‘y PATA. REPORT OF THE ELEVENTH MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; HELD AT PLYMOUTH IN JULY 1841. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1842. PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. CONTENTS. ——- Page ereers and Rules of the Association .. 20-2 ...5 0325 0p pce wees v Been (OUNCH.. . 2... oe, - cle tee os ayes Yao cata a oe geie vii Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement........+-.++ viii Table of Council from commencement ......-... 0-555 5: Pere ix Officers of Sectional Committees, and Corresponding Members ,... xi BRIER AVA CCOBMIE./., spec). tolecoiciss. als chet itis athe she rae: sia, siete tetatat's oi tables» xii Reports, Researches, and Desiderata.... .. abs hs PEN ae UL ale a, xiv Recommendations for Additional Reports and Researches in Science — xix pyaepeid oF Money Grants |... 0... ee ee Xxiv Arrangements of the General Evening Meetings ...........-...+. © XXV Mumemeerar ine Present, yo 0.) eae ee es Cee nets se oes) SRV REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. On the Present State of our Theoretical and Experimental Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat. By the Rev. Puitip KeLLanp, M.A., F.R.SS. Lond. and Edin., Professor of Mathematics in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, late Fellow of Queen’s College, Cambridge . . 1 Report on Poisons. By G. L. Rovperr, M.D., F.R.S,........-- 26 Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, performed by Mr. Bunt under the direction of the Rev. W. WHEWELL, F.R.S. .........--+00-- 30 Report on the Discussion of Leith Tide Observations, executed by Mr. D. Ross, of the Hydregrapher’s Office, Admiralty, under the direction of the Rev. W, WHEWELL .........0.seceerscerceeee 33 Upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth during the past year. By W.S. Harris, Esq, FRG... 1. cee pe ere crc case 36 Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir J. F. W. Herscuer, Bart., Mr. WueweE Lt, the Very Rev. the Dean or Exy, Professor Lioyp, and Lieut.-Colonel Sasrye, appointed for the purpose of superintend- ing the scientific co-operation of the British Association in the system of Simultaneous Observations in Terrestrial Magnetism and URES IIE see PMT Soy oiled, wi ew! ofa. bois. a, Gieve'e eisiaie not v sintered 38 Reports of Committees appointed to provide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord .........0.: cece eee 41 Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir J. HERscHEL only, to super- intend the reduction of Meteorological Obseryations—July 1841 ,, 42 lv CONTENTS. Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir J. HerscueLt, Mr. WHEWELL, and Mr. Bary, for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars........ Report of a Committee appointed at the Glasgow Meeting of the British Association in September 1840, for obtaining Instruments and Re- gisters to record shocks of Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland. . » Report of the Committee for making Experiments on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds. . ..5. 005. 0cccs ceecseccensowe ae On Inquiries into the Races of Man, by Dr. HopGKIN ..........-+. Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmo- sphere may be supplied by means of Ascents in Balloons or other- wise, to ascertain the probable Expense of such Experiments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances .......... Report on British Fossil a enks By Ricuarp Owen, Esq,, F.R.S., aN EC EC vials a 'e sian abaya 010 ier nisi, ate teem) Sips in aie Belle Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway Constants Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway Constants. By Dionysius Larpner, LL.D., F.R.S., &e. Report on Railway Constants. By Epwarp Woops ..........++0+ Report of a Committee appointed at the Tenth Meeting of the Associa- tion, on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines. Members of the Committee, the Rev. Professor MosrLry, M.A., F.R.S., Eaton Hopexinson, Esq., F.R.S., J. Enys, Esq. s....... Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches en- trusted to Committees and Individuals .......... SS age «a0 ofaiais Varieties of Human Race.—Queries respecting the Human Race, to be addressed to Travellers and others. Drawn up by a Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, appointed in AO act alee w'a/sial bre Bo oma - sige Resets eet Serial - Ho Observations made at the Magnetic Observatory at Toronto, during a remarkable Magnetic Disturt bance on the 25th and 26th of Septem- ber, 1841 ; with Postscripts, containing the Observations of the same Disturbance made at the Magnetic Ofideryatories of Trevandrum, St. Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope.. NRE E Sele eeee Page 44 46 50 52 55 60 205 205 247 307 325 332 340 ~ —_ OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. OBJECTS. Tuer AssoctaTIOn contemplates no interference with the ground oceupied by other Institutions. Its objects are,—-To give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an- other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress. or RULES. MEMBERS. All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be- come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to conform to its Rules. The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So- cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of the Association. The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. All Members of a Philosophical Institution, recommended by its Council or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- bers of the Association. Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General Committee or Council, to become Members of the Association, subject to the approval of a General Meeting. SUBSCRIPTIONS. The amount of the Annual Subscription shall be One Pound, to be paid in advance upon admission ; and the amount of the composition in lieu thereof, Five Pounds. An admission fee of One Pound is required from all Members elected as Annual Subscribers, after the Meeting of 1839, in addition to their annual subscription of One Pound. The volume of Reports of the Association will be distributed gratuitously to every Annual Subscriber who has aetually paid the Annual Subscription for the year to which the volume relates, and to all those Life Members who shall have paid Two Pounds as a Book Subscription. Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. If the Annual Subscription of any Member shall have been in arrear for 1841. b Vi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. two years, and shall not be paid on proper notice, he shall cease to be a Member. MEETINGS. The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the previous Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of the Association. GENERAL COMMITTEE. The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the following persons :— 1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with au- thors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. 9. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society, which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. 3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceeding three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions. 4. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three, from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any place where the Association has formerly met. 5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi- dent and General Secretaries. 6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are ex officio members of the General Committee for the time being. SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con- sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof. The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would par- ticularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and brought under consideration at the next Meeting. The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of par- ticular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, for the information of the Annual Meetings. COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS, The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science. All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re- searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shal! be submitted to the Com- mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommen- dations. LOCAL COMMITTEES. Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those Mem- bers of the Association whose assistance they may desire. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Vii OFFICERS. A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. COUNCIL. In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting. PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS. The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve his right of property therein. ACCOUNTS. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors appointed by the Meeting. OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1841—42. ae Trustees ( permanent).—Francis Baily, Esq. R. I. Murchison, Esq. John Taylor, Esq. President.—Rev. Professor Whewell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S. Vice-Presidents—The Earl of Mount Edgecumbe. The Earl of Morley. Lord Eliot, M.P. Sir C. Lemon, Bart. Sir T. D. Acland, Bart. President Elect.—Lord Francis Egerton. Vice-Presidents Elect.—John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. Rev. Prof. Sedg- wick, F.R.S. C. Henry, M.D., F.R.S. Sir Benjamin Heywood, Bart. Hon. and Rey. William Herbert, F.L.S. (Dean of Manchester). General Secretaries—R.1. Murchison, Esq.,F.R.S. Colonel Sabine, F.R.S. Assistant General Secretary—Joln Phillips, Esq., F.R.S., York. Secretaries for the Manchester Meeting in 1842.—Peter Clare, Esq. H. Fleming, M.D. James Heywood, Esq. General Treasurer—John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., &e. 2 Duke Street, Adel- phi, London. Treasurer to the Meeting in 1842.— Council—G. B. Airy, Esq. H.T. Dela Beche, Esq. Robert Brown, ; Esq. Rev. Dr. Buckland. Sir David Brewster. Dr. Daubeny. Sir Philip Egerton, Bart. Professor Forbes. Professor T. Graham. G. B. Greenough, Esq. Leonard Horner, Esq. W. J. Hamilton, Esq. Robert Hutton, Esq. Rev. W. V. Harcourt. Rev. Professor Lloyd. Rev. Dr. Peacock (Dean of Ely). The Marquis of Northampton. Rev. Dr. Robinson. Dr. Roget. Dr. Richardson. Sir John Robison. George Rennie, Esq. H. E. Strick- land, Esq. Lieut.-Col. Sykes. Professor Wheatstone. Local Treasurers—Dr. Daubeny, Oxford. Professor Henslow, Cam- bridge. Dr. Orpen, Dublin. Charles Forbes, Esq., Edinburgh and Glas- gow. William Gray, jun., Esq., York. William Sanders, Esq., Bristol. Samuel Turner, Esq., Liverpool. Rey. John James Tayler, Manchester. James Russell, Esq., Birmingham. William Hutton, Esq., Newcastle-on- Tyne. Henry Woolleombe, Esq., Plymouth. Auditors.—William Yarrell, Esq. Leonard Horner, Esq. Robert Hut- ton, Esq. b2 ee saseeseceeeenreeeeg BET ‘poo sayy ururelusg atg seeeessece sone vec Wa ‘ ‘CW ‘AM TT 9 SW “VIN SmMSpag “y *A0{7 teeeeeceseeseesies eCearen Orr 9" q ‘uoyeg uyor Peet errcesersossecssere® "4.18 ‘purpy ‘a "1 dg eee e eee essere aeseeresettaes “"ylegq ‘“oula'T 76) ug ‘bsq ‘poomsoyy somes "CW ‘Surety “H *bsq ‘aav[Q 1030 SEL ‘pigs oune play oq 0} ‘ATLSHHONVIN ‘NOLUDSA SIONVUA CLOT seeeeres oom HQT a WOQTT “A ‘Ady put ‘bsq “unt ‘zopfey, preyory "SW ‘XOg e194 31003 “STA “TMG UopruUeT “TOD “syd “bsg ‘slirep] Moug “UL "TFSI ‘6a Aine ‘HLaoWwaATg edcccccccevecccncocccccceccccsene eo renir 6 - ? ‘ CW jong Pol OY “SW TITMIHM UOSSTIONd “ATU OUL ttesseeseeees LOTION JO [IVT OUL “+ gqumnoaspy JUNOT JO [eT OT, SW “qaeg souecsitg ‘WL as sores corey fTagsMaTG PIAR(] IG “T'S Wy ‘yoousvery paroTy [e.rousy-roleyy GonGO POUBIREDOv AN Tedomred “aay ATO A reseseorrqreT “Ds ‘arop uyor Fee eseeeeeeesas ‘ad “OSU Oy "Y 'L *AOY aL Weeraeeeeeerseeerererees UIMOUIGIL(T JO [LT OUT, steveveeseeveeeeee OVCMILIION JO SIUDIVY OY, eeeereseee TSW “bsq ‘Kqas uyor sou a ‘bsq ‘Suey, uyor "CTT TOOIN “dd “£ “AOU “bsg ‘TPPYT Aerpuy *bsq 1980 1391197 “syd “bsg ‘uosspoyy ydosor ‘a W ‘moqstyepg u0ysog ‘og “bsy ‘aeyreg 031005) “SW a CVI ‘woysuyor rossoyorg ‘CO ‘noun FT “UT AA, ‘oy “ST ‘uosuepy uyor *jood.9arT ‘uoungysuy wAoy ‘satq ‘toyxTeA\ "N Ydesor *bsq at) Voe][V AA “UAL "CW ‘Iter, Lossojorg OFST ‘ZT toqumiaydeg ‘moasv1n ‘INVATVGVEUA JO SINDUVIN DHL AIAON LSOW UL “6EST ‘oz ysn3ny ‘NVHONINAIG ‘WIN “SLUNOOUVH NONUGA “A ATU OL "BERT ‘0% INENY ‘ANAT-NO-TTISVOMAN 9m Coy y GIMODIVET UOUIOA *A\ “ADY OY, u Nees te pao = A He Seas OR SOU Sad GNVTYATENOHLYON JO THN OL serene VS a “ound “weyAN jo doystg oUL Serer saree rsereeesseres “SW TTOMOU AA “A. “AQT SOW oS wa oueg ‘uoj103q Aorg dryyg ag COQFEECOSSEDG TSO 7.81095 “Tog ‘Toyeq. uyor seeree SOW Son” TOTAION jo doystg aL teeeeesesceesereee ecenre yr bere ‘nreuo Ye “UspudAory “yf "A teeeeeengene gy RS ea ae aoe OS8T ‘oz ysusNY ‘ToLsIUg ‘oN So “CW ‘cmoqneq, LOSsasord Heeeeeeeeegereg ‘qoydureyyz0 jo smmbaeyy OU, hy.) Coo “Tod “AN MOCGSNV'T IO SINDUVIN UL "S'Wd ‘pAOT Tossajorg “aay | * "OR “SY TONOTAN “AA “AO "CEST ‘OT ysnsny ‘NITAAC ‘org ‘puvjary Jo Teoy “uosy ‘WOsTTUeTY “Y “AA US ‘SVU “SW ‘WMozueTxG yuModsT A ‘A'TT ‘GAOTT LSOAOUd "ATU PUL "T'S'Y 098 ‘HOSTqO yy uyor ag COCOEC CGE OSG G 16 7 ‘TOSUIqOyy “TL eat "PEs ‘8 raqmoydag ‘HOUnINIGT ORM “TW "TSS UA ‘Seqtoy Lossajo.rg | seereeees cong GOTT Moysmorg pred ug f Tess WaT OA’ ‘ANVASIUA TVONOGOVIN LE US "ZE8T ‘TT r9qmoydeg “1ooaumary ‘puoy atu “uryO “Syd “SU ‘NOLONITYNG JO TUVE UL OW ‘TTaMet AL “ “ADT edecasiesineseee nner ase unre “Tod oye uyor "CCST ‘cz oun ‘TO CIUANVO "SOU “ST “VIN ‘AOTsUaFT Lossajorg “Ady f ox ‘[eAoy JoMIOUONSY “yy ‘ITY “A “D SOMA “SWd'A “VW ‘MOIMDCYS WVGV ‘ATH UL "ON “OW OW IN ‘TTaMog LOSSIJOIT “AVY | *** "00S *[094) *SoIg “OW TTOMOT AA, “MM AOY “OCSL ‘61 oune ‘quoixg OR “SW “CA W ‘Auaqneq tossoforg f -** sow A WT SSW “oysmorg pred sg OR “SO “SU “O'd ‘ANVTMONE “MATH CML "TESL ‘2g zaquiajdag ‘uu0 x oR SOM “Sw “TOE ‘WVITTIMZLI TAVE OL *SoL1vj31905 [eI0"'] *sJUSpIsatg-s01 A *spUSpIselg *JUIUIIDUIUIMIO) S}I WOAT ‘saTaeyaI00G joo] pue ‘syuaprsarg-a01A ‘syUOpIsAg YIM “UONeIOOSSY YsipIG oY} JO SuyooyT JO sowry, pu saov[q oy} Surmoys oqey, *] "ans bee Oe && d J Mee ene wee eat } SOUS WAV smooseyy wouID yy"A9y | MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. . IX II. Table showing the Members of Council of the British Association from its Commencement, in addition to Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local Secretaries. Rev. Wm. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., &c. ......1832—1836. Francis Baily, V.P. and Treas. R.S. .........00 1835. General Secretaries. < R. 1. Murchison, F.R.S., F.G.S.....ccccscececoees 1836—1841. Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. ceseeeess 1837, 1838. Lieut.-Colonel Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......... eae oda 1839, 1841. General Treasurer. John Taylor, F.R.S., Treas. G.S., &C.sececssceeee 1832—1841. Charles Babbage, F.R.SS.L.& E., &c. (Resigned.) R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., &c. John Taylor, F.R.S., &c. Francis Baily, F.R.S. Trustees (permanent). re eneral } Professor Phillips, F.R.S., SCssssssssseseee veseee]1832—1841, Secretary. Members of Council. G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astronomer Royal ...... 1834, 1835, 1841. Nene Arnott, IMCD cinscuccssccccesacesdevvaceece 1838, 1839, 1840. Francis Baily, V.P. and Treas. R.S. ......... 1837—1839. H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ......cccccceeeeesees 1841. George Bentham, F.L.S. ......... doatetewereeieennys 1834, 1835. Robert Brown, D.C.L., F.R.S. ....cceccesseee 1832, 1834, 1835, 1838—1841. Sir David Brewster, F.R.S., &c. ...ccsceseseees 1832, 1841. Mark I. Brunel, F.R.S., &c. ...... Ubvenedeieet 1832. Rev. Professor Buckland, D.D., F.R.S., &c. 1833, 1835, 1838—1841. The Earl of Burlington ............ssceceeeseseees 1838, 1839. Rev. T. Chalmers, D.D., Prof. of Divinity, Edinburgh .........csseseesessene bacpqdeoanSoc 1833. Professor Clark, Cambridge..... hisses Seaseanss 1838. Professor Christie, F.R.S., &c. cseeeececuseees 1833—1837. William Clift, F.R.S., F.G.S. ......cc. cee eeees 1832—1835. J.C. Colquhoun, Esq. ........cecceesessecneeeens 1840. John Corrie, F.R.S., &c. ..cccecccevccsnccees 1832. Professor Daniell, F.R.S. ......cccecsssceccsccoes 1836, 1839. Dr. Daubeny ...... acoagee tesenees Angoacedaasara ....1838—1841. ee beDrinkwater oss. ssseceteoedscceteccdseeccecs 1834, 1835. Sir Philip G. Egerton, Bart....... Sooagneecoanco: 1840, 1841. The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c....1833. Professor Forbes, F.R.SS.L.& E., &e. ...... 1832, 1841. Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., V.P. E §.,° GC. esveee 1832. Professor R. Graham, M. D., F.R.S.E. ......1837. ...... 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841. Professor Thomas ci rege PRES ore John Edward Gray, F.R.S., F.L.S., ie --.1837—1839, 1840. Professor Green, F.R.S., F.G.S. .......ccee000s 1832. G. B. Greenough, F.R.S., F.G.S. +eeo1832—1839, 1840, 1841. Henry Hallam, F.R.S., F.S.A., es mecca 1836. Sir William R. H amilton, Astron. Royal of lire) pondlinic se tastes cece sews cvecuidasidsassecacdes 1832, 1833, 1836. W. J. Hamilton, Sec. G. Sid.ssnesscantcaaractens 1840, 1841. Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. .1837.. Sir John F. W. Herschel, RF. R.SS. L. & E., ERASE GSS Sere iik ee 1832. Thomas Hodgkin, M.D. ..... Be adoteseedees odeee 1833—1837, 1839, 1840. Prof. Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D., F.R.S., &c. 1832. Leonard Horner, F.R.S. .........ccccccesccceeeel 841. Rev. F. W. Hope, M.A., F.L.S. ........0008 --- 1837. Robert Hutton, F.G.S., &c.......ccceesceseeeees 1836, 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841. Professor R. Jameson, F. R.SS. L. & E....... 1833. Rev. Leonard Jenyns......... Seaaeoene senscecesees 1838. Sip Bn J CREAR, PHU. sesdvessscsctinssvocceesssises1840. MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. De BiiGe te cstecs « - + + 60 Action of Gases on Light. . - . + - + © © © «© « = 40 Lacaille’s Stars . . Pnfah ager Sa ak irs Min 1G )5% Meteorological Obser vations at Plymouth St stelle tial lis fs) Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth . . . + » - «+ «= + 8 Magnetic Co-operation... 0.0 6) 2 oe jee es ese ey sy 100 Scientific Memoirs . . . - + + « + © « « « « « - 881 Velocity OFS Ga. WAVES. ce! div) foie. sely, > basele naluidisidee Sitelelbils pyatetha otitis MeMaieea Tides in Pacific . . 5 od Rua ales cake sage Publication of Meteorological Gineeeatone 2/44 csevlina ies ath coin ee ae Experiments with PaO. ot cakes cc waic Vii eee Force and Velocity of Wind . . . - «+ © es ee es 10 Osler’s Anemometer at Plymouth . . . - + + + e+ «+ + 95 eoocoonoooeocooooscooooe aloocoooooscosoosooooansososoo® £1433 18 Section B. Chemistry and Physiology of Digestion . .- - - + + + = 200 0 O Action of Light on Growth of Seeds‘. s,s suis a ae OO £215 O O Section C. IMadeintRavers Pon) ar ial eb mils NEP Sak boners eae Oe Railway Sections. . . ech ve Myweb uloye sath thie toy Ae CO yO RAD Subterranean Temperature i in ‘Ireland . deve chs naeehieesben evlats sake GAamEI Rab adhe Earthquake Registration . . . ete + (ah soph eg of EURO Solution of Silica in Water at High "Temperatures . aripeye. se baie anne British Belemnites. . Reece nme eet min Ae) SCM TO TG) Fossil Reptiles (Publication of Report) fing styaieege tee becgit ely a EEO £605 O O Section D. Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances. . - + + 6 0 0 Marine Zoology . . de aud Boyce Mele i O* cs PO ee Plants and Animals in Vineral Wiiters aye PP nes CS 6 0 0 Vegetative power of Seeds . . . . 2» + ee 2 - - 100 0 I ACESHOLE LET er cite sell cob, ool jhe Ph sebtatete cea te peat hainke nD IiE Ce 711 0 British Fossil Mammalia: ..... . /. 3 Nad e200 — Ose 0 £279 11 O SecTIONn F. Wital’ Statistios Shh). riehae hee elie ORS ea es 2s LL ORO RO: SYNOPSIS. XXV Section G. POS Neds Dynamometric Instruments «9... 2 ee ee ee 62100 0 COO IHAMAECRRVCSSCIS#e ire toc ct ce ey fo Siete dye el elle 150 O O Constant Indicator to Locomotives. . . . .. .-. =. - 100 0 O £350 O O Total of Money Grants . . . . £3033 9 6 Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee. Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur- poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re- mains disposable on each grant. Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso- ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be ordered by the General Committee. In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 2 Duke Street, Adelphi, London, for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to time be required. In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the Members. In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be deemed to include the specified balance which may remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object. On Thursday evening, July 29th, at 8 p.m., the President, the Rev. W. Whewell, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, took the Chair in the Town Hall, Devonport, and read an Ad- dress (see next page). On Friday evening, July 30th, in the same room, Mr. Chatfield, of H. M. Dock Yard, Devonport, gave an account of the construction and launch- ing of ships, with reverence to the launch of the Hindostan (80 guns) on Monday evening. On Tuesday evening, August 3rd, Mr. Dent explained a new Clock; Dr. Reid illustrated his processes of Ventilation; Mr. De Moleyns exhibited a Voltaic Battery ; and Mr. Brunel described the Thames Tunnel. On Wednesday, at 8 p.m., the ConcLupinc GENERAL Merrine of the Association took place in the Town Hall, Devonport, when an account of the PROCEEDINGS OF THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE was read by Colonel Sabine. tears ae sig aes | a erty clemmmrenememammarnri(: e Pos ee isha ehh) “ra | it Tis Ponte erga ti f 8: slips ihe eo? wih ye Oe ay ites ai ith YS EM Sa a oa Syn iia ebene ta sai, ; ep | beatae “OY ey) Bed REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. On the Present State of our Theoretical and Experimental Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat. By the Rev. Puiiiep KeLuanp, M.A., F.R.SS. Lond. and Edin., Prof. of Math. in the University of Edinburgh, late Fellow of Queen’s College, Cambridge. THE object of the following report is simply to lay before the Association an outline of the present state of our theoretical knowledge of the law of trans- mission of heat by conduction, and to examine how far conclusions deduced from theory have been tested by experiment. Reports on the general pro- blem of Radiant Heat have already appeared by Professor Powell*; and on the theoretical laws of conductivn and radiation, a portion of the subject- matter of our present question, Mr. Whewell has briefly touched in his report ‘On Magnetism, Electricity, Heat, &c.t’ We shall, in consequence, confine ourselves strictly to our immediate limits, noticing only such other branches of the general theory as bear directly or necessarily on the question. We shall avoid all mention of theoretical investigations, however important in themselves, which are not capable of being examined rigidly by direct expe- riment ; nor shall we scruple to pass over the names of a host of illustrious experimenters on conduction and radiation, when we find that their experi- ments are not calculated to serve as the immediate test of theory. This pro- ceeding will materially shorten our labour, and will have the effect of con- densing into a narrow compass all the remarks we have to make. To render what has to be said as clear as possible, the subject-matter has been arranged under three heads. Two of these are distinctly marked out by the statement of the object proposed to be effected, and the third is sug- gested by a consideration of the former two. We shall examine, then, I. What is the present state of our theoretical knowledge of the phenomena of conduction. We are here to seek for the principles on which the reasoning is based, to inquire what are the axoms of radiation and conduction, or of the flow of heat, which, from observation, experiment or analogy, have been assumed to hold true, and to point out the conclusions to which these axioms have led. We have to distinguish between differing theories, and to contrast with each other some of the most simple of the results to which they respectively lead. This portion of our subject must, to a certain extent, be treated historically. We shall inquire, II. into the state of experimental investigation, so far as it has been undertaken with a view to test or to illustrate the conclusions arrived at by theory. We shall examine how the different consequences of certain hypotheses bear the test thus applied to them, by computing from the * Report on Radiant Heat in Reports of British Association, vols. i. and ix. + Reports of the British Association, vol. iv. 1841. B g REPORT—1841. formule the values of the temperature corresponding with the conditions existing in the experiment, and contrasting the results with the temperatures actually observed. This critical discussion of the hypotheses will lead us in the third place To point out, III. the utter inadequacy of the few experimental facts with which we are furnished, to serve either as the basis of a true theory or as the indication of a false one. We admit that, of a theory based on assump- tions which have been for a century regarded as only approximative to truth, the experiments are sufficient to expose the incompetency, just as experi- ments on bodies sliding under the retardation of friction will easily detect the inadequacy of formule deduced from the hypothesis of absolute smooth- ness. But we shall see that, as applicable to point out errors in the assumed axioms on which reasonings are founded to constitute a physical theory, the experiments we possess are defective both in their number and in their na- ture. We shall find three distinct theories equally verified or equally over- turned by them, according as we choose to regard the conclusions as indi- cating the one or the other; and yet we are quite sure that only one of the theories is the correct one, whilst on the other hand we can hardly entertain a doubt that one of them is so. When we shall have made this appear, it will only remain for us to point out, in conclusion, what are the most im- portant results of theory which it is desirable that experiment should be brought in to test, and to suggest a few of the most simple means of effecting the object desired. I, The problem, in the solution of which consists the mathematical theory of heat, is the following. Having given the state of heating, or the variation of that state from time to time, at one or more points of a homogeneous body of given form and dimensions, to find the permanent or variable cemperature at every other point. Thus a ring is kept at a certain temperature at one point, and it is proposed to discover, 1. what is the variation from time to time of the temperature at every other point, and 2. what is the ultimate temperature to which that at any given point approaches as the time during which the constant heating of one point has been kept up is increased. From this statement it will appear that the experimental facts on which the theory must rest are the answers to the following questions. a. According to what law does a heated body lose its temperature to the air, or other me- diym or space, by which it is surrounded? 6. According to what law is temperature transmitted from point to point of a body? On the correctness of the answers which may be assumed as given to these questions depends the applicability of the results obtained to the state of things in nature. But as in mechanics we may reason correctly on assumed laws which are not laws of nature, and obtain conclusions of great importance as approximations to facts, so in the theory of heat the results, although s¢re¢/y commensurate only with the laws on which they depend, are still highly important even in refer- ence to the things actually existing, differing as they do in certain cases from the expression of the laws. We proceed then to show what answers have been given to the above questions by different theorists, and to explain the evidence on which their truth is supposed to be established. a. Radiation. Sir Isaac Newton appears to have been the first who was led to apply a law of radiation to experiment. The statement of the law is given by him for the first time in a paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1701%, and is reprinted in his Opusculaf. * Philosophical Transactions, 1701, vol, xxii. p. 827, tT Newton’s Opuscula, vol. ii, p. 422, ON THE CONDUCTION OF HEAT. 3 Newton's law of cooling.—The author is constructing a seale of tempera- tures; he is comparing, for instance, the heat of boiling water with that of the human body. The comparison is made immediately, to the extent to which the thermometer affords an indication of the temperature; beyond this it is requisite to haye recourse to some process which involves computation ; and to this end Newton admits the hypothesis, to which we apply the de- signation given above. His words are as follows (translated): ‘ This table was constructed by the use of a thermometer and red-hot iron. By means of a thermometer I found the measure of the heat up to the point at which tin (stannum) is melted, and by heated iron I found the measure of the rest, For the temperature which heated iron communicates to cold bodies con- tiguous to it, in a given time, is as the total temperature of the iron. There- fore, if the times of cooling are taken in arithmetical progression, the tem- peratures will be in geometrical progression, and may be found by a table of logarithms,” It is affirmed by most modern writers that Newton was led to this law by experiment, This was very probably the case, for to the extent of tempera- ture indicated by his thermometer it would be very nearly verified. The inaccuracy of this law was first pointed out by Martine*. He found, that although it appears yery exact when the temperature of the heated body does not differ much from that of the surrounding air, yet when the tempera- tures differ considerably it is very far from being the case, Erxleben+ also proved that the law is at fault in proportion to the excess of the temperature of the body. Mr. Dalton{, in his ‘ New System of Chemical Philosophy,’ in a truly philosophical manner attempted to re-establish the law of Newton by altering the thermometric scale. The hypothesis on which he bases his views is, that the dilatation of all liquids is subject to the same law. MM. Dulong and Petit conceive that Dalton’s views are untenable, arguing that, “ even supposing the accuracy of the principles of this new scale to have been proved, we should be constrained to acknowledge that it does not satisfy the con- dition of rendering the losses of heat of a body proportional to the excess of its temperature above that of the air which surrounds it, or, in other words, that it does not re-establish the law of Richmann § ; for it would be necessary in that case that the law of cooling should be the same for all bodies, and our experiments rigorously prove the contrary ||.” We presume MM. Dulong and Petit’s argument to be based, not, as would appear from the phrase quoted, on the variability of the /aw of cooling, so much as on the fact that for different substances the two portions whose sum, according to these authors, constitutes the law, are affected with very different multipliers, so that their relative values depend altogether on the nature of the body. To this matter we shall return in the sequel . M. de la Roche of Geneya** likewise pointed out the deviation from New- ton’s law, at the same time admitting that it is sufficiently accurate to 212° Fahr,, which is perhaps rather more than subsequent discoveries warrant us in assuming, We come now to the time when the law was established in its correct form, so far as we can see at present. The whole merit of the discovery is due to * Martine, Essays on Heat, 1740, p. 236, art, 4. + Novi Commentarii, Soc. Gott., vol. viii. p. 74. { New System of Chemical Philosophy, 1808, p. 12. § Kraft and Richmann, Novi Commentarii, Petrop. i. p. 195. || Dulong and Petit, Journal de l’Ecole Polytechnique, 1820, tom. xi. p. 237. { Consult their Memoir, p. 190. ** Journal de Physique, 1812, tom. Ixxv. p. 201, Prop. 6, Annals of Philosophy, vol. ii, p. 100, B2 4 REPORT—1841. MM. Dulong and Petit, to whom the Academy of Sciences awarded the prize in 1818, and whose admirable memoir ‘On the Measure of Tempera- ture and the Laws of Communication of Heat’ the reader will do well to con- sult*, All that we can do is to give a very brief outline of their researches. The first step requisite for them to take was the determination of a correct measure of temperature. To present to the eye an indication of the state of heat of a body the principle of dilatation has been most commonly applied, but it becomes a question to ascertain what substance will by its dilatation express the state of heat the most simply. MM. Dulong and Petit, having determined “that all the gases dilate absolutely in the same manner and by the same quantity for the same change of temperature,” conclude that the air- thermometer is the best indicator of the state of heat. They argue, “ that the well-known uniformity in the principal physical properties of all the gases, and particularly the perfect identity of the laws of their dilatation, renders it very probable that in this class of bodies the disturbing causes have not the same influence as in solids and liquids, and that, consequently, the changes in volume produced by the action of heat upon them are more immediatel dependent on the force which produces them. It is therefore probable (they think) that the greater number of the phenomena relating to heat will pre- sent themselves under a more simple form if we measure the temperatures on the air-thermometer. It is at least by these considerations (they inform us) that we have been determined constantly to employ this scale}.” Having thus settled that the air-thermometer is to be taken as the measure of tem- perature, they proceeded in the next place to obtain the laws of cooling in vacuo. And here we cannot but express our regret that the original unre- duced observations of the authors are not presented to the world in some work generally known. We have never seen them, nor are we sure that they have been published at all. We take the present opportunity of further ex- pressing our astonishment that experiments on which so much depends have never been repeated in this country. We do not know any more desirable exercise of the funds and energies of public scientific bodies than the repe- tition of all experiments, and ihe institution of others in a trying form, on which laws of nature have been partially or totally founded. In the case before us we do not doubt the accuracy or fidelity of the ingenious experi- ments, but we wish to be assured by cumulative evidence that the constant introduced into their law is determined with sufficient accuracy. To return from this digression. The velocity of cooling was experimented on by our authors by means of heated thermometers placed in a balloon nearly free from air; but the ob- servations were subjected to two corrections. In the first place the stem of the thermometer without the balloon soon becomes cooled down to the tem- perature of the surrounding air. Every temperature observed therefore was too low by a number of degrees equal to that to which the mercury in the stem would dilate, when heated from the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere to that of the bulb. A correction on this account was applied to all the temperatures observed. The second correction was destined to re-. duce the observations actually made on the mercurial thermometer to the corresponding indications of the air-thermometer. Besides these corrections, rendered requisite by the nature of the experiments, there was a third which arose out of the necessary imperfection of the vacuum. This was applied to the resulting velocities, and its value was ascertained by making correspond- ~* Annales de Chimie, tom. vii. p. 225, &c. Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, vol. xiii. p- 113, &c. Journal de l’Ecole Polytechnique, 1820, tom. xi. p. 189. tT Journal de l’Ecole Polytechnique, tom. xi. p. 232. . ON THE CONDUCTION OF HEAT. 5 ing experiments on vacuums of different degrees of imperfection, and thence computing the amount of error introduced by the action of a known quantity of air. ; The result to which our authors arrived is expressed by the following law. When a body cools 2 vacuo, surrounded by a medium whose temperature is constant, the velocity of cooling for excesses of temperature in arithmetical progression increases as the terms of a geometrical progression, diminished by a constant quantity.” The formula which expresses the velocity of cool- ing is m a! (@ —1), where a@ is the same for all bodies, viz. 1:0077 or aA. 1:165, 6 denotes the temperature (marked by the air-thermometer and measured on the centigrade scale) of the vacuum in which the cooling body is placed, and 6 the excess of the temperature of the body above 0. On cooling in air or in gases.—The hypothesis on which was computed the velocity of cooling in air or any other gas, was, that the velocity might be divided into two parts ;-—the one, that due to direct radiation in vacuo ; the other, that due to the actual presence of the gas. The gas was supposed not to influence directly the process of radiation, but to act in aid of it by conduction or convection, or a combination of both. Proceeding thus, MM. Dulong and Petit first verified the observation of Leslie, ‘that the loss of heat owing to the contact of a gas is independent of the state of the surface of the body which cools.” They showed next, “that the velocity of cooling .of a body, owing to the sole contact of a gas, depends for the same excess of temperature on the density and temperature of the gas; but this dependence is such that the velocity of cooling remains the same so long as the elasticity is unaltered.” They found also, “that the cooling power of a gas is, ceteris pa- ribus, proportional to a certain power of its elasticity, but that the index of the power varies for different gases ;” and moreover, “that the velocities of cooling due to a gas increase in geometrical progression as the excesses of temperature increase in geometrical progression.” We shall best understand the whole law of cooling by exhibiting it in the shape of a single formula. It is as follows: V = m.1-0077° (10077 —l)4+ne 31283 where m depends on the nature of the surface, and ” and p on the nature of the gas. @ is, as before, the temperature of the gas, and 6 + 6 that of the cooling body; e, the elas- ticity of the gas. If this be the law of nature, we can hardly term by the same word radiation the loss of heat i vacuo, and the loss due to the action of the surrounding air. We must therefore, for the present, confine our signification of this term to the former, and admit that results deduced from the hypothesis of radiation apply only to experiments carried on in a space free from air. b. Conduction. Ordinary experience teaches us that the power of con- duction differs in different substances; and it is natural to suppose, and has, in fact, been universally admitted, that this difference is a difference in im- tensity only. It is asswmed that one and the same law holds good for all bodies, but that a certain factor, on which the absolute amount of conduction depends, differs according to the nature of the substance. But to define the law of conduction, which is the same for all substances, considerable diffi- culty has been experienced. Lambert*, and the other early writers on the subject, regarded the flow of heat as the flow of a fluid. But when we treat the subject mathematically, and regard the flow of heat as the flow of an * Act. Helvet., vol. ii. p. 172. 6 REPORT—1841. elastic fluid, considerable difficulties present themselves. We do not know that the difficulties are real; we think, as Mr. Whewell hints*, that they are introduced by an arbitrary assumption concerning infinitesimal magnitudes. One difficulty is as follows: If heat flow from one point or place to another, the variation of temperature is a quantity of the first order; whilst if we ob- tain the variation by estimating the gain and loss of heat which that point or plane receives, we shall find it to be a quantity of the second order. Biot, who in 1804 read to the Institute a short memoir on this subjectt, was con- strained to leave his fundamental equation without demonstration on this account}. The difficulty is supposed to have been removed by Laplace §, who does indeed present reasoning bearing with some weight on the subject. But we could have wished that he had distinctly answered the following question. If three equal, small, contiguous slices of a bar be conceived col- lected each at its middle plane, will the quantity of heat which in a given time passes from the first to the second, or from the second to the third, depend on the (small) thickness of the slices or not? Fourier doubtless saw that it would not, and therefore, instead of reasoning on the difference of heat be- tween two portions of the body directly, he fixes his attention on the flow of heat across a plane. His reasoning is as follows :—A homogeneous body is supposed to be traversed by two parallel planes whose distance is e, of the lower of which every point has the same temperature a, and of the upper a different and less temperature 6. Then, if v represent the temperature at any intermediate point at the distance z from the lower plane, the expression v=a—* = being supposed to be once established as the law of the temperature at all points, no change will take place in the state of heat of the body ||. To prove this he takes two points at equal distances from the plane whose temperature is v, the one above, the other below it, and shows that the excess of the temperature of the lower above wv is exactly equal to the defect of temperature of the upper from v. He then concludes thus: “ It follows that the quantity of heat transmitted by the lower point to the middle one is the same as that which the middle one transmits to the upper, for all the elements which concur to determine this quantity of transmitted heat are the same.” Thus M. Fourier’s hypothesis of conduction is, that the flow of heat depends on the dijference of temperature; or as he gives it, “the flow of heat across a given plane, whose distance from some fixed plane is a and tem~ perature v, is proportional to tee This we regard as the first law of con- x . duction. No doubt M. Fourier has confounded heat with temperature ; but this confusion is merely a confusion of terms; the reasonings and results are un- affected by it. M. Poisson, founding his theory on molecular interchange, and having in view Dulong and Petit’s law of radiation, admits another law of conduction. This law is thus expressed: “ The change of heat between two points depends on the product of the difference of temperatures of those points, and of a function of their positions and temperatures **.” In M. Poisson’s earlier in- * History of the Inductive Sciences, vol. ii. p. 470. + It is printed in the Bibliothéque Britannique. £ See Biot, Traité de Physique, tom. iv. p. 669. § Laplace, Mémoires de 1’Académie, 1809, p. 332. Connaissance des Tems, 1823, and Mécanique Céleste, liv. ii. || Fourier, Théorie de la Chaleur, p. 47. q Ibid, p. 49. ** Poisson, Théorie de la Chaleur, art. 48. ON THE CONDUCTION OF HEAT. 7 vestigations the latter factor had been regarded as a function of the positions of the particles only* ; although he was led by analogy to the adoption of the above law, as he himself informs us +, yet he does not appear to have adopted the Jaw of Dulong and Petit itself as the law of conduction. He leaves it indeterminate, having found, as we shall show in another part of our report, difficulties in admitting such to be the case. Lastly, the author of the present report, in a short memoir which-he read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh {, suggested the possibility of the ex- istence of a third law of conduction, differing considerably from either of the former as they are actually adopted, but which might be made to differ little from Poisson’s by the change of a few of the quantities to which that author has assigned values. The law may be stated briefly as follows :— “ The flow of a function of thermometric temperature across a given plane varies as the difference of the values of this function on the two sides of the plane.” It will be seen at once that this law restores us all Fourier’s con- clusions, provided we regard his phrase “heat” or “ temperature,” which he usés indifferently, as signifying a given function of thermometric tempera- twre. These are the only laws of conduction which have been suggested : they are mere hypotheses. In seeking for a law of radiation we may have recourse to direct experiment, but here no such ‘means are in our power. All that we can do is to experiment on the combined effects of radiation and conduction; and then, supposing ourselves in possession of the effects due to the former, to eliminate them, and infer the law of conduction from the remainder. But this cannot be done without computation, and computation cannot be effected without formule, which latter must be based on the hypo- thesis of conduction itself. Thus we are reduced to the indirect method of assuming the law, and testing by experiment the conclusions which spring from the assumption. We must prepare, therefore, to examine the results of analytical investigation applied to certain laws of radiation and conduc- tion which are at first conceived to be true, but only to be finally esta- blished by the conclusions themselves. Before we proceed, it will, perhaps, be as well to repeat that we have found two laws of radiation and three of condtiction to exist as the assumed laws of nature. By the combinations of these laws we could conceive six different theories of heat to arise. Of these two would be obviously at variance with our present notions of fact; the other four have to be examined. All the earlier theorists assumed, as we have already stated, the most simple axioms of radiation and conduction, viz. that the flow of temperature is proportional to the excess of temperature. Such being the case, we may venture to pass over the labours of Biot, Laplace, and -others, not becatse they are unimportant, but because the same results are to be found in the more extensive and systematic writings of Fourier. In 1807 this philosopher read before the Institute a memoir, in which the subject was treated in a masterly manner, and the difficulties which had previously encompassed it were removed §. The Academy of Sciences, with the laudable design of inducing the author to prosecute his researches, proposed as the subject of the Prize Essay to be awarded in 1812, “ To give the Mathematical Laws of Radiation and Conduction, and to establish them by experiment.” Ac- cordingly, on Sept. 28, 1811, M. Fourier’s second memoir was depositedjin the archives of the Institute. The prize was decided to have been gained by it, * Journal de l’Ecole Polytechnique, tom. xii. p. 87. + Théorie de la Chaleur, Preface, p. 6. t Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Dec. 16, 1839, p. 279. § Bulletin des Sciences, 1808, tom. i. p. 112. 8 REPORT—1841. but not without an expression of the restrictions which the Academy put on its favourable opinion. The committee appointed to examine and report on the memoir, consisting of Laplace, Lagrange and Legendre, whilst they agreed in proclaiming the novelty and importance of the subject, and in de- claring that the equations are the true equations required by the conditions, expressed a difficulty about the way in which they had been deduced, and added, that the means employed to effect their integration left much to be desired. Fourier never yielded to this judgment ; and accordingly he printed his memoir exactly as it was written in the memoirs of the Academy for 1825 and 1826: nor did he ever modify or extend his views, so far as we know. He published his Treatise on Heat in 1822, which does not essentially differ from his memoir. It is not necessary to trace all the circumstances which withheld from the world these important investigations for so many years. We must not lay all the blame on the Institute ; doubtless a part of it falls on Fourier himself. The accounts which had appeared were scanty. They will be found in the ‘Annales de Chimie,’ iii. 250 (1816), iv. 128 (1817), vi. 259 (1817) ; ‘ Bulletin des Sciences de la Société Philomatique’, 1818, p. 1, and 1820, p. 60; the ‘ Analyse des Trauvaux del’ Académie,’ 1820, &c. by Delambre. Whilst the memoir lay in the archives of the Institute, the labours of Dulong and Petit had, by the establishment of another Jaw, rendered it de- sirable that the theorist should reconstruct his equations and extend his ana- lysis. We can understand well enough why M. Fourier did not attempt this. Whilst his own investigations lay unknown, he had no inducement to extend or continue them: far less was he likely to take in hand a totally new investigation which could hardly be expected to present results so beautiful and symmetrical, and must, from their further approach to a correspondency ‘with the laws of nature, have withdrawn attention from his previous labours. But we are astonished that M. Poisson, who laboured successfully in this as in every other field of mathematical physics, did not see the necessity of adopting axioms conformable to fact. We suspect that he and Lamé, and all the other writers who treated of the subject, were more anxious to pursue a line of investigation which led to symmetric formule, than one which should lead to results conformable with the facts of experiment. The person who first attempted an investigation based on principles more approaching to the probable law of nature was M. Libri. His memoir was read to the Academy of Sciences in 1825, and is printed in the ‘Mémoires de Mathématique et de Physique’ *, and in ‘ Crelle’s Journal’ for 1831, vii. 116. The grounds of his investigations are, 1. That extra-radiation follows the law of Dulong and Petit. 2. That conduction follows the law of Biot, La- place and Fourier. He confines himself to the solution of one problem, as the most simple that could be selected to illustrate his views. The problem is the determination of the temperature of a ring heated ‘at one point. The author integrates the equation for the variable state of heat on the hypo- thesis that the variation from the ordinary results which is introduced by taking Dulong and Petit’s law is a small quantity. Certain peculiarities in his process of integration have drawn the attention of those who are inter- ested in the subject to this memoir. The author of the present report was the first to find fault with M. Libri’s solution in 1837+. Others have, since that time, joined in the opinion; amongst the rest M. Liouville. The paper of this author, read to the Institute, and published in his ‘Journal des Mathéma- tiques ’ for 1838, has caused some little discussion on the subject, which the reader will find in the ‘ Comptes Rendus’ for 1838, 39 and 40. * Florence, 1829. T Theory of Heat, p. 69. ON THE CONDUCTION OF HEAT. 9 We should not have thought it necessary to mention this subject were we not desirous of seeing the attention of philosophers directed to this branch of physics. It is extraordinary, that a theory, professing to be a physical theory based on experiment, should have been suffered to lie for twelve years hardly known in fact, but occasionally alluded to as complete and satisfac- tory. In the kindred science of optics half the time would have sufficed to attract the attention of the whole scientific world ; and experiment and analy- tical investigation would have been lavished on the subject. We hope M. Libri will be induced to pursue his investigations further, and to reduce the results to a tangible form. The next theory to be mentioned is that of Poisson. In his ‘ Théorie Ma- thématique de la Chaleur’ (1835), he adopts the law established by Dulong and Petit for extra-radiation, and conceives that a similar law may apply to the interior transmission of heat. The hypothesis on which he proceeds re- lative to the changes of heat between all parts, the complication of his re- sults, and a degree of uncertainty which hangs ever the daw of change, render his work rather a display of analytical artifice than an attempt to build up a theory by applying to it the test of an examination by contrast with the facts it is designed to account for. It is to be regretted that M. Poisson, in turning his attention to the fundamental difficulties in the theory, did not adopt the plan of endeavouring, in the first place, to remove them, and afterwards to advance to the application of the same principles to the more difficult and complex questions which might present themselves. As it is, we can find in his work only one conclusion to which we can turn, in the present state of our knowledge, with the view of applying to it the test of experimental examination: this result we shall exhibit in its proper place. We have only to add, that M. Poisson’s equation has been deduced by Mr. Rankine in the ‘ Edinburgh Academic Annual,’ and applied to the de- termination of the temperature of a heated globe. Lastly, the author of the present report has suggested that it is proper to try a fourth theory, the last which the combinations of the laws of radiation and conduction admit of. It does not appear improbable, that although the flow of temperature does not depend on the difference of temperature, the flow of heat should depend on the difference of heat, provided we regard heat as a certain state of the body different from temperature. This theory then rests on the hypotheses, 1. That the variation of v due to cooling i vacuo depends directly on v. 2. That the flow of uv across a given plane varies as the difference of the values of v on the two sides of that plane. Thus this theory coincides altogether with Fourier’s, except that v is no longer the temperature, but a certain function of the temperature. The function appears to be v= A (1 —a~ 5) + B*, where @ is the temperature and a@ is Dulong and Petit’s constant. These are the four theories which at present exist, each based on the com- bination of one of the two axioms of radiation with one of the three axioms of conduction. We propose now to write down some of the most import- ant and simple of the conclusions to which they respectively lead. I. Fourier’s hypothesis. That the flow of temperature depends directly on the difference of temperature, both within and at the surface of a body. As we have already stated that one of the formule had been given by Biot prior to the appearance of Fourier’s memoir, it will save confusion, if, not- withstanding, we make our references to Fourier’s work alone. Formula 1.—The permanent temperature of an infinite homogeneous * Atheneum for October 24, 1840, and Report of British Association for 1840. 10 REPORT—1841. solid, bounded by two parallel planes, each of which is, and has been, for an indefinite time, kept at the same uniform temperature throughout, repre- sented for the one plane by a@ and for the other by 4, is expressed by the following equation: » =a + z; where v is the temperature at the distance z from that plane whose temperature is a, and é is the distance be- tween the planes. (Fourier, Théorie de la Chaleur, Art. 65.) 2. A very small square prismatic bar is kept heated at one end until the different parts of the bar have acquired a permanent temperature. That temperature, or rather, as it actually is, the excess of temperature above that of the surrounding medium, is represented by the equation, oh 0, fz nn fh x ve Ae ki+ Be KT ; where 2 is the distance of the point whose temperature is » from the heated extremity of the bar, / is a side of the section, and 4 and & the coefficients of radiation and conductivity of the bar. Cor. If the bar be supposed very long, B must be equal to 0, and v = ‘ 2h Ae “Ji, weit Here A represents the heat of the extremity, and a/ is a quantity which must simply be determined by experiment. (Art. 76.) 3. The permanent state of temperature of a ring is represented by v = Aa” + Ba”, where # is the distance of the point under consideration from some fixed point, measured along the arc which passes through the centre of the generating circle. (Art. 106.) Cor. If points be taken at equal distances along the axis of the ring, the ratio of the sum of the temperatures of the first and third to the temperature of the second, is the same, whichever point be taken first. (Art. 107.) 4. The temperature at any point of a ring which has been heated at one point to a stationary temperature, and is then suffered to cool, is represented ‘ atte =ht M yi cosze ~ *? A hed vo ek ee Me a aa +1 324] a ae. \ (Art. 242.) 5. As the time increases, the law of temperatures in a ring tends to become such that the sum of the temperatures at the opposite extremities of a dia- meter is equal to 2 a ht. which shows that the sum is the same at the ex- tremities of whatever diameter we estimate them. (Art. 245.) Il. Libri’s hypothesis. That the interior conduction follows Newton’s, and the extra-radiation Dulong and Petit’s law. The author has only applied his analysis to the motion of heat in a ring. The conclusion to which he arrives is the following: ¢ 6. If a ring be heated at one point and then left to cool, the sum of the temperatures at a given instant at the two extremities of a diameter is the same for every diameter that may be taken. This result, which is only approximate, is not adapted for testing the truth of the theory. It is, however, quite independent of any considerations re- specting the mode by which the equations may be integrated. The author of the present report has applied Libri’s hypothesis and method to the solution of the same problem. He finds that 7. The effect of Dulong’s law is, that the velocity of cooling diminishes ON THE CONDUCTION OF HEAT. il more rapidly than it would if Newton's law were true. Nothing else is altered. (Theory of Heat, p. 75.) This result, it must be confessed, is deduced from the omission of many terms in the equation in order to effect an approximation. It can hardly be regarded as a tolerable expression of fact. Ill. M. Poisson's hypothesis. That extra-radiation follows Dulong and Petit’s law, whilst conduction follows an analogous law,—the flow of tempe- rature depending on the product of the variation of temperature, and a function of the temperature. In M. Poisson’s large work will be found the solution of a considerable number of the resulting equations ; but the solu- tion is in general approximate, and effected in such a manner as to reduce the hypothesis actually to M. Fourier’s hypothesis. We find very few prac- ticable results in the work, derived from the proper axioms on which it pro- fesses to be founded. One only can be given which will serve the purpose we have in view. The equation which gives the permanent state of heat in i : : . a f,dv € j an uniform prismatic bar is PE ¢ 7) cairns (vw — ¢); (Art. 118.) v where & and p are functions of the temperature, such that h dis and pw respectively represent the flow of heat in a small time (considered as unity) within and on the surface of the body ; Z is the temperature of the surround- ing vacuum. M. Poisson assumes that « — £ or v is small, or perhaps rather (as appears to us) that certain multipliers of this quantity are small, so that # and p may be expanded in terms of v, and high powers of this quantity may be omitted. He thence deduces the following equation as expressing the per- manent temperature of a bar heated at one extremity ; the length of the bar being indefinitely great : : 8. v=[1- oY —2m) | ae 9 + (y—Im)e— 29%; where y = log, 1:0077, and m is undetermined, but depends on the manner in which the conductivity varies with the temperature. (Théorie de la Chaleur, Art. 105.) On this result we must make some remarks. In the first place, we con- ceive that by a slip of the pen M. Poisson has given a wrong value to y; it appears to be properly > log 1:0077. The quantities y and m result : e from the expansion of p and & in the form p + pyu,k +hkmu. In the next place, we find some difficulty in understanding what the quantity m actually is supposed to be. If M. Poisson conceives, as he leads us to believe in his pre- face (p. 6), that Dulong and Petit’s law is applicable to the interior as well as to the exterior flow of heat, we cannot see how he regards m as undeter- mined. We should have thought, that if it be admissible to expand in terms of v at all, m must have been known. Perhaps M. Poisson saw a difficulty in admitting this, arising from the circumstance that y — 2 m might (and it appears to us it would) turn out to be negative, and thus disprove the whole theory. The phrase which M. Poisson makes use of is this: Quant dla con« stante m, elle depend de la maniére dont la conducibilité varie avee la tempé- rature ; et sa valeur n'est pas non plus connue. (p. 255.) IV. The theory suggested by the author of this report adopts all the re- sults of the hypothesis of Fourier. In this case v will not express the ¢em- perature as measured by an air-thermometer, but a certain function of that temperature. We have already given the function which appears to us to be the proper one. It is deduced by the following reasoning. Let @ represent the 12 REPORT—1841. temperature, or rather the excess of temperature above that of the sur- ay 3 d rounding vacuum ; then since Fourier’s equations hold good, we have 7; = — av, where « is a quantity which depends on the radiating power. But by Dulong and Petit’s formula, &=-6(~1) dv _a v eT pre ee gives A € Qe V4ev,; +1—1 ae rin ul These two equations determine g and A by means of the first and third thermometers ; viz. € and therefore e~ 9 (% — %) = e J = +6093, and A = 80°855. The results of the calculation are the following : 0) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89°2 29°375 17°6 11°25 6°95 4-358 1°72 “67 III. On M. Poisson’s hypothesis we have formula 8, viz. 0 pees 62 29H v= {1-3 (7- 2m) bee ES (y— Amie : where 6 is the temperature at the heated extremity of the bar, and y, as cor- rected above, is (003818. To compare this formula with experiment, we have supposed that g has the same value as we found it to have according to the preceding hypothesis. This supposition cannot, to any considerable extent, affect the results ; and we could not obtain g by any other direct means. We get from thermometers 0 and 1, y — 2m = 00153, and thence obtain the following table of results : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 86°25 29°375 17°78 11°36 7°05 4°43 175 69 IV. Lastly, on the hypothesis that the flow of v is proportional to v, both within and at the surface of the medium. We reduce v to thermometric temperature by means of the equation v = A (1 — ain) which is not strictly accurate except for the air thermometer; and we determine the constants from thermometers 3 and 5. The following are the results: 0) 1 2 3 A 5 6 7 90°3 27°7 17-2 11°25 e9 4°6875 Qo 86 It may be proper to remark, that although we have adopted MM. Dulong and Petit’s value of a, we are aware that for radiation in air, so far as the formula approximates to the circumstances, this value of a is too small. (2.) The next experiment given by M. Biot (p. 673) is the following: A bar of iron was held for many hours plunged in melting lead. The ves- sel containing the lead was heated from below by means of a lamp and cur- rent of air. To prevent the temperature from increasing, a small bar of ON THE CONDUCTION OF HEAT. : a? unmelted lead was kept constantly in the vessel. The temperature of the air was kept uniformly at 18°°125. The unit of length was taken as the distance between the first and second thermometers. The following table contains the results : No. of therm. Dist. from extremity. Temperature above air. 1 2:23077 76°875 gZ 3:23077 AT1875 3 4°12019 29°375 4 5:08172 17°8125 5 6:02883 10°625 6 7°89903 3°75 7 9°78363 1°5625 I, The result of calculation on the first hypothesis, the errors being ar- ranged so that there shall be the smallest possible total error amongst the first four thermometers, is given by M. Biot as follows: __ ] 2 3 4: 5 6 rf 70575 46°7625 29°275 17-975 117125 4°3125 1°6625 II. On the second hypothesis the values of the constants are A = 2069 and log e 7 = — -20955, as determined from the first and third thermometers. The table is as follows: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 76°875 46°07 29°375 18°22 1144, 46 1°85 III. By the third hypothesis, retaining the value of g given by the second, we get y — 2m = :003206, a result probably too great ; and there arises the following table : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 76875 47°76 29°375 18°23 11°45 46 1°85 IV. The computations on the fourth hypothesis give 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 76°875 45°2 29'°375 18°74 12°34 5°73 245 By selecting other observations to determine the constants, we might, had it been requisite, have made the results more conformable in this case. (3.) M. Biot’s third experiment was made ona bar of copper, plunged at one extremity into melting lead. It carried fourteen thermometers, of which, however, eleven only were available. The unit of distance was 101 milli- metres, and the temperature of the surrounding air 15°75°. The following table exhibits the result : No. of therm. Dist. from extremity. Temperature above air. 4: 5°25 80°5 5 6°25 65°75 6 7°25 53°15 7 8°25 43°75 8 9°25 ; 35°5 9 11°25 24 10 13°25 15°77 1] 15°25 11: 12 17°25 75 13 19°25 5°25 14 21°25 3°75 I. The results of M. Biot’s computation, so as to give the smallest possible amount of error amongst the thermometers 4, 5, 6 and 7, are 4. 5 6 {i 8 9 10 11 12 18-14 aan Doar 53°82 43°8 35°75 23°81 15°85 10°56 7:03 468 3:12 - Cc 18 REPORT—1841. IJ. On the second hypothesis A = 199°57 and log e 4 = — 08278, and the following are the results : 4 5 6 i 8 9 10 11 es cs | 80°5 65°34 53°32 43°6 35°72 24:07 163 11:06 752 S12 349 III. M. Poisson’s method, when the value of e~% deduced from the pre- ceding hypothesis is retained, gives y — 2m = :0031825; and we have 4 5 6 dh 8 9 10 ah ena 13.14 80°5 65°55 535 43°75 35°84 2415 16°35 11:09 7°54 S15 35 IV. The fourth hypothesis gives 4 5 6 i 8 9 10 11 12 Sis’ Ts SEO Gh worn 49°51 355 24°" 68S 11:39" ob es The next series of experiments similar to the above we obtain from the work of M. Despretz, entitled ‘ Traité de Physique.’ The author read be- fore the Academy of Sciences in 1821 a memoir, the object of which is to measure in a number of substances the conductive power relative to heat. It is published in the ‘ Mémoires des Scavans Etrangers.’ An account of it ap- pears in the ‘ Annales de Chimie,’ t. xix. (1821) p.97, by M. Fourier, and it is extracted in works referred to above (1825). We have added the exa- mination of the four formule by means of these experiments. We shall find that they all come very wide of the results, even in cases differing in no ap- parent particular from those given by M. Biot. This is remarkable, for all the formulz agree well with M. Biot’s experiments. To what cireumstance can we attribute this fact? It cannot be supposed that the presence of the air should vitiate one series of experiments without affecting the other, in which everything else is similar. We can only suggest, that the bars whose conducting powers were examined, were not sufficiently long to be regarded as infinite. Unfortunately M. Despretz does not mention their length. The experiments were as follows: (4.) The stationary excesses of temperature above that of the air, at dif- ferent points of a bar of copper taken at equal distances from each other, were found to be as follows: . No. ofther.... 1 2 3 A 5. 6 Exe. of temp. 66°36 46°28 32°62 2432 18°63 1618 The temperature of the air was 17:08°, and the distance between two con- secutive thermometers ten centimetres. The following are the calculated results, by the four hypotheses respect- ively, using in each case the results of the first and third thermometers for the determination of the constants. I, 1 2 3 4 5 6 66°36 46°45 32°62 22°83 15°98 11°19 Il. Here e~7*714 and A = 61°54. 1 2 3 4 5 6 66°36 46°45 32°62 22:83 15°98 L1i-29 III. e~4is assumed to be equal to °714, and y — 2m is determined to be 003271. 1 2 3 4: 5 6 66°36 46°28 32°62 23 16°3 11°47 LV save 2 3 4: 5 6 66°36 46 32°62 23°5 Li 12'5 (5.) A bar of iron circumstanced as the preceding. The temperature of the air was 17°34°. No. of therm.... 1 2 3 4 5 6 Exc.of temp.... 629 $8669 2052 1232 819 6°61 ON THE CONDUCTION OF HEAT. 19 Calculations. I. t 2 3 4: 5 6 62:9 35°92 20°52 11°72 6°7 3°83 II. Gives e~9 = -589, A = 58°7, and 1 2 3 4: 5 6 62:9 36°37 20°52 12:17 75 402 b 2 IL. Assuines 9 = -589, and gives = (y = 2m) = 5-2708. 1 2 3 Ai 5 6 62:9 357 20°52 11-98 i 4c] yes 1 2 3 4 5 6 Gao i OO _ 20°52 12°28 74: 4:7 (6.) A bar of pewter. The temperature of the air = 17:34°. No. of therm.... 1 2 2 ia A Exc. of temp.... 63°41 35°17 21°52 15°52 Calculations. I. 1 2 3 4: 63°41 36°93 21°52 12°5 II. Gives log e~7 = — -22408 and A = 58°83. 1 2 3 4. é 63-41 36:69 21°52 12°73 2 III. Assumes log e” 7 = — +29408, and gives = (y — 2m) = 4683. 1 2 3 4: 63°41 36°72 21°52 12°7 IV. 1 2 3 4: 6341 36°14 21°52 13°18 (7.) A bar of zine. The temperature of the air = 5:62°. No. of therm.... 1 2 3 4 Exc. of temp.... 64°17 38°02 25°43 17°93 Calculations. £ I 2 3 4 64°17 4.0°4 25°43 16°01 II. Gives log e~7 = — -19184, A = 59°64. 1 2 3 4: 64°17 40°21 25°43 16°17 62 III. Assumes log e~7 = — -19184, and gives 3 (y= 2m) = 4656. 1 2 3 4: 64°17 40°2 25°43 16°18 IV. 1 2 3 4 64°17 39°69 25°43 16°6 (8.) A bar of lead. The temperature of the air = 17-12°. No. of therm. ... 1 2 3 4 Exe. of temp.... 65°13 29°42 14°93 9°99 Calculations. I, 1 2 3 4 65°13 31:18 14°93 7:18 II. Gives loge? = = 30776, A = 60°45. 1 Z 3 4: 65°13 30°89 14°93 7°38 og 20 REPORT—1841. III. Assumes loge” 7 = — +30776, and gives < (y —2m) = 4511. 1 2 D 4 65°13 30°9 14°93 7:27 INE 1 2 3 4 65°13 30°12 14°93 75 (9.) A bar of white marble. The temperature of the air = 17:15°. No. of therm. ... 1 2 3 4A: Exe. of temp.... 63°91 6:08 1:95 1-47 Calculations. I. 1 2 3 4 63°91 11°16 1°95 3406 II. Gives log e 1 = — 74949, A = 59°40. 1 2 3 4 63°91 10:9 1:95 "352 III. Assumes log e 4 = — 74249, and gives a (y —2m) = *644. 1 2 3 A 63°91 11°35 195 379 IV. 1 2 | 4 63°91 10°18 1-95 ‘37 Of the other formule which have been tested by experiment we do not make much account, since it is our impression that the experiments were con- ducted rather with a view to 2lustrate the formule than to try the validity of the principles on which they depend. We instance the following: it is taken from Fourier’s Memoir, which contains several others, ‘ Mém. de l’In- stitut,’ tom. v. p. 217. See also Kelland, ‘Theory of Heat,’ p. 60. Three thermometers were placed at different points of a solid ring, at in- tervals of one-eighth of the circumference: a fourth was so placed that the third lay midway between it and the first. The temperatures observed were 66°, 507°, 44°, and 34°353° + 172°, respectively. The equation which results from formula (3) is == = (A=) —2, : 3 where v,, v... are the excesses of temperature of the different thermometers above that of the air. By computation, it appears that the first side of this equation is 3°140, and the second 3°143, a difference hardly appreciable. The second and third hypotheses give formule which are merely correc- tions on the first. In this case, therefore, no correction is required. In computing the result on the fourth hypothesis, our equation is tee eae a ¢ a ot am l—a® 1l- a ® and the first side is equal to 2-96, the second to 2°875; a coincidence which, though not so close as the former, is very far within the error due to the effect of the air. We are almost inclined to believe that the very closeness of the coincidence by the former process proves the incorrectness of the for- mula to represent what it is intended to express. We are now, in the last place, to exhibit the results of an experiment of a different kind, and one which, had it been well made, we should have deemed most important. It is taken from M. Biot’s work, ‘Traité de Physique,’ iv.676. ON THE CONDUCTION OF HEAT. 91 (10.) A rod composed of a mixture of tin and bismuth in equal portions, which melts at the temperature of boiling water, was plunged at one extre- mity into a basin of mercury. The mercury was kept successively for a long time at different constant temperatures, by means of a lamp placed below it. A thermometer was adjusted to the other extremity of the rod, in a little cap- sule filled with mercury. Observations of the temperature indicated by this thermometer, corresponding with each stated temperature of the mercury in the basin, were made, when the state had become stationary. The following table exhibits the corresponding excesses of temperature of the mercury and of the thermometer above that of the air. The latter was 20°. Excess of temp. at heated end | 10°25 | 19°75 | 29°25 |49 | 69°75 | 80 Corresp. excess at other extr’. | 3 55 8 LOD LL '7 a: Wao Before we compare this table with theory, it is right that we express our belief that there has been some mistake in the observations. We think this will be made out when it is seen that the following is the order of elevations of the upper thermometer, due to elevations of temperature of the heated end. For the first 10°:25 the thermometer rose 3°; For the second 95 the thermometer rose 2°°5 ; For the third 9°5 the thermometer rose 275; in which the rise of the thermometer is nearly, but not quite, proportionate to that of the mercury; but For the fourth 19°°5 the thermometer rose only 2°5. This we think very unlikely. We should expect to find the proportion of the increase of temperature of the thermometer to that of the mercury continually diminish as the absolute temperature increases. The following are, however, the ratios as given by the above table: 1 1 iP i 1 l 3146’) 38? . 38? 79?) 166? 13°66" If this be correct, the law is discontinuous. Calculations. M. Biot gives the following results as calculated by an empirical formula : 1 2 3 4 3°7 6°18 8 10°37 Mo I. From formula 10, v = Cu. 1 2 3 4: 5 6 3 5°78 8°56 14°34: 20°41 23°41 Il. and III. On Libri’s or Poisson’s hypothesis we have approximately (from 12 and 13) v= Cu — Du If we apply experiments (3.) and (5.) to obtain the constants C and D, there results 1 2 3 4: 3 6 4°06 5°86 8 10:03 11°75 12 av. 1 2 3 4: 5 6 2°9 4°61 6°66 10°5 14 15°68 It must be observed here, that we have only one constant to be determined by experiment. We must not expect, therefore, to find so close an agree- ment as when we have two. We are not ignorant that there are a vast number of experiments on radia- tion and conduction to which we have not referred. Our reason for omit- ting the mention of some of the most valuable is, that we desire to confine our attention strictly to the matter in hand—the examination of theoretical formule by experiments calculated to test their accuracy, 22 REPORT—1841. III. We hasten, then, to the third part of our Report. We propose very briefly to reflect on the consequences deducible from the computations we have entered into; and to conelude by adding a few remarks tending to sug- gest the proper mode of conducting experiments which shall serve a better purpose in effecting the object of establishing theory. We may observe then, 1st, that experiments on the permanent state of temperature at different points of a long bar of a good conducting substance, and which radiates into air, are utterly valueless in this matter. ‘To prove this, we will write down the difference between the calculated and observed values of the temperature for a. few cases. Exp. I, Therm. 0 Le ea pee el oo, 5 6 | 7 Formulal,| 65 | 0 |-2 | 0 |-25 |-375 |-sa5 |-6195 I. | 295 | 0 |-1 | 0 |-9975 |-3975 | -4675 | -58 | 0 | 0 |-98 |-11 | -1375 | -2575 | 3975 | «56 Iv. | 405 |1-675 1-3 | 0 |-0025| 0 |-1875 | -34 It is altogether impossible to decide which is the best formula from these results.. Apparently Formula I. is as good as any of them, and yet we are sure, @ priorz, that it.is absolutely erroneous. The ratios of the error to the whole temperature when greatest are, for the different formule, I. -49, Il. +465, III. +458, IV. 272. These ratios are very considerable, and as they all arise at the point of greatest distance from the heated extremity, they prove clearly enough that the effect due to the presence of the air is far greater than that which arises from the difference of radiation between Newton’s law and the law of nature. But even if experiments of this kind were made in a vacuum, it is probable that the law of change would be found to remain so uniform as to admit of its being represented by either of the equations resulting from the second, third, or fourth hypothesis. Nor will our conclusions be more satisfactory on referring to M. Despretz’s experiments. Let us write down the errors in Exe. V. Therm. 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0/6 | 1:49 | 2°78 0) 0 (14) 69. |. 2°41 Il. | 0 92.10 | 334 | 1:19 | 2:51 Onda? 3) Ou eO4 69.) UG Formula I. The maximum ratios of the error to the whole temperature are I. -42, IL. +36, ITI. +37, IV. °28. We must remark again, that this experiment, as contrasted with the fore- going, presents us with most anomalous results. Both were made on a bar of iron; the temperature of the surrounding air was nearly the same in both ; the extreme temperatures of the former lie beyond those of the latter on each side; and yet the former verifies, or nearly so, all the formule,—the latter disproves them all. We trust neither; nor do we think the difference can be attributed to the coating with which the iron was furnished in the second experiment, although that might produce some effect. We feel, therefore, ‘ ON THE CONDUCTION OF HEAT. 93 utterly unable to draw any conclusion from these experiments. We shall experience the same difficulty if we proceed to examine the other results in the same way. If we confined our attention to experiments (1.), (2.) and (3.), we might conclude that all the formule are correct; if to (8.) and (9.), we should certainly conclude that ald are incorrect. Nor is it easy to say which is the best from the former test, or which is the worst from the latter. Seeing, then, that agreement with experiment is no test of truth, it is not too much to argue that disagreement is no test of error. We must eliminate the effect of the air, or be provided with experiments 7m vacuo, before we can form our conclusions, unless we can be furnished with experiments of a much more searching character than these. 2. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the insufficiency of the class of experiments which was made by M. Fourier, and of which we have exhi- bited one specimen. The results for the ring, it is true, are not so obvious that they might be deduced from popular reasoning, and we must give M. Fourier great credit for selecting these results in order to show the agree- ment of his theory with experiment; but as we are now in want of a means of disproving rather than of establishing theories, we must look for results of a totally different character. We shall point out where such are to be found by and by. 3. We think we may consider that experiment (10.) shows the inaccuracy of the first formula; it fails, however, to give any preference to one of the other three. The table of errors is as follows: No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 I. O |:28| 56 | 4°84 | 866 | 10°91 II. & III. | 1:06 | *36 0) roe 0) oa) IV, ‘1 *89 | 1°34 0) 2:25 | 3°18 ‘The maximum ratio of error to the whole temperature is I. *87, II. & III. -35, IV. °25. It is needless to comment on these results. None of them are sufficiently close to warrant any favourable conclusion, and the first is so wide, that, were there no other reasons, we should on this account be disposed to reject the corresponding formula, and with it the axioms on which it depends. We do not know that any other remarks are called for by a review of the results of theory as contrasted with experiment. What, then, does the whole amount to? We find that there are three distinct ways of theorizing, each adopted, apparently, in accordance with the known laws of nature, but which differ essentially from each other. We do not perceive that our existing ex- periments bear with greater weight in establishing or in disproving any one of them than it does in establishing or disproving the other two. ach is confirmed by one experiment, each at variance with another. Are we to account for this circumstance from the difficulty of conducting the requisite experiments, or are we not rather to attribute the anomaly to the little re- gard which has of late years been paid to a certain class of subjects, and especially to the one before us? We are not aware that it has suggested itself to any one experimental philosopher to examine into the laws of conduction. Much labour, it is true, has been bestowed in examining the conductive pow- ers of different substances, and to the results of experiments carried on with this object we naturally look with the hope of extracting a law; but, unfor- tunately, the nature of the experiments we are presented with is not such as 94 REPORT—1841. will lead to what we seek. They were not originally conducted with refer- ence to the state of things assumed to exist in theory, and are, in conse- quence, of less value when allowance is made for the difference between what they express and what theory requires. Now we do not deny that difficulties do attend the experimental examination of this subject, when it is intended to make everything correspond with the state supposed in theory. The chief and greatest of these we conceive to arise from the presence of the air. MM. Dulong and Petit have shown that the quantity of heat carried off by the air is not only very large, but is governed by a law very different from that of ordinary radiation. Means have therefore to be devised for removing this cause of error; but we are far from thinking that the difficulty of effect- ing this amounts to an impossibility. If MM. Dulong and Petit could suc- ceed in determining the rates of cooling of a body iz vacuo, we cannot see why others should not succeed in observing the stationary temperature at one point, at least, of a body which radiates in vacuo. This leads us to the sug- gestions with which we shall conclude the present Report. We shall offer two: Ist, as to the most important experiments ; 2ndly, as to the mode by which they may be conducted. It is perhaps chargeable against the theoretical writers on this branch of physics, and especially against M. Poisson, that they have not presented their results in a form sufficiently tangible to direct or suggest the application of experiment to them. It is much to be regretted that no attempt has been made to obviate this. With the view of remedying the state of things toa certain extent, we have exhibited in their most simple forms some of the more obvious conclusions to which the different theories lead. No doubt much might be done in this way, but, until called for by the entry of expe- rimenters on the field, a large and varied collection of formule would serve no useful purpose. One class of experiments alone appears amply to suffice for our present purpose. The object being, to discover a law of conduction, it will be best attained by the selection of circumstances in which radiation either plays no part at all, or in which its effect is very simple and readily eliminated. The former condition exists in the problem which is solved by formulz 1,15 and16. By selecting a substance of small conducting power, such as marble, and coating the block with a substance which will radiate very slowly, this experiment may be made on a block of no very great di- mensions. For many reasons this experiment is well worth trying. It will probably distinguish at once between the three theories. It will certainly offer strong reasons for rejecting either the third or the fourth. Of course it will hardly serve to establish directly either of them. To effect this, we would point out another most important experiment,— The determination of the state of temperature at one extremity of a bar which is heated at the other eatremity. This experiment should be made on a variety of bars, of different conducting powers and of different lengths. With a set of careful experi- ments of this nature, we believe we could pronounce, without fear, the true law of conduction. Nor do we think the difficulties attendant on the con- duct of the experiments to be at all insuperable. - The greatest obstacle is, no doubt, the expense of apparatus; but where we find expense overruled in the prosecution of experimental researches into less important and certainly not more interesting branches of physics, where theory has hardly opened a field for speculation, and where curiosity alone prompts the inquiry, it must excite our surprise that so little has been done in this case, which presents analytical developments of great beauty, and, independently of its close con- nexion with the favourite theories of light and the discoveries of chemistry, . deserves to rank high amongst the physico-mathematical sciences. But, ON THE CONDUCTION OF HEAT. 95 leaving expense out of the question, the real practical obstacle is the presence of the air. We have seen that the daw of cooling into air is different from that of radiation. Even supposing, therefore, we were in possession of the correct statement of that law, such would be the difficulty of obtaining for- mule from it, that to attempt to eliminate its effect, together with that of radiation, is almost hopeless. If it can be done at all, it must be by means of experiments carried on in air of different elasticities. It has been proved by MM. Dulong and Petit, that “the velocity of cooling of a body due to the sole contact in a gas, depends, for the same excess of temperature, on the density and temperature of the gas; but this dependence is such that the velocity of cooling remains the same if the density and the temperature of the gas change in such a way that the elasticity remains constant.” The effect, then, of the presence of the air is to introduce a term which involves a power of the elasticity as one factor, and a function of the excess of tem- perature as another. The latter function may be determined (perhaps) by means of a number of experiments made at different elasticities. But we should greatly prefer a set of experiments on radiation 7 vacuo. It appears to us, that the difficulty in this case is very much the same as that against which MM. Dulong and Petit had to contend in investigating the kindred law of radiation; and we should conceive that a similar contrivance to that which they used might be adopted to overcome it. All that we require is, that a certain portion of a bar heated at one extremity, radiate 7 vacuo, and that the temperature at two of its points, the other extremity being one, be capable of constant observation. MM. Dulong and Petit made use of a cop- per balloon which could be exhausted of air, and by means of ice be kept constantly to the freezing temperature, notwithstanding the radiation of the _ heat from the body within it. A somewhat similar contrivance we conceive would serve for the conduct of the experiment before us. The bar of metal to be experimented on might pass through the balloon and be heated in air, whilst the assumed point of heating might be marked by a thermometer in- serted into a hole in the bar just within the balloon. We wish M. Biot had marked his lowest point, not at the surface of the heated mercury, but at a point a little above it; it would have insured greater steadiness in the re- sults. Should any one think of undertaking this experiment, we would recommend that he extend his observations over a wider range of tempera- tures than M. Biot has done. The thermometer which represents the heated end of the bar should stand permanently at every 5°, from 0° to as high as can be accomplished. It must be borne in mind, that two at least of the ob- servations are requisite for the determination of the constants, except in the case of formula 14. The observations should likewise embrace a succession of bars of different substances, iron, brass, lead; etc., all of the same dimen- sions. Different series of observations should be made, in which the dimen- sions of the bars have different constant magnitudes, and others in which they have different lengths. All the substances might be coated with the same varnish, so as to render their radiating powers the same. With such experi- ments, we have no doubt that the law of conduction, although not like the Jaw of radiation, an inference from direct observation, might be readily esta- blished, and the science of heat placed on the same footing with the other mathematical sciences. We hope that the Association, in making known the wants of this branch of philosophy, will induce some of the numerous distin- guished experimental philosophers whose names appear on their list, to take an interest in this matter. Pe 26 REPORT—1841. Report on Poisons. By G. L. Rourery, M.D. F.RS._ Tue complexity of the functions of the animal body, and their liability to disturbance from a number of causes, must be apparent to the most super- ficial observer. To those who endeavour to explain what takes place during the disturbed performance of the vital actions, many difficulties present them- selves; opposite causes occasion one common and similar result, and the same agent will produce very different effects under circumstances apparently analogous. Whilst, however, there may be thus many conflicting processes exhibited to us, we are satisfied that there are leading principles and general laws in operation which it is our great aim to seek for and discover. We cannot avoid allowing the proposition, “That under actually corresponding circumstances similar effects must ensue.” Should then differences exist in the effects of any substance upon the system, as a poison for example, we naturally refer them to modifying influences ; at the same time that we explain the production of similar effects from opposite causes, by the agency of funda- mental principles, proving simplicity in the laws which regulate our frames. The object of my former communications has been to illustrate the effects of those poisons which induce an alteration in the vascularity of the different tissues with which they may come in contact, and to portray the appear- ances exhibited by dissection: on the present occasion some views will be stated concerning the operation of an agent which is constantly eliminated from the system, the effects of which, although not indicated by obvious local changes or capable of elucidation by drawings, appear nevertheless to be highly deserving of consideration and study. Carbonic acid is the agent alluded to; one highly interesting, first, from its producing very marked and injurious consequences if applied in any way to the human body, either in- ternally or externally ; secondly, from its immediate connection with one highly important function of our system; thirdly, from the analogy of its effects with some most serious maladies; and fourthly, from the causes which influence its secretion. It cannot here be requisite to insist upon the necessity for the rejection of all effete matter from the body, or to show the importance of the changes per- petually going on in the circulating fluids. These points will readily be con- ceded to me; nor will the mischief be questioned arising from the presence of certain principles in the blood, such as bile or urea; but, while these sub- stances have deservedly occupied much attention of late, we are neglectful of an agent far more injurious. The ducts of the liver may be partially, if not entirely closed, for months; the kidneys may be removed, or the secretion of urine may be suspended for more than a week, yet life during that time may be preserved ; but should the elimination of carbonic acid from the lungs be prevented for a few minutes, nay, only for a few seconds, life will be placed in imminent peril, if not irrevocably destroyed. We are well aware that carbonic acid is generated by various processes, for example, by decomposition, both of animal and vegetable bodies, by com- bustion, by fermentation, as well as by the respiratory apparatus. We are also aware that plants yield it by night; that it is exhaled from the earth in certain situations, and that it is disengaged by chemical action, from com- pounds of which it forms an ingredient. We are certainly ready to admit that air charged with this gas, from whatever source it may be produced, is positively and highly detrimental. Sir Humphry Davy deemed it not beneath his notice to investigate the condition of the atmosphere rendered impure by persons crowding together in large or public assemblies, and showed that carbonic acid was present in excess in the vitiated air of such meetings. The ON POISONS. 27 experiments of MM. Allen and Pepys, Lavoisier and Seguin, Davy and Ber- zelius, concerning the exact quantity of this gas evolved during respiration, still occupy the attention of the scientific world; but its effects upon the system seem to me to be yet greatly overlooked and disregarded. The injurious consequences which it produces to those who, by accident or design, may be exposed to its effects, have led to less useful results, practically, than might have been anticipated from the nature of the symptoms, and the interesting phenomena which result from its action. Year after year numbers flock to witness the experiment of submitting a wretched animal to the deadly atmo- sphere of the “Grotto del Cane,” without drawing those deductions, or de- riving that advantage from its sufferings, which alone can palliate or justify their infliction. Carbonic acid has many sources out of the body, and it is abundantly fur- nished by respiration. The lungs, however, are by no means its only outlet from the animal body. It is given off by the skin, it is secreted as well by the serous as mucous membranes*, points of much interest, not only as afford- ing an example of vicarious action, but as explanatory of various bodily dis- orders. It cannot here be necessary to controvert old errors respecting the source of the carbonic acid yielded by respiration, nor to dwell upon the more probable views of modern times. The opinions and experiments of Mr. Edwards, which prove that this acid is extricated from the lungs, although no oxygen is respired+, the observations of Professor Magnus, and his con- clusions that all blood contains carbonic acid, the belief of Miiller that the quantity held in solution in itt is sufficiently large to account for the whole exhaled by the lungs, are facts well known to all whom it is my pleasure to address. Thus we find that a most important series of changes takes place during the circulation of the blood leading to the formation of carbonic acid, which is set free from various surfaces, chiefly, however, from the parietes of the air-cells, which allow it to pass through them in order to be exhaled§. Next we find that many circumstances greatly influence the amount of this gas yielded by respiration ; these may be ranked in two classes, one of which may be considered as natural or regular, the other as accidental or abnor- mal. With regard to the first of these, to the regular performance of the functions of the system, we find that more carbonie acid is eliminated during the day than by night ; that it increases at day-break, and diminishes at sun- set|j; that it is produced in larger quantity by exercise and during digestion ; and, what is extremely interesting, we see a tendency to equilibrium in the whole amount; for if given off in excess at one time, at another it will, as a consequence, be lessened. With regard to the second class of circumstances which influence the secretion, we find that it is diminished by depressing passions, debilitating causes, low diet, and injuries to the par vagumq. If we now look to the actual effects of carbonic acid, when placed in con- tact with the living body, many interesting consequences result which serve _ to indicate its use in the human economy, and its agency in disease. It imparts an acid taste, produces a sense of burning in the uvula**, and acts instantaneously as a powerful irritant to the muscles of the larynx, occasion- ing by their spasmodic action the complete and firm closure of the glottis tt. Applied externally to the skin, or taken into the stomach, it occasions giddi- ness, pain and weight in the head, obscurity of sight, and ringing in the ears{}. * Mayo, Phys., pp. 120, 131. Mayo, Path., 336. Miiller, Phys., 556. Robert Lee, Cy- cloped. Pract. Med. vol. iv. p. 383. t Mayo, Phys., p. 63. t Miiller, p. 328. § Miller, p. 330. \| Miiller, ibid. q Brodie, Phil. Trans., ¢. ii, p. 390, ** Davy on Nit. Ox., p. 472. Christison on Poisons, 3rd ed., 745. +f Ibid. tt Collard de Martigni, Archives, 211. Christison, 2nd ed., pp. 703-706. 28 REPORT—1841. Inhaled by the breath, it is well known to produce serious and alarming symptoms, varying as the gas may be more or less diluted. The following experiments show its effects when injected into the vessels. ExpERIMENT I.— To show the Effect of Carbonic Acid injected into the Veins. Two fluid ounces (by measure) of this gas, prepared by the action of di- luted hydrochloric acid upon chalk, were collected over water, and thrown slowly, by a syringe, into the external saphena vein of a strong dog. Almost immediately afterwards the animal exhibited signs of uneasiness, uttered cries of distress, became convulsed, lost its consciousness, and appeared to be dying ; it felt, however, the stimulus of cold water when thrown upon it, and quickly recovered upon being removed into the fresh air. It thus is capable of producing a powerful impression on the system, when thrown into the veins even in a small quantity. Still more marked results ensued when it was introduced into an artery, as was shown in the next ex- periment. ExpERIMENT II.—To show the Effects of Carbonic Acid when thrown into the Carotid Artery. The left external carotid artery was exposed in the same dog, and a small tube was introduced into it, a ligature having previously been applied to prevent hemorrhage: a fluid ounce and a half (by measure) of carbonic acid was then thrown in. This was done gently, but it was necessary to discon- tinue the experiment, in consequence of the animal becoming convulsed and foaming at the mouth. After forty seconds it seemed to recover ; but again relapsed, lost all consciousness and power of movement, was quite insensible, and lay as if dead upon the floor. At intervals of a few minutes it was seized with attacks of violent spasms. This alternation of stupor and convulsions continued for four hours, when the animal regained its senses, the power of its limbs, and appeared afterwards to suffer no inconvenience. M. Nysten considers that the effects witnessed on throwing carbonic acid into the vessels arise from the distension of the right side of the heart; this seems, however, questionable in the experiment just detailed, as the gas was in- jected slowly in a direction from the heart, and produced other symptoms than those described as arising from the simple admixture of air with venous blood*. This eminent experimentalist certainly errs in considering that carbonic acid is not itself intrinsically poisonous. It cannot be necessary to pause in order to refute this idea, but it is worth while to mention the diver- sity in its effects: some speak of experiencing a lively sensation of pleasure on respiring it ; others, of the sensation of a gentle heat and perspiration ; and Sir Humphry Davy said he could answer, from his own experience, that no pain precedes the insensibility occasioned by breathing gases un- fitted for supporting life+. In general, however, vertigo, head-ache, accele- rated pulse, hurried breathing, palpitation of the heart, tendency to sleep, ending in complete loss of consciousness, with convulsions, mark its effects during life; whilst retention of the warmth of the body, flexibility of the limbs, fluidity and blackness of the blood, characterise after death the bodies of those poisoned by this gas. If we now turn to those diseases, the leading symptoms of which bear resem- blance to the effects of carbonic acid, we find them to be such as prevent the proper arterialization of the blood, emphysema of the lungs, diseases of the heart; or, to be brief, all such as impede respiration, in which cases we find hebetude of mind, torpor of body, inclination to doze, spasmodic respiratory * Mayo, Phys., p. 72. + Salmonia, p. 112. ON POISONS. 29 movements, and the tendency to convulsive muscular action. It is not, in truth, novel to refer these symptoms to the accumulation of carbon in the system ; but, close as the similarity in many respects undoubtedly is in these instances, the disorder in which we have the nearest resemblance, and which seems as if it were its true prototype, is still the Opprobrium Medicorum. We have in the symptoms produced by carbonic acid, the counterpart of those exhibited in epilepsy ; no less instantaneous is the attack of this appalling malady, than are the effects of the sudden closure of the glottis by the irri- tation of the choke damp, or other exposure to fixed air, by persons descend- ing into vats, or breathing the gas given off by fermentation. Plunge an animal into it, or inject it into the veins, and we can at will produce epilepsy with all its terrific features and depressing consequences. The curious coincidence of the diminished secretion of this acid from the lungs, towards evening, when the natural tendency to sleep comes on; the increase in its quantity at day-break, when epileptic seizures are most likely to occur; the hurried and spasmodic respiration, when it is present in excess, are valid arguments for the belief that it may be an active agent in exciting both healthy and disordered functions. Carbonic acid acts upon the medulla oblongata, for it annihilates volition and consciousness, which have their seat in this portion of the nervous centres. The medulla oblongata also, be it observed, is the source of the respiratory movements*. How these are called into action we are yet in doubt; that they may be excited primarily and throughout life by the stimulus of car- bonie acid, is advanced as a conjecture, which derives abundant support from the analogy of other excretions. Minute details would here be out of place, or the quantity of this gas, capable of producing injurious consequences, and the peculiarities of indivi- duals rendering them especially liable to its influence, might be entered into. Suffice it, that extremely minute portions of gaseous bodies, as shown in the instance of the edour of musk, or the fragrance of flowers, is enough to pro- duce the most decided effects. It were tedious to enter into collateral inquiry, or to combat objections which may be advanced against the ideas thus submitted to the Association. It is doubtless extraordinary that an acid should be formed in the blood, and given off, instead of combining with-the alkali of the serum. The insensibi- lity of animals confined in nitrogen or hydrogen gases, in which the quantity of carbonic acid nearly equals that by natural respiration, may be otherwise explained ; new combinations may form; carburetted hydrogen, for instance, may be generated, which would itself poison the animal ; and we should not forget the fact, that the insensibility, occasioned under the circumstances alluded to, is found to be much more easily dissipated than that which arises from the prevention of the escape of carbonic acid from the body. From this we might pass on to various spasmodic disorders, but it were perhaps premature to say anything further on this head; only one more point shall be noticed in connection with this subject, and that is the resemblance in the effects of narcotic poisons to those arising from carbonic acid. Reflec- tions upon these facts have led me to think that this gas may play an essential part in the phenomena exhibited by narcotics, a class of substances, the operation of which is so little understood, but the action of which is ob- viously upon the functions of the system, rather than upon the vascularity of its organs. It has long been laid down as a rule, that opium is not to be ex- hibited when the blood is not properly aérated or decarbonised. Many experiments have been made by me to ascertain whether any difference * Miiller, pp. 348, 351, 827, 918. 30 REPORT—1841. existed in the quantity of carbonic acid given off from the system, when under the influence of opium. With this view the quantity eliminated before and after a dose of this drug had been taken, has been repeatedly measured. The experiments were performed by breathing through a solution of pure potassa, and by weighing the result, as well as extricating the carbonic acid acquired. It is unnecessary to enumerate the modifications in the apparatus used, in order completely to separate the watery vapour, to prevent the chloride of calcium employed for this purpose from descending into the potassa and negativing the result, to obviate the escape of minute portions of the solution of potassa on passing the expired air through it ; the conclu- sion arrived at is, that much more carbonic acid is given off simultaneously with the production of the effects of opium. Not only is the number of re- spirations increased, and thus more is eliminated, but in an equal number of respirations there was found to be an increase of at least one-tenth. The quantity of opium.taken was equivalent to a grain and a half of the extract, and the observation was made as soon as the effects (tightness of the fore- head, slight sensation of nausea, accelerated pulse, quickened breathing, and general feeling of tranquillity) were perceived. It were easy to show the gene- ral likeness of the action of narcotics to those produced by carbonie acid gas ; but to connect them with this last-named agent will require further inquiry. Allow me now, in conclusion, to state that the ideas expressed in this paper, are submitted with great deference to the Meeting; that they are advanced with the view of calling attention to certain interesting but obscure pheno- mena, and are forwarded in compliance with the desire of the Association. 15 Welbeck Street, July 1841. Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, performed by Mr. Bunt under the direction of the Rev. W. WuEwe.u, F.R.S. [With Plates 2, 3, 4, 5.] Tue careful and intelligent manner in which Mr. Bunt had conducted those Discussions of the Tides, on which the grants of the British Association in former years had enabled me to employ him, made me very desirous of continu- ing to profit by his labours, in order to bring, if possible, the ascertained laws of the tides nearer to the observations. With this view I applied at the last meeting for an additional grant of 50/.; and have now to report the pro- gress which has been consequently made in our tide discussions. We began by considering the possibility of improving the correction for lunar declina- tion, and the determination of the anterior epoch of the semimenstrual in- equality. But it did not appear very probable that any additional discus- sion of the observations which we had before us would give us any additional accuracy, commensurate with the great labour which must be undergone in making the trial. I was therefore the more ready to follow out a suggestion of Mr. Bunt’s, who wrote tome in January last that he had recently deter- mined to try whether he could perceive any effect on the heights of high water at Bristol produced by atmospheric pressure. He adds, “I accord- ingly arranged the errors of the calculated heights for 1840 in columns for every two-tenths of an inch of the barometer, observed contemporaneously: with the tide.” From a diagram given in his letter, the average effect appeared to be about 15 inches depression of high water to | inch rise of mercury in barometer. The consistency of these results leaves no doubt as to the fact of a sensible effect on the heights from this cause. In his letter, he adds, “Some subsequent trials ON DISCUSSIONS OF BRISTOL TIDES. 31 * gave nearly the same result, only a trifle ess in the depression of high water * for an inch rise of mercury. ‘The specific gravities of mercury and water “ being not far (if I recollect right) from this ratio of 14 or 15 to 1, it would “ seem that the ¢otal weight of the compound column of air and water raised “ by the force which produces the tide, remains nearly unaffected by the “ changes of atmospheric pressure. By introducing this new correction, there- “fore, a very considerable portion of our Residual Error is accounted for.” The barometric observations which Mr. Bunt used for finding the effects of atmospheric pressure on the heights of high water at Bristol, were those contained in the register kept at the Bristol Institution, which extended back to a period earlier than the commencement of the tide observations. As it had appeared that all the other effects of external forces upon the height and time of high water corresponded not to the forces at the moment of observation, but to a state of the forces at an anterior period, it occurred as possible that this might also be the case with the effect of the atmospheric pressure upon the height of the tide; and that the correction corresponding to this effect might be most accurately obtained by taking the state of the barometer at some period anterior to the time of high water ; for instance, twelve hours or twenty-four hours. If this were the case, we should be able to predict the effect of atmospheric pressure upon the tide, a day or half a day previous to the event. As this prospect gave an additional interest to the inquiry, I begged Mr. Bunt to try the comparative results of contempora- neous and:anterior epochs of the barometric observation. This he proceeded to do, by arranging various portions of our observations according to the heights of the barometer. The following is the account of the result. «« Bristol, Feb. 18, 1841. “JT send you diagrams of the effects of atmospheric pressure on the heights of high water for every tenth of an inch height of the barometer, from 292 or *3 inches to 30°4 or *5 inches, for the years 1834, 35, 39; barometer and tide contemporaneous. Also for the year 1834, barometer heights being twenty-four hours anterior to high water. Also for 1839, barometer 29-2, *3, *4, °5 inches to 30°2, ‘3, ‘45 inches, twelve hours anterior to high water. Also the mean of the three years, giving about 14 inches depression of tide to one inch rise of barometer. “JT have also taken the sums of the residues left after introducing the baro- meter correction, first, contemporaneously with high water, and secondly, at twenty-four hours anterior to high water, for the first six months of the year 1834, measuring the residue at about every high water. ‘The total re- sidues, in the two cases, were so nearly alike, as to leave it doubtful which epoch should be preferred. The diagram for 1834, made from observations of the barometer twenty-four hours anterior to high water, appears about as good as the one from contemporaneous observations of barometer and tide. The extreme groups, however, for 29:2, 3, *4 inches, ...... 