the Ama-^on, under
instructions from, the Navy Dep-^rtm_ent in 1851.

(d) Act of Congress of August 1852, o^uthorizing the TT. S. :Torth
Pacific Surveying Expedition.

(e) The Exploration of the Va'ile^- of the Rio de la Plata and
its Trihutaries, under instructions from the Navy Deo-'rt-
ment, Fehruary 1855.

(f) Act of Congress authorizing the Secretary of the Navy to
accept and'take charge of, for ou.rposes of '''orth Poln- Ex-
ploration, the U. S. S. JEANETTE in 1879.

(g) Act of Congress making appropriations for Ha"!]'s Arcti.c
Expedition in 1870.

(h) Act of Congress of March 9, 1891, "To enahle t'-e President
to cause careful soundings to he made between San Franci-
sco, Gfii . , nnd lionolulii, in the K'^ngdom of fe Hawailai'i
Islands for tv-^e purpose of determ.ining t>"e practicahllity
m5 of living a telegraphic cahle between those points. "

tion with other institutions, for ex.^mp! e in the recent gravit" ex-
pedition o-r t>^e Naval Observatory in cooperation with t^-^e Carnerrie
Institution of Was'^ington- and f reciuentl-^^ b-'- the detail of officers
and men to man the Bureau of Fisheries' steamer Albatross.

Precedent and trpdition thus give reason to assume that the
Navy vifould always be glad to ,1oin in attacking problems of such
immediate navigational concern as ocean currents, a^ad in extending
the surveys of little-known coasts. This, in f-'ct, was definitely
stfted at the Oceanograpjiic Conference at the Navv Bop;' rtment in
the Slimmer of 19rM.

And the Navy has now entered a broader field of Oceanoe;ra":^''-'ic
research, b"' the a'O^roval, by the Secretary of the de^^artment, of
the follov/ing recommendations by the Naval Foard on Oceanograohy;

"(1) The preparation and issue to the service of a world
chart, shovv'ing un surveyed areas of the ocean.

(2) That ins t-'"UGt ions be issued to com.man^lers-in-chief and

to vessels operating signlv, providing f^at vessels suitably enuip-
ped for sou.nding operatinns take soundings in unsurveyed areas when-
ever their operrition permit; th-^.t these soundincs be transmitted
promptly to the F''drogra-Dhic Of+"'ice of the Nav^ rep':>r-tment.

(3) That in -addition the lepartment indicate, w^'en circum-
stances pei-'-mit, to vessels making passne-e at sen ? particTilar ] 1^:6
ot soundings a.'hich t^ie Department desires m:-?de.

The preceding recommendations a^-e based uoon the idea of r

123

systematized nnd coordin'ted effort in develor)in£^ contours of the
ocean bottom.

(4) Thnt ri standard thermometer for f^ e taking of ocen.n tem-
perature, hof^ of the air and of the surface v/ater, he adopted, and
that suitable instructions be issued b^- the H"''-drogr"phic Office
standardizing methods of taking and recording observations and of
transmitting these to the Hydrographic "Office: th'" t these instruct-
ions Inclvide tbe m.ethods of standardi'^.ing f^e instruments fro'i time
to time and of data sheets furnished f^e HTdrographic Office, the
last time of standardization, and an^^'' comments that annear appro-
priate reg'^rding the reliability of the data submitted.

(5) Thnt the rep'"^rtment express to the National Academy of
Sciences its willingness to cooper'-'te in obtaining samples of the
surface w-^ter of the sea by vessels in transit: that it sugsest to
the National Academy of Sciences the desirability of standardized
containers of small size for this water with labels in suitable form
for the recording on those labels of identifying data.

(6) That when the nature of naval opemtions permit, suit-
ably equipped vessels operating m the vicinity of ocean deeps be
^""irected to make a survey/ of these deeps, that they be directed to
do so, vn<^. that a standardized 'Ian be prepared by the Hydrogra:-^hi«
Office for the conducting of these special examin'tion of deeps, so
that fhe data furnished will maet t'~e requirements of those scient-
ists specially interested in ocean deeps."

The Hydrogrnphic Office receives t"'''e only appropri-' tion Con-
gress las so fn.r given the Nav^,^ for ocenn surveys, nnd its regular
work in the ccllection, analysis and publication of data on ocean
currents, drifts of ice, storm tracks, and wind directions and
force, as v/elT as in siirveys of insufficiently^ charted co-^st lines,
is directly oceanographies indirectl'^'- so is its c" rtogr-^phic work.

Of I'^.t:' yo^rs f e Navy has taken a leading p" rt in the applic-
ation of recentl^- Revised mef'^ods of echo sounding to cbarting sub-
marine topography along f^^e routes followed in its periodic cruises.
And r'^pid expansion in t^'is field of explomtion is nresajred, the
recommendations iust listed.

The Naval Observatory, also has recentl^^ t^-ken an active p rt
in Oceanogr'-phy through its recent direction of a gravity expedition
(Pnge 16 ). During the past few years, too, f^e Navy h/^s recorded
a large number of temperature readings during its voyages in the
Pacific: has contributed mtxch data to the Scripps Institution, and
contemplates a rapidlv expanding program in t>^is field of endeavor.

If the increased expense for fuel, etc. could be met (h'rdl^^
possible from present appropri'^tj ons ) no lim.i ts could be set to the
opportunity open to the Navy to extend its research downward into
the deeper water-strr'ta. With its fleet of auxili-^rv vessels, "large
and sm^ll, and wif" its highly efficient officers, the Nav:,,'- is far
better equipped for this than any other agency in the country, so
f^r ^s physical plant is oonce.^ned. It is, furtl ermore, the pres-
ent pvirpose of tbo Department to cooperate with outside agencies in
all nracticablG ways in studies of thj oceans: a purpose exem.plified

18S

by the joint gr^-vit^ expedition of the ■M"'.v-'^-l Observatory^ ^nd of f-^e
Cnrnogie Institution, bv present cooperation with the Scripps In-
stitution in f^e stTidy of the srufaco te-Tipor^.tnros of the Pncific,
r.nd by adoption of f^o roconrriend""tions , lust qnoted, th'-i-t-. the ocenn-
ogrnphic "ctivities of the Nnw be extended. In s'-^ort, •.■.'(5 'r^ n.s~
sured th'-'t +"ho active interest in Ocennog;rrphy expressed " '" th-i Con-
feronco at the V.o.vr D.'p' rtment in 192^ h^s not deereased.

But these favoring factors r ru partlv counterbalrnced by the
imnossibilit^' of the I'lav^^J-'s fin'^ncing any special occ^nograahic
cruises fi^o'^i present approprin tions • and by the improbability that
Congress will Incre-'ise the l.'^tter for this purpose.

In short, it is only in the following fields thr-t active las-
istance c^n be exaected from the Navy at r^resent'

(a) Routine observr. t lonc stich as can be taken on the regulrr
cruises either b'^- t'TO ship's personnel or by observers detailed
from some scienti.'^ic institution, without "ddlng materially to the
cost of operating the ship. Projects of this class include the
gravity m.easuroraents just mentioned, the colleoticn of surface tem-
peratures, meteorological data. a.nd echo sounding. A promising de-
velopment I'.'ould be the; installation of recording f-'-ermogra-'hs , es-
pecially on the transports running to the Philippines and Hnwaii
(pnge ).

(b) Occasional topographic surveys of srecial araas of the
sea bottom.

(c) p.^rticip" ting in general oce'~nofTi'-""phic progr'^m^s b^- t'le
Hydrogranhic Of'f'ice in a direction'",'^ or an advisory cap'^citv. Al-
though onl^" a susfjestion of this is 'lossible here, it offers in-
teresting possib] ities.

(d) Assistance from. V-^o Naval Research Labor^torv in the dr.-v-
elonment of pcoustic r.nd other apparatus.

6. United States Shipping Bo'"rd.

It is obvious tlmt thcj policT that the Congress of the United
ot'^tos decides to pursue with regard to t' e operatior, or disposnl
of t--.v American Mercantile Marine will determine what cooperation
is to be expected under this heading.

But so long as i-he Shipping Board continues to oper :te vessels
on the principal tmdv rou.tes of the v/orld, it is in r position to
render peculiar rervices to Ocennographh. Fo refer h^^re to the con-
tinuoui.s record of the surface temperatures of the se-^ by recording
thermographs, coincident with record of the temperatu.re of +-he
overlying air, and of the atmospheric barometric pressure to other
records of tem.pera turo, and t^^e collection of samples of the sur-
face w-tor "s ou^" lined nbove (P-ffe ">

/ •

7. United States Rirenu of Standards.

T>"is Bureau has no diredt ocncern in Oceanogrcnliy p-jr se, hut
it is one of the most imnortant f-i^ctors in nny estim.'^te of tFe co-

130

operntlon to be c-x-oected from tlrie Governmunt for the rapsons st ted
on prge ].;.;iO . rredicti'^n tbrit- it o^.n r.nd will render t^-^ e nssirt-
pnce ir instrunvrntr tion ririd ir Inhorrtor:/- rcse^^rches summ-rized
above is based or. t'-e fact that these p';rticu]rr fields of service
-TO expressly included among tbo principal rctivitios of the "Bureau
rs strted in itr circular describing its general polic:/ (Letter Cir-
cular 200, TJ. S. P. S. Sept. 24, 1926) , nnd in - statement by tlie
Acting Director.

Thus the perfection of new apparatus falls within the general
dovelop-^ent of devices in science and industry, this being one of
the fields of research in w]-ich the Bureau is rogul'^rly eng-^ged.
Furthermore stand" rdiz.ations of thermometers and of other instru- -
m e n t s are r ou. t i ne tasks of t>"0 sort the Bureau regularly carries on'.
Ti The qualification that such work sh^^ll not involve compotition

wj.tb commercial laboratories does not apaly in the preaent c^se.

The Bu.reau may refuse or nostpo^ie such work if" it wov;"'d dela^- mor(
Important proiects, Bnt the calls for aasi'-tance f ro ' anv oce'^-no-
graphic^l institution would be rclativelT so few, and its neo'-^ for
the moat authoritr tive stand •irdi'^-ntion so great thn.t the Bureau
would not be likolv to refuse its "^odest renuests if reasonrble time
were allowed for f-e reports, and if the sm."-ll fees for testi'ng
could be met.

8. United St-^tes ueologica]_ Survey.

Thu direct interest of this Survey m Oceanograph": is co'-fined
to the strictl-^^ geological aspect, -•nd is f\.irther limited b-^- the
fact that the survey's own work is confined, by law, to the hnlted
Sf'ates and dependencies. It h's no ships or nersonnel for work nt
sea and can u.ndertakc no m-rme explorations of its own initiative.
Dn the other h-^nd, many geologic problem^s (P-^ge ) reauire in-
formation on such ciuestions as the advance or erosion of shore-
lines, W-^e distribution of sediments of terrigenous origin over the
sea floor, and t^-e relation of submarine deeps to nearT)y shor;.;s -nd
Islands. Therefore the Survey world always be interested in ocean-
ographical projects that included studies of sedimentation and of
the configuration of the bottom, especiall"',^ over tkie shelf of the
-lorth American continent, of the Antilles, and of the Hawailn and
Phlliapine Archipelagoes. It is its concern in such questions that
justifies the cooperation it can offer in laboratory facilities,
etc. summarized above (Page 118 ).

9. United Stat s Bureau of Soils.

The United States Bureau of Soils is in a position to assist
in tbe study of submarine sediments by anal-'.^'',ing t^'-e mechanical com-
nosition cf the samples, ''.'hich must be done before m.icrosconic ex-
amination can he undertaken: also, in ascertaining the amount of
colloid material present by the methoc's developed in soil work.

As so often, how --vcr, the Fua^eau could not un'"''ertake ana^ con-
sid'. rable amount of such work unless expenses are borne from sone
outside source, because its resources now "re f^-lly employed.

131

B STATE FISFERIl^S C .^i^^-ISSIDHS

1. Atlantic Co.'-'st.

The Stn.te Gom'-nissions of Fisheries on the Atl-^ntic Ccft". "r ■•
chiefly con<iernod with problems of regulation and patrol and b-^.vc
devoted only a s"^nll amount of ""ttention to problems of ocornic
blolog7f. There is reason to believe, bowovor, tbat soAreral of
these woi,ild gladl^.^ take p-~rt in n study of the biology,^ of f^e fish-
es of their pr^rtic^O^r p rts of the const, if money were avril''b;ie.
For exnmplo, tbe Ct-'te Gominission of Rhode Island ^^ns in V <.' past
cnrried out import.':^ •vt studies of the fish faun-'- of that state. The
Stat'.'; rommission of Maine is '^ t present concerned v/ith the st'^. tus
of f-e lobster along thrt p- rt of the coast. The St 'te of New 7>;r-
se^'" has devoted considerabli; attention to t]"i.e ovster in the Enrnegot
Bay region, and the State of Connecticut has wlthan thc^ pnst few
years carried on : nvestigations of tbe life histor^r of th'i sb/^d,
while other instnnces of the same sort migbt be mentioned. At
present, however, none of them maintain vessels fit for off-sbore
cruising, include oceanographers on tboir st'^ffs, or regularly
offer labor^.tor^,^ facilities. Consequentl-^.^, no nssistonce c^n be
expected from tbi:;;r! in tbosu respects.