30°4, °5, °6 inches barometer, approximate slightly towards the mean line: the same tendency appears in the double groups 29°2, 3, 4, *5 inches, ...... 30°2, ‘3, *4, 5 inches, for 1839, barometer observed contemporaneously with, and at twelve hours anterior to, high water. Hence I should be disposed to infer, that we do not improve the result by going back to an anterior epoch ; for I take it for granted that the true epoch is that which shows the greatest amount of elevation and depression of tide corresponding with the least and greatest heights of the barometer ; or that which makes the greatest angle of inclination between the line connecting the several points or groups, and the axis. “‘Thereis one peculiarity which I have noticed in these barometrical results, and in others which I obtained in my earlier trials, namely, that the effect 32 REPORT—1841. produced on the heights when the barometer is at any point below 29-4 inches or 29°5 inches, is always greater than the proportion for the greater heights of the barometer. I imagine this arises from the effect of wind, which generally follows a great depression of the barometer, and generally, with us, comes from the S.W.; so that an additional elevating cause comes into operation. This, however, is mere conjecture.” I then requested that, instead of arranging the observed heights according to the barometer, he would correct the observed heights for lunar and solar parallax and declination, and investigate the effect of atmospheric pressure on the residues ; still comparing the contemporaneous and the anterior epochs. The following was the result. “ March 17, 1841. “T send you the results of comparisons of the residues of height for 1834, 1835 and 1836, with the state of the barometer at different epochs. The heights were calculated earefully by numbers, using what I consider to be my best corrections for lunar and solar parallax and declination, and em- ploying the same corrections in each of the three years. The only correc- tion omitted was that for the diurnal inequality. The residues for 1834 were compared with the barometer contemporaneous, twelve hours anterior, twenty-four hours anterior, twenty-four hours posterior, and the extreme groups, with barometer, thirty-six hours anterior ; in order to find what pro- gressive changes of form the curves would thus be made to assume. The mean correction for one inch difference in height of barometer having been obtained, the proportional correction was applied to each observed height of high water, and the mean of all the errors (remaining after the barometrical correction) then taken for the whole year. In every instance the contempo- raneous barometer gives the best correction. Thus in 1834 the mean error remaining, after applying the barometrical correction, is 5°817 inches contemporaneous barometer. 6:085 inches barometer twelve hours anterior, 6°22] inches barometer twenty-four hours anterior, 6:248 inches barometer twenty-four hours posterior. “ These two latter epochs, the one anterior the other posterior, producing nearly equal errors, seem to show (like equal altitudes) that the truth lies midway between them. “In like manner, the mean residual error for 1835 is 5277 inches, barometer contemporaneous, 5'421 inches, barometer twelve hours anterior, 5°706 inches, barometer twenty-four hours anterior ; and for 1836 is 6:450 inches, barometer contemporaneous, 6°535 inches, barometer twenty-four hours anterior. ‘* The introduction of the correction for the contemporaneous barometer re- duces the mean error, previously remaining, about one-fourth, being as 1 : 0°753, for the whole of the year 1834; and as 1 : 0°705 for the year 1835. “The mean effect on the tide corresponding to a change of one inch in the mercurial column was carefully obtained, by taking into.account the number of observations in each parcel, so as to get the true average. The con- temporaneous barometer gives, in every instance (as shown in the diagrams), the greatest result: and in this case also equal differences from the maximum attend the anterior and posterior epochs for 1834—viz. 11 inches tide (instead of 13°4 inches) to one inch of mercury. ON THE DISCUSSION OF LEITH TIDE OBSERVATIONS. 33 “The mean depression of tide corresponding to 1 inch riseof barometer, is inches. LO ES ee ee 13*4 (contemporaneous barometer), TSS Hs lows ce 146 ( ditto ditto ), DSaoee tits es pt L1LO( ditto ditto ). Mean.... 13°3 for three years.” Thus this last investigation appears to have put a negative upon the supposition that the barometric correction of the height of high water cor- responds to an anterior epoch; for we cannot doubt the justice of the re- mark made by Mr. Bunt, that since not only the contemporaneous barometer gives the greatest result, but since also equal differences from the maximum . attend the epochs anterior and posterior by twenty-four hours, the contem- poraneous epoch must be the true one. And thus it appears that the effect of atmospheric pressure on the height of the tide is something local and im- mediate, not an effect transmitted in a finite time from some other place. I next wished Mr. Bunt to try how far the correction curves of height for lunar and solar parallax and declination would have been different if the barometric correction had been made first, before the heights were arranged for the other corrections. This also he undertook. The following is his communication on the subject. «* April, 1841. “IT send you new correction curves made from the observed heights in 1839, after having first cleared them of the effects of the changes of atmospheric pressure, allowing 134 inches of water to one inch difference in the barome- tric column. The greatest difference is in the solar declination curve at the hour 63 of transit. I hardly think this can be entirely owing to the atmo- spheric correction, but most likely to some difference in the working out of the new lunar corrections, especially that for declinations, with which the solar declination is almost inseparably mixed up in any short series of obser- vations. Indeed I can-scarcely see how the effects of the two kinds of decli- nation can be separated, with any certainty, about the hours of O® and 6" transit, except by taking two sets of observations, the one having the moon’s declination a maximum, and the other a minimum.” The very small differences between these correction curves in their former shape, and as modified by allowing for the barometric correction, might have been expected, since the barometric correction will, on the whole, compen- sate itself. The smallness of the differences is, however, evidence of the eare and consistency with which our results were formerly obtained. W. WHEWELL. Trinity College, Cambridge, July 1, 1841. Report on the Discussion of Leith Tide Observations, executed by Mr. D. Ross, of the Hydrographer’s Office, Admiralty, under the direc- tion of the Rev. W. WHEWELL. ALtnHoucH tables of the corrections of the heights and time of high water, due to lunar parallax and declination, have already been obtained for several places, (London, Liverpool, Plymouth, and Bristol) it is still desirable to cor- rect and confirm these results by the discussion of observations made at other places, especially if continued for a considerable series of years. Our methods of discussion and tabulation may admit of improvement, and new features may appear in the new results ; with these views I applied at the last meeting 41, D 34 REPORT—1841. of the Association for the sum of 50/. to enable Mr. Ross to complete the discussion of a series of tide observations made at Leith, extending from 1827 to 1839 inclusive, and now including 1840. This long series of years is ad- vantageous for the purpose of obtaining the declination correction ; since, in consequence of the motion of the moon’s nodes, the range of lunar declina- tion and the mean declination is very different in different years; as was stated in my Report on the subject, presented to the Association last year. The present Report will refer to a new mode of presenting the corrections of the height of high water for lunar parallax and declination. It has been shown by me in various memoirs that the correction of the height both for lunar parallax and declination is nearly the same for all the hours of moon’s transit. This being the case, the greater part of this correction may be ex- pressed by means of a table of double entry ; the two arguments being the moon's parallax and declination. Mr. Ross suggested to me the advantage of such a table, and has constructed it from the Leith observations, and it is laid before the Association along with the present Report. It appears by this table, when separated into the two parts dependent upon parallax and declination, that the parallax correction varies very exactly as the parallax; and that the declination correction applicable to declination 0°, varies very nearly as the square of the declination; results agreeing both with those obtained from the tide observations made at other places, and with the conse- quences of the equilibrium theory modified, as I have previously shown that it must be, in order to express the results of observation. As I have stated, the principal part of the correction of the height of high water for lunar parallax is constant for all hours of moon’s transit. But there is a further term of this correction, though a small one, which goes through a cycle of positive and negative values in the course of a semilunation. This has already appeared in the results of the London, Liverpool, Plymouth, and Bristol observations, and also agrees with the theory above referred to. A like result appears in the results of Leith tides by the discussions now reported, but at first sight with a remarkable difference. At Plymouth it appeared (Ninth Series of Tide Researches, Phil. Trans. 1838), that the correction for parallax is least when the hour of moon’s transit is 10", and greatest when the hour of moon’s transit is 4° or 5"; the mean parallax correction when the part depending on the hour of transit disappears, occurs at transit 1" and 7%. At Leith, on the contrary, the effect of the parallax is greatest when the transit is about 64, least when the transit is 04, and the mean value obtains when the transit is about 3% and 9". But this great difference in the results, which at first ap- pears to make the course of this correction nearly opposite at the different places, is, in fact, the result of the difference of the time which the original tide-wave employs in reaching Plymouth and Leith. This correction varies nearly as the sine of the double angle of the moon from the sun, minus a certain epoch. Or to be more exact, instead of the sine we may substitute a circular function, which vanishes, and is positive and negative when the sine is, but which does not exactly follow the law of the sine. If this function be called s, the term of which we are now speaking is, in the Plymouth tables, as s, 2 — 14"; in the Leith tables it is as s, 2.6 — 18". The difference of the epochs, 14" and 18", depends on the time of transmission of the tide from Plymouth to Leith. This is further illustrated by remarking that in the results of London observations this term is also represented by s,2 ¢—18}; while the Bristol observations give the term s, 2¢ — 15%. The agreement of these results cannot but be considered as decisive evi- dence of the correctness of the tables which we have obtained, as to their form and general law. And this is the more remarkable when we consider ON THE DISCUSSION OF LEITH TIDE OBSERVATIONS. 35 how small are the results in which this coincidence is found. The coefficient of the term now spoken of, is at London 3 inches; at Plymouth it is 1 inch; at Bristol, when the rise and fall is very great, this coefficient is 6 inches; at Leith, by the present discussion, its amount is found to be little more than 1 inch. The smallness of this term also leads us to this inference, that Mr. Ross’s table of double entry may be used to obtain the corrections of heights for parallax and declination, almost without a sensible error. The table being obtained from Leith observations, will require a constant multi- plier to adapt it to other places. TABLES. (1.) Mr. Ross’s table of the correction of height for parallax and declina- tion. . (2.) Mr. Ross’s table of the difference of the parallax correction from the mean for each hour of transit. 3.) The mean value of this difference for each hour of transit. 4.) The mean value of this difference for each 3° of declination showing that the declination correction is nearly as the square of the declination. (5.) The semimenstrual inequality of height for Leith. (1.) Denson) 542, | 554. | 563.| 573. 583.) 593. | 603. | 613. (4.) ° i in. in. in, in. in. in. in. in. 4°42 O— Bl— 52\— 1-6/4 23/4 6-4| + 87/4 11-4/4+ 17-5|4 19-3 445 3— 6/— S56\— 15\4+ 2-7/4 8-8/4 9-7\4 12-2/4 16-4'4 20-4 +36 6— 9|/— G4\— 1-7/4 1-4/4 5-1]4 9-5/4 12-3/+ 15-04 19-1 +25 9—12|— 67\— 3-9)4 05/4 4-1/4 8-4/4 11-014 14-8/4 163 +13 12—15 |— 7-6|— 4-0\— 0-8|+4 3-0\4 6-4/4 10-2/4 12-4/+ 16-3 T 0-9 15—18 |— 9y\— 62/—3-8/—O3/+ 41/4 7-8\+ 1129/4 14:3 _ 2-7 18 —21 |—11-0\— 9-0\— 3-4)/— 1-3/4 3-44 5-3/4 9-1/4 105 _ 239 21 — 24 |—11-5|— $-8/— 5-7/— 0-6/4 2-1/4 7-2/4 10-1]4 9-0 weeds} 24 — 27 |— 12:3/— 10-1|— 6-0|— 2-9/4 0-3|4 4-7/4 87/4 7-0 ~ 60 27 — 29 |— 15-0|— 12-4)— 8-6|— 4-8/4. 0-7/4. 23/4 6-4/4. 8-4 12;) (3.) 0 —30|— 1-7)/— 2-0)— 1-2|/— 0-4;— 2-9/4 0-4 Oj 0-5 — 16 1—30]— Lij— 05|/— 2-2/— 24/- 1-0/— 1-0\— 0-4/— 1-9 sas 2—30/4 03\— 0-7/—1-6/—11) O|— 0-7/4 05 — 06 3-30 /4 10/4 11/4 0-1/— 02] 12)/- 06/4 09 + 0-2 4—30/4 11/4 13/+ 09/4 09/4 06/4 03 +10 5 —30)4 1/4 1-5/4 1-0/4 1-8/4 08/4 0-2 412 6 — 30 |4+ 0-8/4 1-8/4 1-9)4 1-1/4 13/4 03 4 14 7—30\4 13/4 1-1/4 0-4|— 02/4 064 0-9 4 06 8 —30|+ 02/4 03; 0/406/—06)— 0-2\— 1:7 +01 9—30|— O3/— 08/401/401] O04 O1/— 03 — 02 10— 30 |— 0-9/— 1:8)—0-7/— 15/4 02|/— 0-2/— 0:8 0 — 09 11 — 30 |— 1-8)— 25]— 0-4|— 1-1/— 08/4 0-1/— 05/4 05 +18 D2 36 REPORT—1841. (5.) Semimenstrual Lines. 0} 0} 03 | 0-30 | 1-30 | 2-30 | 3-30 | 4-30 | 5-30 | 6-30 | 7-30 | 8-30 | 9-30 | 10-30 | 11-30 1827|16 2 |15 62/14 8213 103)13 22/12 92/12 113/13 10314 9 |15 63/16 O3|16 1828/16 43/15 11 15 O814 2313 5 (12 11413 1414 1 {15 0 {15 93/16 5 |16 1829/16 34/15 11 |14 11914 2 13 23/12 92113 13/18 11 |14 93/15 8816 13/16 183016 33/15 8914 10314 O213 1312 913 14/13 10314 93/15 73116 23/16 1831/16 53/15 9315 08/14 24/13 42/12 114113 1 |13 113/14 9/15 83/16 4 /16 183216 13/15 83/14 10 |13 11 {13 12/12 9 12 114/13 93/14 73/15 5 [16 O}16 188315 113/15 723/14 92313 11 |13 13/12 9413 0 /13 98/14 88/15 53/15 113]16 183416 1 |15 7 |14 103/14 O318 1 |12 73/12 103/13 81/14 8 |15 6 |16 0 /16 1835||16 03/15 53/14 $318 93/12 112/12 63/12 103/13 83/14 83115 73/16 13|16 183615 108/15 4 |14 72/13 10 |13 0312 54/12 11 13 83/14 61/15 43/16 0 (16 1837/15 93/15 3 14 5313 63/12 8112 21/12 7/18 43/14 6 {15 31/15 10 |16 1838||15 83/15 23/14 63/13 63/12 83/12 2/12 53/13 23/14 S215 32115 93115 1 183915 7315 2 (14 4213 73/12 7 |12 2312 53/138 43/14 3/15 08/15 83/15 1 1840/15 82/15 4 (14 7313 83/12 93/12 5312 8313 4 {14 4 {15 2 {15 8H15 1 Upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth during the past year. By W.S. Harris, Esq., F.R.S. My last Report on this instrument contained an account of certain im- provements in the mechanism and mode of fixing found by experience neces- sary to its perfect employment. I have now the satisfaction of bringing under the notice of the Physical Section a series of observations, continued for a whole year; from which has been laid down, by the inventor’s method, a gra- phic delineation or type of the wind during this time, and extending from July 1840 to July 1841*. It will be seen by this chart now before us, that we have, to a great extent, realized Mr. Whewell’s happy thought, namely, that of obtaining a sort of type of the winds for a given place, so as eventu- ally to arrive at the general annual movement of the air. The mean result of the observations now before us agrees nearly with that arrived at by the observations made by Mr. Southwood, with the same instrument, and printed in the Eighth Report of the Association. It shows in this place (Plymouth) an annual movement of the air from the S.S.E. toward the N.N.W. nearly. It is not a little interesting to observe the daily march of the wind, as indi- cated by the daily register of the instrument. We find, for example, certain tourbillons or great disturbances occurring here and there, which seem to interfere with what might probably, in more settled latitudes, be a constant and regular movement of the air, as in the trade winds; yet, upon the whole, the progress of such a regular current is traceable, notwithstanding these in- terferences ; and the movement of the air is found to be by this chart from the southerly to the northerly points of the compass. It does not seem requisite, for our present purpose, to attempt more than a very summary generaliza- tion; without therefore obtaining, by a strictly geometrical method, the re- sultant magnitude and direction for each month, and from these again the resultant magnitude and direction of the whole, as done in my former Report, it will perhaps suitfice to pass a line immediately through the whole series of types, in such way as to obtain by the eye alone the final resultant. Such a line will evidently pass from the S.S.E. to the N.N.W. points of the compass, or very nearly. If now we associate this fact with the result obtained from * The delineation here referred to was exhibited in the Section-room, in a frame 12 feet high by 6 feet wide. | UPON THE WORKING OF WHEWELL’S ANEMOMETER. 37 the hourly meteorological observations at the Dockyard, we are entitled to say, so far as our experiments extend, that there is an annual movement of the atmosphere in this latitude toward the north, under a mean pressure of 29-900 inches nearly, taken at the level of the sea, and a mean temperature of 52° Fahr. The complete and satisfactory working of the anemometer, now that it has undergone certain amendments, found by experience desirable, leads me to hope that its use will be persevered in by observers in meteorology, since the principle on which it has been founded is undoubtedly very perfect and satisfactory. I do not, after a very critical examination, and experience in the use of the instrument, see any difficulty whatever in respect to its mechanism which may not be easily conquered; and it only now remains to find what are the actual numerical values of its indications; that is to say, having been enabled to trace an annual movement of the air in the direction above stated, we should at the same time be enabled to determine the rate of the motion. This would seem at first sight a sufficiently difficult matter. We may hope, however, to arrive at something like a fair approximation to such information, by the following mode of experiment, now in progress. With a view of determining the amount of pressure as observable by ex- posing surfaces varying in dimensions to the aérial current, the portable gauge represented in the annexed figure has been suc- cessfully applied. A brass quadrant de, being set in a frame of brass and divided in the usual way, a pressure plate a is so applied on the top of the frame as to act by a rod //, and a silk line over intervening pulleys on the spiral spring 6; the pulley c fixed in the centre of the quadrant carries the index ¢ f, which will rise on the gra- duated are in proportion to the pressure, the amount of this pressure in terms of a standard of weight being known by experiment, that is, by placing different weights on the extremity of the rod held in a vertical position, and observing the corresponding degrees on the arc. If Lind’s gauge be employed as a standard, we may readily examine the pressures corresponding to various pressure plates, and thus dis- cover whether the same pressure on a2 unit of area is shown by different sized plates.- This being determined, we are in a state to employ plates of different dimensions according to the violence of the wind, and hence readily compare the pressure with the velocity more easily. To find the velocity by experiment, a cork stuck round with capacious feathers is made to travel over a fine wire of a given length by the force of the wind; the cork is set on a common writing quill bushed with a small brass plate at each end, and by which the whole is supported on the wire, fine holes being drilled through the brass plates for receiving it. This contrivance is extremely light, and will fly along the wire with the velocity of the wind for a given distance, or very nearly so. It is in fact throwing, as it were, a log-line upon the air. Observers may now compare the pressures, correspond- ing to certain velocities, and to the descent of the pencil on the anemometer ; and thus its indications are reducible by experiment to terms of absolute value, when a sufficient number of observations have been made and tabulated. 38 REPORT—1841. Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir J.W.F. Herscue., Bart., Mr. WueweE 1, the Very Rev.the DEAN oF Exy, Prof. Luoyp, and Lieut.- Col. SABINE, appointed for the purpose of superintending the scien- tific co-operation of the British Association in the system of Simul- taneous Observations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology. Your Committee, referring to their last Report for the history of the mag- ' netic operations in progress up to the date of that Report, have to state, in continuation, that the magnetic observatory at St. Helena was finished, and the instruments established, in August 1840,—at Toronto in September,— and at Van Diemen’s Land in October of the same year. The observatory at the Cape of Good Hope also was completed and in activity at the commence- ment of March in the current year, delays having occurred in its completion, which, though productive of great uneasiness and distress to its officer in superintendence, Lieut. Eardley Wilmot, could in no way be attributed to any want of exertion, or to any negligence on his part. From each of these stations returns have been regularly received since their respective dates of completion. Previous to this, there have been received returns of seven months of observation in a temporary observatory at Toronto, and of six at St. Helena. All the observations, as soon as received, have been regularly transmitted to Prof. Lloyd, and after examination by him, handed over to Col. Sabine, under whose superintendence, assisted by Lieut. Riddell—the state of whose health, unfortunately, has compelled his return from Toronto —their publication will take place, Government having, on the application of the Royal Society, taken upon themselves this additional expense. In conse- quence of this arrangement, the reduction and printing of the observations are now in progress. The portable observatories of the Hrebus and Terror were put up at Kerguelen’s Land, and also at Van Diemen’s Land. At the former station, the May and June terms were observed—at the latter, those of August and September 1840. During the stay of the expedition at these stations, the magnetometers were observed hourly; and the regular work of the observatory at the latter station, under the direction of Lieut. Kay, has been begun, and will be continued on this doubly-laborious plan of hourly intervals for the ordinary observations; while on the term-days, all the three magnetometers will be observed at the same instants of time, at intervals of 25 minutes,—the means of confronting this vast increase of labour being sup- plied by the Colonial Government, as administered by that ever-active and zealous friend of science, Sir J. Franklin. And in addition to this, and for the sake of multiplying occasions of observing the correspondence of magnetic perturbations with auroral discharges, one hour out of every 24—viz. from lh. 50m. p.m. to 2h. 50m. p.m., Gottingen mean time, commencing from January 1, 1841—will be occupied with observations of the magnetometers, at 25 minutes’ interval, in this order, viz. bifilar, declination; vertical force, declination ; bifilar, declination, V, D, B, D, &c. It is to be hoped that some of the European observatories will, at least occasionally, furnish obser- vations in correspondence with these. The reduction and publication of the observations made at the Van Diemen’s Land observatory and by Captain Ross’s expedition have also, at the request of the Admiralty and with the consent of the Master General of ee Ordnance, been placed under the superintendence of Lieut.-Colonel abine. The first Report of the Director of the Madras Observatory (Lieut. Lud- low), and the first month’s observations, have been received. It commenced regular observation on the 1st of January 1841. ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND METEOROLOGY. 39 The private observatory established at Mukerston in Scotland, by the mu- nificence of Lieut.-General Sir Thomas Macdougal Brisbane, has been com- pleted in instruments, and has commenced observation. In addition to the terms, a portion of the usual daily routine of magnetical and meteorological observations will be kept up at this observatory. Of the foreign European observatories, Brussels (M. Quetelet), Prague (Herr Kreil), and Milan (Sig. Carlini), have regularly forwarded the terms observations for each month to the Royal Society. The Cadiz observatory has been completed in instruments, and its director, M. Montojo, has person- ally visited Dublin, to receive Prof. Lloyd’s instructions in the process of ob- servation. In consequence of an application made to the Belgian Govern- ment by the Royal Society, through Lord Palmerston, the establishment of the Brussels observatory has been provided with the assistance necessary to carry out the complete system of observation recommended by the Royal Society. From Breslau a letter has been received from M. Boguslawski, dated July 3, giving an account of the progress of that establishment, the instru- ments for which, it will be recollected, were supplied by this Association. Annexed to this letter are the projected term-observations for August and November 1840. It will be necessary to provide expressiy for the final dis- posal of the returns which will arrive from this quarter. The Council of the Royal Society had devoted a sum of money from their Wollaston Donation Fund for the purchase of a set of instruments for the magnetic observatory, the erection of which at Alten, near Hammerfest, was, at the date of the last Report of this Committee, under consideration by the Norwegian Government. Some difficulties have presented themselves since, which will probably prevent, or materially modify, the accomplishment of this object, or substitute for observations at Hammerfest a series to be made at Christiania, under the direction of M. Hansteen. Be this as it may, this liberality on the part of the Royal Society was highly opportune, inasmuch as it left disposable the grant placed at the disposal of your Committee at the last meeting. Under the head of “ Observatories entirely new,” your Committee have to announce the projected establishment of a private one at Havafiah, by Drs. Belot and Jorg, which from the geographical position of the station will be extremely valuable. The term-days of May and August 1840 have been both remarkable for the magnitude of the disturbances. Mr. Riddell has undertaken to have all the observations of these two days projected in curves, which will probably be completed and laid before the Association at this meeting. By a letter received from M. Kupffer, dated 25th March 1841, it appears {nat the observations in the magnetic observatory at St. Petersburgh com- menced on the Ist of January, and at Caterinenbourg on the 10th of March. In the course of the summer they will be commenced at Helsingfors ; and at Tiflis, in all probability, during the autumn. The total number of magnetical observatories which may at present be reckoned on as brought, or about to be brought, into effective co-operation, is fifty-one. On the 12th of November 1840, the Erebus and Terror left Hobart Town for their first summer’s research in the Antarctic Circle, leaving Lieut. Kay, with Messrs. Dayman and Scott as his assistants, in charge of the ob- servatory at Ross Bank. During the temporary sojourns of the expedition on land or ice, the observations will be made on the same enlarged plan as at Hobart Town. Their first term will, in all probability, have been observed in November at the Auckland Islands. The first point to be determined would be, the point of maximum intensity in the southern hemisphere, the 40 REPORT—1841. meridian of which had been indicated by the daily observations in the pass- age from Kerguelen’s Land to Van Diemen’s Land, leaving only its latitude undecided. Having accomplished this, they will proceed, as rapidly as cir- cumstances will permit, to seek and determine the position of the point of vertical dip. The observations at sea, it should be mentioned, succeed to the fullest extent of the most sanguine expectations; so much so, that the three magnetic elements are daily observed on board, with a precision perfectly adequate to the actual demands of magnetic science. Intimately connected with a system of simultaneous observations at central stations, is the subject of magnetic surveys of the surrounding districts. It is only by reference to such central stations as zero points, that itinerant de- terminations can be divested of the influence of temporary and casual mag- netic derangement, and brought into comparability with the general mag- netic system of the globe. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that every advantage should be taken of the present fortunate conjuncture to secure the whole benefit of the simultaneous system, and to extend it from points over districts. Itinerant observations, made on a concerted system, and pre- cisely simultaneous with those at the fixed observatories, will acquire (if accu- rately made) all the value of stationary ones, becoming, ipso facto, and at each instant, reducible to a central station. Moreover, by this means alone can the amount of station-error for each element, at the central stations them- selves, be ascertained ; by which is meant, all that part of each resolved ele- ment of the magnetic force, which, not being participated in by the surround- ing district, must be attributed to attractions merely local and accidental. Without such surveys, executed at some epoch, this error cannot be even approximately fixed. If executed at this particular time, not only will it be settled with precision, but the surveys will become an integrant part of the whole mass of observation, and be rendered infinitely more valuable as data for future reference, than they could possibly be, if deferred till after the conclusion of the stationary observations. Under this impression, it is highly gratifying to your Committee to be en- abled to announce, that one very important survey of this kind—that of the British possessions in North America—has, on the application of the Presi- dent and Council of the Royal Society, been undertaken by Government, on a scale both liberal and satisfactory—a young, ardent, and instructed officer, Lieut. Younghusband, R.A., qualified for the work by a residence and prac- tice in magnetic observation in the observatory at Toronto, having been added to the establishment of that observatory, with a view to this especial ser- vice, for three years, with a non-commissioned officer as his assistant, fur- nished with every instrumental requisite, a liberal provision for travelling expenses, and with the promise of gratuitous canoe conveyance, from the Hudson’s Bay Company, in the territories belonging to them. In anticipa- tion, moreover, of a similar magnetic survey of South Africa, though as yet no formal application for such a survey has been made, the Master-Gene- ral of the Ordnance has ordered a second officer of Artillery (Lieut. Clerk) to be attached to the observatory at the Cape of Good Hope. As regards this important department of the general subject, your Com- mittee have further to notice the magnetic survey of British Guiana, which has been undertaken by Mr. Schomburgk, one of the Commissioners appointed by Government to determine the boundaries of that province, and who, on an application to that effect on the part of the Royal Geographical Society, has been supplied by your Committee, from the grants placed at their disposal, with a transportable magnetometer (to be returned when the work is com- plete)—the receipt of which is acknowledged by a letter from the Secretary ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND METEOROLOGY. 41 of that body, dated Feb. 10, 1841. Nor must your Committee pass in silence the instructions given, and the instruments supplied by Government, (in du- plicate, and with complete instructions for the use of each, )—also on applica- tion from the President and Council of the Royal Society,—to the African Expedition, for the purpose of observation in the course of that expedition. From the scientific zeal which distinguishes many of the officers of that ex- pedition,—scarcely inferior to that zeal in the cause of humanity which has led them to enter on so perilous a service,—results highly valuable to mag- netic science may be expected. The transportable magnetometer being one of their instruments, observations on term-days during some months, corre- sponding with those in Guiana, will probably be obtained, and thus localities, otherwise of high interest, and remote from any central station, will be bound together. Mr. Caldecott, Astronomer to His Highness the Rajah of Travancore, whose magnetical observatory, completely furnished in instruments, com- menced its operations on the May term-day of the present year, has also de- clared his intention to undertake the magnetic survey of Southern India; while in the north of that empire we may expect, from the zeal and energy of Capt. Boileau, that no exertions on his part will be wanting to secure a similar advantage in that quarter. In all such surveys it is highly desirable that a regular and concerted sy- stem of observation should be followed, and above all things, that the con- dition of exact conformity to the hours of simultaneous observation should be adhered to; as well as that, if practicable, all determinations of important points, intended to be made with particular care and exactness, should be performed on the term-days; which object, by the exercise of a certain de- gree of forethought in laying out the plan of travel, may doubtless be accom- plished in the great majority of instances. Connected with, and of importance to, the practical working of the obser- vatories, your Committee beg leave to call attention to Prof. Lloyd’s supple- mentary paper, “On the Mutual Action of permanent Magnets,” in which those conditions of equilibrium are investigated which it is possible to satisfy, independent of the relative forces of the magnets. In this paper, independent of the practical utility of the rules laid down for the disposal of the magnets in fixed observatories, the demonstration of the extreme minuteness of the possible amount of uncompensated error arising from mutual attraction can- not but be regarded as highly satisfactory. Finally, your Committee have to report on their employment of the grant of 50/., placed at their disposal at the last meeting, which they have expended on the purchase of a transportable magnetometer, by Meyerstein, of Gottin- gen, for the Guiana survey. Some improvements, not contemplated origin- ally, having been introduced into the construction of this instrument, its total cost, including freight, somewhat exceeded this sum, leaving a balance of 12/. 2s. against the Committee, for which it is necessary they should pray an indemnity, as well as a continuance of the grant of money placed at their disposal. Signed, on the part of the Committee, J. F. W. Herscuet. Reports of Committees appointed to provide Meteorological Instru- ments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord. Wir# reference to the resolutions passed at Glasgow, viz. “ That a Com- mittee, consisting of Major Sabine and Sir J. Herschel, be requested to pro- 42 REPORT—1841. vide two actinometers, for observations on the intensity of Solar Radiation, to be made by Prof. Agassiz, at considerable heights in the Alps, and that the sum of 10/. be placed at the disposal of the Committee for that purpose ;”— “That Major Sabine be requested to provide a good mountain barometer and a thermometer, for the assistance of Mr. M‘Cord in his meteorological ob- servations—the sum of 20/. to be placed at the disposal of Major Sabine for the purpose ”—Col. Sabine reported, that M. Agassiz had been supplied with two actinometers, at the cost of 10/.; and that a good mountain barometer was forwarded to Mr. M‘Cord early in the spring of this year, having been previously compared with the standard barometer of the Royal Society ; and that a thermometer was not sent, because Mr. Newman informed Col. Sabine that an excellent standard thermometer had been ordered by Mr. M‘Cord himself, and had been forwarded to him. The cost of the mountain barome- ter was 6/. 12s. 6d. Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir J. HuRscuEn only, to super- intend the reduction of Meteorological Observations.—July 1841. Durine the last year several series of observations for the years 1837 and 1838, as well as a few for 1839, have dropped in, and every endeavour has been made to procure copies of such as were still wanting from statious whence there was reason to presume that observations were forwarded but had never come to hand. These endeavours, in several instances, have proved successful, and in consequence the list of stations at which available series, having some degree of consecutiveness and connexion, can be made out, is considerably enlarged. The whole number of series in hand, and under re- duction at present, amounts to upwards of three hundred, being the results of observations at about seventy stations. In the year elapsed, Mr. Birt has been employed intabulating, reducing, pro- jecting, and comparing the barometric curves, a process which has been com- pleted for the whole of the American group (which is by far the most numerous and consecutive) for the years 1835, 1836, 1837, and for March 1838, com- prising eighty-eight series, made at the following twenty-eight stations, viz.— Quebec. Western Reserve College. St. Catherine’s Island. Montreal. Flushing. Magnetic Island. Gardiner. New York. Gulf of Guayaquil. Burlington. Baltimore. Realejo. William’s College. Cincinnati. Conchagua. Albany. Natchez. San Blas. Boston. Washington. Ohreala. Providence, R.I. St. Louis. Norfolk Sound. Newhaven. Nassau (Bahamas), on shore. Middletown. Bahamas, at sea. One term also has been reduced and projected (June 1836) for each of the other groups, comprising seventeen series, at the same number of sta- tions, viz.— London. Brussels. Gibraltar. Bangalore. Oxford. Hanover. Cadiz. Feldhausen, C.G.H. Halifax. Geneva. Mauritius. R. Observatory, C.G.H. Limerick. Turin. Dadoopoor. _ Bathurst. Markree. making in all 105 series reduced and projected. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 43 The tabulated results of these reductions, and their projected curves, accom- pany this Report for the inspection of the Meeting. The curves are pur- posely projected on a large scale (too large for publication) to afford room for a minute examination and analysis of their several inequalities, with a view to the possibility of tracing the progress of subordinate undulations or of cross waves; and each has been made by Mr. Birt the subject of particular and careful discussion, the results of which he has embodied in the form of notes on the several terms. Many of these contain remarks of much interest, especially that on the December term of 1836, which fortunately comprises the ascending branches of the barometer curves during a remarkable storm, as well as others, which however must be reserved for the final report of your Committee, which it may be confidently stated will be ready for presenting at the next Meeting. Meanwhile the annexed letters from Mr. Birt will serve to give the Meet- ing somewhat more than a general idea of the direction which the inquiry is taking, and contain some suggestions relative to a system of concerted ob- servation excellently well adapted to the tracing of atmospheric waves across a tract of country, to which, as well as to his offer to undertake the necessary correspondence, your Committee desires to direct the especial attention of the Meeting. (Signed) J. F. W. HerscHet. “ Metropolitan Literary and Scientific Institution, June 1, 1841. “Dear Str,—I exceedingly regret that I have been unable to forward you the packet containing the projections, &c. of the American observations until so long after the time mentioned in my last. I was extremely anxious not to omit any point that suggested itself in carefully looking over the projections and tables, and having completed this, I hope the packet will reach you in sufficient time to enable you to draw up the report for the Meeting without inconvenience. « The remarks I have to offer I have thrown in the form of notes to each sheet of the projections. In these notes I have taken very little, if any, no- tice of the curves south of the United States, the Bahamas, &c. I may how- ever remark here, that the curves at the Bahamas generally differ from those of the United States; and as they are situated near the northern border of the torrid zone this difference is remarkable and interesting, as it indicates different systems of oscillation peculiar to the zones. Numerous observations from the Bahamas, and the West India islands generally, would be highly in- teresting. “One point which I have glanced at in the notes appears to me interesting and worthy of attention in future observations and discussions of this kind, namely, the appearance of the diurnal oscillation when the extent of oscilla- tion at the station is small, for instance under 0°1 inches. Generally as the oscillation increases the diurnal oscillation becomes obscured. “ With respect to the tables and projections, I have very carefully examined them, and I am not conscious of any errors existing ; the reductions I have carefully verified in every instance, and the amount of error in the projections is not greater than ‘0005 in the readings of the barometric altitudes; this amount of error arises from hygrometric causes. “ With respect to the increase of oscillation, as mentioned in the concluding remarks to the notes on the projections, it appears that the stations from which observations have hitherto been obtained are too few to derive correct conclusions relative to it. Probably, on one or two occasions that may be fixed on for future observations, a number of gentlemen may undertake a series of observations of the barometer, having especially this object in view, 44 REPORT—1841. once or twice, who might not wish to continue such observations at stated periods. Our universities and academies, and most of, if not all, our pro- vincial institutions, would probably join in this object, and by appointing a day sufficiently remote, many gentlemen who would thus engage in the work would have an opportunity of communicating with their friends, and thus a sufficient number of stations well scattered in different and suitable parts of the country might be obtained. It appears, however, that in order effectually to obtain the object in view, it would be desirable to modify in some degree the observations as they have hitherto been conducted ; for, in order to obtain the whole extent of oscillation at any station, it would be zecessary ‘y to obtain a complete depression and elevation of the barometric curve. Thus a time would be fixed on for a simultaneous commencement cf the observations at all the stations, say 6 a.m.; but the termination of the observations would depend on the attainment of the elevation or depression of the curve, as the case might be; so that if the barometer was falling at the commencement of the observations, they would terminate when the greatest altitude had been obtained ; three or four hours’ observation after this point had been observed, would probably be sufficient to indicate the change in the character of the curve. By thus conducting the observations the extent of oscillation at each station would be distinctly obtained, as the lowest and highest points of the barometer would have been observed. Perhaps you will have the kindness to give this subject your consideration, and should it appear to you worth the trouble, I shall be most happy to undertake the management of a correspond- ence relative to it. “T have the honour to be, dear Sir, “Yours very respectfully, “W. R. Birt.” “‘ Metropolitan Literary and Scientific Institution, July 14, 1841. “ Dear Sir,—I have very carefully examined the curves obtained in the British Isles, also those in Europe, and have embodied the results of this examination in the accompanying notes and tables. “ The striking difference between the atmospheric affections in the British Isles and those of Europe, is highly interesting ; also the difference in the lengths of the undulations observed at the European stations, the western stations exhibiting the longest. On this point, however, I apprehend the ob- servations are not sufficiently numerous to allow of the slightest conjecture being entertained, with the exception that there might have existed several centres of oscillation, the entire systems extending over comparatively small areas, similar to those indicated by the American observations, I believe, of September 1837. “J remain, dear Sir, yours very respectfully, ‘OW. Ro Barr.” Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir J. HErscuEet, Mr. Wur- WELL, and Mr. Batty, for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars. As regards the collection of synonyms, the detection of errors originating in mistakes of entry, copying, printing, or calculation, and their rectification, and the restriction within their just boundaries of the existing constellations, the work of your Committee has been progressive. Owing, however, to the unfortunate accident which has recently befallen one of its members, by whom this department of the work had been especially taken in hand, no precise report at this time can be made of the progress made. As regards the revision and redistribution of the southern constellations, a catalogue has in the first place been prepared of all stars within the circle of NOMENCLATURE OF THE STARS. 45 70° S.P.D. down to the fifth magnitude, with their present actual magnitudes as determined by a series of observations made expressly for that purpose ; which catalogue is now in course of printing and publication by the Royal Astronomical Society. With the magnitudes of this catalogue a chart has been constructed, of which several copies have been made. ‘These have been employed for the purpose of grouping the stars in various ways (without re- gard to existing constellations), and with reference only to forming among themselves the most compact and striking groups which their distribution in the heavens admits, and which the correctness obtained in the magnitudes has now for the first time rendered practicable. After trying many systems, and arranging the groups in a great variety of ways, your Committee have at length agreed on adopting, as the boundaries of the new regions into which they propose distributing the southern stars, only arcs of meridians and par- allels of declination for a given epoch; thus including each region within a quadrilateral rectangular figure, whose angular points being tabulated in right ascension and declination, may be treated as artificial stars, and thus brought up by the usual tables of precession to any other epoch, their situation among the stars being unchanged. ‘Thus it will become a mere matter of inspection of a catalogue arranged for the original epoch (which they propose to be that of the Royal Astronomical Society's forthcoming new Catalogue), which re- gion any given star shall belong to. Proceeding then to assign more particularly the limits of the several regions, they have succeeded in forming an arrangement in which (subject to such revision and modifications as may arise between this and their final report) they feel disposed to rest. Meanwhile, however, as it is of great importance that whatever system they may finally adopt should have the sanction of the astronomical world in general, it has been thought advisable in the first in- stance to lay before the public an outline of the general plan, together with a reduced sketch of the proposed regions (subject to such revision), with a view to making more generally known its principles, and assembling around it, in the event of its approval, that body of support and assent, of which, as an innovation, it must stand in need. This has accordingly been done in a paper read by one of the members of your Committee to the Astronomical Society, and (with the catalogue above-mentioned) now in course of publica- tion. This being largely distributed among astronomers by the printing an extra number of copies, will, it is expected, lead to the final maturation and reception of the plan. [It was hoped that the printing of this paper, and the accompanying engraving, would be far enough advanced to have enabled copies to be distributed at the present Meeting of the Association; but this not being the case, proof-sheets of the paper and of the reduced skeleton chart are, at all events, annexed to this Report for inspection and perusal by such members as may wish it. ] As respects the nomenclature of the new regions, the Committee are at present engaged in considering it; but some principles, which will probably influence their recommendation when the subject is sufficiently advanced for that step, are stated in the paper already alluded to, which will appear in the forthcoming volume of the Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society. But the same necessity (grounded on the incorrectness of magnitudes as laid down in all existing charts) exists for a revision of the northern as well as southern stars in this respect. It therefore becomes worthy of considera- tion whether a similar plan may not advantageously be carried into execution in both hemispheres ; and as, at all events, the actual state of the celestial charts in both is such as to admit of great improvement from an assemblage of more correct photometric data, a general review of all the stars down to 46 REPORT—1841. the fifth magnitude, with this especial object in view, has been undertaken by one of the members of the Committee, conducted on the same plan, the principle of which is explained in the paper alluded to, This review is al- ready in a considerably advanced state, and should circumstances and weather favour will probably be completed before the next Meeting. In its progress it has required the aid of skeleton charts, prepared by laying down all the stars by dots from planispheres of received authenticity, and sketching in the existing constellations. As the preparation of such skeletons, which require to be very neatly and correctly executed, consumes a vast deal of time and is very troublesome, they, as well as the southern charts above alluded to (thirteen charts in all), have been procured to be executed by Mr. Arrowsmith, which has caused an outlay to the amount of 170. 19s. 6d., leaving disposable out of the original grant the sum of 32/. 0s. 6d., and which the Committee consider will be required for their future proceedings. gi (Signed on the part of the Committee) J. F. W. Herscue. Report of a Committee appointed at the Glasgow Meeting of the British Association in September 1840, for obtaining Instruments and Re- gisters to record shocks of Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland. Ir is proper to explain at the outset of this Report, that it narrates only what has been done by the three individual members of the Committee resident in Scotland. It was found by those members impossible to communicate with their associates in Ireland in any trials for ascertaining the instruments adapted to the object in view. So also, in regard to the localities in Ireland and Scotland, where these instruments should be placed, no advantage was anticipated from a correspondence between the members of the Committee in each country respectively, as it was exclusively those connected with, and resident in, the country who knew the localities where earthquake shocks were most frequent, and where intelligent and careful observers could be found. The members of the Committee in Scotland had several meetings in the beginning of winter to consider some new forms of instruments fitted to re- gister the shocks commonly felt in that part of the island. Several instru- ments of different forms had previously been constructed and fixed at Comrie in Perthshire, but they were found not sufficiently sensitive to indicate more than a small proportion of the shocks felt in that district. After a good deal of consideration and a number of trials, two kinds of in- struments, out of several which suggested themselves, were in the first instance resolved on. The one kind was on the principle of the common pendulum, the other on that of the inverted pendulum, or watchmaker’s noddy. One instrument was made on the first-mentioned principle, and two on the second. The construction and dimensions of these will now be shortly described. 1. Common Pendulum Seismometer.—The pendulum is thirty-nine inches in length from its point of suspension to its lower extremity. At its lower extremity there is a piece of soft chalk in the form of a pencil, which, as the pendulum vibrates, makes a marking on a concave piece of wood painted black, and forming the segment of a sphere with a radius of thirty-nine inches. This segment has white circular lines painted on it parallel with its cireum- ference, and one inch apart from each other. It has also the cardinal points of the compass marked on it. Near the lower end of the pendulum there is a leaden ball of about four or five pounds weight, which is perforated through the middle, so as to admit the pendulum through it. The chalk pencil EARTHQUAKES IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. 47 presses on the wooden board by a small leaden weight resting on its upper end, inside of a metal tube containing the pencil. Three wooden rods are fixed to this spherical. segment, on ifs outer edge, at equal distances, and unite above the basis, so as to form a point of suspen- sion for the pendulum. The instrument is fixed by three feet to the floor of a room, and, with the help of adjusting screws, the chalk is brought to the centre of the concave segment which is to be marked by its vibrations. The concentric circles, which are marked 1, 2, 3, &c., from the centre of the segment, indicate the number of inches that the lower extremity of the pendulum is thrown from the centre; and the cardinal points show the direction from or to which the shock has proceeded. 2. The Inverted Pendulum Seismometer.—(1.) The smallest of the instru- ments made on this principle has a pendulum thirty-nine inches long, and is fixed into a brass socket at its lower end. The connexion between the pen- dulum and the socket consists of a strong elastic wire, which, by means of a pinching screw, can be either raised or depressed in the socket, so as to in- crease or diminish the length and sensibility of the pendulum. ‘There is a leaden ball near the top of the pendulum from three to four pounds in weight : it has a hole through its centre so as to allow the pendulum rod to pass freely through it, and it can be fixed at any part of the rod by means of a pinching screw. At the upper extremity of the pendulum there is a soft lead pencil, which rests on an elastic wire contained in a brass tube. The pencil is thus pressed against a white surface of paper, forming the segment of a sphere, having a radius of thirty-nine inches. The paper is pasted on a piece of copper beaten into the proper shape. This copper segment rests on four upright iron rods which are fixed into the base of the instrument. The base consists of four corresponding flat iron bars, which cross in the middle, and support at that point the socket above described, to which the elastic wire of the pendulum is fixed. There are on the white segment of this instrument concentric lines in red ink, an inch apart, and numbered from the centre, so as to indicate the num- ber of inches that the pendulum is by any shock thrown off its centre. There are also on this segment, as on that of all the instruments, points of the com- pass to indicate the directions of the shocks. The instrument is fixed firmly to the floor of the room where it is set. By means of three adjusting screws, which affect the socket, the upper extremity of the pendulum is brought to the centre of the segment to be marked by it. Any further description of this instrument is rendered unnecessary in con- sequence of a paper by Professor Forbes, published lately in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, where the mechanism and mathematical properties of it are very clearly pointed out. (2.) The other instrument constructed on this principle has a pendulum ten feet eight inches in length. The spherical segment, on which the vibra- tions of its point are intended to be marked, is not, as in the instrument just described, supported on upright rods fixed to its base, but is suspended over the pendulum by a strong hold-fast of iron fixed into a wall. In other re- spects, the mechanical construction of this instrument is much the same as that of the former one, The above instruments were sent to Comrie, a small town in Perthshire, where shocks have been very frequent during the last fifty years, and where the earthquake of October 1839 was felt more strongly than in any other part of Scotland. They were given in charge to Mr. Peter Macfarlane, Post- master at Comrie, a very intelligent person, who had been assiduous in 48 REPORT—1841. marking down all the shocks which had occurred since October 1839, and who had himself contrived and constructed several ingenious instruments for indicating the shocks. The three instruments were erected in Comrie and the immediate neigh- bourhood. The largest of those on the principle of the inverted pendulum is in the town of Comrie, and is fixed inside the steeple of the parish church. The other instrument on the same principle is at Comrie House, situated about a quarter of a mile to the north of Comrie, and taken care of by Colonel Simpson, who resides there. The remaining instrument is at a place called Garriechrow, close to Cluan Hill, about two miles west of Comrie, and is under the immediate charge of the overseer of Sir David Dundas, Bart., of Duneira. These instruments were erected a few days before the Ist of January 1841. They have been affected only twice, viz. on the 10th and 22nd of March 1841. On the first occasion both of the inverted pendulums had their upper extremi- ties thrown to the west half an inch, where they remained till examined. On the other occasion they were again thrown to the west, but scarcely half an inch. The simple pendulum at Garriechrow has not been affected, and is thought to be not sufficiently sensitive. The following inferences seem deducible from the way in which the in- struments were affected on these two occasions :—(1.) There was, on both occasions, a sudden horizontal movement of the ground where both instru- ments were placed, indicated by the extremities of them being thrown off their centres. (2.) This horizontal movement, on both occasions, was to- wards the east. (3.) The amount of this displacement of the ground was, on the first occasion, half an inch; on the second, less than half an inch. This last-mentioned inference was confirmed by the feelings of those who perceived both shocks, as they considered that the first was the most severe, though neither was nearly half so severe as the shock of October 1839. Mr. Macfarlane states, however, that on both occasions there was a move- ment of the earth’s crust not indicated by the instruments. He alludes to a vertical movement that was sensibly felt, and which on the last occasion was indicated by one of his own instruments. This circumstance has been alluded to, to show the propriety of having instruments of a different kind from the above. Several have occurred to members of the Committee calculated for vertical movements; and these movements it is of some consequence to have marked and measured, as it is believed they are always produced at Comrie when a shock occurs, and even in cases when there may be little or no horizontal movement. It is also to be observed, that there is strong reason to believe that the Comrie shocks emanate from a particular spot, the exact position of which can only be ascertained by a number of instruments placed around the sup- posed locality. It is hoped, therefore, that the Association will continue the appointment of a Committee, and give a renewed grant of money for procuring instru- ments and registers. From what has been said, it must be evident that the object which was last year thought worthy of being prosecuted cannot be properly attained without a greater number of instruments, and some of them calculated to indicate vertical movements of the ground. It is also necessary that they should be much more sensitive than those now used; for, though there were only two shocks indicated by the instruments, Mr. Macfarlane reports, that from the Ist January 1841, when they were in operation, to the Ist July, there were no less than twenty-seven shocks distinctly felt at Comrie. It is unnecessary to refer, in this Report, to the reasons which induced the Association last year to have a regular register of the earthquake shocks oc- EARTHQUAKES IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. 49 curring in Scotland. The light which such a register is calculated to throw on this dark and important subject is self-evident. The Committee would only add, that the value of such a register is now greatly enhanced by its appearing that in other countries similar registers are kept, which will afford data for comparing the phenomena as exhibited in different parts of the earth’s crust respectively, and ascertaining whether, and to what extent, they are connected. In the volume of the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Turin, lately published, there will be found a part of the register kept at St. Jean de Maurienne from the 19th of December 1838, to April 1840, which partly embraces the period comprehended in the Comrie register. In urging the continuance of the Committee, and of means to enable them to prosecute the object entrusted to them, it may not be out of place to ob- serve, that great additional interest attaches to it from the opinion entertained by several persons who have attended to the subject, that the earthquake shocks of this, and perhaps of other non-volcanic countries, are connected with the state of the atmosphere, and more particularly with electrical agen- cies. To test the accuracy of this opinion it would be desirable to have some meteorological instruments at Comrie, and accurate registers of their indications kept. It is unnecessary to say that this opinion, if proved to be accurate, would open up new and most important views as to the nature and situation of the forces which are concerned in the production of earthquakes. If the British Association be still desirous, as it is hoped it will be, of having inquiries prosecuted on this subject, it is recommended that a sepa- rate Committee should be appointed for Scotland, where the shocks appear to be more frequent than in any other part of the United Kingdom, and that the Committee should consist of Lord Greenock, Sir John Robison, Professor Jameson, Professor Traill, Professor Christison, Professor Forbes, Thomas Jameson Torrie, Esq., and David Milne, Esq. _ With regard to the amount of the grant, it is thought that it certainly should not be /ess than what was appropriated last year, viz. 201. (Signed) GREENOCK, Davin Minne. * Edinburgh, 10 York Place, 27th July, 1841. My pear Sir,—I sent you some days ago a Report on the earthquake in- struments and registers which have been established at Comrie by the Com- mittee of the British Association. As a supplement to that Report I now beg to inform you, that on Sunday evening, the 25th inst., there were two earthquake shocks felt at Comrie, by both of which all the instruments set there were moved. Mr. Macfarlane reports, that the seismometer in Comrie parish-church had its point thrown half an inch to the west, which indicated, therefore, a horizontal movement of the earth towards the east. An instrument of my own there also indi- cated an upward movement to the extent of half an inch. These results, as they strengthen the recommendation in the Report, that the Committee therein suggested should be appointed, and a sum of money given, I hope you will communicate to the Association. Yours very truly, Davin MItne. Extract from a Letter from J. Bryce, Esq., one of the Members of the Com- mittee, to D. Mitne, Esq., dated Maghera Gilebe-House, County of Lon- donderry, July 21, 1841. Dear Sr1r,—Since the Glasgow Meeting there appeared in the Irish news- papers three notices of earthquakes having occurred ; one in the county of 1841. E 50 REPORT—1841. Wexford and two on the North coast. I lost no time in examining into the authenticity of these, and I state to you the result merely, without troubling you with the detail of evidence—there were in reality no earthquakes, the effects of sudden squalls were mistaken for those of earthquakes. I did not personally collect the evidence, but by letter from a great many most intelli- gent, accurate and trustworthy persons, on whom I fully depend. You are already in possession of the evidence furnished by Mr. Patterson respecting the Innishowen earthquake, about two years ago. It occurred in a district composed of granite and slate rocks, and I have no doubt of there having been a movement of the ground such as was described. I am, dear Sir, yours faithfully, J. Bryce, Jun. Report of the Committee for making Experiments on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds. In order to carry out the objects of this Committee, it was deemed advi- sable to draw up a series of suggestions for experiments, and to give them an extensive circulation. The annexed document has accordingly been printed, at a cost of 1/. 14s., and will be distributed at the present meeting. The Committee has yet effected but little in the way of direct experi- ment. An application was made to the Trustees of the British Museum for permission to make experiments on various seeds obtained from the Egyptian catacombs. The Trustees have liberally granted permission to their officers to select such seeds as could be spared for the purpose. Dr. Daubeny has also made a selection of seeds from the old herbaria at Oxford. The speci- mens thus obtained have been submitted to experiment, and the results will be reported as soon as a sufficient number of data are collected to lead to any general conclusions. To provide for the expenses incidental to these experiments, the Committee recommend that the grant of 10/. made last year should be renewed. H. E. Srrickitanp, Secretary to the Committee. Suggestions for Experiments on the Conservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds.—These Experiments are intended to determine the following ques- tions :— 1. What is the longest period during which the seeds of any plant under any circumstances can retain their vegetative powers ? 2. What is the extent of this period in each of the natural orders, genera and species of plants? and how far is it a distinctive character of such groups ? . 3. How far is the extent of this period dependent on the apparent charac- ters of the seed; such as size, hardness of covering, hardness of internal sub- stance, oiliness, mucilage, &c.? 4. What are the circumstances of situation, temperature, dryness, seclusion from the atmosphere, &¢. most favourable to the preservation of seeds ? To answer these questions satisfactorily will require the accumulation of a large mass of facts; and although there are many difficulties in the way of such an investigation, and many years may elapse before it can be brought to maturity, yet it is desirable that the British Association should commence the collection of materials for the purpose. It is proposed then to invite botanists and others|to undertake the following series of experiments, and to communicate the results to the British Association. These experiments are either Retrospective or Prospective. PRESERVATION OF VEGETATIVE POWERS IN SEEDS. 51 A. RerrosprecTIVE EXPERIMENTS. 1. By collecting samples of ancient soils from situations where vegetation cannot now take place, and by exposing these soils to air, light, warmth, and moisture, to ascertain whether any, and if any, what, species of plants spon- taneously vegetate in them. N.B.—Care must of course be taken that no seeds obtain admittance into these soils from external sources,—such as the air or water intro- duced to promote vegetation. These ancient soils are either xatural or artificial deposits. The zatural deposits belong either to past geological periods or to the re- cent period. a. The deposits of past periods are either secondary or tertiary. N.B.—There seems every reason to believe that the age even of the latest of these deposits is far beyond the maximum period through which vegetative powers can be preserved; yet as many accounts are recorded of seeds vegetating spontaneously in such soils, it would be well to set these statements at rest by actual experiment. In such experiments, state the formation, and describe the geological phz- nomena of the locality, together with the depth from the present surface at which the soil was obtained. b. Natural deposits of the recent period may be classed as follows :— Alluvions of rivers. Tidal warp land. Shell marl. Peat. Surface-soil buried by landslips. Ditto ditto by volcanic eruptions. In these cases, state the nature of the soil, the depth from the surface, &c.; and especially endeavour to obtain an approximate date to each specimen of soil, by comparing its depth from the surface with the present rate of depo- sition, or by consulting historical records. It would be well to submit to ex- periment a series of samples of soil taken from successive depths at the same locality. e. Artificial deposits are as follows :— Ancient tumuli. Ancient encampments. The soil beneath the foundation of buildings. The soil with which graves, wells, mines, or other excavations have been filled up. Ridges of arable land, &c. In these cases, state, as before, the depth from the surface, and ascertain from historical sources the approximate age of the deposit. 2. By trying experiments on actual seeds which exist in artificial reposi- tories. These are,— Seeds in old herbaria and botanical museums. Seeds obtained from mummies, funereal urns, at Pompeii, Hercula- neum, &c. Dated samples of old seeds from nurserymen and seedsmen. In these cases, state the circumstances in which the seeds have been pre- served, and their date as nearly as it can be ascertained. B. Prospecrive ExpERIMENTS. In this department of the inquiry, it is proposed to form deposits of va- rious kinds of seeds under different conditions, and to place a portion of them “ EQ 52 REPORT—1841. at successive periods under circumstances calculated to excite the process of vegetation. In the case of certain species or families of plants, it would per- haps require many centuries to determine the limit of their vegetative powers, yet it is probable that a very few years would suffice to fix the maximum du- ration of the greater number, and that many interesting results might thus be obtained even by the present generation of botanists. It is proposed then to form a collection of the seeds of a great variety of plants, (including, where- ever it is possible, at least one species of every genus,) and to pack them up (carefully labelled) either alone, or mixed with various materials, as sand, sawdust, melted wax or tallow, clay, garden mould, &c. in various vessels, as glass bottles, porous earthen jars, wooden boxes, metal cases, &c., placed in various situations, as under-ground, in cellars, dry apartments, &c. At cer- tain intervals increasing in extent,—say at first every two years, then every five, every ten, and, at the lapse of a century, every twenty years, a small number (say twenty) of each kind of seed, from each combination of cireum- stances, to be taken out and sown in an appropriate soil and temperature, and an exact register kept of the number of seeds which vegetate compared with those which fail. Should it appear desirable for this project to be carried out by the British Association, they might most effectually accomplish it by committing a col- lection of seeds, formed on the above plan, to some qualified person, whose duty it should be, in consideration of a small annual stipend, to take charge of them, and at stated periods to select portions for experiment, keeping an accurate register of the results. In this manner it is believed, that in regard to the large majority of plants, the limit of their vegetative durability would be determined in a very few years, and that a large mass of vulgar errors on this subject, which now pass current for facts, would be cancelled and exploded. N.B.—The most effectual way of exciting vegetation in seeds of great antiquity, is to sow them in a hot-bed, under glass, and in a light soil moderately watered. On Inquiries into the Races of Man, by Dr. Hopexin. Dr. Hopcxrn read a Report, from which the following are extracts, respect- ing the drawing up, printing, and circulation of Queries concerning the human \ race, for the use of travellers and others. “ The list of Queries, as presented in a printed form to the Meeting last year, has undergone revision and correction, and may now be regarded as comprising Queries relating to every branch of the subject with sufficient minuteness to suggest inquiry and invite reports from travellers of different tastes and acquirements. An edition of the Queries in their present form has been printed off, and copies have already been extensively cire'¥-ated, but there has not been sufficient time to admit of the return of replies from those parts of the globe from which they are the most to be desired. “Copies have been furnished to the British Museum, to the Royal Geo- graphical Society, and to other scientific bodies, foreign as well as British. Considerable pains have been taken to place them in the hands of intelligent travellers about to visit those quarters in which natives exist, but of whom imperfect accounts have hitherto reached us, and whose altered condition, or extermination, is likely in a short time to deprive us of the possibility of ob- taining a knowledge of what they have been, unless it be promptly collected. On the occasion of the fitting out of a well-appointed expedition to ascend the Niger, and thus penetrate into the interior of Africa, copies were furnished INQUIRIES INTO THE RACES OF MAN. 53 to the commanders of the vessels, and to the intelligent naturalists and drafts- men who formed a part of their suite. Very recently, intelligence has reached this country, that an expedition, well equipped on all points, is about to pro- ceed, for the purposes of scientific inquiry, from the southern shores of the Red Sea, in a south-westerly direction, with the hope of reaching the Cape by a somewhat circuitous route. Should this expedition happily succeed in its undertaking, it will necessarily have to pass through the midst of nations and tribes of Africans, of whom a more extensive as well as correct know- ledge is, notwithstanding all the research hitherto employed, still essentially necessary for our possessing anything like an accurate view of the characters and distribution of the African races, and for our arriving at any well- grounded conclusions concerning the modes, directions, periods, and circum- stances of their diffusion over the continent, and of the influence which they have reciprocally excited upon each other by fusion, by reduction of num- bers, or by the change of their physical and social condition. Several copies of the Queries are now in the way of transmission to the gentlemen com- posing that expedition. They are accompanied by some observations sug- gested by circumstances peculiar to the mission, and the regions through which it is designed to pass. : “Sir George Simpson, the Governor of the Hudson Bay Company’s terri- tory, having a few months since left this country with the intention of cross- ing the North American Continent, from Canada to Vancouver, of visiting the Russian settlements, and of passing over land by Kamtschatka to Peters- burgh, the opportunity was not lost to endeavour to increase the interest which he already has felt in the character and situation of the several tribes with whom his official situation necessarily brings him into contact. Copies of the Queries were furnished, not only for the governor’s own use and that of Dr. Rowand, an intelligent medical man, partly of Indian descent, who was expected to accompany the governor in his entire route, but also for such residents at the Company’s settlements as might be judged likely to turn them to good account. Several copies have likewise been addressed to cor- respondents already settled in remote situations. Although it is to be feared that many of the copies which have been thus distributed may fail to procure from those who receive them the direct replies which they call for, it is not too much to hope, that, from various quarters, detailed series of answers may be received, and found in no small degree to contribute to the interest and advantage of the sittings of this Section at future Meetings of the Associa- tion. It is perhaps not too much to anticipate, that in this way the diffusion of these Queries may not only serve the too-much neglected cause of the science of Ethnography, but indirectly promote a practically benevolent interest in some of the feeble and perishing branches of the human family. Even in those cases in which direct replies are not obtained, some good may not unreasonably be looked for from the mere fact of their directing the attention of the reader to a great variety of points connected with the scat- tered families of man. In many minds they may originate trains of thought, and excite interest, inquiry, and investigation; and even with those who have no means of making investigations of their own, they may yet serve to create an appetite for information of a kind which at present is, in general, but little appreciated, and consequently but sparingly supplied. Neverthe- less, the interests of science, of our country, and of humanity at large, are essentially connected with this subject. When it is considered that other countries, which have immeasurably less direct interest in the condition of the uncivilized sections of the human race, and who, as respects wrongs to be atoned for, and advantages to be reaped, may be regarded as all but 54 REPORT—1841. foreign to it, are notwithstanding pursuing it with zeal, it certainly behoves us, for the credit of our country, to endeavour to diffuse a more extensive and operative interest in relation to it.” Dr. Hodgkin stated that sufficient time had not elapsed for the return of answers from distant countries. Some interesting information had, however, been elicited by them from a gentleman who had lately travelled in Texas, where he had observed the remnants of the ancient Mexicans. He pointed out some of the national reasons which call for exertion on the part of Englishmen, and related some of the labours of foreigners, and more espe- cially of the Ethnographical Society of Paris, of Dr. Dieffenbach, R. H. Schomburgk, and other Germans, and those of the government as well as of individuals of the United States, and gave a description of the gallery of North American Indian curiosities and portraits collected and exhibited with great expense and pains by George Catlin, whose work on the Indians of North America he announced as nearly ready for publication. Dr. Hodgkin dwelt on the importance of Ethnological researches, and on the absolute necessity for promptly pursuing the work if anything valuable and satis- factory is to be accomplished ; seeing that the races in question are not only changing character, but rapidly disappearing. “It is this threatened extinction of races of men who have been either wholly neglected or very imperfectly studied, which seems to bring this sub+ ject peculiarly within the province of this Section of the British Association. Why should not the varieties of our own species receive as much attention as those of inferior animals, however remarkable or rare they may be? Has the extinction of a variety of man ever excited equal attention with that which has been paid to the loss of the dodo? Or has the diminution of any tribe of Aborigines received a proportionate share of solicitude with that which has been given, not to the eatinction of a species, but to its disappear- ance from a particular locality, as in the case of the ‘ cock of the woods,’ from the northern parts of this island? Successful attempts have been made to restore these animals to their ancient haunts; and it has even been contem- plated to restore the long-lost wild boar to the list of British wild animals. A rare variety of the ox or the dog is preserved with unremitting care, and often at great expense, from generation to generation; and a rare specimen in any department of natural history is sought with unremitting perseverance, preserved with pains, and purchased at an almost unlimited expense. It is not to disparage the zeal which is justly devoted to any of the various branches to which these objects may belong, that these observations are offered ; they are merely made for the purpose of urging that man himself, even as an object of Natural History, may receive a degree of attention proportioned to the exalted rank which he holds amongst the works of his Creator. A great variety of interests are united in ascertaining the mode in which man, as the highest of animals, has been diffused over the surface of the globe.” Dr. Hodgkin concluded by urging, as practical means for advancing the cause of Ethnological investigation, first, the bringing home, for the purpose ‘of being studied themselves, as well as of being made the subjects of suitable education, well-selected aboriginal youths, and especially such as have had an opportunity of acquiring knowledge, and exhibiting ability in missionary or other native schools. This plan, which need not equal in expense what is often done for other objects of zoology and for botany, might be facilitated by the union of individual contributors. Secondly, rendering personal and pecuniary aid to the Aborigines’ Protection Society, the objects of which were neither of a party nor of a sectarian character, but were solely directed to the preservation, amelioration, and study of the feeble races of mankind, amongst EXPERIMENTS WITH BALLOONS. 55 which those related to British colonies occupied the chief place, Dr. Hodg- kin observed, that the objects pursued by this Society furnished subject- matter not merely for the Zoological, but also for the Medical and the Sta- tistical Sections. Details of the plans, operations and present state of the Aborigines’ Protection Society may be obtained from its publications, which are to be had at the Society's Office, 17 Beaufort Buildings, Strand. The Queries regarding the races of man, to which this report refers, will be found in another part of this volume, Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of' the Atmosphere may be supplied by means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable Expense of such Experiments, and to draw up Directions tor Ob- servers in such circumstances. AttTHoucH much valuable information might be obtained by means of aérostatic observation, the pecuniary outlay which would be required for this purpose is so considerable, that the Committee do not at present recom- mend any application of the funds for this object, much less any attempt to induce Her Majesty’s Government to incur the expense, until the plan has been more fully matured. But experience derived from ascents made under ordinary circumstances, as opportunity may offer, would be desirable, both as regards the kind of instruments, the mode of using them, the special points to be attended to, the degree of concordance to be expected in results obtained at different times, places, and states of the atmosphere. The prin- cipal objects required are, to determine the progression of temperature, and the law of the distribution of vapour, in ascending from the surface of the earth to the upper regions of the atmosphere, There can be no doubt that, in a perfectly dry and undisturbed atmosphere of air, the temperature would be found to decrease as we ascend, as the density decreases; and that this must be its normal state to which, amongst all its fluctuations, it must tend, The decrease of density, however, is liable to the action of various disturbing causes, the principal of which are the evolution of heat by the local conden- sation of yapous, and its absorption by the evaporation of clouds, The law of the decrease would most probably be elicited from the mean results of a great number of careful observations, in which a compensation of ‘such dis- turbanees would take place; but it cannot be expected that it should be apparent in such a limited series as can be comprised in a single ascent. It is probable that the temperature observed at short intervals, instead of pre- senting a regularly decreasing progression, would exhibit great irregularities ; as, for instance, that it would be found in a calm to decrease to a certain point, then become steady for a time, or possibly rise, especially upon passing through a cloud, or upon entering a current flowing in a different direction from that upon the surface: or, if the condensation of vapour were taking place from the action of a cold wind flowing into, and mingling with, a saturated atmosphere, instead of arising from the regular decrease of tem- perature due to the decreased density, a sudden and great depression would be found. The observer's attention should be particularly directed to the influence of clouds or changes of currents upon the thermometer. Mr. Green has found that the isothermal planes are parallel, or nearly so, to the earth’s surface, so that the aéronaut knows generally, even although the earth may be intercepted by a cloud, when he is crossing a chain of hills; or at least the upper surface of the clouds generally follows in a great measure the con- figuration of the earth. ‘“ The upper surface of the clouds, upon occasions 56 REPORT—1841. when they overspread the earth at a moderate elevation, seems to accom- modate itself to all the variations of form in the subjacent soil.” Mr. Green has also found, that it is usual to ascend to a greater elevation to experience the same reduction of temperature when the earth is overspread with clouds than in a cloudless sky. According to Mr. Monck Mason, a singular rela- tion is found to exist between the formation or precipitation of rain, and the condition of the sky above the clouds which contain it. ‘“ Whenever from a sky completely overcast with clouds rain is falling, a similar range of clouds invariably exists in a certain elevation above, whereby the rays of the sun are intercepted from the layer below; and on the contrary, whenever, with the same apparent condition of the sky below, rain is altogether or generally absent, a clear expanse of firmament, with a sun unobstructed by clouds, is the prevailing character of the space immediately above: thus leaving it a determinate fact, that when rain is pouring from clouds overspreading the earth, the rays of the sun are not operating upon the clouds in question ; while, on the other hand, rain does not fall from such clouds when the rays of the sun are unobstructedly falling upon the upper surface.” According to the same authority, and in conformity with the opinion of Mr. Green, it appears that, in this country, whatever may be the direction of the wind below, in the higher regions, that is, generally within 10,000 feet above the surface of the earth, the direction of the wind is invariably from some point between the north and west. It appears from Mr. Green’s observations, that “the variation experienced in the course of the wind during the progress of the ascent was accompanied by a corresponding alteration in the intensity of its rate, the current which at the commencement was gentle becoming strong as it took another direction, and vice versd.” These important facts in Meteorology could not have been ascertained by any observations made at the surface of the earth, and afford strong evidence of the advantages which might result to science from well-planned aéronautic expeditions. With regard to the atmosphere of vapour, it is probable that it tends to the main- tenance of an analogous but very different progression of density and tem- perature, from below upwards, to that of the gaseous atmosphere; but being constrained to diffuse itself through the latter, it is controlled and regulated by the temperature into which it is thus forced. Thus the elasticity with which it will rise from the surface of the earth, in the act of evaporation, will be determined by the temperature of some upper stratum of the air, at which it will become condensed, the force at which point will limit by its reaction that of the evaporating surface. Between these two points, there- fore, the dew-point will probably be found to be steady, or to decline by a very slow progression. After passing through the cloud, it may be expected that the dew-point will fall at once several degrees; the elasticity of the vapour on the upper side being probably governed and determined by a new point of condensation in still higher regions, just as the dew-point on the surface of the earth is conceived to be determined by the temperature of the first vapour-plane. This would imply, that while precipitation was taking place on one side of a bed of clouds, rapid evaporation might be going on upon the other. It is also conceivable that these processes of condensation and evaporation may be so adjusted as that they may exactly counteract each other; and the vapour-plane might thus be indicated by no cloud, or possibly by a mere haze; but the dew-point would fall suddenly. To this cireum- stance tle observer's attention should be particularly directed. It is probable that, in ascending to a great height, several vapour-planes might be thus crossed, and the confirmation of the hypothesis would be of importance to science in elucidating the constitution of the atmosphere. It is obvious that, EXPERIMENTS WITH BALLOONS. 57 for the purposes just indicated, the observations of the thermometer and dew-point should, if possible, be unremitted during the whole time both of the ascent and descent, and, of course, must be accompanied by simultaneous observations of the barometer: one person’s time should therefore be wholly devoted to these objects; and the arrangement should be well considered, by which his labour may be facilitated and his attention kept undistracted. The prevailing forms and structure of the clouds; their internal motions, if any ; the number of strata which may be detected, and the number and direction of the currents which their motion may indicate, will also form interesting objects of observation in conjunction with the preceding. Contemporaneous observations will, of course, be made on the earth during the time of the a€rostatic voyage, which will possess a greatly-increased interest if circum- stances should permit it to take place on the day when hourly meteorological observations are made at all the principal observatories of Europe, according to the plan laid down by Sir J. Herschel. Portions of the air should be brought down, for examination, from the highest elevations; and this may probably be best effected by taking up several glass balloons, or bottles care- fully gauged, fitted with stop-cocks, and filled with water. The water should be allowed to run out at the proper station, and the stop-cocks closed. Ex- periments upon the radiation of heat, by another observer, would also be interesting, although there are probably no known means of instituting them with all the accuracy which could be desired. Observations with Sir J. Her- schel’s actinometer might be made upon the force of solar radiation at various heights; but the instrument would not be applicable to the measurement of terrestrial radiation. When a delicate thermometer, whose bulb is covered with lamp-black, is placed in the focus of a parabolic reflector, and turned towards the clear sky, even in the day-time, it will radiate a portion of its heat into space; by the same contrivance, the rays of heat proceeding from the earth, or from beds of clouds, would be condensed upon the thermometer, and some estimate formed of their intensity. Observations upon these points at different heights, and at different periods of the day and night, would be instructive, though not of the high importance which would belong to those of the thermometer and hygrometer. To these observations might be added others of great interest upon the electricity of the atmosphere, by dropping wires into clouds, or from stratum to stratum of cloudless air, and examining the nature of the electricity of their extremity by means of a very delicate electroscope: but attractive as these researches may prove, the Committee recommend, that should a series of ascents be undertaken by one or many observers, on no occasion should the observer's attention be distracted by too great a variety of objetts; and that our efforts should at first be directed solely to the elucidation of the question of the decrease of temperature, by the acquisition of accurate contemporaneous observations of the barometer and thermometer made at different elevations. It would manifestly be desirable, that while observations of atmospheric temperature and pressure were made in a balloon, two observers, stationed at the extremities of an accurately measured base, and provided with theodolites of the best con- struction, should by their observations determine the height of the balloon geometrically, at the instants the observations of temperature and pressure were made. This, however, implies a more extensive system of cooperation, and a larger personal and instrumental force, than could probably be assem- bled. It will, therefore, be best to confine the observations simply to the determination of corresponding temperatures and pressures of the atmo- sphere. For this purpose nothing more is wanted than a supply of instru- ments that can be easily used and give accurate results. 58 REPORT—1841. Of the Hygrometer.—It is desirable that two hygrometers should be pro- vided, which may be fixed side by side upon the lid of a box, into which they may be contrived to pack. The observer should not only note the tem- perature of the first appearance of dew, but the temperature at which it again disappears; and while he is waiting for the last observation by one in- strument, he may proceed to make a new one with the other. A store of the best ether should be provided, and a convenient dropping-bottle. No dis- advantage would arise from the effect of the diminished pressure upon the boil- ing-point of the ether, if placed in a bottle contrived for the purpose ; as thus, a b the bottle, ce d the level of the ether, e f a tube fitted tight into the neck, and passing to the bottom of “ the liquid, furnished with a stop-cock e. As the atmospheric pressure diminished upon the aperture of the stop-cock, the => pressure of the included vapour would pour out a stream of ether, which might be regulated, and the rapidity of its subsequent evapora- tion would be a great advantage; but as it is probable that the dryness of some of the upper sections of the atmosphere may be extreme, smaller tubes, filled with condensed sulphurous acid, should be provided, and kept cool in ice, by the dropping of which upon the bulb of the hygrometer extreme cold may be produced. As an additional precaution, a small bright silver capsule and delicate spirit-thermometer may be prepared, by which the dew-point may be observed from the direct evaporation of the acid. Bottles containing a mixture of liquid carbonic acid and ether might perhaps be prepared, which would answer the purpose still more perfectly. As it is extremely desirable that the relation of the cold produced by evaporation from the sur- face of a wet-bulbed thermometer with the dew-point should be ascertained, and as such an observation would not add much to the trouble of the observer, Dr. Mason’s hygrometer, which is a convenient form of the instru- ment, may be fixed upon a stem upon the box, immediately behind the hygrometers, and the temperatures of the two thermometers may be noted. The freezing of the water in the upper regions will, however, put an end to these observations. The stem which supports the thermometers may also be made to carry a moveable card-board, covered on the outside with gilt paper, so as to screen all the instruments from direct radiant heat. Of the Barometer.—The only barometer that can be used, and can be trusted in observations like those in question, appears to be the Siphon-baro- meter of Bunten, in Paris (Quay Pelletier, No. 26), or barometers of a similar construction by Robinson, of London. The tubes of Bunten appear to be carefully made; the column of mercury is easily seen; and the slow motion of the verniers, though not so fine as in Robinson’s, is more easily managed, a circumstance of some importance in the present instance. The barometers should be new: their scales divided in millimetres only. Some of them have a scale of English inches, which, owing to some mistake about standard temperature, is very erroneous. They should be always kept in- verted, except when in actual use. When allowed to hang in the position in which they are used, the mercury in the short tube becomes oxidized, the glass covered with a powder of the oxide, and the capillary depression con- siderably increased, which renders the instrument useless. In a cistern- barometer, where the level of the mercury cannot be observed, the cor- rections for a change of level for small variations’of barometrical pressure are extremely troublesome. For darge changes of barometrical pressure they must become uncertain in the highest degree. ‘Troughton’s mode of deter- mining the lower level is decidedly bad. The cistern-barometers, in which EXPERIMENTS WITH BALLOONS. 59 the lower level is determined by contact of a point with the surface of mer- eury, are good comparative or differential instruments, but nothing more. Of the Thermometer.—The best and most convenient thermometers appear to be those made by Greiner, of Berlin, with a paper scale enclosed in an outer tube, or a scale of milk-white glass. The bulbs are exposed, and the scales cannot be injured by immersing the bulbs, or whole instrument in water, or any other liquid, for purposes of comparison. The graduation should extend from —85° Fahr. to about + 100° Fahr. In Gay-Lussac’s ascent, the thermometer descended 40°25”. It is not likely that any observers would ascend much higher than he did, or that they would undertake an ascent when the tempera- ture at the earth’s surface was less than 10° C. The ther- mometers, during the ascent, should be enclosed in bright tin tubes (having an opening through which the scale can be observed), open at both ends; with a round disc of tin at a little distance from the ends, to prevent the effect of radi- ation. Thermometers thus protected were used at the Cambridge Observa- tory, and found to answer well. The temperature of the air being already known, one thermometer with a wet bulb will be sufficient to determine the pressure of vapour at a given station. Directions for Observing—When the motion of the balloon in a vertical direction appears to be small. 1. Observe the thermometer attached to the barometer. 2. Make the lower edge of the upper ring appear to touch the upper end of the mercurial column. 3. Make the lower edge of the lower ring appear to touch the lower end of column. 4, Observe the thermometer in the tin case for temperature of air, and note the time. 5. Read off the two verniers of the barometer. 6. Observe the psychometer (wet-bulb ther- mometer) and Daniell’s hygrometer. The observations at the surface of the earth should be made in the same order. The observers should avoid as much as possible approaching the thermometer and barometer, in order that they should not influence the temperature. The aéronaut must be instructed in making the contact between the ring and the end of the mercurial column, also in reading a vernier correctly. Cost of Instruments. Two of Bunten’s barometers, each 4/. 8s. . -£8 16s. Duty,25 percent. 2 2-2 wee eee Pe Two thermometers, each 1/. 1ls.6d. . . . SHA SUPP S Baty 25 percent) 7 6 siete) See 0 16 Same, to be used with wet bulbs . . . . ... 3 3 Baby, BS per cenk.! 0s Te gl era ONG £18 18s. Tin cases for thermometers, Daniell’s hygrometer, &c. It would be manifestly imprudent to commence operations with only just a sufficient stock of such fragile instruments as barometers and thermometers. Duplicates of every one should be provided. This would make the cost of the instruments amount to about 50/. To the above might be added,—a sympezometer, constructed for the purpose, without sliding scale,—a maxi- mum and minimum thermometer, about as large as a watch, constructed by Breguet. (Signed) Davip Brewster, Epwarp SABINE, J. F. W. Herscue., W. WHEWELL, J. W. Lussock, W. H. Micxer. T. R. Rospinson, 60 REPORT—1841. Report on British Fossil Reptiles. By Ricuarp Owen, Esq., F.RS.; F.G.S., &¢. &¢. Part II. Tue British Fossil Reptiles described in the first part of this Report pre- sented modifications of their osseous structure, and especially of the vertebral column and locomotive extremities, by which they were especially adapted for a marine life, and hence have been collectively termed Hnaliosauria. All the numerous species of this family are extinct, and it seems that the genera have ceased to be represented since the deposition of the chalk for- mations. In the present zoological systems the Plesiosawrt and Ichthyosaurt are referrible to the Saurian order of reptiles, as defined by Cuvier; but they offer the most remarkable deviations from the existing types, and constitute links which connect the Reptiles, on the one hand, with Fishes, and, on the other hand, with the cetaceous Mammals. The present and concluding part of the Report on British Fossil Reptiles contains an account of the remains of the Crocodilian, Dinosaurian, Lacer- tian, Pterodactylian, Chelonian, Ophidian and Batrachian reptiles. The most remarkable of the extinct species of the amphibious and terres- trial Sauria of England have been discovered and described by Dr. Buckland and Dr. Mantell. Some remains are briefly noticed by Parkinson*, and by the older English observers, as Wooller and Chapman. Cuvier has added to the value of these discoveries by his just observations and comparisons. Some of the British Chelonian fossils have been noticed by Parkinson, Cuvier and Dr. Mantell; but none of the British extinct Ophidians or Batrachians appear to have been hitherto recognized as such. PLIOSAURUS. The Enaliosaurs are immediately connected with the Crocodilian reptiles by an extinct genus, represented by species of gigantic size, of which the remains are not unfrequent in the Kimmeridge and Oxford clays. The Reptile in question is essentially a modified Plesiosawrus, but its modifications appear to entitle it to be regarded as a distinct genus, which, as it is more closely allied to the true Sauria, I have proposed to call Pliosaurus+. Large, simple, conical teeth, with the enamelled crown traversed by well- defined and abruptly terminated longitudinal or oblique ridges, as in the teeth of the Plesiosaur, have not unfrequently been discovered in the Kim- meridge clay formation. These teeth differ from those of the Plesiosaur in their greater relative thickness as compared with their length, and in the subtrihedral shape of their crown; the outer side is slightly convex, sometimes nearly flat ; it is separated from the two other sides by two sharp ridges ; these are more convex, and the angle dividing them is often so rounded off that they form a demi-cone, and the shape of the tooth thus approximates very closely to that of the Mosasaur, with which it is equal in size. It may be readily distinguished, however, even when the crown only is preserved, by the ridges which traverse the inner or convex sides, the outer flattened surface alone being smooth ; but an entire tooth of the present extinct Reptile presents a long fang, which at once removes it from the acrodont group of lacertine Saurians, and allies it with the thecodont Reptiles, among which it approaches nearest, in the superficial markings of the crown, to the Plesiosaur. The known parts of the skeleton of the gigantic extinct reptile, to which the teeth in question belong, confirm this approximation ; but the vertebre of the * Organic Remains of a Former World, vol. iii. + Odontography, Part II., p. 282. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 61 neck are so modified, that the peculiarly elongated proportion of this part of the spine, which characterizes the typical Plesiosaurs, is exchanged for one that much more nearly approaches the opposite condition of the cervical region in the Ichthyosaurs. This abrogation of the main characteristic of the Ple- siosaurs, combined with the more crocodilian proportions of the teeth, esta- blishes the claims of the Pliosaurus to generic distinction. In the collection of Professor Buckland, at Oxford, is preserved a consider- able proportion of both the upper and lower jaws of a gigantic specimen of the Pliosaurus, from the Kimmeridge clay formation at Market-Raisin. The teeth are arranged in separate sockets, in a close and regular series, along the alveolar borders of the intermaxillary, maxillary and premandibular bones. Twenty-six sockets may be counted on the most perfect side of the upper jaw; but the series is evidently incomplete posteriorly. An interspace, not quite equal to the breadth of a socket, divides the fourth from the fifth tooth, count- ing backwards, and the jaw is slightly compressed at this interspace ; the four anterior teeth, thus marked off, occupy the slightly expanded anterior extre- mity of the upper jaw, but do not present the excessive size of the correspond- ing teeth in the Plesiosaur. After the fifth tooth the sockets progressively increase in size to the twelfth tooth, and from the fourteenth they begin gra- dually to diminish in size, becoming, beyond the twentieth tooth, smaller than those at the fore part of the jaw. The alveolar septa are narrow, and are thinned off to an edge, which is lower than either the outer or inner walls of the sockets: these walls are equally de- veloped. A line drawn transversely across any of the twelve anterior sockets would be transverse to the jaws, but in the remaining sockets it would incline obliquely from without, inwards and backwards. The transverse diameter of the thirteenth socket is one inch six lines ; its antero-posterior diameter is one inch eight lines. The extent of the alveolar series in both jaws is nearly three feet; the breadth of the palate at the twenty-sixth tooth is nearly one foot; the breadth of the upper jaw at the third tooth is four inches and three lines; the breadth of the socket of that tooth is one inch three lines. In the lower jaw of the specimen in the Oxford Museum, the posterior ex- tremity of the dental series is complete, but not the anterior one ; thirty-five teeth are present in each premandibular bone. The first, from its large size, I conclude to have been received into the slight concavity at the side of the upper jaw, where the diastema separates the fourth and fifth teeth ; there are probably, therefore, thirty-eight teeth on each side of the lower jaw. Counting backwards, on this supposition, the teeth begin to diminish in size beyond the fifteenth, and at the posterior extremity of the series the sockets are less than half an inch in diameter: in their close arrangement and position they corre- spond with those of the upper jaw. The teeth which are preserved in this magnificent cranial fragment, present the characters above defined. The inserted fangs of most of these teeth are four inches in length; the entire tooth being thus seven inches in length. The ridges which divide the outer from the inner surfaces of the tooth sub- side at the base of the crown; the fang is smooth; it assumes a subcircular form, gradually expands for about half its length, and then contracts to its termination; but this is always less pointed than in the fully formed teeth of the true Plesiosaur. In the old teeth with the elongated fang, the pulp cavity remains open, as in the Plesiosaurian teeth ; it presents at the expanded part of the fang a narrow elliptic transverse section. In a tooth of the present: species, six inches and a half in length from the Kimmeridge clay at Shotover, the diameter of the persistent pulp-cavity was thirteen lines. In this tooth 62 REPORT—1841. the flattened surface is polished, but marked with minute shallow wrinkles ; one of the ridged surfaces, which stood at right angles to the preceding, was traversed by eleven well-marked linear ridges of unequal length, separated by smooth interspaces of about three times the breadth of the ridges; the third surface, which formed an acute angle with the smooth outer surface, was traversed by twelve ridges. These ridges, on the inner surface of the tooth, slightly inclined towards the rounded angle, dividing the surfaces ; they terminate abruptly ; some cease half way from the apex of the crown; about ten are continued to within half an inch of the apex, which is smooth; the two ridges, which divide the flat or smooth side from the ridged surfaces of the tooth, are alone continued to the subacute apex of the tooth. The teeth of the Pliosaur present varieties of form as well as of size; the rounding off of the angle between the ridged surfaces has been already alluded to; the smooth outer surface is sometimes so convex, that the transverse section of the tooth is more elliptical than triangular. All the teeth of the Pliosaur are slightly bent inwards and backwards ; but the smaller posterior teeth are most recurved, and have the sharpest apex; and in the crown of these teeth the ordinary rounded or elliptical form of the cone is most nearly attained ; but the distinction of the smooth external surface, and the ridged internal surfaces of the crown of the tooth are retained, and would suffice to characterize any of these teeth if found detached. The teeth consist of a central body of compact dentine, with a coronal investment of enamel, and a general covering of cement. The dentine is permeated by fine calcigerous tubes, without admixture of medullary canals. The arrangement, division, secondary undulations, and branches of the cal- cigerous tubes closely correspond with those of the teeth of the Plesiosaur. The germs of the successional teeth in the Pliosaur were developed at the inner side of the basis of the old teeth, but did not penetrate these teeth; the apices of the new teeth make their appearance through foramina situated at the inner side, and generally at the interspaces of the sockets of the old teeth. Here, therefore, as perhaps also in the Pterodactyle, the growing teeth may be included in closed recesses of the osseous substance of the jaw, and emerge through tracts distinct from the sockets of their predecessors, which is an exceptional condition of the reproduction of the teeth in reptiles. Of the Vertebral Column.—A long neck has been considered to be so peculiarly the distinction of the Plesiosaur, that a species which has this part of the spine shortened and reduced by the flattening of the vertebra to Ichthyosaurian proportions, may be reasonably regarded as at least subgene- rically distinct, especially when the enormous and massive head, to which the abbreviated neck bears a subordinate relationship, is armed with teeth which have just been shown to be as remarkable for their thickness and strength as those of the Plesiosaurus are for their slender and sharp-pointed proportions. Perhaps there is no example, save the genus Pliosawrus, in the whole class of reptiles, living or extinct, which has any of the vertebre presenting such proportions as those of the following specimen in Dr. Buckland’s collection from the Kimmeridge clay of Foxcombe Hill, near Oxford. The breadth of the body of this vertebra is six inches; its depth, or vertical diameter, five inches ; while in length, or the diameter corresponding with the axis of the body, it measures only an inch and a half. But cervical vertebre of similar pro- portions have been discovered in the Kimmeridge clay near Weymouth, and were described by Mr. Conybeare in the ‘Geological Transactions.’ The Market-Raisin specimen in the Oxford Museum proves that those peculiarly compressed vertebre are associated with the well-defined teeth characteristic of the Oxford and Kimmeridge clays, and with jaws of great size, which could ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 63 only be supported and wielded by a neck as short and strong as in the Ceta- ceous inhabitants of the sea. The cervical vertebrae, as they recede from the head, increase in breadth and depth, but retain the same length, as they do throughout the spine in most Saurians, whatever may be their other dimensions. But in the dorsal region of the spine of the Pliosaur, the vertebrae acquire a great increase of length, and there assume the ordinary proportions of Plesiosaurian vertebre : for example, the first dorsal vertebra of the Market-Raisin specimen, which is four inches three lines in breadth, and four inches in depth, measures nearly three inches in length. The posterior dorsal vertebre slightly in- crease in depth, and with the same transverse diameter they present a length of 3 inches 2 lines. The height of one of these vertebra, including the spinous process, is 11 inches. ‘These proportions are retained at least to the base of the tail. A vertebra from this part, obtained from St. Giles’s gravel- pit, near Oxford, and probably washed out of the Kimmeridge clay, measures in length 3 inches ; in the breadth of the body, 4 inches 9 lines; in the depth of the same, 4 inches 4 lines. In the extreme difference which the vertebre of the neck and those of the rest of the trunk present in regard to their length, the Plhosaurus forms a remarkable exception to Saurians in general ; for in the true Enaliosaurs, in Crocodiles, in Lizards, whatever other modifications the vertebrae may undergo, or however much they may be expanded in breadth or depth, they maintain great constancy in the length or antero-posterior diameter of the body. The Pterodactyles, or flying-lizards, offer another exception to this rule, and the cervical region is here likewise the seat of the variation ; but whereas in the Pliosaur the cervical vertebre are remarkable for their shortness; in the Pte- rodactyle they differ from the other vertebra in their extreme length. The general structure of the vertebra of the Pliosaur corresponds closely with that of the Plesiosaur. The osseous texture is compact at the circum- ference of the vertebree, and coarsely, but uniformly, cellular in the rest of the bone. The neurapophyses do not become anchylosed to the centrum, nor the ribs to the costal processes. The articular surfaces at each end of the centrum are flat in the cervical, very slightly concave in the dorsal, rather more concave in the caudal vertebra. The cervical ribs, judging from their articulation with the centrum, must have been unusually strong. The rib on each side of the vertebra was supported on two transverse processes, slightly raised beyond the level of the centrum, occupying two-thirds of its antero- posterior extent, and divided by a deep and well-marked linear fissure. In the anterior cervical vertebrze above described, with a length of 1 inch 9 lines, and a height of centrum of 3 inches 9 lines, the antero-posterior diameter of the constant surfaces was 1 inch 2 lines; their united vertical diameter, 2 inches 2 lines. They occupy a space nearly equi-distant from the upper and lower surfaces of the centrum. At the base of the neck they begin to rise, as in the Plesiosaur, upon the neurapophysis, and are supported, in the dorsal region, upon a single stout transverse process. This is subdepressed, with an oval transverse section, which is rather sharp at the anterior margin. The spinous process of the dorsal vertebre is nearly straight, compressed laterally ; its an- tero-posterior diameter was 2 inches 8 lines; in a vertebra, measuring in the same diameter 3 inches 2 lines, its height from the base of the neurapophysis was 7 inches. The sides of the centrum are rather rugous near the articular ends, elsewhere smooth and concave, especially in the dorsal vertebre. The lower surface has the two vascular perforations in the cervical regions ; the vertebrae become slightly contracted towards this part in the dorsal region. In the caudal vertebra the costal process is single, vertically elliptical, and 64 REPORT—1841. prominent. The non-articular surface of the centrum is not very regular, but is smooth ; the lower surface is square-shaped, and nearly flat ; its angles are marked by the hzmapophysial surfaces, of which the anterior pair is the largest. Bones of the Extremities—The type of. construction of the bones of the extremities closely accords with that of the Plesiosaur. The pectoral arch owes its chief strength to a pair of immensely expanded coracoids, having a broad and short entosternal bone on their anterior interspace, and supporting the clavicles, or the acromial productions of the scapule. The femur of the Market-Raisin specimen measures two feet two inches in length, and is thirteen inches broad at its distal end—a bone well fitted to support and wield the strong paddle that must have been mainly instrumental in propelling this carnivorous sea-monster through its native element. In another femur, measuring thirteen and a half inches across the distal end, the circumference of the proximal end was nearly two feet; the upper half of the bone is cylindrical ; it gradually exchanges this for a compressed expanded distal end, which is terminated by a pretty regular convex curve. The texture of the bone is coarsely cellular throughout, being devoid, as in other marine Saurians, of any trace of medullary cavity. One of the subcircular carpal bones of the Market-Raisin specimen mea- sured five and a half inches across the broadest part, and four and a half across the narrowest, and was two and a half inches in thickness. The phalanges are short and less compressed than in the Plesiosaurs ; flat at the articular extremities, and remarkably contracted in the middle. Besides the localities affording specimens from which the general descrip- tion of the bones of the trunk and extremities is taken, and which localities are noticed in that description, remains of the Pliosaur have been discovered in the following localities :—A small cervical vertebra from Shotover, in the Oxford Museum; four dorsal vertebra, equal in size with the Market- Raisin specimen, from Marcham, also in the Oxford Museum; the vertebra in the Yorkshire Museum*, said to have been found in the gravel of Burn, one mile below Nunnykirk, Northumberland, and noticed in the first edition of Lyell’s ‘ Principles of Geology,’ is a posterior cervical of a Pliosaurus, and must be presumed to have been accidentally introduced into that recent de- posit. The several specimens from these different localities yield strong indi- cations of two distinct species of the present gigantic genus, which connects the Enaliosaurs with the Coelospondylian Crocodiles. The difference in breadth and height, and especially in the size of the hatchet-bone, or cervical rib, as indicated by the articular surface, appear to be inexplicable, except on the supposition of two distinct species. The difference is continued in the dorsal vertebree, the transverse processes of which are more compressed, and the non- articular surface more rugous in the Shotover than in the Market-Raisin spe- cies. The two forms of femora, on which the species Plesiosauri grandis and ¢rochanterius are founded in the former part of this Report, are both referable to the genus Pliosaurus; but have not as yet been found so asso- ciated with vertebre as to aid, in combination with the vertebral characters, in the definition of the two species. When subsequent discoveries and ob- servations shall have supplied distinct and recognizable characters to the two species of the present very remarkable and interesting annectant genus, the term brachydeirus, which I had first proposed for the species represented by * In the Yorkshire Museum there is preserved a humerus of a Pliosaur from the lower part of the Kimmeridge clay deposit at Speaton, which measures thirteen inches in length, and seven inches across the distant end: the femur of the same specimen measured sixteen inches in length. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 65 the magnificent remains from Market-Raisin*, would be equally applicable to the short-necked gigantic Pliosaur from Shotover, and consequently lose its value as a distinctive appellation. CROCODILIA. The remains of species of this order extend from the Eocene tertiary for- mations as low down as the Oolite and Lias, and offer deviations from the structure of the existing genera and species, which increase in degree and amount as the strata containing the extinct species indicate periods more remote from the present time. Not any of the species are identical with those now known to exist, and the modifications of the osseous structure, by which the extinct Crocodilians differ both from the present races and from one another, are much greater than any of those by which the skeletons of the existing species differ among themselves. Not only do the form and proportions of the peripheral parts, as of the jaws, the teeth, and the locomotive extremities vary, but the spine, or central axis of the skeleton, offers modifications of the articular surfaces of the component verte- bre which are quite unknown in the Alligators, Crocodiles and Gavials of the present epoch. Inthese existing species the anterior surface of the vertebral centrum is concave, the posterior convex, except in the atlas and sacrum. But’ besides this mode of junction, Cuvier has recognized in the Crocodilians of the secondary formations two other types of vertebral structure: in one of these the positions of the ball and socket are reversed ; in the other, and more common modification, both articular surfaces of the vertebra are flat or slightly concave. Remains of extinct Crocodilians, exhibiting all the three systems of vertebral articulation, occurin English formations. The extinct species, which agree with the existing Crocodilians in their vertebral characters, will be first described. y a. With concavo-convex Vertebre. Crocopitus SpPENcER!I, Buckland. ‘ Crocodile de Sheppy,’ Cuv. The most recent stratum in which I have met with the remains of extinct Crocodiles in Great Britain.is the Eocene deposit called the London clayt. A third cervical vertebra from the Isle of Sheppy, is noticed by Cuvier as being very similar to the corresponding bone in an existing Crocodile, and as having appertained to an individual of probably five feet in length. No other part of this Eocene reptile is noticed in the last edition of the ‘Ossemens Fos- silest.’ A fine cranium is preserved in the British Museum; and Dr. Buck- land § has figured a smaller but better preserved specimen of the Sheppy Crocodile, in the collection of E. Spencer, Esq. I have examined both these specimens, and have compared them with the skulls of the recent Crocodilians. In Mr. Spencer's fossil, the end of the snout, including the intermaxillaries and nostrils, is broken off; the tympanic pedicles, pterygoid alz and occipital tubercle, and the crown of the teeth are also wanting. The principal and most characteristic differences which the Crocodilus Spenceri presents in * Odontography, p. 283. + Cuvier makes mention of the caleaneum of a Crocodile in the collection of M. G. A. Delue, said to have been discovered at Brentford in the year 1791, associated with the re- mains of the Mammoth, Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros and Deer, and which bore incontestable marks of a distinct species. He observes that if this bone had not been transported to its present situation, with the debris of other strata, it would be the most recent of the remains of the genus of Crocodile.—Loc. cit., p. 336, vol. ix. }~ 8vo, 1836, vol. ix. p. 327. § Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. p. 251, pl. xxv. fig. 1. 1841. F 66 REPORT—1841. reference to the Crocodilus biporcatus, or other existing species of Crocodile or Alligator, are the larger size of the temporal holes as compared with the orbits, the more regular and rapid diminution of the head towards the snout, the straight line of the alveolar tract, and the greater relative length and slenderness of the muzzle, which is evident notwithstanding its imperfect condition. These differential characters are equally manifest in the larger, and in some respects more perfect specimen, of the cranium of this species in the British Museum. Amongst existing Crocodiles, the Bornean species, called Crocodilus Schle- gelii, most resembles the Crocodilus Spenceri. But in the Sheppy Crocodile the posterior smooth surface of the occiput is less concave ; its upper boun- dary line is indented in the middle by the termination of a median longitu- dinal depression upon the upper surface of the skull, which is not present in the existing species, in which the corresponding surface is flat. The de- scending process of the basi-occipital, below the articular tubercle, is smoother in the Crocodilus Spenceri; the interorbital space is flatter: the upper tem- poral foramina equal the orbits in size—a character by which the Crocodilus Spencert manifestly approaches the Gavials. The nasal and superior maxil- lary bones are smoother; the sloping profile line of the face is straighter, and the lateral converging lines of the upper jaw are straight. ‘These characters are well shown in the British Museum specimen. The upper jaw slightly expands about one-third from its termination, then contracts, and again expands at the muzzle. At this anterior part the bones are more pitted than they are nearer the cranium. The alveolar margin seen in the whole skull is slightly undulating. The jugal bone is slender and nearly horizontal. The lower jaw has a large elliptical vacuity at its ex- panded posterior part. Its alveolar risings correspond with the sinkings of the same part in the upper jaw. In all these characters it corresponds with the Crocodilus Schlegelii of S. Muller. Upon the lower surface of the skull the pterygoids in the Crocodilus Spenceri are terminated anteriorly by a broader and straighter transverse line ; from the middle of which the palatines are continued, their posterior extremities not being expanded, as in the Crocodili vulgaris or biporcatus, . but of the same breadth as the rest of the bone. The anterior and internal curved border of the transverse bones is more regular. ‘The dental series terminates posteriorly nearer the anterior part of the transverse bone. The teeth, === = 84, are more uniform in size, and more regularly spaced ; the intervals, however, vary from 15 to 2 and 3 lines; and that between the first tooth in Mr. Spencer’s mutilated specimen and the second equals 7 lines. The diameter of the base of the crown of the tooth is 3 lines: there are nine of these teeth in the same extent as that which includes eleven teeth in a specimen of the Crocodilus vulyaris, having a skull of similar breadth. The teeth in the Crocodilus Spenceri are subcircular, with an anterior and posterior longitudinal ridge, with intervening fine longitudinal striz. The sculpturing of the cranial bones is very similar in the recent and fossil Crocodiles, but the facial bones are smoother in the Crocodilus Spenceri, as they likewise seem to be in the Crocodilus Schlegelii. The following dimensions are taken from the skull of the Crocodilus Spen- _ ceri in the British Museum :— Ft. In, Ln, Length of cranium from the lower end of the tympanic bone to the beguintae ol Mie MOBIL. - yc) .cenmeunemye aus ssiree = cy sinteln ryan 2 0 0 Breadth of ditto between the articular end of the tympanic bones 0 10 O From the articular end of the tympanic to the orbit .......... 0 8 6 ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 67 Y : Ft. In. Ln. MePOMETOrINL TO ThE NOStHELs fe cet ete ee dae eebes 014 6 Breadth of the cranium across the orbits.................... OF, 6 Ditto five inches in advance of orbit.............-..--..00 8. Casto! 6 Ditto across the first expansion of the jaw .......... estes Ane 0 4 O Seermcmies the osm. oes ee ede dae a ces oh tect AOE, Depth of lower jaw at the posterior vacuity.................. Coro aR RRERIVREETL 121182, TR LED Ota cat eis vgs ss els ai Breadth of the base of a tooth at the first expansion .......... 0 "Oss In the museum of Fr. Dixon, Esq., at Worthing, there is a fine fossil, re- ferable to the Crocodilus Spenceri, from the Eocene clay of Bognor. It consists of a portion of the skeleton, including the lumbar, sacral, and five of the caudal vertebra, in a continuous chain of ten inches in length, but bent in an abrupt curve. The vertebrae, as compared with those of the Crocodilus acutus, have the sides of the centrum deeper or more extended vertically, and they are slightly concave; the first caudal is, as usual, bi-convex, the under surface is rather flattened. The femur presents the usual sigmoid curve, it has a well-marked medullary cavity ; its length is five inches six lines. Mr. Dixon possesses, from the same locality, a posterior cervical vertebra of a Crocodile, similar in general characters to those just described, but larger, and probably belong- ing to an older individual. The length of the body of this vertebra is two inches and a half. Remains of Crocodilians occur in the London clay at Hackney, and in the Eocene sand-beds at Kyson, in Suffolk; I have seen from this locality small bifurcate finely-striated conical teeth, and a small bony scutum, with regular and pretty deep pits, about the size of pins’ heads. 2. With biconcave Vertebre. SUCHOSAURUS CULTRIDENS. Gavial of the Tilgate Forest, Mantell. (?) , H. v. Meyer. I next proceed to notice the fossil Crocodiles from the more recent second- ary formations, and shall commence with those species with biconcave verte- bre, the remains of which are characteristic of the Wealden beds. Amongst the evidences of Crocodilian Reptiles which are scattered through the Tilgate strata the most common ones are detached teeth, from the differ ence observable in the form of which, Dr. Mantell has observed, that “ they appear referable to two kinds ; the one belonging to that division of Croco- diles with long slender muzzles, named Gavial ; the other to aspecies of Cro- codile, properly so-called, and resembling a fossil species found at Caen *.” Dr. Mantell has obligingly communicated to me figures of well-preserved specimens of both the forms of teeth alluded to, the exactness of which I have recognized by a comparison with the specimens themselves in the British Museum. The tooth which, from its more slender and acuminated form, approaches nearest to the character of those of the Gavial, differs from the teeth of any of the recent species of that sub-genus of Crocodilians, as well as from those of the long and slender-snouted extinct genera, called Teleosawrus, Steneo- saurus, &c. I have described this form of tooth+, therefore, as indicative Teleosaurus * Wonders of Geology, 1839, vol. i. p. 386. +t Odontography, pl. lxii, A, figs. 9 and 10, EQ 68 REPORT—184]. of a distinct species, under the name of Crocodilus cultridens*®. The crown is laterally compressed, subincurved, with two opposite trenchant edges, one forming the concave, the other the convex outline of the tooth. In the Gavial, the direction of the flattening of the crown and the situation of the trenchant edges are the reverse, the compression being from before back- wards, and the edges being lateralt. The tooth of the Crocodilus cultridens thus resembles in form that of the Megalosaur, and perhaps still more those of the Argenton Crocodile; but I have not observed any specimens of the Wealden teeth in which the edges of the crown’ were serrated, as in both the reptiles just cited. The teeth of the Crocodilus cultridens also present a character which does not exist in the teeth of the Megalosaur, and is not at- tributed by Cuviert to those of the Crocodile d Argenton. The sides of the crown are traversed by a few longitudinal parallel ridges, with regular intervals of about one line in breadth, in a crown of a tooth one inch and a half in length: these ridges subside before they reach the apex of the tooth, and sooner at the convex than at the concave side of the crown. Hitherto these teeth have not been found associated with any part of the skeleton of the present extinct Crocodilian; but from the well-marked dif- ferences between these teeth and those of all other known species, it is most probable that the extinct Crocodile formed the type of a distinct sub-genus, for which the term Suchosaurus might be applied. In the Wealden strata, biconcave Crocodilian vertebrae have been dis- covered by Dr. Mantell differing in form from those of the Crocodilian with obtuse teeth, and readily distinguishable by their compressed and wedge- shaped body from those of all other known Crocodilians. It is highly pro- bable that these remarkable vertebre are parts of the same animal as the above described and equally remarkable compressed teeth. No. ap Mantellian Collection, is the body of a dorsal vertebra of this species of Crocodilian, with both articular extremities slightly and equally concave: though rather narrower at the middle than at the ends, it is more uniformly compressed than in other Crocodilian vertebra, the sides con- verging to an inferior obtuse ridge, which is very slightly concave in the antero-posterior direction. The sides are not flat in the vertical direction nor slightly concave, as in many of the Zguanodon’s vertebra, to which the present form approximates ; but are gently convex, so that a pencil laid ver- tically upon the side touches it only by its middle. A more decided differ- ence between the present crocodilian vertebre and those of the Iguanodon is, that the former are longer in proportion to their height and depth. The external surface at the middle of the body of the vertebra is very finely stri- ated, so as to present a silky appearance; near the margins it is sculptured by coarse longitudinal grooves and ridges. The base of the neurapophysis, which, when anchylosed, leaves an evident trace of the suture, is nearly equal in length with the body of the vertebra; it does not wholly include the spinal canal, but leaves the impression of the lower third of that canal upon the upper surface of the centrum. * These teeth are referred by M. H. v. Meyer to the genus Teleosawrus ; but no portions of the skeleton of a Teleosaur have hitherto been found in the Wealden. The figures of the teeth of Suchosaurus cultridens, published by Dr. Mantell in the ‘ Mlustrations of the Geology of Sussex,’ pl. v. fig. 5, 6, 8, are those cited in the ‘ Paleologica,’ p. 115. The other teeth attributed to the same species of Jeleosaurus, by H. v. Meyer, out of Mantell, 7. ec. pl. v. figs. 1, 2, 7,9, 10, 11, appertain to a genus equally distinct from Suchosaurus and from Teleosaurus. t The tooth attributed by M. Deslongchamps to the Poikiloplewron, agrees in form with those of the Gavial, and differs in the characters cited in the text from those of the Croco- dilus cultridens. + Cuvier, ix. p. 331. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 69 In No. ==, Mantellian Collection, the bases of the neurapophysis remain attached to the centrum, which presents the same characters as No. aa On the outside of the neurapophysis are two slightly developed broad obtuse ridges, converging towards each other from the outer side of each angle or end of the base of the neurapophysis; the ridge corresponding with the pos- terior of these in the Jgwanodon’s vertebra rises more vertically, and is in higher relief. The neurapophysial suture slightly undulates in its horizontal course, and rises in the middle instead of descending upon the centrum, as in the Ple- slosaurs. The present vertebra is alluded to at p. 70, and figured at pl. ix. fig. 11, of Dr. Mantell’s ‘ Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex,’ as a lumbar vertebra of the Megalosaurus. But in the ‘Geology of the South-east of England,’ the accomplished author, speaking of this vertebra, observes, ‘“ It cannot, I now think, be separated from those figured in the same plate, as belonging _ to a crocodile.’—p. 297. Fig. 8, pl. ix, (Tilgate Fossils) is, however, a caudal vertebra of the Cetiosaurus. As I have examined with care the ori- ginal vertebra of the Megalosaurus, figured after Buckland, and referred to by Dr. Mantell at pl. xix. fig. 16 of the same work, I can attach the greatest confidence to the following differences:—the body of the Megalosaurian vertebra has a pretty deep longitudinal depression below the neurapophysial suture, wanting in the Tilgate vertebra here described. This, however, is not the only distinction; below the depression the body of the Megalosaurian vertebra swells out, and is as convex below as it is laterally in the transverse direction, so that the outline of a transverse section would describe five-sixths of acircle: a similar section of No. 123 would be triangular with the apex rounded off. The Megalosaurian vertebra is more contracted at the middle, and swells out near the articular ends, surrounding those articulations with a thick convex border: in No. 123 the lateral meet the marginal surfaces at a somewhat acute angle; but the silky striated surface of the Crocodilian ver- tebra, and the smooth and polished surface of the Megalosaurian one, would effectually serve to distinguish even fragments from the middle of the body of each. The following are dimensions of the two vertebr of the large Wealden Crocodilian above described :— No. 123. No. 138. In. Lines. In, Lines. Antero-posterior diameter of the body . 3. 4 3 10 Vertical diameter of its articularend. . . . 2 5 Bp iB Transverse diameter of its articularend. . . 2 10 259 Transverse diameter of the middle of the body 2 0 2 iiD GONIOPHOLIS CRASSIDENS, O. Swanage Crocodile, Mantell. Teleosaurus » H. v. Meyer. The second form of tooth having the generic characters of those of the Crocodile, which has been discovered in the Wealden and approximate strata, is as remarkable for its thick, rounded and obtuse crown as the teeth of the preceding species are for their slender, compressed, acute and trenchant cha- racter. It consequently approaches more nearly to the teeth which charac- terize the broad and comparatively short-snouted Crocodiles; but it differs from these in one of the same characters by which the tooth of the Sucho- saurus cultridens differs from those of the Gavials, viz. in the longitudinal ridges which traverse the exterior of the crown. These are, however, more 70 REPORT—1841. numerous, more close-set, and more neatly defined than in the Suchosaurus cultridens. Two of the ridges, larger and sharper than the rest, traverse opposite sides of the tooth, from the base to the apex of the crown; they are placed, as in the Crocodile and Gavial, at the sides of the crown, mid- way between the convex and concave lines of the curvature of the tooth. These ridges are confined to the enamel; the cement-covered cylindrical base of the tooth is smooth. The sizevof the teeth varies from a length of crown of two inches, with a basal diameter of one inch and a half to teeth of one-third of these dimensions. Hitherto no teeth of the Goniopholis appear to have been discovered in the oolite near Caen; the only specimens resembling them being those which Cuvier has stated to indicate a second species of Crocodilian, from the Jura limestone at Soleure*. No other remains referable to this species are noticed by Cuvier; but the discovery of a portion of the skeleton, having in the lower jaw two teeth identical with the obtuse teeth of the Wealden, has thrown much light upon the characters of this interesting species. The circumstances connected with this discovery are thus narrated by Dr. Mantell :—“ In the summer of 1837, the workmen employed in a quarry in the immediate vicinity of Swanage, had occasion to split asunder a large slab of the Purbeck limestone, when, to their great astonishment, they perceived many bones and teeth on the surfaces they had just exposed. As this was no ordinary occurrence,—for although scales of fishes, shells, &c. were fre- quently observed in the stone, bones had* never before been noticed,—both slabs were carefully preserved by the proprietor of the quarry.” They were obtained by Robert Trotter, Esq., F.G.S., and presented by him to Dr. Mantell, by whom the bones were relieved from the matrix, so far as their brittle state would permit. The specimen has subsequently been purchased by parliament, and, with the rest of Dr. Mantell’s collection, is now depo- sited in the British Museum. Figures of this interesting group of bones have been published by Dr. Mantell in his ‘ Wonders of Geology,’ vol. i. pl. i.; but, excepting the remark above quoted, with regard to the nearer approach which the fossil makes in the form of its teeth to the sub-genus Crocodilus, as compared with the more slender Wealden tooth, no other observation has been published which tends to establish more precisely and closely the true affinities and nature of the Swanage Crocodilian. The first character which attracts attention is that which the numerous, large, bony, dermal plates or scutes afford. These are scattered irregularly over the slab, and in their number and relative size bring the species much nearer to the extinct Teleosaurs than to any of the existing Crocodiles; they differ, however, from both the dorsal and ventral scutes of the Teleosaur in their more regular quadrilateral figure ; they are longer in proportion to their breadth than most of the Teleosaurian scutes, and are distinguished from those of all other Crocodilians, recent and fossil, that I have yet seen, by the presence of a conical, obtuse process, continued from one of the angles verti- cally to the long axis of the scute, analogous to the peg or tooth of a tile, and fitting into a depression on the under surface of the opposite angle of the adjoining scute; thus serving to bind together the plates of the imbricated * “Qn trouve parmi ces os du Jura une petite dent pointue et un peu tranchante, fort semblable a celle du Crocodile de Caen,” /. c. ix. p. 283, pl. cexxxiv. fig. 8, i. e. the Teleo- sauris Cadomensis, the teeth of which are “longues, gréles, arquées, et trés-pointues, mais non pas tranchantes.”’ /bid. p. 271. Cuvier then proceeds to say, ‘“ Mais il y en a aussi de beaucoup plus grosses et plus obtuses, telles que celle de la fig. 7, qui pourraient annoncer une autre espeéce.” Jbid. p. 283. It is with this other species that the blunt-toothed Croco- dilian of the Wealden and Purbeck limestone bears most resemblance. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. val bony armour, and repeating a structure which is highly characteristic of the large bony and enamelled scales of the extinct ganoid genera of fishes, Dape- dius and Tetragonolepis. Many of the scutes are 6 inches in length and 24 inches in breadth. The exterior surface of the scute is impressed, as in the Teleosaur, by numerous deep, round, or angular pits, from two to four lines in diameter, and with intervals of about two lines, formed by convex reticularly disposed ridges of the bone; but a larger proportion of the anterior part of the scute is overlapped by the contiguous scute than in the Teleosaur, and this part is smooth, and thinner than the rest of the scute. The whole of the inner sur- face of the scute is smooth; but on a close inspection it is seen to be every- where impressed by fine straight lines, decussating each other at nearly right angles, and indicating the structure of the corium in which the scutes were imbedded. From the size and strength of these dermal bones, their degree of imbrication, and the structure for interlocking, we may conclude that the Swanage Crocodilian was better mailed than even the extinct Teleosaur, which Cuvier regarded as “ l’espéce la mieux cuirassée de tout le genre.’ If the detached vertebra from the Wealden, communicated by Dr. Mantell to Cuvier, belonged to the obtuse-toothed species and not to the Suchosaurus cultridens, it would then have been known that the Swanage Crocodile de- viated, like the Teleosaur and most extinct Crocodilian species of the secondary strata, from the Crocodiles, Alligators, and Gavials of the present day, in having both articular extremities of the body of the vertebra slightly concave. Cuvier* has associated the obtuse teeth with this form of vertebra without hesitation; but it must be admitted that there was room for some doubt, two distinct species, at least, having been indicated by the fossil teeth. In the slabs between which the remains of the Swanage Crocodile are di- vided, the vertebree were unfortunately all at right angles to their plane, and are fractured across the middle, one extremity being buried in one of the halves of the slab, and the other in the opposite half. By permission of the Trus- tees of the British Museum, and the kind aid of the distinguished Mineralo- gist at the head of the Geological Department, this doubt has been solved since the reading of the present Report at Plymouth. The limestone has been carefully removed from the two extremities of the same vertebra, and both are equally but slightly concave. In. Lines. The length of the body of the vertebra examined was. . 1 10 Vertical diameter of the articular extremity . . ...I1 9 Transverse diameter of the articular extremity . . .. 1 8 Ditto of middle of the body . .. . Pl phe Pg it Td Ditto of entire vertebra, including the transverse processes 10 O Height of entire vertebra, including spinous process . . 4 4 From the lower part of the centrum to the base of the 2 6 EPBDSWETHEDEOCESSy 5 ee ee ie ee 8 oy There is a small irregular medullary cavity in the centre of the body of the vertebra: this cavity is much more capacious in the Potkilopleuron: the exterior compact crust of the body of the vertebra is about two lines in thick- ness. The suture which joins the neural arch to the centrum is conspicuous ; it forms an ascending angle or curve at its middle part. The body of the * “ Les vertébres sont un peu concaves aux deux extremités, ce qui les rapproche du Croco- dile de Caen et du deuxiéme de ceux de Honfleur; cependant je les trouve plus voisines du premier pour l’ensemble. Les dents sont pour la plipart plus obtuses méme que dans nos Crocodiles vulgaires, et ressemblent en ce point A la seconde du Jura que j’ai décrite ci- dessus.” —L, ¢., p. 323, 72 REPORT—1841. vertebra expands in a greater degree to form the subconcave articular sur- faces than in other biconcave vertebre of the same length ; and both in this character, in its smooth surface, and circular transverse contour at the lower part, the Gontopholis resembles the Streptospondylus more than it does the Teleosaurus. The medullary canal, at the middle of these vertebra, presents in trans- verse section the form of an inverted triangle, the apex sinking into the body of the vertebra. The transverse processes of the lumbar and anterior caudal vertebre are long, straight, and comparatively slender; those of the sacral * vertebrae are relatively thicker, and the spaces inclosed by their expanded ex- tremities are smaller than in either the Teleosaurs or true Crocodiles. The antero-posterior extent of the two sacral vertebra is three inches two lines. The ilium is broader than in the existing Crocodilians ; the bifurcation of the proximal end of the ischium is more marked, and the iliac branch is more regularly rounded; the pubic branch is longer, more slender, and its articular end is more regularly convex ; the distal or lower part of the ischium expands into a relatively broader plate. This character is still more conspicuous in the pubis, which equals the ischium in breadth, and begins to expand much nearer the proximal extremity than in the existing Crocodiles. In these modifications of the pelvis, as well as in the biconcave structure of the ver- tebra, the Crocodilian of the Purbeck limestone approaches nearer to the characters of the Enaliosaurs; and we may infer that its habits were more decidedly marine than are those of existing Crocodilians. The caudal verte- bre were provided with long, narrow, unanchylosed chevron bones. The portion of the lower jaw preserved belongs to that part of the left ramus included between the articular extremity, which is broken off, and the coin- mencement of the dental series ; it measures one foot six inches in length, and five inches in greatest depth. In these proportions, and the curve of the lower margin, it deviates from the ancient Teleosaurs and Steneosaurs, and resembles the modern Crocodiles; and although not quite equalling these in the robust proportions of the jaws, yet it much exceeds in this respect the Crocodilians with more slender teeth. What the real length and form of the jaws may have been, and how nearly they may have approached the Gavial type, there is not at present means to determine. Sufficient. however, has been pointed out from the remains which are at present discovered, to show that the Swanage Crocodilian differs from the existing subgenera of Crocodilians in a greater degree than these do from one another; that in the form of its vertebree and the structure of the dermal armour, it is much more nearly allied to the Feleosaurt and other Crocodilian genera of the biconcave vertebral system; and that, in this ancient and extinct group of Crocodilians, it typifies the Alligator family of the Crocodilians of the ball-and-socket vertebral system. I propose to name the subgenus indicated by the known remains of the Swanage Crocodile, Gontopholis, in reference to the rectangular form, size, number, and firm junction of the osseous scutes (g¢oAéées), with the specific name of “ crassidens.” In a collection of fossil Saurian remains from the Hastings beds in the possession of Gilpin Gorst, Esq., F.G.S., is the base of the tooth of the Go- niopholis crassidens, eight lines in diameter. Remains of Crocodilians are stated by Dr. Mantell to have been found, though very rarely, in the lower chalk, and in the grey chalk at Dover*. TELEOSAURUS. The family of extinct Crocodilians, which next remains to be noticed, is © Tllustrations of the Geology of Sussex, 4to, 1827, p. 64. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 73 characterized by a combination of a biconcave structure of the vertebra, with long, narrow jaws, armed with slender, conical, sharp-pointed and equal teeth, adapted, like those of the existing Gavials, for the seizure and destruction of fishes. The species are separated into two genera, according to the difference of position in the external nostril, which, in the one called Yeleo- suurus, is terminal, or at the extremity of the upper jaw; in the other, called Steneosaurus, is a little behind and above the termination of the upper jaw. The species of both genera are confined to the oolitic division of the secondary rocks, and, since there were scarcely any Mammalia during that period, whilst the waters were abundantly stored with fishes, it might, @ priori, have been expected, Dr. Buckland justly observes, “that if any Cro- codilian forms had then existed, they would most nearly have resembled the modern Gavial*.” The modification in the structure of the vertebral column, and their complete mail of imbricated bony scutes, also indicate that the habits of the ancient Veleosauri and Séteneosauri were more strictly marine than are those of the modern Gavials, and that their powers of swimming, of pursuing and overtaking their aquatic prey, were greater. The extinct reptile from which the characters of the genus Teleosaurus are derived, is one of the earliest of the evidences of ancient Reptilia which is recorded in a scientific publication. A brief description, and figures of an incomplete skeleton found in the lias (alum schale) of the Yorkshire coast, about half a mile from Whitby, were published by Messrs. Wooller and Chapman, in two separate communications, in the 50th volume of the Philo- sophical Transactions, 1758, (Pt. 2, pl. xxii. and xxx.). Their figures ex- hibit a contorted and incomplete vertebral column, about nine feet long, and a cranium slightly displaced, two feet nine inches in length. About ten ver- tebrz of the lumbar and sacral region of the trunk, and twelve vertebrae of the tail remain in place ; the cervical, dorsal, and middle coccygeal vertebrae were indicated only by their impressions; and these are fewer in number than the vertebrae in the existing Crocodiles. The skull is reversed, pre- senting its basal surface to view: the single occipital condyle, the zygomatic arches, terminated behind by the strong tympanic bones, and the large convex articular surface in each of these, for the lower jaw, placed in the same trans- verse line as the occipital condyle, are all recognizable. The skull appears to contract gradually to a pointed muzzle, but in reality to the base of a long and slender maxillary beak. In the remaining basal or posterior portions of the jaws, the sockets of the teeth are seen separated by intervals of about nine lines; in some of these there are pointed conical teeth, which cross al- ternately those of the opposite jaw. The teeth are covered with polished enamel+. Each of the vertebra is three inches in length. Near the pelvic region, the shaft of the femur, including the head, was exposed, measuring between three and four inches in length. A few fragments of ribs were found near the dorsal vertebree. The authors of the papers just analysed perceived suf- ficient resemblance between their fossil and the skeleton of the Crocodile to refer it to that family of reptiles}; but their figures and descriptions gave rise to various opinions respecting the affinities of the Whitby fossil in the writings * Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. p. 250. + Cuvier truly states, “Elles n’ont pas ¢été décrites particulicrement, et il est impossible de juger de leurs caractéres par la gravure.’”-—Oss. Foss. 1836, ix. 225. + Captain Chapman says, “It seems to have been an alligator ;” (J.c., p. 691.) and Mr. Wooller thinks that ‘it resembles in every respect the Gangetic Gavial.’”’ It will be shown, however, that the fossil really differs more from the Gayial than the Gavial does from any other existing Crocodilian, 94 REPORT—1841. of subsequent naturalists and anatomists. Camper, for example, pronounced it to be a whale, perhaps meaning a dolphin, for, as Cuvier remarks, the pre- sence of teeth in both jaws at once proves the fossil not to belong to the Balzenz, which have no teeth, nor to the Physeters, which have (conspicuous) teeth only in the lower jaw. Faujas adopted Camper’s opinion, referring the fossil to the genus Physeter, and adding some reasons which are contradicted by the descriptions given by both Chapman and Wooller. Cuvier, in the first edition of his ‘ Ossemens Fossiles,’ after refuting the opinion of Faujas, says, “ La vérité, ainsi que nous le verrons, est que c’étoit réellement un crocodile.” The subsequent analysis, to which Cuvier here refers, led him in 1812 to the conclusion that it belonged to the genus of Crocodiles, and was most pro- bably identical in species with the Crocodile of Honfleur. In 1836, however, when so many new and singular genera, allied to the Crocodilian family, had been added to the catalogues of Paleontology, chiefly by the labours and discoveries of English anatomists and geologists, Cuvier expresses his opinion on the fossil described by Wooller and Chapman with more caution. He says, “ Il reste maintenant a savoir si c’est un croco- dile, ou l'un de ces nouveaux genres découverts dans les mémes banes. Les os des extremités y sont trop incomplets, et la téte n’y est pas représenté avec assez de détails pour décider la question ; mais les vertébres me parais- sent plus longues, rélativement a leur diamétre, que dans les nouveaux genres, et plus semblables par ce caractére a celles des Crocodiles. Ceux qui retrou- veront Voriginal, s'il existe encore, pourront seuls nous apprendre si les autres caractéres répondent 4 celui-la.” I have made inquiry at the British Museum, to which the collections formerly belonging to the Royal Society were transferred, but no specimen corresponding with the account and figures given by the Whitby naturalists exists in that collection. A second specimen of a long and slender-nosed Crocodilian, was obtained from the lias near Whitby, between Staiths and Runswick, in the year 1791*; and a more perfect skeleton was discovered in the alum shale of the lias for- mation at Saltwick, near Whitby, in 1824. Both these specimens so closely resemble the older fossil in all the points in which a comparison can be esta- blished, as to dissipate the remaining doubts as to the nature and affinities of the specimen from the same locality, described in the Philosophical Trans- actions for 1758. The skeleton, discovered in 1824, is figured in Young and Bird’s ‘Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast’, 2nd edit. 1828, pl. xvi. fig. 1. p. 287, and in Dr. Buckland’s ‘ Bridgewater Treatise,’ vol. ii. pl. xxv. It is now preserved in the museum at Whitby, where I have closely exa- mined it. In this specimen are preserved the cranium, wanting the snout, the whole vertebral column, the ribs, and the principal parts of the four extremi- ties, together with the dorsal, and part of the ventral series of dermal bones. The entire length of the skeleton, following the curvature of the spine, is fifteen feet six inches, to which may be added two feet six inches for the lost snout. The cranium posteriorly is broad, depressed, and square-shaped : it begins to contract anterior to the orbits, and gradually assumes the form of the narrow depressed snout ; the converging sides of the maxilla are concave outwardly. The zygomatic spaces are quadrilateral, longer in the axis of the skull than transversely ; the orbits are subcircular; they look upwards and slightly outwards ; their margins are not raised, and their interspace is slightly concave. The parietal bone is relatively longer than in the Gavial, and sends up a longitudinal median crest, from the posterior part of which * See History of Whitby, vol. ii. pp. 779, 780. aes ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 75 a strong process extends on each side outwards, and curves slightly backwards parallel with the ex-occipitals, to join the mastoid and tympanic bones, thie latter of which expands as it descends to form the joint for the lower jaw. , Feet. In. Lines. Breadth of posterior part of skull . . . 2...» |. Length of parietal crest. . «© » » - s+ © © © 2 «© © Breadth of the interorbital space. . . . - - + + ss Antero-posterior diameter of the middle of tympanic pedicle Vertical diameter of orbit . . 2. 2. 2. © 1 © © © ws Antero-posterior of orbit . . 2. . 2 + + 2 ee From lower margin of orbit to alveolar border . . . . eo Oooo me 08 bo 1H O89 ED © ooonrnwod From these dimensions it may be calculated that the entire length of the skull must have exceeded 4 feet 6 inches. The skull of one of the Caen Veleosauri measures 3 feet 4 inches, whence Cuvier calculates the entire length of the animal at near 15 feet. The Whitby Teleosaur agrees with the Caen species, and differs from the Gavial in the following particulars: the anterior frontal is less extended upon the cheek ; the lachrymal is much more extended, and is larger at its base; the jugal bone is more slender. The posterior frontal, which separates the temporal from the orbital cavities, is much longer and narrower. The parietal and oc- cipital crests each form a thin trenchant plate, and are not flattened above. The mastoidean angle is not uninterruptedly united with the back part of the articular process of the tympanic, it is separated from it by a large de- pression, which is overarched by a trenchant crest belonging to the ex-occi- pital. The mastoidean bone has a concavity at its descending part, of which there is no trace in the Gavial. The indentation between the articular pro- cess of the tympanic, and the tuberosity of the basi-ovcipital is much smaller than in the Gavial, and the basilar tuberosity projects downwards in a less degree. The pterygoid ala is not expanded externally, as in all Crocodiles, but is contracted by a large fissure, at the part where it goes to unite itself to the bone ; the orbital margin of the malar is not raised, and does not leave behind it a deep fissure as in the Gavial. The malar does not rise to join the posterior frontal bone; but, on the contrary, the frontal descends to join the malar at the external margin of the orbit. The vacuity between the orbit and the anterior part of the tympanum is much elongated in the fossil, and occu- pies four-fifths of the temporal fossa; the anterior part of this fossa is narrow and acute. The columella or ossicle of the ear is cylindrical, and much larger in proportion than in any known Crocodile or other reptile. Cuvier calculates the number of teeth in the Teleosaurus Cadomensis to be ‘> . 45—45 BBU, VIZ. osc The Teleosaurus Chapmanni has at least 140 teeth. The Gavial has 112, or —e The teeth of the Whitby Teleosaur are as slender and sharp-pointed, but not so compressed, as in the Gavial ; they correspond with those of the Caen Teleosaur, and equally illustrate the dental characters usually attributed to the present extinct genus*. The Whitby Teleosaur differs from the Caen Teleosaur, as does the * M. H. v. Meyer refers to the genus Te/eosaurus (Paleologica, p. 115) the thick obtuse teeth of the Wealden or Sussex Crocodile figured by Dr. Mantell in his ‘ Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex,’ at pl. v. figs. 1, 2, 7,9, 10, and 12. These teeth, however, belong to Goniopholis, as does also the scute figured in pl. vi. fig. 8; and they are accompanied with deviations from the characters of Teleosaurus in the skeleton as striking as those which are manifested in their own robust and obtuse figure. 16 REPORT—1841. Monheim Teleosaur*, in having the upper temporal fossee longer in propor- tion to their breadth; but it differs from the Teleosaurs of both Caen and Monheim in the more equal size ef the teeth, and from the Monheim species in the greater number of teeth, the Yeleosaurus priseus having at most ple = 106. The median frontal in the Whitby Teleosaur is slightly con- cave: in the Caen species it is flat. The basi-occipital is perforated by the common terminal canal of the Eustachian tube close to the junction with the sphenoid, and, on each side of the hole, it expands into a rough tuberosity. The body of the sphenoid is compressed, characterized by two processes or narrow ridges, continued one from each side of the middle of the sphenoid obliquely backwards. The pterygoid bones are relatively smaller than in the Gavial. The palatine bones are more extended posteriorly, and articulate with the transverse bones. The posterior apertures of the nasal canals are placed more forwards upon the base of the skull than in existing Crocodiles. Vertebral Column.—The number of vertebre in the true Crocodiles of the present period rarely exceeds sixty, which is the number originally assigned by Ailian+ to the spinal column of the Crocodile of the Nile. Cuvier gene- rally found 7 cervical, 12 dorsal, 5 lumbar, 2 sacral, and 34 caudal vertebree. In the Crocodilus acutus a thirteenth pair of ribs is occasionally developed, and, according to Plumier, it has two additional caudal vertebra. The Alligator (Alligator Lucius) has sixty-eight vertebra, the additional ones being in the caudal region. The Gavial has sixty-seven vertebrae, disposed as follows:—7 cervical, 13 dorsal, 4 lumbar, 2 sacral, and 41 caudal vertebree. The very perfect specimen in the Whitby Museum displays the number of the vertebre through the whole spinal column, and establishes another difference between the Teleosaur and the Gavial, the former having a num- ber of vertebrae intermediate between the Crocodiles and Gavials, viz. 64, with a special peculiarity in the excess of costal vertebra, as the following formula indicates, viz. 7 cervical, 16 dorsal, 3 lumbar, 2 sacral, 36 caudal. In all sub-genera of existing Crocodiles, as in the extinct tertiary species, the hind surface of the vertebra is convex, the fore surface concave, except in the atlas and the two sacral vertebre. Cuvier, who had the opportunity of seeing only the annular part (neura- pophyses) of the cervical vertebrae of the Caen Teleosaur, regrets his in- ability to state whether either of the articular extremities of the centrum were convex, or which of them}. The Whitby Teleosaur decides this ques- tion, and shows that both articular extremities of the vertebre are slightly concave in the cervical as in the rest of the vertebral series. The atlas in the Teleosaur corresponds essentially with that of the Croco- diles, as is shown by the three main component parts of this bone, from a Whitby Teleosaur in Lord Enniskillen’s collection. The body or centrum is a transverse quadrilateral piece, smooth and convex below, narrowing like an inverted wedge above, with six articular facets, viz. a concavity in front for the occipital condyle, a flat rougher surface on each side of the upper part for the attachment of the neurapophyses ; a posterior facet for the an- terior part of the detached odontoid element of the axis ; and the small sur- face on each lateral, posterior and inferior angle for the atlantal ribs. The neurapophyses are pyramidal processes, with their apices curved towards each other; they are relatively smaller in preportion to the centrum than in the Crocodiles. * Crocodilus priscus, Soemmerring. tT De Natura Animalium, lib. x. sect. xxi, Jacob’s Ed., 8yo, vol. i. p. 228. $ Ossem. Fossiles, 4to, 1824, tom. v. pt. ii. p. 137. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 47 The general anterior concavity for the reception of the occipital tubercle is formed at its circumference by the centrum and neurapophyses of the atlas, and at its middle by the anterior detached odontoid epiphysis of the axis, which is here evidently the analogue of the so-called atlas in the Lch- thyosaurus, the true body of the atlas in the Teleosaur representing the first inverted wedge-shaped bone in the Ichthyosaur. The spine of the atlas is a large strong oblong piece, articulated with the neurapophyses of the atlas, and partly overlapping those of the axis. The cervical vertebrae have strong transverse processes developed one from each side of the centrum, and one from the base of each neurapophysis. The posterior articular processes look obliquely downwards and outwards, the anterior ones obliquely upwards and inwards. ‘The spinous process is compressed, its base coequal with the whole antero-posterior extent of the neurapophysis ; its height equal to the distance from its base to the upper transverse process; it inclines slightly backwards, and is slightly rounded off at the summit. The cervical rib is bifurcate at its vertebral end, the tubercle being as long as the head and neck; its distal end is expanded into the hatchet shape, the posterior angle being most produced, and overlap- ping the costal process of the next vertebra behind. The same mechanism for fixing and strengthening the neck thus existed for the advantage of the ancient marine Crocodiles, as we find in those of the existing epoch. In the dorsal region the ribs exchange the hatchet for the ordinary length- ened form, and soon begin to lose the head and neck, as in existing Croco- diles; after the fifth they no longer articulate with the central element, but only to the transverse process of the neurapophysis, which increases in antero- posterior extent and thickness, and presents an oblique notch at its anterior angle, for the reception of the tubercle, now the only head of the rib, The number of the dorsal ribs exceeds that of any existing Crocodilian, being, as above indicated, 16 pairs. The spinous process is proportionally strong ; in the Whitby specimen it measures in most of the dorsal vertebrae 2 inches in antero-posterior extent, and seven lines in transverse diameter or thick- ness: the height of these spines seems not to have much exceeded that of the cervical spines, but they are more truncated at the summit. A posterior dorsal or lumbar vertebra of a Teleosaur from the Whitby lias, in the collection of Mr. Ripley, corresponds with the vertebral characters of Teleosaurus in the slight concavity and circular contour of the terminal arti- cular surfaces of the body, and in the great antero-posterior extent of the spinous processes; but that of the transverse process does not exceed one- half the length of the body of the vertebra, which is 2 inches 6 lines. The transverse process is supported by two short obtuse slightly-developed ridges, which rise from the upper part of the side of the body, as far apart as to include one-third of the length of the body between them, and converge to the under part of the transverse process; a similar ridge extends from the upper part of the posterior end of the transverse process obliquely backwards to the base of the posterior articular process. The neural arch is anchylosed to the centrum in this vertebra. The supporting buttresses of the transverse processes are not described by Cuvier in the dorsal vertebra of the Caen Teleosaur ; nor have I met with any dorsal or lumbar vertebra of the Whitby species, except the present, that was sufficiently perfect to exhibit this cha- racter; it may, however, be constant and characteristic of the genus. It faintly indicates one of the most striking characters of the vertebrae of the Streptospondylus. The anterior and posterior margins of the spinous pro- cess are slightly excavated, and thus retain a character which is transitory in the Crocodile, and peculiar to an early period of its existence. * 78 REPORT—1841. The transverse processes of the two sacral vertebra are thick, strong and expanded at their extremities. The bodies of all the vertebrze are compressed laterally, and concave antero- posteriorly at the sides; but this character is more strongly marked in the anterior caudal vertebra, which are flattened along the inferior surface ; these vertebree in the Whitby specimen were 2 inches 8 lines in length. The transverse processes are longer, but narrower antero-posteriorly than in the lumbar or dorsal vertebrae. _The heemapophyses are united at their peripheral end, forming chevron bones, but are detached at their central ends, which are articulated, as in recent Crocodiles, with the interspaces of the vertebral centres. The caudal vertebra progressively diminish in every diameter, save length, from the middle to near the end of the tail; the terminal vertebree are shorter than the rest. The sternum and sternal ribs closely agree with the ordinary Crocodilian type. I have not yet seen a specimen of the abdominal sternal ribs. Pectoral extremities.—The scapula and coracoid resemble, in general form, those of the Crocodile, but are relatively smaller, in correspondence with the smaller size of the anterior extremities. The scapula, for example, is only one-third the length of the femur; it is straighter than that of the Crocodile ; both margins are nearly equally concave, instead of the anterior one being convex: the humeral end is less expanded, and is more obliquely truncated. The coracoid is longer than the scapula, instead of being, as in the Crocodiles, shorter: this probably depends upon the breadth of the fore part of the body, which regulates the extent of the coracoid, while the proportions of the scapula more exclusively depend upon the development of the pectoral ex- tremity. The coracoid of the Teleosaur differs also from that of the Croco- dile in the greater expansion of its humeral end, the more transverse position of its sternal convex extremity, and a nearer approach to parallelism in the direction of the two lateral margins. In the Whitby Teleosaur, discovered in 1824, the humerus of the right anterior extremity, and the humerus and bones of the fore-arm of the left are preserved nearly in their proper relative positions. The humerus is shorter in proportion than in the Crocodiles, its length scarcely exceeds the antero-posterior diameter of two of the cervical vertebrae. The antibrachial bones are still more curtailed in their proportions; the longest bone, or ulna, being not quite half the length of the humerus. No portions of the carpal or other bones of the paddle are preserved, but the presence of the antibrachial bones, distinct from each other, and of the ordinary form and breadth at the distal end, forbid our supposing them to have been naturally deficient or of abortive proportions in the Teleosaurus. The humerus, radius and ulna must have existed for a purpose, and that pur- pose, we may conclude, from the modifications for an aquatic life in the rest of the skeleton, to have been the support and movement of a palmated manus ; an organ which would be of great use in turning and regulating the course of the swimmer, and in bringing the long and slender snout, with the terminal nostrils, to the surface. The fore-paddles were doubtless much smaller than in ordinary Crocodiles, and this difference of proportion related both to the less frequent resorting of the Teleosaur to dry land, and to the light and slender character of its jaws and teeth, apd the consequent diminution of the weight of its head. Pelvic extremity—The pelvis of the Teleosaur was attached, as in the Crocodile, to the thickened and expanded transverse processes of two sacral vertebree. These processes are stronger in the vertical direction, and inter- cept a relatively smaller and more regularly elliptical space than in the exist- 2 ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 79 ing Crocodiles ; the anterior one appears not to have been so much expanded in the antero-posterior direction. The iliac bone seems to have been shorter in the antero-posterior diameter, but longer, as measured transversely to the axis of the trunk, and thus to have made a slight approach to its character- istic form in the Enaliosaurs. Both the ischium and pubis are relatively more expanded than in the Gavial. The pelvic extremities are preserved in the Whitby specimen in nearly their true relative positions ; but the right is thrown directly over the left. The femur presents the usual Crocodilian form, but is relatively more slender than in the existing Crocodilians; it is slightly twisted, and bent in two directions. Its proximal end is expanded, compressed with a regular convex curve, describing a semicircle; the trochanter is represented by a ridge which gradually subsides, and is lost upon the surface of the shaft. This is nearly cylindrical at the upper part, but is produced at the anterior or convex side along the distal half in the form of an obtuse ridge. The condyles are very feebly indicated. In the Whitby specimen of 1824, Feet. In, Lines. The length of the femuris . . . ... 1 3 8 The breadth of proximal end of ditto . . 0O 2 10 The diameter of middle of shaft . . ..0O 1 4 Both the tibia and fibula are subcompressed towards their distal end: the length of each bone is 8 inches. The shaft of the fibula is nearly as thick as that of the tibia. The bones of the leg of the Zeleosaurus resemble those of the Aélodon in their relative shortness as compared with the femur. In these, and probably in other ancient Crocodiles with biconcave vertebrae and marine habits, the tibia is little more than half the length of the femur ; while in recent Gavials it is two-thirds that length. There are five tarsal bones, two in the proximal and three in the distal row, as in the Gavial; but they are of more equal size; the two proximal bones being by no means so disproportionately large. All the long bones have distinct medullary cavities, and these are even present in the metatarsals. In the Whitby specimen, The length of the middle metatarsal is . . . . 6 inches. The breadth of its proximalend . . . . . .« 10 lines. The breadth of its distalend . . . . . . ~ 6 lines. The ungual phalanges are depressed, smooth and convex above, rounded at the end. Dermal armour.—The bony dermal scutes of the Teleosaur were regularly disposed like those of existing Crocodiles, in both longitudinal and transverse series; the posterior margin of one scute covered the base of the succeed- ing scute*, and they slightly overlapped each other laterally. Cuvier states that one of the fossils of the Teleosaurus Cadomensis presents all those of one side in their natural situation, exhibiting, in the part of the body included between the first dorsal and the beginning of the tail, fifteen or sixteen transverse rows, containing five scutes on each side; so that there were at least ten longitudinal rows of these dermal bones. The scutes are arranged in the same manner and number, at least as regards the transverse rows, in the Whitby Teleosaur; these rows being indicated by the large dorsal scutes still occupying their natural position in an uninter- rupted line along the back; they are twenty in number, and sixteen cover the vertebrae included between the last cervical and first caudal. The scutes of the Teleosaurus Chapmanni differ as much from those of the existing Gavials and Crocodiles, as do those of the Teleosaurus Cadomensis, * Cuy,, 4. ¢, p. 279. 80 REPORT—1841. being thicker, rectangular, and having the outer surface impressed with cir- cular pits or indentations from three to four lines in diameter, which are not confluent, but separated. The median dorsal scutes of the Whitby specimen are nearly square, having the longer diameter, about three inches and a half across, placed trans- verse to the axis of the body, and with the outer margin slightly rounded. Each of these scutes is traversed, as in the Teleosaurus priscus, by a longi- tudinal ridge, which is less developed than in the Gavials. The median dor- sal scutes of the Teleosauri Cadomensis and priscus appear to differ from those of the Teleosaurus Chapmanni in being more oblong transversely, and with the posterior and lateral margins rounded off. Cuvier does.not allude to the carinated character of these plates in the Caen species. The lateral and ventral scutes of the Teleosaurus Chapmanni are more per= fect squares than those next the spine, but differ less in form and size from them, than in the Caen Teleosaur. They are marked externally by the same impressed pattern, but are not carinated. The median abdominal scutes are not opposite but alternate ; their median margins are rounded off, or slightly angular; and, while the anterior part of that margin is overlapped by the posterior half of the opposite scute, in advance, the posterior half overlaps the succeeding scutum of the opposite side. The verticillate cuirass of these ancient Crocodiles is thus securely braced round the trunk by this inter- locking of the inferior extremities of each ring of scutes, whilst the imbri- cated arrangement would allow of a certain sliding motion of the rings upon each other sufficient for the expansion of the chest in breathing. The scutes in the fine specimen in the Whitby Museum measure about five lines in thickness, but are thinned off at the edge. Having now detailed the anatomical particulars which a study of the mag- nificent and unique skeleton of the Teleosaurus, in the museum at Whitby, has enabled me to add to the previous descriptions, by Cuvier and other ana- tomists, of the osteological structure of this extinct Crocodilian genus, I next proceed to notice the principal examples of the same genus which are preserved in other collections of British Fossil Reptiles. The first of these is a fine skull of the same species of Teleosaurus, and from the same lias beds near Whitby, in the museum of Mr. Ripley of that town :— Feet. Inches. Theflensth of the:entire skulliis? 2p Yue 00 S24 ae 9 From the angle to the beginning of the long symphysis of THOMOW ET: [AW cite, fer oat tothe hg nee, Ba eit Breadth of the lower jaw at the posterior cammenecment of symphysis \ ee. 607) ais tier wsk + ie riealen. 6) sear, qa Breadth of the extremity of the lower jaw .... . Raat The extremity of the upper jaw well exhibits in this specimen the charac- teristic generic modification of its infundibuliform expansion, supporting the terminal nostrils, and resembling the extremity of the elephant’s proboscis, wanting the digital process. This cranium also clearly exhibits the specific characters by which the Teleosaurus Chapmanni of the Yorkshire lias differs from the Teleosaurus Cadomensis of the Caen oolite, viz. the greater antero-posterior extent of the upper temporal openings as compared with their transverse diameter in the Teleosaurus Chapmanni; the similar but slighter difference in the form of the orbits, the greater breadth of the interorbital space, which slightly ex- ceeds the transverse diameter of the orbit instead of falling short of that diameter, as in the Zeleosaurus Cadomensis. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 81 A cranium of the Teleosaurus Chapmanni, in the museum of the Philo- sophical Institution at York, and another in the museum at Scarborough, offer the same specific characters as the Whitby specimens. In the Scar- borough cranium the diameter of the orbit is 2 inches 3 lines, while that of the interorbital space is 2 inches 6 lines. In the museum of the Natural History Society at Lancaster there is a chain of five dorsal vertebra of the Teleosaurus Chapmanni, from the Whitby lias, measuring | foot in length ; each vertebra is 2 inches 4 lines in length. A sec- tion of these vertebre showed a small cavity in the centre of the cancellous structure of the body*. Teleosaurus Cadomensis.—Specimens of fragments of the jaw, teeth and vertebre of this species have been discovered in the Bath oolite at Enslow, near Woodstock, and in the oolite at Stonesfield. Teleosaurus Cadomensis (var.).—Of this species, which is nearly allied to, if not identical with Cadomensis; I have examined a posterior cervical ver- tebra from the oolite near Chipping Norton, now in the collection of Mr. Kingdon of that town. The sides of the centrum are less compressed than in the Teleosaurus Chapmanni, and the articular extremities have a more cir- cular contour, the transverse exceeding the vertical diameter. There is no appearance of a ridge along the under surface: the transverse process of the centrum arises close to the neurapophysis. Inch. Lines. The length of this vertebrais.......... 1 5 Transverse diameter of centrum........ 1 3 Vertical diameter of centrum .......... 1 1Z Teleosaurus asthenodeirus, Nob.—If the cranium of this Saurian should correspond with the characters of the genus Teleosawrus which are exhibited by the vertebrz and scutes here described, a distinct species of this genus is very evidently indicated by them, characterized by the smaller size of the cervical ribs, and the consequently weaker structure of the neck. In the Oxford Museum are preserved two cervical vertebra and a dermal bone of this species, from the Kimmeridge clay at Shotover. The articular extremities and general form of the body of the vertebree accord with the Teleosaurian type. Inches. Lines. The length of the centrum is.......... f acsvaheare aus 2 Vertical diameter of articular end .............. 1 6 Transverse diameter of articular end.......... get ik 5 Antero-posterior extent of lower transverse process 0 6 This process arises near the lower surface of the centrum, about half an inch from the anterior extremity of the bone. It is separated about the same distance from the upper transverse process, which is continued from the base of the neurapophysis; both the supports of the cervical rib are one-third smaller than the corresponding processes in the Teleosaurt Chapmanni and Cadomensis, and are less extended from the sides of the vertebra. The dermal scute is devoid of a ridge ; one-half of the external surface is pitted with well-defined hemispherical depressions, separated from each other by about half their breadth, the smallest being nearest the margin ; the other half of the seute is smooth, and indicates that it was overlapped by the ad- * I have much pleasure in expressing my thanks to S. Simpson, Esq., the Secretary of this excellent Institution, for the prompt acquiescence with my desire to have a section of these vertebre made; and likewise to Thos. Satterthwaite, Esq., a member of the Society, for an accurate drawing of the fossil. 1841. G 82 REPORT—1841. joining scute, according to the characteristic disposition of this fish-like covering of the present extinct marine genus of Crocodilians. In the Hunterian Collection are two entire dorsal vertebra, with part of a third, fractured through the middle of the body, and displaying a small can- cellated cavity tilled with calcareous spar, as in the Teleosaurus Chapmanni. These vertebre present the slightly concave articular extremities, and the other characters of the genus Zeleosaurus. The length of the centrum, measured along the under surface, is 2 inches 6 lines; vertical diameter of articular end 2 inches; transverse diameter 1 inch 10 lines; transverse dia- meter of the middle of the body 1 inch. Both the inferior and lateral sur- faces of the body are regularly concave, lengthwise ; and smooth, except near the expanded articular extremities, where they are striated in the axis of the vertebra. The antero-posterior extent of the transverse process is 1 inch 6 lines; that of the base of the spinous process 1 inch 9 lines. The transverse dia- meter of the spinal canal 7 lines; its vertical diameter 44 lines. These vertebrae are cemented together by a matrix, which closely resem- bles the gray Kimmeridge clay: and a portion of a species of Pecten is at- tached, which is one of the characteristic fossils of the oolite group of secondary rocks, especially the Oxford clay. STENEOSAURUS. 2de Gavial d Honfleur, Cuv. Steneosaurus rostro-minor, Geoffroy. The generic name Steneosaurus, proposed by Geoffroy St. Hilaire for the Gavial-like Crocodilians with subterminal nostrils, but applied by him to species with vertebre of two distinct systems, and altogether rejected by M, Hermann von Meyer, I propose to retain for that section of the Geoffroyan genus, including the species with vertebre subconeave at both extremities, as in the genus Teleosaurus. Remains of the genus Steneosaurus, thus defined, occur in the Kimme- ridge clay at Shotover, and in the great or middle oolite. I shall first describe a mutilated cranium from Shotover, preserved in the museum of Professor Buckland at Oxford. In this specimen the sides of the inter-temporal crest slope away, except at its anterior part, where it expands to one inch in breadth, and is convex: its longitudinal contour is slightly convex, The posterior boundary of the temporal fossa sinks below the level of the upper part of the cranium, and likewise terminates above in a sharp ridge, as in Teleosawrus. The ex-occipitals send out a transverse ridge, increasing in size to the mastoid process, below which there is a fora- men: the cranial canal is cylindrical. The ex-occipitals so completely sur- round the posterior aperture of the cranium, that when the basi-occipital is displaced it remains entire. This is not the case in the Teleosaurus. Steneosaurus. Teleosaurus Chapmanni. Inches. Lines. Inches. Lines. Breadth of posterior part of cranium 11 0 5 6 From lower margin of condyle to in- é 4 8 2 4 ter-temporal ridge.............. Length of temporal fossa.......... 5 0 2 6 Breadth of temporal fossa ........ 5 0 2 0 In the upper jaw the teeth are closer together and relatively larger: there are 3 teeth in front of, and 27 behind, a short diastema: there is no groove along the inner side of the ramus of the jaw. In the lower jaw the post-articular ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 83 angle is equal in length to the transverse diameter of the articular surface, ap- proaching thus to Plesiosaurian proportions, whilst it is longer in the Gavial and in Teleosaurus. The articular surface is convex in the middle and concave on each side, as in the Teleosaurus, and not regularly concave, as in Gavial: the articular piece is continued more forwards, and is stronger upon the internal side of the ramus. The depth of the ramus atthe coronoid ridge is greater, and the coronoid ridge itself is higher: there is no interspace between the an- gular and surangular elements*. From the angle to the beginning of the symphysis of the jaw is 1 foot 9 inches, the depth of the jaw at the coronoid process is 4 inches. The nostrils are bounded by short intermaxillaries, each of which contains three teeth. Both intermaxillary and maxillary teeth are larger in proportion than in Teleosaurus. The maxillary teeth are ar- ranged closer together as they are placed further back. In a fragment of jaw containing three teeth, these are placed obliquely in sockets, from two to three lines apart. The fang is covered by a smooth white cement; the crown with a black enamel, traversed by fine longitudinal, close-set, inter- rupted ridges, one on each side of the tooth, is stronger than the rest, and meeting, in the unworn teeth, upon an obtuse summit. In a fragment of a lower jaw of apparently the same species of Steneosaurus, in the Hunterian Collection, which includes 6 inches of the posterior com- mencement of the symphysis, the transverse diameter, at the junction of the rami, is 4 inches 3 lines: the middle of the posterior surface of the junction is excavated by a deep transversely elliptical depression. Both the upper and lower surfaces of this portion of jaw are flat, and the sides are nearly flat, and on right angles with the horizontal surfaces ; the intervening angles being rounded off. The inner border of the alveolar tract is higher than the outer. The inferior flattened surface is impressed with some small, irregular, longitudinal vascular grooves, but not with pits or foramina. Eight teeth are contained in an extent of the alveolar tract measuring 54 inches. The diameter of the circular base of the crown of the tooth is from four to five lines. The matrix appears to be oolite; the cavities in the crowns of the teeth are filled with white spar. Perhaps the most interesting fact which has resulted from an examination of the British fossils of the present genus is the size and form of the brain, as exhibited by an internal cast of the cranial cavity. In the museum of Professor Sedgwick there is a slab, in which the head of a Steneosaurus is imbedded, the upper part being exposed, from which a considerable part of the bony substance has been broken away, and, amongst the rest, the whole upper wall of the cranial cavity, exposing a tolerably per- fect cast of its interior, which represents the brain of the extinct reptile. This cast resembles the smooth convex cerebral lobes of the Crocodile, and a portion of the large optic lobes which lie posterior to them. The cerebrum is 14 inch in breadth, and the whole of the brain represented by this cast is 2 inches in length. The breadth of this head is 64 inches. The temporal openings form wide ellipses, 2 inches 9 lines in the long diameter: from the back of the cranium to the commencement of the narrow elongated jaws is 8 | inches ; from these proportions the length of the individual may be calculated at about 18 feet. * In the thin, long and slender jaws ascribed to the Poikilopleuron by M. Deslongchamps, the coronoid is not raised, and there is an oblong vacuity between the angular and suran- gular. 84 REPORT—1 841. POIKILOPLEURON BUCKLANDI, Eudes-Deslongchamps. Nos. on and su in the Mantellian Collection, are the two moieties of a fossil caudal vertebra, fractured obliquely across the middle of the body, the length of which is to the breadth of its articular extremity as 3 to 2; both extremities are slightly concave; the body is gradually contracted from the two extremities towards the middle part; bears a transverse process deve- loped from the posterior and upper part of its side, behind which there is a shallow groove; has the neural arch anchylosed, without trace of suture, to nearly the whole of the longitudinal extent of its upper surface. The neural arch is provided with anterior and posterior oblique processes, and a broad and thin spine developed at its posterior part, and strongly inclined back- wards at its origin; lastly, the vertebra has a large medullary cavity in the centre of the body, filled, in the fossil, with spar. In all these particulars the Palzontologist acquainted with the excellent description by M. Eudes- Deslongchamps of the Pozkilopleuron Bucklandi, from the oolite at Caen, will not fail to recognise the distinctive characters of that species in the present fossil. It is attached to a mass of the common Wealden stone, which is quarried at Tilgate, and was associated with the bones of the Jguanodon. The length of the present vertebra is 3 inches 9 lines, or 95 centimeters ; that of the caudal vertebre of the Pozkilopleuron of Caen is about a deci- meter*. We may conclude, therefore, that the individual from the Caen oolite and that from the Wealden were of the same size, and, from this cor- respondence, it is most likely that the size—25 French feet, which M. Des- longchamps assigns to the entire animal—is the common size of the species. The vertical diameter of the articular end of the body of the Wealden yer- tebra is 2 inches 3 lines (53 centimeters); the transverse diameter of the same part is 2 inches 2 lines (55 centimeters); the transverse diameter of the middle contracted part of the body is 1 inch 4 lines (35 centimeters). The external free surface of the vertebra is almost smooth, being faintly marked by fine strie. The form of the terminal surfaces of the centrum is a full ellipse, with its long diameter vertical. The longitudinal sulcus at the upper part of the side of the body is shallow, and slightly bent, with the con- vexity downwards ; the base of the transverse process is continued from the upper boundary of the groove, and extends along the posterior half of the upper and lateral part of the centrum, and upon the base of the neural arch, which is here wider than the centrum: the transverse process is broken off near its origin. The base of the neurapophysis or side of the neural arch leaves only a very small portion of the upper part of the centrum free at its anterior and posterior part, to form the hole for the transmission of the spinal nerve: the distinction between the present genus and the Cetiosaurus is well marked in this respect. The neurapophyses have a less vertical extent than in the corresponding vertebre of the Cetiosaurus, or even than in the Crocodile. From the upper part of the centrum to the upper edge of the anterior oblique process in a vertical line is only 1 inch, or about 24 centi- meters. The base of the spinous process is not thickest at its posterior margin, but gradually expands transversely as it extends forwards, and then, at a distance of 10 lines from its posterior part, it quickly contracts to a very thin plate, which is continued forwards to the conical depression at the inter- space of the origin of the anterior oblique processes. The upper part of the spine is broken away, but the remaining base has the same backward inclina- tion as in the Caen Potkilopleuron. From the size and position of the transverse process, the Tilgate vertebra * “ Nos vertebrés ont chacune environ un décimétre de long.” —Deslongchamps, /. ¢., p. 53. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 85 corresponds with the second or third of the first series of caudal vertebrae of the Caen Poikilopleuron figured by M. Deslongchamps. There is one cha- racter in the Wealden vertebra which is not mentioned in M. Deslong- champs’ description of the Caen species, viz. a longitudinal suleus at the middle of the under surface of the body of the vertebra, at least at its ante- rior half: the sulcus is not deep, and is 1 centimeter or 4 lines in breadth. The extremity of the under surface seems to be obliquely leveled off to form a single hemapophysial surface. From this structure it might have been in- ferred that the hemapophyses, which by their union form the chevron bone, were closely approximated, if not confluent at their bases, as in the Zyuano- don; the Caen specimen, in which many of the chevron bones are preserved, proves this to have been the case. The fortunate fracture which demonstrates the peculiarly large medullary cavity in the centre of the vertebral body, gives the best proof that could be required of the generic identity of the Wealden vertebra with the Caen Poitkilopleuron; and the absence of that cavity in the vertebrae of the Megalosaurus, which I have determined by a section of one of the caudal vertebre, establishes the distinction between that genus and the Potkzlopleuron. In the form of its sub-biconcave vertebra, and the simplicity of their neural arch as compared with the Streptospondylus and the Dinosaurians, the Poikilopleuron manifests its closer affinity to the Ccelospondylian Croco- diles. It agrees with the Zeleosaurus in the comparative shortness of the fore legs; the mode of articulation of the vertebral ribs appears to be the same, and there is no evidence that it differs in the structure of the ab- dominal ribs. The number of caudal vertebrze would appear to be greater; but I know not in what material respect the Povkilopleuron resembles the Lizard tribe more closely than does the Teleosaurus, unless it should be proved to have five toes on the hind foot, and to want the dermal armour. Subsequent dis- coveries may prove it to belong, like the Megalosaurus, to the Dinosaurian order; but as the Potkilopleuron is at present known, it seems to have most claim to be received into the Calospondylian family of the Crocodilian order, and perhaps has the closest affinity in that family to the Crocodilus Bollensis, Jaeger (Macrospondylus, H. v. Meyer). To the genus Potkilopleuron it is most probable that the specimen No. aan in the Mantellian Collection belongs, as it agrees in size, in texture, and especially in the character of the external surface with the caudal ver- tebra last described. As it consists of the annular part or neural arch only, the test of the medullary cavity of the body cannot be applied. It belongs to one of the anterior dorsal vertebre, and is distinguished by well-marked and peculiar characters from the corresponding vertebree of the Iguanodon, Me- galosaurus, Hyleosaurus, Cetiosaurus, and Streptospondylus ; and in the chief of these differences it approximates to the sub-biconcave Crocodilian type of vertebre. As only the caudal vertebre of the Poikilopleuron appear to have been hitherto discovered, I cannot avail myself of the aid, in the determina- tion of the present fossil, which the able descriptions of M. Deslongchamps afforded in reference to the preceding one; there remains, therefore, to record the characters of the present fragment of a dorsal vertebra, in order that they may be compared with more perfect ones from the oolite of Maladrerie near Caen, in the event of the remainder of the vertebral column of the Potkilo- pleuron ever falling into the hands of the Palzontologist. The present fossil is imbedded in the ferruginous sand of the Tilgate strata ; its antero-posterior diameter from the extremity of the anterior to that of the posterior oblique process, is 5 inches 4 lines, 86 REPORT—1841. The neurapophyses, instead of rising and expanding to form a broad plat- form to support the spinous process, as in the Dinosaurian vertebre of the Wealden, converge rapidly above the spinal canal, and support the spinous and transverse processes by a longitudinal plate not more than from 3 to 6 lines in transverse thickness ; from each side of this plate a horizontal, flat, broad, lamelliform transverse process, supported below by a subvertical tri- angular plate, extends outwards and a little upwards; and a broad, thin, and moderately high spinous process arises, in a peculiar manner, by two lamine, from the whole antero-posterior extent of the ridge-like summit of the neural arch. The fossil is broken in two; a portion of the centrum adheres to the anterior part of the neural arch, demonstrating the anchylosis of the two parts without trace of suture. In this respect the fossil agrees with Pozkilo- pleuron and differs from Iguanodon, in which the neural arch is anchylosed with the centrum, but evident traces of the suture remain, at least in the dorsal vertebre. The anterior part of the side of-the centrum is impressed by a large surface for the head of the rib; the surface is concave in the axis of the vertebra, convex vertically, and is bounded above by a well-defined ridge. The anterior oblique processes support flat articular surfaces of an ellip- tical form, 16 lines by 9 lines, looking upwards and inwards, their lower edges converging at an angle of 50°. These edges are separated from each other by a fissure 34 lines broad, continued to the base of the anterior oblique pro- cesses. In the Jgwanodon the corresponding surfaces incline to each other at a right angle, and the lower margins of the processes are united by a con- tinuous tract of bone. The present fossil, in the above-cited particular, re- sembles more the Cetiosaurus. Each anterior articular surface is supported by a stout process convex externally, inclining forwards and slightly expand- ing, so as to overhang and extend in a slight degree beyond the anterior end of the centrum: these processes are relatively lower than in the Jguanodon, in which also they do not extend beyond the centrum: the present fossil, in differing in these two respects from the Jguanodon, indicates characters which. are exaggerated in the caudal vertebre of the Jguanodon. A deep and narrow excavation commences immediately behind the upper and posterior origins of the anterior oblique processes, and is continued backwards, in- creasing in vertical extent, deep into the anterior part of the base of the spinous process. Immediately behind the columnar portion of the anterior oblique process a deep and wide conical cavity sinks, as it were, into the neurapophysis, undermining the anterior part of the base of the transverse process, and dividing the anterior oblique process from the supporting plate of the transverse process. The transverse process commences from the summit of the neurapophysis immediately exterior to the anterior part of the base of the spinous process, by a ridge which is continued backwards from the upper and outer margin of the anterior oblique process, in a gentle curve outwards and slightly up- wards. The posterior margin of the base of the transverse process is not continued, in like manner, into the posterior oblique process, but terminates or subsides into a ridge above, and separated from that process by a wide groove. : The bases of the two transverse processes are only separated from each other, owing to the modification of the neural arch above mentioned, by a thickness of bone not exceeding 4 lines: the interspace of the origins of the two transverse processes in a corresponding vertebra of the Jguanodon measures 4 inches; the length of the base of the neural arch being the same in the vertebrae compared. ; The antero-posterior extent of the base of the transverse process in this ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 87 (presumed) vertebra of the Pozkilopleuron is 2 inches 2 lines. The length of the transverse process is 4 inches. The vertical diameter, or thickness of the transverse process, where unsupported, is from 2 to 3 lines. It is obvious, therefore, that this long, thin, lamelliform plate of bone must need further support, in order to sustain the rib which is appended by its tubercle to the extremity ; and the requisite strength is here given precisely as the carpenter supports a shelf by a bracket. ‘The bracket-like process is a vertical tri- angular plate of bone, the breadth or depth of which, at its origin, is 1 inch 4 lines, and which gradually diminishes in depth and increases in thickness as it extends along the middle of the under part of the transverse process, until it is finally lost near the extremity of the process, which here has ex- changed its lamellar for a prismatic form, terminating in the obtuse extremity against which the tubercle of the rib abutted. The supporting bracket is not quite vertical, but inclines a little forwards, and behind it there is a deep angular fossa. The posterior oblique processes diverge from each other and from the neural arch immediately above the posterior extremity of the spinal canal: each articular surface, which is directed downwards and outwards, forms, as it were, the base of a posterior root of the spinous process, which is convex externally, diminishing in breadth as it converges to meet its fellow at a very acute angle above a deep fissure extending forwards into the sub- stance of the base of the spine, similarly to the fissure before described as extending backwards from the opposite part of the spine into its substance. As far as I could detach the matrix, these fissures extended so that they seem to communicate, and the neural arch to be perforated by two longitudinal passages, one for the spinal chord, and the other, running above and parallel with the former, through the base of the spinous process. This process is thus partially separated at its base into two laminz, and presents a structure which almost realizes Prof. Geoffroy’s theoretical idea of the essential nature of a spinous process, viz. that it consists of two elementary laminz, which in fishes are superimposed one on the other, but in other Vertebrates are placed in juxtaposition. The anterior parts of each spinal plate are thickened and rounded, like those behind, and extend to the origins of the anterior oblique processes. The diameter of this remarkable spinal fissure is from 4 to 3 lines. It is present in an inferior degree in the Teleosaurus, but not in the vertebree of the Jgua- nodon, Megalosaurus, or other Dinosauria. The base of the spinous process in this (presumed) Poikilopleuron’s ver- tebra, instead of descending from behind forwards in a graceful curve, as in the Dinosaurs, forms a straight and almost horizontal line, 3 inches in extent : the spine maintains the same breadth to its summit, which is truncated rather obliquely; its height is 4 inches 9 lines, measured from the upper end of the posterior oblique processes ; it is thickened and rounded at its truncate sum- mit. The height of the spine of a corresponding vertebra of the Jguanodon, with a centrum of the same length, is 9 inches. Thus the present vertebra more resembles, in the form and proportions of its spinous process, as in other characters, the vertebre of the Crocodilians. The posterior part of the neural arch, with the spinous process of the ver- tebra here described, is figured in Dr. Mantell’s ‘ Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex,’ pl. xii. fig. 1, as the ‘Lumbar Vertebra of the Jguanodon.’ It is unquestionably not a lumbar vertebra; and if it does not belong to the Por- kilopleuron, it indicates an unknown genus of Crocodilians. In a collection of fossils belonging to S. H. Christie, Esq., from the sub- merged Wealden beds near the Isle of Wight, there is one half of the cen- trum of a dorsal vertebra from Brook Bay, which agrees in size, in the form 88 REPORT—1841. of the articular extremity, in the degree of median constriction, and, espe- cially, in the large size of the medullary cavity at the middle of the bone, with the vertebral characters of the Potkilopleuron. STREPTOSPONDYLUS, H. von Meyer. Steneosaurus rostro-major, Geoftroy.—1 re Gavial d’ Honfieur, Cuy.(vertebre.) I am not aware that remains of this Crocodilian genus have hitherto been recognised in any of the British strata. The very characteristic vertebra and jaws, of which the singular generic modifications were first described by Cuvier,* were found in the Oxford clay formation at Honfleur, and in the Kimmeridge clay at Havre. M. Hermann von Meyer likewise cites the lias of Altdorf as a depository of the fossil ‘bones of this genust. The distinguishing vertebral characters are a ball and socket articulation of the bodies of the vertebre ; but the positions of the ball and cavity are the reverse of those in the existing Crocodiles, the convexity being on the anterior part of the vertebra, and the concavity directed backwards. In the anterior vertebre, which have the ribs articulated with the body, there is a deep pit behind the costal articular surface ; the transverse process rises by four salient ridges, one from each oblique process, and the two inferior and principal ones from the base of the neurapophysis; these ridges converge at an acute angle as they ascend, and meet at the under part of the transverse process, so as to include a triangular space, which is deeply concave. A third salient ridge ascends from the fore part of the base of the neurapophy- sis to the anterior oblique process, nearly parallel with the posterior of the two last-mentioned ridges, so that the side of each neurapophysis appears as if marked with the letter N in high relief. In the cervical and anterior dor- sal vertebre there are, instead of a single inferior spinous process, two ridges which terminate each, in front, by a tubercle, as in the vertebra dentata of the Crocodile. Streptospondylus Cuvieri, nob.—The first fossil here to be noticed, which combines any of the above defined characters, is the anterior half of an an- terior dorsal vertebra, in the collection of Mr. Kingdon of Chipping Norton : it was found in the oolite in the vicinity of that town. The articular surfaces for the ribs are, as usual, close to the anterior part of the body of the vertebra, and this terminates by a convex articular surface, instead of being, as in the Crocodiles, concave: the second character is the remarkably deep pit behind each of the costal articular surfaces. It is as if a man had pressed his two thumbs forwards and inwards up to the first joint, into the substance of the body of the vertebra, until their extremities had nearly met. The aperture of each pit measures 1 inch by 10 lines. Sufficient of the neurapophysial arch is preserved to show the depression which has separated the two anterior ridges of its external surface; but these charac- teristic ridges, with the transverse, spinous and oblique processes, are broken away. The medullary canal is compressed, and gives an oval vertical section, 1 inch 6 lines high, and 1 inch 2 lines wide. Both upper and lower surfaces of the medullary canal are flat, and join the lateral surfaces at nearly a right angle. There is a slight ridge along each side of the medullary canal, indi- cating the neurapophysial suture, which extends here outwards and obliquely * Ann. du Mus. xii. p. 83, pl. x. xi. t The Saurian remains to which Prof. Bronn (‘ Lethea Geognostica,’ 1837, 8vo) has at- tached the name of Leptocranius, cannot belong, as he supposes, to the present genus, if it be true that the vertebra are slightly constricted in the middle, and have both articular extremities concave, as in the following description :—“ Die dazu gehorenden Wirbel-Korper in der mitte wenig verengt, vorn und hinten sind concave Gelenk-flache.”—p. 517. / ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 89 downwards to above the middle of the costal depression. This depression is vertically ovate, with a deeper oblique pit in the middle, 2 inches in the long diameter, by 1 inch 6 lines across the broadest part. The texture of this vertebra is coarsely cellular, except for about two lines at the margin, where it is in very compact laminz. The anterior articular surface of the centrum is slightly and irregularly convex, being nearly flat at the upper part. There is a slight deviation from the symmetrical figure in the whole of this vertebral fragment. The body of the vertebra is much contracted in the middle, and suddenly expands to form the terminal articular surface. This character is likewise indicated by Cuvier in his Crocodile d’ Honfleur* ; thus the transverse diameter of the middle of the vertebral body, across which the present fossil has been fractured, measures 2 inches 3 lines, whilst the same diameter of the convex articular extremity is 4 inches. The corresponding diameters of one of the anterior dorsal vertebre of the Streptospondylus, described by Cuvier, are respectively 1 inch 7 lines, and 2 inches 6 lines; whence we may conjecture that the length of the entire vertebra here described would have been 4 inches and a half. The ver- tical diameter of the articular surface is 3 inches 9 lines. The non-articular surface of the vertebral body is smooth, except near the articular extremity, where it is rather coarsely rugous. The inferior ridges and tubercles have disappeared at the part of the vertebral column to which the present vertebra has belonged. The osseous substance of the present fossil, like that of the bones of the Streptospondylus from Honfleur, presents a deep chocolate brown hue, and takes a bright polish. It is not completely mineralized ; the small cavities of a great part of the diploé are empty, and not filled with semitransparent cal- careous spar, as in the Honfleur specimens. With the portion of the vertebra above described there was associated the extremity of a spinous process, which gradually expands to a rough obtuse quadrilateral summit. This spine is characterized by having a very rugged and thick ridge, developed from the anterior and posterior surface of what may be regarded as the ordinary spinous process, the sides of which are smooth, except near the summit. Inches. Lines. The length of this fragment of spine is ...... bisa ante B 8 The transverse diameter of the base ............ 0 9 The transverse diameter of the summit of the apex 1 6 Antero-posterior diameter of spine ............ 1 3 Ditto, including the ridges ............0.0..0.. 1 10 In the Crocodile a thin plate is continued from the anterior and posterior edges of the thicker spinous processes; but the Streptospondylus, if I am correct in attributing this spinous process to that genus, presents an extreme and peculiar development of this structure. A portion of a compressed, conical, hollow tooth, with a brown dense glis- tening dentine, covered by smooth enamel, and resembling that of the Mega- losaurus, was associated with the preceding vertebra. The length of this fragment of tooth is 2 inches 4: lines, but both ends are wanting. The breadth is 8 lines; the thickness 5 lines}. If it really belong to the Streptospondy- lus, it confirms the view of the affinity of that genus to Megalosaurus, which has been suggested by the characters of the vertebra. With the above frac- tured vertebra and tooth there were likewise found, in the oolite at Chipping * “Le corps de cette vertébre, ainsi que des suivantes, est beaucoup plus rétréci dans son milieu que dans les Crocodiles connus.”—Ossem. Foss. ed. 1824, tom. v. pt. 2. p. 156. t The teeth conjectured by Cuvier to belong to the Honfleur Streptospondylus are conical and striated, 90 REPORT—1841. Norton, a portion of a broad flat bone, with a convex, rough, articular labrum, nearly two inches thick, and of a fine cancellous structure, and fragments of long bones, with large medullary cavities and compact outer walls, of which the thickness equals about one-third of the diameter of the medullary canal. A more perfect specimen, referable to the present genus, is a posterior dorsal vertebra from the jet-rock (lias shale) near Whitby, and forms part of the collection of fossils of Mr. Ripley, surgeon of that town. It is much more complete than the preceding specimen, wanting only the spinous and transverse processes ; there is a slightly raised oval surface for the articulation of the head of the rib, on each side of the body, at its upper and anterior part, in the corresponding situation with that for the head of the rib on the four anterior dorsal vertebra in the existing Crocodiles: this surface in the Whitby vertebra is relatively smaller and lower down than in the larger specimen of Streptospondylus from the oolite. The present specimen nearly corresponds in size with the dorsal vertebre of the Honfleur Streptospondylus described by Cuvier*, as will be seen by the following admeasurements :— Whitby. Honfleur. Inches. Lines. Inches. Lines. Length, or antero-posterior diameter of body . 3 5 3 8 Transverse diameter of articular surface . . . 3 (0) 3 3 Transverse diameter of middle of body .. . 1 3 1 6 The principal character of the vertebra of Streptospondylus, viz. the an- terior ball and posterior cup, is unequivocally demonstrated in this specimen by the presence of the oblique processes, which determine the anterior and posterior extremities of the vertebra; the two articular surfaces which look upwards and inwards correspond with the convex extremity of the body of the vertebra; while those on the oblique processes, which look downwards and outwards, overhang the extremity of the body of the vertebra, which is excavated by a moderately deep and regular concavity. To judge from the figures of two of the vertebree of the Streptospondylust from Honfleur, the characteristic fossa on each side of the body becomes shallower, and situated nearer the middle of the side of the body as the ver- tebree approach the tail; but the lateral fossee present both these modifications in the Whitby vertebra, which, from the articular surface of the rib, would seem to have come from the anterior part of the dorsal region of the spine. This vertebra presents the minor generic characters of the Streptospon- dylus in the length of the body, its lateral compression and inferior conca- vity, the two extremities being expanded to form the articular surfaces. The non-articular surface is smooth, except near the margins of the articular extremities. The line of the hemapophysial suture extends horizontally the whole length of the centrum. The two characteristic lateral buttress-like ridges rise from the two extremities of the base of the neurapophysis, and converge to the under part of the base of the transverse process, where they meet ; the depressions between and on each side of these ridges are deep: the third ridge extending from the anterior part of the base of the neura- pophysis to the anterior oblique process stands out in nearly as bold relief as those which support the transverse process. The articular surfaces on the oblique processes are bounded by a regular convex free margin; their long diameter is 1 inch 10 lines, their short dia- meter 9 lines; they are nearly flat: the anterior ones look inwards and up- wards ; the posterior downwards and outwards. * Loe. cit., p. 308. + Ossem. Foss. vy. pl. ix. fig. 3 and 10. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 91 The two superior ridges, extending from the upper part of the anterior and posterior oblique processes to the transverse process of the same side, describe a regular concave curve. The vertical diameter of the fractured transverse process is 1 inch 3 lines, its transverse diameter is 1 inch. The great development of the superior part of the neural arch, and the strength and high relief of the buttress-like ridges supporting and strengthen- ing the different processes, indicate that the spinous process was unusually large and massive. This process was not preserved in any of the vertebra of the Honfleur Streptospondylus described by Cuvier, nor, unfortunately, in the present vertebra ; but its otherwise more perfect state adds another cha- racter to those by which the vertebra of the Streptospondylus deviate from the Crocodilian type; viz. a broad plate of bone extended transversely be- tween the two posterior oblique processes, and increasing in breadth as it ascends. The base from which the spinous process should rise, which is thus bounded by the oblique and transverse processes, extends beyond, and, as it were, overhangs the whole body of the vertebra below; and is hardly less re- markable for the height to which it is carried above the body. Thus from the highest part of the posterior oblique process to the lower margin of the corresponding articular surface of the vertebral centre mea- sures 6 inches; the length of the vertebral centrum being 3 inches 5 lines: the contrary proportions prevail in the posterior dorsal and lumbar vertebre of the existing Crocodiles. The breadth of the neural arch, where the la- teral buttresses terminate at the base of the transverse processes, is 6 inches. Streptospondylus major, nob.—The third British formation in which I have determined the remains of the genus Streptospondylus is the Wealden; the specimens having been obtained from three localities, viz. Tilgate Forest in Sussex, and Brook Point and Culver Cliff in the Isle of Wight. The speci- mens differ in size from those already described, being larger than the Strep- tospondylus Cuviert from the oolite; I strongly suspect that they indicate a distinct species, but the means of comparison for the satisfactory establish- ment of the distinctions are as yet wanting. M. H. von Meyer has added nothing but the generic name to the observations of Cuvier, on which the claims of the present extinct Crocodilian to generic distinction are founded : these observations were taken from the dorsal vertebre, atlas and axis, whilst the most characteristic of the Wealden vertebra appertain to the middle part of the cervical region, from whence vertebra of the reversed ball and socket system have not been hitherto recognized. These vertebre I apprehend to be those on which Dr. Mantell has founded his description of the “ Fourth system” from the Wealden. He says, “ The vertebre of the fourth system (fig. 4) are very rare, only six or seven have come under my observation. They are of the true Lacertian type, having the articular facets of the body convex posteriorly and concave anteriorly, and are wider than high, as in the Iguana and Monitors, and not in the reverse proportions, as in the recent Crocodiles. In two large but mutilated cervi- cals, the admeasurements are as follow :— “ Height of the concave extremity . . . . - 33 Widthor the sae. ee eh gy se ae Beucti or the body, . fk ee 8 ls oe O “Tt is not obvious whether the annular part be divided by suture or other- wise ; the articular apophyses are horizontal and very strong; the spinous process is destroyed *.” * Mantell’s Geology of the South-east of England, 8vo, 1833, p. 300. 