2. Pacific Gonst.

The im'^ortance of tt-^e fisheries to C'^lif orni-^n iadustrY, md
the very serious decline which manv of t>^>:» individual fisb.jries
have shown within f-^e p^^^:' few yenrs h":A.''o m^-do tbe problem of ocean-
ic biology imminent ^or f-^^t st'^.t^.,-. The Of lif or-ni'^n Co'inisr ion,
ioj.ntlv wif'"'. Strnford Uniy^ersity, has recentl^,^ undertnl-:en nn in-
formal coop'.5r^tive study o^ t>"0 oceanop-rr^nhy, plnnbton and fisb
faun"' of tbe Montore^'' region. Tbis entrance into the field of gen-
eral oceanogr'^ph;^ is evidence of the growing annrecintion of tbe
im.""ortance, even ■f'rom the strictlv oconoraic side, of a thoroufrh
understnndini? of f- e lif"e bistories of important fishes if conser-
vation is to be sane and effective. Personal cont'^cts witb its
of +"ici'^. Is bpve convinced us tt"'':t tbe Commission won Id gladly/- n-irt-
icip-^te in any proiect bearin,^ upon the oceanic biologv alone: f-.e
Ca.li:^orniin cO'-'st, if this did not clash seriouslv with its prlmar7f
duties. Put wit}"! its activities directed b^/ tbe Legislatu.re c'r^ief-
ly to economic '^-Ims, such as t^-^e statistic"' 1 stnd" of tbe trends
of the sovorrl fish-ai^ies, it c'in only devote a small p-^rt of its
income to scientii'ic work the immedi-" l. e worth of which cannot be
demonstrnted in oconom.ic terms. Fi,irtbcrmore , . t'-c Commissi:'^/' s bo'^ts
rre so fuller occupied by na trol-duti ;s tb-t anv cpnsidvr^blo ex-
pansion of its ocennogra"ohic program would presuppos.i the addition
of one or two vessel, a to its fleet: also nrovision of tbij -^icne- to
onerate thjm, either from tbe Legislature or from some outside
source.

The Commissjon is not in a nosition to carr-'" out exten^'ed
cruises, because its i-o" ts are smjill, ita patrol activities -long
the Calif ornlan coast being best and most economical 1-^r prosecuted
with vessels not more than 80 to 100 "f^eet long. "These, bovvever, can

-er the "^bole >'readth of the Co-tiTi-ntiil Shelf

133

"long tbo cori. St of California '^nd out over V' o slope, whore know-
ledge (hioloe-ic, ph^T.ic"-! ard chemicn], ) is so scrntT f-^t ^nTtl'-^■ag
dono v/jll prove v-lu^hle. And tier ^re so economical of oporaticn
that it wouM not Ixa r"^.if -f'lc-ult to raise the s-^^-ll sum to cover the
cost of fuel for ocean icnnl trips of -- xvoek or tvo, whonovor one
of the'T conld be sp rod from patrol.

rroTi time to time f'^o Commicsion could r'.ccomodate a stvdent
of so-io special loc^.l problem in its Laboratory " t Terminal Island
(Pngo 117' ) .

In short, coopor-tion "long the same lines rnd with the s'amo
limitations may be expected fram this Stat-) Service within its own
googr'-nbic sphere, on a small scale, "s fr m the U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries on a l-rger (P^^ge 121 ). This, in fact, would bo but a
Drogrer:sive development of its present activiti^n.

C. CANADIA- ■ESTAPflSHMMTS

1. Biolosric^l Foard of Canada.

This board stands in fundament p11:^t V^c snme rel-^tionshin to
OceanograTDb" as does t>^e United o+'^tes Rire"u of Fisheries! it as
constantly h^ns oceanographic prelects in ef .-^ect , r^nd the excellence
of its investig'^tions is internationallA^ recognized. '''any of its
marin^'^ "■ n'^^e^-tifr'^ t"""' n , -' •" s in f^e case of f'S Fureru of Fjsberies,

Its vvork in fr e s b '■• ■ t e r does "lot c on c e r n u 3 "b 0 r e .

center around tbe biological problems of -^iie Fisberies, but '■' if iter-
ances in OT^ganizction leave the Foard m.ore free, tb.nn the Eure^u,
to carry on investigations in tb.e more theoretic ■'^ields 0^ oce'-oic
biology, and in ■'ha'sicrl oceanogra-^hy , t'':"'e pr'-ctic-l bearings of
which may seem, re otj. In genenl, f'e borrd. ser^'es ^b of-f'icir'l
advise-^ to t'-^e C'li-di^^.n Government in n ■ 1 such mrtters. It mnin-
t-ins t"-o m nine biological l-^borr tories , one "t St. Andrews, N. B. ^
one at Nan-iim.o, British Columbia, '? s well -^s fisheries laboratories
"t Halifax, T^ov" Scotir, and at Priace Fupert, B. C. In thes^ bio-
lofic"^. l"bor''tores a s"'"stem has been developed b7," w'-i.ich students
and instructors fj^om Con'-dian colleges and universities "^ctivelv
p-rticip-te in fie in^''e.'^tig:--t ions of the bo-rd, under such direction
"s the crse demands. Special 'attention h'lS, in f."ct, been directed
to the l-^'borr tor"''- njet'nod of attncking oce'^nographic problem.s, re-
sulting "in r type of oooperrrtion with educational institutions f^-'t
may well be tnken as ■■ "^odel. For a summ" r^^^ of the vessel-opera-
tions of the bO'--^d see Page 37 .

2. I-Tr'tionr^l Research Council of Canada

The ororosed development of n-tional l"bor"torien bv t> e N"t-
lon^-1 Research Council of Crnada is m.entioned on pate . Un to
the ore' ent time the nartioip tion of the council in oceanography
hr s been confined chiefly to the aprointmiont o^" a committee on the
'^-cific coast to cooner^te '"ith com'-'ilttees organi^.ed under the Pac-
ific Science Association "t its meeting i»" I pnn in ■■Icvember, 1926.

133

3. Cnnndir'.n Hjdrographic Servlne.

T> is service, fbrough its tidnl md current survev, forme'^l^'^
carried out import^.nt studies nf currents rround t^^e Cfnndir.n
coastrj. And ";hi]e it h'^s dene lit'i'le work of this sort durinc? the
p^st few veors, pl.nns r.re niaturing for its resumptioii in the nef.r
future. The survey niso r^lrins to equip its survey stenmers with
the n.ppnr-^i tus necess'^r^,^ for recording sp^linitv -"'nd tenperiture in
connection with i">eir regulr^r program of soundings.

4. Geologic-"' 1 Survey of Cnnadc

This Survey, like tho.t o-!^ the United Stntes, h-s neither ships
nor personnel for work n.t sen, nor it; it ever likely to pnrticipnte
octively in mnrine investigations hecnuse its fields of work lie
primarily on land. Its st'":ff, however, nre interested in prohle'^s
of '-nnrine sedimentation, etc., and ive rre informed hy the director
of the survey that its Inhoratoi''^^, library and other facilities rt
Ottawa will he freelv avail ahle to any oceanographer. The Survey
is also in r. position to tindertake some an'^lytica] work, the extent
of this depending on its interest in each particular investigation.
There is no regulation to prevent the Surve'f from accepting contri-
butions from privrte sources, such as myfr^t be accept^^ble in c'se
it partook of sn^^ inve:' tiga tion outside of Canada.

5. Canadian Eepartm.ent of M'^rine ^nd Fisheries.

T]"'e fisheries l^rr.nch of this department has cojitact '"ifH
oceanographical investigations chiefly through its "isso^iation 'vith
the Biological Board of Canada.

134

IV. SUMMARY.

The cooperation to be hoped fro^n osto.blish'^ents of the
Federal Governments "s at present organized pnd fincnoed in TJorth
A'nericf! mn-- he suinmari^ed as fol'^oivs:

Detail of n''^ips for s'Deci"'', cruises, ■■'"'thout contrihutory
funds ^'o '^eet the extrn expense ------------ ^^erligihle

retail of ships for special cruises, t^ e extrr^ expense
met h7,-^ contrihutorr funds --------------- Considerr'Tjle

Observations as incidental progran on sV ips emplo-'ed on
other duties ---------------------- Excellent

Detail of scientific personnel -------- S"! ight

Expansion of present regulr.r duties to include speci'V!
oceanographic work ------------------ Negligible

Laborator-'- f.^cilities on shore ------- Excellent

Identifier' tion of biological specim.ens - - - Active

An^'lysis of '^irrine sediments, of se^ //nter, etc. Slight

Instrumentn tion ----- ___---...-- Very important

135

Chapter V.

PRESENT ACTIVITIES IN OCEANOGRAPHY IN EUROPE

I. I"'TRODUCTI0N

In this chapter we wish merely to emphasize the contrasts be-
tween present day Oceanography in Europe and in America. No attempt
is made to present a detailed picture.

Americi
of the pa,

oceanographlc investigations, developing in scope, have heen active-
ly prosecuted without a break, from the time when the "Challenger"
expedition set the standard for such 'vork, down to the outbreak of
the ^''orld w'ar. And during the years when America's participation in
oceanographio exploration on the high seas-'- was confined to the
cruises of a single ship (the "Albatross") European countries were
sending out a succession of such exrediticns to many'soas, either

1. ^.'^'e omit reference here to bath7,n'aetric surveys carried otit In. con -
nection with cable construction, or incidentally.

strictl:'- oceanographlc in scope, or making oceanographic investiga-
tions incidental to other ob.iects. To illustrate tbls continuity of
investigation, it is onl- necessary to mention the expeditions of the
"Pola" (Italian) In 189'5-1898; of the "Pram" (Norwegian') 1893-1896:
"Ingolf" (Danish) 1895-1895; "Valdivia" (German) 1899-1900: "Siboga"
(Dutch) 1901-19; the several Antarctic expeditions of 1901-1904; of
the "Planet" (Germ.an) 1906-1907 and 1912-1915; of the "Thor" (Danish)
1908-1910; of the "yichael Sars" (Norwegian and British) 1910: of the
"Deutschland" (German) 1911: of the "Dana" (Danish) 1920-1922; of the
"Maude" (Norwegian) 1918-1925: of the "Meteor" (German) 1925-1927;
and of the "Discovery" (British) in 1927-1928.

During this same period, not only were all the maritime nations
of Europe stimulated to intensive studies of their home waters by the
importance of fisheries in their economic lives, but there was an act-
ive development of marine biological laboratories around the coasts
of Europe, either under the auspices of the state universities or of
private scientists.

Oceanographlc activities were, for the most part, suspended in
Europe during the war, but soon resumed thereafter. And continuing
interest in the problems of the sea has been made evident since th>^n,
not onl77 b^.^ the activities of the several research instittitions in
tbeir hom.e waters (most of which managed to survive the -vears of
stress), but also b^-^ renewed explorations of the oceans on a broader
scale. As instances of the latter we mav mention the recent vo7.'-a,se
of the "Tfeteor" in the South Atlantic, the cruises recently carried
out b7^ the "Discovery" in the Antarctic, and the fact that a success-
or to that famous ship is now under ccnstru.ction in England.

136

II. INSTITUTIONS NOW ACTIVE

A brief surve^r of the institutions in Europe that are nov; act-
ivelv concerned in one or another phase of ocean study may help to
Illustrate the variet-^^ and volume of the v;ork now being carried on
from them. A list^ recently published names upwards of VO of these

1. Bull. 7. Section d' OceanocraphTque Conseil Internationale de
Recherches: _Unl^__Ge^esique et Geophysique Internationale in 1987.

in European countries.

A. INSTITUTION'S PKI!'"ARILY ECR RESEARCH

These institutions are extremely diverse in their magnitudes
and in the fields to which their activities are directed. We might
first mention the Hydrographlc Services that are maintained by all
the Im-nortant maritime nations, which in general carry on the same
sorts of Investigations as do the United States Coast and Geodetic
Survey (Pagel34) and the United States Hydrographic Office, (Pagel28).
Rotable among these, for the extent to virhich they have advanced
scientific knowledge of the sea, in addition to performing m.ore
strictly iDractical duties, are the British Admiralty, the German
Marine Observatory (Deutsche Seewarte) , and the French and Russian
Hydrographic Services. The laboratories and offices of the Fisher-
ies Services of the different nations form another group, those of
Forwa--, Great Britain, Denmark, Germany, Holland, and France having
contributed greatlv to the theoretic problems of oceanic ^biology, as
v/ell as to those m.ore directly concerned with the fisheries. Sev-
eral European governments also m.aintain separate Hydrographic-biol-
oglcal establishments, expresslv for investigations into basic pro-
blems in marine biology and ocean physics: the Swedish H-rdrographic-
biological Commission, the Danish Gomraittee for the Exploration of
the Sea the Danish Biological Station, the Commission for the
Scientific Investigation of Gorman Seas, the Thala ssographic Instit-
ute of Finland, the Roval Thalassographic Committee with its several
branches In Italv, the Scientific Maritime Institute in Russia, and
the OceanoCTaphlc Station of Salammbo in Tunis, m.ake only a partial
list. These establishments correspond more nearly in the scope of
their activities, and in their organization to the Bloloolcal Board
of Canada than to any other scientific Institution in America.