92 REPORT—1841. It is the fortunate preservation of the two articular, or oblique processes, at one of the extremities of the annular part of this fine cervical vertebra, now in the Mantellian Collection, British Museum (No. oy, that has enabled me to correct the error into which the Founder of that noble collection has, in this instance, fallen: the flat oblong articular surface of each of these strong and well-marked oblique processes looks downwards and outwards, determining them to be the posterior pair ; and they overhang the concave extremity of the body of the vertebra, determining that to be the posterior extremity. The opposite, or anterior end of the body of the same fossil, is convex. ‘The few other large convexo-concave vertebre from the Wealden of Tilgate correspond with the one here described in these important charac- ters of the genus Streptospondylus, and equally differ from the vertebre of the Iguane, Monitors, and all other existing Sauria. Of the fossil cervical vertebra, 6 inches long, the anterior extremity of the body is further indicated by the position of the costal tubercle, or transverse process, which is deve- loped as a strong obtuse ridge from the middle part of that half of the cen- trum which is nearest the convex articulation. Beneath this ridge the sides of the body are concave, and converge to a broad ridge, which terminates the anterior part of the lower surface of the vertebra, and corresponds with the process given off from that part in the cervical vertebre of the Crocodile. A second concavity, at the upper part of the side of the body, separates the transverse process, or ridge, from the base of the neural arch ; from which a second, or upper transverse process is developed for the attachment of the tubercle of the rib. The neural arch has been crushed down upon the centrum, and its anterior oblique processes and spine are broken away ; the upper, non-articular part of the strong diverging posterior oblique processes is convex. In the museum of Mr. Saull, F.G.S., Aldersgate Street, there is a cervical vertebra of the great Streptospondylus associated, as in the Mantellian Col- lection, with vertebrz of the Zguanodon and Cetiosaurus, all of which have been washed out of the submarine Wealden beds at the south side of the Isle of Wight, and thrown on shore near Culver Cliffs and Brook Point. The lower half of the sides of the centrum of the vertebra of the Strep- tospondylus are, like the preceding vertebra from Tilgate, concave and ob- liquely compressed, so as to converge to the anterior part of the under sur- face, which thus presents a triangular form, with the apex forming the obtuse anterior ridge, and the base turned backward and somewhat flattened. Each lateral concavity is bounded above by a short but broad transverse process, developed from the anterior half of that part of the centrum, and terminated by an oblong flattened surface for the articulation of the head of the cervi- cal rib; which surface is about twice as long in the antero-posterior as the vertical direction. Above this process the centrum is again concave. The base of the neurapophysis is anchylosed to nearly the whole antero-posterior extent of the centrum, the course of the original straight suture being readily discernible. An upper transverse process is developed from the side of the base of the neurapophysis, affording a broader surface for the tubercle of the cervical rib than does the lower transverse process. Above the upper trans- verse process the neurapophyses converge obliquely to the base of the spinous process. ‘The line of the base of the spine inclines forwards, and the thick- ness of the spine diminishes in the same direction. The difference in the height of the neural arch, and in the configuration of its external surface, which both the cervical vertebra of the great Wealden Streptospondylus pre- sent, when compared with the dorsal vertebrz of the smaller specimens from the older oclite formations, is very great; and the more remarkable, as in the ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 93 existing Crocodiles the height of the neurapophyses is greater in the cervical than in the dorsal region: as, however, the transverse processes in the Cro- codiles come off from a higher part of the neural arch in the dorsal than in the cervical vertebrae, the spine of the great Wealden Streptospondylus may possibly present modifications in the dorsal region corresponding with those remarkable ones which have been already described in the Whitby vertebra. The posterior articular processes in the cervical vertebra from Culver Point, are similar in all respects to those in the Tilgate specimen, and equally de- termine the fore and hind extremities of the vertebra. The following are admeasurements of the bodies of the two vertebrae of the Wealden Sétreptospondylus :— Tilgate. Culver Cliff. Inch. Lines. Inch. Lines. Transverse diameter of posterior concave BOP UCMIAT, SUTTRCE oa. oo Cok 9) ou itv hari 0 6 0 Vertical diameter of posterior concave ar- “TITLE IGT B(GT a On ne eg 6 4 6 Antero-posterior diameter . . . . .- 6 0 SF AW Transverse diameter of the body across the inferior transverse processes. . . 6 0 6 6 Height from lower surface of centrum to the hind part of base of spine . . 7 9 Antero-posterior extent of lower trans- verse process . «6 3 ess te VD 2 2 A Interspace between upper and lower trans- verse processes. . . + «+ + « « » 2 0) In the museum of the Geological Society of London there is a collection of rolled vertebre from the coast at Brook Point, Isle of Wight, which, among the bones of Jguanodon and other gigantic Wealden genera, contains the centrum or body of a dorsal vertebra of the great Streptospondylus. This specimen, though much rolled and worn, is interesting, inasmuch as it ex- hibits the characteristic contraction of the middle and expansion of the ends of the centrum, together with unequivocal evidences of the marked depres- sion on each side, near the upper part of the anterior or convex end of the centrum. What remains of the depression is about the size of the end of a man’s thumb. The convexity of the anterior extremity resembles in degree, and likewise in irregularity, that in the fractured vertebra of the Streptospon- dylus from the oolite, in Mr. Kingdon’s collection. The present centrum is less depressed than those of the cervical region, but agrees with them in length, as the following dimensions show :— Inches. Lines, Antero-posterior diameter . . . . «. . Sf O Vertical diameter of concave end .... 5 6 Transverse diameter of concaveend ... 5 3 Transverse diameter of middle of centrum . 3 (0) The vertebra from the forest marble alluded to in the note at p. 297 of Dr. Mantell’s ‘Geology of the South-east of England,’ is a centrum from the _posterior part of the dorsal region of the Streptospondylus major. The determination of the true nature of the convexo-concave vertebre of the Wealden, and of the affinities of the reptile to which they belonged, be- sides extending our knowledge of the gigantic -oviparous animals of that * It is evident that an inch at least, perhaps more, has been chiseled away from the ball which terminated the anterior end of the body of the specimen in Mr. Saull’s collection. __t The margins of the extremities being worn and rounded prevent the actual length being given. 94 REPORT—1841. epoch, removes one of the chief difficulties attending the determination of the true vertebral characters of the Zguanodon. For if gigantic vertebree, agreeing in the important character of their articular surfaces with the ex- isting Zguane, had actually been discovered, though of rare occurrence, asso- ciated with teeth of corresponding dimensions, but similar in form to those of the Iguana, there would have been strong ground for suspicion, that such vertebree and teeth might be parts of the same species * The elimination of these, otherwise perplexing, ball and socket-jointed vertebre, and their identification with the peculiar Crocodilian genus of Hon- fleur, on which M. H. von Meyer has imposed the name of Streptospondylus, forms, therefore, an essential step in the appropriation to the Jguanodon of its true vertebral characters. CETIOSAURUS. Cetiosaurus brevis, nob.—The attempt to reduce to order the various forms and types of vertebrae, which the Wealden strata have yielded to test the saga- city of the interpreters of its organized treasures, was one of Dr. Mantell’s earliest labours, and he states} that his first step was, with the able assist- ance of the Rev. W. D. Conybeare, to separate those that belonged to the Crocodile, Plesiosaurus and Megalosaurus, or rather which resembled those from Stonesfield. Many enormous vertebre then remained, from which those belonging to the Zgwanodon were to be chosen; from these residuary speci- mens the characteristic ones of the Pothilopleuron and Streptospondylus have already been eliminated, and I next proceed to remove from them the verte- bree which characterize the genus Cetiosaurus. Of the existence of vertebrae of this genus in the Wealden strata, I first beeame acquainted by the examination of Mr. Saull’s collection of sea-rolled fossils washed out of the submerged Wealden beds, and deposited on the shores of the Isle of Wight, at Sandover Bay. The vertebra in question present the well-marked generic characters of those of the dorsal region in the Cetiosaurus, as the breadth of the centrum, its subcircular contour, its median contraction and unequal concavity of the articular extremities ; as, also, the short antero-posterior extent of the neura- pophysis, and their anchylosis to the anterior part of the upper surface of the centrum: but they differ from the vertebrae on which the characters of the present genus were first founded { by the shortness of their antero-posterior diameters as compared with their breadth and depth, whence I propose to de- signate the species by the name of Cetiosaurus brevis. The centrum of a dorsal vertebra of this species from Culver Cliff mea- sures, In. Lines. in antero-posterior diameter. . . . . 3 6 transverse diameter. . . - ». . . 6 4& vertical diameter. . . . - .-.. 6 #0 * This suspicion is expressed, but with due caution, by Dr. Mantell in his ‘Geology of the South-east of England.’ “The somewhat angular vertebra, described as appearing to constitute a Second System, I should be disposed, from their number, and from their so commonly occurring in the localities where the teeth of the /guanodon most abound, to refer to that animal; it must, however, be mentioned, that the concavo-convex vertebra which correspond so entirely with those of the Iguana and Monitor, would seem to offer a more probable approximation ; yet the extreme rarity of the latter renders it questionable, since there appears no reason why the vertebra should not have been preserved in as consider- able numbers as the teeth.” —p. 306. The vertebree of the Jgwanodon discovered by Mr. Ben- stead in the greensand quarries near Maidstone, are so crushed or so imbedded, as to prevent a satisfactory determination of both articular extremities. + Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex, 4to, 1827, p. 76. Geology of the South-east of England, 8vo, 1833, p. 278. £ See Proceedings of the Geological Society for June 1841. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 95 One of the articular ends * is rather more concave than the other, which, from the wearing away of the margins, appears slightly and unevenly convex. The contracted middle part of the vertebra is concave lengthwise, and pretty regu- larly convex in the direction transverse to the axis of the vertebra: the free surface is finely striated, and perforated here and there by vascular foramina: there is no lateral depression. The neurapophyses were broken off; their bases, instead of having their long diameter corresponding with the axis of the vertebra, as in /guanodon, present it in the direction transverse to that axis, as in Plesiosaurus: they do not quite meet at the middle of the upper or neural surface of the centrum, but are there divided by a narrow longitu- dinal tract forming the lower part of the spinal canal. The antero-posterior extent of the anchylosed base of the neural arch is 2 inches 6 lines: the transverse diameter, 5 inches. Two caudal vertebra of the same species, also from Culver Cliff, present the same length and unequal concavity of the articular extremities; the an- terior one, here determinable by the anterior position of the narrower hema- pophyses, being the deepest: the sides of the body are more compressed, and more convergent towards the under surface ; so that, as the expanded margins of the articular ends are worn away, the centrum presents rather a triangular than a subcircular contour. The disproportion of its antero-posterior with its transverse and vertical diameters, distinguishes it from the caudal vertebrae of the Jguanodon. The neurapophysis rises from the anterior three-fourths of the centrum, and sends forwards a subprismatic anterior oblique process, but does not develope a posterior one: it then contracts, and inclines to the base of the spine, which is much shorter than in the Zguanodon. The spi- nous process inclines backwards from the vertical axis of the centrum at an angle of 45°. A short transverse process is developed from the junction of the neurapophysis with the centrum. The hemapophysial surfaces appear single on both the anterior and posterior parts of the lower surface; they are nearly flat, and slope towards each other. In. Lin, Antero-posterior diameter. . . . . iG ‘Fransverse diameter «i008 | 9.2) ei, A DU CRUICEMC MIDI CE ET 3 oi secs wisp Rec mamer: iCaibbs Bhi be Height of vertebra to summit of spinet . 12 9 Antero-posterior diameter of spine. . . 2 10 Thickness at posterior part of base. . . 1 O Height of spine, Ist caudal . ..... + 5 9 Height of spine, 2nd caudali. , . . . 4 O The characters and dimensions of these rolled vertebre of Cetiosaurus from the submarine beds of the Wealden formation, although somewhat ob- seured by the circumstances under which they are brought to light, are suf- ficiently satisfactory to establish their generic character, and to give an use- ful approximative idea of their size and proportions. The corresponding bones from the Wealden of Tilgate Forest supply, by their more perfect state of preservation, the deficiencies of the Isle of Wight specimens, and further establish the co-existence of the Cetiosaurus with the Iguanodon, Strepto- spondylus, Megalosaurus and other extraordinary reptiles of that period, The vertebre of the Cetiosaurus brevis in the Mantellian Collection are the * Subsequently determined by more perfect specimens to be the posterior surface. + This is rounded off, but seems not to have been broken. + The Ist and 2nd do not here refer to the place of these vertebre in the tail; but if the vertebr were contiguous in the entire animal, the tail must be much shorter than in the Iguanodon. 96 REPORT—1841. most gigantic specimens of Saurian remains that enrich it. They inelude the bodies of two dorsal vertebrze and four entire caudal vertebre, which, if not consecutive, seem to have come not from distant parts of the basal portion of the tail of the same individual; there are also the bodies of several of the smaller na caudal vertebrze. No. 2 (“Gigantic vertebra of Iguanodon,” MS. Catalogue of Mantellian Collection,) is a posterior dorsal vertebra of the Cetiosaurus brevis, and ex- hibits in a striking manner the peculiar characters of this species, viz. the great depth and breadth, especially the latter dimension, as compared with the length or antero-posterior diameter of the centrum or body of the ver- tebra. The posterior articular facet is, in this region of the spine, more concave than the anterior surface, a structure which approximates to that peculiar one which characterizes the Streptospondylus *. The contour of the articular ends is a full transverse oval: the middle of the centrum is strongly con- tracted, slightly concave in the longitudinal direction at the upper part of the side of the centrum, but deeply concave below, and with a slight indica- tion of a broad, obtuse longitudinal ridge along the middle of the concave under surface. In the Jguanodon the sides of the vertebral body are nearly flat in the vertical direction; in the Cetiosawrus they are strongly convex. The surface at the middle of the vertebra is longitudinally striated with very fine, subparallel, short impressions: these grow deeper and more irregular at the thick, rugged and everted margins of the articular ends. The neurapophyses are firmly anchylosed here, as in the caudal region, and the line of the primitive suture is hardly discernible: their base is shorter than the short centrum, and is attached nearer its anterior part: in the Jgua- nodon the neural arch is very nearly coextensive in antero-posterior diameter with the centrum supporting it: in a dorsal vertebra, of an Iguanodon 44 inches in breadth, the antero-posterior extent of the base of the neural arch is 4 inches: in the present vertebra, which exceeds 7 inches in breadth, the antero-posterior extent of the base of the neural arch is 23 inches, and only 2 inches a little above the base. The outer side of the neurapophysis is con- vex in the axis of the vertebra, and concave in the opposite direction as it ascends to the base of the transverse process, without exhibiting a trace of the ridges and hollows that so singularly characterize the same part in the dorsal vertebre of the Séreptospondylus Cuviert. The antero-posterior diameter of the base of the transverse process is 2 inches; its vertical diameter 1 inch. The diameter of the spinal canal is 1 inch 9 lines. The articular surfaces of the anterior oblique processes are flat, and look upwards and slightly inwards. In the Jguanodon their under margins, in the dorsal vertebrae, converge at nearly a right angle: in the present vertebra they incline to each other at an angle of 40°. The spinous process begins to rise immediately behind the anterior oblique processes by a narrow vertical plate, which seems as if it * Since the vertebra of the Streptospondylus lose their peculiar convexo-concave charac- ter by the gradual subsidence of the anterior ball, as they approach the tail, the cervical vertebra of the Cetiosauwrus may approach, more nearly than do the dorsal ones, to the con- yexo-concave structure of the Streptospondylian vertebre. The fact that, hitherto, only cervical vertebrae of the great Streptospondylus, and only dorsal and caudal vertebre of the Cetiosaurus, have been discovered in the Wealden formations, has induced me well to con- sider the grounds for assigning them to Saurians of distinct genera. But the general con- stancy of the vertehra of the same Saurian in their antero-posterior diameter, forbids the supposition of a vertebra of six inches in length in the neck being associated with one of three inches in length in the back. Additional evidence of a very decisive character must at least be obtained before the great Cetiosaur can be admitted to have resembled the Ptero- dactyle in such disproportionate length of the cervical vertebree. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES, 97 were nipped in between two shallow depressions ; its base ascends obliquely, and grows thicker to the posterior part of the neural arch. The summit is not entire. The height of this dorsal vertebra to the posterior origin of the spinous process is 94 inches: from the base of the neurapophysis to the upper part of the transverse process, measures 3 inches. No. “” in the Mantellian Collection, (“ Vertebra of Zguanodon, 8 inches in diameter,” MS. Catalogue), may have actually presented that dimension when entire, for even now, not allowing for the margin of the posterior arti- cular surface which has been broken away, it measures 7 inches across that surface. This remarkable specimen, which may probably have afforded the type of the ‘third or plano-concave’ vertebral system, in the summary of the vertebral characters of the Wealden reptiles given by Dr. Mantell in his ‘Geology of the South-east of England*,’ and which accords best with the characters assigned by M. H. von Meyer to the vertebrz of the Iguanodon+, presents, in fact, in a striking degree, those of the vertebre of the Cetiosaurus, and belongs to a more posterior part of the dorsal region, perhaps to the loins, of the same individual, certainly to one of the same species, as the vertebra (No. 2133) last described. The anterior articular extremity makes the same approach to a plane sur-. face, being slightly concave below and very slightly convex above: the depth of the posterior concave surface at the centre is 9 lines. The general con- tour of the centrum has begun to change from the circular to the subqua- drate, which latter figure is more decidedly expressed in the anterior caudal vertebrae of the Cetiosaurus brevis. The upper half of the sides of the centrum are more concave in the axis of the vertebra than in No.2133. The free surface presents the same de- gree of smoothness, and is pierced here and there by moderate-sized vascu- lar foramina. The spinal canal makes a slight depression in the upper part of the centrum: in the Jguanodon it is encompassed by the bases of the neu- rapophyses. ‘The transverse diameter of the spinal canal is 1 inch, which small dimension satisfactorily distinguishes the present enormous vertebra from those of the mammiferous class, viz. the Cetacea, to which in other re- spects it has the greatest similitude. The antero-posterior diameter of the base of the neurapophysis is 2 inches. The four anterior caudal vertebre in the Mantellian Collection, which are here assigned to the Cetiosaurus brevis, slightly increase in antero-posterior diameter, as is the case in the Cetiosaurus medius, as they recede from the trunk, which seems to indicate that the present gigantic marine Saurian must have had a capacious and bulky trunk, but propelled by a longer and more Crocodilian tail than in the modern whales. It is sufficiently evident, how- ever, that, even in the present short segment of the tail, with the slight in- crease of length, there is a diminution of height and breadth of the centrum, and a still more obvious subsidence of the neural arch, as the vertebrae recede from the trunk. As compared with the dorsal vertebrz, the chief change of form is the subquadrate contour produced by a lateral extension and flattening of the lower surface of the centrum, which is more essentially distinguished by four hemapophysial articular surfaces, two at the anterior and two at the posterior margins of this inferior surface. The articular surfaces at both ends of the centrum are now concave; and the anterior one, which was nearly flat in the dorsals, is here the deepest; it is one inch deep at the upper third of * 8vo, 1833, p, 296, fig. 3. t Palologica, p. 212. 1841. H 98 REPORT—1841. the surface*. The sides of the centrum at the upper half are concave both lengthwise and vertically, forming a wide depression below the transverse process ; the middle part of the side begins to stand out and divide the upper from the lower lateral concavity, which character, being more strongly deve- loped in the hinder caudal vertebrz, gives the rhomboidal or hexagonal form+. The lower half of the side of the centrum is less concave than in the dorsal vertebree. The broad inferior surface is also less concave antero-posteriorly than in the dorsal vertebra, and is nearly flat transversely: it gradually con- tracts, in the transverse direction, in the posterior caudals, so as to take on the form of a longitudinal sulcus. The two anterior hemapophysial surfaces are separated from each other by an interval of two inches; the two posterior surfaces, which are larger than the anterior ones, are similarly distinct. In the Jguanodon the hemapoplhysial surfaces are confluent on both the anterior and posterior parts of the under surface of the centrum, and the che- vron bones accordingly present modifications by which they may, when de- tached, be distinguished from those of the Cetiosaurus. The transverse processes have descended, as usual, from the summit to the base of the neural arch in the present anterior caudal vertebre. They are short, compressed vertically, diminishing, and as if slightly twisted, su that the upper margin is turned forwards, at their extremity. The vertical diameter of the base of the transverse process in the largest of the present caudal ver- tebrze is three inches; its anterior-posterior diameter one inch six lines ; its length two inches seven lines: the extremity terminates obtusely. The upper ridge-like termination of the transverse process is continued to the base of the anterior oblique processes. These processes are alone developed in the present vertebree, the posterior articular surfaces being impressed upon the sides of the posterior part of the base of the spine. The anterior oblique processes project almost horizontally forwards, diminishing, chiefly in vertical diameter, to an obtuse apex; convex externally, flattened internally by the oblong articular surface, and separated by a fissure nearly one inch wide: the length of these processes, from the bottom of the intervening fissure in the second of the four caudals, where they are most entire, is two inches. When the vertebre are placed in juxtaposition, these processes reach beyond the middle of the vertebre next in front, and pinch, as it were, the back part of the base of the spine so as to impress upon it the surfaces representing the posterior articular processes. These processes are well developed, on the contrary, in the corresponding vertebra of the Zgwanodon, and overhang the posterior surface of the body of the vertebra to which they belong. The spi- nous process, which appears to be nearly perfect in the second caudal, is short, strong, and truncated at the summit. Its height from the anterior oblique processes is four inches: the total height of the vertebra is thirteen inches. The antero-posterior diameter of the side of the neural arch is two inches. The spinal canal is wider in these caudal than in the dorsal vertebree, indica- ting the greater muscularity of the part deriving its nervous power from the corresponding part of the spinal chord : its transverse diameter is one inch ten lines; its vertical diameter is two inches. The neural arch is, as usual in the present genus, anchylosed to the anterior part of the upper surface of the cen- trum: one inch and a half of this surface is left free behind the attachment * The same modification of the articular extremities occurs in the caudal region of the ver- tebral column of the Plesiosaurus. See ‘ Report on Brit. Foss. Reptiles,’ part i. Trans. Brit. Assoc. 1839, p. 58. t It is one of these posterior caudals of the Cetiosawrus, which is figured as the type of the “ second vertebral system” in the ‘ Geology of the South-east of England,’ p. 296, fig. 2. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 99 of the arch. The finely wrinkled or fibrous character of the free surface is more strongly marked in these caudal than in the dorsal vertebrae. In the three succeeding vertebre the neural arch diminishes in height, the anterior articular processes diminish in length, and the posterior articular im- pressions in depth. The upper and lower parts of the sides of the body be- come somewhat more concave; the posterior articular surface grows flatter. A detached chevron bone, eight inches in length, consisting of two hema- pophyses, anchylosed only at their distal or inferior extremities, and with their distinct proximal ends more divaricated than are the confluent ones in the Iguanodon, corresponds with the caudal vertebre here described, and doubt- less belongs to the Cetiosaurus brevis. The following are dimensions taken from the four caudal vertebre above described :-— Ist. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. In. Lin. In. Lin. In. Lin. In. Lin. Antero-posterior diameter of centrum. 3 9 42 4 3 4 8 Transverse diameter of centrum .. 7 2 7 1 69 6 4 Vertical diameter of centrum ... 610 6 8 6 0 6 0 Of the present species of Cetiosawrus, I have examined specimens of the bodies of one dorsal and three posterior caudal vertebra in the collection of Gilpin Gorst, Esq., which were obtained from the central strata of the Weal- den, near Battle Abbey, commonly called the ‘ Hastings beds.’ The dorsal centrum closely agrees with those in the Mantellian Collection : its anterior surface is, as in them, nearly flat, or slightly convex; the poste- rior surface is concave. In. Lines. The antero-posterior diameter . . . ..... 3 2 The transverse diameter of the anterior surface. . . 5 3 The vertical diameter of the anterior surface. . . . 5 2 A fracture of this centrum through its middle shows it to consist throughout of a coarse cellular texture. The neurapophyses, with an antero-posterior ex- tent of base of two inches three lines, are continuously anchylosed with the centrum, as in Mammalia, and leave about three quarters of an inch of the posterior part of the centrum free. The lower part of the spinal canal is horizontal ; its transverse diameter one inch three lines. The posterior caudal vertebra present an antero-posterior diameter of nearly four inches, with a breadth of three and a half inches, and a depth of four inches, measuring to the lower part of the posterior heemapophysial surface. The antero-posterior length of the base of the neurapophysis is two inches two lines; and it does not begin so close to the anterior part of the cen- trum as in the dorsal vertebra. The upper and lower portions of the side of the centrum are more distinctly separated by the comparative projection of the middle part, which gives the obscurely hexagonal form to these ver- tebre. The inferior parts are most concave, and converge to form the sides of the longitudinal sulcus, to which the inferior surface of the centrum is re- duced at this part of the tail. It is plain, from these modifications of the ver- tebree, that the tail must here have presented the compressed Crocodilian type; and it is satisfactory to have these indications of the Saurian affinities of the present gigantic fossil, in consequence of the very close approximation of the larger vertebra to the Cetaceous type. The vertical extent of the osseous basis of the tail was here augmented by strong hemapophyses, which have left more prominent articular facets on the under part of the centrum than in the larger anterior caudal vertebrae: these facets, instead of being in pairs, are confluent at the anterior, and at the posterior ends of the lower sur- nQ 100 REPORT—1841. face ; the posterior confluent pair, forming a triangular prominent surface, inclining obliquely forwards, and with its apex notched by the termination of the inferior sulcus. There are several posterior caudal vertebra of the Cetiosaurus brevis in the Mantellian Collection,which closely correspond with those just described from the Hastings beds; four of these vertebree give the following dimensions :— Nos. 2112. 2142. 2153. In. Lin. In. Lin. In. Lin. In. Lin. Antero-posterior diameter of centrum - . 4 3 310 3 7 3 0 Transverse diameter of its articularend . 310 3 0 2 8 1 4 Vertical diameter of its articularend . . 4 0 3 3 $8 0 1 5 Vertical diameter at middle of the centrum 4 6 311 310 1 2 The vertebre figured in the ‘ Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex,’ pl. ix. fig. 8, and pl. x. fig. 1, are posterior caudal vertebrze of the Cetiosaurus brevis. Cetiosaurus brachyurus.—A dorsal and a caudal vertebra from the Weal- den formation at Tetham, which agree in essential characters with the Cetio- saurus, and differ from those of Streptospondylus, Megalosaurus, Iguanodon, Hyleosaurus, Poikilopleuron, and the Crocodilian vertebra of the Wealden, offer at the same time proportions which forbid their reference to the Cetio- sauri brevis, medius and longus, and indicate a species distinguished by a shorter tail. The dorsal vertebra (No. — Mantellian Collection) presents a subcireular centrum, with the neurapophyses anchylosed, but broken off ; they are shorter than the centrum, and leave eight lines of its hind part uncovered. The anterior articular surface of the body is slightly convex at the upper, and con- cave at the under half: the posterior surface is uniformly concave : the body is constricted at the middle, but in a less degree than in the Cetiosaurus brevis, so that it is less deeply concave lengthwise: it is as convex transversely : a slightly-raised obtuse ridge separates two shallow sulci at the under surface of the vertebra. The caudal vertebra (No. aa? Mantellian Collection) presents a shallow and rather oblique sulcus along the lower surface. The hemapophysial ar- ticulations are most marked at the posterior part of this surface. The sides of the centrum are less concave longitudinally than in the dorsal vertebra ; there is a vascular perforation on each: the articular ends of the body agree with those of the dorsal vertebre. The following are dimensions of the pre- ceding vertebrze :— Dorsal. Caudal. In. Lin. In. Lin. Antero-posterior diameter of body . . . 3 0 2 3 Vertical diameter of articular end . . . 4 8 3 10 Transverse diameter of articular end . . 4 6 3 74 These vertebre closely corresponded in texture and character of the ex- ternal surface*. Cetiosaurus medius.—The remains of this Reptile have hitherto been dis- covered only in the oolitic strata below the Wealden. They appear to have been first noticed in a letter from John Kingdon, Esq., read at the meeting of the Geological Society held June $rd, 1825, in which “he mentions the situation in which certain bones of a very large size, appearing to have be- longed to a whale and a crocodile, were lately found completely imbedded in the oolite quarries (lower oolite), about a mile from Chipping Norton, near Chapel House.” It is principally on these bones, with others subse- * They are probably the bones alluded to in the Note at p. 221 of Dr. Mantell’s ‘ Geology of the South-east of England.’ ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 101 quently discovered and in the collection of Mr. Kingdon, that the characters of the Cetiosaurus were first determined*. ‘They include a portion of the tail consisting of ten vertebrz ; the anterior and larger ones were five inches and a half in length, seven inches across the articular surface at each end of the body, and not less than two feet in vertical diameter, including the neural (superior) and hemal (inferior) spines. Both articular extremities are con- cave, the anterior one being rather the deepest; but the difference is less than in the Cetiosaurus brevis. ‘The articular cavities become shallower in the posterior caudal vertebra ; these gradually diminish in transverse and vertical diameter, but retain the same length, even when they are reduced to two inches and one inch and a half in breadth. The body of the vertebra has no central cavity, in which respect the present, like the preceding species of Cetiosaurus, may be distinguished from the Potkelopleuron, where such cavity exists. The neurapophysis does not equal in antero-posterior extent the centrum or body of the vertebra, the disparity increasing in the posterior caudal vertebrz : the arch is placed towards the anterior end of the vertebra. The hemapophysial arch has a less contracted base than in the Jguanodon, and the proximal extremities of the hemapophyses are free, as in the Cetzo- saurus brevis. One of the ungual phalanges, which is conical, subecompressed, and slightly curved, is traversed on each side by the usual vascular groove, curved with the convexity upwards, measuring five inches in length, and three and a half across its articular base. The bone alluded to in Buckland’s ‘ Bridgewater Treatise,’ vol. i. p. 115, and figured in Mr. Lyell’s ‘ Elements of Geology’ (1838), p. 384, is a metatarsal of the Cetiosawrus. This fossil was found in the great oolite of. Enstone, near Woodstock. A few large caudal vertebrae, and other bones of the Cetiosaurus, have been discovered in the oolite of the neighbourhood of the town of Buckingham, and form part of Dr. Buckland’s museum. Some vertebra, an entosternal bone, a coracoid, scapula, and fragments of long bones, belonging apparently to the same skeleton, were disinterred from the middle oolite during the railway cuttings near Blisworth, and are pre- served in the collection of Miss Baker at Northampton. ‘The anterior trans- verse branch of the entosternum measures upwards of four feet across. The posterior caudal vertebre, which, like those from Chipping Norton, measure five inches and a half in length, have a more hexagonal form, resembling, in this respect, the terminal caudal vertebra of the Cetiosawrus brevis of the fo they are, however, like the Chipping Norton specimens, of greater ength. In the museum of Professor Sedgwick, there is a caudal vertebra of the Cetiosaurus from the neighbourhood of Stratford-on-Avon. The size of the fossils hitherto obtained of the Cetiosawrus medius, especially the vertebra, if calculated according to the numbers and proportions of those of the Cro- codiles, gives a length of forty feet to this species. Cetiosaurus longus.—In Professor Buckland’s museum are preserved some fossil remains, principally vertebra, of another enormous Saurian, which the form and texture of the vertebra prove to belong to the genus Cetto- saurus, but which differ in the proportions of the vertebra. One of these —a caudal vertebra—from the Portland stone at Garsington, near Oxford, measures in antero-posterior diameter of the centrum seven inches ; in trans- verse diameter, seven inches nine lines; in vertical diameter of the centrum, six inches. Both articular extremities of the vertebra are slightly concave ; the body is slightly compressed laterally ; its middle part gives a subquadrate * See Proceedings of the Geological Society, June 1841. 102 : REPORT—1841. vertical section, with the angles slightly rounded ; the expanded articular ends are subcircular. A fractured dorsal or lumbar vertebra, from the same locality, with transverse processes extending obliquely backwards from the upper part of the sides of the body, measures one foot across the nearly flat articular sur- face. The body of a caudal vertebra of the same species, from the Portland stone at Thame, measures seven inches four lines in antero-posterior diameter ; six inches six lines in transverse diameter ; and seven inches eight lines in ver- tical diameter. The under surface is concave lengthwise, and nearly flat from side to side; it is perforated by many large vascular canals. A third caudal vertebra is somewhat shorter in antero-posterior diameter, but exceeds the pre- ceding in vertical diameter, which is eight inches. In all these vertebre the neurapophyses are anchylosed to the centrum, and have a smaller antero-pos- terior extent at their base than the centrum, as in the preceding species of Cetiosaurus. In all the species the heemapophyses are articulated to the in- terspaces of two vertebra. To the Cetiosaurus longus is referable a vertebra, eight inches in length of body, and nine inches in transverse diameter, from the Yorkshire oolite at White Nab, which, together with some metatarsal bones, are deposited in the museum at Scarborough. No teeth, or fragments of jaws or cranium, have hitherto been discovered, which can, with certainty, be re- ferred to any of the preceding species. The names which I propose to give to these species refer to the relative length of their vertebrae, and from what we know of the constancy and re- gularity of this dimension in the back bone of individuals of the same species of Saurian, these specific names would, if we had the entire animals, be found to be as appropriate in reference to the relative length of their whole bodies. At present the Cetiosaurus brevis is known to me only by specimens from the Wealden strata; the Cetiosaurus medius by fossils from the lower oolite, and the Cetiosaurus longus by a few vertebrae from both the upper and the lower oolite; but how far these species should actually characterize these divisions of the great oolitic system, will depend on the results of ulterior researches and a longer experience. It is certain, however, that we have in these remains ample proof of the existence, at that period of the earth’s his- tory which has been aptly termed the ‘Age of Reptiles,’ of another gigantic genus in addition to the Pliosaurus, Pothilopleuron, Streptospondylus, Igua- nodon, Megalosaurus and Hyleosaurus. The enormous Ceéiosauri, some of which must have rivalled the modern whales in bulk, may be presumed to have been of strictly aquatic and most probably of marine habits, on the evidence of the sub-biconeave structure of the vertebra, and of the coarse cancellous tissue of the long bones, which show no trace of medullary cavity. In the great expanse of the coracoid and pubic bones, as compared with the Teleosaurs ‘and Crocodiles, the gigantic Saurians in question manifested their closer affinity to the Hnaliosauria: their essential adherence to the Crocodilian type is marked by the form of the long bones of the extremities, especially the metatarsals ; and, above all, by the toes being terminated by strong claws. The main organ of swimming is shown, by the strength and texture, and vertical compression of the poste- rior caudal vertebrz, to have been a broad vertical tail : and the webbed feet, probably, were used only partially in regulating the course of the swimmer, as in the puny Amblyrhynchus of the Gallipagos Islands, the sole known ex- ample of a Saurian of marine habits at the present period. DINOSAURIANS. This group, which includes at least three well-established genera of Sau- rians, is characterized by a large sacrum composed of five anchylosed ver- ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 103 tebrze of unusual construction, by the height and breadth and outward sculp- turing of the neural arch of the dorsal vertebrie, by the twofold articulation of the ribs to the vertebra, viz. at the anterior part of the spine by a head and tubercle, and along the rest of the trunk by a tubercle attached to the transverse process only ; by broad and sometimes complicated coracoids and long and slender clavicles, whereby Crocodilian characters of the vertebral column are combined with a Lacertian type of the pectoral arch; the dental organs also exhibit the same transitional or annectent characters in a greater or less degree. The bones of the extremities are of large proportional size, for Saurians; they are provided with large medullary cavities, and with well developed and unusual processes, and are terminated by metacarpal, metatarsal and phalangeal bones, which, with the exception of the ungual phalanges, more or less resemble those of the heavy pachydermal Mammals, and attest, with the hollow long-bones, the terrestrial habits of the species. The combination of such characters, some, as the sacral ones, altogether peculiar among Reptiles, others borrowed, as it were, from groups now distinct from each other, and all manifested by creatures far surpassing in size the largest of existing reptiles, will, it is presumed, be deemed sufficient ground for establishing a distinct tribe or sub-order of Saurian Reptiles, for which I would propose the name of Dinosauria*. Of this tribe the principal and best established genera are the Megalosau- rus, the Hyleosaurus, and the Iguanodon; the gigantic Crocodile-lizards of the dry land, the peculiarities of the osteological structure of which distin- guish them as clearly from the modern terrestrial and amphibious Sauria, as the opposite modifications for an aquatic life characterize the extinct Hna- Uiosauria, or Marine Lizards. MEGALOSAURUS. Of the gigantic Lacertians in question, the most remarkable are the Mega- losaurus, Iquanodon, and Hyleosaurus, the worthy fruits of the laborious re- searches of Prof. Buckland and Dr. Mantell. With respect to the Megalo- saurus, the great carnivorous terrestrial Lizard of the Wealden and Oolitic period, the lucid descriptions of its discoverer in his original Memoir and the ‘Bridgewater Treatise, and the judicious remarks of Cuvier on its natural affinities, leave little to be added, save the observations on the sacrum, to the present brief record of the strata and localities in which the remains of the Megalosaurus have been found. : ‘The most complete collection of the bones of this genus has been derived from the oolite of Stonesfield, where the original specimens were first dis- covered. Dr. Buckland now possesses in his valuable collection portions of a lower jaw, the principal fragment containing a tooth fully developed, and the germs of several others; detached dorsal, caudal, and a series of five sacral vertebree, ribs, two coracoid bones, a clavicle, humerus, radius, an ilium, an ischium, a femur, fibula, metacarpal and metatarsal bones. These parts have not been discovered so associated together as to prove them to belong to the same animal; but the peculiar characters of some of the bones, which distinguish them from the other oviparous reptiles of the same strata, and the agreement in texture and proportionate size of the others, render their reference to the Megalosaurus highly probable. * Gr. dewés, fearfully great; cavpos, a lizard. In the tabular arrangement of extinct Saurians founded by M. Herm. v. Meyer on the development of their organs of motion, the Megalosaurus and Iguanodon are grouped together in Section B, with the following cha- racter :—Saurians with locomotive extremities like those of the bulky terrestrial Mammals : (Saurier mit Gliedmassen ihnlich denen der schweren Landsaiigethiere).’’—Palxologica, p-201. No other grounds are assigned for their separation from other Saurians. 104 REPORT—1841. The essential characters of the most authentic of these remains prove the Megalosaurus to have been closely related to the Lacertian division of the Saurian order; but the teeth, the vertebrz. and some of the bones of the ex- tremities, indicate its affinities to the Crocodilian group, and all these parts manifest more or less strongly the peculiar characters of its own remarkable family. In the instructive and characteristic portion of the lower jaw, the sockets, like the teeth, are compressed, and are separated by complete parti- tions ; but they are so much wider than the teeth, as to suggest the existence of a greater proportion of ligamentous gum at the upper part of the alveolar tract in the recent animal than in the Crocodiles. “The outer rim of the jaw rises almost an inch above the inner rim, and forms a continuous lateral parapet, supporting the teeth externally; whilst the inner rim throws up a series of triangular plates of bone, forming a zigzag buttress along the in- terior of the alveoli. From the centre of each triangular plate, a bony septum crosses to the outer parapet, thus completing the alveolus*.” There isa slight groove and ridge along the inner side of the sockets, and it is at this groove, at the interspace of each triangular plate, that the apices of the new teeth protrude. The teeth have compressed, conical, pointed crowns, with trenchant and serrate anterior and posterior edges. ‘They appear straight when they first protrude, but are bent in the progress of growth ; in the course of development the crown of the tooth is solidified, and the anterior margin at the base of the crown becomes smooth and convex. The smooth enamelled surface of the tooth presents fine polished wrinkles. In all existing Lizards the teeth are anchylosed, either to the side of an outer alveolar parapet, according to the pleurodont type, or to its summit, ac- cording to the acrodont type. The double parapet, inclosing and concealing the germs and the bases of the full-grown teeth, is a remarkable approach in the present gigantic Dinosaur to the Crocodilian structure, the similarity in this respect no doubt resulting from a similar necessity in the carnivorous Megalosaur for a firm lodgment of the destructive maxillary weapons. The higher development of the outer alveolar parapet bespeaks the affinity of the Megalosaurus to the Lizards: in the form of the teeth it approaches nearest to the Varanian family, which at the present day includes the largest, and most carnivorous species of Lizard. Vertebre.— The Megalosaur deviates more decidedly from the existing Mo- nitors and Lizards in its vertebral characters. These are afforded, at present, by the sacral, a few costal and caudal vertebra. The articulating surfaces of the body of the vertebra are nearly flat or slightly concave, as in the ccelospon- dylian + Crocodiles. The non-articular surface is remarkably smooth and po- lished. The body is much contracted in the middle: the margins of the ex- panded articular extremities are thick and rounded off. The middle contracted part of the body is nearly cylindrical, being nipped in, as it were, by a more or less deep longitudinal fossa on each side, just below the base of the neural arch, but again slightly expands to support that part. The length of the base of the neurapophysis is nearly equal to that of the centrum : the suture is per- sistent, as in Crocodiles; its course is undulating, and it rises in the middle. The neurapophysis ascends and inclines outwards, to form, at a height above the centrum equal to three-fourths its vertical diameter, the margin of a broad platform of bone, from the sides of which the transverse processes are deve- loped, and from the middle part the spinous process. A strong ridge or but- tress of bone extends from the posterior angle of the base of the neurapophy- * Transactions of the Geological Society, 2nd Series, vol. i. p. 395. T I find this collective term convenient in application to those Crocodilians which have the vertebre concave at both ends, ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 105 sis obliquely forwards to the under part of the transverse process; behind which ridge there is a deep depression, separating it from the posterior arti- cular process. These processes are relatively smaller than in the Jgwanodon, and do not project beyond the hinder end of the centrum. The spinal plat- form descends in a gentle curve from the posterior to the anterior oblique processes : the base of the strong and thick spinous process follows this curve along the middle line of the platform; its antero-posterior extent was 4% inches, in a vertebra having the centrum of the same length, with a vertical diameter of 4 inches, and measuring 7} inches from the under part of the centrum to the posterior part of the base of the spine. Sacrum.—The sacrum of the Megalosaurus consists of five anchylosed vertebra, and it is remarkable enough, considering how small a proportion of the recognizable bones of this rare reptile has been found, that the present characteristic part of the vertebral column of three different individuals should have been obtained: one sacrum, from Stonesfield, is in the museum of Dr. Buckland at Oxford ; a second sacrum, from Dry Sandford, in the museum of the Geological Society ; and a third sacrum, from the Wealden formation, in the British Museum. i I have studied each of these specimens with much attention, which a recog- nition of their remarkable structure has well repaid. It would seem that Cuvier did not regard the five anchylosed vertebra figured in Dr. Buckland’s original memoir, as the sacrum of the Megalosaurus. They are briefly alluded to in the second and fourth editions of the ‘ Osse- mens Fossiles,’ and in the description of the Plate, in which Dr. Buckland’s figure is reproduced as a ‘ Suite de cing vertébres de Mégalosaurus.’ In truth the sacrum was not known to be represented, at that time, in any Saurian by more than two vertebre, and therefore Dr. Buckland mentions this part in his original memoir as “ five anchylosed joints of the vertebral column, in- cluding the two sacral and two others, which are probably referable to the lumbar and caudal vertebre*.” In contemplating this series of five anchy- losed vertebrz, so new in Saurian anatomy, my attention was first arrested by the singular position of the foramina for the transmission of the nerves from the inclosed spinal marrow. These holes, which, in the plate illustrating Dr. Buckland’s important memoir +} are represented above the bodies of the three middle vertebre, are natural, and accurately given: the smooth external sur- face of the side of the vertebra may be traced continuing uninterruptedly through these foramina, over the middle or nearly the middle of the centrum, into the surface of the spinal canal. But the normal position of these foramina throughout the vertebral co- lumn in all other reptiles is at the interspace of two vertebre, whence by French anatomists these holes are termed ‘trous du conjugaison.’ In the sacrum of the Oxford Megalosaur, however, it is evident that above the an- chylosed intervertebral space a thick and strong imperforate mass of bone ascends to the base of the spinous process, leaving it to be conjectured either that the nerve had perforated the middle of the neurapophysis, or that these vertebral elements had undergone in this region of the spine a change in their usual relative position to the centrum. Previous researches into the compo- sition and modifications of the vertebra in the different classes of Vertebrata soon enabled me torecognize the peculiar condition and analogies of the five an- chylosed vertebre of the Megalosaurus ; with a view to illustrate which I shall premise a few observations on the different relative positions which the peri- pheral vertebral elements may take in regard to the central part or body. The lateral vertebral elements, or ribs, the inferior lamin or hemapophyses, * Geol. Trans., 2nd Series, vol. i. p. 395, pl. xlii. fig. 1. t Ibid. 106 REPORT—1841. the superior laminz or neurapophyses, are all subject to such changes ; but the neurapophyses are much more constant in their place of attachment than the others. In Mammalia the ribs for the most part are joined to the inter- space of two centrums; in Reptiles each pair is attached to a single centrum. In Fishes, and the Mosasaur among Reptiles, the hemapophyses depend, each pair from its proper centrum; in other Reptiles and Mammalia they are arti- culated to the interspace of two vertebre, leaving a half-impression on each of the contiguous centrums. The neurapophyses present a degree of con- stancy in their relation to the body of the vertebra corresponding with the importance of their function. In Mammalia I know of no exception to the rule, that each neural arch is supported by a single centrum: in Birds no ex- ception has hitherto been recorded ; but among Reptiles the Cheloniz* offer in those vertebre, in which the expanded spinous processes contribute to form the carapace, the interesting modification analogous to those noticed in the lateral and inferior vertebral elements, viz. a shifting of the superior lamine from the middle of’ the body to the interspace of two adjoining centrums; whereby that part of the spine subject to greatest pressure is more securely locked together, and a slight yielding or elastic property is superadded to the support of the neural arch. The same modification is introduced into the long sacrum of birds; each neural arch is there supported by two contiguous vertebre, the interspace of which is opposite the middle of the base of the arch above, and the ner- vous foramen is opposite the middle of each centrum. It is this structure, beautifully exemplified in the sacrum of the young Ostrich, which Creative Wisdom adopted to give due strength to the corresponding region of the spine of a gigantic Saurian species, whose mission in this planet had ended probably before that of the Ostrich had begun. The anchylosed bodies of the sacral vertebrz of the Megalosaur retain the distinguishing characters which have been recognized in the dorsal and caudal vertebra, in regard to the smooth and polished surface of their middle constricted part ; the cylindrical, or nearly cylindrical transverse contour of this part below the lateral depression ; their expanded, thickened and rounded articular margins, and also, though in a somewhat less degree, their relative length as compared with their breadth and height. The three middle sacrals are, however, somewhat shorter than the two terminal ones. In. Lin. Antero-posterior diameter of centrum of fifth sacral . . . 4 10 Vertical diameter of centrum of fifth sacral . . . . . . 4 1 Transverse diameter of centrum of fifth sacral . . . . . 4 6 Vertical diameter of the middle of the body . . . . .. 2 6 Total height of fourth sacral vertebra. . . . . . . IL The neural arches of the first three sacral vertebre rest directly over the iterspaces of the subjacent bodies ; that of the fourth derives a greater pro- portion of its support from its proper centrum ; and that of the fifth, which rests by its anterior extremity on a small proportion of the fourth centrum, is extended over nearly the whole length of its own centrum, so that in the caudal vertebre the ordinary relations of the neural arch and centrum are again resumed, In the four first sacral vertebra the base of the neural arch ex-' tends half way down the interspace of the bodies, and immediately developes from its outer part a strong and short transverse process (broken and rounded off in the fossil). From the base of this process the neurapophysis expands * Cuvier describes the exceptional! structure above alluded to in these Reptiles, and like- wise cites the Chondropterygians ; ‘ Lecons d’Anat. Comparée,’ ed, 1836, tom. i, p, 213. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 107 upward, forward and backward, is joined by vertical suture fo similar ex- pansions of the contiguous neurapophysis, and terminates above in a ridge of bone, at right angles to the suture; this ridge, with those of the other neurapophyses, extends longitudinally above the transverse processes the whole length of the sacrum, and forms the margin of the platform from which the spinous and accessory processes are developed. The platform is further supported by a compressed ridge of bone extended from the upper part of the transverse process, like a buttress, to the middle of the horizontal ridge. On each side of the buttress there is a depression, which is deepest in front. The spinous process is not developed, as in the dorsal vertebra, immediately from the platform, but a shorter, vertical plate of bone, of nearly the same longitudinal extent as the true spine, is developed on each side of, and parallel with its base ; the height of these accessory spines in the third sacral vertebra is three and a half inches. The true spinous process begins to expand longi- tudinally, and when near tae summit of the accessory spines, is joined by ver- tical suture with the similarly expanded neighbouring spines, so that the sa- erum is crowned by a strong continuous vertical longitudinal ridge of bone, at least along the four first vertebra ; the broad spine of the fifth being rounded off anteriorly, and separated by a narrow interspace from that of the fourth. Besides this modification of the spine, and the more normal position of the neural arch of the fifth anchylosed vertebra, the origin of the transverse pro- cess has been suddenly raised to the level of the spinal platform, and it is sup- ported by two converging ridges of bone from the side of the neural arch be- low. The origin of the transverse processes of the first sacral is also placed higher than the three middle ones, in which the several peculiarities of struc- ture above described are most strongly marked. The specimens of sacrum of the Megalosaurus in the British Museum, and that of the Geological Society, present the same structure as that above described in the original specimen at Oxford. Part of the fifth sacral ver- tebra is wanting in the specimen from Dry Sandford. The rest are cha- racterised by the same smooth and polished surface, rich brown colour, con- traction of the middle of the body, its cylindrical form transversely, and the longitudinal fossa below the annular part. The length of this series is one foot six and a half inches; the second and third sacral vertebre are rather shorter than the rest. The first sacral vertebra, which was not anchylosed to the last lumbar, gives the following dimensions :—— In. Lin. Antero-posterior diameter of centrum ..... 5 O Vertical diameter of anterior articularend . . .. 4 O Transverse diameter of anterior articularend . . . 4 6 The neural arch seems not to have been co-extensive in length with the cen- trum, but rests on its anterior three-fourths. A strong and short transverse process extends obliquely upwards and backwards from each side of the arch ; the antero-posterior diameter of the base of this process is two inches, its ver- tical diameter one and a half inch. In the second sacral vertebra the neural arch has moved forward upon the interspace between the first and second sacral bodies, and developes from a lower part of its base a stronger, thicker and longer transverse process, directed outwards and forwards. The third neural arch has its base transferred directly over the interspace of the second and third centrums; the diameters of the base of its transverse processes are three inches and two and a half inches: they incline slightly backwards. The fourth neural arch descends lower down upon the interspace between the third and fourth centrums. The fifth neural arch, as in the Oxford specimen, ex- tends a little way across the interspace between the fourth and fifth centrums, 108 REPORT—1841. but nearly resumes its ordinary place. The second and third sacral vertebrae are not so regularly convex below in the transverse direction, but their sides converge so as to give a slight indication of a broad obtuse ridge. The dia- meter of the spinal canal in the first and last sacral vertebra is one inch. The five vertebrae are not anchylosed in a straight line, but describe a gentle curve, with the concavity downwards; the series of transverse pro- cesses or sacral ribs, forms a curved line in the opposite direction, in conse- quence of their different positions. The summits of the anchylosed spines being truncated, describe a curve almost parallel with that of the under part of the vertebrae. The contour of the hinder part of the body of the present gigantic carnivorous lizard, doubtless raised high above the ground upon the long and strong hind-legs, must have been different from that of any existing Saurians. In these the relatively shorter hind-legs, being directed more or less obliquely outwards, do not raise the under surface of the abdomen from the ground ; it is the greater share in the support of the trunk assigned to the hind-legs in the Megalosaur which made it requisite that, as in land mammals, a greater proportion of the spine should be anchylosed to transfer the superincumbent weight through the medium of the iliac bones upon the femora. The femur, like the teeth and vertebre, exhibits a mixture of the charac- ters of the Monitor and the Crocodile. It is arched in two directions, being at first concave in front, and then behind. Its articular head is directed for- wards, and has behind it a compressed and rather salient trochanter ; it thickens towards the distal end, and there terminates in two unequal con- dyles. Near its upper third it has an expansion on both the inner and the outer side, like the one which is seen on the internal side of the femur in the Crocodile. The femur of the Monitor is less arched. The medullary canal is wide, which removes the Megalosaur from the Crocodiles, and indicates, as Dr. Buckland has well shown, its aptitude for a more terrestrial life. The ribs, which from their colour, texture, and proximity of deposit, belong most probably to the Megalosaurus, present a double articulation with the ver- tebral column ; the head is supported on a long and strong compressed neck, thickest at its under part ; the tuberosity is large. One of the small cervical false ribs is preserved, the free extremity of which gradually tapers to a point. The scapula is a thin, slightly-bent plate, of equal breadth, except where it is expanded and thickened towards the humeral end, but thinning off again towards the articular margin. The chief support of the humerus seems to have been afforded by a large and broad coracoid. The antero-posterior diameter of one of these bones, taken across the median, thin, slightly con- vex margin, is two feet three inches. The thickened process for the articu- lation with the scapula has a deep and narrow notch in front, and the deep and wide glenoid cavity for the humerus behind it; the posterior boundary of this cavity projects outwards in the form of an obtuse process. A short but strong process projects from the anterior part of the coracoid analogous to that which in the Varanian Monitors and most other Lizards abuts against the epicoracoids, and which bespeaks the existence of the epicoracoids in the Megalosaurus. 'The characteristic coracoid bone illustrates most unequivo- cally the affinities of the Megalosaurus to the Lacertian group of reptiles ; but compared with the coracoid of a Varanian Monitor, four feet nine inches in length, it is sixteen times as large. This magnitude in a reptile, Cuvier justly observes, is quite appalling ; for, other proportions being the same, the Megalosaurus must have exceeded seventy feet in length. A long and slender bone, nearly two feet in length, most resembles the * clavicle of certain lizards, especially, as Cuvier remarks, those of the great ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 109 Scincus. Itis slightly arcuated longitudinally, subtrihedral in the middle, flat- tened and expanded at the two extremities. If it be really a clavicle, it forms as characteristic an indication of the Lacertian affinities of the Megalosaurus as the coracoid. According to the proportions of the clavicle in existing lizards, Cuvier observes that it bespeaks an animal nearly sixty feet in length. A subcompressed, three-sided bone, flattened and slightly expanded at one end, thickened and more suddenly extended transversely at the opposite end, which formed part of a large cotyloid cavity, is most likely an ischium ; its length is 18 inches; its breadth, at the middle of the shaft, 5 inches; at its articular end 9 inches, the thickness of this end being 4 inches. The ascend- ing shaft of this bone is slightly twisted, convex and smooth on the outer side, flat and rough on the inner side. Other bones, not improbably belonging to the Megalosaurus, are preserved in the British and Oxford Museums, and in the private collections of Messrs. Holmes and Saull; but further evidence of their Megalosaurian character must be obtained before a description of them can be profitably applied to the reconstruction of the skeleton of the present carnivorous Dinosaur. A few words, however, may be added, touching the size of the Megalosau- rus; for it appears to me that the calculations which assign to it a length of 60 and 70 feet are affected by the fallacy of concluding that the locomotive extremities bore the same proportion to, and share in the support of, the body, as they do in the small modern land lizards. The most probable approximation to a true notion of the actual length of the Megalosaurus, is that which may be obtained by taking the length of the vertebre as the basis. The antero-posterior dimension is the most constant which the vertebre present throughout the spine: in most Crocodilian and Lacertian reptiles the cervical vertebre are a little shorter than the dorsal ; but these are of equal length, and the caudal vertebrae maintain the same length to very near the extremity of the tail. As the dorsal vertebrae of the Megalosaurus agree, in the important cha- racter of the mode of articulation of the ribs, with the Crocodiles, it may be regarded as most probable that they also corresponded in their number. This does not exceed 14 in recent Crocodiles, nor 16 in any of the known extinct species ; taking, then, the latter number, and adding to it 7, the usual number of the cervical vertebre in Crocodiles, we may allow the Megalosaurus 23 vertebree of the truuk. ' The length of the body of a large dorsal vertebra of the Megalosaurus in the British Museum is 44 inches: from the analogy of the Jguanodon, in which several dorsal vertebra have been discovered in their natural juxta- position, it is probable that the thickness of the intervertebral substance did not exceed one-third of an inch: but if we multiply 23 by 5, not allowing for the probable shortness of the cervical vertebra, we only then attain a length of 9 feet 7 inches. If, however, setting aside the analogy of the Me- galosaurus to the Crocodiles in the structure of the vertebrae, we take that species of Lacertian which it most resembles in the structure of the teeth, and found our calculation on the number of vertebree of the trunk in such lizard, then, the great carnivorous Varanian Monitor of Java having 27 vertebrae of the trunk, we do not, even calculating the same number of vertebra to have occupied each a space of five inches in the Megalosaurus, obtain a length of trunk exceeding 11 feet 3 inches. I should consider the first calculation, or about 10 feet, to have been the most probable natural length. To this we must add 1 foot 10 inches for the known length of the sacrum. - Thus 12 feet will be a fair or even a liberal allowance of length from the * 110 REPORT—1841. occiput to the beginning of the tail. In Crocodiles the skull equals about 12 dorsal vertebre in length. In the Java Monitor the proportion of the head is less. In the Iguana the cranium does not exceed 6 dorsal vertebre in length. We may consider therefore 5 feet, taking the Crocodile as the term of comparison, as probably not below the length of the head of the Megalosaur. With regard to the tail, this includes between 36 and 38 vertebre in Croco- dilians, but varies from 30 to 115 in the small existing Lacertians, in many of which it is a prehensile organ, aiding them in climbing and other actions suitable to their size. It is very improbable that the tail should have pre- sented such unusual proportions in the great Saurian under consideration, and indeed very few caudal vertebra of the Megalosaur have been as yet discovered, and none exceeding 4 inches in length. Allowing the Megalo- saur to have had the same number of vertebre as the Crocodile, and multi- plying this number 36 by 44, a length of 12 feet 6 inches is thus obtained for the tail. A calculation on this basis thus gives, in round numbers, Weleea OU MEAs as, ee lec uetale |e von Mae tar cee eat Length of trunk, with sacrum i.) 2 CS. Se ON EL energie fin a we ef ne tee otite, hme ie Total length of the Megalosaurus . . . . .30 — Upon this mode of obtaining an idea of the bulk of the present extinct rep- tile I am disposed to place the greatest reliance, and conceive that any error in it is more likely to be on the side of exaggeration than of curtailment. From the size and form of the ribs it is evident that the trunk was broader and deeper in proportion than in modern Saurians, and it was doubtless raised from the ground upon extremities proportionally larger and especially longer, so that the general aspect of the living Megalosaur must have proportionally resembled that of the large terrestrial quadrupeds of the Mammalian class which now tread the earth, and the place of which seems to have been supplied in the oolitic ages by the great reptiles of the extinct Dinosaurian order. Besides the Stonesfield slate, the remains of the Megalosaurus have been found in the Bath oolite immediately below that slate, and in the cornbrash above it. The other formation in which the remains of the Megalosaur occur, next in importance to the Stonesfield slate, is the Wealden strata. Dr. Mantell has discovered in the ferruginous clay of the Forest of Tilgate a fine vertebra, and a portion of the femur of the Megalosaurus, 22 inches in circumference. Many teeth have been discovered altogether of the same form as those found by Dr. Buckland. Some fragments of the metacarpus and metatarsus from this locality, were thicker than those of a large hippo- potamus. Mr. Holmes, surgeon at Horsham, possesses a good caudal ver- tebra, and some other parts of the Megalosaurus from the ferruginous sand near Cuckfield in Sussex. Remains of the Megalosaurus occur in the Pur- beck limestone at Swanage Bay. In some of the private collections in the town of Malton, Yorkshire, are teeth, unquestionably belonging to the same species as the Stonesfield Megalosaurus, from the oolite in the neighbourhood of that town. - The tooth from the New Red Sandstone of Warwick figured in the Memoir by Messrs. Murchison and Strickland*, and referred to the Megalosaurus, be- longs to another genus of Lacertian, more nearly allied to the Paleosaurus of the Bristol conglomerate. * Geol. Trans., 2nd Series, vol. y. pl. xxix. fig. 7. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 111 HyLosAuRUws. A second well-marked genus of Dinosaurian Reptiles is founded upon a large portion of the skeleton of the reptile to which the name at the head of this section has been applied by its discoverer, Dr. Mantell. In assigning to this genus its present place in the Dinosaurian order, I have been guided by the structure of the vertebral column, especially the sacrum, and by the following considerations. The distinct alveoli in the jaws of the Megalosaurus, and the resemblance of its teeth to those of two ex- tinct Crocodilians, viz. the Argenton species and the Suchosaurus, seemed to claim for that great carnivorous Dinosaur the next place to the Crocodi- lian order, among which the Streptospondylus, as has been shown, seemed to make the closest approximation to the Megalosaurus, in the great height, complexity and strength of the neural arch of the vertebre. In the present genus, which there is good reason for believing to have resembled the Lizards more than the Crocodiles in its dental characters, an affinity to the Loricate Sauria is manifested not only by the structure of the vertebre and ribs com- mon to it with other Dinosaurs, but likewise by the presence of dermal bones, or scutes, with which the external surface was studded. The Hyleosaurus has not been made known like the Megalosaurus, from detached parts of the skeleton successively discovered and analogically re- composed, but was at once brought into the domain of Paleontology by the discovery of the following parts of the skeleton in almost natural juxtaposi- tion: viz. the anterior part of the trunk, including ten of the anterior ver- tebre in succession, supporting a small fragment of the base of the skull; the two coracoids, the coracoid extremities of both scapule, detached verte- bree, several ribs more or less complete, and some remarkable parts of the dermal skeleton, including, apparently, enormous vertical plates or spines, ar- ranged, as is supposed, in the form of a median dorsal ridge or crest of sin- gular dimensions. In the fragment of the cranium may be distinguished the pterygoid ele- ments of the sphenoid bone, the inner margins of which touch anteriorly and then recede as they pass backwards, leaving a heart-shaped posterior nasal aperture, the apex of which is turned forwards. The breadth of this aper- ture is 1 inch 8 lines: its posterior position gives another character, by which the present Dinosaur, and probably the larger genera of the same order, re- sembled the Crocodiles more than the Lizards. The bodies of the vertebre are shorter in proportion to their breadth than in the Megalosaurus or Iguanodon. They have not so smooth and polished a surface as in the Megalosaurus, nor are they so contracted in the middle, or so regularly rounded below from side to side; a few of the anterior ver- tebrz are somewhat flattened below, so as to present an obscurely quadrate figure ; most of the anterior dorsals are more compressed and keel-shaped below: the sacral and caudal vertebra are longitudinally sulcated at their under surface. The structure of the atlas and axis cannot be discerned in the Mantellian specimen ; the second (conspicuous) cervical vertebra has its sides subecom- pressed, its under surface flattened, and the anterior part of the slight angular ridges separating it from the concave lateral surfaces, are produced anteriorly into two feebly-marked tubercles. The inferior transverse processes are deve- loped from each side of the anterior part of the body of the vertebra; they are subcireular, very slightly prominent, about 7 lines in diameter. In the fourth (conspicuous) vertebra, a large proportion, but not the whole, of a costigerous transverse process is developed from each side of the anterior 112 REPORT—1841. part of the body, with the costal surface directed obliquely outwards and for- wards. ‘There is a small costal surface at the side of the expanded posterior extremity of the same vertebra, against which a part of the head of the fourth rib abuts; that and three of the succeeding ribs having their heads applied over the interspace of two contiguous vertebre, as nearly throughout the tho- racic region in Mammalia. The lateral compression of the centrum increases in the sixth and seventh (conspicuous) vertebra, in which the under surface forms an obtuse ridge ; in the eighth vertebra this surface is broader. In none of these vertebre is a process developed from the under surface as in the hinder cervical and anterior dorsal vertebrz of the Crocodiles. The most striking character of the vertebre of the Hyleosaurus is the great development of the neural arch and its processes. The anterior articu- lar processes extend (in the anterior dorsal and cervical vertebra) over half the centrum next in front, and a broad upper transverse process is developed from the side of the neurapophysis and along its anterior continuation: this transverse process extends horizontally outwards, is notched anteriorly, and contracts to an obtuse point against which the tubercle of the rib articulates : the transverse processes are flat transversely, slightly concave lengthwise, and smooth below: they increase in length and strength as the vertebra extend along the trunk ; and the ribs, which they contribute to support, exhibit a still more rapid increase: the ribs present, as in the other Dinosaurs and Croco- diles, a bifurcated vertebral end for the double articulation above described*. The neck and head of the rib corresponding with the seventh conspicuous ver- tebra is 2 inches 2 lines in length ; the tubercle, or upper head, is 10 lines long ; the breadth of the rib at the point of bifurcation is 1 inch 1 line. The neck of the eighth rib has the same length as that of the seventh, but is twice as thick and strong ; the tubercle is broader but shorter. Beyond the tubercle the shaft of the rib is bent at right angles with the neck. This soon begins to shorten, and the shaft of the rib to lengthen, until it becomes attached solely to the transverse process. In the dorsal vertebrz the body increases in all its proportions, excepting its length. The lateral compression now manifests itself at the upper part of the centrum just below the neurapophysial suture; the under surface of the posterior dorsal and lumbar vertebra is convex transversely, but in a less degree than in the Megalosaurus, and in some, it is obscurely carinated. The external surface at the middle contracted part of the vertebra is moderately smooth, but the minute striz give it a somewhat silky lustre ; it is longitu- dinally but irregularly ridged and grooved near the articular ends. These are both slightly concave at the centre, more slightly convex near the cireum- ference. ‘The difference between the vertebrae of the Hyleosaur and the bi- concave Crocodilian vertebre is chiefly manifested in the development of the neural arch. The modification of this part in the cervical vertebra has already been mentioned. In the dorsal vertebree each neurapophysis rises vertically, contracting in the axis of the vertebra, expanding transversely or outwardly, until it has attained a height equal to that of the centrum; there it expands into a broad and flat platform, trom the middle line of which the broad spine is developed. A vertically compressed but strong transverse pro- * Dr. Mantell, in his Memoir on the Tilgate Saurians, Philos. Transactions, Part ii. for 1841, which I received while this Report was going through the press, says that “the bilobed head and the great external expansion of the arch of the rib in all probability bears a relation to the enormous development of the dermal spines,” p. 143. But this is precisely the modifica- tion of the skeleton in which the Hyleosaurus differs most from the existing Saurians which possess such spines, as the Cyclura, and in which it most resembles the Jguwanodon and Me- galosaurus. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 113 cess is developed from the side of the neurapophysis, and is supported by a pyramidal underprop, extending upwards and outwards from the anchylosed base of the neurapophysis. There is a large, deep and smooth depression on each side of the base of the transverse process. The anterior surface of the neural arch, above the anterior oblique processes, is traversed by a vertical ridge, on each side of which there is a shallow depression*. The spinous process is of unusual thickness, its transverse breadth at the base measures 1 inch: this modification may probably relate to the support of great dermal spines. The spinal canal in the dorsal vertebre is cylindrical, and expanded at both extremities ; its diameter at the middle is 7 lines, at the expanded out- lets 10 lines, in a posterior dorsal or lumbar vertebra. Here the bases of the neurapophyses begin to shorten, and leave a small proportion of the upper surface of the.centrum uncovered at both ends, chiefly at the posterior end. The following are dimensions taken from three of the vertebree of the Hy- lzosaurus :— Second Fourth Miaal : 2 . 1 ce conspicuous conspicuous dorsal cervical, cervical. i In, Lin. In. Lin. In. Lin. Antero-posterior diameter of body . 1 10 Ate Zire Vertical diameter of its articular end O O LKk6 DG Transverse diameter of its articularend 2 O Digg 3. 0 Transverse diameter of middle of body 0 0 Ow O 2.) 0 The differences between the vertebrae of the Hyleosaurus and Megalo- saurus have been already pointed out, and are further shown in the admea- surements given above: the vertebra of the Hyleosaurus differ from those of the Zguanodon in their greater transverse diameter, and in the breadth of their under part ; those of the Zguanodon are flatter vertically along their whole sides, which converge to a narrower ridge at the under part. The vertebre of the Hyleosaurus differ from those of the Streptospondylus in the sub-biconcave character of the articular ends of the centrum, and in its comparative shortness and thickness: the separated neural arch might be distinguished from that of the Streptospondylus by the simplicity of the sup- porting buttress of the transverse process ; and, although equal in height, yet it is superior in the expansion and strength of the platform and spinous process. Sacrum.—There is a portion of a sacrum of a small or young Dinosaur (No. 4p Mantellian Collection), which, in the form and proportions of the bodies of the vertebre, most resembles the present genus, and cannot be re- ferred to Megalosaurus or Iguanodon. It includes two entire and parts of two other vertebral bodies, anchylosed together, and to the bases of the neu- rapophyses ; which, as in the Megalosaurus, are transferred to the upper and lateral parts of the interspaces of the subjacent bodies. These are moderately, but regularly, contracted in the middle and chiefly laterally, being more flat- tened below, where likewise each is traversed by a longitudinal sulcus. At the middle of each lateral concavity there is a vascular perforation. I am uncertain which is the anterior part of this interesting series; but, by the analogy of the Megalosaurus, conclude that vertebra which supports the great- est proportion of its neural arch, to be posterior to the adjoining one which supports the remaining small proportion. On this basis also I assume that the anterior sacral vertebra is deficient, if we may allow five to the Hyleosaur as to the other Dinosaurs. The second sacral vertebra, then, is here broken across the middle of the * This description is taken from Nos. 2586 and 2125, parts of the same vertebra in the Mantellian Collection. 1841. I 114 REPORT—1841. body, exposing its solid minutely cellular central structure: its neural arch is too mutilated for profitable description : its base rests nearly equally on the second and third sacral bodies. The third neural arch, which exhibits a similar relative position, has its base extended half way down the inter- space ; its strong transverse process extends outwards and forwards, and is at first contracted, then expands both transversely and vertically, most so in the latter direction, and is twisted obliquely, so that the lower end is directed downwards and forwards, and the upper and thicker end is bent obliquely backwards, until it meets and becomes anchylosed to the anterior production of the transverse process of the next vertebra behind : an elliptical’ space is thus produced, the axis of which is nearly vertical, and into this space the neural canal opens; the nerve being transmitted over the middle of the body of the vertebra, as in the sacrum of the Megalosaurus. The upper and inner part of the base of the broad, oblique transverse pro- cess, or sacral rib, abuts against the base of the spinous process. There is no appearance of accessory spines, such as the sacrum of the Megalosaurus is complicated with. The following are admeasurements of the present portion of the sacrum of the Hyleosaurus :— : In. Lin, Length of the body of the third vertebra . . . . «. «. « « 2 O Breadth of its articular end . aa a (OSH Se a Breadth of its middle part : > 4 breadth of its inferior sroove 652) se fro i- r f e) ah isi Length of the transverse process . . ote i 10 Antero-posterior diameter of the middle of process oes! Cel aa ee Vertical diameter of base of process . oy Ris buis6 Vertical diameter of expanded extremity. supa OBO From the lower part of centrum to the origin of the. spinous process 2: 6 The spines appear to be anchylosed into a continuous ridge. The anterior surface of the transverse process appears undulated by wide shallow depressions and intervening elevations. Caudal vertebre.—A proportion of the tail, to the extent of nearly six feet, and including about twenty-six vertebre, discovered in a quarry in Tilgate Forest in the year 1837, is preserved in the Mantellian Collection. The transverse processes present almost Crocodilian proportions, in regard to their length, at the anterior part of this series, and may be discerned, though dimi- nished to mere rudiments, in the small terminal vertebre of the series. In the most perfect of the anterior vertebre they are compressed vertically, but with convex, not flattened sides, and rounded edges, presenting an elliptical transverse section, and preserving the same breadth to their truncated extre- mity: they extend outwards, and are slightly bent forwards: the breadth of this vertebra between the extremities of the transverse processes is 1] inches. The neurapophysis is curved forwards from the base of the transverse process to form the anterior oblique process: its length from the extremity of this process to that of the posterior one is 33 inches. The neurapophysis presents a simple convex external surface to the base of the spine: the antero-poste- rior extent of this process is two inches. The chevron bones are from four to five inches in length near the base of the tail ; they may be distinguished, like the transverse processes, by their convex external surface; their base is open, not confluent as in the Zgwanodon, and articulated to two distinct tu- bercles. Between these tubercles, which are placed at each end of the under surface of the centrum, there is a longitudinal sulcus. The transverse pro- cesses soon lose the slight anterior curve, stand straight out, decrease in ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 115 length, and descend from the neurapophysis to the centrum as the vertebra approach the end of the tail. — The chevron bones also decrease in length, but they expand in the antero- posterior direction at their unattached and dependent extremity, which is defined by a slight convex outline. The following admeasurements give the rate of decrease in length in the caudal vertebra, taken at intervals of six joints :— In. Lines. Length of body of presumed Sthcaudal. . . . . 2 6 Length of body of presumed 14th caudal. . . . . 2 4 Length of body of presumed 20th caudal. . . . . 2 2 The sides of the slender posterior vertebre are distinguished by a slight median expansion below the base of the rudimental transverse process, so that the surface, instead of being gently concave lengthwise, undulates by virtue of the middle elevation. I have not met with this character in the corre- sponding vertebre of other Saurians. In the vertical direction the sides of the centrum in the posterior caudals converge at almost a right angle to the inferior groove. The greater breadth of the centrum, in proportion to its height, may still be discerned in the terminal caudal vertebra: thus in the centrum 2 inches 2 lines long, the breadth was | inch 10 lines, and the height only 1 inch 3 lines. Dermal scutes—Unequivocal evidence that a dermal skeleton, analogous to that in the recent Crocodiles, was developed in the Hyl@osaurus, was af- forded by the discovery of bony scutes in the mass of vegetable matter re- moved in clearing the portion of the skeleton first described. Some of these detached bony plates still adhere to the caudal vertebra, and may be observed to decrease in size as they approach the end of the tail. From their form, which is elliptical or circular, and from the absence of any surface indicating the overlapping of an adjoining scute, it may be inferred, that the bony plates in question studded in an unconnected order the skin of the Hylzo- saur. The diameter of the largest of these scutes does not exceed three inches ; the smallest present a diameter of one inch. They are flat on the under surface, convex with the summit developed into a tubercle in the smaller specimens, but which is less prominent in the larger ones: the outer surface is studded all over by very small tubercles: the inner surface presents the fine decussating straight lines, already noticed in the scutes of the Gonzopholis. By the kindness of Dr. Mantell, I have been favoured with the means of submitting the structure of a dermal scute to microscopical examination. The medullary canals, which are stained brown, as if with the hematosine of the old reptile, differ from those of ordinary bone in the paucity or absence of concentric layers. They are situated in the interspaces of straight opake decussated filaments, which frequently seem to be cut short off close to the medullary canals. Very fine lines may be observed to radiate from some of the medullary canals: irregularly shaped, oblong and angular radiated cells are scattered through most parts of the osseous tissue, but they present less uniformity of size than do the Purkinjian cells in ordinary bone. The most striking characteristics of the dermal bone are the long straight spicular fibres which traverse it, and decussate each other in all directions, representing, as it seems, the ossified ligamentous fibres of the original corium. Dermal spines ?-—On the left side of the thorax, partly overlying the left scapula and vertebral ribs, in the large slab of stone containing the anterior part of the skeleton, there are some large elongated, flattened pointed plates of bone, three of which seem to follow each other in natural succession. The length of the first of these plates is seventeen inches, the breadth of the base five inches, equal to the antero-posterior diameter of two vertebra: they de- | 4 116 REPORT— 1841. crease somewhat rapidly in length, the second being feurteen inches long and the third eleven inches long; but slightly increase in breadth. These remarkable bones are regarded by Dr. Mantell* as having formed part of a serrated fringe extended along the back of the animal, analogous tu that of the Cyclura Lizard. This ingenious suggestion carries with it so high a degree of probability, that I had not thought of comparing the bones in question with any other part of the skeleton, until my attention was arrested by observing a want of symmetry in the form of the most perfect of them. They are nearly flat, but along the middle present a slight degree of conca- vity towards the observer, which, however, may be paralleled by a similar con- cavity on the opposite side buried in the stone; but the anterior or convex margin inclines from the middle line towards the concave side. With regard to their relative position to the rest of the skeleton, it must be observed that the ventral surface of this is exposed ; so that the under parts of the bodies of the vertebre are towards the observer,.and their spines imbedded in the matrix. The coracoid and scapular arch are placed, as might be expected in a ske- leton little disturbed and lying on its back, with their under surfaces towards the observer, and covering, like a buckler, a portion of the vertebre and ribs. In this position we might look for a portion of the apparatus of the sternal or abdominal ribs, in the hope of discerning the modifications of these variable parts which might characterize a genus differing in many peculiarities from other known Saurians. Now it is with the apparatus of abdominal ribs, which present such a diversity of characters in other Saurians, that it may be use- ful to compare the long flattened bones in question, as well as with the sup- . porting bones of a dorsal crest, in the event of a future discovery of a skeleton or portion of skeleton of the Hy/@osaurus including these bones. The objec- tion to their being abdominal ribs, which may be founded on their great rela- tive breadth as compared with those ribs in other Saurians, and especially with the vertebral ribs of the Hyleosaurus itself, deserves due consideration ; but the same objection applies to the bones in question as compared with the superadded spines in the Lizard with a dorsal fringe, or with the spines of the vertebrae themselves in the Hyleosaurus. For the dorsal dermal spines in the Cyclura correspond in number with the spines of the vertebree which sup- port them, while the base of each of the hypothetical dermal spines of the Hy- lzosaur extends over more than two vertebre. In the Monotremata ( Ornithorhynchus and Echidna) the abdominal ribs are as much broader than the vertebral ribs as they would be in the Hy/co- saurus, on the costal hypothesis of the detached bony plates here suggested ; and, after the close repetition, in the Lchthyosaurus, of another of the remarka- ble deviations in those aberrant Mammals from the osteological type of their class, viz. in the structure of their sternal and scapular arch, the reappearance of the monotrematous modification of the sternal ribs in the present extinct reptile would not be surprising. The want of symmetry and the difference of size and form, above alluded to, in the four succeeding spine-shaped plates, agree better with the costal than the spinous hypothesis. Whether the bones in question be dorsal spines or abdominal ribs, they have evidently been displaced from their natural position in the partial disar- ticulation of the entire skeleton prior to its immersion in the mud that has been subsequently hardened around it; but the degree of displacement has not been greater in the one case than in the other. In offering, with due diffidence, a choice of opinions respecting the nature of these singular bones, I have been actuated solely with the view of accele- rating the acquisition of the true one, which, it is obvious, will be more likely * Geology of South-east of England, p. 323. Wonders of Geology, vol. i. p. 402. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. ABU to be attained by the choice being present to the mind of subsequent fortu- nate discoverers of these remains of the Hylaosaurus, than if they were solely preoccupied by the hypothesis of the dorsal fringe. For example, it may lead to more careful noting of the constancy or otherwise of the unsymmetrical in- clination of the convex margin of the spine, and whether they form, or are disposed in, pairs; which, on the costal hypothesis, may be expected, in the event of another skeleton being discovered. Bones OF THE EXTREMITIES. Scapular arch.—The scapula of the Hyleosaurus* is longer and narrower than in the Monitors and Iguanas, adhering in this respect to the Crocodilian type, but most resembling in the shape of its blade or body, that of the genus Scincus. It differs, however, from the scapule of all known reptiles, and indicates an approach to the Mammalian type, by the production of a strong obtuse acromial ridge, separated by a deep and wide groove from the hume- ral and coracoid articular surfaces. The blade of the scapula is long, flattened, slightly convex on the inner and proportionally concave on the outer sur- face: the anterior margin is convex, the posterior one concave ; the upper extremity or base truncate, slightly convex, with the posterior angle a little produced, the anterior angle rounded off. On the outer side of the scapula two broad convex ridges descend and converge to form the beginning of a thick and strong spine, at fourteen inches distance from the base; this then expands into the thick acromial ridge, which extends transversely, and is con- tinued forwards as a long subprismatic process from the anterior angle of the head of the scapula. This process, which appears likewise to be present in the scapula of the Zguwanodon, perhaps also in the Megalosaurus, is broken off in the present specimen about four inches from the neck of the scapula, with which it forms a right angle. The acromion is perforated at the base of its anterior prolongation by a foramen analogous to the supraspinal one in the scapula of the Edentate Mammalia. Besides the scapule preserved in the connected part of the skeleton, there is, in the Mantellian Museum, a nearly entire and detached scapula of larger size, discovered, in connexion with many other bones of the skeleton, in a layer of blue clay near Bolney in Sussex, and indicating the connected part of the skeleton first discovered in 1832 to have belonged to an immature individual. The dimensions of this scapula are as follows :— In. Lines. Length of thescapula: | os) ..j00 05 06 a el 18 0 Eee AOU AGE ats HASe. oie; iat arises ay liesiiel Gariye'S 0 Breadth of itsneck . . .. . 3 Thickness of its base EPA Slice y ee | Mbtigitessiof 165) Me CKG a, 57,5) Va sehviniiesthal cee 6 Breadth of subacromial groove ..... 2 Breadth of humeral articulation . . . 4 Breadth of coracoid articulation . . 2 6 The coracoids present a much more simple form than i in n the Megalosaurus, and resemble those of the Scink and Chameleon, thus deviating in their great breadth, like the coracoids of the Enaliosaurs, from the Crocodilian type. In the portion of the skeleton the right coracoid is slightly bent out of place and thrust under the left one ; and there is no trace of a sternal or entosternal bene in their interspace. The median margin of the coracoid describes an unin- * T have been favoured by Dr. Mantell with a drawing of the scapula figured by him in his recent Memoir on the Hyleosaurus, Phil. Trans., 1841, pl. x. fig. 10. The description above given of this, as of all the other Tilgate Saurians in the present Report, is taken from the original specimens in the British Museum, and other depositories of the Wealden fossils. 118 REPORT—1841. terrupted and full convex curve commencing at the angle dividing it from the scapular articular surface ; but it is separated by a concavity or emargination from the articular surface for the humerus. It is perforated by a moderate sized elliptical canal, about two inches from the humeral articulation, and in this respect resembles the same bone in the Iguana, Monitors and Lizards, and differs from the Scinks and Chameleons. The antero-posterior extent of the coracoid in the connected portion of skeleton is eight inches; its trans- verse diameter five inches. A humerus, and a phalangeal bone found with the scapula, near Bolney, are figured by Dr. Mantell in the Memoir of 1841. Teeth of the Hylaosaur ?—-With regard to the Hyleosaurus Dr. Mantell ob- serves, in his latest geological work, “ the teeth are unknown ; but in the quar- ries where the bones of that reptile were discovered, I have found teeth of a very peculiar form, which appear to have belonged to a reptile, and are en- tirely distinct from those of the Megalosaurus, Iguanodon, Crocodile aud Ple- siosaurus, whose remains cccur in the Tilgate strata*.” The form and struc- ture of these teeth, which will be presently described, deviate too much from those of the Crocodilian ‘family to make at all probable a reference of them to the genera Poikilopleuron, Streptospondylus, or Cetiosaur, which are much more closely allied to the Crocodilians than is the Hyleosaur. In the ‘Geology of the South-east of England,’ Dr. Mantell attributes these teeth, on the author- ity of M. Boué, to the Cylindricodon, a name by which Dr. Jager distinguishes one of the species of his genus ‘Phytosaurus.’ I have been favoured by Dr. Jager with one of the bodies supposed to be the teeth of the Cylindricodon of the Wirtemberg Keuper, but it is merely the cast of a cylindrical cavity, consist- ing entirely of that mineral substance, without a trace of dental structure. The difference of form between the Wealden teeth now under consideration, and those on which the Phytosaurus cylindricodon of Jager was founded, is pointed out in detail in my Odontography, and has been likewise appreciated by the estimable Palontologist, M. Fischer de Waldheim, by whom their re- semblance to certain Saurian teeth from the Ural Mountains, belonging to the genus Rhopalodont, is indicated. From these teeth, however, the presumed Hyleosaurian teeth differ in having thick and flat instead of serrated coronal margins. The following is Dr. Mantell’s original description of the teeth in question :— “These teeth are about an inch and a quarter in length, and commence with a subcylindricai shank, which gradually enlarges into a kind of shoulder, terminating in an obtuse angular apex, the margins of which are more or less worn, as if the teeth had been placed alternately so as to meet at their edges, as in pl. ii. fig. 3. They are obscurely striated longitudinally, and have a thick coat of enamel: the crown of the tooth is solid, but the shank is more or less hollow. All the specimens appear as if they had been broken off close to the jaw; but they may have been separated by necrosis occasioned by the pressure of the supplementary teeth}.” The following is the result of a microscopical examination of these teeth. The tooth consists of a body of dentine covered by a thick coating of clear structureless enamel, and surrounding a small central column of true bone, consisting of the ossified remains of the pulp, which presents the usual cha- racters of the texture of the bone in the higher reptiles. The dentine differs, like that of existing Lacertians, from the dentine of the Zgwanodon in the en- tire absence of the numerous medullary canals which form so striking a cha- * Wonders of Geology, vol. i. p. 403. + Lettre sur le Rhopalodon, Moscow, 8vo, 1841. ~ Geology of the South-east of England, p. 2938. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 119 racteristic of the more gigantic Wealden reptile. The main calcigerous tubes are characterized by the slight degree of their primary inflections; they are continued in an unusually direct course from the pulp-cavity to the outer sur- face of the dentine, at nearly right angles with that surface, but slightly in- clined towards the expanded summit of the tooth. They are chiefly remarka- ble for the large relative size of their secondary branches, which diverge from the trunks in irregular and broken curves, the concavity being always to- wards the pulp-cavity. In most parts of the tooth, the number of these branches obscures even the thinnest sections. The ossified pulp exhibits the parallel concentric layers of the ossified mat- ter surrounding slender medullary cauals, and interspersed with irregular el- liptical radiated cells. Jaw of the Hylaosaurus? —No.7+2%, in the Mantellian Collection, is a por- tion of the right ramus of the lower jaw, with characters distinguishing it from that of any other known Saurian; as, for example, its degree of curvature, in- dicating the lower jaw to have been bent down in an unusual degree, and the remarkable inequality of its external surface. This fragment is about three inches long, one inch seven lines deep at the hind part, and one inch five lines deep at the fore-part; flattened and smooth at the inner side, but having the outer side raised by the termination of a strong angular ridge at its lower and hinder part, and by a rough convex longitudinal ridge extending along its upper part ; the surface of the jaw being concave above and below this ridge. The lower margin is thick and convex; the upper one is formed by a regular series of pretty close-set sockets, with the internal alveolar wall broken away, displaying their partitions; but with the outer wall entire, thin and slightly crenate at its upper margin. At the hind part of this fragment the anterior extremity of the opercular piece is preserved ; the rest is formed exclusively by the dentary piece: the area of the wide conical cavity in the interior of the jaw is exposed at the back part of the fragment; its apical termination is near the fore part. A succession of large vascular canals open obliquely forwards in the concavity above the upper oblique longitudinal ridge. The whole of the outer surface is minutely ridged and punctate. The depth of the sockets bears a smaller proportion to that of the jaw than in modern Lacertians or Crocodiles, being about one-fourth of that depth : the partitions of the sockets, which are very regular in their breadth and depth, though they are more prominent than in the pleurodont Lizards, yet exhibit a fractured margin ; there is no trace of a smooth natural surface of the bone in the interspace of the sockets; and at the part where the inner wall has been least mutilated, it nearly completes the socket and incloses the long and slender fang of the tooth. Whence, I conclude, that the entire jaw of the extinct reptile would have exhibited a series of true sockets, not de- pressions merely, as in the present mutilated fragment, and that it would have agreed with the Megalosaurus in presenting the thecodont mode of at- tachment of the teeth. The crowns of all the teeth are broken off; the small sockets of reserve, exposed at the inner side of the base of the old sockets, do not contain any evidence of the species to which this fossil has belonged. In the absence of this characteristic part of the tooth, an element in guiding our choice between the Iguanodon and Hyleosaurus is given by the breadth of the interspaces of the sockets; these must bear relation to the breadth of the crowns of the teeth, if we suppose that they were in contact throughout the series, as in Lacertians. Now the teeth of the Jguanodon, and those which I have re- ferred to the Hylgosaurus, differ in a marked degree in the breadth of the 120 REPORT—1841. crown. The complicated and expanded crown of the Iguanodon’s tooth is supported on a narrower stem; and the stems or fangs, if the crowns were in contact without overlapping, must have been separated by interspaces of proportional breadth, viz. twice their own breadth ; but the thickness of the crown of the tooth of the Jguwanodon renders it very unlikely that they did overlap each other. Now the crowns of the teeth of the Hyleosaur are ex- panded to such an extent, as, if in contact to require an interspace of the fangs, uot broader than the fangs themselves; and the interspaces of the fangs in the fragment of jaw under consideration correspond with crowns of this breadth. The fangs of the teeth in the Jguanodon are conical, and more or less angular ; in the teeth presumed to belong to the Hylzosaur the fangs are cylindrical ; the sockets in the present fragment correspond with the latter form. In my Odontography*, I adopted the opinion of Dr. Mantell+ respecting the present fossil ; but subsequent examination and consideration of its cha- racters have led me to a different conclusion. It might, nevertheless, be urged that the teeth of the young Jguanodon may exhibit such modifications as would affect the validity of the objections here offered; but these, I think, establish the greater probability that the jaw in question originally contained teeth of the form of those that I have referred to the Hylcosaurus. The remains of the Hylcosaurus have been discovered in the Wealden formation in the following localities: Tilgate Forest, Bolney and Battle. Iguanopon Manre ti, Cuv. The bones of an enormous reptile, successively discovered in the Wealden strata hy Dr. Mantell, interpreted by their discoverer with the aid of Cuvier and Clitt{, named Jguwanodon by Conybeare§, lastly found in juxtaposition to the extent of nearly half the skeleton, in the green-sand quarries of Mr. Benstead, offer not the least marvellous or significant evidences of the inha- bitants of the now temperate latitudes during the earlier oolitic periods of the formation of the earth’s crust. With vertebree subconcave at both articular extremities, having, in the dorsal region, lofty and expanded neural arches, and doubly articulated ribs, and characterized in the sacral region by their unusual number and compli- cation of structure ; with a Lacertian pectoral arch and unusually large bones of the extremities excavated by large medullary cavities and adapted for ter- restrial progression ;—the Iguanodon was also distinguished by teeth, resem- bling in shape those of the Iguana, but in structure differing from the teeth of every other known Reptile, and unequivocally indicating the former existence, in the Dinosaurian Order, of a gigantic representative of the small group of living lizards which subsist on vegetable substances. Of this remarkable Reptile, the results of personal examination of almost a'l the recognisable remains that have hitherto been collected in public or pri- vate museums, are here given. Teeth.—The value of the ordinary external characters of the teeth of the oviparous Vertebrata has never perhaps been placed in so striking a point of view as in the leading steps to the discovery of the Zgwanodon, which cannot be better recounted than in the words of Dr. Mantell. * Part ii. p. 248, + Wonders of Geology, vol. i. p. 393. $ See Philosophical Transactions, 1825, “Notice on the Jguanodon, by Gideon Mantell, F.L.S.”’ § “The name Jguanodon, derived from the form of the teeth (and which I have adopted at the suggestion of the Rev. W. Conybeare), will not, it is presumed, be deemed objection- able.” —Loc. cit. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 121 After noticing the ordinary organic remains which characterize the sand- stone of the Tilgate Forest, and his discovery, in the summer of 1822, of other teeth distinguished by novel and remarkable characters, the indefatigable ex- plorer of the Wealden proceeds to state*,— “« As these teeth were distinct from any that had previously come under my notice, I felt anxious to submit them to the examination of persons whose knowledge and means of observation were more extensive than my own. I therefore transmitted specimens to some of the most eminent naturalists in this country and on the continent. But although ny communications were acknowledged with that candour and liberality which constantly characterizes the intercourse of scientific men, yet no light was thrown upon the subject, except by the illustrious Baron Cuvier, whose opinions will best appear by the following extract from the correspondence with which he honoured me :— * «Ces dents me sont certainement inconnues; elles ne sont point d’un ani- mal carnassier, et cependant je crois qu’elles appartiennent, vu leur peu de complication, leur dentelure sur les bords, et la couche mince d’émail qui les revét, a ordre des reptiles; a l’apparence extérieure on pourrait aussi les prendre pour des dents de poissons, analogues aux tetrodons, ou aux diodons; mais leur structure intérieure est fort différente de celles-la. N’aurions-nous pas ici un animal nouveau, un reptile herbivore? et de méme qu’actuelle- ment chez les mammiféres terrestres, c'est parmi les herbivores que l’on trouve les espéces a plus grande taille, de méme aussi chez les reptiles d’autrefois, alors quils étaient les seuls animaux terrestres, les plus grands d’entr’eux ne se seraient-ils point nourris de végétaux? Une partie des grands os que vous possédez appartiendrait 4 cet animal unique, jusqu’a présent, dans son genre. Le temps confirmera ou infirmera cette idée, puisqu’il est impossible qu’on ne trouve pas un jour une partie de la squelette réunie a des portions de ma- choires portant des dents. C’est ce dernier objet surtout qu'il s'agit de re- chercher avec le plus de persévérance.’ —~ “These remarks,” Dr. Mantell proceeds to say, “induced me to pursue my investigations with increased assiduity, but hitherto they have not been at- tended with the desired success, no connected portion of the skeleton having been discovered. Among the specimens lately collected, some, however, were so perfect, that I resolved to avail myself of the obliging offer of Mr. Clift (to whose kindness and liberality I hold myself particularly indebted), to assist me in comparing the fossil teeth with those of the recent Lacerte in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. The result of this examina- tion proved highly satisfactory, for in an Iguana which Mr. Stutchbury had prepared to present to the College, we discovered teeth possessing the form and structure of the fossil specimens.” The important difference which the fossil teeth presented in the form of their grinding surface was afterwards pointed out by Cuvier}, and recognised by Dr. Mantell {, and the combination of this dental distinction with the ver- tebral and costal characters, which prove the [gwanodon not to have belonged to the same group of Saurians as that which includes the Iguana and other modern lizards, rendered it highly desirable to ascertain, by the improved modes of investigating dental structure, the actual amount of correspondence between the Jguanodon and Iguana in this respect. This I have endeavoured to do in my general description of the Teeth of Reptiles§, from which the following account is abridged. * Notice on the Jguanodon, Phil. Trans. 1825. + Ossemens Fossiles, 1824, vol. v. part ii. p. 351. ¢ Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex, 4to, 1827. § Odontography, part ii. p. 249; and Transactions of the British Association, 1838. 122 REPORT—1841. The teeth of the Jguanodon, though resembling most closely those of the Iguana, do not present an exact magnified image of them, but differ in the greater relative thickness of the crown, its more complicated external surface, and, still more essentially, in a modification of the internal structure, by which the Jguanodon equally deviates from every other known reptile. As in the Iguana, the base of the tooth is elongated and contracted, while the crown is expanded, and smoothly convex on the inner side; when first formed it is acuminated, compressed, its sloping sides serrated, and its external surface traversed by a median longitudinal ridge, and coated by a layer of enamel, but beyond this point the description of the tooth of the Zgwanodon indicates characters peculiar to that genus. In most of the teeth that have hitherto been found, three longitudinal ridges traverse the outer surface of the crown, one on each side of the median primitive ridge; these are sepa- rated from each other and from the serrated margins of the crown by four wide and smooth longitudinal grooves. The relative width of these grooves varies in different teeth ; sometimes a fourth small longitudinal ridge is deve- loped on the outer side of the crown. The marginal serrations, which, at first sight, appear to be simple notches, as in the Iguana, present under a low mag- nifying power the form of transverse ridges, themselves notched, so as to re- semble the mammillated margins of the unworn plates of the elephant’s grinder: slight grooves lead from the interspaces of these notches upon the sides of the marginal ridges. These ridges or dentations do not extend beyond the expanded part of the crown: the longitudinal ridges are continued further down, especially the median ones, which do not subside till the fang of the tooth begins to assume its subcylindrical form. The tooth at first increases both in breadth and thickness; it then diminishes in breadth, but its thick- ness goes on increasing ; in the larger and fully formed teeth, the fang de- creases in every diameter, and sometimes tapers almost to a point. The smooth unbroken surface of such fangs indicates that they did not adhere to the inner side of the maxille, as in the Iguana, but were placed in separate alveoli, as in the Crocodile and Megalosaur: such support would appear, in- deed, to be indispensable to teeth so worn by mastication as those of the Iguanodon. ‘ The apex of the tooth soon begins to be worn away, and.it would appear by many specimens, that the teeth were retained until nearly the whole of the crown had yielded to the daily abrasion. In these teeth, however, the deep excavation of the remaining fang plainly bespeaks the progress of the sue- cessional tooth prepared to supply the place of the worn out grinder. At the earlier stages of abrasion a sharp edge is maintained at the external part of the tooth by means of the enamel which covers that surface of the crown; the prominent ridges upon that surface give a sinuous contour to the middle of the cutting edge, whilst its sides are jagged by the lateral serrations: the adaptation of this admirable dental instrument to the cropping and commi- nution of such, tough vegetable food as the Clathrurie and similar plants, which are found buried with the Iguanodon, is pointed out by Dr. Buckland, with his usual felicity of illustration, in his ‘ Bridgewater Treatise,’ vol.i. p.246. When the crown is worn away beyond the enamel, it presents a broad and nearly horizontal grinding surface, and now another dental substance is brought into use to give an inequality to that surface; this is the ossified remnant of the pulp, which, being firmer than the surrounding dentine, forms a slight transverse ridge in the middle of the grinding surface: the tooth in this stage has exchanged the functions of an incisor for that of a molar, and is prepared to give the final compression, or comminution, to the coarsely divided vege- table matters. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 123 The marginal edge of the incisive condition of the tooth and the median ridge of the molar stage are more effectually established by the introduction of a modification into the texture of the dentine, by which it is rendered softer than in the existing Iguane and other reptiles, and more easily worn away : this is effected by an arrest of the calcifying process along certain cylindrical tracts of the pulp, which is thus continued, in the form of medullary canals, analogous to those in the soft dentine of the Megatherium’s grinder, from the central cavity, at pretty regular intervals, parallel with the calcigerous tubes, nearly to the surface of the tooth. The medullary canals radiate from the in- ternal and lateral sides of the pulp-cavity, and are confined to the dentine forming the corresponding walls of the tooth: their diameter is ath of an inch: they are separated by pretty regular intervals equal to from six to eight of their own diameters; they sometimes divide once in their course. Each medullary canal is surrounded by a clear space; its cavity was occupied in the section described by a substance of a deeper yellow colour than the rest of the dentine. The calcigerous tubes present a diameter of scout of an inch, with inter- spaces equal to about four of their diameters. At the first part of their course, near the pulp-cavity, they are bent in strong undulations, but afterwards pro- ceed in slight and regular primary curves, or in nearly straight lines to the periphery of the tooth. When viewed in a longitudinal section of the tooth, the concavity of the primary curvature is turned towards the base of the tooth: the lowest tubes are inclined towards the root, the rest have a general direc- tion at right angles to the axis of the tooth; the few calcigerous tubes, which proceed vertically to the apex, are soon worn away, and can be seen only in a section of the apical part.of the crown of an incompletely developed tooth. The secondary undulations of each tooth are regular and very minute. The branches, both primary and secondary, of the calcigerous tubes are sent off from the concave side of the main inflections ; the minute secondary branches are remarkable at certain parts of the tooth for their flexuous ramifications, anastomoses, and dilatations into minute calcigerous cells, which take place along nearly parallel lines for a limited extent of the course of the main tubes. The appearance of interruption in the course of the calcigerous tubes, occa- sioned by this modification of their secondary branches, is represented by the irregularly dotted tracts in the figure. This modification must contribute, with the medullary canals, though in a minor degree, in producing that ine-, quality of texture and of density in the dentine, which renders the broad and thick tooth of the Zgwanodon more efficient as a triturating instrument. The enamel which invests the harder dentine, forming the outer side of the tooth, presents the same peculiar dirty brown colour, when viewed by trans- mitted light, as in most other teeth: very minute and scarcely perceptible un- dulating fibres, running vertically to the surface of the tooth, is the only struc- ture I have been able to detect in it. The remains of the pulp in the contracted cavity of the completely formed tooth are converted into a dense but true osseous substance, characterized by minute elliptical radiated cells, whose long axis is parallel with the plane of the concentric lamellae, which surround the few and contracted medullary canals in this substance. The microscopical examination of the structure of the Iguanodon’s teeth thus contributes additional evidence of the perfection of their adaptation to the offices to which their more obvious characters had indicated them to have been destined. To preserve a trenchant edge, a partial coating of enamel is applied; and, 124 REPORT—1841. that the thick body of the tooth might be worn away in a more regularly ob- lique plane, the dentine is rendered softer as it recedes from the enameled edge by the simple contrivance of arresting the calcifying process along cer- tain tracts of the inner wall of the tooth. When attrition has at length ex- hausted the enamel, and the tooth is limited to its function as a grinder, a third substance has been prepared in the ossified remnant of the pulp to add to the efficiency of the dental instrument in its final capacity. And if the following reflections were natural and just after a review of the external cha- racters of the dental organs of the Jgwanodon, their truth and beauty become still more manifest as our knowledge of their subject becomes more particu- lar and exact :— “In this curious piece of animal mechanism we find a varied adjustment of all parts and°proportions of the tooth, to the exercise of peculiar functions, attended by compensations adapted to shifting conditions of the instrument, during different stages of its consumption. And we must estimate the works of nature by a different standard from that which we apply to the productions of human art, if we can view such examples of mechanical contrivance, united with so much economy of expenditure, and with such anticipated adaptations to varying conditions in their application, without feeling a profound convic- tion that all this adjustment has resulted from design and high intelligence.” —Buckland’s Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. p. 249. Head.—Two fragments of jaw with alveoli, in the Mantellian Collection, are referred by its founder to the Zgwanodon: in neither of them, unfortu- nately, is a tooth with the characteristic crown preserved: the size of these specimens proves them to have belonged, if to this genus, then to young in- dividuals. The smaller fragment is described in this Report under the head of Hyleosaurus, on account of the cylindrical, equal, and straight form of the remaining fangs. These parts correspond with the fangs of the teeth which I suppose to belong to the Hyleosaurus, rather than with those of the Zgua- nodon, which are angular, curved, taper towards a point, and support crowns so expanded, as to require greater intervals between their fangs than in the fossil. It is just possible that these differences may depend on age*. Tympanic bone.—A reptile with vertebra and ribs resembling in their chief characters those of the ccelospondylian Crocodiles, and with distinctive pecu- liarities, in which the Lacertians by no means participate, might reasonably be conjectured to resemble the Crocodiles in the form of the tympanic bone; and if the reptile in question used its teeth for masticating hard vegetable sub- stances, we might with more reason expect that the bony pillar supporting the lower jaw should be firmly and immoveably fixed through its whole length, like the tympanic bone of the Crocodilians, and not be loosely suspended to the skull by a single extremity, as in the Iguana and other Lacertians. A very remarkable bone discovered in the Tilgate strata, figured by Dr. Mantell in the ‘ Geology of the South-east of England,’ pl. ii. fig. 5, the resemblance of which to the ‘os quadratum,’ or tympanic bone of birds, was first suggested by Dr. Hodg- kin, is assigned to the fgwanodon by Dr. Mantell. He accurately describes it “as forming a thick pillar or column, which is contracted in the middle, and terminates at both extremities in an elliptical and nearly flat surface.” In the Iguana and other reptiles the lower end of the tympanic bone is terminated by a convex trochlea, which is received into a corresponding cavity in the lower jaw. Is the modification of the bone in question, assuming it to belong * In the Monitor-lizards of the modern genera Thorictes and Crocodilurus, the posterior teeth in the young individuals have more or less compressed and tri-cuspidate crowns, but in the old animals they have round obtuse crowns, adapted for true mastication. Some mo- dification analogous to this way take place in the Jguanodon. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 125 to the Iguanodon, indicative of a peculiarity of the joint of the lower jaw as remarkable as the structure of the teeth, and correlated to their masticatory uses? “Two lateral processes, or ale, pass off obliquely, and are small in proportion to the size of the column; on placing these bones beside the os tympani of an Iguana, we at once perceive that the relative proportions of these parts are reversed ; for in the recent animal the pillar is small and the lateral processes large. From the great size of the body of the fossil, and the extreme thinness of its walls, the tympanic cellule must have been of consi- derable magnitude, and have constituted a large portion of the auditory cavi- ties. PI. ii. fig. 1., (fig. 5 is meant,) accurately represents the most perfect specimen in my cabinet ; it is 6 inches high, and 54 inches wide at the longest diameter of the extremity of the body. It exceeds in magnitude the corresponding bone of the Mosasaurus, and is fourteen times as large as the same bone in an Iguana 4 feet long.” Loe. cit., p. 306. Vertebral Column.—The vertebra: of the Tguanodon have their bodies ter- minated by flat or slightly concave articular surfaces*, and their sides flat or slightly convex vertically, moderately concave lengthwise or in the axis of the vertebra; the sides converge more or less towards the under surface, and the body accordingly presents more or less the form of a wedge, with its edge obtuse or flattened in the dorsal vertebre, but slightly concave, and with its anterior and posterior angles truncated in the caudal vertebre+. The con- tour of the terminal surfaces is nearly circular, with the vertical slightly exceed- ing the transverse diameter. The neural arch of the dorsal vertebrz presents the complicated exterior, the great height and superior expansion, which cha- racterize these vertebrz in other Dinosaurs: the base of each neurapophysis equals, or nearly equals, the antero-posterior extent of the centrum, but im- mediately contracts in this direction from the posterior margin, which then curves backwards as it inclines towards the opposite neurapophysis, and the conjoined lamine are developed beyond the posterior end of the centrum to an extent varying in the different regions of the spine. In the dorsal ver- tebrze the bases of the neurapophyses are developed transversely inwards, so as to meet and join each other below the spinal canal : the heemapophyses pre- sent an analogous structure through a great part of the tail, the bases of each pair, as well as the apices, being united together, and the chevron bones, thus formed, are perforated instead of being notched for the passage of the great blood-vessels. The neurapophyses are commonly anchylosed to the centrum, with a persistent trace of the suture. The transverse processes are straight, and of great length in the vertebrz from the middle of the trunk, indicating there a considerable expanse of the abdominal cavity, adapted for the lodge- ment of the capacious viscera of a herbivorous feeder. The spinous processes rise to a considerable height in the dorsal, as well as in the anterior caudal vertebre. The exterior surface of the vertebra is impressed with fine stri- ations, which are mostly longitudinal in the centrum; so that fragments may thus be distinguished from the characteristically smooth and polished vertebrze of the Megalosaurus. The antero-posterior diameter of the largest vertebre of the Zguanodon which I have yet seen is 45 inches; the most usual size is 4: inches. Having premised these general characters of the vertebree of the Jguano- don, there next remain to be considered the modifications by which they are * The plano-concave vertebre in the Mantellian Collection, British Museum, belong to the Cetiosaurus. + The large vertebre from the Wealden, with obscurely quadrangular or hexagonal bodies, which are rather convex or flat on one side and concave on the other, belong to the Cetio- saurus. 126 REPORT—1841. distinguished in different regions of the spinal column. Hitherto I have not met with any specimen of a cervical vertebra; the comparatively small frac- tured vertebra, Nos. oir and 3438., “ Axis of the Jguwanodon,” Mantell. Catal., is an ordinary, or more posterior, cervical vertebra of a large Croco- dilian Reptile, which, if not belonging to the Potkilopleuron, indicates a spe- cies distinguishable from all other known Saurians*. The large cervical ver- tebrze with ball-and-socket articular surfaces, agreeing with the Zguwanodon in size, have been shown to have these surfaces the reverse in position to those in the Iguanze and modern Saurians, and to belong to the genus Sérep- tospondylus. ‘The desirable knowledge, therefore, of the anatomy of that region of the spine in the Jguanodon, which in other Saurians is usually distinguished by its well-marked and varied characters, remains to be ac- quired. Costal or dorsal vertebre+.—Towards the middle or anterior part of this re- gion the bodies of the vertebree are laterally compressed, and meet below at an obtuse ridge. Through, apparently, a considerable proportion of the dor- sal region of the spine, the neurapophyses rise vertically to a height equal to that of the centrum, and expand into a broad and strong platform, the upper surface of which is slightly concave transversely, and arched from behind downwards and forwards in a regular curve; this platform is supported by a strong vertical buttress on each side, and sends upwards from the whole of its middle line a thick, broad and high spinous process. Two oblique, flat, articular processes look downwards and outwards from the posterior angles of the platform; and the corresponding anterior oblique processes, having their flat articular surfaces looking upwards and inwards, and inclining to each other at a right angle, terminate the contracted anterior part of the plat- form, and do not project beyond it as two distinct processes separated by a median fissure. They are not continued beyond the anterior end of the body of the vertebrae, and consequently the posterior processes overhang the hinder * A portion of this vertebra is alluded to at p. 137, and figured at pl. ix., fig. 1, of Dr. Man- tell’s Memoir on the Zguanodon, published in the Philosophical Transactions for the present year, 1841, as the “atlas of ayoung Jyuanodon ;” its position in the neck has been apparently determined by the resemblance of the cast of calcareous spar, which fills up the spinal canal, to the medulla oblongata. This resemblance arises from the expansion of the open ends of the canal; in which expansions, in the recent Crocodile, the contained spinal chord does not, however, in the least degree participate. The longitudinal fissure in the cast is due to a cor- responding ridge of bone projecting from the inner surface of the contiguous wall of the spinal canal; doubtless giving attachment to the dura mater of the chord, but not impressing the ' chord itself. The external surface of the vertebra exhibits an upper and a lower transverse process for the attachment of a bilobed cervical rib, which unequivocally demonstrates it not to agree with the Lacertian type of structure. + In the Memoir in the Philosophical Transactions, 1841, above quoted, Dr. Mantell says, “The usual characters of the dorsal and caudal vertebre of the Jgwanadon have been pointed out in my former works,’’ and refers to the ‘ Fossils of Tilgate Forest,’ and the ‘ Geology of the South-east of England,’ p. 136. I have again, therefore, carefully perused the passages in which the structure of the vertebra from the Wealden strata is alluded to in those valu- able works, in the hope that the present tedious section of my Report might be cancelled ; but they leave the same doubt, which their first perusal occasioned, as to whether the author intended to attribute to the vertebra of the /guwanodon the characters of those of the second system of Wealden vertebre, viz. Cetiosaurus; or those of the fourth system, viz. Strepto- spondylus. See Geology of the South-east of England, p. 306. M. H. v. Meyer adopts the former, or the Cetiosaurian type, for his characters of the Iguanodon’s vertebrze, from the works to which Dr. Mantell refers. The six caudal vertebra of the Jguwanodon described in the Memoir of 1841, are referred to, in the ‘ Geology of the South-east of England,’ at the conclusion of the account of the Hyleosaurus, and the accomplished author there states, ‘* The bodies of these vertebrz, like those of the newly-discovered reptile, are slightly concave at both extremities,” which is one of the characters whereby they might be distinguished from the vertebre of the Cetiosaurus. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES, 127 surface of the centrum in order to rest upon the oblique processes of the ver- tebra next behind. In the anterior dorsal vertebre the body supports a large and well-marked articular surface on each side, for the head of the rib; and a long and strong transverse process is developed from each neurapophysis against the end of which the tubercle of the rib abuts, as in the Crocodile. In the hinder costal vertebree the long transverse process is gradually nar- rowed to its extremity, which is abruptly truncated, and has a right-angled notch at the anterior part; the curtailed neck of the rib, no longer expanded into a head or joined to the body of the vertebra, is fitted into this notch, and the broad and flat surface; at right angles to the neck, is adapted to the extremity of the transverse process. We seek in vain, in the existing Iguana, for such modes of articulation of the ribs as have here been described, while they are common to Crocodiles with the Dinosaurs. The fact of the complete inclosure of the spinal canal by the meeting and confluence of the bases of the neurapophyses beneath it, was first brought to my attention by the appearances in the body of a dorsal vertebra of the great Horsham Jguanodon, in the collection of Mr. Holmes. This centrum, which measures 44 inches in length and 5 inches across its articular extremity, presented only a slight trace of the impression of the spinal canal at the anterior part of its upper surface, the rest being occupied by a slightly concave, continuous, rough articular surface. The deficiency of this vertebra was supplied by a fine specimen in Mr. Saull’s collection of the separate neural arch of a dorsal vertebra of a corresponding size, which seemed to have been detached from a natural articulation. I saw with much interest that the bases of the neurapophyses met and joined each other below the spinal canal along the posterior half of their longitudinal extent, present- ing at their under part a continuous slightly convex surface, which must have left a corresponding concave rough articular surface upon the upper part of the centrum, like that exhibited by the Horsham vertebral body. The base of each neurapophysis, which is longer than it is wide, describes a slight curve, convex in the antero-posterior direction, downwards or towards the centrum. The spinal canal is nearly cylindrical, very slightly expanded at the two extremities; its diameter 1 inch 5 lines. The chief buttress of the spinal platform rises from the posterior and outer part of the base of the neurapo- physis, and ascends almost vertically, slightly inclining forwards; it is com- pressed, with its plane transverse to the axis of the vertebra; it expands as it blends with the under part of the broad platform, half-way between the anterior and posterior boundaries of that remarkable part of the neurapophy- sis. A second buttress rises from the anterior part of the base of the neura- pophysis, and ascends vertically to the upper and outer end of the anterior oblique processes. The base of the transverse process is situated above the converging point of the two buttresses. In the interspace of the two but- tresses of the anterior dorsal vertebre there is a large oval articular surface, convex at the anterior and concave at the posterior part, which has afforded a lodgement to the head of an enormous rib. The oblique or articular processes, directed as described in the general observations on the vertebrz of the Zgua- nodon, converge and meet at nearly aright angle. There is a wide depression at the posterior broad part. of the base of the spine, and a wide and deep fossa between the posterior buttress and the posterior oblique process. The base of the spine, as it extends forwards along the middle of the broad platform, de- scends with a graceful curve to the interspace of the anterior oblique pro- cesses. The platform recedes on each side from the base of the broad spine with " regular concavity to its plane; its surface is coarsely striated trans- versely. 128 REPORT—1841. The following are dimensions of this interesting fossil :— In. Lin. Length of the base of the neurapophysis* . 4 6 From the base of the neurapophysis to the middle of the base 5 0 of spinous process . . sais From the base of the neurapophysis to ‘the posterior part of 6 0 the base of spinous process From the base of the neurapophysis. to the anterior part of \ 3 6 “the base of spinous process . . . elie Stata Antero-posterior extent of base of spinous process 26" 'G Transverse diameter of spinal platform. . . . . . ee Yi Transverse diameter of conjoined bases of neurapophyses+ . dords 0 Extent of spinal platform sah hind part of base of neura- yg pophiysis)<..2\. 42) is mela ahi el Pena eaiccn The spinous process is broken off near its base in this specimen, which is otherwise remarkably entire, considering that it was washed out of the sub- merged beds of the Wealden and cast on the south shore of the Isle of Wight. It was found near Culver Cliff. The characters thus obtained from two different parts of the vertebre of two Iguanodons from distant localities, certified to belong to that genus from the association of one of the parts, viz. the vertebral centrum, with many other characteristic bones of that reptile, have their value increased from the cir- cumstance of the obscure and unsatisfactory manner in which the vertebral characters are exhibited in the celebrated specimen from the Maidstone quarry. The eight vertebre originally forming a continuous series in this specimen are from about the middle of the back; the antero-posterior dia- meter of each is 3} inches. Little more can be determined from these or from the detached and crushed dorsal vertebre in this specimen, except the flatten- ing of the sides of the vertebra and their convergence to the lower surface, the slight concavity of both articular extremities, the height of the neural arch, and the strength and length of the transverse and spinous processes. With the evidence afforded by the previously described specimens, the cha- racters afforded by the following detached vertebre from the Tilgate strata may with confidence be applied to the further elucidation of the osteology of the Iguanodon. An anterior dorsal vertebra (No. Mantellian Collection), having the following dimensions of the centrum,— Tn. Lin. Antero-posterior diameter) 86 se ek Vertical diameter of articularend . .......4 =dWJ Transverse diameter of articularend ....... 3 @Q% measures, from its under surface to the posterior part of the base of the spinous process, 8 inches. The broad and high neural arch is anchylosed with the centrum, but the nearly straight line of suture is indicated by nume- rous puckered ruge and strie. The transverse process extends from the side of the neurapophysis ; its base is vertically oval, measuring 24 inches by 2 inches. The neurapophysis expands above this surface into a broad plat- form, with a thick rough external free border, probably fractured. The plat- form is supported by a buttress-like ridge, rising vertically from the posterior angle of the base of the neurapophysis, and expanding as it ascends to blend with the under part of the overhanging platform. Behind this buttress-is a * This doubtless gives the length of the centrum to which it was attached. + At their anterior and broader part. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 129 wide and deep depression, and the neurapophysis extends backwards to form the posterior articular processes which project 15 inch beyond the hind sur- face of the centrum. The antero-posterior extent of the neurapophysial plat- form is 6 inches; the dimensions of the oval articular surfaces of the oblique processes are 2 inches by 24 inches; the inferior margins of the posterior processes are separated by a groove. A smaller anterior ridge extends along the anterior part of the neurapophysis. The base of the spinous process ex- tends from the posterior triangular interspace of the oblique processes forwards and downwards along the curve of the supporting platform ; the thickness of the spine, which is | inch at the posterior part of the base, gradually dimi- nishes towards the fore part of the vertebra. The anterior oblique processes form the sides of an angular depression in front of the base of the spine. The spinal platform of the Zguanodon differs from that of the Megalosau- rus in its greater relative antero-posterior extent, arising from its being ex- tended further back; the platform is also raised higher above the centrum. No. an Mantellian Collection, is a dorsal vertebra, posterior in situation to the preceding, and from an individual of the same size. The neural arch is anchylosed, but the sutural line is obvious. The surface for the head of the rib on the side of the neurapophysis is smaller, and a transverse process begins to be developed above that surface, throwing its aspect somewhat downwards. The costal surface is separated in this as in the preceding vertebra by a strong vertical ridge or buttress from the wide depression below the posterior part of the base of the spine. The angle between the oblique processes is rather more open. ‘The spinous process of this vertebra, almost entire, is detached from the neural platform, but is cemented to the same mass of stone: it is 9 inches in height and 3 in breadth, or antero-posterior extent; the summit is, however, wanting. The following are other dimensions of the present ver- tebra :— In. Lines. Antero-posterior extent of the body . . - - - - 3 10 Vertical diameter of the body . . . . +--+ +3 Q Transverse diameter of the body . . . . - - + 3 7 The sides of the centrum are as usual concave lengthwise, but are slightly convex vertically, and converge to the lower surface, which is formed by an obtuse ridge. In a dorsal vertebra of the Horsham Jguanodon in Mr. Holmes’s collection, from apparently the middle of the back, the spinous process, which is 8 inches in length, expands gradually in breadth and thickness as it ascends to its trun- cated summit, the antero-posterior diameter of which is 4 inches, its trans- verse diameter or thickness being 1 inch 6 lines. In a series of eight posterior dorsal vertebrae, measuring together 1 foot, and consequently from a young Iyuanodon in Mr. Holmes's collection, the spinous process of the most anterior one is, in antero-posterior diameter, 7 lines, but increases in the other vertebra to 15 lines, which shows a somewhat rapid change of character. Sacral Vertebre.—The highly remarkable and characteristic structure of the sacrum of the Megalosaurus, and the strong indications of close affinity between this gigantic carnivorous reptile and the still more colossal herbivo- rous Jgwanodon, which the structure of their costal vertebra, of their ribs, and of the larger bones of their extremities afford, made it very desirable to ascertain whether the Zgwanodon deviated in the same manner from other Saurians, existing and extinct, in the extent and structure of the sacral region of the spine. | The collection of the remains of the Jguanodon in the British Museum does 1841. K 130 REPORT—1841. not include this characteristic part of the skeleton; it does not form part of the series of bones obtained by Mr. Holmes from: the Wealden Quarry at Horsham; but in the collection of rolled bones of the great Wealden Sau- rians—Cetiosaurus, Streptospondylus, and Iguanodon—in the museum of Mr. Saull, there is a fine specimen of the sacrum with one of the iliac bones attached, which, in the proportions of the vertebra and the form of the ilium, agrees with the known characters of the Jgwanodon. This instructive specimen consists of five vertebra anchylosed together by the articular surfaces of their bodies and by their spinous processes, which seem to form a continuous thick median ridge of bone. The five vertebrae measure 17 inches in length. The articular extremity of the terminal sacral vertebra is very slightly concave and subcircular, measuring 3 inches in both vertical and transverse diameter. The bodies of the dorsal vertebra are com- pressed at their middle part, and broader below than in the dorsal region, and concave in the direction of their axis, the concavities being separated by the broad prominent convex transverse ridges formed by the anchylosed and os- sified intervertebral spaces. The contour of the under part of the sacrum thus forms an undulating line. The lateral and inferior surfaces are separated by a more angular prominence of the centrum, the under surface is less con- vex transversely, and the whole centrum is shorter in proportion to its depth and breadth, than in the Megalosaurus. The neurapophyses present the same remarkable modification in regard to their relations to the body of the ver- tebra as in the Megalosaurus, having shifted their position from the upper surface of a single centrum to the interspace of two, resting on proportions of these, which are more nearly equal, as the vertebre are nearer the middle of the sacrum. The nerves were compelled therefore to escape from the spinal canal over the body of the vertebra, more or less near its middle, and they impress the upper surface there with a smooth canal. The strong, vertically compressed, transverse processes, or sacral ribs, rise from the bases of the neurapophyses, and their origin extends upwards upon the spine, and downwards upon the sides of the contiguous vertebral bodies and intervertebral space; in the specimen described they are firmly anchy- losed to all these parts, extend outwards and expand at their extremities, four of which meet, join, and form an elongated tract of varying breadth to which the ilium is firmly attached. The length of the largest penultimate transverse process was 5 inches 8 lines, its vertical breadth at the middle 3 inches, its thickness here 1 inch. The adjoining (last) transverse process was 5 inches in length ; the interspaces of the transverse processes equalled from 24 inches to 2inches. The sacrum increases in breadth posteriorly ; its transverse dia- meter, including the anchylosed ilia taken at the posterior part of the ace- tabulum, is 13 inches, at the anterior part of the sacrum only 8 inches. The proportion of the spine thus grasped, as it were, by the iliac bones, which transmit the weight of the body upon the thigh-bones, corresponds with the mass which is to be sustained and moved; and the size and structure of the sacrum indicate, with those of the femur and tibia, the adaptation of the present great herbivorous Saurian for terrestrial life. No. a Mantellian Collection, is the centrum of a sacral vertebra of a sub- quadrate form, with a broad and flattened interior surface, slightly concave antero-posteriorly. The upper surface is excavated by a wide and moderately deep canal, indicating the unusual size, for Reptiles, of the sacral portion of the spinal chord. The anterior and posterior parts of the sides of this cen- trum are raised, so as to form projecting sub-triangular rough articular sur- faces, continued upon the margins of the spinal canal, evidently for the at- tachment of the neurapophyses and the heads of the strong sacral ribs. The ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 131 interspace of these anterior and posterior neurapophysial surfaces is formed by a smooth oblique groove, connecting the smooth surface of the spinal canal with that of the free lateral surface of the vertebra, and indicating the place of exit of the sacral nerves, which is necessarily in this unusual situation, be- cause the ordinary holes of conjugation must have been obliterated by the impaction of the bases of the neurapophyses between the contiguous extre- mities of the bodies of the sacral vertebra. The anterior and posterior articular extremities of the present interesting fossil equally bespeak the peculiar character of the sacral vertebre of the Dinosauria. They are impressed by coarse straight ridges and grooves ra- diating from near the upper part of the surface, like those on the correspond- ing part of a cetaceous vertebra when the epiphysial articular extremity is removed. These inequalities are here, doubtless, preparatory to that anchy- losis by which the sacral vertebra are compacted together in the mature Di- nosaurs. In. Lines. The length of this vertebra . . . . 2 10 mie ineiates he) 1h ee OR ee I ts VW The breadth of anterior articular end , apie ae tC leN 10) Phe breadth of middle (sie OS Be Antero-posterior diameter of anterior costal surface . 1 7 Antero-posterior diameter of posterior one . . 1 O Breadth ef spinal canal 5 Breadth of canal of sacral nerve O 4 From its separated condition, the body of the sacral vertebra here described must have belonged to a young Dinosaur of a size far exceeding that of the Hyleosaurus. It is obviously very distinct in form from the sacral vertebre of the Megalosaurus. No other reptile than one belonging to the order cha- racterized by the peculiar structure of the sacrum already described, could have yielded a detached vertebral centrum with the remarkable modifications of the one under consideration. The modifications detected in the entire sacrum of the Jguanodon in Mr. Saull’s collection, justify the reference of the vertebra above described to the sacrum of a young Jguanodon. Caudal Vertebre—These are distinguished by the single hemapophysial surface at each end of the narrow inferior surface of the centrum. The sides of the centrum are flat, or even slightly concave in the vertical direction, though less so than in the antero-posterior direction. In a caudal cen- trum, for example, in the Mantellian Collection, measuring 4 inches in length, and 5 inches 4 lines in depth at the middle of the side, if a pencil . be laid vertically along that part, an interval of between | and 2 lines sepa~ rates its middle part from the bone. Those great Wealden vertebra which, on the contrary, have the middle of the side of the body prominent, and the lower half only converging towards the under surface, are from the middle and posterior part of the tail of the Cetiosaurus. The posterior terminal ar- ticular surface is rather more concave than in the dorsal vertebra ; but the difference is by no means so marked as in the plano-concave vertebre of the Cetiosaurus. The transverse processes of the anterior caudal vertebre are comparatively short, but strong, and are continued from the base of the neur- apophysis. The hzemapophyses, or chevron bones, are not anchylosed to the centrum, but articulate with the interspaces of the vertebra; in a few of the anterior ones to two distinct but closely approximated surfaces on each contiguous vertebra, but in the rest of the caudal vertebre to a single oblique triangular surface on each of the contiguous extremities of the centrum; the haemapo- K 2 132 REPORT—1841. physes being here confluent at their vertebral as well as at their distal ex- tremities. A caudal vertebra exhibiting this modification in Mr. Holmes’s collection measures, in the vertical diameter of the articular surface, 4 inches 9 lines; in its transverse diameter, 4 inches 6 lines; the breadth of the inferior sur- face of the vertebra is 3 inches 3 lines. The interspace between the anterior and posterior hemapophysial surface is 9 lines; it is concave in the axis of the vertebra. The diameter of the spinal canal is reduced in this vertebra to 9 lines. The transverse processes are of very small size. The spinous pro- cess is broken off. We have seen that those of the sacral vertebra appear to have been short. There is reason to think that the spinous processes increased in length for a certain distance as they receded from the sacrum, and then dimi- nished. Thus, in a caudal vertebra (No. — Mantellian Collection), evidently anterior in position by its size, by its oblique processes, and by the place of development of its transverse processes from the base of the neural arch, the spinous process is 5 inches in height, while in the six caudal vertebre preserved in natural sequence and relative position in the Mantellian Collec- tion, the spines are more than double that height. That the vertebra (No. 2130) is not a more posterior caudal vertebra from a larger Jguanodon is shown by the relative thickness, as well as position, of its transverse pro- cesses, as compared with the six caudal vertebre above mentioned, for their transverse processes sensibly diminish in every diameter, and especially in vertical thickness, from the first to the sixth; and, moreover, it is evident that, in this short series, the spines decrease in height both forwards from the third as well as backwards, but more so in the latter direction. Thus the spine of the first of these vertebree is 14 inches high, of the third 15 inches, and of the sixth 13 inches. These spines increase in breadth toward their summits, which are truncated, and in contact with each other, partly from this expansion, partly from the posterior ones being slightly bent forwards. One cannot witness this change of character in so short a segment of the tail without a conviction that this appendage must have been relatively shorter than in the Iguana. The first spine, besides being somewhat shorter, is more rounded off at its anterior margin than the third, a difference which is still more obvious in the detached caudal above described; but above its origin a thin trenchant plate is extended for a short distance from the middle of the anterior margin: this character, which calls to mind one that is present in a greater proportion of the vertebral column in the Crocodilians, is more strongly developed in the second and third vertebra. The neurapophysial suture is more nearly ob- literated in the sixth than in the first of this instructive series, or in the more anterior and detached caudal vertebra. The following are dimensions of the detached anterior caudal (No. 1), and of the first (No. 2) and last (No. 3) of the series of six :— No. 1. No.2. No. 3. In. Lin. In. Lin. In. Lin. Antero-posterior diameter of centrum. . . 2 8 2 8 227 Vertical diameter of articular surface . GP 26 ar 3 2 6 Transverse diameter of articular surface . SPOS 3.2 2 6 From under part of centrum to upper end of posterior articular process . . . . Are yk ie From upper end of posterior oblique pro- cess to the summit of spine. . . BO ie Antero-posterior diameter of base of spine. 1 3* 1 7 1 4 Antero-posterior diameter of summit of spine 2 0 2 2 2 6 * The anterior basal ridge of this vertebra is broken away. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 133 The transverse processes disappear in the posterior caudal vertebra. The chevron bones, of which three are preserved in the slab containing the six caudal vertebra, exhibit the perforated character which distinguishes them from those of the Cetiosaurus and of all existing Crocodiles and Lizards, not excepting the Iguana, in which the hemapophyses are anchylosed at their distal or spinal end only, and remain separate and articulated to two distinct surfaces, at their proximal ends. The length of the superior and inferior vertebral spines, and the shortness of the transverse processes, prove the form of the tail to have been flattened laterally and of great breadth in the vertical direction, at its basal portion at least. Ribs.—These appendages of the vertebral column are largely developed in the thoracic abdominal region of the spine, and had the same two-fold con- nexion with the vertebre as in the other Dinosaurs and the Crocodilians. At the anterior part of the costal region of the spine, the rib was joined by a large head to a shallow cavity, situated at first on the side of the centrum and then on the side of the neurapophysis; and it was further articulated by a tubercle to the extremity of the transverse process. In a certain number of the anterior vertebre, the neck of the rib was co-extensive with the transverse process, and sometimes six or seven inches in length ; afterwards the neck of the rib began to shorten, and the head to decrease in size, and to have its place of articulation brought progressively nearer to the end of the transverse pro- cess, until it finally disappeared, and the posterior ribs became appended to the ends of the transverse processes. In the Iguana, as in other Lizards, the ribs have but one mode of articu- lation, viz. to a simple tubercle developed from the side of the centrum. One of the largest double-jointed ribs of the Jguanodon, in the Mantellian Collection (No. aa) is 46 inches in length. The neck is less distinct from the tubercle and body than in other ribs, which seem to have been situated further back; it expands more graduaily to the tubercular articulation with the transverse process, and is at this part 5 inches in breadth; it bends with a deep oblique curve for about one-fifth of its length, and then is continued in a nearly straight line to its extremity: this is slightly expanded and trun- eated, for the attachment doubtless of a bony sternal rib. The convex or outer margin of the rib is bent backwards so as to overhang the sub-com- pressed shaft of the bone along its upper or proximal third part. The proximal extremity of one of the ribs from the middle of the trunk of the Horsham Jguanodon, presents an ovate head 24 inches in the long dia- meter; the neck is 7 inches long, straight, compressed, and topped by a well- marked tubercle, where it joins the body of the rib. This part is also com- pressed ; and its external margin, besides being bent backwards, is also deve- loped in the contrary direction, so as to assume the form of a slightly convex plate of bone 2 inches broad, attached at right angles to the shaft of the rib, which it overhangs on both sides. This structure is characteristic also of some of the ribs in the other Dinosaurs, and is interesting as indicating the commencement of that peculiar development of the corresponding part of the ribs in the Chelonian reptiles, by which the upper part of their bony box is almost wholly formed. Bones OF THE EXTREMITIES. Scapular Arch—The scapula has not hitherto been discovered so asso- ciated with other unequivocal portions of the skeleton of the Jgzanodon as to permit the characters of this bone in that species to be confidently recognised. The bone (No. 194, Omoplate of Jgwanodon, Mantell. Catal.) agrees with 134 REPORT—1841. the undoubted scapula of the Hyleosaur, and with that of certain Lacertians, especially of the genus Scincus*, in the production of a long and slender pointed process, continued at nearly right angles with the body of the bone, from the anterior part of the articular surface for the coracoid; but it differs from the scapula of the Hyleosaur in the presence of two short processes given off from the lower part of the base of the long process, and in the ab- sence of the thick and strong transverse acromial ridge which overarches the glenoid depression, and in the deeper concavity of the posterior margin of the ascending plate or body of the bone. ‘his part, in its shape, relative length and breadth, is intermediate between the Crocodilian and Lacertian type of the scapula, at least as exemplified in the Monitors and Iguanas, where it is broad and short. The Scines and Chameleons, in the more Crocodilian proportions of their scapule, resemble the Hyleosaur and the great species of extinct Saurian, most probably the Jguanodon, to which the present bone belongs. Coracoid.—The thick articular portion of this bone, with its characteristic perforation, here continued to the articular margin by a narrow fissure, di- viding the scapular from the humeral articulation, has been found of different sizes in the Tilgate strata, and has been, with much probability, likewise re- ferred to the Jguanodun. One of these portions of coracoid, which measured 10 inches in diameter, was found in the same block of stone with other unequivocal remains of Jguanodon. Clavicle—The doubts which are attached to the determination of the pre- vious parts of the scapular arch are fortunately dissipated from the considera- tion of this bone by the preservation of both the right and left clavicles in the Maidstone Jgwanodon. The presence of the fibula in the same block of stone, and its discovery in close proximity with the tibia and femur in the Wealden strata, satisfactorily prove that the present remarkable bone cannot have formed part of the hinder extremity. And since, in other reptiles, the radius differs from the fibula in little more than in being somewhat shorter and thicker, there is still less reason for supposing it to belong to the fore-arm. The form of the ribs of the Zguanodon is well known, and they become shorter and more curved as they advance from the middle to the anterior part of the chest. The determination, therefore, which Dr. Mantell regarded as most probable, must be held to be the true one. The largest entire clavicle from the Wealden strata measures 29 inches in length, and there is a portion of another in the same collection one-third larger. The largest fibula of the Iguanodon that has been found measures 28 inches. The bone is compressed, slender, and subtrihedral at the middle part, expanded and flattened at the two extremities, bent with a slight double curve in a graceful sigmoid form. The broadest end, which, from the analogy of the Cyclodus lizard, must be re- garded as the median or pectoral extremity, gives off two processes, the first appearing as a continuation of the thinner margin of the bone, twisted and produced obliquely downwards; the second process is given off nearer the expanded sternal end, towards which it slightly curves. * Dr. Mantell has pointed out this resemblance in his Memoir in the Phil. Trans., 1841. t ‘(If we consider the form of this bone, it appears that the only place it can hold in the skeleton must be either the thorax or lower extremities; it may be a fibula, a rib, or a cla- vicle; and that it is a clavicle of some extraordinary extinct reptile is certainly most pro- bable.”—Geology of the South-east of England, p. 309. The subsequent discovery of the Maidstone Jguanodon determined the species of reptile to which the bone in question be- longed, and the comparisons mentioned in the text prove it to be a clavicle. The bone attached to the coracoid and omoplate of a small lizard, which I pointed out to Dr. Mantell as resembling the one in question, was the clavicle of the Cyclodus nigroluteus. See Dr. Mantell’s late Memoir of 1841, Phil. Trans., p. 138. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 135 The breadth of the expanded sternal end ofa clavicle, sagt 3°77 inches in length,is . . che The breadth of the scapularend . . -.--.-.-.--. 4 3 From this extremity to the base of the first process . . .19 O The breadth of the narrowest part of the shaft . . . . 1 7 Humerus.—This important bone has not been hitherto satisfactorily deter- mined ; it differs less from the femur in form in Reptiles than in Mammalia. In the Crocodilians it is shorter than the femur, especially in the extinct pis- civorous species, with biconcave vertebre and more strictly aquatic habits. In Lizards it is more nearly equal with the femur, and the similarity of the size of these bones we may conceive to have been greater in the gigantic ter- restrial Dinosaurs. In the modern Crocodiles, the chief distinction in the form of the humerus is the ridge at the upper third of the bone: in Lizards this distinction is almost lost. If we find the femur of the Jguanodon distinguished from that of all other reptiles by the presence of a peculiar process from the inner side of the bone, there are not wanting grounds to expect that the humerus may present a similar character. As the reasons for suspecting that some of the large bones, hitherto uni- formly regarded as the femora, may be the humeri of the Iguanodon, will best appear in the description of the femur, I shall now proceed to the considera~ tion of the large bones with which the femur is articulated. Tlium.—The iliac bone of the Jguanodon* resembles in form that of the Mo- nitor more than that of the Iguana: in the portion of the pelvis in Mr. Saull’s collection it measured 14 inches in length. It commences anteriorly by a thick obtuse extremity slightly bent outwards ; this part is supported by the thickest and strongest of the sacral ribs, which slightly inclines backwards : the ilium quickly increases in vertical as well as transverse extent, forming at its lower part the usual portion of the acetabulum; the concavity terminating behind in a broad obtuse prominence: behind this part the ilium rapidly con- tracts, by a deep inferior emargination, to a comparatively slender process ex- tending backwards and gradually diminishing to an obtuse point, well shown in the detached ilia of the Maidstone Zgwanodon, but here broken off. The chord of the acetabular are or concavity, in Mr. Saull’s specimen, measured 8 inches. In the Maidstone Zguanodon the left ilium lies detached, with its sym- physial articulation or inner surface uppermost, indicating by the extent of that surface, which equals the antero-posterior diameter of nearly five of the dorsal vertebre of the same individual, the length of the sacrum peculiar to this and other Dinosaurian reptiles. Its slender posterior portion terminates in a subacute point: the anterior extremity of the right ischium, which has the opposite surface exposed, bends slightly outwards in the form of a thick tuberosity. Lil) Tare The length of thisboneis . . . . + + + + +16 O Bee Pepthitiy siiwinilriey | esa Vie Wen da Watlbal acirdiicaye oD HHO From the anterior tuberosity to the posterior anata 8 0 of the acetabulum... ee et ee Pubis—This bone, which presents a simple spatulate form in the Croco- diles, already begins to increase in breadth at its symphysial extremity in the extinct family with concave vertebra ; and in the larger existing species of Lizards is expanded at both extremities, and has a very marked and recog- * This bone is figured in Dr. Mantell’s Memoir, Phil. Trans. 1841, pl. viii. fig. 28. 136 REPORT—1841. nizable character superadded, in being bent outwards with a considerable curvature. A massive fragment of a broad osseous plate, bearing a segment of a large articular cavity at its thickest margin, and thence extended as a thinner plate, bent with a bold curvature, and terminated by a thick rounded labrum, offers characters of the Lacertian type of the pubis too obvious to be mistaken. This specimen is from,the Tilgate strata; and, since the. modifications of the ilium of the Jguanodon in the Maidstone skeleton approximate to the Lacer- tian type of the bone, and especially as manifested by the great Varani, in which the recurved character of the pubic plate is most strongly marked, we may, with much probability, assign the fossil in question to the pelvis of the Iguanodon. This fine portion of pubis is of an inequilateral triangular form, 16 inches in its longest diameter, 9 inches 6 lines across its base or broadest part, 6 inches 8 lines across its narrowest part. The fractured surface of the bone, near the acetabulum, is 3 inches 3 lines thick. The acetabular depression is 7 inches across, a proportion which corresponds with that of the acetabular concavity in the ilium, and with the size of the cavity in which the head of _ the Iguanodon’s femur must have been received. One angle of the cavity, corresponding with the anterior one in the Varanus, is raised; a broad and low obtuse ridge bounds the rest of the free margin of the cavity. The smooth labrum exchanges its character near one of the fractured edges of the bone for a rough surface, which indicates the commencement of the sym- physis. In the apparent absence of the perforation below the acetabular de- pression, the present bone agrees with the Crocodilian type. Ischium.—A second fragment of a large lamelliform bone (No. , Man- tellian Catalogue) presents, in its general form and slightly twisted character, most resemblance to the ischium, with traceable modifications intermediate to those presented by the extinct Goniopholis and modern Varani and Iguane. The loss of the acetabular extremity, which is broken away, prevents a cer- tain determination of this bone; the only natural dimension that can be taken is the circumference of the neck, or contracted portion between the acetabu- lar end and the expanded symphysial plate : this circumference gives 7 inches. The slight twist of the bone upon this part as it expands to form the broad symphysial plate,—a character which is well marked in the ischium of the Goniopholis,—gives it a superficial resemblance to the humerus of some of the large Mammalia; but the bone is too short in proportion to the breadth in- dicated by the fractured symphysial end, to afford a probability of its having been the humerus of a land reptile, and much less of the Jguanodon, in which the form of the femur is well ascertained ; unless, indeed, there be actually more discrepancy between the femur and humerus in size and form in the Dinosaurs, than has, hitherto, been recognized in the Reptilian Class. Femur.—The Maidstone Jguanodon does not satisfactorily determine the question of the principal bone of the fore and hind extremities, for whilst the clavicles, many anterior dorsal vertebre and anterior ribs, would lead one to suppose that the two long bones found in their proximity might be humeri; on the other hand the presence of the iliac bones, with some caudal vertebrae in the same slab, give equal probability to their being femora. The bones in question (1 and 2 in the figure of the Maidstone Jgwanodon, published by Dr. Mantell in his ‘ Wonders of Geology,’ vol.i. pl. ii.) have the same general cha- racters, viz. the flattened trochanter at the proximal end, the compressed ridge- like process at the middle, and the two condyles with the deep and narrow fissure at the distal end, which are presented by the larger detached bones, described by Dr. Mantell as femora, from the Tilgate strata. They are other- ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 137 wise too much crushed and buried to yield materials for more minute com- parison: each of these bones measures 33 inches in length. In five separate long bones, having the general characters of the two above- mentioned in the Maidstone Zguanodon, numbered consecutively and marked ‘Femur’ in the Mantellian Collection, Nos. 1 and 3 differ from Nos. 4 and 5 in the greater inward production of the head, making the concavity of the line descending from the head to the median internal ridge somewhat deeper. The lower angle of this median ridge is more produced in Nos. 1, 2 and 3, than in Nos. 4 and 5. The whole inner contour is more regularly concave in No. 5, than in Nos. 1 or 3. Of these five bones, No. 2 was found associated with a tibia and fibula; and if, therefore, the differences above indicated should be more than mere individual varieties of the same bone, we might conclude Nos. 4 and 5 to be humeri. Such conclusion appears more probable from the circumstance of two of the longest and largest of the bones, having the gene- ral characters of the femur of the Zguanodon, which were obtained by Mr. Holmes from the quarry of the Wealden stone at Horsham, belonging both to the right side. _ Now the other bones obtained in proximity with the above were all parts of one large individual, and it is much more probable, therefore, that we have here a right humerus and femur of the same individual, than two right femora of different individuals. One of the differences noticed in the Tilgate speci- mens, viz. the degree of obliquity at which the neck joins the shaft, is dis- cernible in these ; and close to that bone, which shows the characters that we have supposed to belong to the femur, were found bones corresponding with the tibia and fibula. Regarding then this as the femur, it presents the following characters :—it measures 3 feet in length: its circumference at the middle of the shaft is 18 inches: the contour of the rounded inward-projecting part of head is 174 inches: two flat longitudinal facets meet near the middle of the anterior sur- face of the shaft at a rough and slightly elevated angle, which runs straight down to within thirteen inches of the distal end: the ridge there inclines to- wards the internal condyle and subsides. Two strong vasti internus et ex- ternus muscles are indicated by this ridge. The head of the bone is carried inwards, overhanging the shaft in a greater degree than the corresponding part does in the humerus. The line of the inner side of the shaft describes a graceful sinuous curve, being first concave, then slightly convex at the middle, where there is an indication of the projecting ridge which has been broken off: below this it is concave to the flattened antero-posteriorly ex- tended, slightly concave surface, which descends vertically to the articular surface of the condyle, which surface proceeds horizontally at nearly a right angle with the line of the shaft of the bone. The antero-posterior extent of the flattened condyle is 8 inches. The thickness of the external wall of the shaft varies from half an inch to an inch. Both ends of this fine bone are crushed and mutilated. By the side of the femur were found two other bones, the largest of which corresponds with the tibia. The external part of the head is considerably pro- duced horizontally; the cireumference of the proximal articular surface is 30 inches. The longitudinally finely striated vertical surface of the shaft of the bone commences at the anterior part of the proximal end along a well-defined curved line, which runs transversely across. the bone, convex downwards in the middle and concave downwards at each end: the bone rapidly contracts, and assumes, about 8 inches below the head, the subquadrilateral form ; it is broadest from side to side: its circumference is here 15 inches. The anterior surface is flattened ; the outer or radial side convex or rounded : the dense ex- 138 REPORT—1841. ternal walls of this bone are very thick, at least 1 inch. The length of this bone is 27 inches, but. it wants the distal end. The proximal articulation is very convex from behind forwards, but, at the middle, it is slightly concave from side to side. In. Lines. Its lateral diameter'is 2.03) ee 1 0 Its antero-posterior diameteris . . . . . . 5 6 The disparity of size between the tibia and fibula is considerable, but the disparity in the thickness of the two extremities of the bone is less than in the bone which is described and figured as the fibula by Dr. Mantell. On the middle of one of the flat sides of the fibula is an oblong rough surface slightly raised, measuring 3 inches by 2Zinches. The articular extremities of the fibula are tuberculate ; the larger end is 4 inches across, the smaller one 3 inches across. The shaft is subcompressed. A few yards from the three preceding bones was found the, presumed, hu- merus, which measured 35 inches in length, being very nearly equal in size with the femur. Its proximal extremity is crushed and mutilated: the shaft is compressed from before backwards ; concave behind: the submedian ridge or compressed process is developed from the inner side of the shaft at the usual situation, and corresponds in form with those of the bones Nos. 4 and 5, Man- tellian Collection. The distal condyles are divided anteriorly by a narrow lon- gitudinal furrow, which penetrates deeply between them. As the absence of the deep fissure between the condyles of the femur is repeated in the humerus of the Iguana, so may its presence be repeated in the humerus of the Jguanodon. The inner condyle projects backwards beyond the outer one, which is di- stinguished by being traversed by a longitudinal groove. This bone differs from the femur in the shorter neck supporting the head, in its more promi- nent median process, and in the uniform though slight concavity of the inner margin of the shaft. The preceding observations were made during an inspection of the fossils in Mr. Holmes’s interesting collection in the summer of 1840. I have subse- quently been favoured by a letter from that gentleman, containing the follow- ing clear and valuable observations on the two large bones in his collection, which support the view I had taken of their nature. “I have also examined the two large bones concerning which so much doubt exists. They both appear to belong to right extremities, but as the one which has the trochanter, and which by way of distinction I shall call No. 1 (humerus ?), is so much crushed in the direction of the rough ridge, so strongly marked in the other, [ cannot say with any degree of certainty whe- ther it possessed the same form or not. There is, however, this difference at any rate. The head of No.1 is so much mutilated that little ean be said about it, but it is very clear that the neck is shorter than that of No. 2 (fe- mur?), and there is a variation of nearly one-half in the degree of obliquity from the perpendicular of the shaft of the bone in which the two heads are set on; that of No. 2 being more so than the other. They also differ in an- other respect. In measuring from the inferior part of the head, supposing both bones to be placed in an erect position, to the superior portion of the condyle, which is the best way in which I can ascertain their relative length ; No. 2 is longer in the shaft than the other bones, which, if they both belonged to the same individual, (and I think there is no sufficient reason to doubt it) would, according to thy conjecture, make it appear that one is the femur and the other the humerus. “ The question next arises as to which of the bones either name is to be ap- propriated. No. 1 has the trochanter, which is very similar in shape to the femur marked No. 5 in the British Museum. No. 2 has none in its present ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 139 mutilated state, but on examining the posterior part of the shaft, where on the internal side one might expect to meet with some remains of the base of the trochanter, I find the surface of the bone concave, and it diverges much more than I should suppose it would do if it had merely been continuous with the returning surface from the anterior part of the bone, if there had been no trochanter interposed to disturb the otherwise greater rotundity of the shape. “ This leads me to suppose that it once had one, and that it probably might have been formed like that in Nos. | and 2 in the British Museum. If they were not the bones of distinct animals, this might perhaps have been the ease.” Dated Horsham, Nov. 2nd, 1841. The characters of the articular extremities of the femur which are obscured by the mutilated condition of the large specimen, are beautifully shown in the femur of a young Jguanodon, obtained from a pit near Rusper, four miles north of Horsham. The rounded portion of the head extends inwards; it is indented at its anterior part by the commencement of a longitudinal broad channel, which extends down upon the shaft: the articular surface is not con- fined to the inwardly produced head, but extends over the whole proximal horizontal surface of the femur, expanding as it approaches the outer part of the head. The articular surface is circumscribed by a well-defined linear groove, which separates it from the longitudinal striated surface of the shaft of the bone. At the posterior and external angle of the articular proximal end of the bone, a longitudinal column, separated by a longitudinal grcove from the main shaft of the bone, falls into that shaft a little lower down the distal end: here the shaft expands and becomes flattened from before back- wards. The distal end is characterized by a deep and narrow anterior longi- tudinal groove, situated not quite in the middle, but nearer the internal con- dyle: there is a corresponding longitudinal groove on the posterior part of the distal end, which is wider than the anterior one, and in the middle of the bone, separating the two condyles, but inclining beneath, and, as it were, un- dermining the backward projecting part of the internal condyle ; this is much more prominent than the external one, which is traversed or divided by a narrow longitudinal fissure. The articular surface is irregular and tubercu- late. In. Lines. The lateral diameter of proximalend . ..... .2 8 The lateral diameter of distal end 2 0. BO Antero-posterior diameter of outer part of proximal end . 2 0 Antero-posterior diameter of outer part of internalcondyle 2 3 The femur of the Iguana differs as widely from that of the Zgwanodon as does that of the Monitor or any other Lacertian reptile. The forms of the head and trochanter of the femur of the Iguana are just the reverse of those in the [guanodon. The head of the femur in the Iguana is flattened from side to side, and its upper convex surface is extended from before backwards, ma- king no projection over the gentle coucave line leading from its inner surface down to the inner condyle. In the Jgwanodon the head is rounded and rather compressed from before backwards; and is produced, as in Mammals, over the inner side of the shaft. In the Iguana the trochanter is compressed from before backwards, and is separated by a wide and shallow groove from the oppositely compressed head : in the Jguanodon the trochanter is singularly flattened from side to side, and is applied to the outer side of the thick neck, from which it is separated by a deep and narrow fissure. The Iguana has no submedian internal process, and its distal condyles are slightly divided by a shallow depression. The circumference of the femur of the Jgwanodon very nearly equals one- half its length : the circumference of the femur of the Iguana only equals one- 140 REPORT—1841. fourth its length: yet the femur of the Jguanodon equals the united length of eleven of its dorsal vertebra, while that of the Iguana equals the united length of only six of its dorsal vertebree. The femora of the Iguana stand out, like those of most other Tenperians at right angles with the ‘vertical plane of the trunk, which is rather slung upon than supported by those bones: but it is evident from the superior relative length and strength of those bones in the Zguwanodon, from the different con- formation of the articular, especially the proximal extremities, and from the ridges and processes indicative of the powerful muscles inserted into the bone, that it must have sustained the weight of the body in a manner more nearly resembling that in the pachydermal Mammalia. As in some of the more bulky of these quadrupeds, the indication of the ‘ligamentum teres’ is wanting in the head of the femur of the Iguanodon. The tibia of the Jguanodon equals the united length of nine of the dorsal vertebrz, while in the Iguana it does not exceed the united length of five dor- sal vertebre, although it more nearly equals the femur in length than in the Iguanodon. ‘The head of the tibia is more expanded and complicated by deep and wide grooves in the Jguanodon: the fibula is less expanded towards the distal end ‘and less flattened against the tibia in the Jguanodon. The fibula of the small Iguanodon from the pit at Rusper, equals the an- tero-posterior extent of the spines of eight dorsal vertebra of the same indi- vidual. This bone is 13 inches long, 2 inches across the proximal end, and 6 lines across the distal end. Of the great Jgwanodon from the Horsham quarry two metacarpal or me- tatarsal bones are preserved in natural juxtaposition: one exceeds the other by four inches, and measures 2 feet 6 inches ; the breadth of its distal end is 3 inches 3 lines ; the shaft is compressed and subtrihedral ; its texture is spongy at the centre. The proximal end is expanded, with a nearly flat articular sur- face. the contour of which is broken by two longitudinal indentations: the distal end offers a well-sculptured trochlear articulation for the first phalanx. The bone of the Maidstone guanodon (marked 7 inthe figure above cited in the ‘Wonders of Geology’) corresponds with the above described bones of the foot. Some of the phalanges, probably the middle ones, appear to have been sin- gularly abbreviated ; but they have not yet been discovered in such juxtapo- sition with undoubted Iguanodon’s bones as to justify a more precise descrip- tion of their characters under the present head. The distal or ungual phalanges of the Jguanodon, although doubtless offer- ing certain modifications of form in different toes, are shown by those pre- served in the Maidstone Jgwanodon, and others of much larger dimensions, found associated with the bones of the great Zguanodon of the Horsham quarry, to have had a less incurved, broader and more depressed form than in other known Saurians. Two of the largest ungual phalanges of the Hor- sham Jguanodon in Mr. Holmes’s collection, are broad, subdepressed, with the curved vascular groove on each side, as in most other Saurians, with a slightly concave articular base, and terminating forwards in a round blunt edge ; the outer boundary of the lateral grooves forms, at the posterior end of the groove, a laterally projecting process, rendering this part of the phalanx broader than the articular extremity or basis. The following are dimensions of the largest of the two coil —- In. Lines. Length site tls . 5 4 Breadth 5 3..,2 Breadth at articular end . 3. 0 Depth at articular end Zinta The last dimension gradually diminishes to | the distal end. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 141 This phalanx is slightly bent downwards ; the under surface being concave longitudinally, but convex from side to side ; less so than on the upper surface. The under surface is rough; the upper surface nearly smooth, except at the margin of the articular surface, on the projecting sides and at the distal ex- tremity, which is sculptured by irregular vascular grooves and holes. The phalanx has a slight oblique twist to one side, and is somewhat thinned off to that side on which the curved groove is longer than on the other side. In Mr. Saull’s museum is an ungual phalanx of an /guanodon, which nearly equals those from Horsham, and presents the same subdepressed form. The base is slightly convex transversely ; more concave vertically: the articular surface is faintly divided by a median vertical rising: the rounded edge of the articular surface is slightly raised, interrupted on both sides by the smooth shallow commencement of the curved vascular groove: this deepens and con- tracts as it extends forwards. The upper surface is convex longitudinally and transversely ; the lower surface is rather more convex transversely than the upper, but is slightly concave longitudinally. The upper and lateral sur- faces, for about an inch near the base, are deeply sculptured by large irregular longitudinal grooves and ridges; the rest of the upper surface is impressed by fine interrupted longitudinal impressions; but having, on the whole, a smooth appearance. The laminated superposition of the exterior compact portion of the bone is shown by the separation of portions of the layers of about one line in thickness. The under surface is more deeply impressed by cayities having reticulate elevations. The right aliform process begins 10 lines from the articular surface, the left about 14 lines from the same part: their base is bounded below by slight impressions, and above by the lateral canals, which appear to sink into the bone. A few distant vascular grooves mark the upper surface of the bone, but more numerous larger ones are situated near the lateral canals and at the broken anterior end of the phalanx. The following are the dimensions of this bone :— In. Lines. Transverse'diameter 2). 0) 2 ea ee Transverse diameter of brokenend. . . . . Vertical diameter of base.. . Vertical diameter of broken end . Length’to brokentend'2' i s/o ae ae it was probably more than 5 inches long when entire. The largest of the phalangeal bones in the collection of Wealden Rep- tiles in the British Museum, which from its breadth, slight degree of ob- liquity and vascular canals is referrible to the [guanodon, is less than those just described. The phalanx in question (No.38;4, Mantellian Collection) is conical, 45 inches long, probably 5 inches when entire ; but the apex is broken off: the longest diameter of the base or articular surface is 3 inches 3 lines: it is slightly and obliquely compressed, and very slightly curved, and from this circumstance, as well as from the obliquity of the base and its unsymmetrical figure, it probably belonged to the small outer or inner toe at the margin of the foot. Only a small part of the natural smooth articular surface is left, the rest appears to have been scraped away, so that the coarse cancellous structure of the middle of the bone is exposed. The free surface of the bone near the base is deeply sculptured by irregular longitudinal furrows, which served for the implantation of the articular ligaments, The rest of the free surface is tolerably smooth, except at the sides near the apex, where there are numerous oblique outlets for the large vessels and nerves supplying the secreting organ of the claw. The two lateral longitudinal curved grooves which characterize the claws of most Saurians are here well developed ; they commence, one at, the other near, the base ; are at first shallow, then deepen, and finally sink into mM bo bo © ES ODa~THH 142 REPORT—1841. the substance of the bone about 12 inch from its fractured apex. Below one of these canals there is a shallow smooth impression, corresponding no doubt with the margin of the claw. The under surface of the phalanx indicated by the concavity of the curved grooves is more convex transversely than the upper surface: the distance between the converging lateral grooves in this surface is one inch. Among the few other phalangeal bones from Dr. Maniell’s collection in the British Museum, there is one (figured in the ‘ Wonders of Geology,’ pl. iii. fig. 1, as belonging to the fore-foot of the Zgwanodon) which differs in a marked manner from the specimens just described, being as much compressed from side to side as the Iguanodon’s ungual phalanges are, for the most part, flattened from above downwards. One of these compressed phalanges must have been at least four inches in length ; it now measures three inches, with the extremity broken off; it is 2 inches 8 lines in vertical diameter at the base, and only 1 inch 2 lines in the greatest transverse diameter. The , phalanx is more curved downwards than any of the true Iguanodon’s pha- langes, and it is traversed by a longer and shallower groove, the lower margin of which is not produced into a lateral aliform process, nor does the distal end of the groove sink into the substance of the bone. The ungual phalanges on both the fore and hind feet of the Iguana resem- ble this phalanx in form more than they do those of the Jguanodon. In the fore-foot of the Crocodile the ungual phalanx of the first or innermost toe is broad and flat, with lateral ridges, much resembling the depressed phalanges of the Iguanodon. The ungual phalanx of the third digit is of the same length, but is thinner in both transverse and vertical directions, but is less so in the latter. It is not more curved. Still the difference (and this is the greatest that I can perceive in comparing the different ungual phalanges of the same individual Crocodile ( Croc.acutus)) is much less than that which is manifested between the depressed and the compressed phalanges hitherto referred to the Iguanodon. In the great proportion of the skeleton found near Maidstone are two phalanges which correspond in form with those enormous specimens found near Horsham, and with the small depressed claw-bones from Tilgate Forest, unquestionably belonging to the Jguanodon, and supposed by Dr. Mantell to be peculiar to the hind-foot of that Saurian. Size of the Iguanodon.—From the comparison, which the few connected portions of the skeleton of the Zgwanodon enable us to make, between the bones of the extremities and the vertebral column, it is evident that the hind- legs at least, and probably also the fore-legs, were longer and stronger in pro- portion to the trunk than in any existing Saurian. One can scarcely suppress a feeling of surprise, that this striking characteristic of the [gwanodon, in com- mon with other Dinosauria, should have been, hitherto, overlooked ; since the required evidence is only an associated vertebra and long bone of the same individual, or a comparison of the largest detached vertebra with the longest femora or humeri. This characteristic is, nevertheless, one of. the most im- portant towards a restoration of the extinct reptile, since an approximation to a true conception of the size of the entire animal could only be made after the general proportions of the body to the extremities had been ascertained. But it is very obvious that the exaggerated resemblances of the [guwanodon to the Iguana have misled the Paleontologists who have hitherto published the results of their calculations of the size of the Jywanodon; and, hence, the dimensions of 100 feet in length arrived at by a comparison of the teeth and clavicle of the Igwanodon with the Iguana, of 75 feet from a similar compa- rison of their femora, and of 80 feet from that of the claw-bone, which, if founded upon the largest specimen from Horsham, instead of the one com- ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES, 143 pared by Dr. Mantell*, would yield a result of upwards of 200 feet for the total length of the Zguanodon, since the Horsham phalanx exceeds the size of the largest of the recent Iguana’s phalanges by 40 times! But the same reasons which have been assigned for calculating the bulk of the Megalosaurus on the basis of the vertebre, apply with equal force to the Iguanodon. Now the largest vertebra of an Iguanodon which has yet been obtained does not, as has been before stated, exceed 44 inches in length; the most common size being 4 inches. The intervertebral substance is shown, by the naturally juxtaposed series of dorsal vertebra in the Maidstone Iguano- don, to be not more than one-third of an inch in thickness. All the accurately determined vertebra of the Jguwanodon manifest the same constancy of their antero-posterior diameter which prevails in Saurians generally ; the discovery of the true character of the supposed Lacertian vertebre, six inches in length, removes the only remaining doubt that could have attached itself to this im- portant element in the present calculation+. The cervical vertebre of the Iguanodon, when discovered, if they prove to differ in length from the known dorsal and caudal vertebre, will be, in all probability, somewhat shorter, as they are in the Hyleosaur and in all known Crocodiles and Lizards. It re- mains, therefore, to discover the most probable number of the vertebrze of the Iguanodon, in order to apply their length individually to the estimate of the length of the entire body. The structure of the vertebre and the ribs, and especially the variation in both structure and size which the ribs of the Igua- nodon, already obtained, demonstrate to have prevailed in the costal series, render it much more probable'that the number of the costal vertebrzee would resemble that of the Crocodiles than that of the Scincus or other Lizards with unusually numerous dorsal vertebrae, and which possess ribs of a simple and uniform structure, and of nearly equal size. The most probable number of vertebre of the trunk, from the atlas to the last lumbar inclusive, calculated from Crocodilian analogies, would be 24 vertebra ; which is also the number possessed by the Iguana. Twenty-four vertebrz, estimated with their intervertebral spaces at 5 inches each, give 10 feet ; if to this we add the length of the sacrum, viz. 17 inches, then that of the trunk of the Iguanodon would be 11 feet 5 inches; which exceeds that of the Megatherium. If there be any part of the skeleton of the Iguana which may with greater probability than the rest be supposed to have the proportions of the corresponding part of the Iguanodon, it is the lower jaw, by virtue of the analogy of the teeth and the substances they are adapted to prepare for digestion. Now the lower jaw gives the length of the head in.the Iguana, and this equals the length of six dorsal vertebrae, so that as 5 inches rather exceeds the length of the largest Iguanodon’s vertebra yet obtained, with the intervertebral space superadded, on this calculation the length of the head of the largest Igwanodon must have been 2 feet 6 inches. In the description of the caudal vertebre it has been shown that the Igwanodon could as little have resembled the Iguana in the length of its tail}, as in the anato- mical characters of any of the constituent vertebre of that part: the changes which the series of six caudal vertebra present in the length and form of the spinous processes, and in the place of origin of the transverse processes, indi- cate the tail to have been shorter in the Jgwanodon than in the Crocodile. Assuming, however, that the number of caudal vertebrx of the Iguanodon equalled that in the Crocodile, and allowing to each vertebra with its inter- * Mantell, Geology of the South-east of England, p. 314. + See p. 92 of the present Report. t See also the judicious remarks by Dr. Buckland to the same effect, Bridgewater Treatise, p. 244, 144 REPORT— 1841. vertebral space 44 inches, we obtain the length of 12 feet 6 inches for the tail of the Iguanodon. On the foregoing data, therefore, we may liberally assign the following dimensions to the [guwanodon :— Feet. ; Lengthvof Head; say. °2" 28 COR e Bete Length of trunk with sacrum ...... 12 iy 025 950) RN fe Aceh Total length of the Iguanodon . . . 28 The same observations on the general form and proportions of the animal, and its approximation in this respect to the Mammalia, especially the great extinct Megatherioid or Pachydermal species, apply as well to the Jgwanodon as to the Megalosaurus. Order LACERTILIA. Leaving now the gigantic Saurians constituting the order Dinosauria, above characterized, and establishing in several important points of their os- teological structure the transition from the Crocodilian to the Lacertian order, I next proceed to notice the remains of those extinct Reptiles, which manifest in the enduring parts of their organization a closer affinity to the extensive and varied order of the smaller and lower organized Saurians which are dis- tributed over all the warmer parts of the present surface of the earth. The ancient representatives of the Lacertian order are for the most part of gigantic size, and deviate, like many of the ancient Crocodilians, from ex- isting Lizards, by very remarkable characters of the vertebrz, teeth, and dermal bones. Genus Mosasaurvus. Commencing with the species which retain the ordinary ball and socket structure of the vertebre, the gigantic Mosasaurus first claims attention. Two vertebre which have the anterior articular facet concave, the posterior con- vex, and the other characters of this genus, are preserved in the Mantellian Collection. They are from the chalk formation in Sussex, and have been re- ferred by Dr. Mantell to the genus Mosasaurus. Genus LEIODON. Hitherto no teeth corresponding with those of the Mosasaurus Hoffmanni of St. Peter’s Mount near Maestricht, have been discovered in the chalk formations of England. The teeth of the Pliosaur have, in some instances, been mistaken for those of the Mosasaur. The teeth from the chalk of Norfolk, figured and described in my ‘Odonto- graphy*’ as representatives of the genus Leiodon, make the nearest approach ° to the characters of those of the Mosasaurus. They are about one half the size of the maxillary teeth of the Mosasaurus Hoffmanni, and differ more es- sentially in having their outer side as convex as the inner side, the transverse section of the crown being elliptic, the pointed extremities of the ellipse cor- responding with two opposite longitudinal trenchant ridges, which separate the outer from the-inner side of the tooth. The crown expands at the base, which is circular, and is anchylosed to a conical process, developed from the broad alveolar margin of the jaw. In this, which is termed the “ acrodont ” type of dentition, the Leiodon corresponds with the Mosasaur. It is proba- ble that the vertebre of the two extinct reptiles may have corresponded in form; and it is possible that those from the English chalk, hitherto referred to the Mosasaurus, may appertain to the same species as the teeth here de- * P, 261, pl. Ixxii. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 145 seribed. From the correspondence in the general structure, smooth external surface, and mode of attachment of the teeth between the Maestricht Mosa- saur and the English Leiodon, it may be concluded that the latter reptile had the same affinity to the Lacertian type, which the Mosasaur so strikingly manifests in the presence of pterygoid teeth. Genus RAPHIOSAURUS. Under this name I propose to notice a small and hitherto undescribed genus of Lacertians, from the chalk formations near Cambridge, indicated by a por- tion of the lower jaw, containing twenty-two close-set, awl-shaped teeth an- chylosed by their bases to an outer alveolar parapet of bone, and thus corre- sponding with the pleurodont type of dentition among the Lizards. To the same genus may belong a beautiful specimen in the museum of Sir Philip Egerton, consisting of a series of twenty dorsal, two lumbar, two sacral, and a few of the caudal vertebrz, with the pelvic bones, from the chalk near Maidstone, which correspond with the jaw of the Raphiosaurus in size. The vertebral characters are essentially those of the modern Lacertians; but the absence of extremities and teeth prevents the generic affinities being ac- curately determined. It is interesting to find this second: instance of the ‘procelian’ type of vertebree—or those with the anterior cup and posterior ball—in the chalk formations, below which I have not met with any instance of a Reptile agree- ing with the existing species in this structure. Pleurodont Eocene Lizard—Among the fossils obtained by Mr. Col- chester from the Eocene sand, underlying the Red Crag at Kyson, or King- ston, in Suffolk, the existence of a lizard, about the size of the Iguana, is in- dicated by a part of a lower jaw, armed with close-set, slender, subcylindri- cal, antero-posteriorly compressed teeth, attached to shallow alveoli, and with their bases protected by an external parapet of bone. The fragment of jaw is traversed by a longitudinal groove on the inside, and perforated, as in most modern lizards, by numerous vascular foramina along the outside. The teeth are hollow at their base. Seincoid Oolite Lizard——A small Lacertian is indicated by remains dis- covered in the celebrated oolite at Stonestield. The most intelligible of these is a femur, ten lines in length, having a hemispherical head supported on a short subcompressed neck, on each side of the base of which there is a strong conical trochanterian process: the middle of the shaft is cylindrical, and soon expands to form a broad distal extremity. This shape of the bone proves it not to be the young of any of the great Saurians hitherto discovered at Stonesfield (the expansion of the distal end removes it from the Chelonian reptiles), but indicates its affinity to the Scincoidian lizards, the largest forms of which, it may be remarked, now exist in Australia, where they are assu- ciated with Araucaria and cycadeous plants, with living Terebratule, and Tri- gonie, and with the peculiar marsupial quadrupeds ; the remains of all which forms of organized beings characterize the same stratum and locality as that in which the present extinct Lacertian was found. No vertebra of the. proccelian type have hitherto been discovered in the oolite, and it is most probable that those of the small Lacertian here indica- ted, agree with those of most other extinct Saurians of the secondary forma- tions in having both articular extremities subconcave. Genus Ruyncuosaurus. The biconcave structure unquestionably characterizes the vertebra of the small Lacertian from the new red sandstone quarries near Shrewsbury, on which the well-marked and distinct genus Rhynchosaurus is founded, 1841, L 146 : REPORT—1841. For the opportunity of examining the rare and interesting remains of the Rhynchosaurus tam indebted to Dr. Ogier Ward of Shrewsbury, and to the Council of the Natural History Society of that town, in the museum of which many of the fossils here described are deposited. They occur at the Grinsill quarries, in a fine-grained sandstone, and also in a coarse burr-sandstone; in the latter are imbedded some vertebre, portions of the lower jaw, a nearly entire skull, fragments of the pelvis and of two femora: in the fine-grained sandstone, vertebra, ribs, and some bones of the scapular and pelvic arches are imbedded. The bones present a very brittle and compact texture; the exposed surface is usually smooth, or very finely striated, and of a light blue colour. The sandstones containing these bones occasionally exhibit impressions of footsteps which resemble those figured in the Memoir by Messrs. Murchison and Strickland, Geol. Trans., 2nd Series, vol. v. pl. xxviii. fig. 1, but differ in the more distinct marks of the claws, the less distinct impression of a web, the more diminutive size of the innermost toe, and an impression corresponding with the hinder part of the foot, which Dr. Ward compares to “a hind-toe pointing backwards, that, like the hind-claw of some birds, only touched the ground with its point, which was armed in some of the foot-prints with a claw still longer than those of the fore-toes *.” The foot-prints are likewise more equal in size and likewise in their intervals than those figured by Messrs. Murchison and Strickland : they measure from the extremity of the outermost or fifth toe to that of the innermost or first rudimental toe, about one inch and a half. They are the only foot-prints that have as yet been detected in the new red sandstone quarries at Grinsill. . | proceed now to describe the fossil bones, respecting which Dr. Ward ob- serves, “as they have always been found nearly in the same bed as that im- pressed by the footsteps above described, I am induced to believe that these are the bones of the same animal:” an opinion, which, from the correspond- ence between the bones and the foot-prints in size, is, at least, highly probable. Vertebre.—Both surtaces of the centrum are concave, and are deeper than in the biconcave vertebre of the extinct Crocodilians; the texture of the cen- trum is compact throughout. The two lateral surfaces join the under surface at a nearly right angle, the transverse section presenting a subquadrate form, with the angles rounded off: the under surface and sides are regularly con- cave lengitudinally. The neural arch is anchylosed with the centrum, without trace of suture, as in most lizards: it immediately expands and sends outwards from each angle of its base a broad triangular process with a flat articular surface ; the two anterior surfaces look directly upwards, the posterior ones downwards ; the latter are continued backwards beyond the posterior extremity of the centrum; the tu- bercle for the simple articulation of the rib is situated immediately beneath the anterior oblique process. So far the vertebre of the Rhynchosaurus, always excepting their biconcave structure, resemble the vertebra of most recent li- zards. In the modification next to be noticed, they show one of the verte- bral characters of the Dinosauria. A broad obtuse ridge rises from the upper convex surface of the posterior articular process and arches forwards along the neural arch above the anterior articular process, and gradually subsides anterior to its base: the upper part of this arched angular ridge forms, with that of the opposite side, a platform, from the middle line of which the spi- nous process is developed. ‘This structure is not present in existing lizards; the sides of the neural arch in their vertebrae immediately converge from the articular processes to the base of the spine, without the intervention of an angular ridge formed by the side of a raised platform. The base of the spinous * Extract of a letter, dated Shrewsbury, November 27th, 1840. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 147 process in the Rhynchosaur is broadest behind, and commences there by two roots or ridges, one from the upper and back part of each posterior articular precess: they meet at the posterior part of the summit of the neural arch, whence the spinous process is continued upwards as a simple plate of bone, its base extending forwards along about two-thirds of the length of the plat- form, which then again divides into two ridges, which diverge from each other in slight curves to the anterior and external angles of the neurapophyses. The interspace of the diverging anterior crura of the base of the spine is occupied by a triangular fossa, not continued into the substance of the spine; this fossa is bounded below by a horizontal plate of bone extended over the an- terior part of the spinal canal, and terminated by a convex outline. The anterior margin of the spinous process is thin and trenchant; the height of the spine does not exceed the antero-posterior diameter of its base; it is obliquely rounded off. The spinal canal sinks into the middle part of the centrum and rises to the base of the spine, so that its vertical diameter is twice as great at the middle as at the two extremities: this modification resembles in a certain degree that of the vertebre of the Pal@osaurus from the Bristol conglomerate. The following are dimensions of the most perfect of the dorsal vertebrz of the Rhynchosaurus :— Lines. Mpenonetl oF the Contin |) ee ae ee OT i a eae marries ee MPCHIAR CHO soe Nee ey an tee ye ik een oh Breadth of the articular end . . 224 From the lower margin of the posterior extremity ‘of ‘the centrum to 5 the posterior part ‘of the base of the BOMe ye she From the lower margin of the Pour extremity of the centrum to 9 the summit of the spine. . . Prt 4 Antero-posterior extent of base of s spine Breadth of the neural arch, from the outer margin of one » anterior a articular process to that of the opposite side . 2 Breadth of the neural arch at the interspace between the anterior and y posterior oblique processes. . ‘ Breadth of the neural arch across the middle of the spinal platform oe Skull—The most complete specimen yet obtained of this instructive part of the skeleton of the Rhynchosaurus, is imbedded in a portion of the coarse- grained sandstone from the Grinsill quarries. The lower jaw is in its natural position, as when the mouth is shut, showing that the parts had not been dis- located from the time of the death of the animal to its becoming imbedded in the sand. The skull presents the form of a four-sided pyramid, compressed laterally, and with the upper facet arching down in a graceful curve to the apex, which is formed by the termination of the muzzle. The very narrow cranial box; the wide temporal fossz on each side, bounded posteriorly by the parietal and the mastoid bones, and laterally by strong compressed zygomata; the long tympanic pedicle, descending freely and vertically from the point of union of the posterior transverse and zygomatic arches, and terminating in a convex pulley for the articular concavity of the lower jaw; the large and complete orbits; and the short, compressed, and bent down maxillee,—all combine to prove the fossil to belong to the Lacertian division of the Saurian order. The mode of articulation of the skull with the spine cannot be determined in the present specimen, but the lateral compression and the depth of the skull, the great vertical breadth of the superior maxillary bone, the smaller relative size of the temporal spaces, the great vertical breadth of the lower jaw, all prove that it does not belong to a reptile of the Batrachian order. The shortness LZ 148 REPORT—1841. of the muzzle and its compressed form, equally remove it from the Crocodili- ans. No Chelonian has the tympanic pedicle so long, so narrow, or so freely suspended to the posterior and lateral angles of the cranium. The general aspect of the skull differs, however, from that of existing Lacer- tians, and resembles that of a bird or turtle, which resemblance is increased by the apparent absence of teeth. The intermaxillary bones, moreover, are double, as in Crocodiles and Chelonians, but, with this exception, all the essen- tial characters of the structure of the skull are those of the Lizard. Of the proper walls of the cerebral cavity, the portion formed by the parietal and frontal bones is exposed ; the parietal is traversed longitudinally by a thin, but high, median crest; the part of the bone forming the sides of the small cerebral cavity are convex, and the breadth of the bone diminishes towards the occiput; here it divides into two branches, which pass outwards more transversely than in existing lizards. There is no perforation either in the parietal bone or in the coronal suture. At the anterior part of the parietal crest two lines diverge from each other at a right angle to the upper part of the orbit, and separate the post-frontals. A nearly transverse suture divides the fore-part of the parietal from the post-frontals. The median frontal bone is single, like that of the New World Monitors ( Thorictes, Tejus, &c.) and the Iguanz, and not divided, as in the Varanians. It expands slightly as it ad- vances towards the fore-part of the orbits: the oblique lines dividing the median frontals from the post-frontals, and the supraorbital ridges are raised, so that the interspace is slightly concave, and the surface is also broken by irregular elevations and depressions. Each post-frontal is divided by a nearly transverse suture. The posterior frontal completes the upper and outer part of the orbit by a thin, well-defined, curved plate; an irregular obtuse ridge descends in a nearly vertical direction behind this plate, and then the posterior frontal contracts and is extended backwards in the form of a long compressed process, gradually terminating in a point, which overlaps the zygomatic bone. This bone forms the medium of union between the long posterior frontal and the mastoid. The tympanic bone presents a slight sigmoid flexure, and is expanded trans- versely at its distal extremity ; its posterior surface is exposed, which is con- vex and rounded, and continued externally in the form of a thin plate, which is concave behind. The thick convex stem divides near the lower end into two ridges, which diverge, like the condyles of a humerus, and intercept the trochlea, on which the concave articulation of the lower jaw plays. The tym- panic trochlea is convex from behind forwards, concave from side to side. The orbit is large, nearly circular in form, and its bony frame is complete ; this is formed above by the median, anterior, and posterior frontals; before by the anterior frontal and lachrymal; below by the malar; and behind by the malar and posterior frontal. The malar bone, as in most lizards, is long, slender, and bent upon itself, but its external surface is unusually concave, the orbital plate bending out- wards like the corresponding rim formed by the frontal bone. The anterior or horizontal branch of the malar gradually tapers to a point which is wedged in between the lachrymal and maxillary bones. The posterior branch ascends at nearly a right angle, and is applied obliquely to the posterior part of the descending process of the posterior frontal. At the angle between the two portions of the malar a process is continued backwards for about half an inch, but its extremity is broken off. The lachrymal bone presents the same relative position and size as in the Zhorictes, Lacerta, and most lizards; a tubercle rises from about the middle of its external surface. The superior maxillary is a hroad vertical triangular plate of bone, with a smooth external surface ; ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 149 the alveolar border projects externally like a ridge, above which the bone is slightly concave. This ridge appears to be slightly dentated ; it overlaps the corresponding alveolar border of the lower jaw. ‘The posterior and su- perior margin of the maxillary is slightly concave, and joins the malar and lachrymal bones and a small part of the prefrontal: the anterior superior mar- gin joins the upper half of the elongated intermaxillary, which divides it from the nasal bones and the external nostril; the lower side or base of the triangle, which forms the alveolar border, is convex. The most singular character of the cranium of the present fossil genus is afforded by the intermaxillary bones. These, in their length and regular downward curvature, give to the fore-part of the skull the physiognomy of that of a parrot or accipitrine bird, but they differ essentially from both those of the bird and lizard in being distinct from each other throughout their whole length, and in gradually diminishing to their inferior extremity, which is not expanded and continued laterally to form any part of the alveolar border of the upper jaw. Each intermaxillary bone is a slender, subcompressed, elon- gated bone, bent so as to describe a quarter of a circle; the upper half is thinner, but rather broader than the lower half, and is wedged in between the superior maxillary, frontal and nasal bones ; the lower half, which is some- what narrower but thicker, and is subcylindrical, projects freely downwards beyond the superior maxillary bone; the deep anterior extremity or com- pressed symphysis of the lower jaw is applied to the posterior surface of these produced extremities of the two intermaxillaries, when the mouth is closed. The two intermaxillaries converge towards each other from their posterior origins, and are in close contact with each other, where they form the singular curved projecting beak. The external nostril is single and situated between the upper diverging ends of the intermaxillaries, but a fracture of the fossil at this part prevents the precise form of this aperture, or the mode of termination of the nasal bones, from being determined. ‘The nasal bones, if not actually absent in the present fossil, as in most Chelonians, must have been extremely small, as in the Cha- meleons. The lower jaw is of considerable depth, and exceeds, as in most Saurians, the length of the cranium. The articular cavity is deep and wide; the angle of the jaw is broken off directly behind this cavity on the left side, but is con- tinued backwards beyond it for more than half an inch on the right side. The ramus gradually expands in the vertical direction, and becomes thinner from side to side, as it advances forwards to about its middle part, which is just behind the orbit, where it measures 11 lines in depth; it then begins gra- dually to diminish vertically to the symphysis, which again slightly increases vertically to its termination, which is obliquely truncated, much compressed laterally, and applied against the deflected extremities of the produced inter- maxillaries. The posterior half of the maxillary ramus is slightly convex ex- ternally, the anterior narrower part is slightiy concave; the superior margin describes a slight but graceful sigmoid curve, convex posteriorly, and con- cave anteriorly, where it is applied to the convex alveolar border of the upper maxillary bone, to the inner side of which it is closely adapted. The alve- olar border forms an external, convex, projecting ridge, analogous to that of the upper jaw. The composite structure of the lower jaw is very clearly dis- played in the fossil. The articular piece is short, but is continued forward as a slender process below the angular piece, as in the Varanus; the angular piece is relatively larger than in the Varanus, and presents nearly the same proportions as in the Zhorictes. The supra-angular is larger, and occupies the proportion of the jaw formed by the supra-angular and coronoid elements 150 REPORT—1841, in Thorictes and other lizards: the opercular element extends further upon the outside of the jaw from its lower margin than in the existing lizards; the Thorictes again, in this respect, coming nearest to the Rhynchosaurus: the dentary element constitutes the rest of the outer part of the ramus, but not the slightest trace of teeth is discernible. The present singular and highly interesting cranium seems to have been preserved with the mouth in the naturally closed state, and the upper and lower jaws are in close contact. In this state we must suppose that they were originally buried in the sandy matrix which afterwards hardened around them; and since lizards, owing to the unlimited reproduction of their teeth, do not become edentulous by age, we must conclude that the state in which the Rhynchosaurus was buried, with its lower jaw in undisturbed articulation with the head, accorded with its natural condition, while living, so far as the less perishable hard parts of its masticatory organs were concerned. Neverthe- less, since a view of the inner side of the alveolar border of the jaws has not been obtained, we cannot be assured of the actual edentulous character of this very singular Saurian; for in the genera Agama and Chameleo the den- tal system, seen only from the outside of the jaws, is represented by mere den- tations of the alveolar border, and the anchylosed bases of the teeth, the crowns of which really form the dentations, are recognizable only by an inside view. The indications of the dental system are at any rate more obscure in the Phynchosaurus than in any existing Lacertian; the dentations of the upper jaw are absolutely feebler than in the Chameleon, and no trace of them can be detected in the lower jaw, where they are strongest in the Chameleon. The absence of the coronoid process in the Rhynchosaurus, which is conspi- cuously developed in all existing lizards, corresponds with the unarmed con- dition of the jaw, and the resemblance of the Rhynchosaurus in this respect to the Testudo (Chelys) ferox, would seem to indicate that the correspond- ence extended to the toothless condition of the jaws. The resemblance of the mouth to the compressed beak of certain sea-birds, the bending down of the curved and elongated intermaxillaries, so as to be opposed to the deep symphysial extremity of the lower jaw, are further indications that the ancient Rhynchosaur may have had its jaws encased by a bony sheath, as in birds and turtles. A small flattened triangular plate, which adhered to the posterior part of the skull, was suspected by Dr. Ward to be a tooth; it appeared to me, from the character of the exposed surface, to have at least equal claims to be re- garded as a dermal scute. In preparing the mould of the cranium this part was detached and lost, a cireumstance which I have much regretted, since it prevented my applying to it the test of a microscopical examination. I proceed now briefly to notice the other portions of the skeleton, which, from their size, texture, and community of stratum and locality, are with much probability referable to the Rhynchosaurus, Considerable portions of two rami of two distinct lower jaws, in portions of sandstone from the Grinsill quarries, show the same structure as that of the jaw in the cranium above described ; the thick edentulous alveolar border is bounded below on the outside by the longitudinal channel; the lower border of the ramus is thick and smoothly rounded, it is somewhat abruptly con- stricted immediately behind the deflected extremity or symphysis. The struc- ture of the bone is very compact; the fractured end demonstrates the large cavity, common in reptiles, which is included between the opercular and dentary pieces. One piece of fine-grained sandstone contains a considerable proportion of four of the dorsal vertebra in a connected chain, which measures 1 inch 10 ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 151 lines. Near this chain of four and a smaller part of a fifth vertebra, there are portions of four ribs. These have a single, not a bifurcated head ; they are subcompressed, slightly and pretty uniformly curved, and grooved longi- tudinally on both sides; the longest portion of rib measures 2 inches, follow- ing the curvature. The same fragment of sandstone contains three flat bones, which offer several striking modifications, whether they be compared with the constituents of an os innominatum or of the scapular arch. The most entire of the three bones consists of a thicker articular end; along, broad and thin plate, forming the body of the bone; and a mode- rately long trihedral process, given off from the convex margin near the articular end. In these characters the comparative anatomist conversant with the modifications of the skeleton in recent and extinct Saurians will re- cognize a resemblance to the scapula of the Iguanodon and Hyleosaur, in a minor degree to the ischium of the Crocodile, and somewhat more remote- ly, to the pubis of the Tortoise. The trihedral process, in the second compa- rison, would match the anterior pubic process of the Crocodile’s ischium, but the entire bone would differ from that of the Crocodile in the slender- ness of the pubic process, in the greater breadth and less length of the body of the bone, and in its extreme thinness; it increases in thickness, however, as in the Crocodile’s ischium, towards the articular end. The correspond- ence of the trihedral process of the bone in question with the long spinous process of the Chelonian pubis, is less close than the one just discussed. If the present well-marked bone of the Rhynchosaur be regarded as a scapula, it is to that bone in the Dinosauria that it offers most resemblance; and the prismatic process would then correspond with the one sent off from the an- terior part of the coracoid articular surface in the scapula of the Hyleosaur and Iguanodon. It is the concavity at the neck of the bone, at the side oppo- site that from which the process is sent, which gives it a nearer resemblance to the Dmosaurian scapula than to the Crocodilian ischium; it differs from the scapula of the Crocodile in having the posterior margin, beyond the neck, straight instead of convex; the corresponding margin in the ischium being concave. The blade of the bone, considered as scapula, is broader and shorter than in either the Dinosaurs or Crocodiles. Its outer surface is slightly con- vex: supposing it to be placed vertically upon the thicker articular end, the prismatic process is directed forwards and downwards. There are a few small pits or inequalities near the neck or thick articular margin in the present fossil. The outer surface of the plate is marked with extremely fine strie, radiating from the neck. tas lw: Berio OF tie BONG: he) Rs MH EE hh Breadth Of REE VT OL FAM Ae 2s) 3) Pe OMB IBTEAALHNOL DASE a Se PS le AO Length of trihedral process. . . . . 