Independent or semi-independent oceanographical Institutions
which are not under government control form another natural group:
Here fall the Oceanographic Institute of Monaco which, during the
ilfetirae of the late Prince Albert I (and since tbon) has been one
of the most productive centers of activity in this field of science;
the Instltut fur i.ieereskunde of the University of Berlin, under
whose auspices the "Meteor" expedition was carried out: likewise,
the Geophysical Institute of Bergen, now an active center for ocean
d-mamlcs in particular. Several of the independent or university-
supported E,.iropean marine biological laboratories-^ also carry on re-

1 — The~account of the Biologic Stations of .iUropo published by Ko-
fold in 1910 (Bull. 4 for 1910, I'/hole numxber 440 U. S. Bureau of
Education), Is still generally applicable, most of these stations
havino: survived the war.

137

gvilra- str-tion-program.s of research in the basic fields of Oceanic
biologv, ir.cl-uding: chemical :is -'/oil as Biological investigations.
The T.^arine Biologic Station of the Marine Biological Association of
the United Kin-dcm, at Pl-;Tnouth,_ England, and the Station of the
Universltv of Liverpool at Port iJrin, have heen especially product-
ive in this field. The Plymouth Laboratory, in fact. Is now one of
the riost active of European centers of sea science and in many re-
spects a present-day leader in irsvestigations of this sort.

Another group as related to Oceanography would incli.ide the
many other marine biological laboratories that dot the coasts of
Europe. Even thcuffh tbe:^-- do not, as institutions carry station-
programs of explorations at sea, their combined influence can hard-
ly- be over-valued in the general advance of s^a science, because the
purel'- biological vi/ork done at them during the last half of the 19th
century (in embryology-, ph^-siology, etc.) Ir.id the indispersable
foundation for our modern vie'vs as to the cycle of life in the ocean.
And the-- continue equally to serve in tlis respect today, b" offer-
ing facilities to Independent Investigators for the study cf pro-
blems for which the data can bo obtained near at hand and 'Arbich need
the laboratory method for their prosecution.

One notable characteristic of present day oceanography in .^r-
ope, is, then, the translation of a widely disseminated interest in
the' sea' into the development of a Inrge number of institutions, not
only designed to encourage researches in a -nde variety of fields,
biological, ph-^.^3ic3l, and chemical, but in many cases actually en-
dowed with the material means, and ■-■■ith the personnel reaulsite for
that pi;rpose.

Corresponding to the great num.ber of institutions, the volume
of work now beine undertaken b''- them is correspondingly- greater in
Europe than in America: without making invidious com.parisons the
quality mu.st bo classed at least as high. To a lesser degree t>'ls
development, which (as we now see it) is the cliirax of a process ex-
tending over more than hnlf a century, has had its counterpart en a
smaller scale in America.

B. C00RDI7ATING INSTITUTIONS

A second outstanding chrracterist ic of the present situation
in oceanography in Sirope, namel^.'" the establishment of an Internat-
ional and Officicl Agency with executive power to Insure coordina-
tion of scientific effort between the fisheries Bureaux of the var-
ious European countries, has no direct parallel elsewhere. ""'e re-
fer to the Permanent International Council for the Exploration of
the Sea, an institution thr.t has been familiar (nt least b^- name)
to every student of the sea for the past quarter century.

1. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.

With the multinlicity of agencies that were alrerdy in
existence at the beginning of "the -oresent century (most of them
well equipped and functioning actively) there was no lack of fac-
ilitit/s in' Eurone for the study of whatever phase of the sea. But

138

it is certain that if these agencies (especiall:/- such of t>-em as
were maintained directl-^^ hv the different governments) had contin-
ued to ooerate independently, each in part ignoring or perhaps en-
vious of' the program of the others, with all the rivalries, sus-
picions, and .ieaiousies that so easily spring up between different
nationalities', the adva.nce of oceanograph'^ would have continued
slow and spasmodic, especially in the s^mthetic fields in which new
ideas were just then opening fresh vistas. But ,1ust when the need
for general^ coordination in this science became most pressing, an
impel'ling stimulus in that direction was provided hy growing fears
of depletion of the sea fisheries, coupled with growing appreciation
of the obvious truth that it would be idle to seek rem.edlal meas-
ures unless all the nations whose fisheries drew from the threaten-
ed areas would unite in ioint examination of the existing status. ^
It is not necessar-^ to describe hero the preliminary steps that fin-
ally crvstalllzed in the establishment of the International Coioncil
for the Exploration of the Sea in 1902: and in the delegation to it
of official authority strong enough to insure that the program of
investigation on which the council decided should actually be car-
ried out. In the annals of oceanography, this event may fairly be
ranked with the inception of the "Challenger" expedition in its
importance as a landmark of progress , because the policies of the
Council have controlled the lines along which oceanography has since
advanced in Northern Evirope, to an extent that no other single in-
stitution can parallel.

This control has resulted from the fact that throughout its ex-
istence the Council has been entrusted with the dut-^ of coordinating
the scientific researches of the Fisheries Ser^.^ices to insure that
the cruises of pH shall correspond as to date, as to methods and
as to subjects of study, etc; entrusted too, with allocating to
each nation the part of the sea to be covered b-' it, and with ^choos-
ing the fisheries problems for which each nation should be primarily
responsible. The following list of nations that subscribe at pres-
ent to the council shows how widely inclusive it is: Germany, Bel-
gium, Denmark, Spain, France. Great Britain, Irish Free State, Italy
Norway, Holland, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, Finland, and Latvia.

1. During the life of the council there have been several changes
in national membership, perhaps the most important being the disaf-
f e c tion of Russia since the revolution.

Corresponding to this widely inclusive International member-
ship, the quarterly cruises have criss-crossed the seas north of
Russia and from Norway out to Iceland, the Atlantic off Ireland,
the North and Baltic Seas, and have been extended since the war to
the Bay of Biscay. Thus a continuous record has been obtained of
the physical state of the whole North Eastern Atlantic with its
tributary seas, of the maior seasonal fluctuations in the plankton,
and of the distribution, migrations, etc. of fish eggs and larval
fishes: not to mention the very extensive series of studies into
the biology of various food fishes that the Council has stim^ulated.

The general and avowed aim of the Council being to develop
rational exploration of the sea on a scientific basis, it has nat-
urally followed that the individual membership consists chiefl"'' of
the directors and investigators of the ;Eu.ropean bureaux of fisheries.

139

The central office of the council, suppo^-ted by grants from the
different governments (in 1928-29 these government grants totalled
177 000 Danish krBner) and operating ti-rongh a complex si^stem of
snh-coirjnitteesl, plans the general progran, and allocates the v.'ork

rr'^H^ report of the Council for ly^^b lists the roilOT.'ing committees :
Consultative, north Eastern Area, llorth '"^estern Area, Tjorth Sea
(with two divisions), Transition Area, Atlantic Slope, Hydrograph-
ical. Plankton, Statistical, Limnolof-ical , Editorial, Finance, -Toray
Firth, and ^Thaling.

as .lust stated. But the actual field projects are carried on b- the
Fisheries or other services of the several associated governments.
As a rule these services have at their disposal medium sized steam-
ers of 400-800 tons, which carry out quarterly cruises, sonetines
acting as prtrol vessels in addition. In some instances small nav-
al vessels are assigned to the work of the council, while a few of
the governments maintain vessels for this especial purpose, e.g. the
Scottish "Explorer", tie Portuguese "Albacora" and the Norwegian
"Johan Hjort".

The scientific examination of the biological collections is
also carried out for the most part by the gover-nm-ent laboratories.
But as physical oceanographers are seldom included within the staff
of in-^^estigators in European fisheries services, it has frequently
been necessary to relegate the discussion of physical data to scient-
ists not directly connected with them, or with the council. In fact
much of the physical material still rem.ains to be worked up. The
detailed results, especially those of the biologic investigations,
are also published in many cases by the governments as official do-
cuments. But the central office of the Council itself maintains
several series of periodicals for t^-e publication both of raw data
(statistical as to^the fisheries, hydrographic, and lists of plank-
ton) and of summaries and reports of progress for various aspects
of the investigations. The Council has also paid much attention to
developing im.proved ar-iiaratus, the need for which was especially
pressing di^ring the early years of its life, and to encouraging the
use of standardized methods.

In general the executive machiner^^ of the Council has proved
excellent lAT adanted for insuring a continuing program of studv over
large areas of the sea, by concerted international effort, and over
a period long enough to outline the regular seasonal varintions in
the latter, as well as to show the smaller irregular fluctuations.
It has also proved a highly successful wa^^ of accumulating a vast
amount of mw data co^'ering a wide range of marine problems, both
rihvsical and biological, as well as data concerning the life hist-
ories and economic relationships of the food fishes. Bu.t systematic
analysis (especiallv the sAmthesls of results gained in different
fields) has not Vept nace with the accumulation of facts, illustra-
ting the general rule" that it is much easier to arrange for the col-
lection of data at sea (which soon becomes a routine affair) tba::
it is for the analytic study, b- com.petent scientists, of tne vast
amount of material* that soon accumulates when any 'oint project is
carried on ccntinuouslv over a term of years. To arrange that rhis

140

digestion shall proceed is one of the chief difficulties with which
modei'ii Oceanography is faced.

2. International Council for the Exploration of the Mediterranean
Sea.

The administrative sriccess that the International Coiincil
for the Exploration of the sea has en;oyed, and the leading role
that it has pla^^ed in Oceanogrnphy in Northern Europe, has recently
led to the establishment of a less formal association of the nations
bordering on the Mediterranean, known as the International Council
for the Scientific Exploration of the Mediterranean Sea. This asso-
ciation, founded in 1919 \inder the leadership of the late Prince Al-
bert I of Monaco, is not a replica of the older Permanent Council
for the Exploration of the Sea in its organization, for it has no
direct executi'^-^e authority and makes no attempt to lay down definite
programs for the several nations to carry out. Its aim is rather
the exchange of inform.ation as to the work in progress by each and
the encouragement of coordination, generally, betv/een the different
national services that actually have scientific investigations in
progress in the Mediterranean. But as it is directly supported by
the several governments, and since its individual rnembarship (nomin-
ated by the subscribing governments) inclvdes the directors of the
Fisheries Services of m^ost of the subscribing nations, it is in a
position to exert very strong influence in the programs of m.arme
investigations acti.ially adopted. Tlius, both in organizat"'.on, nnd
in actual practice, it corresponds closelv to the North American
Committee on Fisheries Investigation: an interesting example of
parallel but independent develo-^^ment , to fulfill similar needs for
international coordination. Although this Council is st-i 11 in the
formotive stage, some ;'oint projects have already been arranged,
both in the biological and in the more strictly oceanographlc fields?
and it performs a real service in its annual reports, bv summarizing
the progress of the scientific projects actually under way in the
Mediterranean 7;-ear by year.

3. International Hydrographic Bureau.

In this same general category, so far r- s organisation is
concerned, we may class the International Eydrographic Bureau, with
headquarters at Monaco, an association of the National Hydrographic
Services of most of the important maritime nations, which aims to
coordinate the efforts of its signatories in the fields of hydro-
graphy, of tidal phenomena, and of physical oceanogrpphy, especially
as effecting navigation. The Bureau does not of itself initate ex-
ploration. But the official standing of the national delegates to
its meetings gives the recommendations of the latter much v/eight in
the development of programs of investigation by the various govern-
ments.

4. Other Coordinating Inst itti.t ions.

The coordinating institutions so far mentioned either ex-
ercise executive powers directly (as in t""e case of the Perm.anent
International Council for t^^e Exploration of the Sea") or indiroctly
as thev influence the Marine Investip;atlons of f^e governm.ents
through inclr'ding the executive officers of the national fisheries

141

or hyirographic services in their mewbership. The years since the
war iiave°also seen the development of another type of institution
in Europe (as in America), aiming to encourage oceanography in gen-
eral and to urge cooperative effort in particular, hut without any
such authoritv to enforce its wishes. This type is exem.plified m
Europe by the Section on Oceanography of the International Geodetic
and Geophysical Union, the letter a child of the International Re-
search Council. The Section has sub-committees on tides, o--^ the At-
lantic, on the Pacific, on the Mediterranean, and on the unification
of methods and instruments of Oceanographv. But while it exercises
some indirect influence b- the discussions at its m.eetings, this in-
fluence las not been as great up to date as its rather pretentious
organization might suggest. Its stated ob.i'ect is the coordination
of the activities of tie different countries, especia'ly of the sev-
eral internat^^onal Comm-issions and Institutions active in marine
investigation and the encouragement of the use of standard m.ethods
of research. Thus it corresponds more nearly to the corre spend ?.ng
subdivisions of the National Research Council in the United States,
than to any other institution concerned with oceanography in Amer-
ica At the present time its most active contributions may be ex-
pected to cone from the proposed publication of an oceanographic
encvclopedia, and of a yearly bibliography of oceanography. The
Section held its first m.eeting in 1920; in 1927 its membership de-
finite"! v included representatives from Belgium, Canada, the United
States,' France, Great Britain, Italy, Tlorway, and Sweden, while the
national adherents to the parent Union numbered 32.

III. SUffiiARY

Prom the material standpoint oceanography may then be described
as in a much m.ore active state in Europe than in America, with int-
erest in this science much more widespread, especially among educa-
tional and research institutions. Corresponding to the larger num-
ber of institutions concerned with oceanography, a much larger num.-
ber of professional openings exist in Europe for young men interest-
ed in the sciences of the sea, especially in the fields of fisheries
biology.