2... 0 8 Coracoid.—The remains of a thin and broad plate of bone, attached by a short neck to an apparently articular thickened head or precess, might be compared with a coracoid, as it resembles, so far as it is preserved, the cora- coid of lizards, more than it does any other known bone; there is not, how- ever, the perforation near the articular surface. The breadth of the neck is 6 lines, that of the body of the bone which remains 13 lines; the length, or diameter at right angles to the above, is 10 lines; the bone is thinned off to an edge, which is gently convex. Humerus.—A third bone, imbedded in the same piece of sandstone at a little distance from the preceding, is expanded at both extremities, contracted and twisted in the middle; one of the expanded extremities, apparently the 152 REPORT—-1541. proximal end, is nearly entire; it terminates by an irregular convex border, not thinned off to an edge, but adapted to the formation of a joint, and to the attachment of cartilage. The exposed surface of the expanded head is con- cave from side to side., somewhat resembling the expanded and bent pubic plate in lizards. The opposite extremity is broken across ; it shows the com- mencement of a slight longitudinal ridge near its middle part. This bone bears most resemblance to a humerus, but I am at present unable to deter- mine it unequivocally. If compared with the left pubis of Lacertians, the entire and bent extremity corresponds with the median portion of that bone; but the middle part or stem is much longer in the fossil, and the broken end, which would agree with the acetabular end of the pubis, is too thin to have entered into the formation of such a cavity in the fossil ; it likewise wants the perforation which characterizes the pubis in lizards. The same thinness and imperforate condition of the fractured end oppose the comparison of the pre- sent bone with the coracoid of the Crocodile. In. Lin. Length of this bone as far as complete . . . .... 1 9 Breadth of middie: it si iusiniaad 55 o itleti nie, Bie ese: ker DPD Breadth of entire expanded extremity ee A molt In the slab containing the above-described bones, there are other fragments of bone, but too small and imperfect for profitable description. Those of which I have endeavoured to make the form and analogies intelligible, though evidently peculiar, as might be expected in a Saurian with so strange a head, and perhaps with a hind-toe directed backwards as in birds, may be regarded as, most probably, constituents of a strong and well-developed pectoral arch, and a humerus; and they indubitably indicate a mechanism for locomotion on land, which would well agree with that of the animal that has left the im- pressions of its footsteps upon the same sandstone. Radius and Ulna.— Another piece of coarse-grained sandstone from the same quarry contains a series of seven or eight vertebra in a very fragmentary state, also two or three ribs, rather more slender and not so distinetly grooved as in the fine-grained slab, and the proximal extremities of two long bones, which may be best compared with the radius and ulna. The shaft of the radius is more slender than that of the ulna; one side is flat, the other con- vex ; it expands and assumes a subtrihedral figure, by the development of a slight longitudinal ridge; its proximal end is compressed and more suddenly expanded ; its breadth is 23 lines, that of the shaft of the bone is 1] line. The impression, partly broken away in the stone, indicates the greater expansion of the distal end of this bone, with a length of 1 inch 3 lines. ‘The proximal end of the ulna has a distinct trihedral figure, and the expanded extremity is produced backwards, so as to indicate the olecranon; the breadth of the head is 4 lines, that of the middle of the shaft is 23 lines. There is a portion of a broad and flat bone in this piece which may have belonged to the scapular arch. Ltium.—In another piece of stone, with the other portion of the same chain of five vertebra, there is a broad and flat bone, apparently terminating in a long narrow process at one end, which may be an ilium; its length is indi- cated to be at least 1 inch 7 lines. F'emora.—A thin piece of burr or coarse-grained sandstone contains the articular end of a broad and flat bone, in which the raised oblong surface of the joint is divided by a smooth channel, and may be compared with the co- tyloid portion of the ilium; the same piece of stone contains the shafts of two long bones, most probably femora. The length of the most perfect of these is 2 inches, and this does not include the distal end; the diameter of the ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 153 middle of the shaft is 25 lines; the surface of the preserved middle part shows the shaft to have been somewhat angular; the compact outer wall of the bone is about a quarter of a line thick; a large medullary cavity extends the whole length of the shaft, agreeing with the indications of terrestrial habits yielded by the bones before described; the extremities of the femora are spongy, but much decomposed and stained with iron-mould. There are few genera of extinct reptiles of which it is more desirable to obtain the means of determining the precise modifications of the locomotive extreinities than the Athynchosaurus. The fortunate preservation of the skull has brought to light modifications of the Lacertine structure leading towards Chelonia and Birds, which before were unknown; the vertebre likewise ex hibit very interesting deviations from the Lacertian type. The entire recon- struction of the skeleton of the Rhynchosaurus may be ultimately accom- plished, if the same interest in the collection and preservation of the fossils of the Grinsill quarries be continued, as has already produced so important an accession to Paleontology through the well-directed zeal of Dr. Ogier Ward and other members of the Literary and Scientific Association at Shrewsbury. THECODONTS. Among the inferior or squamate Saurians there are two leading modifica- tions in the mode of attachment of the teeth, the base of which may be either anchylosed to the summit of an alveolar ridge, or to the bottom of an alveolar groove, and supported by its lateral wall. These modifications are indicated respectively by the terms “ acrodont” and “ pleurodont.” A third mode of fixation is presented by some extinct Saurians, which, in other parts of their organization, adhere to the squamate or Lacertine division of the order, the teeth being implanted in sockets, either loosely or confluent with the bony walls of the cavity; these I have termed the “ thecodont” * Lacertians: the most ancient of all Saurians belong to this group. Thecodontosaurus, Riley and Stutchbury.—In the dolomitic conglomerate at Redland near Bristol, a formation considered to belong to the oldest or lowest division of the new red sandstone series, remains of reptiles have been dis- covered by Dr. Riley and Mr. Stutchbury+t, which are allied in the form of their teeth to the typical Varanian Monitors, but differ in having the teeth imbedded in distinct sockets ; to this condition, however, the Varani, among the squamate Saurians, make an approach in the shallow cavities containing the base of the teeth along the bottom of the alveolar groove. In the ancient extinct genus in question the sockets are deeper, and the inner alveolar wall is nearly as high as the outer one; the tecth are arranged in a close-set series, slightly decreasing in size towards the posterior part of the jaw; each ramus of the lower jaw is supposed to have contained twenty- one teeth. These are conical, rather slender, compressed and acutely pointed, with an anterior and posterior finely-serrated edge, the serratures being di- rected towards the apex of the tooth, as in the genus Rhopaledon of G. Fischer; the outer surface is more convex than the inner one; the apex is slightly recurved; the base of the crown contracts a little to form the fang, which is subeylindrical. The pulp-cavity remains open in the base of the crown. In their microscopic structure, the teeth of the Thecodontosaurus closely correspond with that of the teeth of the Varanus, Monitor, and Me- gulosaurus. The body of the tooth consists of compact dentine, in which the calcigerous tubes diverge from an open pulp-cavity at nearly right angles to * Odontography, part ii. p. 266. T Geological Transactions, 1836, p. 349. 154 REPORT—1841. the surface of the tooth; they form a slight curve at their origin, with the concavity directed towards the base of the tooth; then proceed straight, and at the periphery bend upwards in the contrary direction. The diameter of the calcigerous tube is +,th of an inch; the breadth of the interspace of the tubes is Seoath of an inch. The crown of the tooth is invested with a simple coat of enamel. This microscopic examination of the structure of the teeth, which I have been enabled to make by the kindness of Mr. Stutchbury, satisfactorily esta- blishes the distinction between the Saurian of the Bristol conglomerate and the reptiles of the later member of the new red sandstone system in War- wickshire, which I have described under the name of Labyrinthodon. Paleosaurus, Riley and Stutchbury.—In the formation which contained the jaw and teeth of the Thecodontosaurus, two other teeth were separately discovered, differing from the preceding and from each other; the crown of one of these teeth measuring 9 lines in length and 4 lines in breadth. It is compressed, pointed, with opposite trenchant and serrated margins; but its breadth as compared with its length is so much greater than in the Thecodonto- saurus, that Dr. Riley and Mr. Stutchbury have founded upon it the genus Pa- leosaurus,and distinguish it by the specific name of platyodon, from the second tooth, which they refer to the same genus under the name of Paleéosaurus cylindrodon. The portion of the tooth of the Paleosaurus cylindrodon which has been preserved, shows that the crown is sub-compressed and traversed by two opposite finely-serrated ridges, as in the Zhecodontosaurus and Rho- palodon ; its length is 5 lines, its breadth at the base 2 lines. The vertebrze associated with these teeth are biconcave, with the middle of the body more constricted, and terminal articular cavities rather deeper than in Teleosawrus; but they are chiefly remarkable for the depth of the spinal canal at the middle of each vertebra, where it sinks into the substance of the centrum; thus the canal is wider, vertically, at the middle than at the two ends of the vertebra: an analogous structure, but less marked, obtains in the dorsal vertebra of the Rhynchosaurus from the new red sandstone of Shropshire. Besides deviating from existing lizards in the thecodont dentition and bi- concave vertebrz, the ancient Saurians of the Magnesian conglomerate also differed in having some of their ribs articulated by a head and tubercle to two surfaces of the vertebra, as at the anterior part of the chest in Crocodiles and Dinosaurs. The shaft of the rib was traversed, as in the Ichthyosaur and Rhynchosaur, by a deep longitudinal groove. Some fragmentary bones indicate obscurely that the pectoral arch deviated from the Crocodilian and approached the Lacertian or Enaliosaurian type in the presence of a clavicle and in the breadth and complicated form of the coracoid. The humerus ap- pears to have been little more than half the length of the femur, and to have been, like that of the Rhynchosaurus, unusually expanded at the two extre- mities. The femur is thus described by the discoverers of the present the- codont reptiles :— “ Two femurs, in a tolerable state of perfection, have fortunately been found; one, of the right side, exhibiting nearly the whole of the bone, the inferior condyles only wanting; the other is the left, and exhibits the con- dyles, but is very imperfect at the superior extremity. The first mentioned measures 10 inches in length; from the head to the middle of the trochanter 3 inches ;§;ths; from the trochanter to the inferior condyle 5 inches 7Gths. In the left femur the transverse diameter of the condyles is 2 inches ;%>ths; the centre of the cylinder 1 inch, They are curved in two directions upon ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 155 the axis, giving them somewhat a twisted form, or the shape of a long f‘an- tero-posteriorly. The trochanter is well preserved, wedge-shaped, and of considerable size, as may be seen by reference to the figures. The articular head is flattened at the space between the trochanter, and the articular ex- tremity is more curved than any other part of the bone: the centre is nearly round, but a slight elevation or ridge exists on its posterior surface, in the situation of the linea aspera of the human femur. The condyles are flat- tened, the outer one being the larger; there is a deep depression between them posteriorly, and a very slight one anteriorly. * On an attentive comparison of these femurs with those of the Crocodile and Megalosaurus, we again recognise a resemblance. A comparison with the femurs of the Monitors evidently shows that our animal cannot have be- longed to that family. The femurs of the Monitor are much less curved, being nearly straight, and the trochanter is much nearer the articular ex- tremity ; characters sufficiently showing a wide difference between them.” The tibia, fibula, and metatarsal bones manifest, like the femur, the fitness of the thecodont Saurians for progression on land. The ungual phalanges are sub-compressed ; curved downwards, pointed, and impressed on each side with the usual curved canal. The general conclusions which may be drawn from the knowledge at pre- sent possessed of the osteology of the Thecodontosaurus and Paleosaurus, the antiquity of which the discoverers of these genera regard as being greater than that of any other vertebrated animals, excepting fishes, are, that in their thecodont type of dentition, biconcave vertebrz, double-jointed ribs, and pro- portionate size of the bones of the extremities, they are nearly allied to the Teleosaurus ; but that they combine a Lacertian form of tooth, and structure of the pectoral and probably pelvic arch with these Crocodilian characters, having distinctive modifications, as the moniliform spinal canal, in which, however, the almost contemporary Rhynchosaur participates. It would be interesting to ascertain whether the caudal vertebra are characterized, as in the Thuringian Protorosaur, by double diverging spinous processes *. Cladyodon, nob.—In the new red sandstone (Keuper?) of Warwick and Leamington, there occur detached, pointed, trenchant, recurved teeth, the crowns of which are sometimes | inch 4 lines in length, and 5 lines across the base: they have been found in the same quarries as those containing the re- mains of the Labyrinthodon. In their compressed form, anterior and posterior serrated edges, sharp points, and microscopic structure, these teeth agree with those of the Saurian reptiles of the Bristol conglomerate. In their breadth, as compared with their length and thickness, they are intermediate between the Thecodontosaurus and the Palgosaurus platyodon; but they are larger, with longer and more recurved crowns, and thus more nearly approach the form characteristic of the teeth of the Megalosaurust. From these teeth, however, they differ in their greater degree of compression, and in a slight contraction at the base of the crown; I therefore indicate the genus, of which, as yet, only the teeth are known, by the name of Cladyodon, and the species from the Warwickshire sandstones by the name of Cladyodon Lloydit, in testimony of the friendly aid of Dr. Lloyd of Leamington, to whose zealous co-opera- tion I owe the materials for the description of the teeth of the present genus, and the still more remarkable ones of the British species of Labyrinthodon, with which the teeth of the Cladyodon are associated. * This structure I have ascertained in the original specimen described by Spener, now preserved in the Hunterian Museum. + One of the teeth of the Cladyodon is figured in the Memoir of Messrs. Murchison and Strickland on the Warwick Sandstones, Geol. Trans., second series, vol. v. pl. xxviii. fig. 6. 156 REPORT—1841. Order PTEROSAURIA. The term Ornithocephalus, originally imposed by Soemmering on the genus Pterodactylus, Cuv., which is the type of the present extinct order of reptiles, would be much more applicable to the Rhynchosaurus ; for although a more striking approach to the class of birds is made by the modification of the pectoral extremity which endowed the Pterodactyle with the power of flight, it is precisely in the structure of the cranium that it adheres most closely to the ordinary Saurian type of structure. The genus Pterodactylus was ranked among the swimming-birds by Blu- menbach, with the cheiropterous Mammalia (Bats) by Hermann and Soem- mering, and has been proved to belong to the order of Reptiles by Cuvier. The Pterodactylus longirostris, from the lithographic slate of Pappenheim, was the earliest known species; the Péter. brevirostris, Pter. medius, and Pter. grundis, were next established, and subsequently the British species Pier. ma- cronyx was determined by Dr. Buckland, from remains discovered in the lias of Lyme Regis, and which, before they came under the discriminative glance of the Oxford Professor, had passed as the bones of birds. Of this species Dr. Buckland describes the principal bones of the extremi- ties, and several vertebre ; the cranium has not yet been discovered. The valuable subject of the Professor’s memoir is deposited in the British Mu- seum; the Memoir is contained in the third volume of the second series of the Transactions of the Geological Society, and an accurate figure of the specimen is given, of the size of nature, at plate xxvii.* A second stratum, in which the remains of Pterodactyles have been de- tected by Dr. Buckland, is the oolite slate of Stonesfield. Some fine speci- mens of the long bones of the extremities of Pterodactyles from that locality, in the collection of John Hunter, were referred by that celebrated anatomist to the class of birds. Saurra IncerT# SEDIs. Polyptychodon.—A large species of Saurian is indicated by thick conical teeth, having the general character of those of the Crocodile, but distin- guished by numerous, closely-set, longitudinal ridges, which are continued, of nearly equal length, to within 2 lines of the apex of the crown. These teeth have been described and figured in my ‘ Odontography’ under the name of Polyptychodon. Yn their size and general form these Saurian teeth resemble those of the great sauroid fish, Hypsodon, Ag., but may be distinguished by the solidity of the crown, and the conformity of the structure of the dentine with that of the Crocodiles; also by the ridges on the exterior of the crown of the Hypsodon’s teeth being alternately long and short, and terminating abruptly at different but commonly greater distances from the apex than in Polyptychodon, the interspaces between the longer ridges widening as they - approach the apex. The tooth of the Polyptychodon is slightly and regu- larly curved, and invested with a moderately thick layer of enamel, of which substance the ridges are composed, the surface of the outermost layer of den- tine being smooth. A tooth of this reptile from the lower greensand (Kentish-rag quarries) near Maidstone, in the collection of Mr. Benstead of that town}, has a crown 3 inches long, and 1 inch 4 lines across the base. The compact dentine is resolved by decomposition into a series of super- imposed thin hollow cones, and the short and wide conical pulp-cavity is con- * See also the interesting chapter on “ Flying Saurians” in the ‘ Bridgewater Treatise,’ vol. i. p. 221. + Presented by that gentleman, since the reading of this Report, to the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 157 fined to the base or fang. The cavity of the tooth in Hypsodon would ap- pear to have been much larger, as it is in many predatory fishes, in which the teeth are more rapidly shed and renewed than in Crocodilian reptiles. The teeth of Polyptychodon differ from those supposed to have belonged to Potkilopleuron, in the ridges of the crown being more numerous and close set, and in the transverse section being nearly circular instead of being ellip- tical: from the teeth of Pliosaurus those of Polyptychodon differ in being round and not three-sided, and in having longitudinal ridges over the whole surface of the crown; and from the teeth of Mosasaurus they differ in being ridged and not smooth. Gigantic Fossil Saurian from the Lower Greensand at. Hythe. Under this head I have to notice some remains of a Saurian of marine habits, but most probably of the Crocodilian order, as gigantic as the Cetio- saurus or Polyptychodon, but, in the absence of dental and vertebral charac- ters, not referable to any known genus. These remains were discovered by H. B. Mackeson, Esq. of Hythe, in the greensand quarries near that town, and include portions of the iliac, ischial and pubic bones, a large proportion of the shaft of a femur, parts of a tibia and fibula, and several metatarsal bones. In consequence of the absence of vertebrae and teeth, the present ob- servations will be limited to indicating the characters by which these remains differ from previously known extinct genera of Saurians. In the first place, as the femur and other long bones have no medullary cavities, but a central structure composed of coarse cancelli, it is evident that the animal of which they formed part was of marine habits; but the best-preserved bone being a femur, this circumstance, independently of the size and shape of the metatar- sals, at once negatives the idea that these remains helonged to the Cetacean order, whilst the form and proportions of the metatarsals equally forbid their reference to any other Mammalian genus. Femur.—The portions of this bone secured by Mr. Mackeson include about the two distal thirds, excepting the articular extremity ; its length is 2 feet 4 inches; its circumference in the middle, or smallest part of the shaft, is 15 inches 6 lines, and at the broken distal end, 2 feet 5 inches. These dimensions prove that the animal was equal to the most gigantic described Iguanodon*. If the supposition of the proportion of the femur which has been preserved be right, this bone differs from that of the Zguwanodon, not only in the want of a medullary cavity, but also in the absence of the compressed process which projects from the inner side of the middle of the shaft. The bone also expands more gradually than in the femur of the Jguanodon, and the posterior part of the condyles must have been wider apart in conse- quence of the posterior inter-condyloid longitudinal excavation being longer and wider. Tibia and Fibula.—The portion of a tibia which has been preserved is compressed near its head, and the side next to the fibula is slightly coneave. The longest transverse diameter is 8 inches 9 lines, and the two other trans- verse diameters at right angles to the preceding, give respectively 3 inches 3 lines, and 2 inches 6 lines. The bone soon assumes a thicker form, its cir- cumference at about one-third from its proximal end being 16 inches 6 lines. The cancelli occupying the central portion of the bone are arranged in a suc- cession of Jayers around a point nearest the narrower end of the transverse section. Lower down the tibia again becomes compressed, and towards the * The length of the largest femur yet obtained of this Saurian is 4 feet 6 inches, its smallest circumference 1 foot 10 inches, 158 REPORT—1841. distal end the transverse section exhibits the form of a plate bent towards the fibula, and its narrowest transverse diameter is 24 inches. The portion of the fibula is 114 inches long. In the middle it is flat on one side, slightly concave on another, and convex on the two remaining sides. It presents the same cancellous structure as the tibia, but the concentric ar- rangement of the layers of cells is more exact. Towards the opposite end of the bone the concave side becomes first flat, and is then produced into a con- vex wall, terminating one end of a transverse section of a compressed and bent thick plate of bone. Metatarsals—These bones exhibit the characteristic irregularity of length of the Crocodilian metatarsals. Of two imbedded in the rock, and apparently the innermost and second, of the left hind-foot, the former or smaller measured 1 foot in length and the latter 2 feet, having a diameter of 8 inches at its greater end, and of 4 inches 5 lines at its narrowest or middle part, and of 6 inches at its other extremity, which was imperfect. The whole of the bone within the compact outer crust consisted of cells varying from a half to two- thirds of a line in diameter. Portions of four other detached metatarsals are described. Llia, Ischia, Pubis, and Coracoid Bone.—These bones conform in the main to the Enaliosaurian type. The remains of the ilia are flat and nearly straight, and they gradually but slightly widen towards one end. Of one ilium a por- tion, 25 inches long and 10 inches across at the broadest end, is preserved, and of the other a fragment 20 inches in length. The mesial extremities of the pubis and ischium are preserved in the same block of stone. The pubis differs from the Crocodilian type in its greater breadth. The portion exposed in this block is principally convex, but it be- comes concave towards the opposite or median margin. At its broadest part it is 13 inches across, and its length is 17 inches. This expanded extremity is rounded, and the diameter of the corresponding expanded extremity of the ischium, which is obliquely truncated, is 9 inches. In another block of stone the expanded extremity of the opposite pubis is preserved, and measures 14 inches across and 22 inches in length. The bone which bears most resemblance to a coracoid is 2 feet in length and 17 inches in its greatest breadth, and it varies in thickness from 3 to 5 inches. The breadth of this bone indicates the great development of the muscles destined for the movement of the fore-leg, whence it may be inferred that the anterior extremities were more powerfully and habitually used in pro- gressive motion than in the Teleosaurian Crocodiles. It will be sufficiently apparent, from the brief notice of the principal cha- vacters of these interesting remains here given, that they cannot have be- longed to any of the genera of the great ambulatory terrestrial Dinosaurs ; and, on the other hand, the length, thickness, and form of the condyles of the femur, and the size and shape of the metatarsal bones equally remove the Enaliosaurs from the pale of comparison. There then remain, as claimants of the fossils in question, first, the great Mosasaurus of the Cretaceous formations, the locomotive extremities of which have not been yet discovered; secondly, the equally gigantic Cetio- saurus brevis, associated with the Zguanodon in the Wealden, and, from its organization, more likely than the Iguanodon to be found in later marine de- posits; finally, the Reptile of the Maidstone greensand, to which the name of Polyptychodon has been provisionally assigned from the configuration of its teeth. But, since the teeth of the genus Cetiosaurus are not yet determined, the identity of this genus with Polyptychedon is open to suspicion ; and sub- sequent discoveries may demonstrate that the great Saurian of the Hythe ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 159 greensand indicated by bones of the extremities, that of the Maidstone greensand by its teeth, and that of the Wealden formation recognized by its vertebree, are all parts of the same extinct reptile. Genus Rysosteus, nob. I have been favoured by Mr. Johnson of Bristol, with the opportunity of examining a small anterior dorsal vertebra, (No. 177, of his interesting Col- lection, ) half imbedded in its pyritic matrix, from the Bone-bed of Aust Pas- sage, near Bristol. Both articular ends of the body of this vertebra are concave, but deeper than in Teleosaurus, with a central short transverse linear impression. The lower part of the side of the body is raised into an obtuse longitudinal ridge, above which, between it and the transverse process, is a wide but not deep depression. The centrum slightly expands to the two extremities, which have a circular contour. The transverse process is broken off: its base, which is as deep as long, rests in a small proportion upon the centrum, but chiefly upon the side of the neurapophysis, the limits of which are not defined by a per- sistent suture. The neural arch rests upon the whole antero-posterior extent of the upper part of the centrum, rises nearly vertically to a height not quite equal to that of the centrum, then slopes abruptly inwards to support the base of the spine. This is nearly equal in antero-posterior extent to the centrum, and slightly increases in that direction by inclining over the interspace of the posterior oblique processes: it also slightly gains in thickness, and is termi- nated by a flat and rough surface, the contour of which is nearly parallel with that of the under surface of the centrum. The sides of the spine for two lines below the summit are wrinkled* or impressed by vertical or slightly oblique coarse grooves. The posterior oblique process is moderately long and slender ; its flat elliptical articular surface looks downwards and slightly outwards. The non-articular surfaces of the vertebra are smooth, except near the summit of the spine, the lateral ridges and grooves of which form the chief characteristic of the present vertebra. This vertebra, though it resembles those of a few species of Plesiosaur in the depth of its terminal articular surfaces, differs too much in its length and lateral compression to be referable to that genus; the rough and thick trun- cated summit of the spinous process rather indicates the species to have be- longed to the loricate family of Saurians. It differs from the vertebra of the Teleosaur and other known Amphiccelian Crocodiles in the form and verti- cal thickness of the transverse processes, in the lateral longitudinal ridge of the centrum; and in the antero-posterior extent and form of the spinous pro- cess. It differs from the vertebre of the Labyrinthodon in the articular ends being at right angles to the axis of the centrum and not oblique; in the greater vertical thickness of the transverse process; and in the spine not being sud- denly expanded and flattened at the summit, as in the dorsal vertebrae of the Labyrinthodon. The following are dimensions of the vertebra of Rysosteus :— Lines. Antero-posterior extent of centrum . . ... . II Transverse diameter of articularend . .... 5 Vertical diameter of articularend ...... 6 Vertical diameter of entire vertebra. . . . . . 16 Antero-posterior extent of spinous process. . . . 10 * The name here proposed for the Saurian of the Bone-bed, from pads wrinkled, deréov a bone, relates to this structure, 160 REPORT—1841., I have received other portions of Rysosteus from the Bone-bed at West- bury Cliff, on the Severn, eight miles from Gloucester. Two spinous processes of fractured vertebrae are conspicuous and readily re- cognizable by their wrinkled surface and great antero-posterior extent; they agree also in size with the vertebra from Aust Passage, and seem to be evi- dently of the same species. The distal end of a Saurian humerus and a nearly entire femur are asso- ciated with these vertebral fragments. The humerus has an angular and twisted shaft, and greatly expanded articular extremities, the surface of which is ridged like the spinous processes, but with somewhat wider intervals. The femur equals the length of three vertebra and a half; resembles that of the Teleosaurus in shape, but has the outer surface of the expanded ex- tremities wrinkled, though in a minor degree than in the humerus. The cor- respondence of the long bones in size, and in the wrinkled character of part of their surface with the vertebrae, almost demonstrates that they belong to the same species of Saurian. Order CHELONIA. Family Testupinin#, Tortoises, or Land-Tortoises. New Red Sandstone Tortoises.—The most ancient of the evidences of Rep- tiles of the Chelonian order, in British formations, appear to be referable to Land-tortoises. The foot-prints upon the thin superimposed strata of the new red sandstone quarries at Corn-Cockle Muir, of which an account is given by Dr. Duncan in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for the year 1828, and those subsequently discovered in the same ancient formation at the quarries of Craigs, two miles east of the town of Dumfries, are regarded by Dr. Buckland as bearing most resemblance to the foot-prints of a small species of tortoise*. Oolite Tortoises—The impressions of horny scutes, about the size of those covering the carapace of a tortoise ten inches in length, occur not unfrequently in the oolitic slate of Stonesfield, and leave a light brown stain upon the matrix. These correspond so closely in form and in the arrangement and distinctnéss of the concentric lines with those of existing tortoises, that the position which they originally held on the carapace may often be determined. Family Emyp1p#, Fresh-water Tortoises. LEmys, sp. indet.—In the museum of Prof, Bell there is a specimen of an Emydian Chelonite from the Eocene clay near Harwich, which differs from the Emys testudiniformis of Sheppey in its flatter figure. The carapace is elliptical, gently convex at the middle and concave at the sides, the margins being slightly raised. The external surface of the osseous buckler is slightly rugous ; the length of the carapace is 11 inches ; its breadth at the suture between the fifth and sixth rib is 10 inches. The first vertebral plate is nearly flat; the middle part of its posterior. margin extends backwards about one line and a half. The second vertebral plate is of an oblong quadrangular figure, 6 lines in breadth: the third ver- tebral plate is six-sided and 8 lines in breadth, the two anterior sides being the shortest: the tenth and eleventh vertebral plates are broad. * “On comparing some of these impressions with the tracks which I caused to be made on soft sand, clay, and upon unbaked pie-crust, by a living Emys and Testudo Greca, I found the correspondence with the latter sufficiently close, allowing for difference of species, to ren- der it highly probable that the fossil footsteps were also impressed by the feet of land-tortoises.” —Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. p. 261. + The Emys centrata is, however, so denominated on account of the resemblance of its scutes, in their concentric striation with those of tortoises, ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 161 The normal or rounded portion of the rib begins to project from the under surface of the expanded plate at two inches distance from the head of the rib ; but the superincumbent expanded portions and their sutures are continued as far as the marginal plates; as in other full-grown Emydes. Emys testudiniformis, nob. Emys de Sheppey, Cuv.? Most of the Chelonites from the Eocene clay of Sheppey belong to the ma- rine family * of the order, from which the present species differs in the depth of the bony cuirass, the convexity of the carapace, the concavity of the plas- tron, and the extent of ossification of both these parts. The more immediate affinities of the present fossil are elucidated by the comparison of the points of structure which it displays with the anatomical characters of the carapace of the mys and Testudo. The specimen, on which the species Emys testudiniformis is founded, in- cludes a large proportion of the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth, with a fragment of the seventh expanded vertebral ribs of the left side; a small proportion of the second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth vertebral plates ; the hyo- and hyposternals, and part of the entosternal bones of the plastron. The first rib is 1 inch 10 lines, in greatest breadth; 1 inch 5 lines broad at its junction with the vertebral plates, and four-fifths of the vertebral mar- gin is articulated with the second vertebral plate; one-fifth part, divided by an angle from the preceding, joins a corresponding side of the lateral angle of the third vertebral plate; in this structure it resembles both the genus Testudo and some species of Eimys. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth vertebral plates are of equal breadth as in Emydes ; not alternately broad and narrow as in the Testudines: they are likewise of uniform figure, as in most A’mydes ; not variable, as in Testudines : the vertebral plates also resemble those of the existing H’mydes, and particu- larly of the Box-terrapin (Cistudo) in form. The lateral margin of each is bounded by two'lines, meeting at an open angle, the anterior line is only one- fourth part the length of the posterior one ; and this resemblance may be stated with confidence, since the portion of the entosternal piece preserved in the plastron determines the anterior part of the fossil. The ribs preserved in the present Chelonite differ from the corresponding ones of the Tortoises and resemble those of the Hmydes in their regular breadth, and the uniform figure of the extremities articulated with the ver- tebral pieces ; the anterior line of the angular extremity is nearly three times as long as the posterior one. Further evidence of the relation of the present Chelonite to the freshwater family is given by the impressions of the epidermal scutes: those covering the vertebral plates (seuta vertebralia) agree with those of most Emydians in the very slight production of the angle at the middle of their lateral mar- gins, which is bounded by a line running parallel with the axis of the cara- pace, except where it bends out to form that small angle. The middle part of each side of the plastron, in the Emys testudiniformis, is joined to the carapace by a strong and uninterrupted bony wall, continued from a large proportion of the hyo- and hyposternal bones upwards to the mar- ginal costal pieces. The median margin of the hyo- and hyposternals are ar- ticulated together by a linear suture, traversing the median line of the plas- tron, and only broken by a slight angle formed by the right hyposternal, which is a little larger than the left. A similar inequality is not unusual in both Tor- toises and Emydes. The transverse suture is, of course, broken by the same * See Proceedings of the Geological Society, Dec. 1, 1841. 1841. M 162 REPORT—1841. inequality ; that portion which runs between the left hyo- and hyposternals being two or three lines in advance of the one between the right hyo- and hyposternals. The posterior half of the broad entosternal piece is articulated to a semicircular emargination at the middle of the hyosternals; so that the whole plastron forms one continuous plate of bone, This is relatively thicker than in existing Emydes, resembling in its strength that of Tortoises; and it is likewise slightly concave in the middle, which structure is more common in Tortoises than in Emydians, save those in which the sternum is moveable; in most of the other species the sternum is flat or slightly convex. I have shown in my paper on the Turtles of Sheppey*, that the carapace figured by Cuvier+ was not sufficiently perfect to decide the affinities of the Chelonian to which it belonged; if the vertebral scutes were less broad and angular than in marine turtles, the vertebral plates—much less variable in their proportions—were, on the other hand, as narrow as in turtles. But with reference to the plastron of the Sheppey Chelonite, figured by Parkinson }, and supposed by Cuvier to belong to an Amys of the same species as the ca- rapace above alluded to, [ have been able to determine, by an examination of the original specimen in the museum of Prof. Bell, that it belonged to the marine genus Chelone and to the species Jongiceps. In the fossil Hmys in Mr. Bowerbank’s collection, the plastron being in great part preserved, esta- blishes its nonconformity with the marine turtles, and manifests a striking difference from Parkinson’s fossil plastron. The entosternal piece is impressed, as in Tortoises and Emydes, by a me- dian longitudinal furrow; a transverse linear impression traverses the hyoster- nals half an inch behind the suture of the entosternal; the second transverse line is not so near the first as in Tortoises, but bears the same relation to the transverse suture of the plastron as in most Emydes; it does not pass straight across the plastron, but the right half inclines obliquely inward to a more posterior part of the median suture than is touched by the left half. The third transverse line passes straight across the plastron between the posterior ends of the bony lateral walls, uniting the carapace and plastron. In. Lines. The breadth of the plastronis. . . 2. 2. / . « » « & 10 The outer posterior extent of the lateral wallis . . . . 3 9 The breadth of the entosternum .°. . . . 2. 2. . 1 5 The depth of the whole bony cuirass at the middle lineis 4 0 In the convexity of the carapace and relative depth of the osseous box the Sheppey Chelonite slightly surpasses most existing species, resembling in this respect the Hmys ocellata and Cistudo Carolina. The plastron is also slightly concave, as in the male of Cistudo vulgaris: it is, however, entire at the line where the transverse joint of the plastron exists in the Box-tortoises; and the extent and firm ossification of the lateral supperting walls of the carapace for- bid likewise a reference of the fossil to those genera. The general characters of the present fossil, more especially the uniformity of size and breadth of the preserved vertebral plates and ribs, prove it to be essentially related to the freshwater or Emydian Tortoises. It exceeded in size, however, almost all known Emydians, and was almost double the dimensions of the Emydian spe- cies (Cistudo Europea) now inhabiting central Europe. It appears, like the Cistudines, to have approached the form of the land-tortoises, in the convexity of the carapace, but without possessing that division and hinge of the plastron which peculiarly distinguishes the box-tortoises. In the thickness and strength * Geological Proceedings, December 1, 1841. t Ossem. Foss., tom. vy. part iv. pl. xv. fig. 12, { Organic Remains, vol. iii, pl, xviii, fig. 2, ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 163 of the bones of the buckler, especially of the sternum, we may discern an affi- nity to Testudo. Assuming that the Chelonite here described may be identical with that of which the carapace from Mr. Crow’s collection is figured in the ‘Ossemens Fossiles*,’ the ‘Amys de Sheppey’ of Cuvier will be one of the ‘Synonyms’ of the present species. Mr. Gray, in his ‘Synopsis Reptilium,’ has given Latin names to all the fossil reptiles indicated or established by Cuvier, and has ealled the ‘ Emys de Sheppey’ ‘ Amys Parkinsonii,’ referring as representa- tions of this species, not to the figure of the carapace above cited, which may belong to the same species as the present Hmys, but to the figure of the plastron, copied by: Cuvier from ‘ Parkinson’s Organic Remains,’ and to the figure of the skull in the same work, both of which most unquestionably be- long to the genus Chelone and not to the genus Eimys. The ‘Eimys Parkinsonii’ of Mr. Gray is a synonym of my Chelone longiceps. Cuvier’s name,—which, besides the claim of priority, is the honest result of labour devoted to the elucidation of its subject,—if rendered into Latin would be Eimys toliapicus ; but as the species to which it refers may not be the one here described, and is not the only freshwater tortoise which the clay of Sheppey has yielded ; and since the characters of the present species have not, hitherto, been defined nor its affinities to the land-tortoises been pointed out, the interests of science, it appears to me, will be best consulted by naming the present species Emys testudiniformis. The fossil here described is from the Eocene clay of Sheppey Island, and forms part of the collection of J. S. Bowerbank, Esq. Platemys Bowerbankii, nob.—Another specimen from the same rich col- lection of Sheppey remains actually indicates a distinct species of the fresh- water family of Chelonia, which from its more depressed figure, its size, and the general form of the sternum, most probably belonged to the Platemydian division of that family +. The sternum is 13 inches in length and 10 inches in breadth; it is broader before than behind, rounded in front, notched behind: the surface is nearly flat, slightly convex at the anterior part, and as slightly concave behind. The lateral bony wall or ala uniting the plastron to the carapace is 5 inches in length or antero-posterior extent, and it commences 3 inches behind the anterior extremity of the plastron. The episternals meet in advance of the entosternal, the length of the suture joining their anterior extremities, being 7 lines: from the peripheral end of this suture to that of the suture between the episternal and hyosternal bones is 2 inches 6 lines: from the latter suture to the anterior concavity of the lateral wall is 5 lines. In a tortoise with a plastron 13 inches long, the length of the same suture was 14 inch, and the suture between the episternal and hyosternal bones is nearer the lateral wall. The Emydes, especially Emys (Platemys) depressa, most resembles the fossil, especially in the more important character of the relative length of the lateral wall and suture. The carapace presents the same conformation and regularity of size of the vertebral plates and ribs as in the Emys testudiniformis ; but it is flat, even slightly concave along the middle tract; and has somewhat narrower verte- bral plates, of which the third to the eighth may be distinguished in the fos- sil; the ninth being concealed by the union of the vertebral extremities of the 7th pair of expanded ribs. * Ed. 1824, vol. v. part ii. pl. xv. fig, 12. + Hydraspis, Bell and Gray, M 2 164 REPORT—1841. The vertebral plates are all smooth and flat ; their dimensions are as fol- lows :— In. Lines. Length of the fourth plate . . 2... . 11 Girestestsprenda :()i4)'s,'/2! "Gey het ety Length of the fifth plate. . . .... Greatest breadth . . . 1... 2. ss Length of the sixth plate . ..... fareatest breadth SiS 2 renee Length of the seventh plate ..... Greatest breadth). \ic\.en7 se Be ie Length of the eighth plate. . . . . . Greatest breadth.) i; ahotise te fcphiest sails In the circumstance of the vertebral plates in this fossil decreasing in length without losing breadth, as well as in the junction of the seventh pair of ribs, the present fossil resembles the Sheppey carapace from Mr. Crow’s collection figured by Cuvier; which may, therefore, have belonged to the present spe- cies of Platemys. Platemys Bullockii, nob.—A very fine plastron of a Platemys from Shep- pey was obtained by the British Museum at the sale of Bullock’s collection, which differs from the preceding in the finely punctate character of the ex- ternal surface of the bone, and in the narrower notches between the body of the plastron and the lateral alz or uniting wall. The following are dimen- ROR Re Re eee Ee OO OO — O09 MD 09 GC OO sions of this specimen :— In. Lines. HECMEEM nines. 1s wetted at ver saul forte, 8, 8 lost aa aaa nee Extreme breadth (anterior to lateral wall) . . . . . . 8 O Breadth or transverse extent of lateral wall . . . . . . 2 6 Antero-posterior extent of lateral wall. . . . . . - . 5 6 Antero-posterior extent of carapace anterior to lateral wall. 5 O Antero-posterior extent of carapace posterior to lateral wall 6 O The anterior contour of the sternum is rounded ; the posterior termination is notched. The lateral wall extends horizontally, almost parallel with the plane of the sternum, and expands to join, by a wavy suture, the marginal plates ; six of these are preserved on each side; their lower margins form a very open angle. The anterior part of the entosternum is bounded by two nearly straight lines, converging forwards at an angle of 65°, with the apex rounded off; the posterior contour of this bone is semicircular. The length of the entosternal is 2 inches 10 lines; its breadth 3 inches 7 lines. The chief peculiarity of this plastron is the intercalation of a supernume- rary piece of bone between the hyosternal and hyposternal elements, on each side ; so that the plastron is crossed by two transverse sutures, instead of one ; each suture being similarly interrupted in the middle by an angular deflection from the right, half an inch back, to the left side. The extremities of the transverse sutures terminate each at the apex formed by the inner or lower border of the parallel marginal plates. The first or anterior of these sutures is distant from the anterior margin of the plastron 6 inches 5 lines: the second suture is distant from the same margin 8 inches 9 lines: the right half of the suture, which is a few lines in advance of the left, is the part from which these measurements are taken. It might be suspected that the transyerse impressions of the second or third pairs of sternal scutes had here been mistaken for a suture ; but due care was observed to avoid this error: the sternal scutes have left obvious impressions, which prove that they were in the same number as in the Platemydians ge- nerally, and quite distinct from the sutures in question. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 165 Thus the first median scute is in the form of an ancient shield ; its posterior apex impressing and crossing the anterior apex of the entosternum. The pos- terior transverse boundary of the succeeding pair of sternal scutes crosses the plastron 42 inches from its anterior margin; that of the third pair of scutes crosses at 74 inches from the anterior border, and between the two transverse sutures ; that of the fourth pair at 10 inches distance from the anterior mar- gin, and about 12 inch behind the second transverse suture ; passing straight across the plastron between the posterior concave margins of the lateral walls. The posterior boundary of the fifth pair of scutes inclines obliquely back- wards from the median line, as usual; it is 3 inches behind the preceding transverse impression. It is in the interspace of these impressions that traces of the transverse su- ture between the hyposternals and xiphisternals are obvious, about 4 inches from the posterior extremity of the plastron. If these traces were not so ob- vious, it might be supposed that the xiphisternals were of unusual length, entering into the formation of the lateral wall, and extending backwards from the second transverse suture to the end of the plastron ; but this disproportion would be hardly less anomalous than the existence of the additional pair of bones intercalated between the hyo- and hyposternals which this present fossil evidently displays. In most of the existing large Emydes and Platemydes, the median transverse suture traverses the plastron a little behind the third pair of scutes, or across the fourth pair; so that the second transverse suture in the fossil has the ana- logous position, and accordingly has most right to be regarded as the normal boundary between the hyo- and hyposternals. One of the most distinctive characters of the present extinct Platemys is, therefore, the division of each hyosternal bone into two, the sternum consisting of eleven instead of nine pieces ; if the very interesting anomaly which it displays be not an accidental or individual variety. The chief difference in regard to the sternal scutes, is the addition of two ae ones anteriorly, one on each side of the median anterior pair in the ossil. The obtuse ridge which forms the angle between the carapace and plas- tron is preserved in the fossil. Tretosternon punctatum, nob.—In the rich collection of fossil remains be- longing to Sir P. Egerton, there is the posterior part of the carapace of a fine species of freshwater tortoise, which, by its broad and extremely flattened form and sculptured surface, is evidently closely allied to the genus Trionyx, but which, from the impressions of distinct horny scutes, is essentially related to the Emydian famiiy, and is nearly allied to the genus Platemys, D. & B. (Hydraspis, Bell.): this portion of carapace contains the fifth to the twelfth vertebral plates inclusive, and the five posterior pairs of expanded vertebral ribs. The external surface of both elements of the carapace is closely pitted with minute irregular impressions, smaller than a pin’s head, and along their sutural margins for the extent of two or three lines by straight and parallel linear impressions, at right angles or nearly so to those margins: the pin- head impressions are sparing or absent at these striated margins. . The breadth of the carapace, across the fourth pair of ribs, is 134 inches: the length of the moiety of the carapace here preserved is 9 inches: the en- tire length would be, probably, 17 inches. The flattened ribs gradually ex- pand towards their distal extremity. The close resemblance which this species makes to the Zrionyces, in the sculpturing of the external surface of the carapace, is very striking ; but the impressions of the horny scutes, and the non-continuation of a narrow tooth- 166 REPORT—1841. like portion of the rib from the distal end of the expanded part, are essential distinctions. The entire and rounded terminal margins of the truncated and expanded extremities of the ribs, beyond which there is not the slightest trace of pro- jecting tooth-like processes, strongly indicates that the marginal plates were either wanting or rudimental, as in the genus Cryptopus. This fossil is from the Purbeck limestone. In the collection of Mr, Bowerbank is preserved the left half of the plas- tron of the same species of freshwater tortoise, from the Purbeck limestone, at Swanage, equal in size and probably of the same species as the preceding, but with fainter impressions on the external surface. This Chelonite includes the hyosternal, the hyposternal, and a considerable part of the xiphisternal bones, but wants the extremity of this bone. It is a very remarkable and characteristic fossil, chiefly on account of the great extent of the lateral wall, which is continued outwards, in the same plane with the rest of the plastron, as in the Emydian subgenus Platysternon, Gray, accompanied by an unusual width of the notches, anterior and posterior to this wall, for the emergence of the fore and hind-feet. The length of this fossil, taken along the median su- ture, is 13 inches; the breadth of the sternum along the median transverse suture must have exceeded 12 inches. The antero-posterior extent of the contracted part of the lateral wall is 7 inches; that of its expanded outermost part 9 inches; the antero-posterior diameter of the hyposternal bone 4 inches 4: lines; extent of transverse suture between this and the xiphisternal 3 inches. The outer and anterior angle of the xiphisternal has a shallow angular notch which receives a corresponding process of the hyposternal: the median mar- gin of the hyposternal has a semicircular piece cut out of it just where it joins the hyosternal: the bone gradually narrows off to the edge of this emargi- nation, which is exposed, by a careful removal of the matrix, without any trace of fracture of the bone. If it be, as it seems, a natural structure, then the centre of the sternum must have presented an elliptical vacuity, closed by membrane or cartilage of nearly two inches diameter, situated immediately behind the transverse suture uniting the hyo- and hyposternals. Such an ap- proximation to the T’rionyces and Chelones presented by an extinct species, which from the extensive lateral union by a continuous bony plate of the side of the plastron with the carapace, and from the complete ossification of the latter is essentially an Emydian species, forms a very interesting transitional modification, especially if it be combined, as there seems good reason to be- lieve, with the sculptured surface of a remarkably flattened carapace, such as the Chelonite, in Sir P. Egerton’s collection, from the same stratum and loca- lity presents. The sternum, like the carapace above mentioned, is impressed by the mar- gins of distinct scutes. The transverse line bounding the second sternal scute has the same rela- tive position as in the Testudo Schweigeri and Platemys planiceps. The two succeeding sternal scutes have a more equal antero-posterior extent than in those species. The impression commences at the median line, nearly an inch in advance of the transverse suture and three inches behind the second trans- verse scute, and describes a slight curve which is convex towards the anterior part of the plastron. The third scutal line commences from the middle of the median emargination, and instead of running parallel with the preceding line, as in the Tortoises and ordinary Emydes which I have examined, it inclines backwards as it passes outwards, and terminates at the middle of the posterior lateral emargination. The fifth scutal line is oblique, as in the Emydians generally, and here therefore runs parallel with the fourth line at a distance ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 167 of three inches and a half from it. The line bounding the lower part of the marginal scutes, which in Tortoises is either parallel with or a little above the suture uniting the lateral wall of the plastron with the marginal plates, here intersects the marginal wall of the plastron at a distance of from two-thirds of an inch to one inch and a half from that margin: impressions of four of the marginal scutes may thus be traced upon this part of the sternum, a struc- ture in which the present fossil differs most remarkably from all known ex- isting Tortoises. ‘This difference it is the more necessary to bear in mind, since, in the antero-posterior extent as well as the transverse extent of the lateral wall of the sternum, and in the form and extent of the emarginations which bound the anterior and posterior part of this wall, the present fossil exhibits a closer resemblance with the Land-tortoises than with the ordinary Eimydes. But the external surface of the plastron, instead of being slightly concave, as in most tortoises, is slightly convex ; and where the plastron is convex externally in existing tortoises, namely, at the outer margin of the lateral wall, the fossil exhibits a slight concavity. In short, the character of the surface is such as would lead one having in his mind the plastron of a Tortoise as the ground of comparison, to suppose, at the first sight of the fossil, that he was looking on the inner side of the plastron; but the distinct and well-marked impressions of the epidermal scutes proves that it is actually the outer surface of the plastron which is here exposed. The anterior margin of the plastron is truncated, as in most Platemydians. The osseous basis of the present plastron is half an inch in thickness ; the structure of the bone is compact at the surface, including a coarsely spongy diploé, as in the Chelonians generally. Portions of ribs of the T’retosternon punctatum*, which from their specific punctation and sculpturing of the outer surface have been referred to the genus Z’rionyx, have been discovered by Dr. Mantell in the Wealden of Til- ate. 4 Amongst recent Emydians an approach to the Trionyces is made by the subgenus Cryptopus (Eimyda of Gray), inasmuch as the marginal plates, espe- cially of the posterior free margin of the carapace, exist in a rudimental or abortive state, as small granulated ossicles, suspended in the integument cover- ing that border. The subgenus Chelydra manifests its affinity to Trionyx by another modi- fication of its osseous structure, viz. the absence of the lateral osseous walls, or ale joining the plastron to the carapace, which are united only by flexible cartilage, throughout life. No known existing species of Emydian has a free unossified central space in the sternum in the full-grown state; but this is an immature character common to all Chelonians, and is persistent in marine Turtles and Trionyces. In the present highly interesting extinct genus, Z’retosternon, it would ap- pear that the absence of marginal plates, and a cartilaginous union of the plastron with the carapace, were associated likewise with a small vacuity in the middle of the sternum of the mature animal. The evidently feebly-developed scutes, and the sculpturing of the external surface of the flattened carapace, complete the last step in the transition from the Elodite to the Potamite fami- lies of Chelonians in the system of MM. Dumeril and Bibron. Platemys Mantelli, Emys de Sussex, Cuv., Emys Mantelli, Gray.—The fossils discovered by Dr. Mantell in the Wealden strata of Tilgate Forest, and the resemblance of which to the flat species of Emydian discovered by M. Hugi in the Jura limestone at Soleure has been pointed out by Cuvier, are referable to the Pleuroderal section of the Emydian family, as arranged by * Tilustrations of the Geology of Sussex, 4to, pl. vi. figs. 1, 3 & 5. 168 REPORT—1841. Messrs. Dumeril and Bibron*, and, in that section, to the genus Platemys: not enough of the skeleton of any individual has yet been obtained to afford a foundation for a specific character. Large Emydian from the Kimmeridge Clay.—In the museum of Sir P. Grey Egerton is preserved the pubic bone of a large Emydian tortoise, ob- tained from Heddington Pits. ‘The bone measures 44 inches in length, and 2 inches 10 lines in the breadth of the symphysial plate. As its specific de- viations, particularly in regard to the length of the sternal process, from the pubis of ordinary Emydians are well marked, it may probably belong to a species of Platemys. Footsteps of Emydians in New Red Sandstone—Among the numerous footsteps of Reptiles impressed upon the sandstone of Stourton Quarries, Cheshire, those of an Emydian Tortoise of moderate size are not uncommon. Genus Trionyx. Certain British fossils from the secondary formations, referred to Trionyz, have been proved to belong either to another family of Chelonians, or to a di- stinct class of animals. We learn from Dr. Buckland, that the supposed 77i- onyx from the new red sandstone at Caithness (Caithness slate), has been pro- nounced by M. Agassiz to be part ofa fish: it is referable to the ganoid genus Coccosteus. I have as yet seen no Chelonite from the Wealden freshwater formations that can be confidently affirmed to belong to Trionyx. The specimen de- scribed and figured in the ‘ Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex,’ 4to, p. 60, pl. vi. fig. 8, is the dermal seute of the Crocodilian genus Goniopholis, as Dr. Mantell himself has subsequently recognized: the other portions (pl. vi. figs. 1, 3, 5) belong, as already observed, to the 7’retosternon punctatum, a species which, like the Goniopholis, is common to the Wealden of Tilgate and the Purbeck limestone. Femur from lias at Linksfield—I have been favoured by Mr. Robertson of Elgin, with the examination of a Chelonian femur, 45 inches in length, from a stratum at Linksfield, in which remains of Plestosaurus and Hybodus occur; and this.femur, though not identical in form with that of any Trio- nyx with which I could compare it, yet resembles the modifications of the bone in that genus more closely than in Tortoises, Emydians or Turtles. Although some of the turtles of the Eocene period, as the Chelone longi- ceps, present such modifications of the jaws as seem to have adapted them to habits and food analogous to those of the Trionyx, yet evidences of this genus, to which the destruction of the eggs and young of Crocodiles is more particularly assigned in the Nile and Ganges, are not wanting in certain lo- calities where the London clay appears to have been deposited under circum- stances analogous to those at the termination of equally gigantic rivers. Unequivocal portions of a true Trionyx have been obtained from the Eocene clay at Sheppey, and at Bracklesham: they are also associated, as in the Paris basin, with remains of Anoplotherium and Paleotherium in the Eocene lacustrine deposits of the quarries at Benstead in the Isle of Wight. Family CueLtonip#, Thalassiant family, or Turtles. Genus Chelone. Chelone planiceps, nob.—The oldest British geological formation from which * Erpétologie, 8vo, 1835, tom. ii. pp. 172, 372. t “Cheloniens Thalassites,” Dumeril and Bibron, /.¢., p.506. The unfortunate similarity of the generic name of the marine Chelonians, viz. Chelone, with the name of the order, Che- lonia, renders the term ‘thalassian’ convenient, in allusion to the peculiarities of the marine species or ‘ Turtles.’ ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 169 fossil remains, clearly referable to the marine genus Chelone, have hitherto been found, is the Portland sandstone. Prof. Buckland possesses portions of the carapace and a beautiful specimen of the skull of a Chelonian from the Portland sandstone, which, in the large size of the orbits, the breadth but otherwise small size of the external nostril, the extent of the osseous plate covering the temporal fossa, and formed prin- cipally by the expanded posterior frontal and parietal bones, presents une- quivocal characters of a marine species. It differs, however, from all other known recent and most extinct Turtles, in having the cranium more depressed, the nasal bones divided by a distinct transverse suture from the pre-frontals, and by some other minor differences, in which an affinity to the Platemydian family may be traced. The length of this cranium is 4 inches 4 lines, its greatest breadth 4 inches. The chief modification of external form is the deep emargination of the lower border of the cranium, between the malar and tym- panic bones; a character by which the present species approaches Amys and Testudo. The Chelone longiceps of the Eocene tertiary formations makes a similar but less marked approach to E’mys; and the present Turtle also re- sembles Chel. longiceps* in the form of the mastoid bone, which, instead of forming a thick convexity behind the wide tympanic cavity, forms a smooth and slightly concave, moderately broad, semicircular plate of bone. The muzzle is, however, as short in the Turtle of the Portland stone as in ordinary species of Chelone; the distance, for example, from the anterior part of the orbit to the end of the muzzle, is only 11 lines. ‘The median frontal sends a narrow pointed process forwards between the pre-frontals, as far as the suture- which divides them from the nasal bones. The breadth of the interorbital space is relatively less than in recent Turtles, or than in the Chelone longi- ceps: it measures 8 lines. The median frontal enters into the formation of the upper part of the or- bit, in a greater proportion than in Chel. mydas: in the Chel. imbricata it is excluded by the union of the post-frontal and pre-frontal bones. The outer surface of the skull is rather undulated, marked with fine strize and punctures, but not rugous, as in Chel. breviceps}+; the nasal bones are convex, and impressed with larger pits. The upper boundary of the nasal aperture is straight, the lateral ones curve to a point below: the breadth of this aperture is 7 lines; that of the orbit is 13 lines. The nasal process of the superior maxillary is characterised by a slightly raised rough portion. The lower jaw closely conforms to the ordinary Thalassian type; the sym- physis is convex, oblique, and as short as usual; there is no approximation to the peculiar condition of this part in the Harwich Turtle (Chel. plani- mentum). The suture between the supra-angular and dentary piece does not make so long and sharp an angle forwards, as in the Chelones mydas and Caretta ; the coronoid process is rather higher, and the dentary piece sends out a ridge which seems to have bounded the insertion of the temporal muscle below. Thus the present cranium offers ample proof of its specific distinction from that of any previously described Chelone; and, while it has all the essential characters of that marine genus, exhibits some points of resemblance to the Emydians, as in the minor breadth of the interorbital space, the deep con- cavity of the lower border of the skull behind the orbit, and in the form of the mastoid bone. The separate nasal bone, which is the most interesting * See Proceedings of the Geological Society, December Ist, 1841. + Ibid. t Ibid. 170 REPORT— 1841, structure in the present skull, though hitherto unknown in the genus Chelone, has been met with in the Platemydian subgenus, Chelodina, the cranium of which, in other respects, closely conforms to the ordinary Emydian type, and has not the temporal fosse protected by bone, as in th!’ Emys (Podocnemis) expansa*. id Chelone obovata, nob.—The most comple 2 and beautif| specimen of a fossil turtle, from secondary strata, that I have*) “+ sev one from the estuary limestone formation of the Isle of Purbeck, in the Colféction of Chan- ning Pearce, Esq. of Bradford, Wiltshire. This species differs from the Chelone Benstedi of the chalk, from the Gla- ris Turtle, and from all the well-determined Eocene species in the form of the carapace, which, although obtusely pointed behind, begins to contract to that extremity only at its posterior third part; it gradually widens through the two anterior thirds of its extent, and is broadest at the junction of the fifth and sixth ribs; the contour being obversely ovate, or with the broader end turned downwards. This modification of form arises, not from the supe- rior length of the fifth and sixth pairs of ribs, but from the breadth of their sternal appendages, called marginal plates. The internal surface of the cara- pace is exposed to view, and is shallower than in any other Chelone; resem- bliag in this character the Zrionyx and Tretosternon; the margins of the carapace are slightly bent upwards, as in some Hmydes. The first vertebral plate is shorter antero-posteriorly, and less deeply emar- ginate anteriorly than in the Maestricht Chelone+, and the first pair of ex- panded ribs is narrower. This well-marked difference fortunately occurs in the only parts in which a comparison could be established with the Turtles from a stratum so nearly contemporaneous with the Purbeck beds. The first rib is straight, and rather narrower in proportion than in the Eocene Turtles; in Chelone mydas this rib is the broadest of the series. It very gradually con- tracts into its dentiform extremity, which on the left side appears to have been separated by a narrow membranous space from the anterior marginal plates, but not on the right side. The second rib is broader in proportion to the first than in any other species of Chelone, recent or extinct ; more so even than in the Trionya, in which the first rib is narrower than the second. The third and fourth ribs are the broadest. In. Lin. The length of the expanded part of the fourth ribis . 3 0 The breadth of the expanded part of the fourth rib . 1 5 The length of the dentiform extremity. . . . .- . 1 O- The rest gradually diminish in length and breadth. They are all as flat upon the under surface as in Chelone mydas, presenting a great contrast to the Harwich species, Chel. planimentwm, in this respect. The median row of vertebral plates, after the first, are as narrow as in most Chelones, and appear, as far as their form can be traced from an inside view, to resemble those of the Chel. mydas and Chel. longiceps, but to have been narrower than in the extinct Eocene Turtles: the length of the fourth ver- tebral plate in the Chel. obovata, for example, is 1 inch 3 lines, its greatest breadth is 6 lines. The eleventh six-sided plate, which resembles a triangle, with truncated angles, and is wedged between the last pair of ribs, is here divided by a transverse suture into two nearly equal parts. The twelfth plate * The different proportions in which the cranial bones, especially the post-frontals, enter into the formation of the bony covering of the temporal fosse in the Emys expansa, serve to distinguish the skull of a Chelone from that of this exceptional example of an Emydian with the temporal foss covered by bone. . + Cuv. Ossem. Foss., tom. v. pt. 2. pl. xiv. Tortues, fig. 1 and 2. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. ‘ 171 is nearly twice as broad as long, and has convex lateral margins: the thir- teenth vertebral plate, or the last of the marginal plates, is relatively broader than in existing turtles, and has its posterior margin more feebly emargi- nate. The marginal p’ tes differ in the superior expanse of those attached to the fifth, sixth and seveath ribs. That to which the eighth rib is attached corresponds with the tenth in the Chel. mydas, and-the eleventh projects in an angular form © che i ‘orspace between the dentiform extremity of the eighth rib and the wwelfti. vertebral plate. The thirteenth marginal plate sends a similar process between the seventh and eighth ribs: the exterior margins of all the marginal plates are straight, and the carapace is bounded by an unbroken contour. The diameter of the marginal plate attached to the fifth rib, parallel with the axis of the carapace, is 1 inch 6 lines; the diameter transverse to the carapace is 6 lines: In. Lin. The length of the carapace . . - - - » + - - 10 9 The breadth of the carapace . ....... 9 6 A considerable proportion of the plastron of the same individual is pre- served, together with part of the bones of the hinder extremities, and both afford essential characters of the genus Chelone. The plastron of the Chelone obo- vata resembles that of the Eocene Turtles in the greater extent of ossification, and especially in the greater breadth of the xiphisternals, as compared with the recent species; but it differs from all other known species of Chelone in the greater depth of the notches at the anterior part of the hyosternals and at the posterior part of the hyposternals, which notches correspond with those that in the more fully ossified plastrons of Hmydes give passage to the four locomotive extremities. The essential condition, however, of the plastron of the marine turtles is preserved, first, in the defective ossification of the lateral margins of the plastron between the hyo- and hyposternals, which are not co-extended and united to form a lateral wall of support to the carapace, as in the Amydes; and, secondly, in the form, and union by gomphosis, of the xiphisternals with the hyposternals: what proportion of the central part of the plastron continued unossified, the condition of the specimen does not allow of determining. There is evidence of the concavity of the sternum along the middle of the under surface, as in most Chelones. The hyosternal is chiefly remarkable for the sudden expansion of the ex- ternal radiated process, which occasions a notch at its posterior part, at the lateral unossified interspace between the hyo- and hyposternal bones, almost as deep as that which is anterior to the radiated process. The hyposternal bone presents likewise a similar modification of form. By this peculiarity of form the present species might be known by a single detached hyosternal or hyposternal bone. The tooth-like process of the hyosternal, which is im- planted in the xiphisternal, is received into a notch, the inner boundary of which is much deeper than the outer. The breadth of both the'xiphisternals, taken across the termination of this notch, is 3 inches: they are separated by an angular fissure for the extent of an inch at their posterior interspace, but their median dentated margins meet in the rest of their extent, which is about one inch and a half. The breadth of sternum, across the hyposternal bones, is 8 inches; the least antero-posterior extent of the conjoined hyv- and hyposternals is 44 inches. In this admeasurement, as compared with the transverse extent of the same bones, the Chelone obovata differs in a marked degree from the Chel. longiceps of Sheppey, and indeed approaches nearer to the existing species of Chelone than do the Eocene Turtles. The adherence to the thalassian type is like- wise well exhibited in the present fossil by the forms and proportions of the 172 REPORT—1841. principal bones of the hind-extremities or paddles, which are much shorter as compared with the fore-paddles and the body generally, in the marine than in any of the freshwater or land Chelonia. The length of the femur is 1 inch 9 lines; that of the tibia 1 inch 7 lines. The articular extremities are too imperfect to allow of a comparison of the forms of these bones with the cor- responding ones of existing species. Since the carapace of the Chelone obovata approaches, in those modifications by which it differs from other turtles, to the Emydian type, it is not impro- bable that the skull of the Chelonian, above described, from the contiguous subjacent stratum of Portland stone, which offers analogous approximations to the Emydian group, may belong to the same species. Wealden Chelone, sp. indeterm.—Portions of the carapace and plastron, and bones of the extremities of a large species of marine turtle, some of them indicating individuals with a carapace nearly three feet in length, have been discovered by Dr. Mantell in the Wealden strata of Tilgate Forest, and are figured in his valuable ‘ Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex.’ No specific characters are deduced from these fossils, and the nature of the specimens seems not to have allowed the approximation to be carried closer than to the marine genus Chelone. With regard to one of the specimens, (pl. vi. fig. 2.) however, Mr. Clift’s authority is quoted for its resemblance with the corresponding part of Chelone imbricata, and Dr. Mantell acknow- ledges that ‘as Cuvier had referred the turtles of Melsbroeck to the Emydes, we at first entertained doubts whether our appropriation of this specimen to the Chelonie were correct. Mr. Clift’s remark, however, tends to confirm the opinion that it belongs to a marine turtle,” Joc. cit., p. 62. After a careful comparison of the specimens in the Mantellian Collection* in the British Museum, I have come to the conclusion that the Wealden species differs from Chelone imbricata, Ch. carinata, and other known species in as great a degree as do many of the other extinct Chelones, in regard to the greater extent of the ossification of the costal interspaces and of the sternum. In the convexity of the under side of the vertebral ribs ; and in the modi- fications of the form of the episternal, hyosternal and hyposternal bones the Wealden species offers the nearest resemblance to the Chelone planimentum of the Harwich Eocene clay. It is to be regretted that this relationship can- not be more decisively tested by a comparison of the skulls, and especially of the lower jaw of the two species: but these parts of the skeleton appear not to have been as yet discovered in the Wealden. Chelone pulchriceps, nob.—The cranial anatomy of a fossil turtle from the superincumbent beds of lower greensand differs from that of other known species, but presents the nearest resemblance to that of the turtle from the Portland stone. A small cranium of the present species of Chelone, from the greensand near Barnwell, Cambridge, in the museum of the Rev. Thomas Image of Whepstead, in the same county, is depressed, and likewise has the nasal bones marked off by a suture from the anterior frontals, but in a different manner from that in the skull of the Portland turtle. The characters of the genus Chelone are clearly expressed by the extensive roof of bone overarching the temporal fossz, and by as large a proportion of this roof being formed by the post-frontals as in existing Chelones. The orbits are also large, and their superior interspace is broad. The median frontals form a small proportion of the upper border of the or- * No. 2338, ‘‘ Sternal plate of a marine turtle,’ MS. Catalogue of Mantellian Museum, now in the British Museum, is unquestionably the left hyposternal, and part of the lateral wall, supporting the carapace of a Tortoise or Emys. ! ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 173 bits; the anterior extremities of the median frontals, instead of converging to a point, are extended forwards, between the anterior frontals, in a broader proportion than in the Portland Turtle, and are obliquely truncated : it is only in the genus Chelys among existing Chelonians, that the anterior frontals are thus separated from each other; butin the Chelys the intervening extremities of the median frontals are continued to the upper border of the external nostril. In the present fossil cranium the oblique extremities. of the anterior frontals are arrested at the distance of four lines from the nasal aperture, which is bounded above by two distinct nasal bones; these bones are joined by su- ture to the median frontals, to the anterior frontals, and to the superior max- illaries ; the nasal processes of which extend upward, and exclude the anterior frontals from the nasal boundary. The superior maxillaries are traversed obliquely by a large and deep scutal impression, above which the superior maxillary forms a convex prominence at the anterior part of the orbit. The scutal groove which traverses the median frontals is as strongly marked ; that which impresses the post-frontals is fainter. The expanded trumpet-shaped portion of the tympanic bone comes nearer the upper margin of the cavity than in existing Chelones. The palatal bones have no true palatal process. The palatal processes of the intermaxillary and maxillary bones form an unusually prominent angular ridge, running nearly parallel with the trenchant margin of the jaw: the bony palate is not extended along the middle line beyond the intermaxillaries. The pterygoid bones present moderately wide and deep external emarginations. In. Lin. Length of the cranium from the occipital tubercle aS Breadth of the cranium above the tympanic cavities. 1 6 Depth of the cranium at the parietal bones. . . - 1 O Antero-posterior diameter of the orbit . . . . . 0 10 Breadth of the interorbital space . . . 0 8 Chelone Benstedi, nob. Emys Benstedi, Mantell. " Although very characteristic remains of Chelonian reptiles have been de- termined by Cuvier, from the cretaceous beds of St. Peter’s Mount, near Maestricht, no evidence of the present order of Reptiles in British chalk formations had been made public until my description of a Chelonite from the lower chalk at Burham, Kent, in the museum of Sir P. Egerton, appeared in the Proceedings of the Geological Society. This Chelonite consisted of four marginal plates of the carapace, and a few other obscure fragments, sufficient to prove that the species was not 7’rionyx or Testudo: and as they differed in form from those of the recent species of Chelone, with which I compared them, and resembled rather the posterior marginal plates of some Emydians, I stated that this correspondence “ rendered it probable that these remains are referable to that family of Chelonia which lives in fresh water or estuaries.” Subsequent observation of the various interesting modifications by which extinct Chelones diminish, as it were, the gap between the marine and freshwater genera as they remain at the present day, has weakened the impression which the character of the marginal plates of the chalk Chelo- nite first made in favour of its Emydian affinities ; and the examination of the beautiful Chelonite, obtained from the same quarries at Burham, and relieved from the chalk matrix by Mr. Bensted, lately described and figured by Dr. Mantell in the Philosophical Transactions, has demonstrated that it is not an Emys but a true Chelone. 174 REPORT—1841. The fossil in question consists of nearly the whole carapace, and a con- siderable portion of the plastron, with a coracoid bone. The carapace includes all the dorsal or vertebral plates, save the first ; the usual number of expanded ribs, viz. eight pairs; and the entire border of marginal plates, save the three first. In the sternum the hyosternal and hy- posternal bones may be distinguished. The general form of the carapace is elliptical, terminated by a point at the narrower posterior end, which, how- ever, is less contracted than in other Chelones. It is as depressed as in Che- lones generally. To judge from the unmutilated vertebral plates, which are the four last, the carapace appears to have been traversed by a median longi- tudinal crest, from which the sides gently slope with a slight convex curva- ture, as in Chelone mydas. The more immediate indications of the close affinity of the fossil to the marine turtles are given by the incomplete ossification and anchylosis of the ribs and sternal bones, the latter being in consequence dislocated from each other ; and more especially by the shape and size of the marginal plates at- tached to the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs, as also by the form and length of the coracoid bone. The vertebral plates are as narrow relatively as in the ordinary Chelones ; but their precise form can only be distinguished in the three last. The ninth*, or that to which the eighth rib is in part articulated, is 3 lines in length and 2 in breadth; the tenth expands posteriorly into a triangular form; both these have their middle part raised into a ridge; the eleventh plate is sud- denly expanded, with angular sides, which slope away from a median longi- tudinal ridge: this is crossed by a transverse ridge just anterior to the junc- tion of the plate with the median terminal plate of the marginal series, which is convex above and traversed by a median longitudinal furrow. The margins _ of this plate meet posteriorly at an open angle. The second to the seventh pairs of expanded ribs are joined together only along their vertebral halves. The length of the expanded part of the third rib is 9 lines; its narrow, tooth-like part, before it reaches the marginal plate, is also 9 lines; about 3 lines of its extremity is inserted into the deep groove ofthe concave surface ' of the marginal plate. The width of the interspace between the narrow parts of the third and fourth ribs is 4 lines; the length of the expanded part of the first rib is 104 lines; the breadth of the expanded part of the first rib is 8 lines; the length of the narrow end of the rib, clear of the marginal plate, is 3 lines. In the superior breadth of the first rib the Chelone Benstedi agrees with existing turtles, and differs strikingly from the Purbeck species. The last short rib sends, almost directly backwards, a short, narrow, tooth-like process, at right angles to the anterior margin of its sub-triangular expanded part. In Chelone obovata it is extended more nearly parallel with the ex- panded part. The marginal plates have the same general uniformity of size which we observe in the existing Chelones ; the posterior ones are not expanded as in the Purbeck Chelone, and in certain Emydes, as Emys serrata, &e.; but the most decisive evidence against the Emydian affinities of the present fossil is afforded by the form and development of the inferior borders of the marginal plates attached to the fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs; for these plates, instead of being expanded and extended inwards to join the hyo- and hyposternals, and to combine with these elements of the plastron in forming the lateral supporting wall of the carapace, are not so much developed in breadth as the same parts of the posterior marginal plates, but form with them an even free border, as in other Chelones, in which not any of the marginal plates are joined with the sternum. * Tn all Emydes the proportions of this plate are the reverse of those in the fossil. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 175 With reference to the general imperfect ossification of the carapace, the deductions in favour of the marine nature of the Chalk Chelonite might be invalidated by the hypothesis that it was the young of some very large spe- cies of Amys; but the existing Emydians, at the immature period when they exhibit the incomplete ossification of the carapace and plastron, have the marginal plates opposite the lateral processes of the hyosternals and hypo- sternals joined with those processes by an inward development of their in- ferior border, which is suddenly and considerably broader than the inferior border of the contiguous free marginal plates. The outer contour of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh plates projects in the form of a slight angle, and thus differs from the same parts of Chelone mydas and Chelone obovata; the others have a straight free margin. The marginal plates appear as if bent upon themselves to form their outer margin, at a rather acute angle, receiving the extremities of the rib in a depression excavated in the concavity of the angle; they are nearly twice as long in the direction parallel with the margin of the carapace than transverse to it, and are traversed in the latter direction along the middle of their upper surface with the groove or impression of the marginal scutes. The free edge of the upper plate of the marginal pieces is slightly notched above the insertion of the rib, and they correspond with those of the Chelonite from the Burham chalk-pit in the collection of Sir P. Egerton. The form of the median or vertebral scutes is only to be traced at the anterior part of the carapace, but their relative breadth and the out- ward extension of their lateral angles correspond, like the characters of the more enduring parts, with the type of structure of the marine turtles. The breadth of the first vertebral scute is ] inch 8 lines, that of the second seute is 2 inches. The coracoid bone varies in form so as to be very characteristic of the dif- ferent genera of Chelonians; it is a triangular plate in Testwdo, a more elon- gated triangle in Chelys, a broad bent elongated plate in Zrionya, a narrower bent plate in Emys, a tong, straight, slender bone, slightly expanded and flattened at the sternal end, in Chelone: now it is precisely the latter form that this bone, fortunately preserved in the present specimen, here exhibits, showing that the same modifications of the skeleton are combined in the past as in the present species of Chelone; it is 1 inch 7 lines in length, cylindrical at its humeral half, and gently expanded to a breadth of 3 lines at its sternal end. The proportion which this bone presents of one-fourth the length of the carapace is only paralleled in the existing Chelones; it is much shorter in the Emydes. The hyosternal and hyposternal bones resemble rather those of the turtles than of the young Emydes; certainly no Emys, with a carapace 5 inches in length, presents such forms as these bones exhibit in the present fossil ; several rays or pointed spines of bone are developed from the anterior half of the median margin of the hyosternal piece, as in Chelone caretta; the rest of the margin contributes to form the circumference of the large central aper- ture of the sternum. The hyposternal sends similar rays from the posterior half of its outer margin, leaving the anterior half to join, probably the same proportion of the outer margin of the hyosternal, so as to form a deep lateral angular notch of the sternum. The length of the hyposternal is i inch 2 lines. The epi-, ento- and xiphisternal bones are not preserved. From the preceding description it must be obvious, as has been already observed, that the present Chelonite of the chalk can only be supposed to belong to the genus mys, on the supposition that it is a very young spe- cimen of some unusually large species: but against this supposition, the pointed form of the hind end of the carapace, the regularity of the size of 176 REPORT—1841. the marginal plates, the non-development of the lower margin of any of these plates for a junction with the plastron, the narrow elongate form of the ver- tebral plates, and the broad vertebral scutes, collectively and separately mili- tate ; whilst in all these modifications the Turtle from the Chalk so closely corresponds with the true Chelones, that I cannot hesitate to refer it to the marine family of the order. ‘ From the breadth of the xiphisternals in the remains of this species first described by me, I was induced to suppose that a new subgenus ( Cimochelys) of marine Turtles was thereby indicated, having a closer affinity to the Hmydes than the typical species; and the same affinity seems to be shown by the more regular elliptical form of the carapace of Mr. Bensted’s beautiful spe- cimen. The structure of the cranium, when this desirable part of the skeleton is discovered, may confirm the propriety of the subgeneric distinction ; but the numerous decided marks of closer affinity to Chelone leave no alternative than to regard the fossil species of the chalk as a member of that genus. It differs from all known species, especially the sub-carinated species of Sheppey, in the form of the carapace, which is more truly elliptical than in any other species with which I am acquainted. TI have been favoured with the opportunity of inspecting portions of the skeleton of a large Chelonian obtained by Mrs. Smith, of Tonbridge Wells, from the lower chalk at Burham, Kent, and skilfully relieved from their mineral bed by that lady. The principal bones consist of two series, one containing five, the other four, of the marginal plates of the carapace, in natural connection, and from that part of the margin where they receive the extremities of the vertebral ribs. These marginal plates in Chelone mydas are three-sided, and have two terminal surfaces by which they are united, suturally, to one another : of the three free surfaces, the one, directed towards the interior of the body, is characterized by a deep depression for the recep- tion of the tooth-like extremity of the rib; the two other (upper and under) surfaces meet at an angle, which is produced at certain parts to form the marginal dentations of the lateral and posterior parts of the carapace in that species of turtle, but is more open and obtuse in the marginal plates ‘at the anterior part of the carapace. In the fossil the marginal plates have the general characters of those of the genus Chelone, but differ from those of the Chelone mydas, in being more concave on the central or perforated side, and they are also concave at the upper side, and in a slighter degree at the under side; these sides likewise meet at a more acute angle, and this angle is pro- duced into a sharper and more continuous ridge: but this ridge subsides at one end of the series of five plates, and the upper and under sides gradually meet at a more open angle, which is rounded off in the first of the series. This plate, therefore, answers to the third marginal plate in the Chelone mydas, or that which receives the end of the first expanded vertebral rib ; and the remainder, therefore, to the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh marginal plates: now these are precisely the marginal plates in the Hays, which have their inferior margins developed inwards and articulated by suture to the lateral wall of the carapace: but these margins not being so developed or terminated in the present fossil, but, on the contrary, being inferior to the upper margin in breadth*, and terminating like that margin in a blunted edge, prove the present Chelonite to belong, like the smaller Chelonite from the same chalk-pit already described, to the marine genus Chelone. The following admeasurements will show the different proportions of the * The upper margin, which is distinguished by a slight notch where the costal groove leads to the pit, is broader than the lower one, in these plates of the Chelone mydas; but the dif- ference is less than in the present fossil species. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. WF marginal plates of the present specimen as compared with the corresponding ones of a Chelone mydas of similar general size :— Fossil Chel. Chel. mydas. In. Lin. In. Lin. Length of the series of five plates in a straight line 7 3 8 2 Breadth of the upper surface of the third (fifth) . 1 1 0 10 Interspace of costal depressions . . Mente rolinees eh 1 6 Thus the marginal plates of the chalk turtle, besides being more concave, are broader in proportion to their length, or antero-posterior diameter. In these respects they correspond with the form of the marginal plates in the Chelone Benstedi, and most probably belong to a larger and older specimen of the same species, There are two other marginal plates imbedded in the same portion of chalk, with their upper, smooth, slightly concave surfaces exposed; and the toothed or sternal extremities of three of the vertebral ribs, which by their length and size also prove this specimen to be a turtle. One of these frag- ments of rib measures 53 inches, and the expanded plates developed from each side of its upper surface are concave on their exterior surface, which is flat or slightly convex in Chelone mydas. A separate portion of chalk from the same pit contains the scapula and its acromial branch or anchylosed clavicle, with the articular surface which joins with the coracoid and humerus. The angle at which the scapula and clavicle meet is more open in Chelone than in Emys or Chelys: the present specimen presents the same angle as in the Maestricht Chelone figured by Cuvier *, in which it is rather more open than in the recent species of turtle. A broad, thin, slightly concave plate of bone appears, by the radiation of the fine strie at its under part, to represent the expanded parietal bone of the cranium. The carapace of the turtle to which the fragments above described be- longed, must have been nearly if not quite two feet in length. Hiocene Tertiary Chelones.— Although both the leading divisions of fresh- water Chelonians are represented in the Eocene tertiary formations of Great Britain, the one by the Eimys testudiniformis, the other by the Platemys or Hydraspis Bullochii, the Chelonian Reptiles from the London clay of Shep- pey and Harwich are for the most part true turtles, or species of the genus Chelone. Already good evidence of at least five distinct species have been obtained from these localities, and it is probable that others remain to be discovered ; they are generally of smaller size than the species which are now restricted to warmer or intertropical latitudes, and differ from those species, as well as from each other, by well-marked characters afforded by the skull, the carapace, and the plastron. Chelone longiceps.—The most common species, Chelone longicepst, is di- stinguished by very interesting modifications both of the cranium and osseous buckler, by which it approaches more nearly to the freshwater Chelonians than do any of the existing species of Chelone. In the prolongation of the conical rostrum and osseous palate, the skull of this species resembles that of a Trionyx, but the temporal fossz are covered by a roof of bone having the characteristic anatomical structure of the true Chelones. The buckleris broader in proportion, and both carapace and plastron are more completely ossified than in recent turtles ; thus both the hyosternals and hyposternals are broader * Ossem. Foss., tom, v. part ii. pl. xiv. fig. 5. _ t The characters of this and the other species of Chelone from the London clay forma- tion are detailed in my Memoir on that subject read before the Geological Society, Dec. 1, 1841, N 178 REPORT—1841. than they are long; the xiphisternals are unusually broad. The tooth-like processes from the mesial margins of the hyo- and hyposternals are more numerous and smaller than in existing species, and interlock with each other, so that two margins of each of these bones are joined by suture, instead of one, as in almost all other turtles. Yet in the largest specimens of this species which I have seen, the centre of the sternum remains unossified, its sides un- united by bone with the, carapace, and the external and part of the internal margins of its constituent bones preserve their separated tooth-like rays. The small specimen of which the plastron is figured by Parkinson and by Cuvier, belongs to the present species of Chelone ; it is now preserved in the rich collection of Prof. Bell. In the same collection there is preserved a specimen of Chelone longiceps, the plastron of which is 8 inches in length and nearly 8 inches in breadth; in this specimen, which is the largest of the present species that I have seen, the central vacuity of the plastron and the toothed margins of many of the constituent bones remain. Three of the Che- lonites in the museum of Sir P. Egerton, two in that of Mr. Bowerbank, one in that of Mr. Dixon, and one in the Hunterian Collection, belong to the Chelone longiceps. All these specimens are from the Isle of Sheppey. Chelone planimentum, nob.—The species which, in the number of indi- viduals representing it comes next in order after the Chelone longiceps, is characterized by a flat and unusually long symphysis of the lower jaw, but this is associated with a broad, high, and convex cranium, and with a muzzle not longer than in ordinary Chelones. The carapace is characterized by the strength of the ribs which traverse the whole of the under part of the ex- panded plates in the form of thick convex ridges. All the specimens of this species that I have hitherto seen are from the Eocene clay of the eastern coast of Essex. A carapace in the British Mu- - geum measures 13 inches in length and 12 inches across the fourth pair of expanded ribs. A skull in the museum of Prof. Sedgwick, associated with a carapace and other parts of the skeleton of the same individual, and another skull in that of Prof. Bell, indicate that the head was relatively as large in the Chelone planimentum as in the Chelone imbricata. Chelone breviceps, nob.—This species, in the narrow, ovate, and posteriorly pointed carapace, and in the less extensive ossification of the sternum, re- sembles more the recent Chelones than does the Chelone longiceps. Its cra- nium also preserves the ordinary form in its depth and in the shortness of its muzzle. The external surface of the cranium and osseous buckler is rugous. The angles by which the expanded ribs are wedged into the interspaces of the vertebral plates have equal or nearly equal sides. It appears to have exceeded the Chelone longiceps in size: a portion of the osseous buckler of a Chelone breviceps, with a carapace 16 inches in length, is preserved in the museum of Mr. Robertson, surgeon, at Chatham. Smaller specimens of the Chelone breviceps, all from the Isle of Sheppey are preserved in the Hunterian Collection, in the museum of Prof. Bell, and in that of Mr. Bowerbank. Mr. Bowerbank’s specimen exhibits the head ‘in connection with the carapace and plastron, and is the most beautiful Chelo- nite, perhaps, that has yet been obtained from any formation. Chelone convexa, nob.—The surface of the bony buckler of this species, like that of the Chelone longiceps, is smooth, but the forms of the constituent bones of the carapace and their degree of ossification differ considerably from those of a Chelone longiceps of the same size, and resemble those of Chelone mydas. The carapace is more convex than in the preceding species from Sheppey, and than in the existing Chelones, whence the specific name of the present extinct species. It is from the Isle of Sheppey. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 179 Chelone suberistata, nob.—This species, also from the Isle of Sheppey, has the usual thalassian form of carapace, which is narrow, ovate, and contracted to a point behind, with a sternum resembling also existing Chelones, in the form and degree of ossification of its constituent pieces, and the slenderness of the xiphisternals. It may be distinguished from the Chelone breviceps by the smoothness of its carapace, the different form of the vertebral plates, and the development of a sharp ridge on the sixth and eighth vertebral plates. The sole example of this species which has come under my observation is the osseous buckler, 9 inches in length and 63 inches in breadth, in the museum of Mr. Bowerbank. Chelone latiscutata, nob.—This species is founded on a nearly complete buckler of a turtle from Sheppey, measuring 3 inches in length, from the second to the seventh plate inclusive: it may be a variety, or the immature state of Chelone longiceps, but I have not yet had the opportunity of ascer- taining to what extent the relative breadth of the vertebral scutes varies in individuals of different age of existing species of turtle. In the present case the vertebral scutes are nearly twice as broad in proportion to their length, as they are in the Chelone longiceps, or in any of the other well-marked spe- cies of Eocene turtles. The indications of Chelonites from Eocene strata, in the works of Parkin- son, Woodward and Konig, being unaccompanied by the anatomical deduc- tions essential to the establishment of their true affinities, have been either misinterpreted or neglected; and except the citation of Woodward’s Chelone Harvicensis, in M. H. v. Meyer’s Compilation*, the existence in the London clay of fossil E’mydes alone has been recognized in the latest summaries of the present branch of Paleontology+. These, therefore, could indicate but little difference between the present fauna’ and that of the Eocene period in regard to the Chelonian order. But the case assumes a very different aspect when we arrive at the conviction that the majority of Sheppey Chelonites be- long to the marine genus Chelone, and reflect that the number of extinct Eocene turtles from that limited locality very nearly equals that of all the well-determined species of Chelone now known to exist. For notwithstand- ing the assiduous search of the naturalist-collector, and the attractions which the shell and flesh of turtles offer to the commercial voyager, the tropical seas, though so often traversed, have not as yet yielded more than five good species of Chelone; and of these only two, as Chelone mydas and Chelone caretta, are known to frequent the same locality. Now, whilst it is obvious that but a small proportion of the organized treasures of the vast deposit of petrified mud and clay which fills the London Basin have been brought to light, the results of the examination of fossil Chelonites evidently show that the ancient ocean of the Eocene epoch was more abundantly provided with turtles, and that these presented a greater variety of specific modifications than the same extent of ocean in any of the warmer parts of the earth at the present day. The indications which the Sheppey turtles give, in conjunction with the other organic remains from the same depository, of the higher temperature that prevailed in the latitude in which they lived, cannot be overlooked ; yet at the same time the conditions, which allow of the attainment of the size which the present tropical turtles often exhibit, would seem not to have been present in the time and place of existence of the extinct species of Chelone * Paleologica, p. 104. T See Cuvier, Ossem. Fossiles, ed. 1836, 8vo, tom. ix. p. 464; Buckland, Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. p. 258; the recent comprehensive work on Erpetology, by MM. Dumeril and Bibron, tom. ii. p. 533; and Dr. Grant in the British Annual for 1829, p. 266. N2 180 REPORT—1841. above enumerated; and again, the affinities to the freshwater forms which the skeleton of some of the Eocene Chelones exhibit, accord with the indi- cations that they inhabited the estuary of a great river. Order OPHIDIA. In the Appendix to the secoad 4to edition of the ‘ Ossemens Fossiles,’ Cu- vier remarks, “ Les os de serpens sont encore plus rares, s'il est possible. Je n’en ai vu que des vertébres des bréches osseuses de Cette, dont j’ai parlé a l'article de ces bréches, et une seule des terrains d’eau douce de Vile de Shep- ey*.” The’ Ophidiolites from this formation have been the subject of a memoir by me, published in the sixth volume (second series) of the Geological Trans- actions, in which the best-preserved specimens in the collections of John Hunter and Mr. Bowerbank are described. The Hunterian Ophidiolites were referred by the Founder of the collection, in the original MS. Cata- logue, to the Crocodile; some of those in the private collections I found ticketed ‘‘ Vertebree of Tortoise.” All these specimens presented the general characteristics of the vertebre of serpents, and resembled in structure as well as size those of the Constrictors (Python and Boa) more than those of the colubrine or poisonous families. Very recognizable differences are to be dis- cerned in the Eocene fossil vertebrae as compared with the vertebree of exist- ing Pythons and Boe; they are ionger as compared with their height or breadth; the costal tubercle is placed lower down; the transverse process supporting the lower anterior articular process has a greater vertical extent, and the ridge continued from the lower anterior to the lower posterior oblique ‘process is less developed ; the oblique processes do not extend so far outwards, and the spinous process is higher, but has a Jess antero-posterior extent than in existing land-serpents. The middle of the posterior margin of the neura-< pophysis, opposite the external angle of the articular excavation or mortise, is produced backwards in the form of an angular plate. The inferior surface of the vertebra is not longitudinally carinated, as in some Colubri, but has a tubercle at the middle of the anterior part, as in the Python. These differences justify the consideration of the Sheppey Ophidiolite as the representative of a distinct genus as well as species, for which I have pro- posed the name of Palcophis toliapicus. The largest of the Ophidiolites in Mr. Bowerbank’s collection exhibits a portion of the vertebral column suddenly bent upon itself, including about thirty vertebre, and indicating the usual lateral flexibility of the spine. The Hunterian specimen also consists of a group of as many vertebra more dis- jointed, and cemented, with a number of long and slender ribs, irregularly together by a mass of indurated clay. In the ‘museum of Mr. Saull a few vertebrae, and a fragment of the skull of the same Paleophis, likewise from Sheppey, are preserved. The size of the vertebrx in the foregoing speci- mens corresponds with that of the vertebra of a boa constrictor of 10 or 12 feet in length. Vertebree of a serpent agreeing in character with those of the London clay at Sheppey, but sinaller, have been obtained by Mr. Colchester, from the sand of the Eocene formation underlying the Red Crag at Kyson or Kingston in Suffolk. These have also the small tubercle at the under and back part of the body of the vertebra, instead of the ridge, as in Coluber and Naja ; and thus, like the larger vertebra from Sheppey, they come nearer to the Python; but the bodies of these vertebre are longer in proportion to their breadth, as in the Sheppey Paleophis. The tubercle for the rib is * Tom, vy, part ii. p.526, ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 181 single; in Naja it is almost divided into two, the upper being convex, the lower moiety concave ; in the Python the upper half of the tubercle is con- vex and the lower half concave, but the two facets are not marked off. In the Paleophis, of both Sheppey and Kyson, it is simply convex. The most perfectly preserved, as well as the largest specimens of vertebrae of Paleophis which I have seen, are from the Eocene clay at Bracklesham, and are preserved in the select collection of Fr. Dixon, Esq. of Worthing. The serpent to which the largest of these vertebrae belonged must have been upwards of 20 feet. in length. Ophidian reptiles, of ten, twelve, and twenty feet in length, exist in the present day only in intertropical regions, and they for the most part prey on mammals and birds. If, therefore, direct evidence of species of both these warm-blooded classes in the London clay had not been obtained*, they might have been strongly suspected to have co-existed with serpents of such dimen- sions as those to which the vertebree and ribs above mentioned belonged. Order BATRACHIA. Of this order of Reptiles, represented in the present Fauna of Great Britain by a few diminutive species of frogs, toads, and newts, the remains of some remarkable extinct members have been discovered in the New Red Sandstone of Warwickshire. As the determination of these fragments has been the result of the exami- nation, in part microscopical, of detached bones and fragments of bone and teeth, and since the Batrachian order, like most others at the confines of a great natural group, exhibits wide modifications of its typical structure, a few words may be expected touching the grounds for referring the fossils in question to the Batrachian order, especially since similar fossils in another country, specimens of the same species, have been regarded as parts of Saurians. The Batrachians have no fixed type of external form like the higher orders of Reptiles, but some, as the broad and flat-bodied toads and frogs, most resemble the Chelonians, especially the soft-skinned mud-tortoises ( Trionyx) ; other Batrachians, as the Cecilia, resemble Ophidians ; a third group, as the Newts and Salamanders, represent the Lacertians ; and among the Perenni- branchiate reptiles there are species which combine with external gills the mutilated condition of the apodal fishes. Thus it will be perceived, that, even if the entire skeleton of one of the New Red Sandstone Batrachians had been obtained, there is no fixed or cha- racteristic general outward form in the Batrachian order whereby its affinity to that group could have been determined. The common characters by which the Batrachians, so diversified in other respects, are naturally associated into one group or suborder of reptiles, besides being taken from the condition of the circulating and generative systems and other perishable parts, are, how- ever, fortunately as strongly manifested in modifications of the skeleton and principally in the skull. This is joined to the atlas by the medium of two tu- bercles, developed exclusively from the lateral occipitals; the bony palate is formed chiefly by two broad and fiat bones, called ‘ vomerine’ by Cuvier, and generally supporting teeth. Itis only in the Batrachians among reptiles that examples are found of two or more rows of teeth on the same bone, espe- cially on the lower jaw (Cecilie, Sirenes). With regard to vertebral cha- racters, no such absolute Batrachian modifications can be adduced as those above cited from the anatomy of the cranium. Some Batrachians, as is well known, have the vertebra: united by ball-and-socket joints, as in most recent * Geological Transactions, second series, vol. vi. p. 203, pl. 21. 182 REPORT—1841. reptiles; others by biconeave joints, as in a few recent and most extinct Saurians. Some species have ribs, others want those appendages; the pos- session of ribs, therefore, even if longer than those of the Cecilia, by a fossil reptile combining all the essential Batrachian characters of the skull, - would not be sufficient ground for pronouncing such reptile to be a Saurian. Much less could its Saurian nature be pronounced from the circumstance of its possessing large conical striated teeth; as the ordinary characters of size, form, number, and even presence or absence of teeth, varies much in existing Batrachians, the location of teeth on the vomerine bones being the only con- stant dental character in which they differ from all other orders of reptiles. My first acquaintance with the remarkable fossils under consideration was founded on the examination of portions of teeth, from the new red sandstone of Coton End quarry, Warwickshire, transmitted to me by Dr. Lloyd of Lea- mington. The external characters of these teeth corresponded with those which had previously been discovered, by Prof. Jaeger, in the German Keuper formation in Wirtemberg, and on which the genus Mastodonsaurus had been found. The results of a microscopic examination of the teeth of the Mastodon- saurus from the German Keuper, and of those from the New Red Sandstone of Warwickshire, have been detailed in the Proceedings of the Geological Society, January 1841, and illustrated in my ‘ Odontography,’ pp. 195—217, pls. 63, 63 A, 638, 64, 64.4, 648. They proved that the teeth from both localities possessed in common a very remarkable and complicated structure, to the principle of which, viz. the convergence of numerous inflected folds of the external layer of cement towards the pulp-cavity, a very slight approach was made in the fang of the tooth of the /ehthyosaurus, and that a closer ap- proximation to the labyrinthine structure in question was made by the teeth of several species of fishes, while the teeth of existing Batrachians were simple, like those of most Saurians. Thus, inasmuch as the extinct animal in question manifested in the intimate structure of its teeth an affinity to fishes, it might be expected that, if it actu- ally belonged to the class of reptiles, the rest of its structure would manifest the characters of the lowest order, viz. the Batrachia, the existing members of which pass, though not by the dental character alluded to, yet by so many other remarkable degradations of structure, towards fishes. Now it has actu- ally happened that, in the same formation in Wirtemberg from which the la- byrinthic teeth of the so-called Mastodonsaurus have been derived, a frag- ment of the posterior portion of the skull has been obtained, showing the apparent absence of the basi-occipital, and the development of a separate condyle on each ex-occipital bone; whence Prof. Jaeger, recognizing the identity of this structure with the Batrachian character above mentioned, founded upon the fossil a new genus of Batrachia, which he called ‘ Sala- mandroides giganteus.’ Subsequent discoveries, however, satisfied the Pro- fessor that the bi-condylous fragment of skull, representing the genus Sala- mandroides, belonged to the same reptile as the teeth, on which he had founded the genus Mastodonsaurus. But notwithstanding the evidence thus obtained of the Batrachian affinities of the Keuper Reptile, Prof. Jaeger preferred to retain for it the name which implied its membership with the Saurian order, and cancelled the genus Salamandroides, which form of substantive has, in- deed, been forbidden by the canons of botanical nomenclature to be used as the name of a genus*. I proceed now briefly to notice the fossils from the Warwick sandstone * « Nomina generica in o#des desinentia e foro Botanico releganda sunt.”—Linnzi Phi- losophia Botanica, 1751, p. 161. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 183 deseribed in my Memoir read before the Geological Society, and in which additional, and, as it seems to me, conclusive proof is given of the Batrachian nature of the genus to which those fossils belong; with the establishment of five distinct species, one of which is most probably identical with the Masto- donsaurus salamandroides of Prof. Jaeger. It is scarcely necessary to repeat the reasons which I have given to show that the generic denomination Mastodonsaurus cannot be retained ; first, it unavoidably recalls the idea of the mammalian genus Mastodon, or else a mammilloid form of tooth, whereas, all the teeth of the reptile so called are originally, and most of them are permanently of a cuspidate and not of a mammilloid form; secondly, because the second element of the word, sawrus, indicates the genus to belong to the Saurian and not to the Batrachian order of reptiles. For these reasons I have proposed to designate the genus in question Labyrinthodon, in allusion to the peculiar and characteristic struc- ture of the teeth. The specimens which I have examined are referable to five species, viz. 1. Labyrinthodon salamandroides ; 2. L. leptognathus ; 3. L. pachygnathus ; 4. L. ventricosus ; and 5. £. scutulatus: and I shall here briefly notice the characters exhibited by the bones assignable to the 2nd, 3rd, and 5th species. Labyrinthodon leptognathus.—The remains which I consider as portions of this species, consist of fragments of the upper and lower jaws, two vertebra, and asternum., They were found in the sandstone quarries at Coton End, near Warwick. The portions of the upper jaw show that the maxillary or facial division of the skull was broad, much depressed, and flattened, resembling the skull of the gigantic Salamander and of the Alligator; and the outer surface of the bones was strongly sculptured, as in the Crocodilian family, but of a relatively larger and coarser pattern. One portion of the upper jaw contains the an- terior moiety of the single row of small teeth, or thirty sockets, and the base of one of the great anterior tusks. The bases of the serial teeth project directly from the outer wall of the shallow socket, there being no alveolar ridge external to it. The large anterior fang is three times the size of the first of the serial teeth, and the size of these gradually diminishes as they are placed further back; the length of the common-sized teeth being about two lines, and the greatest breadth one-third of a line. The apical two-thirds of each tooth is smooth, but the basal third is fluted, and anchylosed to the outer wall of the socket. The breadth of the upper jaw, opposite the middle of the dental series, was two inches six lines; in proceeding backwards the jaw gra- dually expands to three inches, and in proceeding forwards narrows, but in a less degree towards the anterior extremity, and then slightly widens or in- clines outwards on account of the large tusks. Where the upper jaw is entire, a portion next the median suture, four lines in breadth, is separated from the maxillary bone by a longitudinal harmonia, and corresponds with the position of the nasal bone in the Crocodile. On comparing the structure of the cranium of the Labyrinthodon with the existing Batrachians, it is true that an important modification will be found to exist. In both the caducibranchiate and perennibranchiate species, the upper maxillary bones do not extend horizontally over the upper surface of the skull, but leave a very wide interval between the maxillary and nasal bones ; and the palatal processes of the former contribute as little to form the floor of the nasal cavity: in the Crocodiles, on the contrary, the palatal pro- cesses of the maxillary bones extend horizontally inwards, and meet at the middle line of the roof, forming an unbroken floor to the nasal cavity. In the Labyrinthodon the superior maxillary bones, as already shown, extend in- wards to the nasal bone, constituting with it a continuous roof to the nasal 184 REPORT—1841. cavities ; but the palatal processes, instead of reaching to the middle line, as in the Crocodiles, are very narrow, as in the Batrachia. The osseous roof of the mouth is principally composed of a pair of broad and flat bones, analogous to the divided vomer in Batrachia, but of much greater relative extent, ap- proaching; in this respect, those of the Menopome, and defending the mouth with a more extensive roof of bone than exists in any Lacertian reptile: phy- siologically, therefore, the Labyrinthodon, in this part of its structure, comes nearest to the Crocodile; but the structure itself, morphologically, is essen- tially Batrachian. In the Menopome and gigantic Salamander, a row of small teeth extends transversely across the anterior extremity of the vomerine bones : and the occurrence in the Labyrinthodon of a similar row, consisting in each palatine bone of three median small teeth and two outer larger ones, marks most strongly its Batrachian nature; and from the outermost tooth a longi- tudinal row of small and equal-sized teeth is continued backward along the exterior margin of the palatine bone. The whole of this series of palatal teeth is nearly concentric with the maxillary teeth. In Lacertine reptiles the examples of a row of palatal teeth are rare, and, when present, it is short, and situated towards the back of the palate, upon the pterygoid bones, as in the Iguana and Mosasaur. In Batrachians the most common disposition of the palatal teeth is a transverse row placed at the ante- rior part of the divided vomer, as in Frogs, the Menopome and gigantic Sala- mander, and at the posterior part in certain toads. In the Amphiume, on the contrary, the palatal teeth form a nearly longitudinal series along the outer margin of the vomerine bones. The Labyrinthodon combines both these dis- positions of the palatal teeth, which are arranged transversely across the fore part of the divided vomer and extend backwards along its outer margin. No teeth are placed on the pterygoid bones at the back of the palate as in the Saurians with palatal teeth. The posterior palatine apertures are, how- ever, more completely circumscribed by bone than in most Batrachians, and occupy the same relative position as in the Iguana. The posterior margin only of one of the anterior apertures is exhibited in the specimen here de- scribed, but from its curve I infer that the two apertures are not confluent, as in the Crocodile, the Frog, or the Menopome, but that they are distant, as in the Iguana. From the physiological condition of the nasal cavity it may be concluded that the Labyrinthodon difiered from the Batrachians and resembled the Sau- rians in having distinct posterior nasal apertures surrounded by bone, and that its mode of respiration was the same as in the higher air-breathing reptiles. Tn the shedding and renewal of the maxillary and the transverse palatal teeth, it is evident that the process took place alternately in each row, as in many fishes, whereby the dental series was always kept in an efficient state. Another instructive fossil is a portion of the left ramus of an under jaw of Labyrinthodon leptognathus from the Warwick sandstone. It is six inches long, slender and straight, the symphysial extremity is abruptly bent in- wards, and it presents almost as striking a Batrachian character as any of the bones just mentioned. The angular piece is of great breadth, and is con- tinued forward to near the symphysis, forming the whole of the inferior part of the jaw, and extending upon the inner as far as upon the outer side of the ramus, the inner plate performing the function of the detached os operculare in the jaw of Saurians. The dentary bone is supported upon a deep and wide groove along the upper surface of the angular piece, which also projects be- yond the groove, so as to form a strong convex ridge on the external side of the jaw, below the dentary piece. This character, which in the large bull-frog _ (Rana pipiens) is confined to the posterior part of the maxillary ramus, is in the Labyrinthedon continued to near the anterior extremity. The teeth ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 185 are long and slender, gradually diminishing in size towards the anterior portion of the jaw, and the fragment presents a linear series of not less than fifty sockets, placed alternately a little more internally; and at the anterior in- flected part of the jaw is the base of the socket of a large tooth. The ante- rior portion of the jaw being broken off, it is uncertain if the serial teeth were continued externally to the anterior tusk, which is a remarkable ichthyoid character noticed in another species of Labyrinthodon. The sockets of the teeth are shallower than in the upper jaw ; the outer wall is more developed than the inner, and the anchylosed bases of the teeth more nearly resemble, in their oblique position, those of existing Batrachia. With regard to the modification of the microscopic structure of the teeth, I may ob- serve that, between the apex and the part where the inflected vertical folds of the cement commence, the tooth resembles, in the simplicity of its intimate structure, that of the entire tooth of ordinary Batrachia and most reptiles ; and in the lower or basal half of the tooth the structure described in the works before quoted commences, and gradually increases in complexity. From the long and slender character of this ramus, the length of the head, as compared with the breadth, approximates more nearly to Crocodilian pro- portions than to the ordinary Batrachian ones; but among existing Batrachia it resembles most nearly the Amphiume. A dorsal vertebra from Coton End presents further evidence of the Batra- chian nature of the Labyrinthodon. It has concave articular cavities at the extremities of the body, a condition now known, among existing reptiles, only in the Geckos, and in the lower or perennibranchiate division of Batrachians. It is a common structure in extinct Saurians, but the depth of the vertebral articular cavities in the Labyrinthodon exceeds that in the Amphiccelian Cro- codilians and in most Plesiosaurs. The body of the vertebra is elongate and subcompressed, with a smooth but not regularly curved lateral surface, termi- nating below in a slightly produced, longitudinal, median ridge ; and it ex- hibits the same exceptional condition in the Reptilian class as do the vertebrae of existing Batrachians, in having the superior arch or neurapophysis anchy- losed with the centrum. From each side of the base of the neural arch a thick and strong transverse process extends obliquely outwards and upwards. A symmetrical bone, resembling the episternum of the Jehthyosaurus, was associated with the preceding remains. It consists of a stem or middle, which gradually thickens to the upper end, where cross-pieces are given off at right angles to the stem, and support on each a pretty deep and wide groove indi- eating strongly the presence of clavicles, and thus pointing out another di- stinction from Crocodiles, in which clavicles are wanting. Most Batrachians possess these bones. The modifications of the jaws, and more especially those of the bony palate of the Labyrinthodon leptognathus, prove the fossil to have been essentially Batrachian, but with affinities to the higher Sauria, leading, in the form of the skull and the sculpturing of the cranial bones, to the Crocodilian group, in the collocation of the larger fangs at the anterior extremities of the jaws to the Plesiosaurus, and in one part of the dental structure, in the form of the episternum, and the biconcave vertebra, to the Zchthyosaurus. Another marked peculiarity in this fossil is the anchylosis of the base of the teeth to distinet and shallow sockets, by which it is made to resemble the Sphyrena and certain other fishes. From the absence of any trace of excavation at the inner side of the base of the functional teeth, or of alveoli of reserve for the successional teeth, it may be concluded that the teeth were reproduced, as in the lower Batrachians and in many fishes, especially the higher Chondroptery- gii, which formed the Amphibia Nantes of Linnzus, in the soft mucous mem- brane which covered the alveolar margin, and that they subsequently became 186 REPORT—1841, fixed to the bone by anchylosis, as in the Pike and Lophius. This-anatomical fact, militates strongly against the idea that the Labyrinthodon is a Saurian*. No remains of the locomotive organs of the L. leptognathus have-yet been found. Labyrinthodon pachygnathus.—The remains of this species, which have been obtained, consist of portions of the lower and upper jaws, an anterior frontal bone, a fractured humerus, an ilium with a great part of the acetabulum, the head of a femur, and two ungual phalanges, A portion, nine and a half inches long, of a right ramus of a lower jaw, in addition to the characters common to it and the fragment of the lower jaw of the LZ, leptognathus, in the structure of the angular and dentary pieces, shows that the outer wall of the alveolar process is not higher than the inner, as in Frogs and Toads, the Salamanders and Me- nopome, in all of which the base of the teeth is anchylosed to the inner side of an external alveolar plate. The smaller serial teeth are about forty in num- ber, and gradually diminish in size as they approach both ends, but chiefly so towards the anterior part of the jaw. ‘The sockets are close together, and the alternate ones are empty. The great laniary teeth were apparently three in each symphysis, and the length of the largest is considered to have been one and a half inch. A section through the base of the anterior tusk above the socket exhibits the structure described in the Proceedings of the Geological Society, January, 1841, but a section of the second tusk, also taken above the socket, shows a less complex modification of the labyrinthic arrangement, one, viz. which is closely analogous to that at the base of the teeth of the Ichthyo- saurus. The apical half of the tusks has a smooth and polished surface, and the pulp-cavity is continued, of small size, into the centre of this part of the tooth, In the serial teeth, which in other respects, except size, correspond with the preceding description of the tusks, the central pulp-cavity is more quickly obliterated, but the alveoli are large, moderately deep and complete : the texture of the teeth is dense and brittle. The base of each tooth is an- chylosed to the bottom of its socket, as in Scomberoid and Sauroid fishes; but the Labyrinthodon possesses a still more ichthyic character in the continua- tion, preserved in this specimen, of a row of small teeth anterior and external to the two or three larger tusks, A double’ row of teeth thus occasioned does not exist in the maxillary bones, either superior or inferior, of any Saurian reptile} ; but in Batrachia it has been noticed in the lower jaw of the Cecilia, and it is not an uncommon structure in fishes. A fragment of the superior maxillary bone manifests a striking deviation from the Crocodilian type of structure in the continuation of the palatal plate of the intermaxillary bone for about an inch to the outer side of the base of the external plate or process; while in the Crocodiles the external wall of the intermaxillary bone is united by the whole of its outer margin with the maxil- lary, and is thence continued along the whole outer contour of the intermax- illary bone, Now in the Labyrinthodon the intermaxillary bone presents the same peculiar modification of the Batrachian condition of this bone as in the higher organized Batrachia, the palatal process of the intermaxillary extending beyond the outer plate both externally and, though in a less degree, internally, where it forms part of the boundary of the anterior palatal foramen, whence the outer plate rises in the form of a compressed process from a longitudinal tract in the upper part of the palatal process; it is here broken off near its margin, and the fractured surface gives the breadth of the base of the outer * Tt would be highly desirable to determine in how many of the characters above detailed the Nothosaurus mirabilis, Muenster, may deviate, like the Labyrinthodon, from the Saurian type of structure: it would seem to connect the Plesiosaurus with the Labyrinthodon. + The successional teeth in Plesiosawrus and Nothosaurus are sometimes so far developed before they displace their predecessors as to cause the appearance of a double row. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 187 plate, stamping the fossil with a Batrachian character conspicuous above all the Saurian modifications by which the essential nature of the fossil appears at first sight to be masked. In the anterior frontal bone there are indications of Crocodilian structure. Its superior surface is slightly convex and pitted with irregular impressions ; and from its posterior and outer part it sends downwards a broad and slightly concaye process, which appears to be the anterior boundary of the orbit. This process presents near its upper margin a deep pit, from which a groove is con- tinued forwards; and in the corresponding orbital plate of the Crocodile there is a similar but smaller foramen. From these remains of the cranium of the Lab, pachygnathus, it is evident that the facial or maxillary part of the skull was formed in the main after the Crocodilian type, but with well-marked Batrachian modifications in the in- termaxillary and inferior maxillary bones. The most important fact which they show is, that this Sauroid Batrachian had subterminal nostrils, leading to a wide and shallow nasal cavity, separated by a broad and almost continuous palatal flooring f om the cavity of the mouth; indicating, with their horizon- tal position, that their posterior apertures were placed far behind the anterior or external nostrils; whereas in the air-breathing Batrachia the nasal meatus is short and vertical, and the internal apertures pierce the anterior part of the palate. It may be inferred, therefore, that the apparatus for breathing by imspiration must have been present in the Labyrinthodon as in the Crocodile ; and hence still further, that the skeleton of the Labyrinthodon will be found to be provided with well-developed costal ribs, and not, as in most of the exist- ing Batrachians, with merely rudimentary styles. Since the essential condi- tion of this defective state of the ribs of Batrachians is well known to be their fish-like mode of generation and necessary distension of the abdomen, it is probable that the generative economy of these fossil reptiles, in which the more complete ribs would prevent the excessive enlargement of the ovaria and oviducts, may have been similar to that of Saurian reptiles. A fragment of a vertebra of Lab. pachygnathus presents analogous charac- ters to the vertebra of the Lab. leptognathus previously noticed. Of the few bones of the extremities which have come under my inspection, one presents all the characteristics of the corresponding part of the humerus of a toad or frog, viz. the convex, somewhat transversely extended articular end, the internal longitudinal depression, and the well-developed deltoid ridge. The length of the fragment is two inches, and the breadth is thirteen lines. The ridges are moderately thick and compact, with a central medullary ca- vity. In its structure as well as in its general form, the present bone agrees with the Batrachian, and differs from the Crocodilian type. In the right ilium, about six inches in length, and in the acetabulum, there is a combination of Crocodilian and Batrachian characters. The acetabular cavity is bounded on its upper part by a produced and sharp ridge, as in the frog; and not emarginate at its anterior part, as in the crocodile. Above the acetabulum in the frog the ilium gives off a broad and depressed process, the lower extremity of which is separated from the acetabulum by a smooth con- cave groove, both of which are wanting in the crocodile, there being only a slight rising of the upper border of the acetabulum. These characters, how- ever, are well developed in the Labyrinthodon: but the process, instead of being depressed, is compressed, and its internal extremity is pointed and bent forwards, representing the rudiment of the long anterior process of the ilium in the Batrachia anoura ; but it does not attain in the Labyrinthodon the par- allel of the anterior margin of the acetabulum, and the bone terminates in a thick truneated extremity a few lines anterior to the acetabulum; which gives an essential feature of resemblance to the Crocodiles and difference from the | 188 REPORT—1841. Batrachians. But the most marked difference in this fossil from the crocodile is the length of the ilium posterior to the acetabulum, in which it agrees with the analogous portion of the frog and other tailless Batrachians; while, on the contrary, there is an agreement with the Crocodilian type in the mode of articulation to the vertebral column. In the frog a transverse process of a single vertebra abuts against the anterior extremity of the produced ilium. In the crocodile the transverse processes of two vertebre are thickened and - expanded, and joined to a rough, concave, articular surface occupying the inner side of the ilium, and a little posterior to the acetabular cavity. In the Labyrinthodon is a similar well-marked, rough, elongated, concave, articular surface, divided by a non-articular surface, and destined for the reception of the external extremities of two sacral ribs.) The Labyrinthodon likewise agrees with the crocodile in the lower part of the acetabulum being com- pleted by the upper extremity of the pubis, the anterior and inferior part of the ilium offering an obtuse process at the posterior part of the lower boun- dary of the acetabular cavity. As the fragment of the ilium was discovered in the same quarry as the two fragments of the cranium and the portion of the lower jaws, it is probable that they may have belonged to the same animal; and if so, as the portions of the head correspond in size with those of the head of a crocodile six or seven feet in length, but the acetabular cavity with that of a crocodile twenty- five feet in length, then the hinder extremities of the Labyrinthodon must have been of disproportionate magnitude compared with those of existing Sau- rians, but of approximate magnitude with some of the living anourous Batra- chians. That such a reptile, of a size equal to that of the species whose re- mains have just been described, existed at the period of the formation of the New Red Sandstone, is abundantly manifested by the remains of those singu- Jar impressions to which the term Chetrothertum has been applied. Other impressions, as those of the Cheirotherium Hercules, correspond in size with the remains of the Labyrinthodon Salamandroides, which have been dis- covered at Guy’s Cliff. The head of a femur from the same quarry in which the ilium was found exactly fits the acetabulum or the articular cavity of that bone. The two toe-bones, or terminal phalanges, resemble those of Batra- chians in presenting no trace of a nail, and from their size they may be re- ferred to the hind-feet of the ZL. pachygnathus, Thus, all these osseous remains from the Warwick and Leamington sand- stones agree with each other and with the fossil remains of the great Masto- donsaurus Salamandroides of the German keuper in their essentially Batra- chian nature. Now it has been suggested by more than one Palontologist that the impressions of the Chetrotherium may have been the foot-prints of a Batrachian; but, in consequence of the peculiarities of the impressions, it is obvious that the animal must have been quite distinct in the form of its feet from any known Batrachian or other reptile. In the attempt to solve the difficult problem of the nature of the animal which has impressed the New Red Sandstone with the Cheirotherian foot-prints, we cannot overlook the fact that we have in the Labyrinthodon also a Batrachian reptile, differ- ing as remarkably from all other Batrachians, and from every other reptile in the structure of its teeth: both the footsteps and the fossils are, moreover, peculiar to the New Red Sandstone; and the hypothesis that the footsteps of the Cheirotherium are those of the Labyrinthodon, which I have proposed in my Memoir read before the Geological Society, may be allowed to be sup- ported by more facts than had before been brought to bear upon the question. Labyrinthodon scutulatus.—The remains, to which this specific designation has been applied, composed a closely and irregularly aggregated group of ’ bones imbedded in sandstone, and manifestly belonging to_the same skeleton ; ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 189 they consist of four vertebrae, portions of ribs, a humerus, a femur, two tibie, one end of a large flat bone, and several small osseous, dermal scutes. The mass was discovered in the new red sandstone at Leamington, and was trans- mitted to me by Dr. Lloyd in the summer of 1840. The vertebre present biconcave articular surfaces similar to those of the other species. In two of them, the surfaces slope in a parallel direction ob- liquely from the axis of the vertebre, as in the dorsal vertebra of the frog, indicating an habitual inflexion of the spine, analogous to that in the humped back of the frog. ‘The neurapophyses are anchylosed to the vertebral body. The spinous process rises from the whole length of the middle line of the neurapophysial arch, and its chief peculiarity is the expansion of its elongated summit into a horizontally flattened plate, sculptured irregularly on the upper surface. A similar flattening of the summit of the elongated spine is exhi- bited in the large atlas of the toad. The body of the vertebre agrees with that of the Z. leptognathus. The humerus is an inch long, regularly convex at the proximal extremity, and expanded at both extremities, but contracted in the middle. A portion of a somewhat shorter and flatter bone is bent at a subacute angle with the distal extremity, and resembles most nearly the anchylosed radius and ulna of the Batrachia. The femur wants both the extremities ; its shaftis subtrihedral and slightly bent, and its walls are thin and compact, including a large medullary cavity. The tibia are as long, but thicker and stronger than the femur. They had lost their articular extremities, but exhibited that remarkable compression of their distal portion which characterizes the corresponding bone in the Ba- trachia: they likewise have the longitudinal impression along the middle of the flattened surface. The length of the more perfect shaft is 2 inches 1 line. With respect to the osseous dermal scuta, though they form a striking in- stance of the Crocodilian affinities of the Leamington fossil, yet as these de- tached superficial bones are the most liable to be separated from the frag- mentary skeleton of the individual they once clothed, the negative fact of their not having been found associated with the remains of the Labyrintho- don in other localities, proves nothing in regard to a difference of dermal structure between the Leamington and Warwick species. Indeed no anato- mist can contemplate the extensive development and bold sculpturing of the dermal surface of cranial bones in the Labyrinthodon pachygnathus and L. leptognathus without a suspicion, that the same character may have been mani- fested in bony plates of the skin in other parts of the body. Admitting for a moment this structure to be proved, to what extent, it will be asked, does it affect the claims of the Labyrinthodon to be admitted into the order of Ba- trachians, in which every known species is covered with a soft, lubricous and naked integument, without scales or scuta? In reply, I have observed*, that the skin is the seat of variable characters in all animals ; and, if considered apart from the modifications of the osseous and dental systems, is apt to mis- lead the naturalist who is in quest of the real affinities of-a species: thus we haye in the Trionyx an example of a soft-skinned animal among Chelonian reptiles. The following are the names of the species of extinct Reptiles in the order in which they are described in the second and concluding part of the Re- port :-— Order ENALIOSAURIA. Pliosaurus brachydeirus, Owen. Pliosaurus trochanterius, Owen. * Geological Proceedings, January 1841. 190 REPORT—1841. Order CrocopiLia. Crocodilus Spenceri, Buckland. Suchosaurus cultridens, Owen. Goniopholis crassidens, Owen. Teleosaurus Chapmanni, Konig. Teleosaurus Cadomensis, Geoftroy. Teleosaurus asthenodeirus, Owen. Steneosaurus brevirosiris (rostro-minor), Geoffroy. Poikilopleuron Bucklandi, Deslongchamps. Streptospondylus Cuviert, Owen. Streptospondylus major, O. Cetiosaurus brevis, O. Cetiosaurus brachyurus, O. Cetiosaurus medius, O. Cetiosaurus longus, O. Order DinosAuRIA. Megalosaurus Bucklandi, Cuvier. Hyleosaurus armatus, Mantell. Iguanodon Mantelli, Cuvier. Order LAcERTILIA. Mosasaurus Hoffmanni, Conybeare. Leiodon anceps, Owen. Raphiosaurus subulidens, Owen. Lacerta, sp. ind., Eocene. Lacerta, sp. ind. (allied to Seincus), Oolite. Rhynchosaurus articeps, Owen. Thecodontosaurus antiquus, Riley and Stutchbury. Paleosaurus cylindrodon, Riley and Stutchbury. Paleosaurus platyodon, Riley and Stutchbury. Cladyodon Lloydii, Owen. Order PTEROSAURIA. Pierodactylus macronyx, Buckland. Prterodactylus, sp. ind. SaurRiA IncERT# SEDIS. Polyptychodon, Owen. Rysosteus, Owen. Order CuEeLontia. Testudo Duncani, Owen. Testudo, sp. ind. Oolite. Eimys testudiniformis, O. Platemys Bowerbankii, O. Platemys Bullockii, O. Platemys Mantelli, Cuvier. Tretosternon punctatum, O. Emys, sp. ind. Kimmeridge Clay. Emys, sp. ind. New Red Sandstone. Trionyx, sp. ind. Chelone planiceps, O. Chelone obovata, O. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 191 Chelone, sp. ind. Wealden. Chelone pulchriceps, O. Chelone Benstedi, Owen. Chelone longiceps, O. Chelone breviceps, O. Chelone convexa, O. Chelone subcristata, O. Chelone latiscutata, O. Order OpHipia. Paleophis toliapicus. Order BATRACHIA. Labyrinthodon Salamandroides, Owen. Labyrinthodon leptognathus, O. Labyrinthodon pachygnathus, O. Labyrinthodon ventricosus, O. Labyrinthodon scutulatus, O. SUMMARY. A retrospective glance at the catalogue of Reptiles which formerly existed on that portion of the earth’s surface constituting the present small island of Britain, and which are now extinct, must call forth such novel and surprising re- flections on the dealings of Providence with the animated beings of this planet, as may well lead, in the first place, to a questioning of the truth of the af- firmations with which the present summary commences. Did the numerous, strange, and gigantic representatives of the several orders of Reptiles actually at any time live and move and propagate their kind in the localities where their bones are now so abundantly found? Are not these bones the relies rather of antediluvian creatures, which perished in the great historical Cata- strophe of Water, and have been washed from latitudes suitable to their exist- ence to more northern shores? Are the British Fossil Reptiles actually extinct, and may not some living representatives of the Labyrinthodons, Enaliosaurs, Dinosaurs, &c., still remain to be discovered in those warmer regions where alone large species of reptiles are now known to exist ? Such questions and explanations of the phenomena which are the subject of the present Report will be most likely to suggest themselves to those who are not conversant with the truths of Geology, and who may never have been eye- witnesses of the circumstances under which fossil bones of reptiles are found. In many 'cases these circumstances are so opposed to any that can be con- ceived to have been produced by the operation of a superincumbent bed of waters upon the present surface of the earth during a period of less than one year, that the earliest observers to whom the operations of a temporary general deluge suggested the first explanation of the appearance of the re- mains of a large and strange animal, were irresistibly led to the conviction that the conditions under which such fossil animal was found were wholly inexplicable on the supposition of its carcase having been left by the re- tiring waters of a flood. Thus the good Quaker of Whitby, in his letter to Dr. Fothergill, recounting the discovery of the extinct species of Croco- dile that now bears his name ( Teleosaurus Chapmanni), says, “ The bones were covered five or six feet, with the water every full sea, and were about nine or ten yards from the cliff, which is nearly perpendicular, and about sixty 192 REPORT—1841. yards high, and is continually wearing away by the sea washing against it: and, if I may judge by what has happened in my own memory, it must have extended beyond these bones less than a century ago. There are several regu- lar strata or layers of stone, of some yards thickness, that run along the cliff nearly parallel to the horizon and to one another. I mention this to obviate an objection, that this animal may have been upon the surface, and in a series of years may have sunk down to where it lay, which will now appear impossible, at least when the stones, &c. have had their present consistence*.” It must be obvious, indeed, that the regular succession of horizontal layers, —“beginning from the top, of earth, clay, marble, stones, both hard and soft, of various thicknesses, till it comes down to the black slate or alum rock +,” — mounting to the height of near two hundred feet above the petrified skeleton, could not have been the result of the deposit of a temporary overflow of di- luvial waters continuing for a few months, supposing even those waters to have been thickly charged with the ruined surface of the old earth. Succes- sion of strata, as of all other phenomena, must take place in successive periods of time; the hundredth layer of lias, counting downwards, which contained the skeleton of the strange Crocodile, must once have been the uppermost, and some time must have elapsed between the deposition of that stratum with its organized contents and the deposition of the succeeding layer above. If the fossilized bones of the animals described in the present memoir had been drifted to this island by a flood, they would be found mingled together in the superficial strata usually termed ‘ diluvial,’ and would characterize no particular formation or locality. But the reverse of this is the fact ; and it is the cumulative evidence of the limitation of certain genera to particular for- mations that gives its chief value to the present class of researches. In the most superficial fossiliferous deposits which indicate the last opera- tion of a body of water, either frozen or fluid, upon the surface of the British islands, no remains of reptiles have come under my observation. Cuvier alludes to a single bone of a‘ crocodile said to have been found associated with the usual fossils of the drift or diluvium at Brentfordt : but no other evidence of any other species or genus of Reptile, which is now confined to warmer regions of the globe, has yet been recognized in the British strata called di- luvial, or in any that are more recent than the oldest Tertiary formations. In these Eocene beds, accumulated in some localities to the thickness of three hundred feet and upwards, the remains of crocodiles, tortoises, trio- nyxes, turtles, and large serpents, are more or less common. These fossils severally exhibit well-marked end unequivocal specific differences when com- pared with the bones of their known existing congeners; but their osteology does not present any modifications of generic value. The nearest approach to this degree of deviation occurs in the Eocene Chelonian Reptiles, as in that species of turtle from Sheppey, which combines the jaws of a Trionyx with the bony helmet of a Turtle, and presents an extent of ossification of the buckler nearly equalling that of an Emys. The Eocene Crocodile exhibits all the characters of the osseous and dental systems which distinguish the genus as restricted in the latest systems of Erpetology ; and whilst it cannot be identified with any known species, most resembles, not the commonest and nearest existing Crocodile, as that of the Nile, but a rarer and more remote one, viz. the Crocodilus Schlegelii of Borneo. Not any species of Reptile of the Tertiary strata has been discovered in the chalk upon which those strata immediately rest. * Philosophical Transactions, 1758, p. 688, + Ibid., p. 789. t Dr. Buckland has suggested to me that this bone was probably washed out of the clay beneath the diluvium, ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 193 A small lizard, closely corresponding in vertebral structure with existing species, but differing in its dentition; and a gigantic marine species (Mosa- saurus), which is the first, in the present descending survey, to offer osteolo- gical and dental combinations wholly unknown in existing Saurians,—con- stitute the representatives of the Lacertian order in the cretaceous beds, which form the most recent of the secondary deposits. In tracing upwards the extinct Reptiles we find that the union of the ver- tebree by a hinder ball received into an anterior cup, a structure which, with an insignificant exception—the Gecko—prevails throughout the Saurian order as it now exists, commences with the Lacertian Reptiles which perished du- ring the deposition of the chalk, and, in the Crocodilian and Ophidian Rep- tiles, is first found in the species which made their appearance during the deposition of the London clay. Of the Crocodilian order I have yet seen no unequivocal representatives from the British chalk. All the well-determined Chelonians of the cretaceous period are marine species, and are equally distinct, with the Lacertians, from those of the super- imposed tertiary beds. The most interesting fact which the Paleontology of the cretaceous period has yielded, with reference to the great Saurian division of the class of Rep- tiles, is the commencement, or rather the last appearance of the fossil remains of an order of Reptiles (Enaliosauria) now altogether extinct. I have de- termined portions of the lower jaw with teeth of a large species of Jchthyo- saurus from the lower chalk between Folkstone and Dover, which is very closely allied to, if not identical with, the [chthyosaurus communis. The femur of a large Plestosaurus has been obtained from the chalk of Shakspeare’s Cliff. Remains of more than one species of Plesiosaurus occur in the Gault, and are associated with the Jchthyosaurus in the greensand near Cambridge, and in the Kentish Rag near Maidstone. In the greensand also we first meet with evidences of Reptiles exhibiting modifications of structure, especially of the locomotive extremities, as remark- able and as different from those of existing species as are presented by the Fnalivsauria, but pointing as strongly to an adaptation for terrestrial life as does the Enaliosaurian structure to aquatic existence. The specimen of the unquestionably terrestrial Saurian here alluded to, viz. the Jguanodon, is the more remarkable in the subcretaceous marine strata, in consequence of its pre- senting the largest proportion of the connected skeleton of the same indivi- dual of this species that has hitherto been found. Gigantic Crocodilian Reptiles, removed by generic modifications of struc- ture from the Eocene and existing Crocodiles, now likewise begin to be in- dicated, as by the teeth of the Polyptychodon from the greensand quarry at Maidstone, and by the large bones of the extremities from the quarries of a corresponding stratum at Hythe. The Chelonian from the greensand (Chelone pulchriceps) differs from the Eocene and all existing turtles in a very interesting modification of the anatomy of the cranium. : In the Wealden group of freshwater strata, the Enaliosaurian order con- tinues to be represented by the Plesiosaurus, but no remains of the more strictly marine genus, Ichthyosaurus, have yet been discovered. ‘This cir- cumstance corresponds with the more strict adaptation for marine existence which the structure of the Ichthyosaurus presents, and corroborates the in- ference that the Plesiosaurus lived nearer the shore, and ascended estuaries. The re-appearance of the Ichthyosaurus in the chalk formations proves that it had continued to exist in the neighbouring ocean, and indicates, perhaps, 1841, Ce) 194 REPORT—1841. that the deposition of the cretaceous beds was related to the formation of the Wealden group by proximity of time as well as place. The terrestrial group of gigantic Reptiles receives in the Wealden an accession of two new genera, viz. Hyleosaurus and Megalosaurus ; and the remains of both these, and especially of the Iguanodon, are so abundant, that the Wealden strata may be regarded as the metropolis of the Dinosaurian order *. The amphibious Crocodiles might be expected, from their known habits at the present day, to have left abundant evidences of their remains in strata, which seem to have been deposited at the estuary or mouth of some great river; in a climate, indicated by its vegetable fossils to have been warmer or more equable than at present; and during a period of time which permitted the accumulation of 1000 feet of strata. Accordingly, the Crocodilian order of Reptiles has been found to be represented by several distinct genera in the Wealden formations. Some new characters and modifications of structure might also have been anticipated in those Crocodilians which existed at a period antecedent to the deposition of about 1500 feet of cretaceous strata, which, again, preceded the formation of the whole series of superimposed tertiary and diluvial beds. Nevertheless, the remarkable modifications which all the Wealden Crocodi- lians present in the structure of their vertebra, as compared with the Eocene and existing Crocodiles, could not have been anticipated ; and even now that they are ascertained by repeated observation, some of them still remain in- explicable in relation to any conjectural habits of the species, or hypotheti- cal conditions under which they actually existed. We may understand why the ball-and-socket articulation of the vertebra of the present amphibious Crocodiles frequenting dry land, should be exchanged for a ‘joint having elastic substance included between two concave articular surfaces, as a struc- ture better adapted to Crocodiles more habitually living and moving in water ; but these Crocodiles with biconcave vertebre are associated with others having plano-coneave vertebree, and also with a species having vertebre joined by ball-and-socket articulations. And the difficulty is not diminished by the re- markable fact of the latter structure being the reverse of that in recent Cro- codiles, the ball and the cup having changed places in the extinet Strepto- spondylus ; and having assumed the position which they present in certain Sauroid fishes, and in the dorsal and cervical vertebrae of some of the herbivo- rous Mammalia. The biconcave, plano-concave, and convexo-concave modifications of the vertebra are not the only points in which the extinct Crocodilians of the Wealden strata differ from those of the London clay and from the existing species. The genus Goniopholis, for example, exhibits a remarkable deve- lopment of its dermal armour, the large quadrangular scutes of which, inter- locked by teeth received into depressions, are gigantic representations of the scales of some of the Ganoid fishes ; while the smaller hexagonal and penta- gonal scutes +t were articulated together by marginal sutures, as in the dermal bony covering of the armadillo. The Povrkilopleuron exhibits a medullary cavity in the body of the vertebrae, and a double origin of the spinous pro- cess. The Suchosaurus offers a very striking change in the form of the * Dr. Mantell calculates that not less than seventy individuals of the Jgwanodon, varying in age and magnitude, from the young just escaped from the shell to the mature animal, with a femur of more than a yard in length, have come under his examination; and he justly ob- serves that “ more than thrice that number have, in all probability, been destroyed hy the workmen, and altogether eluded the observation of the Palgeontologist.”—See his Memoir in the Philosophical Transactions, 1841. + These have been discovered since the first sheets of this Report went to press by my friend Mr. Holmes of Horsham, in the Wealden strata near that town. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 195 teeth. The Cetiosawrus surpasses all modern Crocodiles in its enormous bulk, which almost rivals that of the Whales, its successors in the modern seas. The genus Streptospondylus, which, in repeating the ball-and-socket structure, offers the strange anomaly of an anterior position of the ball and a posterior one of the socket, makes its first appearance in the Wealden by a species which must have been little inferior to the Cetiosaurus in length. The huge terrestrial Saurians of the Wealden deviate in so much greater a degree than the Crocodilians from the existing types, as to render the forma- tion of a distinct order for their reception necessary. It does not appear that any of the Chelonians of the Wealden period are specifically identical with those of the chalk. A new and singular osculant genus, J'’retosternon, here represents the Trionyces of the Eocene freshwater or estuary formations. A new species of Turtle, with an Emydian form of shell, occurs in the Purbeck limestone; and the head of a turtle from the Portland stone, upon which the Purbeck beds immediately rest, exhibits the same distinction of the separate nasal bones, as does the skull of the turtle from the greensand, but combined with well-marked specific differences in other parts. The Portland stone introduces us to the great Oolitic series, in which we lose sight of the Jguanodon, Hyleosaurus, Goniopholis, and Suchosaurus, but find that the Megalosaurus, Poikilopleuron, Cetiosaurus, Streptospon- dylus, and Plesiosaurus, are genera common to the Wealden and Oolitic periods. Now also the genus Ichthyosaurus, which was represented by a single species in the chalk epoch, astonishes us by the number of individuals, and the great variety of specific modifications and varieties of form and bulk, under which it existed in the oolitic periods; especially in the older divisions ‘of the oolite, as the lias. The number and variety of Plesiosaurian Reptiles are even more surprising, and the modifications of their skeleton being more marked and various, proportionally facilitate the determination of the species. The largest of these Plesiosaurian Reptiles deviates, indeed, so far from the typical structure of the genus as to merit subgeneric distinction. This sub- genus, the Pliosaurus, characterizes the Kimmeridge and Oxford clays, but appears not to have existed at the period of the lower oolite. In the place of the Goniopholis and Suchosaurus, the Crocodilian genera, Steneosaurus and Teleosaurus, with the subgenera, Aelodon, Mystriosaurus, Macrospondylus, &c. (separated, perhaps, without sufficient reason, from the first two typical genera of Amphiccelian Crocodiles), make their appearance in the oolitic strata, especially in the lower divisions. The long and narrow snouts, sharp and slender teeth, short fore-limbs, and imbricated scutation of these extinct Crocodilians, attest, with their vertebral structure, their adapta- tion to an aquatic life, and to the capture of a prey not more highly or- ganized than fishes. Some small species of Crocodilians and Lacertians have left a few bones of their extremities in the oolitic slate of Stonesfield; and a most singular order of Reptiles now makes its appearance, the skeleton of which exhibits a modification of the Lacertian type of structure closely analogous to that by virtue of which the mammalian Bat is endowed with the powers of flight. The flying Dragons, called Pterodactyli, were of small size, and are restricted, like the Teleosauri and Steneosauri, to the oolitic group. All the other genera are continued into the Wealden,—the Potkilopleuron and Megalosaurus, by identical species,—the other genera by species which are distinct from those of the oolite, The Plesiosawrus and Ichthyosaurus existed, as we have seen, as late as the deposition of the chalk. The analogy between the extinct Rep- 02 196 REPORT—1841. tiles and Fishes, in regard to the great proportion of genera which are com- mon to the Wealden and Oolite, and the small proportion which is continued into the Cretaceous formations, offers a valuable corroboration of the subordi- nate character of the Wealden group as a member of the great Oolitic series. No species or genus of Saurian represented by fossils from the Oolite has yet been discovered in older or lower strata in the British Islands. The Rys- osteus is apparently confined to the bone-bed under the lias, which may be regarded as the oldest member of the Oolitic series in these islands. The Reptiles of the Poikilitic strata exhibit deviations from the typical structure of the recent families, together with osculant characters joining groups now distinct, as great and even more anomalous than occur in any of the preceding extinct genera. The Rhynchosaurus of the New Red Sandstone near Shrewsbury manifests Ornithic and Chelonian modifications, grafted upon an essentially Lacertian type of cranial structure ; no approach even to the form of its extraordinary ‘head being made by any other of the extinct members of the Saurian order. The vertebra of the Rhynchosaurus differ from those of existing Lizards, Chelonians, and Birds, and combine the biconcave structure with the oblique processes and costal articulations of the vertebree of recent Lizards. The Labyrinthodonts of the same formation exhibit a different but an equally remarkable combination of characters, Crocodilian modifications being superinduced upon a fundamental organization of the Batrachian type. The structure of the teeth in this remarkable family, which is the most complex that has hitherto been met with in the whole animal kingdom, is unique in the class of Reptiles, and is but partially and comparatively feebly repeated in that of Fishes. It is highly probable that the modifications of the loco- motive extremities were as peculiar as the dental characters, if we may judge from the foot-prints of the so-called Cheirotherium, to which the Labyrintho- donts alone have at present an equitable claim. Finally, the Paleosaurus and other genera of the Magnesian conglome- rate, like the so-called Monitors of Thuringia, are lizards which combined a thecodont type of dentition, with biconcave vertebrz, having the superadded peculiarity of a series of ventricose excavations in the bodies of the vertebrae for the spinal chord, instead of a cylindrical canal. ; Below the New Red Sandstone system, notwithstanding that the older de- posits, as the coal-measures, have been more thoroughly explored by man than any other geological formation, no trace of a vertebrate animal more highly organized than a fish, has been detected. From this survey it is evident that many races of extinet reptiles have suc- ceeded each other as inhabitants of the portion of the earth now forming Great Britain; their abundant remains, through strata of immense thickness, show that they existed in great numbers, and probably for many successive generations. Their coprolites prove that they fed upon organized beings co- existing with them and characterizing the same strata, but now equally ex- tinct with their devourers. To what natural or secondary cause, it may then be asked, can the succes- sive genera and species of Reptiles be attributed? Does the hypothesis of the transmutation of species, by a march of development occasioning a pro- gressive ascent in the organic scale, afford any explanation of these surprising phenomena? Do the speculations of Maillet, Lamarck and Geoffroy de- rive any support or meet with additional disproof from the facts already determined in the reptilian department of Palzontology ? A slight survey of organie remains may, indeed, appear to support their ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 197 views of the origin of animated species; but of no stream of science is it more necessary, than of Palzontology, to ‘ drink deep or taste not*,’ Of all vertebrated animals, the Reptiles form the class which is least fixed in its characters, and is most transitional in its range of modifications; the lowest organized species are hardly distinguishable from fishes, and the highest manifest so great an advance in all the important systems of their organism, that naturalists are not yet agreed as to whether reptiles ought to remain in one class or form two. Reptiles are, besides, the only class of vertebrate ani- mals in which certain species undergo, after birth, a metamorphosis as singular and extreme as in insects. If the progressive development of animal organization ever extended be- yond the acquisition of the mature characters of the individual, so as to abro- gate fixity of species by a transmutation of a lower into a higher organiza- tion, some evidence of it ought surely to be obtained from an extensive and deep survey of that class of animals which, whilst intermediate in organization between fishes and mammals, prevailed most on the earth during the long periods that intervened between the time when the only vertebrate animals were fishes, and the tertiary and modern epochs when mammals have become abundant, and have almost superseded reptiles in the herbivorous and carni- vorous departments of the economy of nature. In accordance with this not unreasonable expectation, the reptiles of the Magnesian conglomerate and New Red Sandstone ought to have been organi- zed according to the type of the most fish-like perennibranchiate Batrachians ; and the Fishes of the older strata, if they tended to a higher stage of deve- lopment, ought, upon achieving the passage to the Reptilian class, to have entered it at its lowest step. It is true, indeed, that the most characteristic Reptilian remains of the . New Red Sandstone do belong essentially, as by their double occipital con- dyle, their vomerine palatal bones and teeth, &c., to the Batrachian order ; but had the Labyrinthodonts now existed, instead of ranking as the lowest members of that order, they would most unquestionably have been esteemed the highest. And, as in the existing diversified order of Batrachia, one family + represents Fishes, a second} Serpents, a third genus§ Chelonians, and a fourth || Lizards; so would the now lost Labyrinthodonts have formed Ba- trachian representatives of the highest order of Reptiles, viz. the Crocodilians. Here, therefore, we find the Batrachian making its first appearance under its highest, instead of its lowest or simplest conditions of structure. To use the figurative language of the transmutation theory, the Labyrinthodonts are de- graded Crocodiles, not elevated Fishes. But the hypothetical derivation of reptiles from metamorphosed fishes is more directly negatived by the fact, that the Batrachian type is not that under which reptiles make their first appearance in the strata which succeed the coal-measures. The Monitors of the Thuringian Zechstein are older than the Labyrinthodonts of the Keuper; and among British Reptiles, the theco- * The following are the latest terms in which the transmutation-theory has been promul- gated, as supported by Paleontology :—“ The life of animals exhibits a continued series of changes, which occupy so short a period that we can generally trace their entire order of succession, and perceive the whole chain of their metamorphoses. But the metamorphoses of species proceed so slowly with regard to us, that we can neither perceive their origin, their maturity, nor their decay; and we ascribe to them a kind of perpetuity on the earth. A slight inspection of the organic relics deposited in the crust of the globe, shows that the forms of species, and the whole zoology of our planet, have been constantly changing, and that the organic kingdoms, like the surface they inhabit, have been gradually developed from a simpler state to their present condition.” —Dr. Grant’s Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, Lancet, 1835, p. 1001. + Perennibranchiata. t Ceciliade. § Pipa. || Salamandra. 198 REPORT—1841. dont Lizards of the Magnesian conglomerate have equal claims to a more ancient origin. q ’ The questions, which the unbiased collector of evidence bearing upon the fixity or mutability of species has next to resolve respecting these primeval Lizards, are, whether they appeared under the form of the low-organized spe- cies which one naturalist classes with Sauria, another with Ophidia, or whether they exhibit indications of having emerged, by progressive develop- ment of structure, from any lower organized pre-existing group of cold- blooded animals? To these inquiries the Paleontologist must reply, that the thecodont Lizards of the Zechstein and Magnesian conglomerates combine well-organized extremities, with teeth implanted in distinct sockets, instead of being soldered, as in frogs, to a simple alveolar parapet; and that there- fore if they existed at the present day, they would take rank at the head of the Lacertian order, and not among the families most nearly allied to the in- ferior reptiles. Neither are the modifications of the skeleton of the Rhyn- chosaur from the New Red Sandstone such as indicated that singular Lacer- tian to have been derived from the Ophidian or Batrachian orders; but, on the contrary, they connect it more closely than any known recent species, with Chelonia and Birds. The nearest approximation to the organization of fishes is made by the Ichthyosaurus, an extinct genus which appears to have been introduced into the ancient seas subsequent to the deposition of the strata inclosing the re- mains of the thecodont Lizards. The ichthyic characters of this genus of ma- rine Saurians are not of a very important kind, being limited, like the modifica- tions of the mammalian type in Whales, to a relationship with locomotion in water, while all the modifications of the skeleton which are connected with the respiratory, digestive or generative functions, are conformable with the highest or Saurian type of reptiles; such as the cranial anatomy, the large size of the intermaxillary bones excepted,—the dental structure, which cor- responds with that of the posterior teeth in Alligators,—the articulation of the neurapophyses to the bodies of the vertebre,—the complicated pectoral arch,—the sternum and complete abdominal cincture of ribs*, &c. The circle of numerous imbricated sclerotic bones reaches its maximum of development in the Ichthyosaurus; but this is an exaggeration of a structure feebly sha- dowed forth in some existing Saurians, and more strongly shown in Birds, rather than a repetition of the simple bony sclerotic cup in Fishes. By no known forms of fossil animals can we diminish the wide interval which divides the most sauroid of Fishes from an Ichthyosaurus. This most extraordinary Reptile is a singular compound in which Ichthyic, Cetacean, and Ornithic characters are engrafted upon an essentially Saurian type of structure. The Jchthyosaurus is, therefore, just such a form of animal as might be expected, were specific forms unstable, to demonstrate a mutation of characters or some tendency towards a progressive development into a higher and more consistent type of organization. Nor is the field for testing the transmutation theory less ample than the subject is favourable. We have the opportunity of tracing the Ichthyosauri, generation after generation, through the whole of the immense series of strata which intervene between the new red sandstone and the tertiary deposits. Not only, however, is the ge- neric type strictly adhered to, but the very species, which made its first abrupt appearance in the lowest of the oolitic series, maintains its characters un- changed and recognizable in the highest of the secondary strata. In the chalk formations, for example, the genus Ichthyosaurus quits the stage of existence * This structure proves that the mode of generation of the Jchthyosawrus must have re- sembled that of the Crocodile, and not that of the Batrachians or Fishes. ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 199 as suddenly as it entered it in the lias, and with every appreciable osteological character unchanged. Of the different species of the Jchthyosaurus, founded upon minor modi- fications of the skeleton, several appear contemporaneously in the strata where the genus is first introduced; and those which remain the longest manifest as little change of specific as of generic characters. ‘There is no evidence whatever that one species has succeeded or been the result of the transmuta- tion of a former species. The tenuirostral Jchthyosaurus existed at the same time, and under the same external influences, as the stronger and shorter jawed Ichthyosaurus communis ; just as the tenuirostral Delphinus Gangeticus co- exists at present with the short-jawed porpoise. If the relative periods of existence of the different Enaliosaurian reptiles were not well ascertained, and room were allowed for conjecture as to their successive appearance on this planet, it would be as easy as seductive to spe- culate on the metamorphoses by which their organic framework, influenced by varying conditions, during a lapse of ages, might have been gradually modified, so as to have successively developed itself from’an Ichthyosaur to a Plesiosaur, and thence to a Crocodile. We may readily conceive, for example, the fish-like characters of the ver- tebral column of the Jchthyosaurus to have been obliterated by a filling-up of the intervertebral cavities through ossification of the intermediate elastic tissue, and the Plesiosaurian type of vertebra to be thus acquired. The normal digits of the fin might be supposed to become strengthened and elongated by more frequent reptation on dry land, and thus to cause an atrophy of the supernumerary fingers: phalanges of a more saurian figure might have been produced by the confluence of a certain number of digital ossicles: the head might be shortened by a stunted growth of the intermaxillary bones, and thus be reduced to Plesiosaurian proportions. The teeth might become more firmly fixed by the shooting of bony walls across their interspaces, as in the young Crocodiles. If we now elongate the bodies of the vertebra, reduce some twenty pairs of anterior ribs to hatchet-bones, place the fore-paddles at a corresponding distance from the head, and the hind-paddles proportionally nearer the end of the tail, little more will be required to complete the trans- mutation of the Ichthyosaur into the Plesiosaur. If next, in adaptation to a gradual change of surrounding circumstances, the jaws of the Plesiosaur became lengthened to the proportions of those of the tenuirostral Ichthyosaur, but at the expense of the maxillary, instead of the intermaxillary bones, preserving the socketed implantation of the teeth ; if, to balance the elongation of the jaws the neck at the same time shrank to nearly its former Ichthyosaurian proportions, with some slight modifications of the Plesiosaurian type of the vertebre ; if a further development and a more complete separation of the digits of the fore and hind members were to take place, so that they might serve for creeping as well as swimming ; if the exposure of the surface to two different media, and of the entire animal to perils of land as well as of sea, were to be followed by the ossification of certain parts of the skin, and the acquisition, by this change, of a dermal armour,— such we might conceive to be the leading steps in the transmutation of the Plesiosaur into the Teleosaur. And if the three forms of extinct Saurians, whose changes of specific and generic characters have thus been speculated on, had actually succeeded each other in strata successively superimposed in the order in which they have here been hypothetically derived from one another, some colour of probability might attach itself to this hypothesis, and there would be ground for search- ing more closely into the anatomical and physiological possibilities of such 200 REPORT—1841. transmutations. Jchthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus and Teleosaurus are, however, genera which appeared contemporaneously on the stage of vital existence : one neither preceded nor came after the other. How the transmutation theory is to be reconciled to these facts is not obvious; nor to these other, viz. that the Teleosaur ceases with the oolite, while the Ichthyosaur and Plesiosaur continue to co-exist to the deposition of the chalk, and disappear together alike unchanged ; the Ichthyosaur manifesting as little tendency to develop itself into a Plesiosaur, as this to degrade itself into the more fish-like modifi- cation of the Enaliosaurian type. If it were urged that the Streptospondylus, or Crocodile with ball-and- socket vertebre, of which the remains occur in later secondary strata, when the Teleosaur had ceased to exist, might be a modification of the apparently extinct amphiccelian Crocodile, in which the vertebra had undergone a pro- gressive development, analogous to that by which the biconcave joints of the vertebrz of the Tadpole are actually converted into the ball-and-socket joints of those of the mature Frog, the facts of both geology and anatomy again oppose themselves to such an hypothesis: for the remains of the Sérepto- spondylus occur likewise in the Whitby lias, which is the earliest formation characterized by remains of the Zeleosaurus; and the modifications of the vertebral structure, by which the Streptospondylus differs from its ancient contemporary, and which it retains unaltered throughout the whole series of oolitic strata, is no approximation to the ball-and-socket structure of modern Crocodiles which first appears in the Mosasaurus and the Eocene Crocodiles, but is the very reverse. As reasonably might we infer that the Teleosaur was an intermediate form between the Streptospondylus and modern Crocodiles, and that the anterior ball had first subsided, and a sub-biconcave type of ver- tebre had been produced befere the posterior ball, which characterizes the ver- tebree of recent Crocodiles, was finally developed. If the present species of animals had resulted from progressive develop- ment and transmutation of former species, each class ought now to present its typical characters under their highest recognized conditions of organiza- tion: but the review of the characters of fossil Reptiles, taken in the present Report, proves that this is not the case. No reptile now exists which combines a complicated and thecodont den- tition with limbs so proportionally large and strong, having such well-de- veloped marrow bones, and sustaining the weight of the trunk by synchon- drosis or anchylosis to so long and complicated a sacrum, as in the order Dinosauria. The Megalosaurs and Iguanodons, rejoicing in these undeniably most per- fect modifications of the Reptilian type, attained the greatest bulk, and must have played the most conspicuous parts, in their respective characters as de- vourers of animals and feeders upon vegetables, that this earth has ever wit- nessed in oviparous and cold-blooded creatures. They were as superior in organization and in bulk to the Crocodiles that preceded them as to those which came after them. There is not the slightest ground for affirming that the proccelian Gavial of the present day is in any respect more highly organized than the opisthocce- lian Gavial of the oldest lias. If the differences of vertebral structure in these Crocodilians were contrasted, in reference to their relative approximation to the vertebral structure of the higher animals, the resemblance of the ball-and- socket joints of the spine of the Streptospondylus to those of certain mam- mals would give precedence in organic perfection to the primeval Gavial. If, therefore, the extinct species, in which the Reptilian organization cul- minated, were on the march of development to a higher type, the Megalo- ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES, 201 saurus ought to have given origin to the carnivorous mammalia, and the herbivorous should have been derived from the Jguanodon. But where is the trace of such mammalia in the strata immediately succeeding those in which we lose sight of the relics of the great Dinosaurian Reptiles? Or where, in- deed, can any mammiferous animal be pointed out whose organization can by any ingenuity or licence of conjecture, be derived without violation of all known anatomical and physiological principles, from transmutation or pro- gressive development of the highest reptiles ? If something more than a slight inspection be bestowed upon the organic relics deposited in the crust of the globe, we learn that the introduction of mammalia on that crust is independent of the appearance of the highest forms of Reptiles. The small insectivorous mammals of the lower oolite* are con- temporary with the most ancient Dinosaur, and are anterior to the Iguanodon. The period when the class of Reptiles flourished under the widest modi- fications, in the greatest number and of the highest grade of organization, is past ; and, since the extinction of the Dinosaurian order, it has been declining. The Reptilia are now in great part superseded by higher classes: Pterodac- tyles have given way to Birds; Megalosaurs and Iguanodons to carnivorous and herbivorous mammalia; but the sudden extinction of the one, and the abrupt appearance of the other, are alike inexplicable on any known natural causes or analogies. New species, genera, and families of Reptiles have constantly succeeded each other, since the earliest periods in which the remains of this class can be discerned; but the change has been, upon the whole, from the complicated to the simple. The Batrachian order, which is first indicated by the large and powerful Crocodiloid Labyrinthodonts, has dwindled down to the diminutive and de- fenceless Anourans and the fish-like Perennibranchians. The Saurian order was anciently represented by Reptiles manifesting the Crocodilian grade of organization under a rich variety of modifications and with great develop- ment of bulk and power: it has now subsided into a swarm of small Lacer- tians, headed by so few examples of the higher or loricate species, that it is no marvel such relics of a once predominating group should have found a humble place in Linnzus’s Catalogue of Nature as coordinate members of the genus Lacerta. Nevertheless some general analogies may be traced between the phzeno- mena of the succession of Reptiles as a class, and those observed in the de- velopment of an individual reptile from the ovum. Thus the Embryonic structure of the vertebre of the existing Crocodiles accords with the bicon- cave type; and this is exchanged, in the development of the individual as in the succession of species, for the ball-and-socket structure as the latest con- dition. The almost universal prevalence of the more or less biconcave structure of the vertebrz of the earlier reptiles thus establishes a most interesting analogy between them and the earlier stages of growth of existing reptiles. — A similar analogy has been pointed out by M. Agassiz, between the hete- rocercal fishes, which exclusively prevail in the oldest fossiliferous strata, and the embryos of existing homocercal fishes, which seem to pass through the heterocercal stage. The superior number of loricate Reptiles, and the more complete develop- ment of the dermal armour in the Crocodilian genera Steneosaurus, Teleo- * For the proof of the often doubted mammalian character of the 7hylacotherium and Phascolotherium of the Stonesfield slate, the reader is referred to the Memoirs in the Sixth Volume of the Second Series of the Geological Transactions, pp. 47-58. 202 ‘ REPORT—1941, saurus, Goniopholis, &¢c., of the Oolitic and Wealden strata, corresponds with the prevalence of the well-mailed Ganoid order of fishes in the same formations. The fossil reptiles, like the fossil fishes, approximate nearest to existing species in the tertiary deposits, and differ from them most widely in strata whose antiquity is highest. Not a single species of fossil reptile now lives on the present surface of the globe. The characters of modern genera cannot be applied to any species of fossil reptile in strata lower than the tertiary formations. No reptile, with vertebrz articulated like those of existing species, has been discovered below the chalk. Some doubt may be entertained as to whether the Ichthyosaurus communis did not leave its remains in both oolitic and cretaceous formations, but with this exception no single species of fossil reptile has yet been found that is common to any two great geological formations. The evidence acquired by the researches which are detailed in the body of this Report, permits of no other conclusion than that the different species of Reptiles were suddenly introduced upon the earth’s surface, although it demonstrates a certain systematic regularity in the order of their appearance. Upon the whole they make a progressive approach to the organization of the existing species, yet not by an uninterrupted succession of approximating steps. Neither is the progression one of ascent, for the Reptiles have not begun by the perennibranchiate type of organization, by which, at the present day, they most closely approach fishes; nor have they terminated at the op- posite extreme, viz. at the Dinosaurian order, where we know that the Rep- tilian type of structure made the nearest approach to Mammals. Thus, though a general progression may be discerned, the interruptions and faults, to use a geological phrase, negative the notion that the progression has been the result of self-developing energies adequate to a transmutation of specific characters; but, on the contrary, support the conclusion that the modifications of ostevlogical structure which characterize the extinct Rep- tiles, were originally impressed upon them at their creation, and have been neither derived from improvement of a lower, nor lost by progressive develop- ment into a higher type. The general progressive approximation of the animal kingdom to its pre- sent condition has been, doubtless, accompanied by a corresponding progress of the inorganic world ; and thus, the differences which comparative anatomy demonstrates to have existed between the vertebrated inhabitants of the secondary epochs of the geological history of the earth, and the tertiary and present periods, form legitimate grounds for speculation, not only on the essential nature and causes of those differences, but upon the progressive changes to which our planet and its atmosphere may have been subject. For whether there had been grounds for regarding the organic phenomena of pri- meeval times as earlier stages in the progressive development and transmuta- tion of species, or whether, as the closest investigation of these phenomena seems to demonstrate, they have been the result of expressly created and suc- vessively introduced species,—they naturally lead the physiologist to specu- late on the varying conditions of the surrounding media to which such organic differences may have related. Now Reptiles mainly and essentially differ from Birds and Mammals in the less active performance of the respiratory function, and in a lower and simpler structure of the lungs and heart, whereby they become, so to say, , ¢ ON BRITISH FOSSIL REPTILES. 203 less dependent on the atmosphere, or oxygen, for existence. From their ex~ traordinary prevalence in the secondary periods, under varied modifications of size and structure, severally adapting them to the performance of those tasks in the economy of organic nature which are now assigned to the warm- blooded and quick-breathing classes, the physiologist is led to conjecture that the atmosphere had not undergone those changes, which the consolidation and concentration of certain of its elements in subsequent additions to the earth’s crust may have occasioned, during the long lapse of ages during which the extinction of so large a proportion of the Reptilian class took place. And if the chemist, by wide and extended views of his science in relation to geology and mineralogy, should demonstrate, as the botanist, from considerations of the peculiar features of the extinct Flora has been led to suspect, that the at- mosphere of this globe formerly contained more carbon and less oxygen than at present, then the anatomist might, @ priort, have concluded that the highest classes of animals suited to the respiration of such a medium must have been the cold-blooded fishes and reptiles. And besides the probability of such a condition of the zoological series being connected with the chemical modifications of the air, the terrestrial Reptiles, from the inferior energy of their muscular contractions, and still more from the greater irritability of the fibres and power of continuing their actions, would constitute the highest organized species, best adapted to exist under greater atmospheric pressure than operates on the surface of the earth at the present time. Through such a medium approaching in a corresponding degree to the physical properties of water, a cold-blooded animal might even rise above the surface and wing its heavy flight, since this would demand less energetic mus- cular actions than are now requisite for such a kind of locomotion ; and thus we may conceive why the atmosphere of our planet, during the earlier oolitic periods, may have been traversed by creatures of no higher organization than Saurians. If we may presume to conjecture that atmospheric pressure has been diminished by a change in the composition as well as by a diminution of the general mass of the air, the beautiful adaptation of the structure of birds to a medium thus rendered both lighter and more invigorating, by the abstraction of carbon and an increase of oxygen, must be appreciable by every physiologist. And it is not without interest to observe, that the period when such change would be thus indicated by the first appearance of birds in the Wealden strata*, is likewise characterized by the prevalence of those Dinosaurian Reptiles which in structure most nearly approach Mammalia, and which, in all probability, from their correspondence with Crocodiles in the anatomy of the thorax, enjoyed a circulation as complete as that of the Cro- codile when breathing freely on dry land t. * Foot-prints alone, like those termed ‘ Ornithichnites,’ observed in the New Red Sand- stone of Connecticut, are insufficient to support the inference of the possession of the highly developed organization of a bird of flight by the creatures which have left them. The Rhynchosaur and biped Pterodactyles already warn us how closely the ornithic type may be approached without the essential characters of the Saurian being lost. By the Chirotherian Ichnolites we learn how closely an animal, in all probability a Batrachian, may resemble a pedimanous mammal in the form of its foot-prints. The degree in which flying insects ean resist noxious gases, which would be quickly fatal to the warm-blooded Vertebrates, invalidates the objection to a progressive change of atmosphere having accompanied the prevalence of quick-breathing animals, which might be suggested by the Libellule of the lias and by the oolitic Beetles. + All existing Reptiles, which have the ribs at the anterior part of the thorax united by a head and tubercle to the centrum and neurapophysis of the vertebra, have a heart with two distinct ventricles as well as two auricles. The contiguous aorte arising from the two ventricles intercommunicate by an aperture so placed as to be covered by the sigmoid valves 204 REPORT—1841. The first indications of the warm-blooded classes, it might be anticipated, would appear, if introduced into the Reptilian era, under the form of such small insectivorous mammals, as are known at the present day to have a lower amount of respiration than the rest of the class; and the earliest discovered remains of mammalia, as, for example, those in the Stonesfield oolite, are actually the jaws of such species, with which are combined the characters of that order, Marsupialia, which is most nearly related to the oviparous Ver- tebrata. The present speculations are, however, offered with all due diffidence; the collection of the evidence requisite for pursuing them to a semblance even of demonstration is only just begun, and they are thrown out with no other expectation of utility than as incentives to the chemical considerations of the nature and possibilities of such atmospheric changes as may be physiologi- cally connected with the variations of organic nature made known by the re- searches of the anatomist. A too cautious observer would, perhaps, have shrunk from such specula- tions, although legitimately suggesting themselves from the necessary rela- tions between the organs and media of respiration ; but the sincere and ardent searcher after truth, in exploring the dark regions of the past, must feel him- self bound to speak of whatever a ray from the intellectual torch may reach, even though the features of the object should be but dimly revealed. when blood is transmitted equally through them. When the amphibious Crocodile suffers an interruption in the pulmonary circulation by continued submersion, the aorta from the left ventricle, by the communication above mentioned, receives venous blood from the over- charged cavities of the right side of the heart; but when respiration is in full vigour on dry land, an undiluted stream of arterial blood is transmitted through the left aorta to the head and anterior extremities. The Dinosaurs, having the same thoracic structure as the Croco- diles, may be concluded to have possessed a four-chambered heart ; and, from their superior adaptation to terrestrial life, to have enjoyed the function of such a highly-organized centre of circulation in a degree more nearly approaching that which now characterizes the warm- blooded Vertebrata. ERRATA. Page 64, 14 lines from bottom, for ‘ Ccelospondylian’ read ‘ Amphiccelian.’ 67, 25 lines from top, for ‘ bifurcate’ 7ead ‘ biporcate.’ —— 88, after the 3rd line from top, insert ‘ with convexo-concave vertebre.’ — 104, 14 lines from bottom, for ‘ Cleeospondylian’ read ‘ Amphiccelian. ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 205 Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway Constants. NOTICE. Tue two following Reports, as well as the Report by Dr. Lardner on the same subject, already published in the Reports of the British Association for 1838, have been furnished in compliance with the request of the Com- mittee to whom the superintendence of the experiments and the grants of money for the purpose of ascertaining the amount of railway constants was entrusted by the British Association. . The Committee originally appointed in 1837 consisted of Mr. H. Earle, Dr. Lardner, Mr. Locke, Mr. Rennie, and Mr. Macneil, to these Mr. Edward Woods was subsequently added. The engagements of the various members of the Committee prevented them from giving that personal and individual attention to the experiments which were so highly desirable, and but for the continued’ and indefatigable exertions of Dr. Lardner, Mr. H. Earle, and Mr. E. Woods, the object of the Association could never have been carried out. Of the two following Reports, the one is in continuation and conclusion of that which has already appeared by Dr. Lardner; the other is a separate and independent Report by Mr. E. Woods, referring partly to the same and partly to a great number of additional experiments. 4 The Report of Mr. E. Woods, while it agrees in many important particulars, differs in others from the Reports of Dr. Lardner, and, when viewed as a whole, is somewhat different both in its structure and in the manner in which _ the conclusions are arrived at, deduced, and reasoned upon. Under these circumstances, the Committee of the Mechanical Section of the British Association at Plymouth were of opinion that the objects of the Association would be best fulfilled by the publication of both; the results in which both agree will be looked upon as extremely valuable both by the theoretical and practical man, while those in which they differ will form sub- jects of great interest for future inquiry. Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway Constants. By Dionysius Larpner, LL.D., FE.R.S., &c. By reference to the former part of this Report, it will be perceived that among the points which remained for further experimental inquiry the principal were the following : 1. Whether the presence of the engine and tender in front of the train has any effect in rendering the resistance to the progressive motion of the train, arising from friction or atmospheric resistance, or both of these combined, less than it would be if the train were moved forward with the front of the foremost coach presented directly to the air. 2. Whether the form of the front of the train produces any sensible effect on the resistance, or whether any advantage can be gained by the adoption of a pointed front like the bow of a ship. 3. Whether, in moving down an inclined plane by gravity, the resistance 206 : REPORT—1841. of the air acting against the foremost carriage has a greater effect in throw- ing the succeeding carriages out of square than it would have if the train were preceded by the engine and tender. 4. In what manner the resistance would be modified by increasing the length and weight of the train. These questions have severally arisen out of objections urged against the experiments detailed in the former part of this Report, and against the vali- dity of the consequences therein deduced from them, by Mr. I. K. Brunel, the engineer of the Great Western Railway, in a report addressed to the directors of that company. Although, from the general experience of the writer of this Report and of the other members of the Committee, it appeared that none of these various objections had much weight, it was considered right to bring them to the immediate test of experiment. It was first objected, “ ‘That the circumstances under which the experiments * were performed were not really, though they were apparently, similar to “ those of any ordinary train in motion; that the.carriages in these experi- “ ments were sent with the square end foremost to meet and receive the full “ resistance due to their surface, which is totally different from the case in “ which the engine precedes them.” The engine in front, it was stated, would act as a cut-air or bow, and thus destroy or diminish the resistance produced by the flat front of the carriage moving foremost. ; In order to ascertain the force of this objection, the following experiment was made. An engine called the “Fury” was reduced as nearly as possible to the condition of an ordinary carriage, by detaching from the axles and removing from the engine the connecting rods, pistons, working gear, and every mo- ving part which could produce any mechanical resistance different from that to which an ordinary coach would be subject. ‘Two coaches were also pro- cured, and so loaded as to be exactly equal in weight with the engine and tender. The engine and tender were then placed at the summit of the Sutton in- clined plane on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which falls 1 in 89, for about a mile and a half, and were allowed to descend the plane by their gravity; the time of passing a succession of stakes dividing the plane into spaces of 110 yards, was noted. The two coaches were next placed at the summit of the plane, and allowed in like manner to descend, and the circumstances of their descent observed in the same way. Sutton Incline Plane.—Is laid with 60 lbs. rails, 3 feet bearings, on stone blocks: road has been recently relaid: posts are placed 110 yards, or one sixteenth of a mile apart: descent from No.0 to No.11 post is 3°63 feet per 110 yards =1 in 90:9: gravitating force is therefore 24°64 lbs. per ton: de- scent from No. 11 to No. 20 post is 3°71 feet per 110 yards = 1 in 88°5: gra- vitating force is therefore 25°31 lbs. per ton. Whiston Incline Plane.—Was laid with 50 lbs. rails, 3 feet bearings, on stone blocks, about three years since: posts placed 110 yards, or one six- teenth of a mile apart: descent 1 in 96: gravitating force is therefore 23°33 Ibs. per ton. A section of these planes is given in fig. 1. PlateI. A breeze from W.N.W.: a drizzling rain: rails quite wet, and in good order for travelling. The details of these two experiments were as follows :— ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 207 Experiment with “ Fury” and Tender. cwts. qrs. Ibs. cRury engine .: 782). 147 310 ester st 07s 2 Tem ety be 75 ‘OO gs acho) tate Tat ae a as Os “O Gross weight . . . 227 3 0 From a state of rest, down Sutton Incline Plane. Miles & Miles a 1/2 : |Average 2 |e! Tj & |Average 2 i =] “ r qe imes. 5S : er a ew es A Diffs bay A x = Dis, soa Yds. hm s Yds. hm s 0; 0;8 11 #1 2420 |22}8 15 460 | 8 8 28-19 110] 1 SOP OS cocecssee 3°88 || 2530 |23 545 |] 8 5019) ER DP Ta 9-78 || 2640/24) 16 3 8-5 330] 3 AQP PNAS hil Baise. ce 12°50 || 2750 |25 115 | 8-5 440| 4 55 Ley Rec cercce 15-00 || 2860 |26 21 9-5 550} 5} 138 9 B4im -eccessses 16:07 || 2970 |27 3l 1 660 | 6 21:5 | 125 125 |18-00 3080 |28 41:5 | 105 770| 7 34 12:5 } 3190 |29 52-5 | 11 880/ 8 44-5 |10°5 105 | 21-43 3300 |30| 17 4:5 | 12:25 990| 9 55 10°5 \ 3410 |31 16-25) 11-75 1100|10} 14 5 TOW ai oaa. ona 22-50 || 3520 |32 29°75} 13-5 1210 j11 14°5 | 9-5 9:5 | 23-68 3630 |33 44-25) 14:5 1320 |12 24 9-5 } 3740 |34 59 =|14:75 1430 |13 33 De eaeeasace 25-00 || 3850/35; 18 15 16 1540 |14 41:5 | 8-5 3960 |36 30 18 1650 |15 505 | 9 8:5 | 26-47 || 4070 |37 53 =|20 1760 |16 585 | 8 4180/38} 19 13:5 | 205 1870|17) 15 7 8-5 8-25 | 27-27 4290 |39 38 | 24:5 1980 |18 15 8 i 4400 |40) 20 4 1/26 2090 |19 22:25) 7:25 7-75 | 29-03 4510 |41 35°5 | 315 2200 |20 30°5 | 8-25 i 4620 |42)} 2117 |41°5 2310 |21 385 | 8-0 28°12 || 4710 22 38 ~=|8!1 Experiment with two Coaches. Two First Class Carriages. ewts. qrs. lbs. Caledonian > costs ice, pe EG. on 0 Parlor Derby. jas | aive ue LL (OO 296 3 0 From a state of rest, down Sutton Incline Plane. é 14 Miles Times. S Dik. | per A MS: | hour hm s 0 1 53-25|53-25 | ......... 25 9 25 36°75] 10°75] 1 19.7% | on. 9909/2} 2415 lor75 | 1222 1035 | 990| 9 47-5 |10-75| ¢ 10°75 | 20-94 330 |3 33-5 |185 |......... 12-16 |1100|10/ 57 | 93-11 ors los.0g 440] 4 48-75|15-25 | ......... 14-75 |1210\11| 26 7 |10 550/5| 25 2 (13-95|......... 16-98 ||1320/12, 16 | 9 660| 6 14-25]12-95 | 2 18°36 |1430|13 25 | 9 |b 9-00/25-00 770|7 26 |11-75]......... 19-14 |[1540/14, 34 | 9 208 REPORT—1841. TABLE (Continued). | 3 : Ss a Miles || 9; |u a Miles 2 3 Times & Average per || |2| Times =| Axerage per A ia Qa MHS. | hour. || A ie A mS: | hour, Yds. hm s Yds. hm s 1650 |15|9 26 42:5 | 85 \ 8-62 | 26-10 3190 |29}9 28 49 | 11-75) ......... | 19°14 1760 |16 51:25] 8°75 = 3300/30! 29 1 {12 |......... 18°75 . 2 be A * * roeo ltl a7 728) 8. [fF 80]2822 | Sso0 [39] ays tags) 1686 é 7°25| 13°75] .....0008 16°36 2090 |19 15°75} 85 8-25 | 27-26 3630 |33 42 | 14°75)... eee 15:25 2200 |20 23°75) 8 3740 [34 DS o8) 16) silivaresess 14:06 2310 |21 32 Si20|pewsccse 27-26 || 3850 |35} 30 15-5 |17°5 |......... 12:86 2420 |22 39°75) 7°75 3960 |36 35°25) 19°75] .....000 11°39 2530 |23 48:25] 85 8°33 | 27-00 || 4070 [37 57 | 21°75) ..aseeeee 10:35 2640 |24 57 8°75 4180 |38) 31 21-25) 24:25) ......... 9:27 2750 |25} 28 65 | 9-5 } 9:5 | 23-68 4290 |39 50 | 28°75) ......00. 7°82 2860 |26 16 9°5 4400 40} 32 22-5 | 32:5 |......... 6°92 2970 |27 26-5 | 10°5 } ......00e 21-43 ||4510|41| 33 7 | 445 |......... 5:06 3080 |28 3B7-25|L O°75) ....eeee 20-94 || 4577 34 40 | 93 The general results of these two experiments are placed in juxtaposition in the following table :— 27 4s Time of run- Time of descend- Weight. sea te ning total | Greatest speed.| ing the Sutton distance. plane 0 to 20, Tons. Yards. m s |Miles perhour.} m s Fury and Tender| 11°39 4710 11 37 2 4 29 Two Coaches ...| 11-33 4577 11 40 28°12 4 24 Difference... “06 133 0 3 0 5 It appears, therefore, that the difference in the whole distance run by the two coaches and by the engine and tender, amounted to only 133 yards in a distance little short of three miles; and there was only three seconds differ- ence in the time which elapsed between the moment of starting and the mo- ment of coming to rest. The maximum speed was the same, and the times of descending the inclined plane differed by only five seconds. The differ- ence, such as it was, was in favour of the coaches. In fact the differences of the numbers in the successive columns are only such as would take place in the same experiment twice repeated with the same coaches. As a further experimental test of this point, the engine and tender were now placed in front of a train of four coaches, and were allowed to descend the plane in the same manner. The engine and tender were then removed, and replaced by two coaches of equal weight, and the train of six coaches was allowed to descend the plane in the same manner. The details of these experiments are as follows: — Engine, Tender, and four First Class Carriages, viz. cwts. qrs. Ibs. Fury c ‘ Bee dc ae, Ret ROOH 09 emt im Clarence Sovereign Traveller Telegraph meses ee Gross weight . . 549 2 4 ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 209 rs) Po 7) rey 2 aa|o2i| 3 wa} oe ES Posts.| Times. | Diffs.) £& |= £ = Posts.| Times. | Diffs. bps ste = > he ZA \A Py < oy Yds. hm s ‘a Yds, hm s 0 0 |3 3030 2640| 24 |3.35 345 | 8 | 2.44. 2812 110} 1 | 3129 [9 |... 3-81||2750) 25 220; 2 BA 6 (BB 6. of ansiet 9-00||2860| 26 52 lizs f| 875|25°72 330 3 | 3212 lis |... 1250/2970| 27 | 36 05/85 1) ser osg4 440 4 aeeripes) |i: 14-06|/3080) 28 9-75| 9 550| 5 dae | | Os, 16-07||3190] 29 19/925" |... 24-32 660, 6 bade. | | aad 17-30||3300| 30 29-25/10-25 |...... 21-94 Mee | 38 73 12 ee 18-75|/3410) 31 40 |10°75 | ...... 20-94 880 § [SM Le nee 20-45||3520) 32 51-25/11-25 11 17 ool on. 990] 9 soc sranl(2630) 33. || a7) a os y]* 100/20 1100, 10 39 |21-2 5 3740| 34 1 | A NESE 18°75 1210) 11 485 |95 11 9. 3850) 35 27 \13 1320) 12 58 | 95 } 95 |23'68!3960| 36 £0e ley flee ere 1430113 | 34 7 |9 4070| 37 pes eb | ees 1540) 14 15:5 | 85 } 875 | 25°724180| 38 | 38 9 l145 p| 1450] 15°51 1650, 15 24185 1) acolop-q7|it290) 39 25 |L6 | saseae 14-06 1760, 16 32:5 | 85 4400| 40 AS ANT Ra Nhe oe 13-23 1870) 17 405 |8 1) grolozgal(t510| 41 | 39 05 [185 |... 12-16 1980) 18 4875| 8-25 4620| 42 20° 195 «|... 11-54 2090! 19 56 |7251| 7.57| g9.50]/4730) 43 2 Ma Re 9-78 2200 20 | 35 35 (75 f 4840| 44 | 4011 [28 |... 8-04 2310| 21 11-25] 7°75 4950| 45 BO gE Hla 5°78 2420| 22 19 | 7-75 $| 7-67|2934/5060| 46 | 4211 |81_ |...... 2:78 2530| 23 265 | 7-5 5068 39 [28 cwts. qrs. Ibs. ewts. qrs. Ibs. oT ( Express - 93 0 24 Sovereign . 90 2 24 aie 4 Herald o OL 9 dD Traveller . 91 2 2 (Clarence . 88 3 24 Telegraph . 93 1 24 Gross weight . 549 ewts. 2qrs. 4Jbs. From a state of rest, down Sutton Incline Plane. Carriages, viz. ow A s . i | S “23 2 |Posts.| Times. | Diffs | §& |= 2 || 2 =e a) ZA = 5 Q = & f=) i=) Yds. hm s Yds. h 0 |12 5 30 2640 8:25 11 orolor. Tio) 1| G26 |s6 |... 4-02 ||2750 5.[8 } 8:12 27°68 220| 2 ct CY an ae 9°37 ||2860 330, 3] 785 [185 | 1 12-16 2970 9-00 [25-00 440| 4 9 |165 |... 13-63 |3080 9 550| 5 385 |135 |... 16-66 |3190 23:68 660 6 Ca 17-30 |3300 22:50 SLR el i Beal Pa 19-56 |3410, ya 880 8 area Sey 20-45 ||3520 PD 0, 9 24-25) 10-25 3630, 20-45 1100; 10 34°5 | 10-25 f [10°25 [21°94 [5749 18-75 Haig) 11). 44 | 95 |... 23°68 ||3850 17:30 2 53 | 9 3960 16-98 1430 3/ 9 2 19 9:00 [25-00 |/4970 15-25 14 10-25] 8-25 4180 15-00 1650) 15 19 873 f 8°50 /26°47 |14990 13°63 60) 16 27 | 8 4400 11-84 1870) 17 35 | 8 } 8-00 /28°12 4510 10:97 43 | 8 ~ loo.ne ||4620 9-18 ‘ 58 | 755 : 4840 3-98 23109 21 10 5 | 7 } 7°25 131-08 N4g50) P 13 | 8 Fa: 2530| 23 20-25 7.95 | 7-62 )29'5 EE 210 REPORT—1841. Transverse sections of the engine and the coaches are given in figs. 2 and 3. Plate I. The general results of these experiments are here shown in juxtaposition :— Time of Time of Weight. pie 8 running total nee descending : distance. epee Sutton Plane. F a 4 Tons. Yards, m 8 Miles per hour. |, m s ury, tender, an z - four coaches... } aw4o 4068 2 9 305 fea Six coaches......... 27°45 4850 10 48 31 4 28 Difference...... 218 1 2) 5 It is evident from these results, independently of other experiments which will be presently stated, that the form of the front, whether flat or sharp, has no observable effect on the resistance; and that whether the engine and tender be in front, or two carriages of the same weight, the motion of the train and the resistance to its motion will be exactly the same. The form of a boat or beak having been given to some of the engines on one of the lines of railway, and the advantages attending such a form in diminishing the resistance haying much insisted on, it was determined to ascertain its effect by direct experiment. For this purpose a sharp end was constructed to be attached in front of the foremost carriage, consisting of two boards equal in height to the body of the carriage, and which being attached to each corner, were united in front at an angle, the vertex of the angle being five feet six inches before the flat front of the carriage, and the base of the angle being six feet six inches, corresponding with the width of the carriage. Thus, instead of pre- senting a flat surface to the air, the carriage having this apparatus attached would present a wedge to it, which would have the effect of a cut-air. This contrivance was first tried with a single coach, which, having it attached in front, was moved as before down the Sutton Plane; and the cir- cumstances of the motion having been observed and recorded, the wedge was removed, and the coach again moved down the plane with its flat end presented to the air. The following are the results of these experi- ments:— + Time of ; . Total 5 Greatest Time of de- Weight. | sistance man, acne ow velocity. es oa ee . e : Tons. i Yards. m 8 Miles per hour, m 8 Coach with oe 5°35 3975 WO 24:3 5 35 ed front ....... Coach with flat A ay FrOMt:..scs-es-- } ad de ee aor yas Difference...... 70 0 50 This result shows that the form of the front produced no effect on the resistance. It was determined to remove all possible doubt on this point by varying the circumstances of the experiment. A train of eight coaches was accord- ingly prepared and brought to the series of inclined planes at Madeley on the Grand Junction Railway, the section and curves of which have been de- scribed in the first part-of this Report, This train was first moved down the ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 211 planes with the pointed end attached, and afterwards without that appendage. The details of these two experiments were as follows :— / July 11th, 1839.