We must point out, however, that the development of oceano-
graphy in Europe has been som.ewhat one-sided during the past quarter
century, from the intellectual standpoint. This has been largely
due to' the dominating role played by the Permanent international
Conncil for the Exploration of the Sea, the main ob.iect of which is
to develop the sea fisheries on a scientific basis, and which conse-
quently has tended to keep biologic problems in the foreground, of-
ten at' the expense of the ohysical and chemical aspects of the sea
that are the rational basis for a correct unders+-anding of marnne
biology. In the regular Investigations carried on by the fisheries
services of the subscribing governments, the tendency has been to
take un physical oceanography only to the extent that it miay be ex-
pected'to have direct bearing on fisheries problems, with the result
that hydrograrhic data have not always been chosen most wisel"'- for
the solution of nh-'-sical problems. Though the work of the Internat-
iona] Council has contributed materially to the quantitative know-
ledge of the circulation of the waters off western and northern
Europe, it would have contributed still more to the general under-
standins: of the natural economy of those seas had the physical and

142

chemical features been given considers tion equal to the biologic In
tVe arrangement of the im'-estif^ations.l programs.

The -oh^^sical aspects of Oceanography have also long suffered
to some extent in S.ircpe, from another prevailing tendencr (the ori-
gin of which we do not pretend to explain) to regard then as sub-
servient to oceanic biology (Page. 17) rather than to give them the
impoi-t.'uj,;-,.^ thoD tn«y do^oi've as a branch of geophysics.

143

Chapter VT.

F/iHDICAPS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF OCEAUOGPaPHY IH AMERICA

AND
BEST RE:;TEDIES

I. HANDICAPS

Studv of the ocean and its contents is amply .iustified for the
various reasons Y;e have attemtped to present in Chapter i , quite
indep«r.dent of the economic benefit that ma:- reasonably be expected
to accrue therefrom. The growing interest in Oceanography, reflect-
ed b^ tbe foundation, one after another, of a number of committees
in various countries, aiming to further one or another branch of sea.
studv, is evidence that scientists and laity alike^are agreed as to
this. Yet the actual progress that has been made m the studv of tne
sea has not been commensurate with the importance of the subject,
nor w^tb the amount of energy that has been devoted, of late, to _
m.eetings, to discussions, to tentative plans and to propaganda m
general.

That Oceanography as a distinct division of learning contimxes
to lae is due to the fact that certain verv deiinite obstacles, both
material and intellectual, hamper its advance. One of the primary
duties of this committee is, therefore, to consider the ways m
v.hich these most effectively can be overcome.

T^ese basic impediments have a two-fold source, being dependent
upon (a) The fact that water is not man's native environment, and
(b) upon the great area of the sea and on the complex interrelation-
ships of all the phenomena to be studied therein.

The fact that it is necessary to study the ma.iority of ^oceanic
events and phenomena, whether physical, geologic, or biologic act-
uISt wi?hi5 the sea; imposes very practical limitations Being a
terrestrial not an aquatic mamraal, man carjiot venture at al. upon
the sea, much less descend into it and live, without expensive mecn-
anicai Aeans of transportation. The biologist who turns to^marine
animals sim.nlv for convenience, can pick up many things of interest
on a"strcl1%.long the tide line, but to investigate any pnase of the
ocean he must have a boat. If he is to venture out more than a mile
or two from the land, his boat must be large enough to contain liv-
ing av-'-'ters and to navietate safely in all weathers. Even if his
Slestiga?ion be of a sort that can be carried on in a^ laboratory
on s'orl! his raw data must be gathered at sea. And it is oui duty
to emnhasize that Oceanography is im.possible unless someone does go
to sea whether for short trips or for long. Tnat is to say, for
one maA to gather information of any kind about the ocean, requires
labors of m.any men, reflected in the provision of a seagoing craft
with a crew to man her, with supplies for their subsistence also
(in these days) with fuel for her propulsion. ..nd as any craft lar-
ler than a row boat is a very expensive means of conveyance for a^
small number of passengers, it follows, without exception, mat e..-

144

ploratlon Into the economy of the high seas is and always must be a
decidedly expensive undertaking.

Because of the unavoidable exoense, only one of the several
educational institutions in North America that include work in Ocean-
ography as a recognized item in their permanent research programs re-
gularly/ maintains and operates its own oceanographic research vessel:
we refer to the Scripps Institution. Lacking their own boats for re-
search, or, if the:^^ possess boats, lacking the m.eans to operate them
continuously, all the oceanogrsphic investigations that have of late
been undertaken independently by other educational institutions in
Am^erica have necessarily been more or less isolated pro.iects. This
applies, for instance, to the expeditions recently sent out by the
New York Zoological Society and by the Museum of Comparative Zoology;
likewise to the present oceanographic program of the Carnegie Instit- ,
ution, so far as the sea work of the "Carnegie" is concerned(elocv;iiorc,

To enable any of these institutions, or others like them, to
carry on continuous programs of exploration at sea, without govern-
ment assistance, special funds for the purpose would be needed, and
corresponding additions to their scientific staffs. Lacking these,
they must either confine their research activities to parts of the
sea so close at hand that small boats will answer, or they must be
content with occasional projects further afield, that can be financed
privatel^,^, unless they are oble to arrange some scheme of cooperation
with one of the several federal or dominion establishments whose
duties include marine investigations of one sort or another.

At present the advance of Oceanography in America is so largely
dependent on cooperation of this last kind that our report includes
a special chapter devoted to tbe -nosslbilities now open in this field.

Although such cooperation, notably that between the Museum of
Comparative Zoology and the United States Bureau of Fisheries, and
betvi/een Canadian Universities and the Biological Bofird of Canada,
has often proved highly productive, it has two serious limitations.
First, as the Federal Government of the two countries are organized,
continuity of effort over long periods, such as is required in many
ocean investigations, cannot be assured. Second, the stress that all
the governmental bureaux must lay on qu.estions of direct economic
importance makes it difficult for them to contribute materially to
projects whose practical bearing seems remote, though it be agreed
that their eventual significance may be great even if measured by
dollars and cents.

As a practical proposition, the fact that only one of the mar-
ine laboratories in the United States, or in Canada, that are inde-
pendent of the Federal Governments, is at present in a position to
carry out periodic cruises in the open ocean in its offing, serious-
ly limits the convenient headquarters for oceanic research off the
North /jnerican const. And while the laboratories of the United
States Bureau of Fisheries and of the Biological Bosrd of Canada are
better off in this respect, the insistence tbat they must unavoidab-
ly lay on fisheries problems limits their freedom of scientific act-
ion when it comep to laying ou.t the station programs. In short, the
general conditions of the government services, tg outlined else-

145

where, make it unlikely that they can lead in the attack on the un-
derlying prohlems of the sea.

Oceanographic research below the surface of the sea also en-
tail technical difficulties, because of the necessity of obtaining
data of various kinds with delicate instruments at the end of a
long wire, and from a base (the ship) which, ideally stationary, is
actually drifting, often rolling and pitching: also because obser-
vations' of various kinds, must be made with recording instruments,
that must v/ork under great pressures. All this results in an undue
concentration of ivork close to shore, in particular sectors of the
coastal waters, not always selected because of their scientific im-
portance, hut often for more practical reasons of convenience, ac-
cessibility, etc., leaving other sectors entirely untouched, though
the7/- may be more significant. It is difficult to see how this can
be remedied under present conditions.

If one great need of Oceanography today is money, another is
men. ?i/e doubt if it be generally realized that the number now pro-
fessionally and primarily engaged in firsthand investi£-ation of
ocean problems in North America today, outside of the government
surveys of the United States and of Canada, probably does not ex-
ceed fifty. It would be difficult to state the number of productive
oceanographers within the governmental bureaux, because it is impos-
sible to draw any definite line there between scientific investiga-
tors and technical recorders, tabulators or cartographers in the
strictly navigational and fisheries fields. But thirty-five would
probably include all who are now actively engaged on problems, not
economic, in which the oceanic phase is paramount. While a consid-
erable list of institutions concerned with one or another phase of
Oceanographv is mentioned in chapter III , most of these include
only one or two oceanographers on their stnffs, or none at all. So
few, indeed, is the roster of investigators in Oceanography in the
United States and in Canada, that if one drops from the ranks, some
interesting pro;iect or another is handicapped, if not entirely nut
a stop to. This state of affairs is so apparent that there is no
need of attempting to enumerate the professorships, curatorships,
fellowships, now maintained, in this field in America. To do so
would, in fact, require a special survey, so often does the title
of a university chair fail to describe the scientific interests and
activities of its incumbent.

its internal economics that he requires as the background for his
detailed studies, no matter in what field these may fall. There-
fore, he must spend some of his days out on the sea* often on a
boat far too small for comfort, contending with rough seas, wet and
cold; sea-sickness must be no bugbear to him., nor cramped quarters.

146

He must, in a word, be sea-minded, just as a forester must be forest
minded. Furthermore, marine explorations at all ambitious are nec-
essarily fne work of a pr rty whose efforts the oceanographer in
charge must direct- t' erefore, he must have some of the qualities of
leadership! it will be easier for him if he be seaman enough to lend
a hand, when needed, and if he have some knowledge of navigation.
Practical experience shows that these requirements of personality -^nd
especially of love for the sea will always limit the nvimber of budd-
ing scientists from whose ranks the supply of oceanographers can be
drawn.

Perhaps an even more serious limitation is the fact that^ there
are very few professional openings for oceanographers in America,
outside the government bureaux, whether in teaching or in research
institutions. Consequently, but very few in each year can enter
this field, however they might be disposed thereto. And, wo think
here not only of the teaching and research professions definitely
announced as in "Oceanography", but of professorships in Biology,
Geography, Chemistr^^, etc. whose tenants co-jld devote t' eir research
abilities to ocean problems. Nor is the case much better in the gov-
ernment service, for in few cnses are the incumbents of positions in
the United States Hydrographic Office, United States Bureau of Fish-
eries, United States Coast and Geodetic Surve^'', or the Biological
Board of Canada able to exercise that freedom of choice as to re-
search problems that is prereouisite for orderly scientific progress.

The fact that American Universities, as a v;hole, offer few op-
portLinities for instruction in the basic aspects of ocean geophysics,
or in the oceanic phases of blolog^', is a fatal hnndicap, because to-
day the Am.erican oceanogropher mur.t too l^rgel'^ be self -taiight. This,
furthermore, cuts two wars because, with so few students available,
it seldom, happens that any ^^oung student with training in the basic
interrelationships of ocenn science is available when an opening does
come for research in some marine problem, making it usur. lly necess-
ary to turn to some chemist, physicist, or biologist who has never
before given serious thought to this branch of geophysics or to any
other. Thus the coordination of different disciplines that is need-
ed, is apt tc be seriously interfered '>vith.

Another obstacle of an intellectual sort must be recognized.
Perhaps any scientist would affirm that the m.anifold problems of the
soa open attractive avenues for research. But if the individual in-
vestigator have vision he is apt to stand appalled at the complexity
of the problems to which any marine investigation necessarily intro-
duces him: appalled too, at the great extent of the area of sea that
must be taken into account. He soon appreciates, also, that if he
is to advance from observing and recording isolnted phenomenc to syn-
thesizing and accounting for them in biological or geoph^/sical terms,
he must have m.ore than an elementary acquaintance with widely di-
verse fields of science, and that this diversification must continue
throughout his professional career.

For this reason fertile results in the more basic problems of
Oceanography can be expected only through cooperation bet-veen indiv-

147

idual ccientiBts specializing in different fields, between instit--
utions with different facilities, and between nations fronting on
different sectors of the ocean. The many international conimioxeee
that have been organized of late prove that the necessity of .nis
last ti^e of cooperation is generally recognized.

It is in Oceanography, of all sciences, that coordination (to
endure over long periods, to embrace simultaneously many sue jecos
of study, and between agencies far apart) is the V'^ost vital, tor an
orderly advance of the wholo. But this is difficult to establish.

On the Pacific Coast the Scripps Institution is rapidly devel-
oping into a centre of stimulus in this respect, while, as pointed
out on page 107 , the committee on the oceanography of the Paciiic,
of the Pacific Science association, has proved highly effective.

The American oceanographer also faces a difficulty when ready
to publish his work— often highly technical— for only ore scioatific
periodical, devoted especially to his subject, is published in Amer-
ica today, and that one being the vehicle for the work done at the
Scripos Institution, would seldom, if eve;-, find space for contrib-
utions by outside investigators. The scattering of oceanograpnic
papers in Biologic, Geologic, Geographic, Chemical, and Fisheries
journals also hampers advance, by making it almost impossible for
the individual student to keep abreast of the work of all his col-
leagu3B in various parts of the world. And, up to the present timo,
no complete bibliographic service has been available, although_ sev-
eral international ooeanographic commissions now have the publica-
tion of annual bibliographies in prospect,

II. POSSIBLE REIffiDISS

Your committee has given much thought to the possible rDmedies
for this state of affairs, and to the practical ways in which
Oceanography can most effectively be supported and stimulated in
America,

It is obvious from the preceding considerations that Oceano-
graphy in Arerica is in great need of additional financial support
if it is to progress in a degree at all commensurate with its gen--
eral and economic importance. But at the same time, it is waste-
ful to spend the time and the energy of the few working oceano-
grapher s of America on "drives" for funds.

From the financial standpoint it does not seem practicable to
deal with the entire field as a unit, but rather with certain key
situations as specific projects.

The requirements of personality may always tend to limit the
number of ooeanographers, but much could be done to counteract the
other factors that now act in the same way, 1q think especially
of any means for enlarging the opportunities for instruction, and
for multiplying the profescional openings in sen^science in colleges,
in universities, and in the seaside laboratoriec, through fellow-

148

shipf-. , hv the foundatjon of teac>'inR or research chairs in t-^s suh-
,iect, cr hv in any 'va-- strengthening the oceanograohlc depart-^ients
in t'-e universities that no"- maintain such.

'"e '.vov^ld enphasir.e t'^e importance o"^ support vi_a the universi-
ties, hecause we are convinced th:it vith few exceptions sound c.<^.-
vances in any field of i-:nov/ledge can he ex-;octed only through them
or through research institutions fed b-^- their graduates. Pu.t some
provision for field instruction in t' e technical procedure of the
different subdivisions of Oceanogr^'y^hy is pIso much to be desired,
which can be provided only from some headquarters at the seaside.
This requires a permcnent institution that would fur'iish the ex-
ample of actiial investigat:^ ons, carried on in fields chosen espec-
ially- to show the r^al scientific fertility of ocean-research, c^.nd
in locclities chosen to ii:'ustrate the fact that truly important
advancer:- can often be made near land, with compnratively inex^^en-
sive hO'ts and equipment: The same institution would serve also
for the stimulation of oceanogi'aphic researches in other institut-
ions, and for the development of cooperation between the several ag-
encies already active xn that field, private, governm.ental and in-
ternational.

On geographical grounds, r^nd because of existing ins-i-itutioral
conditions, the Atlantic and Pacific coasts are best treated as se-
parate provinces in fi^is connection. On the pacific coast, where
there are several seaside laboratories already devoted wholly or in
pert to Oceanography, v/e believe the -^ost effe':tive course would be
financially to assist snl otherwise to strengthen these, comhired
with the establishment of som.e sort of inter- institutional bonrd to
serve as a clearing hous;; for information, nnd to encounge cooper-
ation between t--em.

On f-e Atlantic coast, where no laboratory has ret been esta-
blished primarily for ocean researc''^os , and w''"ere the degree to
which the several marine biological laboratories can serve for head-
quarters is limited by the various factors alrerd"^?- outlined, support
could m.ost effentivel?/' be given through the foundation of n central
institution for Oceanogr^-nhy. '"e are convinced that in *he long
run, any such institution will benefit this science more by devot-
ing its energies to supporting education, by planning its first-
hand investigations to serve as examples, and b;; encouraging cooper-
ation, than it could by spendinr- its resources on a succession of
exneditions , unless these resources ""ere practicsll^^ limitless.

Such an institution could most effectively serve oceanograr^hy
in tVe following ways: (1) It should, itself, carry on field in-
vestigations in a 'Vide varietv of those fields o""" sea-science thrt
lend t^-emselves m-ost directly to svnthesis. If the institution be
fitly located, allo'"ing roadv access to •■'/aters that illustrate a
wide rnnge of ocean phenomena, biological nnd Physical (and f-'-e
northeastern co^st of North America offers an o':"portunitv unrivalled
in t^ is respect), this car be done ^''ell on s'-'-ort periodic cruises
with a small ship, cheap to operate. To t^is end, researches b-"
its own str.ff and bv visiting students from, universities and from_
government institutuj ons should constantly be encouraged as its miOst
essential activity. It should m.amtain an oceanographic iournal.

149

oppoai-ing monthly or quarterly, offering opportimity for prompt pub-
lication of the results of v/orlc carried on under its auspices: the
Biological Bulletin published by the Hrrine Eiologica] Laboratory
at Woods Hole would be an excellent nodel.

(2) Through sub-stations it should include v/ithin its field of act-
ivity Arctic waters and the oceanic abyss, as well as t'-e temperate
coast wate:"s thn t will naturallv be most easily accessiible fro-n its
headquarters .

(3) It should offer or^portunit" tc visitlnr: students for instruction
in Oceanogranhlc field methods, likewise opi^ortunity to tai'-e active
part in the boat work: it should offer laboratory facilities to
them and s^^ould provide one or more fellowships to serve as an in-
centive to promisvnij students.

(4) It should offer onrortunities for research to all qualified in-
vestigators in oceanogranhic proble:^.s. To that ei-d it should devel-
oo oontinuine- relations wit! universities p.^'^d scientific organiza-
tions, as headquarters for their summer work in f'- is field. And it
would be reasonable to exoect that the special exnense of such ar-
rangements be met in Ici'ge part b^- the institutions concerned.

(5) It should constantly make it a primary object to encourage tie
unification of effort that is needed, especially in America, if the
st\:id"^ of the ocean is to advance with, a lust balance between its
different parts, and to center on the parts of tl^e ocean where basic
problems can best obviously be attacked. Such support of coopera-
tion vfill always be more a question of personality-^ t'^an of organi-
?;ation.

Ciuch an institution may also be expected to attract t^e inter-
est, and hence the support of 'rivate individuals interested in
the ocean throunl' yachting, or of corporations concerned with pro-
"iects of oceanic m,eteorology, etc.

The time is ripo for tl^e nroioct Tust outlinod. If a strong
oceanorraphic institution can bo establ is^ei-^ on the Atlantic coast,
and those now existing on ''he Pacific coast be adequately stren-
gthened, we believe that through their cooperation, the interests
of oceanographic research in Am ^rica will continue to receive need-
ed attention in the future.

150

Chapter VII

'^PINCIFL.^S T'"AT SHOULD T^ilTEPMpi:]] T^tE TYP2 OF OP-
GA^Ti7ATIGN FOP A-'I INSTITUTIO"' FOP OCEATIO-
OGRA^ir^ III EASTERN •JOPT'^ /^:EPICA.

The degree to --■!- icli an ocornogrnphical institution, snpported
"by pnivnto fun'^.s, -voiild -^ctnall-" forvrard t^^e aims ontiined in chap-
ter\?I, would largel-^,^ depend on fbe details of its organization. It
is, therefore , v/ort'^ develo^-'inR t>~e principles on vvpich the latter
should he based, (a) as determining Its relations v/ith other in-
stitutions, nnd (h) as governing its own activities. The adminis-
trstive s^^-nte-is hy whic'^ these tvvo phases of its ectivltioF^ -vould
he controlled mo-^r ^ for convenience, he termed its external organi-
zation and its inte:i''n?l.

I. EXTERNAL ORGAllI'iATION

As the proposed institution would receive no financial support
from the government, its oxternnl organization would he determined
in thv; Pirst pl"C0 hy entire freedom from any governmental control,
and second, by the decision whether it 'vere to he added as a nov;
department to som.e existing institution, or ^vViether it "/ere to he
founded ns an independent entity. If t '• o first of t'-os? alterna-
tives wer^ decided upon, precedents would natural 17^ he soug-ht among
the semi-independent research, lahoratorios , ohsorva tori js , etc.,
that are m.aintnined h^^ v^rjous universitlo's^j though some n :w admin-
istrative development would be needed, to insure that the institu-
tion should S'jrvc its prim.ar-'^ end of encouraging coopc^ration, and
to fTunrd agamst the danger of its becoming nothing n^orc than an
append-go of the larger body. The following discussion is bnsed on
the assumption of an ei^tirolv inden.jndent foundation.

In an independent institution of this sort it v/ould be necess-
ary to h.ol d 0 .I'usi- bnlsnce between two aim.s f~at might b^. sometim.es
conf lie tmg , ( 1) to uncourrge the closest cooperation ivth of'er
agencies engaged in oceanic research: hut (2), at th>„ sarnie timo to
insure tl'>> permanent independence of V-'.i institution, lest it event-
u-^lly become dominnted h-- so-t..' one universityj, or ,e;roup of universi-
ties.

Jn considering f-'e a'"' vantages nnd disadvrntnccos of various
possible schemes of external organisation for an independent instit-
ution, o-«e would naturally turn, for -cossible models, to the exist-
ing establishments that now carry on i^arine investigation in various
countries, ^^'ere it not that the great ma.iorifc'^ of th^gp gj^e either
governmental bureaux, pure and simple, or at least are largel" sup-
ported h^' state .(grants, conseauently ar ^ more or less controlled b-"-
the state in their activities. Thus all f^e Fisheries Services and
Laboratories of f^e different maritime nations, a"i 1 their Ph^drogra-
phic Services, Naval Services, etc., are state estalilishraents . In
America this includes siich outstanding examples as the United States
Hydrogranhic Office, United States Coast Guard, United States Coast
and Geodetic Surve^", Pioloa:ical Board of Canada, U. S. Piireau of
Fisheries, Canadian Hydrographic Service, etc., it also includes all

151

like esta-hlls^-nents ir other coun^'ries.

The ocenno^^raphio undertakin.^s sponsored h- the International
council for t-er.xplo^..tion of the Se. , and hy the Internationa,
r.oi^nc it fo? t-4 Scientific Exploration of t>e ^^^^^^f^^^J'^' ^'"^
likewise carried on whoUa.^ h^^ the sf^te services ^^^-^^ Ij^^;,^,!^^
Piqhevies Services) of the subsorihmg nations. Such Pfoducri.e
headqur??ers in other countries rs the Con^missior for t^-^e Scientific
investigation of Ger..nn Seas, t^e Panish Biolo.xcal otation at
Conenhagen, the Danish Commission for t^e i^xploration °^^ ^v^ t^^' .
the several Spanish Oceanographical Institutions, ^^^-'^ Fi-^i^^sh i a

phTsical Ir^stitute ab Bergen, too, is closel- associated; ith the
roveJnment, for while connected wit- tv e Bergen ?Mseum, ^zs salar-
ies anrSart of t-e current exr^enses are paid by the government,
wMcS also confirms the appointments to the st-nff, and exercises
som.e controT over t'^^e budget.

A- the administrative organization of the institutions of this_
group all provide for some degree of control, either as to perscnne.
S^a? to policies, bv the state, it is obvious that they could not
be ?akea as models in t-e present case. Hence, we need only add
that out of^ 86 establishments outside of North .\merica that are
listed by the International Geodetic and Gooph^sical Union as oc-
cupied ivith the stud- of t^-e seal, more t^an o- are operated direct-

T: Bulletin V, (jbnseil I>iternat. de Hecherches: Union Geodesi^.?"
e t Geophysique Internationale.

1 '7

as Fovernmentol establishments.

The remainder fall into two general groups- (aj departments
of universities, whether state supported or private, a-d (o) inde-
pendent or semi-indenendent establish-erts . Notable examples o. the
f>^'^3^" Of t>- -ce rroups are the Institut f-tlr MeeresKunde m Berlin,
tv^e department of Iceanoara^.hv •nid Port Erin Laborator^r^of the Un-
iversitv or Liverpool, and several French Marine Eiologica. Labor-
atories in ^luropo; the Scripps Institution for Oceanography of .he
UriversDtv of California, the Hopkins liarine Station of Stanford
University the ^larine Biological Laboratory of the Universitv of.
•aas^i^neton' and the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard Uni-
versit^^^ in'America. The dominance o^ each of th^-so bv its parent
uriversitT puts t>.em m a class as far ap-.rt f-om t>e proposed in-
stitution as ara t>- a state 1^-boratories , so far as external organ-
izati'^n is concerned.

It is -miong the irdependent (or semi -independent) Marine Labor-
,^^0^^^^ o^ pthe? irstitutions of America or Europe, tT-at m.oaels m.ay
most reasonably be sought. The TJaples Zoological Station- the Mar-
ine Biological Laboratory at Plymouth, Eng.land: the Millport x.abor-
ntorv ip Scotland: the Cceanographic Institute of Monaco: the Carn-
egie Institution of 'Yashington: and t^e Marine Bioloaical Labora-
tory at Woods Hole come at once to mind in this connect ^ on, eit'^er

152

hec-.nse thev hnve been productive from t^-e ooeanographic standpoint,
or^^Mve been so successful from the inst itutionrJ , thnt various cf
the more recentl-' estnhlishod laboratories have been modeled upon
them. The first tvreo of those, it is true, h-vo derived the great-
er part of their cnnua], budgets from state grants. But the state
exorcises so little influence on their operation that they can be
fairlv termed independent, so fnr Ps the present discussion is con-
cerned.

These indenendent institutions exemplify three different tyoes
of organization. Unti] the opo.ration of the Naples Station was in-
terrupted by the ^''ar,l it was not onl-'- r private institution, but

1. Since the war the Nrples Station h-,s come under Tt-].ian Govern-
menta.l control.

WQS ti-e property- of its director, the only restrictions beine those
under which' its site was granted to it by the Italian government.
It was also wholly free from official connection with any other in-
stitution, and escaped all the misfortune of beaurocratic control,
an annual report to the German Minister of foreign affairs bein- its
onl-'- externa" obligation, although it received grants from various
governments. Its international character was maintained (a} b-^^ the
so-called table s^'stem, w^^ereby institutions in various covintries
that subscribed toward the upkeep of the station, had the privilege
of sending investigators there, and (b) by two advisory committees,
a large and a small.

A second type of organization is represented b-^^ endowed in-
stitutions, such as the Oceanop:raphic Institute of "Tonaco, and the
Carnegie Institution of 'Washington. T>-e form.er with its beautiful
?'Tuseum_ and its Paris branch, draws its sup'-^ort entirely from the
endowm.ents left it hy the late Prince Albert I of Monaco. It is
controlled by a sm.alT administrative council of six, with an advis-
or7f com.mittee of 24 drawn from le-dinc- oceanographers of various
nations, of wi-^ic^^ Prince Albert was president un to his death. This
type of organization has been so successful, not onl-^ during the
life of the founder, but since his death, as evidenced b"^' the im-
portant oceanographic contributions appearing in three series of
publications of the Institute, that it deserves special considera-
tion. Its chief characteristic may be descriiied as efficiency re-
sulting from ownership •^:n''l control by a few capable hands, combined
with total independence of governments or other establishments, but
vrith contact maintained with outside interests through its -.dvisory
committee.

153

The Carnegie Institution represents another t7^pe. ^ceano-
rraplr^ beinr onl- one of its several fields of activity. Put the
Sccomplishnents of the Institution in this field as -^ others, eo-
u3llY illustrate the successful accomplishments of a smal^ pn..
stron^r board, where the al.i is first hand investigation rather than
?he general cooperative encouragement of one or another hranch of
scieSce. In this case the endowr-ent is owned and controlled ha
sei?-perpetuating hoard of not more tvan 27 trustees, holding of^
fice continuously, '.vho appoint r:n executive coirinittee of 7 for the
actual administration of the affairs of the institution.

The aims of t^^e three estah^ Ishments so far discussed, ller^les ,
Mor^aco and the Carnegie Institution of 'Washington, differ some'^hat
from those for n^^ich we urge the foundation of the proposed instit-
ution. Thus, the purpose of the Naples Station in its heyday v.as
simpl- to provide convenient laboratory facilities and materiels
for indlvldupl students working on whatever prob] ems they may sel-
ect- that of' the woods Hole Laboratory is the same with a program
of instruction in additions that of the Monaco Institution is to
provide instruction b- public lectures, to encourage resea^^'^v^es by
Itsor-t staff a-.d to publish t^e results: while the oceanogranhic
nrogra-' of t^-e Carne^jie Institute is strl-tly one of research l-e
doubt whether the corporate organization of either of the last two
would provide for t^-e encouragemen^-. o^ oceanographic co-ta.ts Vxth
other institutions, for enlisting their Interest ^nV'e genera,
field pnd for developing cooperation between them to the "^^ent
that is "needed, -'hich' is' one of t^e chief objects for ^hich the
now Institution is nrorosed, because no liaison with other - stit-
utlons is provided for, nor are the boards of control large enough
to keep close touch with oce^nographers gen -rally.

TMs ph-.s^. seems better .-ssured b- t^o Flvnout>^ and '"oods
Pole Laboratories, whic> (while differing fundamentally one fro- the
other r^s shown below) agree in enlisting the material and moral sup-
port of t^-e scientific communities of their respective countries
hy the' larf-o size, and broarily representative nature of tT-e mem>ber-
shlp in the one case, and of the corporation in t-e other. Con-
trasting with the small committees of the Institute of Monaco, -nd^
of the Carnegie Institute, tv^e corporation of the Marine _BioxOgicai
LaboratorY at Woods Hole numbered 310 In 1927, representing m-ny^
universities and other institutions, while the several classes ox
membership of the Marine Elologlcal Association of Ih^ Lnited King-
dom" (whic>i owns and operates the Plymouth Laboratory; numbers 32,..
In nelthor case Is there any numerical limit to membership.

TVere Is however, an essential difference in organization be-
tween these two l.nboratorlos, and one well worth wei.^hing. In the
case of Pl^-mouth, which receives approximately two thirds ot its
funds from'tvc government. Its endo-'ment being so small as to -e
ncclli^ible, the'^Mlnistry of Agriculture and Fisheries annually nom-
inates one mernber of the governing courcil, ("-.o-ernors ; wrier also
includes members nominated by several insltutions that h-.ve m-de a
specified contribution to t^e funds of the Society: also certain
individual contributors. Thus not onlv the government, but the sub-
scribing institutions as well, are In a position to influence the

154

operntion of the Blolopical Station. And its by-laws are so frr.-ied
tb^t for nil p-r.'^.cticn'i purposes, the council is o self-perpetuating
bod^-. T^e universities, etc. that su'^soribe to tbe suppo-t of tie
M.^rine Biolofacol Laboratory! at Woods Hole have, however, no such
power to make nominations to the governing board ( Trustees ), all
of ^v^-^om rre elected b^^ the corporation of the labor'i tor^-. In V-xs
way entire control of tie affairs of tl-e institution is kent in the
h-nds of t^-^e persons interested in its welfare as nn indewondent in-
stitute on, so that t^^ere is r^o d-nger of dominnticn b-^ any one un-
iversii-y, 'or n-rticrihar scientific coterie. There is rlso an es-
sentia ]' difference in the two institutions in t>^at the (Trustees)
of the '"'oods Pole Laboratorv administer a considerable endowment
fund, but receive no fin^-ncial sr^pport whatever from the frovern-^.ent .

Ench of those sc^^emes has certain ,idv-ntnges: Woods Hole can
cr>n cl-im totrl indenendence of action, freedom from outside con-
trol -nd eoual oiv-ortunities for all universe ties to -orrticipate
in the nctivitie- of the Laborntorv: Pl-anouth can noint to n defin-
ite progrn.m of research w^-ich i^ns yielded rich fruit m various
fields of Ocennography, "nd to stirau^-tion of widesproad interest
in tbis general field of science.

The Woods Hole sc>'eme h-- s nroved itself so -dmirablv nd-pted
to tiee conditions under which science operates in North America,
that wo recommend adopting it or some modification of it, rather
thpn the Plvmouth s^-stem, or i-ho s-^stems represented bv the Monaco
or C-rnegie' Insitutions, as tv o m.odel for the external organizntion
of the proposed institution., turning, however to Plymouth, m t'^e
case of' the internal administration.

This imnlies rnttinft the ownership of the institution in the
>^nnds of a brordlv re-Dr.jsent.- tive corporntion, w^-ose numbers m.-y
be exTDected to grow, with growincr inter^^st in tT-e institution, and
m-y eventuall- come to represent all the institutions in America
th^t ar-^ activel^^ ccrcerned wif-' tie stud--- of tb sen. Put the
actual control of expenditure, and determination of policies must
be delegated to '^, smaller bo-rd, of manironblc si'^.o, elected from
the gener-1 membershi-;^ of the corporation.

II. INTEPWAh ORGANIZATIOT^I

V-niQtyev an institute fo-' Oce-^nographv, with the aims here nro-
posod bo founded as an indcnendent institution or as a dop-rtment
of some existmp 1-boratorv or university, the factors which should
determii-^e Its -nternal orgnni7.ation would be the sa~e, the nri-^e
necessitias, in either case bein^?, (1) To Cnr-y out the fundamental
purposes of fl-^e institution nvid (2) To m.eet t^i.e technical renuire-
ments of the n Ttlcnlar science--Oceanogrophy--th'.t is is proposed
to servo. Because of tMs s.jcond requiromGnt, t'-e s-^'stom th- 1 has
been so srccespful nt ^Inples, rt Villefranche, nnd the Marine Bio-
lopicnl Laboratory rt Woods Hole would not be so effective in tbis
case. At -11 t>eose laboratories, and -t various others of ] ilce
scope, tho mstitutionpl activities (ap:irt from instruction, sr le
of specimens, etc.) rre centered around provid:^\ng l-bor-torv fac-
ilities and tho desired -rteri-l for individur] workers, most of
whom arc pursuing orogr"m-S totally indcpendv^nt of one anoth.-r.

155

Ohviotisl--'- such ontiro -nersor-l independence vould ru-ove ivMoh
le-^s fertile nt '-n ocornogrrv}-±crl inctitute, because t^^c neccnsitY
of'^obtrininr t>o tpm dr.tn for the '-fin. i or occ"no£?:rnni-iic problems nt
so- from - bopt confines t^'O -.:ro-:ects th-t oonl.d he undort-^ken P-t
Pr^r one timo to nuch ns could ho provided for, lointl^^ hy tho str-
tion'R fleet. ^'Ms -no-ns th-t the p.ctivities, not only of the
stp.ff of t^-o institution, hnt of visiting iovostif<" tors ns well
nust so f"r ps m-, lor prohloms ' ro concerned, he directed. And
this 'would P.ppl-% in particul-r , to investicr tions involvin.^ the
svnth.^sis of\^-'r1ou3 divisions of science, whicli it shonld "'C the
special cim of the institution to foster. It is, therefore, essent-
1p] thnt the internc'.l organization i"-rovide for direction of tho stc-
tion nrogram, -nt once efficient, s-monthetic , and hro: d-minded. At
the s'lme'time it should alwavs encour-ge, and give every oonortun-
ity to ind-^vidual workers who might elect to attack, indeeondently ,
anV problems the data for which conld he obtained fro-n pier or s^pH
boats .

It must also be recognised t-at limitations of men, if not of
money, would alwn-s r.rovent any one institution fro^-^ ■ deauately ^ cov-
erinp''all phases of ocean science at one time: equallv that it is
im.nossible to foresee today wbr.t fields or general problems will be
the ones thr.t will seem the most nressinp- (and hence the ones to
-ttr>act students) some years hence. Consequently^ it is of prime
importance t>^-t tbe internal organization sVall be fluid enouf-h to
allow evolution, or even sudden alteration of tbe st- tion-program
from time to time, as circumsto^nces may dict-te. Basic though the
subiects mai- seem that "lost concern us toda-, such -s t^' e mpinten-
nnce of chemical fertility- and tv e dependence of plant growth there-
on the principles and the calcnl-tion of d-^,mamic circn] atioi- , the
factors t^-t control t^-e success of re-oroduction for fishes, or the
chemistr- of lime in the sea, we m-y be sure that the law of dimin-
ishinfj returns will presentl-.^ begin to operate in all of those sub-
iects- and in any others wa might mention. And 'v-e m.ay be e-nirlly
sure t^at with the passage of time the intellectual leaders of
oceanogranh-- will open new vistas--as yet ungucssed--which the in-
stitution'onaht e-gerl;^^ tofollo"', but which it can not follow if
it h'^s been orga-iized -round seleated svb.iects, or if its stp.ff has
crystalli7,ed into determ.ined fields.

Thus a real problem must be f ■ ced in providing for a Director-
ate rigid enou(7h to carry out an effective program and to "orovide
direction both" -uthoritative and stimulating, but at the s'me time
loose enoup-h to insure the renuisite fluidity-. -/e believe that
these renuiroments can onl:r be met if ti-^e program of the i-istitntion
be built up around men and pro.iects, never around subjects. In our
opinion to divide the institution r 1 ong departmental lines world
in the long run be ruinous, even if It should apn-rentl- nrove fert-
ile in tbe'bep'inninp-. The ver-^- essence of a successfnl -institution
in tbis field is th-t It be so free t •-- 1 it can be domin-ted at one
time b-- one oh- se of the science, at another by another, as the
state of Ocean of^raxjhy at the time shall determine.

153

Chapter vtll

COnSIDE^/VTIOMS TT'AT SFQTJLD GOVERN T^t^t lOGATIOTJ qF All
OnEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION ON TFE E-'^ST COAST
OF I'^ORTH AyTERICA

I. LOCATION OF TnE CENTRAL P^STITUTION

CLolce of the location for nn oce-nofrr- phic ir.stitution, foiind-
Gd with t>e p-ims set forth in Chapter VI, must he govorned hy in-
tellGctual, as well -^ s h^- practical -^d geographic factors, these
InteTloctual reonirernents hemp: predicated on the thesis th- t pro-
dnctiv • research, m continued abundance c-n only be uxpacted to
come in sttxdious ^nd Intellectually stimulnt ins surroundings. Spec-
ifier.! 1y, the requirements in this respect are:

(1) Convenient access to existing libraries covering all
phases of Oceanography, essential because it would reciuiro many
years for a new institution to accumnl-t'. ^n extensive and compre-
hensive library. ,^ ^ , . r-i ■ 4-

(2) Froximit^^ to estrblished labor- torxe.s o^ Physics, Chemistr---,
,"nd Biology, to f-^cilitato consultation, -dvice, etc., nnd^for con-
venience in cooperntive investif:::ations , in wiTich several fields of
sciences are involved. Close association with other cente-s of
scientific activity- -nd een-^r^l culture is nlso desirable for its
stimuli tinp uffect. This can be met only n^ar so-v; one of the
e:r^;-at edi;cation-".l centers. a. -. -.

(3) The climate must be f-vorable for intellectu-1 work at al j
seasons of tv.e year. Extremuly hot sumi'aers would be a serious
drawback.

Practical rennirarnont s , so obvious ■^ s to -eed no explanation

" ^' that livina conditions be good and thnt soi^o of t^-e ammenitios

of modern social life be e-'.silv available. It is also essential

thPt t'-o st-^.tion be within easy reac^-^., b-- boat or by train, from
the university cities of North America.

The station must be located on the shores of a protected and
e'^sily accessible harbor, from which the open ser con be renche.i
in\a short time: and it is ^-.ighl- desimble th-t the hr-rbor should
be ice-free the y,;pr round.

Thti st-tion s^-onld be within e'-sy rench of s"lp yards, marine
supplies of '^11 sorts, etc.

It must, on the one h"nd, lie outside t>^e belt of tropical
hurricpnes, ''nd on tke other, nt a 1-titude where the sep m the
offinp;, as'well as the h^-rbor, is not seriously obstructed with ii-e
in any season.

It must 1-ie loc-ted where r suitPble site c-n be purch-sed nt n
reasonable price.

The chief geogr-^P'-^ic reouirement is eas'^ recess to the crept-
est possible ocepno^rnphic diversit-', so that the widest r-nge of

157

probloms cnn be -tt^cked without long voyages. This r-ae-ns " locr-
tion whor.^ the nearby waters offer a maximum variet^.^ of biologicaj ,
physical, ■ nd chemical phenomena: it demands coastline and bottom
varied in topo,a;ra-phY, with deep w.tcrs ^s well as shoa] clos-. at
hand- with large rivers m the vicinity to illustrate the effects
of groat contrasts of s-linity from fresh water to full ocean
strength. It also implies - situation so far north th"t ther>a is a
wide seasonal variation, both in temperature, and in salinity, to
offer m.aterial for studies on f^o relative effectiveness of dif:"er-
ent environmental determinants. It is rao-t desirable th-^t the near-
by waters should also show a wide regional variation in circulation,
especially in the degree of turbulence. And the vicinit" of some
one of the groat oce-^n currents, especiall-^ if this differed widely
in its physical chr^racters from the local co^st waters, would offer
opportunitiv^s for important studies.

Allied to t^'is i/^st desideratum is th-^t of reason'^ble proximitv
to the transition zonu between co-st and ocean waters, and to t^-^e
edge of the continent, so th-t the deep basin c-n easily bo reached.
On t^-^ other h"nd, it is essential th t- the station be wit^'in eas'^
reach of nrotoctod waters, "s well as of exposed, to enable wor'-
of various aorts to be carried on from sm-^l^ boats in a 1 1 we-thers.
The biologic phase c^n be sirved only if t^e loc"l fauna -nd flora
be rich and varied: "nd it would best be served in f^e vicinit-'- of
nroductive sea fisheries to provide mass nateri:^! and data.

The reouir^.ment of convenience to educational ciiuters at once
bars any site on the Atlantic coast of North America to the north
of 'leva Scotia on the one hand, or to f-^e south of the mouth of
Chesapeake Bav on the other.

The practical and geographical requirements equ-^lly confine the
choice to the mid-coast sector of the continent. Thus to the north
of Nova Scotia ice would prevent, or at least hinder oceanographic
work in winter and spring, while the inconvenience of access from
inland p-rts of the continent would m^ke it out of the question to
establish the central institution either in the m-rritirae provinces,
in Newfoundland or anyi.vhere to the north of the Gulf of St. Law-
rence. On the other i^and, the su.ramer dim/ te to the south of Ches-
apeake Bay is too hot: furthermore, this co-st line is too monoton-
ous to answer the specific requirements, no matter how desirable in-
vestigation of special problems there m_ay be. And any site to the
south^of Cape Hatter'-^s would f-11 within t>^e hurrican belt, adding
risk to work at sea during a 1-rge p'-rt of the vear.

Within the sector between Chesape^-ke Bar and Nova Scotia, t^- e
intellectual reauirements can be met onlv at some site wit^^in e; sy
reach either of Was'-^ington, Baltimore, New vork^phlfedBlphia arPostch. The
first three, are, however, so far inland that they could not serve
as convenient headauarters for the continuous explorations in the
open sea that may be expected to prove one of the institution's
most fertile activities: hence they may be eliminated without fur-
ther comment. There would be obvious dr-^wbacks to the choice of
a site near New York, not only in the imnossibllity of procuring a
satisfactory,' site with good anchorage, -nd witP facilities for docks,
etc. for a reasonable price, but (more fatal still) in the pollution
of f-^e local waters, "S well as m the monotonv of the coastline for

158

considerable distnnces in either direction. The geoe-rsphlc factor
also argues against the vicinit-^^ of New Haven, or against any other
site on Long Island Sound, hoth because of the considerable distance
it would be necessary to run in order to reac" the ooen sea, and be-
cause of the uni:''ormity of conditions for considerable distances in
both directions along that sector of f-^e continental shelf.

It may be stated without f\-'_rther argument that the sector froTi
Ccpe Cod to Halifax, ITova Gcotia offers geographic advantages for
such an institution that not onl-^'' make it the logical choice on the ■
American coastline, but which are unique for their general illust-
rative value. This results from the topograph"" of the coastline,
and of the neighboring parts of the continental shel,^, as well ns
from the fact f'- ^t in only one other region (around the Grand Banl-rs
of Nev/ found land) is so sudden transition to be met from co]d coast-
al waters on the one hand, to tropical oceanic on the other, or as
great a contrast to be found as along the edge of t-'is sector of
the Horth American continent.

These contrasting waters include the so-called. "Gulf Stream"
(most discussed of ocean currents), typical coast and banks waters;
an ice chilled spring current of coastal origin: the zone of manu-
factur-;^ for the so-called "slope water". And a few da^^s s.-..il brings
one to the Labrador current, one of the best de^'^eloped of t^^e Arctic
overflows. The ease with which the zones of transition from one
kind o'P wator to another can be reached from headquarters an"'"'/''-r^ere
from_ Cape Cod to Halifax, and t^''e fact that so few features dominate
the local oce'^-nographic situation, m.akes it easier here t'^an per-
haps an^nvhere e^.se in tVe woi Id to investigate the complicated ex-
periments th^t are carried out by nature on a magnificent scale.
We include not only the biological phenomena associated with t]je
zones ^vhere i''aters of widel" different character nix (phenom.ena re-
flected in the extraordinar-^^ richness of the animal cor.munities a-^d
in the great productivitv of the off shore fishing banks of this
region), but also t>^e opportunity- to interpret internal h-rd.ro-dynp -
mic forces in terms of circrl?' tion, opened here b"- the very wide
variations in the specific gravity of the waters to be met within
short distances. The ivide varietur as to the phvsical conditions
of the waters, ond as to the topogranhy of the bottom, condensed
into the small area of f'^e Gulf of Maine and its vicinitA'', could
hardl-"- be matched elsewhere.

Here the student finds deep trou^'-'S freelv open to t'ae ocean:
enclosed basins: a m.ost varied co-^stline including deeplv dissected
hays. Archipelago Islands, ard lone- sand^^ benches; off shore banks
of grejt extent which are the site of som:e of the most important
fisheries of the "'orld; and a straigjit steep oceanic slope to the
abyss. Here, wlt'~in short distances, he can trace the transition
from regions of extreme turbulence to others v/here a high degree of
stabilit'- develops in the su'im.er. Here, too, he sees a wide season-
al range of temperature in some regions and depths, but in other
regions and depths almost uniform conditions f-r ouch out the year.
The absolute thermial range 'vitiiin f'is sector is from tem.peratur-e
below the freezing point of fresh water to v"Jues almost tropical:
thers is a wide ""'ariation in the fertility of the waters for "celagr'.c
plants as reflected by t^^e duration of their periods of mi?ss pro-

159

ductior.: a wide vnription in the transparoncT of the wat?r; and a.
v/ide variety in the nature of tie sediments that clothe the sea
floor. The faunal p-^ovinces accessihle are correspondinf-:;! y varied,
both as to their hTthymetric nnd ns to their thermal relationships:
while ahundnnt mrteir^irl of a are-'t variet-^' of "nimnl rnd plsnt
species, planktonic as well as feottom dwelling, can easily he ob-
tained, including the pelagic egas and larvae of many fishes. In
fact, there is hardl^'' 9n oceanogrnphlc problem tbit cannot be hope-
fully attacked here, except those associated either with tie t:^op-
ica] shallows, vith the Arctic ice, or with mid-oceanic conditions:
for tliese substations r.re needed.

The sector in nuestion also meets t'-^e practical requirem.en'^s
of lyj.ng ontside f-^e tropical hurricane belt, bu^ with- the onen
sea ice-free in all seasons ond witb mony of the h'^rbors also 'cept
ice-free b"" the stronp- tides, while the weather often allows ocean-
ographic work to be carried on from smn 11 craft even in wi^^ter, ^s
has -^Ire."'"]-^" been proven b- experience.

The sel.ecticn of tbe m.ost f 'ivo."''rble site v;ithin tbe C"pe Ood-
P'^alifaz sector wonld n.^tura.lly be determined by practical and in-
tellectu'^] considerations in combjmtion. 3n the wbole t^'^ese favor
the vicinit"'- of Poston for the following rensons; - (1) One of the
most neorly complete collections of oceanof';r'". phic literature is
concentrated in tbe libraries of i^oston nnd of Cambridge: (2) Two
of thie most im.portant D.nstitutions now active in Oceanography, naive-
ly,', the "/oods Hole Laboratory of the U. 3. Bureau of Fisheries, and
the Museum, of Comp"r'',tive Zoology are within co^-'venient reach: also
the Marine Eiolorical Laborator'^- at ^Voods Hole which (whi'e not
.'ivowedly oceanographic in purpose) hns long been f'^e headqunrters
for marine biolog-^' on the Atlantic copst of North America; (3) The
chemical, nh^'sic^l, geological, nnd mineraloe":ic^]- 1 "bcrntorles , al-
so the Mathem.atic departments of Harvard University ^nd o'^' the liass-
achusetts Institute of Technolog" are conveniently available for
consultption nnd assistonce: (4) The mass landings of m^an'^ species
of seti fish in the grert fishing ports of Boston and Gloucester
would provide tiie raw data for a wide variety of fisherAT" studies
that conld j~-'-rd]a: be obtained in 8ny different v/av.

^''^Tnile r.n oce^nogrr phic^l institution could be successfully and
prof itabl"^'- maintained at am- suitable site rround t>e const"' ines of
the Gulf of f'Inine, of the Bav of Fn.nd-^^, or of outer 'lova Scotia, the
choice of the precise site would naturrll-.' be governed b^^ practicnl
consideratio-'-'s to be weighed nt the proper time, suc'-^, for instance,
a convenient location for f"e station's own docks, good, harborage,
nearness to t'^e open sea.

The fact that t}ie Mnrine Biological Laboratorv and the Labora-
tory of t'^e United StatesBnreau of Fisheries are already located rt
Woods Hole is a stronp; nrgument for also locating the proTDOsed in-
stitution +-here. And the gra^t nnd obvious adv^'ntagos of close
associntion with these centers of scientific activity seem to V's to
outwelp'h the ob.ioction to iVoods j'olo '^s the site, fiat migi-'t be ur-
ged on' the score of dlstan-^e from the open sen, rnd of isolation in
winter.

130

II. LOCATION OT^' SITPSTATIOFS.

The Sub-stations reco-mended on Fcge ire proposed for in-
vestigp.tions of sT^ecial conditions, consequently ti-e success of
their operntions would depend chiefly on the choice of suitable loc-
ations- in this cnse the geograpi-ic requirement is, tVerefore, para-

mount .

A. ARCTIC GUE-STATIOIJ

One of tl-e -^ost ir^Dortant problems, perhaps tbe nost important,
in oceanic biolog- is how termperature determines tbe distribution,
and tbe various c-clic events m the lives of nnrine arima.s and
nl-nt'^ Therefore the beh-vior un^er controlled conditions, of the
loTtl^of In^mals that ere at home near the lower limit of tempera-
ture is as imnorta-^t as that of anlm.ls living near t^^e upper limit.
Rut^ao regular studies of low temperature biolog- m the sea are

in prigress, .n fnct,none are feasible under existms auspices.

no

We nlso reed to learn the cVor^cter and biological economy of
the Arctic waters rs a wv^ole, because of t^^e extr.ordinarv faunal
richness of the regions where the^^ meet t>^e tropic v.aters _ntro-
ducin^ much discussed problems such as the relative fertility of
the two tbe limitation of nlant life in the Arctic by the a^^ount
of sun^^p^ht, and the c^^uses of the association between plant flow-
erings nnd tv^e melting of ice. The outstanding Arctic problem,
from^^the standpoint of physical Cceanograph^r, is t^-e effect ol
melting ice in the gener-1 oceanic complex.

Problems such as these cnn be rttacked only from srme head-
quarters where t>-ul- Arctic and ice laden water is at hand. And
the northeastern corst of North America o_-fers an opportunity as
unioue intbis respect ns in others (Page 153), because nowhere else
in the world does a m- i or overflow from the Arctic ^cec-.n, and one
oreserviiiP- tbose Arctic Gh-r-cters unadulterated, closely sxirt tre
co-^stline at 1^'titudes so low, rnd near centers of nopulntion so
larFe' The corsts of njurope offer nothing cnrnp^rable, m tbis^re-
sTDOct' to the Labrndor current: neither does northwestern America
or Asi- ^n the north: Africn or Australia in the south. To mrtcn
the Labrndor current it wculd be necessary to tnrn to some -^^tic
or Antarctic oo-st, the f-tal disadvantages of which, as t^e head-
quarters for a permrnent oceanographic st-tion, nre too obvious to
need comment,

Tbe primnr^- reruirem-ent that sbould determine the location of
p^-i Arctic sub-station on the east coast of North A-eric" i^s , t> en
re-d- access to tbe Labrador current- nnd a situ^cion so f-r north
that the l-tter retains its Arctic temperr tiiro. . Secondary reouiro-
^Q^,^7^,/(l^ A Pood h-rbor protected from drift ice m summer, con
v-nient to the open se-, but with sheltered wnter at h-nd: (2) /.c-
cessibilit- to woters o^ different thermal charrcter -nd origin,
M e w-rmer) for comn-rative studies: (3) A reasonable degree of
nocessibiiit- b- some reml^-r ccn^erclai transportation 3xn3- o" e
nreferablv in' operation throughout t^^e -e.r. This last proviso we
be^jeve to be m;-de -ore urgent b-- the f-ct th-^t oce.onograpi^ic stud-
ies'-round t^^a Arctic margins h-ve, 's a rule, been co-^fined to the
summer se^so^^, e-ph-si^ mg the need of learning tne conH:.tio- m

16:

^vinter, whenever -^nd v^Verever the st.te of tie ice w..ll ^Ixow tnis
to" he' done in s'^fety: (4) The gener-il ^-dvr.ntnges oi .- settlement
of some size r.re not -s essential in t^is c^se n.s the- ^v3 fo^ the
centr.ol hendau-.rters , hec-use living quarters c-n he constructed
for the fe- investigators -.ho world he -pt to visit -n Arctic otrj^-
tlon Vnd -rrnngements cn.n he m.de for sir.plles of nil sorts to he
forw'rded. Put, ohviousl-, the operation of the st : tion .;orld he
vrstiv fnci]it,"ted if it c-vld he loc-ted v/ithin rench of .^- port
where" shin supplies could he oht-ined. nnd rep-irs effected.

\c-

The Arctic recrjirement , conhined rith the r^auire^.ent of
cessihility, limits the choice of a feasihle site to the sector ex-
tending northward from St. John, Newf oundl-^n^ , to the vicinity of
B-ttle H-rhor on the outer const of Lnhro.dor. In fnct, tnis is the
o^ly const-sector, -^.n-.vhere in the northern hemisphere th-^t -ns-
°ers ti^ese reonire^^ents. This const nlso h^s ti-e fu'^tVey nav^ntnge
of nroximit" to considerahle depths, niiowini. n comp-rntive study
of the' true nolnr woter nnd of the deep hottom wrternt different
seasons, -hich introduces nrohlems of grent genernl interest.

From the geogrnnhic standpoint, some one of tv-e h-rhors -t the
northeastern entrnce^f the Strait of Belle Isle would he ^n esnec-
i^ll-^ f-vor^hle site, hecause closely skirted h- tre unndulter- ted
polar current, on the one hnnd, while on the other tt^ is location
would he within easv re-ch of wa-mer coastal waters withm the
Gnlf of St. Lawrence. At present, regular steamhoat communication
is'maintained to t^r^is region in sumcner, while ^ome sup^-iies and
ships stores (including fuel oil) ,^.re ohtain.-hle ■';t Battle IL^rhor:
the Inst item is an especial advn.ntage. But in winter the aog-sied
is still the only certain m.eans of communicr t ion with Quebec^ mak-
ing winter operation of a station on the shores of the otriius of
Belle Isle practically out of the question.

The heat nlternntive -ould he some one of the several hnrhors
on the^erst co-.st of Newfoundland th-t are easily reof'^ed from St.
Johns, where supplies of all kinds are to he h.-'d, nnd the general
facilities of a 1-rge citv. And while the Lahrador current xoses
something of its purel- Arctic character h- the time it has drift-
ed -s far south as V-^ s in sum.mer, the outer Newfoundland co-st
of fers" excellent opportunities for studying fjord conditions under
verv low temperatures, as for instance, in ^".hite Bay; equnilr for
studvinF ti^e" contrasting conditions th- t develop in sum-er ';:S the
result of local warmin-s. The chief geographic aHv-nt-ge of t>^is
sector however, would he the possihilit- o^ --'orkinf? occasj'on-^lly
in winter as well as in summer, though ice and had we^.ther would > .-
w-.vs make winter work at sea uncertain ^ nd hazardous off t-e New-
foundland coast.

B. :)CEANIC SUB-ST'i.TION.

If en oceanic suh-station is to serve its purpose it mus"^; he
f-vomhl^^ situated for the stud- of prohlems that h-ve to do witn_
the ah-ssal wr ter and with mid-oceanic conditions generally. inis
nor Id include the'phTsiology and life histories of animals living
under^ -hyssal conditions of lie:ht, temperature, and oressuro- tre
relationships het-eon pel-f^,ic plants -nd the chamistrv r.nd ph"sics

162

of tine o^en sen., -1th their nvernge ■,l^ndr:nce rel-tive to the flor-e
of r^o-st-T se",s- the v-rious proble-ns of ocennic sedimentation: the
role of hp.oterir in the deeps: t.v e drift of the rbyssr.l wn.ter r.nd
its chemistrv, etc. The he-dqu-rters for such work must not only
he within ensv rep..ch of ,-rer..t depths, hut, equr.lDY it must he so
f-^r out'frn-., the continento.l edge th' t it is not influenced h^- Imd
drplnnge, by terrigenous sedimentation, b- m rgmrl circulation, or
by' the violent therm.^l nltern-tions th'-:t nre nssocin,ted with t^e
continental climntes. At the spme time, some sm.-ll extent of s-ci
r.nd oroteoted w.ter close nt hand, see-s "Im.ost indispensable so
that' comparative studies mry be carried on. Therefore the loe-i
heada^;-rter.s would not be an artificirl island, anchored in m.id-
oce-n as pome h--ve suggested, but rather some sm-11 oceanic island
rising steepl^. -rom thfsea floor, but including s^opI waters with-
in its boundary reefs. This general requirement greatly restricts
the choice of ^, suitable site in the Atlantic, aa do ^^dministra tive
and residential reouirements of the sorts that appl- to other sta-
tions, such as need of a good harbor, reasonable accessibility,
favorable climate, good living conditions, and - convenient sonrce
of sunnlies. A station founded, sa^, on St. Paul's rochs or on
the island of Ascension, would bo doomed to failure from the st-rt,
though surely oce-nic enough.

In the North Atlantic the choice wonld necessarily fall be-
tween some local it^^ in the Azores, in the Canaries, in the Cape
Verde a in the Bahamas, in t^e Antilles, or in Bermuda. The re-
auiremerit of accessibility would forbid the choice of rn.^^ one o±
the first three of t^^^se Archipelagos as t' e site of - sno-station
of an institution h-v^np, its headou-rters in North America . Fur-
thermore tbese three island groups all arise from plateaux so ex-
tensive tbo- their own submarine tonography considerably obscures
the oceanic picture in their imraedi-te vicinity. This apnlies eq-
ually to the whole Antillean arc. And while oceanoeranhic condi-
tions are made so interesting there b- the relationship between _
subm-r^"ne topop-ra-oh-- -^.nd ocean currents (lihewise b" tr e close vic-
init- of the deepest of the North Atlantic troughs) th^t a more
fertile situation could h-rdly be found for soocial factual liivest-
igation, the climatic factor argues against the choice of an Ant-
illea- headouarters for a -ear-round station, -s does the fact trat
this generol region li«-s within the hurricane bolt. These same
drawbacks anplv"to the Bahamas region, similarly attractive taough
it be from the viewpoint of special investigations, especially as
reg-rrls shoal w-ter -odimentation, a-d lime deposition in tropic
se"s iind while ver- valuable investigations of various marine pro-
blems h-ve been sponsored -t the Tortugas laboratory of the Carn-
egie Institntion, its situation within the Straits of Florida m-kes
access to the ocean basin inconvenient -nd inexpensive.

On the whole, Berm^ud- seems to the committee the best situation
in th'-- ^■■^orth Atlantic for investigation into the phenomena th-t are
fundamentally c- -rp cteristio of the ocean basins. Its advantages
may be sum'a^riserl r.s follo"?s:

(1) Its slepes rise so steenly from the sea floor that de^-^ths
rr-tpr than 20O0 fathoms re re-xhe^l within - .^ew niles from shel-
tered wate^-s. ^hls -'o-ld mrke it -ossfhie to crrry on serions in-
vestig-tjons -t great depths with snail and inexpensl^^e vessels.

DO

;nd the f^.ct th-t such work could he clone in one-d-y trips wciild
allow -r. '^dvrnt-geous unitY hetween fiel^ -nd 1-hcratorY work.

(2) The Eernud".n cone occupies so s.^i-l^ "n -re- t>---t the fund-
r^ment-lly oce-,nic ch-rrcter of l:he neiphhorlng writers is not dis-
turhed therehv.

(3) There "re two entirel- suhmerged cones close to Bermuda,
the "Argus" ond "Cballonger" ban'-rs.

(4) In spito of the iDrecit)itous n-ture of their slones, the
Bermud-n reefs enclose - considerable -nd entirel- protected rrea
of sho^l water, supportln,?: a ric>^ and v-ried f-un- , -nd il]nstra-
ting ^nany phenomenn of lime deposition, erosion, etc.

(r.\ Thore '^i^e several excellent h-rborn, and sites --de -1-
most ideal for 1-bor-torv purposes b- their sheltered ancaorrge .-nd
convenience to t':'e o^en sea.

(6; /.ll the f-cilities of t^-e cit-r of H-milton, with its ship-
yards, shops, etc. are at hand.

(n) The r^lhn-te is mild, with no extremes, f;-.voring work the
yerr round, while living conditions nre excellent with all the am-
menities of m.odern civilization.

(8) Borraud- is conveniently reached by fr>st ste-mer from Ne-
York, and communic-^ tion is good the ^t^-'T round.

(9) If the Permud- biologic-1 stntion be reorganized, -n-.-nge-
ments could probably be m de for the ra-o posed oceanoeranhic su-
st-tion to occupy n-rt of its propertv -t little or no expense; and
this -orop^rt'^ is ndmir-blv loc-ted with its own smoll hmhor. Prox-
imity'to" a well equipped biologicrl l-bor.-tory would be a decided
advantage, especinllv in encouraging s-^mtv>etic mvesti.^-" ti ons la-
volvlns^both t'-e biologic and phvsic-l aspects.

(10) The negotiations h'--t have been cnrrled on with reg-i'd to
the reorgrniz^-tion of the Borm.uda biologic^.l station h-ve s-^own^
thpt the locnl aovernmont and r^opnl-tion would welcome scientific
activities on t>e island, wi- ich is a consid-mtion of some im.port-
ance.

164

Recommendations to accompany the Report of the
Sonimittee on Oceanography of the National Academy
of Science as submitted to the Academy, November
18, 1929,

The outstanding feature of the oceanographic situation in
the United States of America is that we face about equally on
two great oceans, the Atlantic and the Pacific, each of which
presents, in addition to the universal P^oolenso. the ocean
certain problems either peculiar to it or capable of more ready
attack within it. Neither can be reg^.rded as more important than
the other from the point of view of oceanographic research m
the development of oceanography in America, therefore, ^J^^i;
attention should be paid to the needs of research from the Eastern
and from the Uestern coasts.

In the loreparation of the report herewith submitted to the
Academy it has been possible to obtain a reasonably complete ana
clear picture of the present status of oceanographic _ research
throughout the world, which would not be materially improved Dy
farther study. The question of the requirements for the best de-
velopment of oceanographic research in America, however, presents
such a complex of factors, including the utilization of educational
facilities in the universities, the creation of new agencies, and
the correlation of all existing agencies in America with one another
and witn those of other countries, that no approach to completeness
in the treatment of recommendations is now attempted. The loiiowing
recommendations therefore concern only steps now clearly seen to ce
necessary for the furtherance of oceanographic research in Axjerica.
They are presented with the understanding that the Committee desires
to make additional recommendations at a future time.

On the Pacific coast the conditions and outlook for ocean- _
ographio research are at present better than on the Atlantic, owing
to the activities of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography of tne
University of California located at La Jolla. The expanaing needs
and well considered program of future work of this institution,
however, demand and should receive additional support at an f^rly
date. Oceanographic research on the Pacific coast is also aided
in an important way by the recent additions to the program of the
Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University, located at Pacific
Grove.

On the Atlantic coast the existing situation renders it
desirable to center attention on the development of such a type
of institution as would most fully meet the needs for oceanographic
work in that region. At the present time there is no mstituuion
on the Atlantic coast committed to comprehensive oceanographic^
investigation, even though numerous agencies are concerned with
various°isolated aspects of the subject as parts of more immediate
programs. There is need, therefore, on the Atlantic coast, of a
new organization committed to oceanographic investigation as its

165

n • ^ -p^^-iri- a^nr^ this se-n^s to the Cominittee to be the greatest
exclusive field, a.id tnis ,^®-^;^ ;^ "^t. ^ ^^^ of view of Araerioan
need at the present time, ooth from tne poinx oi y±^ ponntrv

So eano graph/and also for adequate participation ox this counory
in a study necessarily international.

A single well equipped oceanographic institution in a central
locatto-rSftoe Atla^Stif Ooast is Seededto Bupply necessary
facilities for research and education, nitnerto ^^-^^^^S, and to
entourage the establishment of oceanography as ^, ^^^^^^f^^Je^^^^f''*
Such a central institution would contribute *°. *^^?/^7^^f ^?^ff
oceanographic research not only by the Pr°^:^^^^^^^7 °^, ^*?^,?^^f • eid
but alio by the impetus that it would give to studies in this iield
in various universities. The proposed institute would also serve
a most important purpose by providing fa-cili;ties for visiting
investigators, and by co-ordinating the scattered ^J^^^f ^f^^^,„

numerous governmental agencies and PJ,^^^*?,f S^fJ^^f ^2^%eio??)
active in parts of the field. (Cf, Chs. Ill, IV of the report].

The central institution should be supplemented as soon as
possible by t^vo branch stations, one sub-arctic and the o^^er truJy
oceanic in location. The latter location would be served admirably
by the Bermuda Biological Station for Research, Inc waich has
the support of the Comittee in its efforts to complete its
organization.

On account of the fundamental significance of oceanographic
research for the world sciences of geophysics and biology, and
also on account of the immense economic interests involved, the
Committee believes that the establishment and endowment of an
Atlantic Oceanographic Institute should be realized at the earliest
possible moment. The present time also seems to be favorable lor
insuring the success of such an undertaking.