—Expertment No. I. Eight Second Class Carriages, No. 12, 35, 5, 22, 9, 29, 30, 20. tons. cwts. qrs. Weight of Carriagesand Load, . . . 40 O O Ten Passengers . . - Pee. ty eee | Gross weight. . . 40 15 O Pointed end placed in front. Initial velocity 23°71 miles per hour, down Madeley Plane. Dist. a Times, Diffs. |Speed.|| Dist. é. Times. Diffs. | Speed. & Ay Wards nels Yards hm s 61 |8 27 36°5 21 |8 33 18:5 | 8:5 |34:25} 23°89 60 46:5 |10 59 55:75 | 9°25 au aT Be 58} 28 4:25] 85 18 44-75 | 8:75 0) 57 13 8°75 365 | 22-41 |! sooo V7 53-25] 8:5 [84-75 | 23:54 56 22 9 55 80°25 | 8-25 He a F ae 54 39 8°75 14 19 9 53 47-5 | 8:5 \84:5 | 23-71 13 97. |8 (88-75 | 24-24 500| 52 56 | 85 51 | 29 “ , mi it id 3 50 10 53-25 | 9-25 49 22 9 (345 | 23-71 9| 35 1:75) 85 |84:75| 23:54 48 30 | 8 : 1000) 47 39 (| 9 5000 : 8 ae 46 47-5 | 85 6 27 9 45 56:25 | 8-75 |84-25 | 23°89 5 85-25 | 8:25 |8B-5 | 24-42 44 | 30 425] 8 4 8°75 43 13:25 | 9 3 52°75 | 8°75 1500} 42 21°75) 85 5500} 2) 386 8-25 4] 30 | 8:25 [83-75 | 24-24 1 9 | 8 |83:75| 24-24 40 385 85 0 17°75 | 8°75 39 47°25 | 8°75 1 26 8-25 38 55:25 | 8 2 34:5 | 8:5 2000) 37 | 31 3 7°75 |33 24°79 6000! 3 43 85 134 24-06 36 12°25 | 9-25 35 20:25 | 8 ' 37 3 34 acd 8-25 6 9-25 | 9-25 33 37 | 85 (34 | 24-06 7 18 | 8-75|385 | 23:37 2500) 32 46 19 6500] 8 27-5 | 95 31 54 8 9 36°5 | 9 30 | 32 2 8 10 46 9-5 29 10 8 33 24-79 ll 55:5 | 9:5 (87:5 | 21-81 pee ne 18-25 | 8-25 12) 38 45 19 2 ws oy 7000) 13 14 955 35°25 | 8°5 14 93-5 | 9:5 25 44-25|9 |34-25| 23:89 15 33. | 95 (375 | 21-81 24 53 8°75 2 133 1:25) 8-25 ie ES 10 : 3500] 22 10 | 8-75 7 PQ 912 REPORT—1841, ExPERIMENT No. I. (continued). Dist. 3 Times. Diffs. | Speed.|) Dist. 2 Times. Diffs. | Speed. oe 2) are oe Yards. hms Yards hm s 7500} 18 |8 89 1:75} 9:25 50 |8 44 26 10°5 - 19 115 | 9°75 |388°5 | 21-25 51 36:5 |10° (41:5 | 19°71 20 21:25 | 9°75 52 47°5 21 3l 9-75 11,000} 53 58 10°5 22 4] 10 54 | 45 8:25 /10-25 8000) 23 51 }10 = (89:5 | 20:71)|| 55 19 {10°75 |42°5 | 19-25 24} 40 0°75} 9°75 56 29:5 |10-5 25 105 | 9°75 57 40°5 26 20°5 {10 11,500) 58 51°75 |11-25 27 30-25 | 9°75 |39-25 | 20-84 59| 46 2 1025/43 | 19°02 8500) 28 40 9-75 60 13°25 |11-25 29 50-25 |10-25 61 24-5 {11-25 30} 41 0-25 /10 62 35°75 |11-25 3l 10 9°75 139-75 | 20-58 || 12,000) 63 47-5 |11-75 |45°5 | 17:98 32 20:5 |10°5 64 59-25 {11-75 9000} 33 30°5 10 65 | 47 11 11-75 34 4] 105 66 23 35 51-25 |10-25 |41-25 | 19-86 67 35 47-5 | 17-22 36 | 42 1:25)10 12,500} 68 47°25 |12-25 37 11-25 /10 69 59°25 9500) 38 21°75 {10-5 7O | 48 12:25 39 32°25 |10°5 |41 19:95 71 24:5 |12-25 149-5 | 16:53 40 42:5 {10-25 72 37°75 [138-25 Al 53:25 |10°75 13,000) 73 51°25 |13- 42] 43 3 9-75 74; 49 4 12:75 10,000} 43 13-25 |10-25 |41 19-95 75 eee = {13°25 [52°75 | 15°51 44 23°75 |10°5 76 31 13°75 45 34 10:25 V7 44-75 |13°75 14:87 46 44-75 |10°75 13,500) 78 58:5 113°75 47 55/1025 |41-75 | 19°60)! 14,411 54 24-5 * 10,500] 48 | 44 5-25 |10-25 49 15:5 {10:25 Breeze down the Plane. * Stopped. 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3900 ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. July 11th, 1839.—Expreriment No. II. Eight Second Class Carriages as before. ° tons. cwts, qrs. Weight of Carriage and Load Ten Passengers From initial velocity 23°37 miles per hour, down Madeley Plane. ° 40 0) 15 0 0) Gross weight . . 40 15 O Pointed end taken off. Diffs. Speed.|| Dist. Yards, 53:5 |10°5 4000 8-75 | 38:25] 21-39 8-75 : 4500 7-25 | 32 | 25°57 6°75 75 7:5 7:5 | 29:25] 27:97 5000 7 7 7°75 7°25 | 29 28°21 5500 7 7:25 75 7°25 | 29 28:21 7-25 6000 ao 075 7°25 | 29-75| 27:50 7 7°25 75 6500 7°25 | 29 28-21 7:75 75 75 725139 | 27-27|| 7000 7:75 7 8:25 75 130-5 | 26°82 7500 7:75 75 8 8:27 31-5 | 25:97 8000 2 Times. hm s 18 |9 43 14:25 17 22:25 16 30-25 15 38 14 A625 13 oe 12] 44 2 u 9°75 10 18 9 25°75 8 33:5 7 41-25 6 49°5 5 57 |; 4] 45 5 3 13 2 20°5 1 28-25 0 36 1 44 2 52 3] 46 0 4 775 5 16 6 24 7 33 8 4] 9 50 10 585 TEile aay, 12 155 13 245 14 33 15 42 16 51-25 17} 48 0:25 18 ae 19 18 20 27°25 21 oe 22 46 23 55d Diffs. 7:75 nos oor or orn or ee) or OT DOO. CHOH SHOH PHOD SHH HOH or or : Sr Sri bo bo 31 31°75 31°75 31:25 31:25 31°75 39 36 375 213 Speed. 26°39 25°77 25:77 26:18 26:18 25°76 24:79 24:06 23:37 21°81 214 REPORT—1841. ExPERIMENT No. II. (continued). Dist. é Times. Diffs. | Speed.|| Dist. é Times. Diffs. | Speed. Yards. hm s Yards. hm s 24 19 49 4-25] 8-75 55 19 54.19 |10°75 1425 | 19-25 = ae i0 My 56 29°75 |10-75 26 me ty is 57 40-5 |10-75 27 36 311 11,500] 58 52 |LLS 8500| 28 43 {115 59 | 55 2:5 [105 [43:5 | 18:81 29 52-75 | 9°75 60 13-75 |11-25 30] 50 25 | 975 61 95-25 |1L-5 32 22:25 110-25 12,000] 63 48-75 |12-25 |46:25 | 17-69 9000| 33 32-25 110 ae 34 42°25 110 He a6 2 ie ap 35 525 |10:25 40:5 | 20-20 66 94-5 (12 36| 51 2 | 95 67 37. |12'5 48:25] 16-96 37 12-25 110-25 12.500 9500] 38 22-25 |10 te 57 "35 [ibs 39 32°25 110 39°75 20°58 70 15 12-5 40 425 (10-25 7 28:5 [13:5 1515 | 15-89 eae Rac hom tide 72| 41-76 {13-25 al Doors pe 13,000} 73 | 55:5 {13-75 44 23:25 |10 75 w. (IBS [54 | 1515 45 34 [10-75 46 | 44-25 [10-25 A oa 47 54-5 110-25 [41:25] 19:83 13,5001 78 | 59 5 14 10,500] 48| 53 5 {105 13,598 195 |14-5 [57 | 14-35 49 15 {10 13,785 51:5 * | BO) age) 13,915] [10 0 16 51 365 |105 [42 | 19°48] 14/549 ined 52 47-25 |10°75 14,331 3 22 11,000] 53 58 |10°75 54} 54 8:25 {10-25 Breeze down the Plane. * Stopped. The general results of these two experiments are here exhibited in juxta- position. ‘otal distance run Time of running total distance. Initial Speed. Uniform speed on 1 in 177. Speed at foot of 1 in 265. Speed at foot of 1 in 330. Time of moving down 1 in 177, Time of moving down I in 265, Time of moving round | in 330, Weight. Tons.) Wards. en) '8 per hr. | per hr. | per hr. | per hr. Train with point- ; ! i ' ‘ cee 40-75 |14,411 |26 48|23-70 |24- | 19-25 | 14-87 |8 418 50/4 50 a | fs i | | ma | | ac fe | Same train.in its . 4 § Q alice ata! ag 75 (14,831 | 25 39|93:37 |26-18 | 19-25 |14:35 |7 53/9 32/4 57 Difference ....... 80; 1 9} 033 | 2-18 052 |0 48/0 42;0 7 ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS, 915. It appears, therefore, that the distance run with the wedge foremost dif- fered only 80 yards ina distance of about eight miles from that through which the same train ran with its flat front. This and the other differences indi- cated in the table are evidently such only as would take place with the same experiment twice repeated with the same carriages. With a view to ascertain how far mere magnitude of frontage, indepen- dently of the general magnitude of the train, is productive of resistance, the front of a coach was enlarged by boards extending from either side to a di- stance of about twenty inches, adding about twenty-four square feet to the front surface, and forming a sort of wings in front of the carriage, but no corresponding width being given to any other part of the carriage. The coach thus prepared was placed at the summit of the Sutton plane, and al- lowed to descend from a state of rest. It was then brought back to the sum- mit and the wings removed, and was allowed to descend in its ordinary state. The result of these two experiments was as follows :— Total Time of Time of Weight. anc running | Greatest | moving down pene that speed. | Sutton Plane mun distance, 1-89. ie: . Tons. Yards. mi s m. per h, mis radio t} 585 | 3139 | 9 10 | 1915 | 5 al arged front. Coach with ei 5:35 3,289 Cee) 21-45 4 15 dinary front. Difference ...... 150 0 8 2:30 1 16 From which it was inferred, that mere width of frontage, apart from the general increasé of magnitude, was not productive of any considerable prac- tical effect in increasing the resistance. A strong impression existed in the minds of some engineers and scientific men, to whom the results of these experiments was communicated while they were in progress, that the shape of the hinder part of the train might have an effect upon the resistance. It was supposed that in very rapid mo- tion a tendency to a vacuum would be produced behind the train, and that a corresponding atmospheric resistance, due to this partial vacuum, would be produced in front; that, consequently, if the square shape was removed from the hinder part, less resistance would be found. Although no great weight was attached to this, it was determined, nevertheless, to submit it to a trial, and with that view a train of three carriages was placed at the sum- mit of the Sutton plane, falling ,, and allowed to descend by gravity in their ordinary state. They were next allowed to descend, having the pointed end behind ; they next descended with the pointed end before: and, lastly, they were once more allowed to descend without the pointed end. The result of these four experiments is given in the following table. (See Table, p. 216.) In the third column is expressed the entire distance run, in yards; in the fourth column is the time of going that distance; in the fifth column is the » speed acquired in descending the Sutton plane ; in the sixth column the time of descending that plane; in the seventh column the time of moving a di- stance of 24 miles from the time of starting; and in the last column, the time of moving from the twelfth to the twenty-eighth stake, throughout which, the motion being tolerably rapid, the eftect of the air might be ex- pected to be greatest. It is evident, from these experiments, that no modification of the resist- 216 REPORT—1841. ance is produced by the form of either end of the train, at least. within any practical limits, to which the variation of that form can be subject. In order to ascertain whether the open spaces between the successive car- riages forming the train had any effect upon the resistance, hooks were at- tached to the edges of the ends of the several coaches, by means of which canvas was stretched from coach to coach so as to cover in those open’ spaces, and convert the train intoa single unbroken column. The train thus prepared was the same train of eight coaches used in the former experiments, and the following are the details of the experiments made on the Madeley planes. Time from Time of Time of cosy stake 12 running |Greatest/moving down total | speed. |Sutton Plane Be 8 distance. 1-89. Time of Weight.|distance run. Tons. | Yards. m s m. per h, m s m 8 Three coaches,with , i : flat front dndGud: 148 | 5,209 | 13.50 | 32-14 4 28 7 54 aoe 2 9 Same,with pointed |} j4.8 | 5.350 | 13 45 | 3103 | 4 95 | 750] 2 9 2 5 2 6 — CMObeccoress concerns Same,with pointed |} 34.3 | 5576 | 13 1/3214 | 4 23 | 730 frontics.-ccasecceee Same, with flat ‘ r : end gad At 148 | 5,518 | 1325 | 3214 | 4 22 | 739 July 11th, 1839. Eight Second Class Carriages as before, the spaces between the Carriages being closed up with canvas. tons. cwts. qrs. Weight of Carriage and Load.... 40 0 0O (Pen Passengers, . 2. si0000- » <> 15.0 Gross weight.... 4015 0 From initial velocity 25°57 miles per hour, down Madeley Plane. a a Dist. By Times. Diffs. | Speed.|} Dist. & Times. Diffs. | Speed. 4 Yards, hm i s Yards. hm i s 61 {12 17 44-25 44 12 19 57 «| 7:25 60 53°5 | 9:25 43 20 4:5 | 7-5 59 18 2 8:5 | 1500) 42 12 7-5 58 10 8 41 20 8- | 80-25] 27-05 ‘ r 5 5 49 0} 57 17:75) 7:75 | 33-5 | 24-42 40 27-75| 7-75 56 25°25) 7-5 39 35:25) 7°5 55 33° | 7-75 38 43:25] 8 54 40°5 | 7-5 2000} 37 51-25) 8 31:25] 26°18 53 48°75| 8:25|31 | 26°39 36 585 | 7-25 500) 52 56 7:25 35 21 6 75 51 19 3:5 | 7-5 34 14 8 50 11-25} 7-75 33 21:75) 7:75 | 30°5 | 26°82 48 26:5 | 7-5 31 37°5 | 7:5 1000) 47 34:25) 7°75 30 45:25) 7°75 46 41-25) 7 29 53°25) 8 31:5 | 25:97 45 A49-75| 8:5 | 30°75) 26°61 28 22 | 7-75 eae eemetenaeennen nnn ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 217 TABLE (continued). Diffs. | Speed.|| Dist. 3 Times. Diffs. | Speed. Yards. h Yards. hm s 3000 2 1 75 8500) 28 |12 29 53.25) 9°75 8 29 30 2:5 | 9:25 = 8 31:25 | 26:18 30 12°5 | 10 o4 8-25 31 22:5 | 10 \39 20:98 23 7:75 32 33 {10°5 3500} 22 8:5 9000} 33 42°5 | 9-5 21 8 32°5 | 25:17 34 §3°25|10°75 20 8 35 31 3:25)10 40:75 | 20:07 19 8 36 14 «(10°75 18 8-25 37 24:5 |10°5 4000) 17 8-25 |82°5 | 25:17 || 9500) 38 35:25|10°75 39 46°25}11 43 19-02 16 8:5 15 8 40 57 10°75 14 8 41 32 7°75|10-75 13 7°75 \82:25 | 25°37 42 18°5 {10°75 4500| 12 8-25 10,000) 43 29°5 |11 43:25 | 18:91 ll 8 44 40°25|10°75 10 8 45 51°75|11°5 9 8 (82:25) 25°37|| © 46 383 2°5 (10°75 8 8:25 47 13°75|11°25 |44-25 | 18-49 5000) 7 8 10,500) 48 25 = {11-25 6 7:75 49 36 «({I1 5 8 32 25°57 50 48 {12 4 8 51 59 jl 45:25; 18-08 3 8 52 3410 j1l 5500) 2 8 11,000) 53 21-25)11-25 1 8 32 25°57 54 33 (11°75 . an 55 44-5 (115 |45-5 | 17-99 1 8 56 5575/1125 2 775 57 35 7°75|12 6000) 3 8 32 25°57 || 11,500) 58 19-25}11°5 4 8 59 32 {12°75 |47-5 | 17-22 5 8°5 60 44 12 6 8:5 61 55°75|11°75 a 85 |33°5 | 24:42 62 36 8 {12°25 . 65001 8 8-75 12,000) 63 21 +=|13 49 16°69 9 8°25 64 34-25)13°25 “s 10 8:5 65 47-75 |13°5 11 9 34°5 | 23°71 66 37 2 «(|14:25 12 85 7 15 |138 (54 15°15 7000) 13 8°75 12,500} 68 29 =|14 14 9 69 43°25|14-25 15 9 35°25 | 23°21 70 58 |14:75 17 9 72 28°25)15°25 7500) 18 8°75 13,000| 73 43°25)15 19 95 |85:5 | 23:05 74 59 = |15+75 ee Re TG tin aL. 16 62 | 1319 21 9°25 76 39 31 16 12-78 22 9 7 47°5 |16°5 8000} 23 9 386°5 | 22-41 || 13,500) 78 40 4 165 |...... 12:39 24 9 13,598 DAL |1S eee 11:36 25 9°75 13,785 45 26 10 13,915 54:5 27 435 195 |388°25| 21-39 || 13,967|* 42 53°25 | Breeze down the Plane. EEE LEE SEL OTN E50) s Ce ae ET eT E 218 REPORT— 1841, On comparing the general results of this experiment with those of the same train in its ordinary state,we obtain the following comparative table of effects. Salar S fy |e |S] ang | ns 2 Eel = | Be /38] 3s Salsas Se /Fg] 2 | eS | Sa) Se ler) ae) es es | 6a} SS a a 8.8] 3.8 |% ‘Stali’ S)e jee) a le- |i |e" lee leeles o ° Es = ‘S n= j= SS) Ble | By 1S) peed aaa sees lee : : Tons, | Yards.|}m_ s one tage rie cope m s/m s|m sg ee 40-75| 18,967/25 9} 25°57] 25-37| 18°08| 14-:10|8 210 47/4 31 ars without } 40-75) 14,331| 25 39| 23:37 | 26-18| 19:25] 143517 53] 9 82/4 57 _ Canvas...... Difference ... 364, 30| 220/ O81] 1:17] 025\0 9] 1 15/0 26 These results prove that the open spaces between the coaches have no effect on the resistance. On comparing the preceding experiments with those made with a train of waggons having high sides and ends capable of being taken down and laid flat upon them, it will be seen that although a change of frontage produce no ob- servable effect on the resistance, a change in the entire volume or bulk of the train produces a very considerable effect onthe resistance to the tractive power. If that part of the resistance due to the air depend altogether, or chietly, on the frontage of the train, it would follow that by increasing the extent of the train by additional coaches, that part of the resistance would receive either no augmentation, or would be inconsiderably increased. To reduce this to the test of experiment, it was accordingly determined to run trains of various magnitude down inclined planes till they should attain uniform velo- cities, and thereby discover the manner in which their resistance would be affected. Experiments of this kind having been already made with trains of four coaches, and reported in the former part of this paper, it was now resolved to extend them to trains of six and eight coaches. The following are the results of these experiments, which in their details were conducted in all re- spects in the same manner as before. Number Uniform of Weight.| Wind. |Gradient.| velocity Coaches. attained. Tons One in me oe Ee our. 4 15°6 F 96 31-2 4 18- F 96 33°72 4 18- F 177 21-25 4 20-5 F 77 229 4 20°5 F 89 38°25 4 20:2 F 265 1913 6 27°5 A 89 323 6 27°5 F 89 37°5 6 27°5 F 96 346 | 6 275 A 96 27°8 6 34:5 C8: 89 353 8 36°5 F 89 |>36°5 8 40°75 F 77 26:15 8 40°75 Ss W7 j |r £38 37| 31 |...... 29-03 1| 59 13) 38)...... 23-68 \do. 5% evel | 1} 20 7| 30}...... 30-00 = 2 56| 43]...... 20-93 |do. 20° Fatwa 37| 30 |...... 30-00 & t]19 {11 9 26/9-30)...... 28-42! <8 3] 21 10| 33/1, whe} 1 54| 98)......j8214| mo 34 39| 29 | [ % 29°03 < NONSO)|Seo- Oo & — Sib o o S ba Alas a] o a 5 Aas a hm 5 hm s 55 |6 56 26/33)... 27:27 (7017 24:44) 97 | See 33°33 1 57 |81|...... 29-03 Rise 1| 25 14] 30 \g 29:51 2| 57 26/29 shy 2 45| 31|f% 3 55 |29 3| 26 19| 34\|...... 26°47 56 | 58 24/29 71 53] 84 |... 26°47 Berea ce elem ie. fs Level { 1| 27 97| 34(......] 26-47 2| 59 22/29] (% 2| 28 O| 33]... 27-27 57 |\7 0 20/58 Fall 3 32| 32]... 28-12 1 48 |28 1.472 } 29 2] 30/732 2|° 1 17/29 aco eM immed Ss \3 Le 3 45 |28|-..... 32-14 a Fal | 58 2 13/28)...... 32-14 ; { 2} 30 O| 27]... 33:33 ; 1 40|27|...... 33:33 00 aa0 | 2) 8. 7/27)... 33:33 3 25} 25 |...0..| 36°00 3 32/25 |... 36-00 Fall | 731] 31 20) 55 Va a) 59 58 | 26 |...... 34-61 “12 3] 382 6| 46\fie 1} 4 26/28 510 | 74 31| 25 bis 35-30 Level 2 54128] Lo 32-14 1 57| 26} fos 3) 5 22/28) 7% 2| 33 24] 97/)% 60 50 |28 3 52| 28 11.6 17 127).....2 33:33 75 | 3419| 27||~ Fall J 3] 7 10/53)......|83-97 Fall J“ 9} 35 14| 55| b="|32-79 330 (61 36 |26)...... 3461 3475|76 | 36 9| 55||S 1| 8 0/24 \s Eada 1 37| 28 Fall J 2 27|27| Sa 2| 37 4] 271) TRS 53 |26)|...... 34-61 C77 59] 5511 S| ao. Z200{¢2 | 9 91/28)....../3214 Fall | 1] 38 97| 98 ‘es ae 1 48 | 27|...... 33-33 308 2 59| 32]... 28-12 2| 10 14|26 A0030\, Pa Sele Stop. 3 40 | 26 . Start. HN das |) 1 Flatt Shai He {7 8 4 45 E00 1 33|26/(& F00 1| 5 38] 53 3| 12 26/53 Rise 64 53 |27 43) 2 |) 636) agit 1551 Level 1} 13 19/26)...... 34-61 550 2 46 |.27 |... 33°33 3) ar aa liga eae 15-26 Fall 3| 14 16/30)... 30-00 Fall | 79 8 13] 38]... 23-68 kz | 6 48|32|...... 28:12 Gai 1 AST (20) 30-00 1| 15 20/32 \z 26-47 711 2} 913! 30 a4 2 56 | 36 | f 3 45| 32| b= | 29-03 : 3| 16 34/38 \s 24-39 80 | 1016] 31 i383 (66 | 17 1lo\36\s* Rise 1 48] 32]|...... 28-12 1 ABN BB 004s. 27-27 eae 4). 2| 11 22) tod ee, Fall |} 2] 18 15[32|......|28-12 26 | 3| 54| 32 le aid Wan cel 45 | 30 |... 30-00 81 | 1230] 36)...... 25-00 67 | 19 14]29]...... 31-03 823] 16 49/419]... 24-32 1 42 |28 |... 32-14 G83 | ESO PAT en 21-95 Level? 2{ 20 11/29 XIV. 1} B81 38 [eyo 23°68 3 39 |28 | + 131-03 2 AS) 4 |e hes 26-47 68 | 21 9/30 3 0a9.45); 59 ae 27-27 1 38|29|...... 31-03 Rise | 84 46| 31 |... 29-03 2| 22 5|27 : xm=4 1] 20 16] 30|...0 30:00 Fall Uma Nivaghas | 28) Nes ee tse) 2| _. 46| 30/......:30-00 330 |69 | 23 0(27 |... 33:33 3| 21 15| 29)...... 31-03 26 | 26 |...... 34-61 L Warrington. ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 94) TABLE (continued). : g§] 2. €/8. 3 29 | od] 3 es BS o/oy] & 3 8 | Times. s | § = Bas % s 3 | Times, &|se Be: % = ejes/22| & | @ {2 @|@e|s2| & s A|A*|s S 6 |e AlAa*|s Fo hm s | hm 5s 8 23 12) 81 |.:.... 29-03 3] 8 30 50) 43)...... 20:93 47| 35. |...... 25°71 | Level 88 31 28] 38)...... 23°68 24 33) 46 |...... 19°56 | IX 1 BZD Os |sacces 24°32 * ola A ae oe vz [91 | 39 5817°53)......|20:93 26 32) 65 |...... 13°84 i 1 40 6 etal | EEA 30} 32)....../2812 28 1] 89 |......{10-11 |Stipping. atl egy % 9 : [cor 30|...... 30° 0 1) 8 29 17 76 |....ee 11°84 } * 1094 95 3 51 0110-0 25° 5 30° °4|:50)/:%.... 18:00 1k ae ewe ese pacers * Interrupted by overtaking Liverpool and Manchester Train. ConsuMPTION OF COKE. lbs. Used during the trip of 95 miles, exclusive of what would have been required to fill up the firebox at the end of the p 2790 St) Oe ee eee ee ee ee ea Add the quantity of coke at first put in to get up steam cr 616" BEV EVEHEEDOR LY Gio os: in \vopypre: yoialihlaud Sy etebent satan) 3406° Coke consumed permile . . . . + + + + © «© + + 358 Coke consumed per ton per mile a Liat Ach Wee se ty ten eae “51 CoNSUMPTION OF WATER. W: ° Water ater evaporated Intervals. evaporated.|—__ Per mile. | Per hour. Gallons. | Gallons. {Cubic feet, 300 cubic feet o Figm Birmingham o Woler-Vlis,| nse, | ait | 2904 on ' Wolverhampton to Stafford] 143 Fall. 244 16°54 met ay eee : Stafford to Crewe.........+.. 243 |Rise& Fall.) 452 18:26 ’ Crewe to Warrington ...... 24 Fall. 439 | 18-29 pote eri Warrington to Liverpool...| 18 |.......-..++++ 427 23°72 Ibs. of coke. Wiotaliaiedees¢ece ravity. |resistance.| 49 1Ds. eet per | Miles per , 3 3 per ton. Total. second, SoaE Post. |seconds.| feet. | ft.persec, 0 to 10| 76:75 | 3300 | 38-26 01098 | -00681 | 15:25 | 464-4 43:00 29°31 10 to 20 | 67:00 | 8300 | 46°32 01120 | -00825 | 18:48 | 561-2 | 49-25 | 33°58 We shall now examine the experiments made on the Grand Junction planes, and then present a summary of the results of the whole series. A moderate breeze blew directly down the plane during the course of the experiments. Its effects could not be accurately estimated, but as the wind acted to favour the descent of the train, the amount of resistance experienced and recorded must be less than could have been obtained in a calm state of the atmosphere. The error is on the right side for strengthening the force of the argument, which maintains the existence of an opposing power far exceeding what hitherto it had been supposed was encountered, and created as it were by the speed itself. At no very distant period in the history of railways, calculations were adduced before committees of the Houses of Parliament, to prove the dangerous tendency of permitting such gradients as 1 in 100 to be formed on any railway, and to show what an enormous and fearful acceleration would take place in the mo- tion of a train if allowed to descend such planes without control. Even a plane of 1 in 177, it was supposed would demand a vigorous application of the brakes to limit the velocity within due bounds. In the infancy of the system, and the absence of extended experience, mistakes like these were natural. A valuation of the friction of carriages had been frequently made by various in- quirers with a considerable degree of accuracy. They however overlooked in a great measure the influences brought into play by the rapidity of motion, and erred in forming too early generalizations from data still imperfect, ap- plying the same standard to weigh the opposing forces, whether the train were proceeding at the speed of a steam-boat on the ocean, or winging its way through air with the swiftness of an eagle’s flight. The experiments described in this and the former Report show the fallacy of erecting theories and establishing formule on too slender a basis of facts. In a department of science, whose principles and laws are not yet fully deve- loped, it behoves us to proceed upon a plan of the most cautious and rigid induction. Formule derived from mere theoretical considerations are of little ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 955 value in reference to such a subject ; but they may answer a more useful pur- pose when applied to express in a condensed form results between which an analogy has been traced, serving thus as the first steps of a generalization to be completed only by multiplying observations in every possible way. _ On the 11th July, 1839, the eight second class Grand Junction carriages were taken to the planes, extending from Madeley to Crewe. The wind, as be- fore noticed, blew down the plane. The train of eight carriages was thrice discharged over the head of the plane, at a speed varying from 23 to 26 miles per hour. ' Secondly, one half the train, or four carriages, was dismissed over the head of the plane at 40°9 miles per hour; the other half, or four carriages, was dis- missed at 32°73 miles per hour; and, lastly, a train of six carriages was dis- missed at the speed of 25°57 miles per hour. 1. Eight carriages, weighing gross 40°75 tons, dismissed over the top of Madeley plane, 1 in 177, at 23°71 miles per hour, accelerated to 24°79 miles per hour, and varied between 24°79 and 23°54 miles per hour, until reaching the foot. . See Table, No. IX. 2. Same train dismissed at 23°37 miles per hour, accelerated to 28:21, and varied between 28°21 and 25°77 miles per hour, until reaching the foot. See Table, No. X. 3. Same train dismissed at 26°39 miles per hour, accelerated to 27-05 miles per hour, and varied between 27:05 and 25°17 miles per hour, until reaching the foot. See Table, No. XI. In the first case the maximum speed was attained at post No. 40; in the second case at post No. 48; in the third case at post No. 52. Let us com- pare the times of descent from post No. 40, for instance, to post No. 0 at the foot of the plane, and deduce from thence the average uniform speed over that distance of 4000 yards. The times were respectively, 5 min. 39°25 seconds = 241 miles per hour. 5 ses 895 = 264 ar 5... 18°50 = 256 see The mean of the whole is 254 miles per hour. The circumstance of the speed having ceased to accelerate and having be- come uniform, renders unnecessary any calculation of the amount of resistance ; for it has been already shown that, in the case of uniform motion, the coeffi- cient of gravity is equal to the coefficient of resistance. The fraction zh in this instance then represents the coefficient of resistance; in other words, 12:65 lbs. per ton was the mean resistance encountered by the train of eight car- riages, when moving at the mean velocity of 25-4 miles per hour. Upon reaching the foot of the 177 plane, the trains passed on to a plane of 1 in 265, extending from the post numbered 0 to that numbered 54. The ob- servations of its motion afford the means of ascertaining the resistance at a slower uniform velocity. 1. Eight carriages entered upon the 1 in 265 plane at 2406 miles per hour ; their motion was gradually retarded to 19°83 miles, over a space of about 3000 yards, and finally became uniform over the remaining distance. 2. Same carriages entered the plane at 25°76 miles per hour; their motion was retarded to 20-20 miles, over a space of 3000 yards, and finally became uniform, or nearly so over the remaining distance. 3. Same carriages entered the plane at 25°57 miles per hour; their motion was retarded to 19°02, over a space of 3500 yards, and finally became nearly uniform, 256 REPORT—1841, The times of passing from No. 30 to No. 54 posts, 2400 yards, were re- spectively, 4 min. 8:0 seconds = 19°7 miles per hour. Ae et STS: ee S199 Avovetere 20°50)... 189 The mean of the whole is 19°5 miles per hour. The force of gravity on the plane being expressed by g45, 8°45 lbs. per ton: was the mean resistance encountered by the train of eight carriages, when moving at the mean velocity of 19°5 miles per hour. The train afterwards passed on to a plane of 1 in 330, but suffered throughout ~ a gradual retardation, showing that the resistance exceeded the gravitating force on this plane. Were it deemed necessary a computation could readily be made of the resistance at still slower speeds from the observed rate of re- tardation, but this has already been determined from the Sutton experiments, which, from the absence of any disturbing effects produced by wind, are more to be depended upon. The trains of four carriages next require our attention. The fact of so slight an acceleration as that from 23 to 25 miles per hour, having been pro- duced during the descent of a plane more than 5000 yards in length, was suf- ficiently remarkable, and demanded an accurate verification. It was deter- mined accordingly to make a sort of experimentum crucis, by dismissing the train from the head of the plane at a velocity considerably exceeding the maximum hitherto obtained during any portion of the descent, and to note whether, instead of further acceleration, an actual retardation would not take place. The event turned out as had been anticipated. The four carriages were dismissed over the top at 40 miles per hour ; their speed diminished ; when half way down the plane it was reduced to 30 miles per hour; and by the time they reached the foot it did not exceed 25°17 miles per hour. See Table, No. XII. The plane, it became evident, was too short to allow the train to acquire the uniform velocity due to the resistance, otherwise, in all probability, the speed would have been further lessened. The remaining four carriages, composing a train of equal weight with the former, were now dismissed at 32°73 miles per hour. They were retarded to 22°72 miles per hour, and then continued uniform to the foot, over a space of 1600 yards. The time occupied in traversing the last 1600 yards was 2! 93"' = 99:8 miles per hour. 12°65 lbs. per ton was therefore the mean resist- ance encountered by this train of four carriages, when moving at the mean ve- locity of 22:8 miles per hour.* At the top of the 1 in 265 plane the speed of the first set of four carriages was 25°17 miles per hour. This continued to decrease for 3400 yards, after which the motion became uniform at 19°2 miles per hour, indicating a resist- ance of 8:45 lbs. per ton. The wind, which up to the time of the last experiment had blown in a di- rection to favour the motion of the trains down the plane, now veered round to the westward and fell on the sides of the carriages, tending to press the flanges of the wheel against the rails. This new source of resistance was soon rendered evident by the sluggish motion of the second train of four carriages in the latter part of its course (Table XIII.) ; also by that of a train of six carriages (Table XIV.), which afterwards descended ; and lastly, by repeating ~ the experiments with the entire train of eight carriages (Table XV.). The Time Tables are given in the App. (see Tabs. XIII. XIV. XV.), but we | ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 257 deem it unnecessary to draw therefrom any numerical deductions with refer- ence to the value of resistance. A comparison of the last trial of the train of eight carriages with the first three trials of the same train is well worthy of notice, as illustrating the powerful effects of a side wind. In the first case the mean initial velocity at the top was 24 miles per hour, and the mean final velocity at the foot, 25:4 miles per hour. Under the influence ofa side wind, the initial velocity being 20°07 miles per hour, the final velocity at the foot was only 17°69 miles per hour, with the probability of a further retardation had the incline been longer. The following Table presents a summary of the calculations we have made of the various amounts of resistance opposed to the different trains, on the lo- calities and under the circumstances assigned. Name of inclined Mean velocity. Measures of resistance. Wei Nature of the Train, of the : eee ee Coefficient | Pounds Train made. Feet per| Miles of per Total. second. | per hour.| resistance.| ton. tons. 3 L.& M. coaches 14-80 | Sutton 1 in 89 | 8°80] 6-00 | -00268 | 6:00 | 88-8 Ditto ......... 14:8 Ditto .., 00°00 | 22°50 | -00357 8-22 | 121-6 Ditto ......... 14:8 Ditto ......... 38:37 | 26°16 | -00589 | 12-07 | 178-6 Ditto ......... 14:8 Ditton... 43°42 | 29-60 | -00726 | 16-26 | 240:7: 4 Gd. Jn. coaches...) 20°45 | Sutton ......... 8:80 | 6:00 | 00357 | 8-00 | 163-6 Ditto ......... 20-45 | Madeley ...... 28-16 | 19-20 | -00377 | 8-45 |172°8 Ditto ......... 20°45 Ditto ......... 33°44 | 22°80 | -00564 | 12-65 | 258-7 Ditto ......... 20:45 | Sutton ......... 51:16 | 34:88 | -00767 | 17-18 | 349°8 Ditto ......... 20°45 Ditto .,....... 54:77 | 37°34 | -00958 | 21-46 | 438:8 6 Gd. Jn. coaches...| 30°45 | Sutton ......... 8:80 | 6:00 | 00357 | 8-00 | 243-6 Ditto ......... 30°45 Ditto ......... 43:00 | 29:31 | -00681 | 15-25 | 464-4 Ditto ......... 30°45 Ditto ......... 49:25 | 33:58 | -00825 | 18-48 | 561-2 8 Gd. Jn. coaches...| 40°45 | Sutton ......... 8°80 6:00 | :00357 8:00 | 323°6 Ditto ......... 40°45 | Madeley ...... 28-60 | 19°50 | -00377 8-45 | 341-5 Ditto ......... 40°45 | Sutton ......... 30°13 | 20:54 | -00505 | 11°31 | 457-6 Ditto, {0 2? 40°45 | Madeley ...... 37:25 | 25:40 | 00564 | 12°65 | 511-7 Ditto ......... 40°45 | Sutton ......... 37:93 | 25:86 | -00547 | 12:25 | 495-6 Ditto .......,. 40°45 Ditto ......... 43°42 | 29-61 | 00654 | 14:65 | 592-6 One of the important questions which the examination of such a series would suggest is, whether any relation can be traced between the speed and the ex- cess of resistance produced by the speed, and to what extent this excess is mo- dified by altering the size of the train. To enable the reader more readily to perceive what degree of connection subsists, the following table is constructed, presenting, in one column, the speed in miles per hour ; in another, the weight and description of the train; and ina third, the excess of resistance in pounds per ton, or difference between’ the total resistance and the resistance due to friction alone, the whole being arranged in the order of increasing speed, group- ing together experiments with trains of unequal sizes when their respective velocities were found nearly equal. The excess of resistance, as exhibited in the fourth column, evidently in- creases with the speed. Thus, at 20°54 miles, the excess is 3°31 lbs.; at 25°86 miles, 4°25 lbs; at 29°61 miles, 6°65 lbs. per ton, in a train of eight carriages. 1841. s 258 REPORT—1841. Train. Speed in miles, Excess per ton per hour. il of| Weight. of load. arriages. Tons, Pounds. 19-20 4 20°45 0°45 19-50 8 40°45 0°45 20°54 8 40°45 3°31 22:50 3 14:8 2:22 22:80 4 20°45 4:65 26°16 3 14:8 6:07 25°40 8 40°45 4°65 25°86 8 40°45 4:25 29-60 3 14:8 10:26 29°31 6 30°45 7°25 29°61 8 40°45 6°65 34:88 4 20°45 9:18 33°58 6 30°45 10°48 37°34 4 20°45 13°46 In like manner, the excess at 29°31 miles per hour is 7:25 lbs., and at 33°58 miles, 10°48 lbs. per ton, in a train of six carriages. So in a train of four carriages, at 22°8 miles, the excess is 4°65 lbs.; at 34°88 miles, 9°18 lbs.; and at 37°34 miles, 13°46 lbs. per ton. In a train of three carriages, at 22°5 miles, the excess is 2°22 Ibs.; at 26°16 miles, 6°07 lbs.; and at 29°60 miles per hour, 10°26 Ibs. per ton. The trains of four and eight carriages respectively, showed an excess of about half a pound only, but their motion was in some degree affected by the wind. The excess of resistance per unit of the load increases as the size of the train diminishes, though not in the same proportion. This consequence would naturally be expected from the circumstance of an equal frontage being ex- posed to the air, whether the train consist, for instance, of three or eight car- riages. Whatever resistance may be occasioned by the atmosphere acting on that frontage would in the one case be divided over three, and in the other over eight carriages. ‘The fact of its not increasing in the same proportion proves that the train is subject to a resistance independent both of friction and mere frontage, and that in fact many complicated causes conspire to pro- duce the entire resistance. At the speed of 29 to 30 miles per hour there is a group of experiments made with three, six and eight coaches, which seems best to exhibit the effect alluded to. The increase of the train from three to six coaches, diminishes the excess per ton about 3 lbs., and increases the total excess of resistance in the proportion of 1 to 14, not as 1: 2, which is the proportion of the loads. We do not, however, consider the observations to be as yet sufficiently nu- merous to warrant the foundation of any specific theory of resistance. The number of experiments in each group is extremely limited; some of the cir- cumstances influencing the results, as for instance the wind, are not to be estimated, and therefore we deem it wiser to abstain from entering into the mathematical consideration of the laws which regulate the motion of solid bodies through a fluid medium until we can procure a mean from a large col- lection of groups of facts similar to those of which we have just afforded a specimen, otherwise we shall be in danger of having our inferences over- turned by succeeding experiments, and discredit thrown upon the character of our inquiries, ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 959 The most important results are those relating to the train of eight car- riages, because this load is the nearest approach to the average size of the ordinary passenger trains usually travelling upon railways. Thirty miles per hour is a fair average speed; and the resistance encountered by such a train moving at thirty miles per hour amounts, as we have already shown, to nearly 15 lbs. per ton, or almost double the value of friction only. These are results of an eminently practical tendency, indicating at what expenditure of power we can expect to be able to transfer a given load, and what degree of excess of power in the motive force, over and above the power required to overcome the friction, is necessary to the maintenance of an assigned rate of speed. The friction may no doubt be made less than 8 lbs. per ton by proper attention to the accurate fitting and perfect lubrication of the axles, and to the squareness with which they are placed on the framing, as indeed is made evident by the fact of certain carriages having run with a friction of only 6 Ibs. per ton; but it is scarcely probable that a much lower amount will be attained, nor indeed would the reduction be of much importance in the economic working of passenger trains, which, from their high velocity, must necessarily bring into play large and independent sources of resistance. Having ascertained the resistance to trains at various speeds, and under the circumstances in which they are found when employed in the regular traffic of the road, the attention of the Committee was earnestly directed to discovering how far any difference in the external configuration of the train, and modification of the form of the front or hind surfaces, or any altera- tion in the shape of the leading vehicle, might affect the resistance it experienced. The information obtained in the course of this part of the inquiry is of a negative rather than a positive nature, proving that certain changes do not affect the resistance, but not satisfactorily pointing to any general principle whereby we can decide upon what the increase of resistance precisely depends. The form of the front and the hind end of a train of carriages is flat, pre- senting an area of 62 square feet, including a sectional transverse measure- ment of the area of the axle and wheels, and springs and axle-boxes. To give the train the power of more readily cutting its way through the atmo- sphere, a sort of boat-shaped appendage was provided. Two boards, equal in height to the body of the carriage, were united in front, at an angle, the vertex being 5 ft. 6 in. before the flat front, and the base 6 ft. 6in., cor- responding with the width of the carriage. A single coach, weighing 5°37 tons, was dismissed from post No. 0, at the top of Sutton Plane, first with the prow applied in front, and afterwards without the prow. The following Table is abstracted from Tables XVIII. and XIX. given in the Appendix :— Time of de- One Carriage Total Time scending Sut-} Maximum 5°37 tons. distance run.| occupied. ton Incline, speed. 2420 yards, aE Yards. ny te eae tg Miles. Pointed front...... 3975 10 59 5 54 24:3 Flat front .......... 3905 10 59 5 6 6S 23°7 Differences ...... 70 0 O 49 0-6 The difference is only seventy yards in a distance of more than two miles ; the times of performing the distance precisely the same. s2 260 REPORT-—1841. A train of eight carriages, weighing gross 40°75 tons, was dismissed from the top of Madeley Plane, both with the pointed front and the flat front; see Tables 1X. and X. The following is an abstract :— _ Total distance run. Time of descending. Time of de- Time Initial : scending the occupied.} speed. Eight Carriages = 40°75 tons. | th lanes, 1 in 17,1 in 265.| 1 in 330.|13°500 yards, Yards. m s Miles, Pointed front...) 14411 |26 114} 23:7 8 4% |8 503) 4 502 21 453 Flat front ........ 14331 |25 03] 235°3 7 14% |)8 324) 4 56% 20 42 Differences... 80 | 1 103| 0-4 50 18} 6.| 1 13 The difference is only eighty yards in a distance of eight miles, and the other differences also far too small to establish any actual difference in the resistance. The pointed prow was next applied to a train of three carriages, weighing gross 14°38 tons. This train was dismissed four times down the Sutton Plane. In the first and last trips the train descended without having the prow attached either before or behind, and in ‘its ordinary state. In the second trip the prow was fixed behind the last carriage ; in the third trip in front of the first carriage. The weather was perfectly fine and calm. The following results are abstracted from Tables I. II. III. IV. in the Appendix :— Total Time of Time of Three Carriages FctaTGE Time | descending} Maximum | running = 148 tons. ae occupied. Sutton, speed. the first i 2420 yards. 23 miles. Yards. m s m 5s Miles. Pointed front...... 5576 By 9 4 23 32-1 7 30 Flat front and end. 5518 13 25 4 22 32°] 7 32 Differences ...... 58 24 1 0:0 2 Pointed end ....... 5350 138 45 4 25 31:0 7 50 Flat front andend.| 5209 13 50 4 28 32-1 7 +54 Differences ...... 141 5 3 1-1 4 The differences are extremely slight, and such only as would have taken place with the same experiment repeated twice over. The pointed prow was placed at the back of the train, to test an opinion expressed by several indi- viduals who were interested in the inquiry, that the resistance would in some measure be found to depend upon the shape of the hind surface of the last vehicle, and that if the end were pointed, the air would quickly and gently slide into the space just before occupied by the train, without causing so great a relative vacuum. The experiment showed that the pointed prow, whether placed behind the last carriage, or before the first carriage, exercised no appreciable influence on the rate of the train’s motion, or on the resistance of which that motion was the index. The next subject of inquiry was, whether the circumstance of the car- riages being sent with their square ends foremost, instead of being preceded, as they usually are, by the engine and tender, was likely to throw any doubt upon the correctness of the values of resistance determined heretofore for the several trains of carriages, ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 261 The engine, it might be supposed, would act as a sort of cut-air to throw aside the current, and break its force before it reached the flat surface of the carriage. However improbable such a consequence might be after the indi- cations just recorded, where a still more decided change of form was made the subject of trial, it was nevertheless determined to put the case to actual experiment. Accordingly a four-wheeled engine, the “ Fury” and its tender, were weighted equal to two carriages. The pistons, connecting rods, and other working gear of the engine, were detached from the driving wheels, so that the engine should be subject to no other friction save that to which a carriage is subject. The grate-bars, ash-pan, &c. were removed, in order to make the engine as light as possible, and to assimilate its weight to that of a loaded carriage; two carriages were also prepared of equal weight. The Fury and tender were first dismissed down the Sutton Incline ; afterwards the two carriages, and their times of descent compared. The following is an abstract of the performances recorded in Tables XX. XXIT.:— Time of Total Time descending Maximum Train. Weight. | distance occupied. | Sutton Incline, speed. run. 2420 yards. Tons. Yards. m s m s Miles. Fury and tender ............... 11:38 4710 ll 3 4 45 29-0 Two Carriages ......-..eeeceeeee 1133 | 4577 ll 40 4 40 28-1 Differences ..........0...065 | “05 133 0 3 0 5 0-9 The differences, as will be seen, are extremely slight. Each train was now increased by four carriages, and the contest took place between a train con- sisting of the Fury tender and four carriages, and a train of equal weight, consisting of six carriages. Tables XXII. and XXIII. may be referred to. The following is an abstract :— Time of Train. Total Time descending Maximum Weight. | distance | occupied. Sutton Incline, speed. run. 2420 yards. Tons. Yards. m s m s Miles. Fury, tender and 4 coaches...| 27°45 5068 12 9 4 49 30°5 Sixjcoaches: -......2.cescsscnsees 27°45 4850 10 48 4 43 31-0 Differences ...........000000 218 1 2) 0 6 0:5 Here again there are no greater differences than might be expected with an experiment repeated twice over with the same train, and we may fairl conclude that the form of the front has no observable effect, and that whether the engine and tender be in front, or two carriages of equal weight, the resist- ance will be the same. It has already been shown that at equal speeds, the excess of resistance, after deducting the friction, does not increase in the ratio of the load; a train of six carriages, at twenty-nine and a half miles, having experienced only one and a half times the. resistance that a train of half that size at the same speed was subject to. This fact pointed to the conclusion that the excess of resistance observed at high speeds was due to something besides the mere extent of frontage, and this conclusion was confirmed by the ex- periment we are about to cite. 262 REPORT—1841. The front surface of a single carriage was enlarged by two side boards, each extending the whole height of the body of the carriage, and each being twenty inches in width. The surface thus added was equal to about twenty- two square feet; the total surface being therefore increased from sixty-two square feet to eighty-four square feet. The carriage was made to descend the Sutton Incline. See Tables XVI. and XVII. The following is an abstract :— Total Ti Time of descending One Carriage = 5°37 tons.| distance ame d Sutton Incline, run, SEEDERS: 2420 yards. Yds. mi s m s Enlarged front ..........6 3139 9 10 5e-ob Ordinary front ............ 3289 9 2 5 37 Differences ........-c0eeee- 150 0 8 0 19 The differences are very slightly in favour of the ordinary front, but they are altogether so small as to prove that magnitude of frontage, independently of the general magnitude of the train, does not affect the resistance. From this point of view we shall be able to estimate in its true light the value of calculations of resistance to railway trains, deduced from @ priori reasonings depending on such limited data as have been hitherto furnished by inquiries grounded on the force exerted by the atmosphere against the surface of bo- dies moving at various velocities. There still remained an important point to decide. In a train of vehicles the front surface mainly encounters the brunt of the concussion with the air. The air, being displaced, is forced outwards towards the sides of the train ; but it might be presumed, that, as the separate carriages composing the train are placed at an interval of perhaps three feet apart from each other, a rela- tive vacuum would be produced behind the first carriage, causing a rush of air between the intervals, and until the equilibrium were restored a resistance over and above what would have been observed had no such interval existed. The same cause would take effect in like manner upon the second, third, and succeeding carriages, occasioning to each successively a slight resistance. An experiment with a train of eight carriages on the Madeley Plane dissi- pated all doubt upon this head. Round the corners of the ends of those carriages tenterhooks were nailed, and the intervals between the carriages were entirely closed up by closely woven canvas stretched tightly from carriage to carriage, and converting the whole train into one unbroken mass. The train was allowed to descend the series of inclined planes between Madeley and Crewe. See Tables X. and XI. Time of descending. Time of Eight Carri <,¢¢«:| Total Time Initial descending = 40°75 tons. distance. | occupied. speed, the three 1in177. | 1in265. | 1in330. planes: Yds. m 8s Miles. | m s m s s 8 With canvas ......... 13967 | 24 353) 26-4 7 283 )8 4632/5 31 21 461 Without canvas ...| 14331 | 25 8} 233 | 7 142) 8 323 56% | 20 433 Differences ...... 364 |0 25 31 | 0 132) 0 1445/0 342] 1 23 The result was in favour of the train without any canvas. The difference of total distance run in an eight miles journey was 364 yards ; of time twenty- ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 263 five and a quarter seconds; but, in fact, these differences are quite insignifi- cant, and equal ones would no doubt have been observed had the train been allowed to descend twice over in the same condition. It is evident then that no appreciable change in the resistance arises from closing up the intervals between the carriages composing a train. The inevitable inferences to be drawn from the foregoing experiments are : 1. That the resistance of a train is neither lessened nor augmented .by changing the shape of its front or hind ends from flat to pointed surfaces, with the view of rendering it thereby more capable of cutting through the air. c 2. That whether an engine and tender, or two carriages of equal weight, precede the train, the resistance is the same, and consequently the engine has no effect upon the air, similar to that which the bow of a ship has upon the water through which it is carried. 3. That increase of frontage, independent of any increase of the general magnitude of the train, does not increase resistance. This proposition, at least, must be considered as true within the limits of the surfaces which were actually submitted to experiment; the lesser surface being equal to the transverse section of a train suitable for a railway of 4 ft. 85 in. gauge; the greater surface equal to the transverse section of a train suitable for a seven- feet gauge, such as the Great Western. 4. That no additional resistance is occasioned by leaving open spaces be- tween the carriages, confining the intervals to the dimensions allowed in prac- tice, and that no advantage is gained by converting the train into one un- broken column. Having proved that the excess of resistance, after deducting friction, re- quired for its estimation something besides the elements of the dimensions and form of frontage and of continuity of surface, it became an important subject of inquiry, what was the element, as yet not taken into account, which exerted the powerful influence observed. The reader will doubtless have perceived that the subjects of the experi- ments hitherto described were carriages all of equal magnitude and of almost equal weight. When, however, the Committee first commenced their inquiry they made an experiment on the Madeley Planes with a train of five waggons. These waggons were loaded with iron chairs, so as to weigh precisely six tons each. They were constructed with high sides and ends, capable of being removed and laid flat upon the platforms of the waggons, so as to expose a greater or less bulk of carriage alternately to the air. When the sides were up, the whole frontage or transverse section, including the frames, wheels, springs, and axle, amounted to 47-8 square feet. When the sides were re- moved the transverse section was only 23°8 square feet, the surface being diminished by the area of the front board, whose dimensions were eight feet by three feet. The train, with its sides up, was placed at the 57th stake, at the summit of the plane falling one in 177, and was allowed to descend by gravity from a state of rest. It moved along the successive gradients, and finally stopped 10,019 yards from the point of its departure. The sides were next removed and laid upon the platforms of the waggons, and the experiment was repeated. The train came to rest at 14,058 yards from the point of its departure. Minute details of these two experiments will be found in the Eighth Re- port of the British Association for the year 1838. The value of the results was only properly understood after the course of the previously mentioned experiments had been completed, and the observations analysed. Frontage alone was before considered to have produced the additional resistance cor- 264 REPORT—1841. respondent with the increments of speed, but it now became more than pro- bable that such resistance was in a great measure dependent upon the general volume of air displaced. The weight of the displacing bodies in the instance before us was the same, but their volumes were to each other in a somewhat greater ratio than 2 to 1, and the effect is sufficiently remarkable. The train of least volume ran 4039 yards (or more than 24 miles) further than the train of greatest volume, both trains being allowed to descend by gravity from a state of rest from the same post on the Madeley Plane. This import- ant fact appears to point out the path in which future investigations should be conducted. The Committee have not had the opportunity of entering further upon it, but they recommend future experimentalists to direct their attention espe- cially to the effects of increasing and diminishing the bulk of the trains, the weight remaining the same. Until more experiments of this nature have been obtained, we cannot expect to arrive at a complete and satisfactory theory of resistance. One plain and practical inference to be drawn from the fact of the resist- ance being found to depend in a greater or less degree on the volume of air displaced in connection with the rate of displacement, is, that the less the space or bulk into which a given weight of train can be condensed, the less does the resistance at a given rate of speed become, and consequently the greater is the economy of moving power. If the amount of resistance at present experienced at the ordinary rates of travelling be susceptible of diminution, the saving will probably be effected more by alteration in the bulk of the train than by attempting complicated changes in the mechanical construction of the carriages with the view of reducing the friction. For the ordinary purposes of railway transport, we cannot, indeed, antici- pate any very material reduction in the space occupied by the different ve- hicles, but we shall be warned of the consequences attending any attempt at enlarging their dimensions without rendering them at the same time capa- ble of carrying a proportionally greater load. Especially we shall guard against the injurious consumpticn of moving power which may arise from the provision of more accommodation than is absolutely wanted. When the tide of traffic sets in one particular direction, it is impossible to avoid having the trains travelling in the opposite direction encumbered with a useless load of empty vehicles ; but under ordinary circumstances it would seem practica- ble, by exercising due foresight, and by a judicious system of management, to apportion the profitable and unprofitable parts of the load more correctly and closely to each other. In estimating the amount of moving power expended in working a line of railway, we have to consider, — 1. The character of the line, or nature of its gradients. 2. The weight as well as bulk of the train to be conveyed over it. 3. The speed at which the load is required to be conveyed. If the resistance to each ton of load on a level railway could be repre- sented by a constant quantity, at whatever speed the load were moved, it would become an easy matter to calculate the resistance to be overcome on any given line and length of railway, and to provide our power accordingly ; for knowing the weight of the train, multiplying such weight by the coeffi- cient of resistance, and this product by the length of road, we should at once obtain the resistance upon an equal length of level railway, and afterwards adding or subtracting, as the case might be, any increase or diminution of resistance, arising from ascending or descending gradients, we should obtain ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 265 the total resistance. It would follow, then, that whether the load were trans- ported at 5 or 50 miles per hour the expenditure of moving power would be thesame. But we have already shown that no constant quantity will express the resistance. The resistance, in fact, is not dependent upon weight merely, but on speed also. Of the three elements proposed as the basis of any computation, the first, viz. the character of the gradients, is fixed and unalterable. The second and third, viz. the weight and velocity, may be considered variable. When the dimensions of the engine are once fixed upon, the maximum of load is in- deed limited by the tractive power of the engine and the steepest inclination it may have to ascend, and the speed is limited by the capability of the boiler to generate steam at the rate required, and of the density sufficient to over- come the resistance due to the speed. Within such limits the cases actually occurring in practice must be found to range. And according to the pecu- liar circumstances of the traffic, a high or low rate of speed, light or heavy trains will be adopted. Suppose the case of a perfectly level railway, on which a high average rate of speed has to be maintained. Since resistance is found to increase with the speed in an accelerated ratio, and since the boiler requires ¢me for the generation of steam, a very considerable part of the maximum load which the engine could travel with at a slow speed must be thrown off to enable it to accomplish the higher rate. In other words, the load must be comparatively small ; less, in fact, than the maximum on an ascending gradient of considerable acclivity. It does not often happen that the surface of a tract of country over which a railway is projected to pass is sufficiently free from inequality and variations of level as to admit a level or nearly level line to be constructed without entailing great expense in the formation of embankments, cuttings, and other works; and it therefore be- comes a most important and interesting consideration, how far the expenses of moving power would be increased, and the velocity of transport dimi- nished, by substituting a line of railway whose section shall be more con- formable to the general outline of the country; a line consequently much less costly, but at the same time presenting a series of gradients, the inclina- tions of which should not be so steep as to render necessary any loss of mo- tive power by application of the brakes during a descent. As an abstract question of dynamics, the power expended (under the con- dition that the combined resistances of friction and the atmosphere are con- stant whatever the speed) would be the same for a train travelling between two given points on the same level, whether the road were level or undula- ting, making due allowance for the difference of distance traversed. Ona level railway the speed of travelling would be uniform throughout, and the combined resistances alluded to would then, in calm weather, be constant throughout; but on an undulating railway the speed of the train would vary. And the question comes to this: Will the increased velocity on the descending gradients compensate for the time lost in the ascents? Will the average rate of speed over the whole line be different? In either case the load must manifestly be much smaller than the maximum which the engine could draw on the level at a slow speed. The engine will therefore be able to ascend the gradients of the undulating line merely by reducing its velocity, and thus relieving itself from as much of the excess of resistance, which ex- ists in addition to friction, as may be necessary to enable the power again to equilibrate with the load. The inconvenience is only a reduction of speed during the ascents, and of course a loss of time upon the ascending gradient, as compared with the time that would have been occupied in conveying the train over an equal length of level. 266 REPORT--1841. Now, as by the hypothesis the terminal points of the railway are on a level with each other, the sum of the descents must be equal to the sum of the ascents. On the descents the force of gravity is brought into co-operation with the power exerted by the engine, and a speed would hence result greater than the speed which could be accomplished on the level. Although the Committee were fully aware that resistance increased in a greater ratio than speed, occasioning thereby some extra absorption of power on the descend- ing gradients in making up for loss of time on the ascending ones, they were nevertheless strongly impressed by the consideration of this principle of compensation, and were of opinion that the loss of time on the whole journey would be but trifling, provided the gradients were not very unfa- vourable. To ascertain the value of this opinion, an experiment was made with the Hecla engine, tender, and a train. of twelve carriages, weighing al- together 82 tons; and every precaution was used to obtain accuracy in the observation of velocity, consumption of fuel, and evaporation of water. The line chosen was the Grand Junction and part of the Liverpool and Man- chester Railway. The point of departure was Liverpool, and the train was conveyed from thence to Birmingham and back, a total distance of 190 miles. The point of termination of the journey was therefore Liverpool, the train being brought again to the same level after traversing a long series of undu- lations. The Table in the Appendix exhibits the time of passing the different quarter mile-posts, taken by a stop watch ; also the variations in the inclina- tions of the road ; the difference of time between the quarter mile-posts and the average speeds, as well as the particulars of stoppages for coke and water at the stations. Collecting into one table the uniform speeds observed, both in ascending and descending the several gradients, and comparing the mean of these speeds with the average speed actually accomplished on the level portion (4 miles in length) northward of Crewe Station, we find an extraordinary coincidence in the results. The uniform rate of speed on the level was 30°71 miles per hour on the up-journey, 31°15 miles per hour on the down- journey ; and the mean of the two is 30°93 miles per hour. Uniform speed. Gradlienti: §|-t2- st el ee Mean. Ascending. | Descending. Miles per hour.| Miles per hour,| Miles per hour, lin 177 22-25 265 24°87 39°13 32:00 330 25:26 87:07 31-16 400 26°87 36°75 31°81 532 27°35 34:30 30°82 590 27:27 33-16 30:21 650 29-03 32°58 30°80 Mean of all observations .............secesceseeeeeeees 31:22 Uniform speed on Level ............cscseceeeteneeeces 30:93 The remarkable inference to be drawn from this table is, that a train of twelve carriages, drawn by the same engine, can be conveyed over a railway whose gradients range within the limits specified in the above Table, in the same time as it could over a perfectly level railway of equal length. In the ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 267 Appendix a statement is given of the time occupied in performing the trips, and of the time lost in stoppages, and in slackening and getting into speed at the stations. The difference between the two shows the time which would have been occupied if the train had started from Liverpool and Birmingham at full speed, and travelled between those places without stopping. This enables a comparison to be made between the mean speed on the level, and the average speed maintained by the train from its departure from Liverpool ~ to its arrival at Liverpool-again. An equal deduction for stoppages, and for loss of time in getting up speed, would have been necessary, had the line of road been level throughout. The mean speed on the level was 30°93 miles per hour. The time of performing the 190 miles, stoppages and delays deducted, ° was 6 hours, 26 minutes, 48 seconds. If the 190 miles of road had been perfectly level, the time of performing the journey would have been (at the rate of 30°93 miles per hour) 6 hours, 8 minutes, 54 seconds. In ordinary practice an engine of the dimensions of the Hecla would re- ceive assistance up the Sutton, Whiston, and Warrington Incline Planes (1 in 89, 1 in 96, and 1 in80). In the instance before us this was not the case, and the train had the disadvantage of encountering gradients not contem- plated in our theory; whereby its speed sustained a loss not only in the ascents but in the descents also, when the power of the brake was applied to check the velocity. Taking all these attendant circumstances into account, we may conclude that the opinion entertained by the Committee was a cor- rect one, viz. that trains whose weight bore an ascertainable relation to the nature of the gradients they had to traverse, could be made to traverse those gradients at an average speed equal to what the power of the engine could have accomplished on the level: that, for instance, a train of twelve carriages, representing the size of an ordinary train of passengers on the Grand Junc- tion Railway, would travel over the existing gradients of that railway (saving perhaps the steeper ones of 1 in 96, &c. just alluded to) in as short a time as if the line had been absolutely level. On some lines of road a train of twelve carriages may be a less, and on others a greater, than the average load which the conditions of traffic de- mand. ‘The power of the engine (meaning by that term its evaporative as well as its tractive power) would then vary accordingly ; or if the line were not already formed, the maximum gradient would be determined with refer- ence to some standard form of engine, and to the probable size of the trains. In the account of the Hecla’s performance a correct statement is given of the fuel and water consumed on both trips. The average consumption of fuel, it will be seen, amounted to the rate of 37 lbs. per mile, which is reckoned on the entire quantity consumed during the day, including therefore all that was used for raising steam in the morning, and for keeping steam up during the intervals of rest. We shall not attempt to make an estimate of the duty done by the unit of coke or water in transporting the load, because there were no means of ascertaining the blast-pipe resistance, which it is believed formed a very considerable portion of the whole resistance the engine had to overcome, and because also later improvements in the locomotive engine have been introduced, which enable them to perform an equal duty with at least one-third less fuel. For the Committee of the British Association, June 1841. Epwarp Woops. 268 REPORT—1841. APPENDIX. July 11th and 12th, 1839. GRAND JUNCTION AND LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAYS. Friction Experiments on Madeley and Sutton Incline Plane. The Posts on Madeley Plane are placed 100 yards apart. Descent from No. 57 to No. 0 post is 1 in 177. Descent from No. 0 to No. 54 post is 1 in 265. Descent from No. 54 to No. 78 post is 1 in 330. Thenceforward the road is level. Gravitating force on plane 1 in 177, 12°65lbs. per ton. Gravitating force on plane 1 in 265, 8:45 lbs. per ton. Gravitating force on plane | in 330, 6°78 lbs. per ton. Dr. Lardner. Mr. Hardman Earle. Mr. George Scott. Present < Mr. Garrick. Mr. Evans. Mr. N. Worsdell. Mr. E. Woods. Post 56 to 35 curves of one mile radius. 35 to 17 straight line. 17 to 6 curves of one mile radius. 6 to O straight line. 0 to 5 ditto. 5 to 11 curves of one mile radius. 11 to 22 straight line. 22 to 29 curves of one mile radius. 29 forwards, straight line. ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS, August 23rd, 1839.—Tas.e No. I. Wellington Peel 2 3 Diamond i Three Passengers Gross weight Three Liverpool and Manchester First Class Carriages. tons, cwts. qrs. 269 From state of rest, down Sutton Incline Plane. Dist. 3 Times, Diffs. Yards, hm s 0} 0\424 0 110| 1 Bae. (5B: ly casens 220| 2| 92513 | 20] ...... 330 | 3 ae Iz 440 | 4 46 | 16 550 | 5 58 | 12] 14 660! 6| 2610 | 12 770| 7 22 | 12] 12 380 | 8 32 | 10 990 | 9 42 | 10| 10 1100 | 10 52 | 10 1210/11} 97 01] 8 1320 | 12 9 | 9| 9 1430 | 13 is | 9 1540 | 14 26 | 8| $5 1650 | 15 35 | 9 1760 | 16 { 8 1870 | i7 511| 8| 8:33 1980 | 18 58 | 7 2090} 19} 28 6 | 8| 7:5 2200 | 20 13. | 7 2310 | 21 21 7! 7 2420 | 22 28 | 8 2530 | 23 36 | 8 2640 | 24 44%) “BP: 8 Speed. 4-24 11-25 13°23 16:07 18°75 22°50 25:00 26°47 27:00 30:00 32:14 28°12 pens lye LADO ive es 3 ; 4: 19 g; : A 4 12 1 : 3 O 4 g é 5 14 16 0 Dist. a Times, Diffs. Yards, h m s 2750 | 25 |4 28 52:5] 8-5 2860 | 26 29 0 | 7-5 8 2970 | 27 9 |9 3080 | 28 18 | 9 9 3190 | 29 28 |10 3300 | 30 38 110 10 3410 | 31 49 j11 3520 | 32 30 0 il 3630 | 33 11 j1l 11 3740 | 34 Dare NED) | vaaoee 3850 | 35 36 {13 | ...... 3960 | 36 50 {14 4070 | 37 31 4 |14 14 4180 | 38 gs) GS esac 4290 | 39 GTi ae ececee 4400 | 40 DAES [i asec 4510 | 41 32 12°5|18-5] ..... 4620 | 42 34 |21°5] ...... 4730 | 43 58" 240 ce. 4840 | 44 33 28 130 | ...... 4950 | 45 54) (GIGISSi ih cesta. 5060 | 46 Opp 1 B50 Al) ecces 5170 | 47 36 29 |88 | ...... 5203 Ixm2| 37 17 5209 50 eeeeee Speed. Weather fine and perfectly calm. In this experiment the carriages remained in the usual working state. August 23rd, 1839.—TaB eE No. II. Three Liverpool and Manchester First Class Carriages, as before. Weight of Carriages and Load Three Passengers Gross weight tons. cwts, qrs. . 14 11° 2 0 4 9 - LES SKo ae ae 270 Dist. Yards, 0 110 220 330 440 550 660 770 880 990 1100 1210 1320 1430 1540 1650 1760 1870 1980 2090 2200 2310 2420 2530 2640 Three Liverpool and Manchester First Class Carriages, as before. — SOM ND TARWHHO | Posts, 11 REPORT—1841. From state of rest, down Sutton Incline Plane. 10 11 Diffs. BY)e i) Sagodc PALL shes WW sicace Wie all Beco Mea le setae 12 10 | 12 10-5 9:5} 10 1] 8 9-5 9 8 8:5 9 8 8 | 833 8 i 75 75 75) 75 75 7 | 7:25 8 8 8 | 23-68 Speed. 4:32 10°71 13°23 15:00 18°75 20°45 22:50 26:47 27-00 28°12 30:00 31:03 28°12 Dist. 3 Times oy Yards, h’m s 2750 | 25 | 5 11 48 2860 | 26 58 2970 | 27, 12°74 3080 | 28 16 3190 | 29 25 3300 | 30 35 3410 | 31 46 3520 | 32 57 3630 | 33 13 8 3740 | 34 21 3850 | 35 34 3960 | 36 47 4070 | 37 14 2 4180 | 38 17 4290 | 39 32 4400 | 40 50 4510 | 4] 15 8 4620 | 42 28 4730 | 43 50 4840 | 44 16 15 4950 | 45 45 5060 | 46 17 21 5170 | 47 18 6 5203 |x 20 Iv 5350 |.....- 20 45 Diffs Speed. 7 10 | 85 |26-47 9 9 9| 9 |25-00 TO) |, 882. 22:50 11 11} 11 20-45 11 13 | 12 [18:75 13 13 | 13 | 17:30 15 15 15 | 15 15-00 18 18|18 {12:50 QON eeseee 11-25 7H reese 10-22 D5) \ledesee 9-00 30) | .c0d5e 7:50 46 | 5.53 6°25 45 | nes dea 5:00 Weather fine and perfectly calm. In this experiment the Prow, or pointed end, was attached to the back of the last carriage of the train. August 23rd, 1839.—Tas Le No, III. tons. cwts. qrs. Weight of Carriages and Load. 14. Ad ge Three Passengers . . . : Oy. 4 22 Gross weight . 14 16 O From state of rest, down Sutton Incline Plane. é E Dist Ky Times Diffs Speed.|} Dist. | Times. Diffs. Speed. Yards. hm s Yards. hm s 0; 0|/ 7 0 550 | 5 |6 8 56 12 110 1 52 Day f | sascee 4:32 660 | 6 9 8 12 | 12 |18-75 220 | 2 8 12 BQ): | sizes ee 770| 7 19 11 |...... | 20-45 330 | 3 permed ater | ot, 13-23 ll Gen lg aoteat ee 440 | 4 44 15 15:00 yites ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. TABLE (continued). 271 Dist. Z Times Diffs. Speed.|| Dist 3 Times. Diffs. Speed. Yards. hm s Yards hm s 990 | 9 (6 9 885 | 95 3300 | 30 | 6 12 30 9 1100 | 10 48 95 9:5 | 23°68 || 3410 | 31 40 10 9:5 | 23°68 1210 | 11 58 10 3520 | 32 51 11 1320 | 12 10 65 8:5 | 9°25) 24:32 || 3630 | 33 13 1 10 10°5 | 21:48 1430 | 13 14:5 8 3740 | 34 12 11 1540 | 14 22 75 3850 | 35 23 11 11 | 20:45 1650 | 15 31 | 9 | 817/2755 || so60 | 36 35) asia oi 18-75 1760 |} 16) ...... 8 4070 | 37 48 VS) lhe esse 17:30 1870 | 17 47 8 | 8 /2812 1 eolss| i 2 | 1 1980 | 18 54 7 4290 | 39 15 13 13:5 | 16°66 2090 | 19 | 11 15 | 75 Ling 40 onl is ao) | 20 ae ae 4510 | 41 45 |15 | 15 | 15-00 2310 | 21 15 65 | 7 32°14 y id : 620 5 2 17 2420 | 22 23 «| 8 2530 | 23 30 | 7 | 78 |30-00 || 4789 | 48 19 [17 | 17 | 13:28 2640 | 24 38 8 28°12 4840 | 44 38 1 ad bes sean 11°84 4950 | 45 16 1 23) lrevewe 9-78 2750 | 25 46 8 5 2860 | 26 mah eS | 8) Vande coer 24 | 23 | ns he 5170 | 47 58 | 29). | csecss 7:76 2970 | 27 12 3 9 I 3080 | 28 15 | 85 sae ie 3190 | 29 21 95| 9 25:00 || 5576 |...... 20 1 Weather fine and perfectly calm. In this experiment the Prow, or pointed end, was removed from behind the train and now placed IN FRONT. August 23rd, 1839.—Tasre No. IV. Three Liverpool and Manchester Carriages, as before. tons. cwts. qrs. Weight of Carriages and Load. LA ee, Three Passengers . Onan) 2 Gross weight . . 14 16.0 From state of rest, down Sutton Incline Plane. Dist. é Times. Diffs. Speed.|} Dist. 2 Times Diffs, Speed. Yards. hm s Yards, hms 0;}; 0637 0 1210 | 11 |6 39 57 10 110; 1 52 G2. | choses 4:32 || 1820 | 12 | 40 6 9 9-5 | 23-68 eee fh 85 Cp 21 | haat 10°71 || 1430 | 13 145 | 85]... 26-47 330 | 3 29) 16 |... 14-06 || 1540 | 14 martes Ra 440 4 44 MOpee lbessaxat esi tt mane AS ea ec a eS 550 | 5 57 13 |.,....| 17:30 || 1650 | 15 30 75 660 6 39 8 LIM hitecaes 20-45 || 1760 | 16 a 8 7°75 | 29-03 770 7 18 10 1870 | 17 ty 8°5 880 8 28 10 |10 22:50 || 1980 | 18 53 6:5| 7-5 | 30-00 990 | 9 38 10 2090 | 19 4,3 8 1100 | 10 47 9 2200 | 20 8 7 | 75 13000 272 REPORT— 1841. TABLE (continued). a uw Dist £ Times, Diffs. | Speed.) Dist. Fy Times. Diffs. | Speed. | || ——|} Yards. hm s5 Yards. lh m s 2310 | 21 [6 41 15 7 3850 | 35 16 43 24 1l 2420 | 22 22 7 17 |82-14 || 3960 | 36 36 12 | 11:5} 19:56 2530 | 23 295 | 75 4070 | 37 49 13 lca. 17:30 2640 | 24 38 85/8 |2812 || 150 | 39 4473 a 2750 | 25 lee 4290 | 39 17 14 | | ies 61-07 2860 | 26 54/18 | 8 [2812 |) a4o9 | 40 32 Mag hat 15-00 2970 | 27| 42 8 9 4510 | 41 48 16. feck 14-06 3080 | 28 12 9 4620 | 42 | 45 5 Yan eee es 13-23 3190 | 29 2) 9 4730 | 43 24 191 ete 11°84 3300 | 30 30 9 19 |2500 | sor | 44 4g > |o8 3410 | 31 7 Ce a 22:50 || 4950 | 45 | 46 8 | 22 | 22 | 10-22 3520 | 32 50:5 | 10-5 5060 | 46 36 «| 28 |......| 8-03 3630 | 33 | 43 2 | 115/11 | 20-45 | 5170 | 47| 47 8 | 32 |......] 7403 3740 | 34 7 le GO Bee 20:45 || 5203 xan 16 5518.| ... | 50 25 Weather fine and perfectly calm. In this experiment the carriages were restored to their usual working state. July 12th, 1839.—Taste No. V. Eight Second Class Carriages. tons. cwts. qrs. Weight of Carriages and Load . . . 40 0 O Six Passengers . apes et she ee 1 OOP eG Gross weight. . . 40 9 O From state of rest, down Sutton Incline Plane. 5 ; 2 3 Dist 9 Times. Diffs. | Speed.|| Dist. Fy Time. Diffs. | Speed. Yards. hm i s Yards. h De 0 0 17 52 +O 1760 | 16 |7 55 50 (5717 1 Se 27-27 110 1 55 BD tlicmeees 4-09 | 1870 | 17 57°75 | 7:75 | ce eee. 29-03 99 | 220 2 53 17 Bow | eerie 10:22 1980 | 18 56 5 7.95 330] 3 B51 Aig! © Biles 12-50 llhsceo | 0 19-75 | 775 | 7-5 {30-00 440 4 50 1 Ge Pee 15:00 d 4 550 5 5A SD LSD. | cere 16:66 || 2200 | 20 19:75) 7 660 6 16 Aaya Seared 18:00 || 2310 | 21 27:5 | 7:75 770 7 27°25 {11-25 |...... 20:00 || 2420 | 22 34:25 | 6°75 | 7-17 | 31:39 iy Ar4 D>). 880 | .8 38 10°75) ...... 2093 || 9:39 | 93 Wire beg 990 | 9 48:25 |10:25 | ...... BPO5 | ante | aa 4955 7-75 ee | ae 1100 | 10 58:25 (10 | ...... 22-50 he J ; 1210 | 11 55 7°75) 9:5. | 2 23°68 || 2750 | 25 57 75 1320 | 12 165 | 8:75)...... 25°71 || 2860 | 26 57 4:5 | 75 1430 | 13 25 875. | eaeee 26°47 || 2970 | 27 13 8:5 | 7°83 | 28-72 1540 | 14 34 9 3080 | 28 22 9 1650 | 15 41°75 | 7:75 | 8:37 | 26°86 || 3190 | 29 30°55 | 8:5 | 875) 25-71 Va ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 273 TABLE (continued). Dist. 2 Times. Diffs. | Speed.|| Dist. k Times. | Diffs. | Speed, Yards. hm s Yards. hms 3300 | 30 17 57 39-25 | 8-75 4290 | 39 |7 59 16 3410 | 31 49 | 9-75| 9-25 | 24-32 || 4400 | 40 29 3520 | 32 58 (| 9 4510) AT 43:2 4620 | 42 58 3630 | 33] 58 8 {lo Gena aadlaey ae 3740 | 34 18 [10 | 9:66)28-27 |] 4e%5 | ay ae 3850 | 35 29° {11 4950 | 45 51-5 3960 | 36 40 11 |11 [20-45 || 5060 | 46] 113 4070 | 37 5175 (11-75 SLED WATE: pis B'S 4180 | 38 | 59 3-5 |11-75 111-75} 19-15 || 5203 |xm_ 47 5485 |...... 419 Dead calm. * Stopped at XIII= mile post + 282 yards. Iv July 8th, 1839.—Taste No. VI. Eight Second Class Carriages, Nos. 12, 35, 5, 22, 9, 29, 30, 20. tons, cwts. qrs. Weight of Eight Carriages and Load, at 5 tons each. 40 0 O Mire; Passengers, 5.1) 2) se nice iter 2 Vaden (OL at Ie Gross weight . . 40 4 2 From state of rest, down Sutton Incline Plane. Toa wo Dist. & Times. Diffs. | Speed.|} Dist. 2 Times. - Diffs. | Speed. Yards. h mi s Yards. hm s 0; 019 1:0 2750 | 25 |9 6 14 8 110 1 595 |59°5 |...... 3°78 || 2860 | 26 22°5 | 8-5 220 | 2 2°25 125-5 |...:% 8°82 || 2970 | 27 30 75°) 8 | 28:12 330 | 3 45 [20 |... 11,377 her Weg Deal ts 440 | 4 SEG) tlie ee 14:06 A A 550 | 5 i 4 16-07 3190 | 29 48:25] 8°75 660 | 6 299 14 3300 | 30 57 8:75] 9 25:00 770 | 7 41 {12 17:30 || 3410 | 31 7 7 = (\10 3520 | 32 17 {10 880 | 8 BoauT-5. ||. 8% 19-56 : 990 | 9 4 25 10. 3630 | 33 27 —=—«|10 10 (| 225 1100 | 10 12-5 |10 22:50 || 3740 | 34 37°25)10°25 | 1.2... 21:95 1210 | 11 92-95) 9°75 |...... 93-07 || Sead |'88 tee all 4 ae 3960 | 36 80 Bil) eR: 19-56 1320 | 12] ......... 9:50 }...... 23°68 = 5 || 4070 | 37 POE LD hot fates oh 18°75 1430 | 13. 41 9:25 oes 24°32 . 4180 | 38 25 13 = | 14 49:5 | 85 |, 4290 | 39 38 13 [13 |17-30 1650 | 15 58 8:5 26°47 0h ; 4400 53 5 1760 | 16 5 5°75) 7°75 i 5 75) 1 .On 1870 | 17 B 7.25 30-00 4510 | 41 9 7:5 [14:5 (14-75) 15-25 ve lis) a |g es a atari 2090 | 19 29 | 8 28:12 ies Me es 4840 | 44 LOE Saar 20 oy es5.8. 11-25 2200 | 20 865 | 75 4950 | 45 Db e2S-> ~ |My ice 9-78 2310 | 21 44 75 30:00 || 5060 | 46 Fore |2Oh, fil ceenee 8-03 2420 | 22 Fal 7 5170 ee UU2p ** 82 i See 7:03 2530 | 23 58:5 | 7-5 | 7:25) 31-03 || 5203 bea 3712 2640 | 24 6 6 Gi Wai|ncoess 30:00 || 5370 |...... 13 40 ; Almost a dead calm. 1841. T 274 REPORT—1841., July 12th, 1889.—Taste No, VIL. Four Second Class Carriages, Nos. 30, 5, 20, 12. tons. cwts. qrs, Weight of Carriagesand Load . . . . . 20 0 O Six Passengers . . . - ae ee PT Gross weight . 20 9 O From initial velocity 33°64 miles per hour. Down Sutton Incline. z é Times. Diffs. Speed. A z Times. Diffs. Speed. Yards. h m s Yards. hms 4 |6 20 53:5 2750 | 25 |6 65 | 65 |34-61 Pani Bs 2860 | 26) 24 25 |7 |7 2 se 2970 | 27 9 | 65 | 6-75) 33-33 0] 0 19-95 | 6-75 125-75 134-95 || 300 | 28 16-75 | 7°75 ; 3190 | 29 24:5 | 7-75 110} 1 26-25 Bone nae 3300 | 30 32-25 | 7°75 | 7-75) 29-08 330 | 3 39-25 | 6 3410 | 31 40 | 7-75 440 | 4 46 | 6:75 |26-75 | 38-64 || 3520 | 32 48:25 | 8-25|8 | 28-12 550 | 5 52:5 3630 | 38 57 «| 875 660 6 a, 85 3740 | 84] 95 5-75| 875] 8-75) 25-71 770 3850 | 35 f Be 15 | 9:95 880 | 8 11-25 25°25 | 35°64 || 3060 | 36 24-25 | 9-95 | 9:95] 24-32 990 | 9 125416 4070 | 37 345 {10-25 ]...... 21-95 1100 | 10 93-75 | 6-5 megs ro ae aan 1210 | 11 30 | 6-25 45 AOD |... 1320 | 12 36 |6 (24:75 | 36-86 || 4290 | 39 55°75 (10-75 1430 | 13 42-95 | 6-25 4400 | 40 | 26 6:25)105 |10-62) 2117 1540 | 14 48:25 | 6 4510 | 41 18-25 (12 |... 18:75 1650 | 15 54-75 | 6-5 4620 | 42 3125/13 |... 17:30 1760 | 16 | 23 05 |5-75|24:5 | 36-73 || 4730 | 43 45 18°75]... 16:36 5:5 ; ‘ 6-2 57 6 ) | 6 5s 6: 6: A light breeze from west, or down the Plane. * Stopped at xu = mile post, + 226 yards, ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 275 July 12th, 1839.—Taste No. VIII. Six Second Class Carriages, Nos. 30, 5, 20, 12, 22, 29. tons. cwts, qrs. Weight of Carriages and Load. . 30 0 O Six Passengers . . . fepaee ao Tne” 1G Gross weight 30 9 O From initial velocity 26°47 miles per hour. Down Sutton Incline. 6 a z Z| Times, | Diffs. |Speed.| 2 | | Times. | Diffs. |Speed. Yards hm is Yards. hm s 4 7 23 31 2530 | 23 7 26 47 | 7 3 38:5 [7-5 2640 | 24 raat 2 46-75 | 8:25 2750 | 25 05 | 65 | 6-83) x92 1 55 |} B25 ean : 2° |e | ox.nn || 2860") 26 HF | ee. 0] 0} 24 35 |85 [825 | 27°69 | o979 | 97 75 |l. 30-00 220 | 2 20 | 7-75 3190 | 29 a. 08 Bare 330 | 3 28-25 | 8-25 csoyt an a he 28-12 440 | 4 36 |7-75 132-5 | 27-69 ; 212 3410 | 31 Fas en Pe 46-47 550 | 5 44 |8 Bite ee 3520 | 32 555 | 85 |...... 770 | 7 59 {75 3630 | 33 | 28 4:75 | 9:25 880! 8] 25 6 |7 |30 {30-00 || 3740 | 34 14 | 9:95 4 ci 5 . eal a dd 3850 | 35 23:25 | 9:25 | 9-25| 94.39 1100 | 10 20:5 | 7-25 3960 | 36 33:5 {10-25 1210 | 11 27-5 | 7-25 4070 | 37 43-75 {10-25 |10:25] 91.95 ta}, 12 345 |7 (285 [3158 |! 47¢0 | 38 545 {10-75 |... eieas 1430 | 13 41-25 | 6°75 4290/39] 29 5:5 {ll |... 30°45 1540 | 14 48:25 | 7 4400 | 40 5 f2 fl. 1875 1650 | 15 55 | 6-75 4510 | 41 30 {125 |... ie 1760 | 16| 26 1-75| 675 |27-25| 33-02 |] 4620 | 42 43:25 |13-25 | ...... 16°98 4730 | 43 57-25 (14 |... 16-0 1870 | 17 ayes 4840 | 44| so 12255 |. 1400" 1980 | 18 4 |6 4950 | 45 29-25 |17 |... 3:93 2090 | 19 20°75 | 6°75 Sani| 50 a7 antes lane |asrag || 3060 | 46 48 |1875]...... 12-00 q 5170 | 47 |. 30h SiaO |). 11-25% 2310 | 21 34 | 6°75 5203 bent 14 2420 | 22 40 [6 | 638/529) eH 34 3 Nearly calm. * Stopped at xu . mile post, + 413 yards. 72 276 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 REPORT—1841., July 11th, 1839.—Tasxe No. IX. Eight Second Class Carriages, Nos. 12, 35, 5, 22, 9, 29, 30, 20. tons. cwts. qrs, - 40 0 0 015 0 Initial velocity 23°71 miles per hour. Weight of Carriages and Load . Ten Passengers Pointed end placed in front. Gross weight . Times. Diffs Speed./ 6 & Times m s Yards. hms 27 36:5 3,300] 24 |8 32 53 46:5 {10 23 | 33 1:25 55-75 | 9:25 3,000 | 22 10 28 4:25) 85 21 18°5 13 8°75 36-5 | 22-41 20 27 22 9 19 36 30:25 | 8:25 18 44:75 39 8:75 4,000} 17 53°25 47:5 | 85 |845 | 23-71 161 34 2 56 8:5 15 10 29 5 9 14 19 13 8 13 27 22 9 |84:5 | 23-71 4,500} 12 36 30 8 ll 44 39 9 10 53°25 47:5 | 85 9| 385 1:75 56:25 |8°75 |34°25 | 23-89 8 10 30 4:25] 8 5,000} 7 18 13°25 | 9 6 27 21°75! 85 5 35°25 30 8:25 |33°75 | 24-24 4 44 38:5 | 5:5 3 52°75 47-25 | 8-75 5,500/ 2] 36 1 55°25 | 8 1 9 31 3 7:75 |83 24-79 0 17-75 12°25 | 9:25 1 26 20:25 | 8 2 34:5 <> | O20 6,000; 3 43 37 8:5 |34 24:06 4 52 46 9 5 | 37.0 54 8 6 9°25 32 2 8 7 18 18:25] 8:25 9 365 sac | tea 10 46 85:25 | 8:5 11 55°5 44:25) 9 {34-25 23-89 4015 0 Down Madeley Plane. Diffs. | Speed. 8:75 8:25 8-75 8:5 (384-25 | 23:89 8-5 9 8:75 8:5 (84:75 | 23-54 8 9 8 |33°75 | 24-24 9 8 9 "25 8:5 |84°75 | 23-54 8°25 8 9 8:25 |83°5 | 24-24 8:25 i) 85 [34 24-06 9 8 9:25 8°75 |35 23°37 9°5 9 9-5 9:5 \387°5 | 21°81 eer rere een ee eee erence ante eee eeeeennenEaaEnmEnnEEEnEmnetmeenenmtieeemnemee ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. TABLE (continued). 5 ie Times Yards. h m s 6,900 | 12 |8 38. 4:5 7,000 | 13 14 14 23'5 15 33 16 42°5 17 52:5 7,0900| 18 | 39 1:75 19 11:5 20 21°25 21 31 22 4] 8,000 | 23 51 24 | 40 0°75 25 10°5 26 20°5 27 30°25 §,500| 28 40 29 50:25 30} 41 0:25 3l 10 32 20°5 9,000 | 33 30°5 34 41 35 51:25 36 | 42 1:25 37 11:25 9,500 | 38 21°75 39 32°25 40 42:5 4] 53°25 42 | 438 3 10,000 | 43 13°25 44 23°75 45 34 46 44:75 47 55 Diffs. |Speed. 95 [87:5 | 21°81 B) 5 [88°5 | 21:25 5 10 |39°5 | 20-71 9-75 |39:25 | 20:84 9°75 |89-75 | 20°58 10-25 /41°25 | 19°86 105 41 19:95 10:25 |41 19:95 10°75 10:25 |41°75 | 19-60 Yards. 10,500 11,000 11,500 12,000 12,500 13,000 13,500 14,411 Times. Diffs. 44 5-25 |10-25 15:5 {10:25 26 = |10°5 36:5 |10°5 47-5 |11 58 {10-5 45 8-25 (10-25 19 = (|10°75 29:5 |10°5 40°5 |11 51°75 |11-25 46 2 {10:25 13°25 |11-25 24:5 {11:25 47 11 411-75 48 12-25 |13 415 45:5 47-5 495 52:75 Speed. 19°71 19-25 19-02 17-98 17-22 16:53 Breeze down the Plane. * Stopped. 278 REPORT—1841. July 11th, 1839.—TaseE No. X. Eight Second Class Carriages as before: tons. cwts. qrs, Weight of Carriage and Load . . . 40 0 O Ten Passengers . . sys mise Gross weight . 40 15 0 _ Pointed end taken off. From initial velocity 23-37 miles per hour. Down Madeley Plane. A é Times. Diffs, | Speed. a Fy Times. Diffs. | Speed. Yards. hm s5 Yards, hm i s 61 |9 37 43 3700 | 20 |9 42 58:5 | 7-25 60 53:5 {105 19} 48 65 |8 59 | 38 3 9-5 18 14-25.) 7°75 58 12-5 | 9:5 4000 | 17 22:25; 8 (sl 26°39 0 | 57 21:25 | 8°75 13825 | 21°39 16 30:25] 8 56 30 8°75 15 38 7:75 55 38 8 14 46°25 | 8:25 54 46 8 5 13 | Saeki 75 131:75 | 25°77 500 | 52 | 39 0 6°75 11 9°75 718 51 oa3 75 10 18 8:25 : 50 15 75 9 25°75 | 7°75 131-75 | 25°77 48 295 17 5000 | 7 41:25) 7-75 1000 | 47 365 | 7 6 49:5 | 8:25 46 44:25 | 7°75 5 57 75 131-25) 26°18 45 51:5 | 7°25 129 28:21 ae ae 8 44 58:5 | 7 3 13 8 43. | 40 5:75) 7:25 5500 | 2 20°55 | 7:5 1500 | 42 13°25 | 7-5 1 28:25 | 7-75 |81°25 | 26°18 41 20°5 | 7:25 |29 28°21 0 36 775; 40 27°75 | 7:25 i 44 8 39 35°25 | 7:5 2 52 8 38 43 775 r 6000 | 3] 46 0 8 |31°75| 25-76 5 95, |9Q- ; 2000 | 37 50°25 | 7:25 |29-75 | 27:50 a 7-95| 7°75 36 57:25 | 7 5 16 8°25 35} 41 4:5 | 7:25 6 24 8 34 12 75 7 33 9 (33 24-79 33 19-25 | 7:25 |29 28°21 6500 | 8 4) 8 2500 | 32 27 7:75 9 50 9 3l 34-5 | 7:5 10 585 | 85 | 30 42 75 M1 47 7 85 (384 24:06) 29 49-25 | 7-25 |30 27°27 12 155 | 85 | 28 57 7:75 7000 | 13 245 | 9 3000 | 27 | 42 4 7 14 33 8:5 26 12:25 | 8:25 15 42 9 {35 23°37 25 19:75 | 7:5 |30°5 | 26:82 16 51-25 | 9:95 24 27°5 | 7:75 17 | 48 0-25) 9 23 35 75 7500 | 18 55 8°75 3500 | 22 43 8 19 18 9 (86 22:73 21 51-25} 825 (81:5 | 25:97 5 é Times. Yards, hm =s 7700 | 20 |9 48 27:25 21 36°5 22 46 8000 | 23 55'5 24) 49 4-25 25 145 26 24-5 27 315 8500 | 28 43 29 52°75 30 | 50 25 31 12 32 22-25 9000 | 33 32°25 34 42:25 35 52:5 386 | 51 2 37 12-25 9500 | 38 22:25 39 32°25 40 42-5 41 §2°75 42] 52 38 10,000} 43 13°25 44 23°25 45 34 46 44-25 47 54:5 10,500) 48 |} 53 5 49 15 50 26 51 36°5 ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 279 Diffs. 9:25 9:25 11 10°5 TABLE (continued). 37:5 | 21°81 36 22:73 40:5 | 20-20 405 | 20:20 39°75 | 20:58 41 19:95 41:25 | 19°83 42 19-48 Speed. 11,500 12,000 12,500 13,000 13,500 13,598 13,785 13,915 14,242 14,331 hm 5 9 58 47-25 |10-75 19 {10°75 |42-5 | 19:25 29°75 |10°75 40:5 10-75 52 f1L5 55 2:5 {105 (43:5 | 18:81 13°75 |11-25 25°25 |11°5 36°5 {11:25 48°75 |12-25 146-25] 17°69 56 0-5 {11-75 12:5 }12 245 112 37 ~—-\12°5-_ 48-25) 16-96 50 {13 57 25 112-5 15 {12-5 28:5 (13:5 (51:5 | 15°89 41°75 113-25 55°5 {13°75 13°5 (54 15:15 195 |14:5 |57 14:35 Breeze down the Plane. * Stopped. 280 REPORT—1841. 5 July 11th, 1839.—Tasxe No. XI. Eight Second Class Carriages as before, the spaces between the Carriages being closed up with canvas. tons. cwts. qrs. Weight of Carriages and Load . . . . 40 O O Ten Passengers . . 5 of + gem (Ob dsr ad Gross weieht . 6%. . 4... TAO 0 From initial velocity 26°39 miles per hour. Down Madeley Plane. Fi S, “0 ao] A 1 mm . o ° a 5 oe o Dist. 3 | Times. | Diffs. | 2 | Dist. 3 | Times. | Diffs. | 3 Yards. hmis Yards. hms 61 |12 17 44-25 “3700 | 20/12 23 5 8 60 53°5 | 9:25 19 13 8 59 18 2 8-5 18 21-25 | 8-25 58 10 8 4000 | 17 29°5 | 8:25 (82:5 |25:17 0 |57 17°75| 7:75 |\83°5 |24-42 16 38 85 56 25:25 | 7:5 15 46 3 55 33 7:75 14 54 8 54 40°5 | 7:5 13 24 1°75) 7-75 |82°25|25-37 = . . DG. 53 48:75 | 8:25 |81 |26:39 4500 |12 10 8-25 500 | 52 56 7:25 11 18 8 51 19° 3°50) 7:5 10 26 8 50 11-25) 7:75 t 9 34 8 32°25/25:37 49 19 7-75 |30°25|27:05 8 49-95 | 8-25 48 265 | 7:5 5000 | 7 50:25! 8 1000 | 47 34°25 | 7:75 6 58 7-75 7 46 41:25) 7 5 25 6 8 32 125°57 45 49°75| 8:5 |30°75/26°6] 4 14 8 44 57 7:25 3 22 8 43 20 45 | 7:5 5500 |} 2 30 8 1500 | 42 12 75 1 38 8 32 125-57 4} 20 8 30°25/27-05 0 46-25| $25 40 27°75 | 7:75 ] 54:25! 8 39 35°25 | 7:5 2 26 2 775 38 43:25 | 8 6000 | 3 10 8 32 |25°57 2000 | 37 51:25] § 31°25|26:18 4 18 8 36 585 | 7:25 5 265 85 35 21 6 75 6 35 85 34 ae 8 7 435 | 85 {33-5 124-42 33 21:75| 7°75 |30°5 |26-82 6500 | 8 52-95 | 8-75 25090 | 32 30 8:25 9 27 «05 | 8:25 31 375 75 10 9 8:5 30 45°25 | 7:75 ll 18 9 34:5 (23-71 29 53°25) 8 31:5 125-97 12 26:5 | 85 28 PPP sil 7:75 7000 | 138 35°25 | 8:75 3000 | 27 85 | 7:5 14 44-95! 9 26 ee 8 15 53°25} 9 35°25|23-21 25 245 | 8 31°25|26:18 16 28 1:5 | 825 24 32°75 | 8:25 17 105 | 9 23 40° | 7:75 7500 | 18 19°25] 8°75 3500 | 22 49 8:5 19 28:75) 9:5 (85-5 123-05 2) 57 8 32°5 125-17 S—_erekv ———Xa—————————————— , ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS, TABLE (continued). 281 3 as a s Dist. | 3 | Times. | Diffs. | Ey | Dist. | 8 | Times | Diffs. Ey Oy n Ay n Yards. hm s Yards, hm s 7700) 20 |12 28 38 9:25 10,900} 52 12 34 10 11 21 47-25 | 9°25 11,000) 53 21-25 | 11:25 22 56°25) 9 54 33 11°75 8000} 23 29 5:25] 9 365 |22°41 55 44-5 |11:5 | 45:5 |17:99 24 14:25) 9 56 55°75 | 11-25 25 24 9°75 57 35 7°75 | 12 26 34 10 11,500] 58 19-25 | 11:25 27 43°5 | 9°5 |38-25/21-39 59 32 12°75 | 47-5 |17-22 8500) 28 53:25 | 9°75 60 44 12 29 30 2:5 | 9:25 61 55-75 | 11°75 30 12:5 | 10 62 36 8 12-25 31 22:5 |10 39 {20°98 || 12,000) 63 21 13 49 |16°69 32 33 105 64 34°25 | 13:25 9000) 33 42:5 | 95 65 47-75 | 135 34 53°25 | 10°75 66 37 2 14:25 35 31 3:25) 10 40°75|20:07 67 15 13 54 {15°15 36 14 10:75 12,500) 68 29 14 37 245 | 10:5 69 43°25 | 14:25 9500) 38 35°25 | 10°75 70 58 14:75 39 46:25 | 11 43 |19-02 71 38 13 15 58 {14:10 40° 57 10°75 72 28-25 | 15:25 41 382 7:75 | 10°75 13,000} 73 43°25 | 15 42 18:5 | 10°75 74 59 15°75 10,000} 43 29°5 |11 4325/1891 (ED EE Bossbe 16 62 {13°19 44 40-25 | 10°75 76 39 31 16 12:78 45 51°75 | 11-5 77 475 | 165 46 383 2:5 | 10°75 13,500) 78 40 4 16°5 12-39 47 13°75 | 11:25 |44:25/18°49 || 13,598 22 18 11°36 10,500) 48 25 11:25 13,785 41 5 49 36 11 13,915 54:5 50 48 12 13,96 42 53:25 51 59 11 45:25]18:08 Breeze down the Plane. 282 REPORT—1841. July 11th; 1839.—Tas ie No. XII. Four Second-Class Carriages, Nos. 5, 9, 29, 30. tons. cwts. qrs. Weight of Carriage and Load. - «. . + 20 O O Three Passengers. . . . ya oye 4° 2 Gross weight . 6). 6 es 4) Bue From initial velocity 40°90 miles per hour. Down Madeley Plane. Dist. Yards. (—) 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 39500 | Times. | Diffs. | 3 | Dist. | 2 | Times, Diffs. | 3 é S é hm s Yards. hm s 6 50 58 3700 | 20 |6 55 10 7 51 4 6 19 17 7 9 5 18 25 8 14 5 4000 | 17 325 7:5 129-5 |27°73 19°5 5:5 |21°5 138-04 16 39°75 | 7-25 25 5:5 15 475 7:75 30°5 55 14 55 75 35°75 | 5:25 13 56 2 7 29:5 |27°73 415 | 5-75 B2 137-18)! a509 | 19 9751 7-75 47 55 11 17:25 | 7:5 53 6 10 25 775 58 5 : 9 32°75 | 7:75 |30°75/26°61 52 3:25) 5:25 121-75/37-61 8 40 7-25 9 5°75 5000 | 7 48 8 14:25 | 5:25 6 55°75 | 7:75 20:25) 6 5 57 3:25| 7:5 [80-5 |26°82 32°25] 6:25 3 19:25) 8 38 5°75 5500 | 2 | 27-25| 8 44 6 1 35°:25| 8 32 = (25°57 50°5 6:5 |24:5 |83:39 0 43-5 8°25 56 55 ] 51:5 8 58 2:25) 6°25 2} 58 0 8-5 8:25| 6 6000 | 3 7:75 | 7:75 |82°5 |25°17 21:25 | 6:25 5 24:5 8-5 27:75) 6:5 6 33°25 | 8°75 34:25] 6:5 7 42 8°75 |84:25/23°89 eeeeree 6 5 25 75 31 77 6500 8 50°75 8 75 47:25) 6:5 9 59 0 9-25 53°5 6:25 10 85 8-5 54 0 65 11 17 8-5 |85 |23°37 6:5 6°5 /25°75|31:77 12 265 955 13 65 7000 | 18 35°75 | 9-25 20 7 14 45 9°25 27 7 15 54:25 | 9-25 |87:25/21-96 41:25) 7 17 12:75 | 9:75 48°75 | 7:5 7500 | 18 22:25 | 9-5 DAO od 19 32 9°75 |85:75|21°67 55. 3 7°25 |28°75|28-45 Dist. Yards. 7700 8000 8500 9000 9500 10,000 10,500 ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS, TABLE (continued ). Diffs. | Speed. 95 (388 21-53 10 40°25/20°32 10:25 |40 20-45 10°53 (50°75/19-80 10°53 {41-5 19-71 10°5 |42-25/19-36 11:25 |42°75|19-13 10:25 |42°75|19°13 Dist. Yards. 11,000 11,500 12,000 12,500 13,000 13,500 13,785 13,915 14,242 14,498 phan = 2 {| Times Diffs, 2 Ay n hm s 53 7 6 21 10°75 54 32°59 | 11:5 55 43 105 56 54 ll 43°75|18-70 57 7 4:5 | 105 58 155 | 11 59 27 115 60 38'5 | 11-5 [44:5 {18°39 61 50 | 11-5. 62 8 1-25) 11-25 63 13 11:75 64 25 12 465 |17:58 65 37 12 66 48-75 | 11-75 67 9 12:25 68 13°25 | 12-25 |48-25)16-95 69 25°75 | 12:5 70 38:5 | 12°75 71 51-75 | 13-25 72; 10 4 12-25 |50°75}16-12 73 17 13 7A 30:5 | 13°5 Mo Wo sdb... 13:25 76 57-25|13°5 |53+25/15:36 77) (i 13°75 78 24:5 | 13-5 12 8 32°25 13 59°5 14 45:5* A Stiff Breeze down the Plane. * Stopped. 84 REPORT—1841. July 11th, 1839.—Tas xe No. XIII. Four Second Class Carriages, Nos. 12, 20, 35, 22. tons. cwts. qrs. Weight of Carriage and Load . . . 20 0 O Seven Passengers... - - +» «+ O10;2 2010 2 From initial velocity 32°73 miles per hour. Down Madeley Plane. 5 Posts.| Times. | Diffs. | Speed. A Posts.| Times. | Diffs. | Speed. Yards. hm s Yards. hm s a oe + a 3700 | 20 |7 15 52) 8 59 16| 5 19 16 0| 8 a eas 4000 i ‘ a 33 | 24-79 0| 57 29| 6 | 25 | 32-73 oe 56 35| 6 16 26| 9 55 41] 6 15 35| 9 54 48| 7 14 44| 9 E 53 54| 6 | 25 | 32:73 13 53} 9 | 36 | 22°72 500 | 52 es Wg 4500 : 17 = : 51 8| 7 50 14| 6 10 18| 7 49 21) 7 | 27 | 30:30 9 28/10 | 35 | 23:37 8 36| 8 48 26| 5 1000 | 47 33| 7 5000 A = 2 43 alee 1 5 | 23:37 45 47| 7 | 26 | 31-46 5 8 3| 9} 35 44 53| 6 4 13/10 oe eae led 5500 ; a r 1500 | 42 71 7 41 14} 7 | 27 | 30-30 1 40| 9 | 37 | 22°11 40 21| 7 ° = ; 39 28| 7 - aarae 38 34| 6 9 2000 | 37 41| 7 | 27 | 3030) 6900; 3 17|10 | 37 | 22-11 36 48| 7 4 27| 10 5 37| 10 35 56| 8 34 14 3| 7 6 47/10 33 10| 7 | 29 | 28-21 < 57110 | 40 | 20-44 2500 | 32 18] 8 6500 | 8 20 7/10 9 17/10 31 26| 8 i 30 33| 7 0 27/10 29 40| 7 | 30 | 27-27 38/11 | 41 | 19-95 12 50| 12 28 48| 8 3000 | 27 56| 8 7000 - 21 : 11 26 15 4| 8 7 ; ” ie ' 25 11! 7 | 31 | 26-39 3/11 | 45 | 18:18 16 34) 11 ea lie 17 44|10 23 28| 8 3500 | 22 36| 8 7500 | 18 56| 12 21 44| 8 | 33 | 24-79 19 22 8/12} 45 | 18-18 ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 285 TABLE (continued). Posts.| Times. | Diffs. |Speed. 5 Posts.| Times. | Diffs. | Speed. hms ia Yards. hms 20 17 22 20/\12 - |h0,200| 45 |7 27 55/15 21 32| 12 46 | 98 10] 15 22 44|12 47 27| 17 23 56|12 | 48 | 17-04(/10,500| 48 44|17 | 64 | 12:79 24 | 23 8\12 49 | 29 1117 25 21) 13 50 18] 17 26 33 | 12 51 36 | 18 27 45|12 | 49 | 1669 52 53\17 /69 | 11:85 28 58| 13 11,000! 53 | 3010/17 99 | 2411/13 “54 28 | 18 30 |° 24\13 BB 48 | 20 31 37|13 | 52 | 15-73 56 | 31 8/2075 | 10-91 32 50| 13 57 28 | 20 33 | 25 3/13 11,500| 58 50 | 22 9-29 34 16|13 59 | 32 13/93 35 29 | 13 60 36 | 23 8-89 36 43114 | 66 | 12:39 kheeavonad 37 57|14 62 27| 25 | 25-5] 8-02 38 | 26 11/14 12,000] 63 55/28 |... | 7-30 a 25) 14 64 | 34 28133 6-20 al 40/15 | 57 | 1435 6 | 35 2/34]... | 601 41 55 | 15 66 38136 |... | 5°68 42 | 97 10\15. 67 | 3623|45|...| 4:54 43 25 | 15 12,500] 68 | 37 30/67|... | 3:05 44 40/15 | 60 | 16-63 ||12'555 39 8 Le ee: A Stiff Breeze down the Plane. * Stopped at 68 Post + 55 yards. July 12th, 1839.—Taste No. XIV. Six Second Class Carriages, Nos. 35, 9, 29, 22, 12, 20. tons. cwts. qrs. Weight of Carriages and Load . . . 30 0 O Six Passengers . #7 eat ag Pb MRO Sr OL iG Gross weight . 30 9 O From initial velocity 25°57 miles per hour. Down Madeley Plane. 5 2 Times Speed. 5 e Times. Diffs. | Speed. Yards, hm 5s Yards, hm s 1 jl 36 53:5 56 |1 37 34 8 60] 37 2 55 42 8 59 10 54 50 8 58 185 | 85 53 58 8 |32 | 25:57 0 | 57 26 7:5 | 32:5 | 25°17 286 Dist. Yards. 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 8 9: 8: 8: 8: 9 42 5 | 85 4] 40:25 | 8°75 40 48:5 | 8-25 39 58-5 |10 38 | 40 7-75 | 9:25 37 16:5 | 8-75 36 25-75 | 9-25 35 35 | 9-25 34 44-25 | 9-25 33 53-5 | 9:25 32| 41 25 | 9 31 11:25 | 8:75 30 21 | 9:75 29 30:5 | 9-5 28 40-25 | 9°75 27 50-25 |10 26 | 42 0-5 {10-25 25 11:25 |10°75 24 22-25 |11 23 33:5 [11-25 22 45 - {11:5 21 565 [11-5 20} 43 8 [ILS 19 19:5 |LL5 18 32 {125 17 44-5 [125 16 56 {11-5 15 | 44 85 [125 Difts. REPORT—1841. TABLE (continued). Speed. 24:79 34:25] 23°89 35 =| 23:37 36:25] 22-57 37 =| 22-11 37 (| 22°11 40-75} 20:07 45-25] 18-08 48 |17-04 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 7800 7881 _ oo NQAE WN OS HEP NWWP TON oO > Diffs. Times. Speed. m s 44 21 33°5 46:25 1669 58 33°5 * Stopped at 21 post + 81 yards. ° Breeze from the west, or nearly at right angles to road. ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 287 July 12th, 1839.—-Tas.e No. XV. Eight Second Class Carriages. tons. cwts. qrs. Weight of Carriages and Load 40 0 0 Six Passengers. . . eae tees. CO Gross weight 40 9 O From initial velocity 20:07 miles per hour. Down Madeley Plane. Dist.| 8 | Times. Diffs. | Speed.|| Dist. 2 Times Diffs. | Speed. Yards hms Yards, hm s 6] |2 30 58 3700 | 20 |2 87 54:5 |10:25 60 | 31 14 RGD 3.098 12-78 19} 388 5:25 |10°75 59 AE WISon | 2 ae 15°73 18 16°25 |11 58 38 nie) | ee 18:59 || 4000 | 17 27°25 |11 43 19-02 01-57 48:75 |10-75 | ,..... 19:02 16 38 110-75 56 59 10°25 15 49°75 |11-75 55 | 382 9 10 14} 39 0 10-25 54 19°25 |10-25 13 11 11 = 48°75 | 18-70 500 | 52 40 105 ll 33 ll 51 50 10 10 44-25 |11-25 50 | 33 0 /|10 9 55 10°75 |44 18-59 49 9 9 |39-5 | 20°71 s| 40 6 ul 48 19 10 5000 | 7 17-5 |i15 1000 | 47 29°25 110-25 6 29-25 |11-75 46 39 9-75 5 4l 11°75 |46 17°78 44 585 | 9:25 3} 4l 11-25 43 | 34 85 {10 EOD bi Bit wey WSL A- 115 1500 | 42 18 | 95 l 27-25 |11°75 |46-25 | 17-69 4] 27°75 | 9:75 |88:5 | 21-25 a 39 1-75 40 387°5 | 9°75 1 50:5 |11°5 39 47-25 | 9-75 2) 42 1-5 jll 38 56:25 | 9 6000 | 3 13°25 |11-75 [46 17:78 36 155. {10 5 37-75 [12 35 25 9°5 6 50-25 |12-5 34 35 0 7 | 43 3:25|13 |50 16°36 33 44°75 | 9°75 |39-25 | 20°84 6500 | 8 16-25 (13 2500 | 39 54:25 | 9:5 9 29:5 |13°25 31] 36 3:5 | 9-25 10 43:5 |14 30 13°25 | 9:75 ll 57 = {1385 (53°75 | 15-22 29, 23 | 9-75 |38-25 | 21-39 dash! adinneenaee 28 32°75 | 9°75 7000 | 18 24-5 |14°25 3000 | 27 42-75 |10 14 39 [145 i 53 110-25 15 58°25 11425 (56°25 | 14-54 5 . . 44°25 10 75 |41°75 59°75 | 13°69 288. REPORT—1841. TABLE (continued). Dist. 3 Times, Diffs. | Speed.|| Dist. 2 Times. Diffs. | Speed. Yards. hms | Yards, hms ’ 7700 | 20 |2 46 8 {15 9500 | 38 |2 51 585 [23-75] 21 23-75 |15-75 39 | 5224 |25+5 l95-5 22 39:75 (16 : ‘ 40 50-75 |26-75 8000 | 23 56 (16-2563 ‘| 12-98 a | eee 24] 4713 (17 42 43 975 25 305 (17-5 10,000) 43 | 54 7°75 |24-75|103-75 26 48:5 [18 é 44 35 197-25 a7| 48 6 175 |7o | 11:69 Gtcae ee 8500 | 28 24-25 |18-25 46 32:5 |29-5 2 43-25 |19 471 56 3 [30-5 30 | 49 2-5 |19-25 10,500} 48 35-75 (32-75 31 22-25 |19-75 176-25 | 10°73 49| 57 8 (32-95 32 42:5 |20-25 a eng ters ba 9000 | 33} 50 3-5 (21 fe | cofee Te 34 26 225 et es i 11,000! 53 53 (51 36| 5111 205 111,154 2 42-5, 37 34-75 [23-75 | % Wind from west, but rather less than in preceding. * Stopped at 54 + 37 yards; the last 600 or 800 yards were in a cuttin g completely sheltered from the wind. July 5th, 1839.--Tasie No. XVI. One Second Class Carriage, No. 17, with Two Side Boards or Wings attached in Front, each projecting 20". tons. cwts, qrs. Weight ‘of Carri iage and Load. . ... 5 O O Five Passengers. . . a. cgi GE see Gross weight 5 7 2 - From state of rest. Down Sutton Incline Plane. Dist. 3 Times. Diffs. | Speed. z 3 Times Diffs. | Speed Yards. hms Yards. hms 0| 0/432 1 1100 | 10 |4 35 285 | 13 110; 1] 388 2 Gl ij | ace. 3:69 || 1210 | 11 42 13-5 |13-25 | 16-98 220) 2 26 D4) at 9:37 1320 | 12 54:5 | 195 330 | 3 46 DO’? | a seete 11-25 1430 113 | 36 8 13+5 (13 17-30 440 | 4) 34 38 Ly PRA ea 13-23 550 | 5 19 NG) uliseaae 14-06 |} 1540 | 14 19 ll 660 | 6 34 V5 ese as 15-00 |} 1650 | 15 31:5 | 12-5 11-75 | 19-15 770 |} 7 48-5 | 14:5]......| 15°51 Teese | | ...ace 12 880} 8) 35 2 13°5 1870 | 17 | 36 55-5f| 12 |12 18-75 990} 9 15°5 | 13:5]13-5 | 16-66 32 44 2420 2530 57 38 11 ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. TABLE (continued). Diffs. seeeee Speed. 18°75 18°37 17°30 16:07 Dist. Yards. 2640 2750 2860 2970 3080 3139 an | Times. Diffs Ry hms 24 25 |4 38 44 17:5)... 26) 39 5 21 27 32°35 | 27:5 28; 4013 40°5 well 4h Vl aeecee see oeeres Weather fine and dry; rails in good order; breeze from north-west, but scarcely perceptible. ' July 5th, 1889.—Tasie No. XVII. One Second Class Carriage, No. 17. Side boards removed. tons. cwts, qrs. Weight of Carriage and Load. . . 5 O O ive Passeneerse gts: eo ve fan uci) ae (Oe be |S Gross WElahtal ioe deol pe / 5H NZ From state of rest. Down Sutton Incline Plane. a S 3 : J as Dist. | 2 | Times Diffs. % || Dist.| 2 | Times. Diffs. 3 0 B= Ay a Yards. hm s Yards, hm is 0 0 \4 56 O 1760 | 16 |5 O 32:5 | 115 110 1 OF BD | GSD biscs cee 3°54 || 1870 | 17 43 105 |11 |20-45 220 2 285 | 25 seveeee] 9°00 baer 1980 | 18 54 | 1 330 3 48 US ee ea ee 11°54 wD]. 440 |*4| 58 4-25| 1625|....... feed || 2090 19) Cgc] 1Oi (105 abe 550 5 19 LE ae 15-25 || 2200 | 20 15 11 660 bight Seotese LE a ee ee 15:51 |} 2310 | 21 26 ll : 770 7 47 LSS le eek 16°66 || 2420 | 22 37 11 11 {20°45 880 . 8* 59-5 | 12:5 25380 | 23 49 12 12 {18-75 90% 29 | 59 12 | 125 | 125 |18:00) og4y | o4 | 2 05 | 195 foe. 18-00 1100 | 10 24 12 2750 | 25 165 | 15 15-00 1210 | 11 36 12 12 |18-75 || 2860 | 26 34 VFB lesseees trae rs ‘) © RA . ay bic side (ks 2970 | 27 Bik | | 80h a teas 1430 | 13 115 1115 19°56 3080 | 28 3 18 VY ee ee || 3190 | 29 505 | 325 |......| 692 1540 | 14/5 0105 | 115 3289 5 2 1650 | 15 21 105 |11 120-45 1841. Weather as in the last. 290 REPORT— 1841, July 5th, 1839.Tasie No. XVIII. One Second Class Carriage, No. 9, fitted up with pointed end. tons, ewts. qrs.. Weight of Carriage and Load. . . . -. 5 O QO Five Passengers . . . sereics tT Po Cada Gross weight . ... + 5 7 2 From state of rest, down Sutton Incline Plane. pis. | # | Times. | Dims | 8 || Dis] 2 | Times Dis. | 3 a ey a an Yards. hm s Yards. hm s 0| 0/3 23 0 2090 | 19 3 2826 | 9 vo}-1/'e4%y Ver |u.. 3-36 || 2200 | 20 35-25 | 9-25 220 | 2 38 ofay 8 7-26 || 2310 | 21 45 | 9-75 (9-38 [24-10 330| 3| 25 2 |24 |... 9-37 || 2490 | 29 54-25 | 9-25 |.......124-32 Aly aA 22 |90 |... 11-25 || 2530 | 23 | 29 425/10. |....... 22-50 60 | 6| 565 | 165 [-. Jisea| 2680) 24) 18 | t0zs) | 470 | 7 | 26 11:25) 14-75 )....... 15-25 |] “/° Sab Ee 880 | 8 95 | 13-751... 16:36 || 2860 | 26 37. | 11-75 |.......[19°5 990 | 9 38 | 13 2970 | 27 50 «| 13 1100 | 10 51 | 13 (|13. |17-30|/8080 | 28 | 30 25 | 125 |19-75l17-64 10/11] 27 25 | 115 | 3190 | 99 es Vie Vas 16-07 1320/12] 14 | 115 (11-5 119-561) 3300.| 30 EY fo ie ag ees 15-00 3410 | 31 ag5 [17 _|....... 13-23 ISO TO 4 vs ( 3520 | 32 | 31 6-25] 17-751....... 12-67 1540 | 14 36 | WL 11 | 20-45 | sé30 | 33 98 | 21-75)... 10°34 1650 | 15 475 | 115 3740 | 34 Bs | Shale 8-82 1960 46 | 9-18 4400 | 40 90°'4 (26 |...... 8:65 2860 | 26 21 9:5) Weeaetes 23°68 || 4510 | 41 35:5 B15 | cscees 714 2970 | 27 31 10; 1}. Re 22-50 || 4620 | 42 21:17 |41:5 |...... 6:14 3080 | 238 41:5 |10°5 |...... 21°43 || 4710 }...... 22°38 |81 3190 | 29 p2b elld—-boaes. 20°45 3300 | 30 17 4:5 |12-25 3410 | 31 16°25 |11°75 |12-00) 18°75 A Breeze from W.N.W. A drizzling Rain. Rails quite wet, and in good order for Travelling. Tasie No. XXI. Two First Class Carriages. ewts. qrs. Ibs. Maledoniaw © beach ae destices obtesk ease de. thts, GD ep O Easl of Derby. 4 248 0%) jetta = gayrts soph > gO 90,0 Gross weight . . 226 3 O From a state of rest, down Sutton Incline Plane. Dist. é Times. Diffs. Speed. || Dist. 3 Times. Diffs. |Speed. Yards. hm s Yards hm s 0 019 23 0 2310 | 21 19 27 32 8-25 |. ..00s 27:26 110 1 53°25 peas Bavaias a4 2420 | 29 39-75 | 7°75 220 2 24 15 4 yd eee 10°35 " : 2530 | 23 48:25 | 8:5 330 | 3 33:5 [185 |... 12-16 || oe40-| 34 57 | 875 1833 | 27-00 440 4 48°75 |15°25] ...... 14-75 550 5 95 2 13°25] ...... 16°98 || 2750 | 25 28 65 | 9-5 660 6 14-25 |12°25]...... 18°36 || 2860 | 26 16 95 | 95 | 23°68 iy 7 el ale kat 19°14)! 9970 | 97 265 [LOS | sos... 21-43 880 | 8 36°75 [10°75 3080 | 28 37-25 10°75 | sass. 20-94 990 | 9 47-5 |10-75 [10-75] 20-94 || 3190 | 29 49... (11-7552, 19°14 7h 1100 | 10 57 9:5 3300 | 30 29 #1 i. cotess 18°75 1210 | 11 26 7 10 9:75| 23-08 3410 | 31 13:5 12° -f...... 18-00 3520 | 32 27°25 13°75 | ...0e. 16°36 1320 | 12 16 9 3630 | 33 42 Ve yy} | eS 15-25 1430 | 13 25 9 3740 | 34 58 1G Vkegees 14-06 1540 | 14 34 9 9:00} 25-00 || 3850 | 35 30 15:5 j17:5 |... 12-86 wens) e,| ele) ae ‘oir. | tie 51-25 | 8-75 | 8:62) 26:00) 4igo | 38 | 31 21-95 [24-25] ...... 9:27 1870 | 17 59-25) 8 4290 | 39 50 28°75 | .ccese 7°82 1980 | 18 27 7:25) 8 8:00} 28-12 |} 4400 | 40 32 29-5 [32:5 | .cwe0e He 4510 | 41 oo g 44:5) Wodhess 5-0 2090 | 19 15°75 | 8-5 2200 | 20 23-7518 | 8-25| 27:26|| 4°77 |----- 34,40 5 93 Weather as in the last. ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 293 Tasre No. XXII. Engine, Tender, and four First Class Carriages. cwts, qrs. Ibs. Fury Tender 222 3 0 Clarence Sovereign a Lee SILL Laie - Malet acne \ Traveller 326 3 4 Telegraph Gross weight . . 549 2 4 fe ¥ Dist. Fy Times. Diffs. Speed. || Dist. & Times, Diffs. |Speed. Yards, hm s5 Yards. hm i s 0 0 |3 30 30 2750 | 25 110 1 31 29 Ore a diate eees 3°81 || 2860 | 26 |3 35 52 17°50 | 8°75) 25-72 9 2 330 / 3| 3212 fis || sol] 2920) 22 | 36 05.) 85) 440 | 4 98 che | ai: BAGG eee [22 JE has oe 550 5 42 14. hake 16°07 || 3190.| 29 19 9-25 | wsceee 24°32 660 6 55 1G) Oi eencee 17°30 || 3300 | 30 29-25 |10°25 | ...... 21-94 770 7 33 7 1 esccec 18°75 || 3410 | 3] 40 10:75 | «0... 20°94 830 | 8 Wee Shtse ieee 20-45 | oron | a0 A oul Cees 990 9 3630 | 33 37 2 10°75 {11:00} 20-45 nes 89 Pl | 105 | 21°43 3740 | 34 Wel? fase. 18-75 1210 | 11 485 | 955 3850 | 35 27 13 1320 | 12 58 9:5 | 9:5 | 23:68 3960 | 36 40 13 13-00! 17:30 440 |.18 1 Ur9 4070 | 37 545 [145 4180 | 388} 38 9 {14-5 |14:50) 15-51 Weather as in the last. 294 | Posts. coe ONOOKWNE OS —_ _ _ ws — oO REPORT—1841. Tasre No. XXIII. Six First Class Carriages. Express. Herald . Clarence Sovereign . Traveller . Telegraph . . Gross weight cwts. qrs. lbs. - 93 O 24 91 1 24 88 3 24 90 2 24 91 2 24 93 1 aaa f 549 2 4 From a state of rest, down Sutton Incline Plane. Diffs. Speed. 8 7:25) 7:62 | 29:5 Weather as in the last. Diffs. Speed. 8-25 8 8-12 | 27°68 y) 9 9 9-00 | 25-00 9:5 we | 23°68 10 22°50 12°5 8:5 | 10-5 | 21-43 Ddeo=slteamers 20°45 Le weil eters 18°75 TS: | Ae. 17:30 13°25) ...... 16°98 14°75] ...... 15°25 Le be Se 15:00 16°5 |...... 13°63 19h eke 11°84 2055 eek. 10-97 24:5 |......] 9°18 JL. | hiampae 7:26 DOO) fewners 3°98 ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 295 Levels from the top of Sutton Plane to Collins Green. Woot: | Distance.| aioyarés, | trom0. || ‘Post. | Distance. | toydeds, | “tomo. feet. feet. 0 0 27 | 2970 | O48 — | 79-96 1 | uo} 361 361 || 28 | 3080 | 035 | 8031 2 | 920 | 3358 719 || 29 | 3190 | 035 | 80-66 3 | 330 | 364 | 1083 || 30 | 3300 | 030 | 8096 4 | 440 | 365 | 1448 || 31] 3410 | O17 | 81-13 5 | 550 | 363 | isn1 || 32 | 3520 | O91 | siad 6 | 66 | 372 | 2183 |} 33 | 3630 | O18 | sis2 7 | 770 | 359 | 2542 || 34 | 3740 | O10. | s1-62 s | 80 | 360 | 2902 |) 35 | 3850 | O49 | 818i 9 | 990 | 359 | 3261 || 36 | 3960 | 013 | s1-94 10 | 1100 | 361 | 3622 || 37 | 4070 | 045 | 82-09 11 | 1210 | 360 | 3982 || 38 | 4180 | 023 | ses2 12 | 1320 | 369 | 4351 || 39 | 4290 | 026 | ges 13 | 1430 | 378 | 4729 || 40 | 4400 | 028 | 89-86 14 | 1540 | 364 | 5093 || 41 | 4510 | O21 | 8307 15 | 1650 | 369 | 5462 || 42 | 4620 | O14 | S391 16 | 1760 | 382 | 5844 || 43 | 4730 | 002 | 83-93 17 | 1870 | . 375 | 6219 || 44 | 4840 [0-11 Rise. | 3-19 18 | 1980 | 369 | 65°88 || 45 | 4950 [0-04 do. | 83-08 19 | 2090 | 386 | 69-74 || 46 | 5060 | O12 | 8320 20 | 2200 | 346 | 7320 || 47 | 5170 | 030 | 8350 21 | 2310 | 267 | 7587 |xm} | 5203 | 005 = | 83:55 5 9 a - el een eae Ree | fae aaah Foe 9. “| eazy 24 | 2640 | 057 | 78:96 || ux 25 2750 0:36 79-39 uu Sechiae 0:08 83°85 26 | 2860 | O16 | 79:48 July 16th, 1839. Experiment with the Hecita Locomotive Engine. On a trip from Liverpool to Birmingham and back with a load consisting of the Tender and Twelve Second Class Grand Junction Carriages. Weather fine and calm; rails dry ; water in the Tender warm. tons. cwt. qrs. tons. cwt. qrs. Hecia Engine . 12 0 0 Pemder 24%) «| u80); O° © Carriages, No. 5. 5 0 O Do. 80, |5 0. @ Do. 29, 9 07 @ Do. DiS OG Do. 12, 5 0 0 Do. 20, 5, 01 G Do. 22, 5 0 0 Do. 25, , Gani G Do. 31,°5 0 QO Do. 5, 5) O1'@ Do. 23,; 5 O1@ Do.(open) 7, 5 0 O Ti Gross weight of Train 82 0 0 296 REPORT=——1841. Dimensions of the Hecla. ft. in. Diameter of Driving Wheels . . . . . .. 5 O Diameter of Cylinder . . . « . . «. . 019% uength of Siroke= > =). 2. ia 2 eas Diameter of Blast-pipe .'. . .- . - .. 0 25 Internal Dimensions of Firebox. Width eromwiset soc.) Gs be. eS Sh... ee Lengthwise . . Q 41 Depth from underside of roof to top of Grate Bars 3. 44 Number of Tubes 117. Eength offubesy.. bs). fb acik lies lags be 8 64 External diameter. . .- . - - ss or-~) Op ae Heating surface per lineal foot . 375 sq. feet Heating surface of Firebox . . . - 45°38 = do. Heating surface of Tubes . . . - 373°7 do. Total heating surface . 419°08 do. “ Hecla,” Tender and Twelve Carriages. | From Liverpool to Birmingham. 3 3 ! 8 20 2 ; go = 3 zg Times, 3 é 5 ha E 3 & Times. 3 B 5 Ss E ES) = 5 |A® a 16) = 5 62 rm =} hm °s hm is 12)|10 28 12 2)10 44 49) 66)...... 13°63 3 29 33| 81 |...... 11-11 3 45 38} 49}...... 18°37 2 30 25} 52 }...... 17°30 9 46 16] 38)...... 23°68 2 31 46] 81 |...... 22:22 Level 1 50} 34}...... 26-47 3 32 23) 37 |...... 24-32 ore 2 47 23) 33)...... 97-27 | 3 57| 34 |... 26°47 3 53] 30 1 33 28) 31 |......| 29°03 10 48 24| 31 2 58| 30 |...... 30-00 ofa 54| 30| 42/3000 3 34 26] 28 |...... 32°14 2 49 25) 31||% 4 53 | 27 |...... 33°33 Fall 3 53} 28 Fall 1 35 20} 27 |...... 33°33 LE ll 50 20) 27)... 33°33 aT a i 2 46| 26 |} fe cada id 48) 28]...... 32:14 |slackna 1094) 3], 86 12}.26 13 55 47 |4°59 |... 21-07 | do. 2 5 38 | 26 2 57 17{1:30)...... 20:00 | do. 3-5 1] 37 3) 25 Fall 3 58} 41}... 21:95 | d0.2& 2 29| 26 || = aoe} 14 58 35] 37|......)24°32| ao.2e 3 55 | 26 rs 3461 1 59 13) 38}... 23°68 do. Ey 6 38 21] 26 || a Avge 2 56} 43}...... 20°93 | do. 2,3 1 47 | 26 Fall | 19 |11 9 26/9:30)...... 28-42) \ &e 2) 39 14| 27 iy 1¢ 54] 28.1... 32:14| 35 3 39 | 25 S14 10 30 i) 7 40 6} 27 2 AST 4 JUS eM coc| woncbes Stop. 1 BF 3 tas. ae2 29-03 Mise} 13] 4484 les Ler ed 21 Start Hi 2| 41 18} 36 j...... 25-00 x05 }20 | 45 35] 61]... 14-75 ih 3 55} 42 |...... 21:43 1 46 25} 50}...... 18-00 06 8 42 45| 50 }...... 18-00 Rise [ 43 47 48} 83}...... 21-68 1 43 43} 58 }...... 15°56 21 48 25} 37)... 24°32 ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 297 TABLE (continued ). g./ 3 E|ee| 22| 2 | € | 3 )FE| 28 | ¢ nS & Times, z He gs & 2 & Times, % Be gs # ee..| 3 eilas| aia | 6 | 8 2 (85|. S/0e8 hm i 5 hm is mf 1 11 48 8 33 by. 27-27 : 12 at 55 1 29-03 yi 28-12 i Bihsdsss 0 Rise }22-)| 51 11] 59 |[...... 30-51 hie 36 55| 29 fo... a of sure ; 30} 29 |...... 31-03 FOOLS Pig oe om ae kt 30-00 2 55| 30 |...... 30-00 (23 52 27| 57 |...... 31-58 Rise 3]. 27-97) 39420 28-12 : : i 56 29 |... 31-03 hed 28 0] 33 |...... 27-27 Bie J 3 es an fae ce ait 39 i ae ie ay 1 CID OF tl Re a a | ee ee) i Me) > A ey AM te er BR Ie 510 | 24 54 30] 32 |...... 28-12 Leveld 3 40| 33 |... 27-27 242! 56 35] 65 |...... 27°70 38 30 12| 32 |... 28-12 Rise { B56 81 33-|...... 27-27 rahe ABV SL Tes... 29-03 ao 25 7 ey oy 24-32 215.30 143m 29-03 1 57 27) 42 |...... 21-43 Rise 3 43} 29 |) 9° 29-50 Rise 2) 58 11] 44 |...... 20-45 ais 139 32 15| 3217S Bao | og’ |! 50.08 (40 [| aod Tome elem ees Level 1/12 0 20] 42 |...... 21-43 3 52| 33 |...... 27-27 2 55| 35 |e. 25-71 40 34 22] 30]... 30-00 Pall 3 1 27| 32 |...... 28-12] 1 521 30 me 56| 29 |...... 31-03 2) 35 22| 30 | $=|30-00 330 1 2 25| 29 |...... 31-03 3 52| 30 2 2 51| 26 |...... 34-61 41 36 21] 29 Level 3 3 18] 97 |...... 33-33 1 50| 29 lave: 45| 27 |...... 33-33 2| 37 20] 30 ma 4 15} 30 |...... 30-00 ek 50] 30 Rise 2 44| 29 |... 31-03 42 38 19| 29 | | 7 3| 5 13|29 |... 31-03 1 49| 30 | fy {3071 550 | 99 48| 35 |...... 25-71 2| 39 18} 29 1 6 22] 34 |...... 26-47 3 47| 29 2 55| 33 |...... 27:27 43 40 16| 29 Levels 3 7 27| 32 |...... 28-12 1 45| 29 * 130 58] 31 |...... 29-03 42... QUE ABSTS) stop. ¢ ) 1| 8 28) 30 |...... 30-00 AR BOWE YS SE 1h stare 2 Rise 2 581 30 |...... 30-00 3| 48 12 S " 3 9 38 Boru. 30-00 44 49 18] 66 |...... 13°63 31 10 0| 32 |... 28-12 1} 50 8150 |...... 8-00 1 32) 32 |... 28-12 Rise 2 54| 46 |...... ibe Rise Bay (Sra... 29-03 re ae SY Seah ae. 21-95 asx) 3 41] 38 |...... 23-68 |stop. §|1°°° | 45 | 52 15] 40 | 22:50 t OC) ahd Te Be Sart. & 53| 38 |... 23°68 18 32| 39 |...... 23-07 55 18| 36 ~ 4 Cobh = or ‘N or leo) — i) oo “N i) 24:87 Co bo on =) bo No wo eo > 36°18 23:19) 34 | +33) 27-27 1 21| 36 | S| 24°66 59| 38 |... 23:68 a re oo is) Cob —_ ~“ i=) St St bo wwc Ss —) — ou i—) i—) rs a i L Sit wm Co — ce nao ES) aon bo rs co bo fC: - . 21 10! 33. 1] | 50. : 39| 29 bs le te 298 REPORT—1841. TABLE (continued). 2 \|.3 Ee ee ee g\e3/5.| 2 2 & Times. ' E Ee ge E 3 A s Ee 28 A 2 =] & a x cy @) sa o | & aAla*| &| & o 18 = las|@ & hm s5 ae en ar ; ape note a Lp AW SSF $8.10. 23-68 f 2 28 2 3 17| 40 3 29 ae 57| 40 bak 28 4 38] 41 30 Rise} 1] 5 20) 42/14 ea ke 29| $2 131-36 7 2 6 0} 40 | PS 22-25 505 a? 30/| & 3 40| 40 || S 29 51 7 20) 40 1 30 1 8 1] 41 2 29 2 41| 40 3 30 3 9 22] 41 |...... 21-95 ( 66 Dis Tes 31-03 52 10) OF S8yl....+. 23-68 1 SPA cakes 28-12 Rise 1 39| 37 |...... 24:32 2 bE a 27°27 550 ; 1] ri ntl Aggies Aa Fall a7” as SBorhn rad teeree 4 1 seeeee|au0" Ss 12 24 ss Ae at 2105| gQ| 42 Mi 1-14 |...... 24-32 58 26-4 3 2! 35 |...0..(25°71 Level 2] 18 32) 34 }...... 26°47 68 43 21 an tape bat Cae) Sari eee 25-71 iStackna.|| -.. J. 44°800 cee Stopped (54 15 1) 54 |...... 16-66) a. 3 [hf ce .,+..|Started 1 48| 47 |...... 19:15 |do. § |} 2 2} 16 52) 64 |... 14:06 |do. = || Rise | 3 56 }...... 16-07 3] 17 30) 38 |... 23-68| = || gag | 69 AON, 18:37 Fall | 55 18 5] 35: ...... 25°71 L 1 ADA i, 21-43 ta 1 CyAley bl Laem 29:03 2 Syn ss 23-68 390 2| 19 6] 30|...... 30-00 3 SON ees 23:07 5 3 Ad a a Level 9., CT a 25-71 | 6 nN 33 |...... 27:27 | eee pS] ae aha 33 |....0. 27°27 31° 21 20) 26 |...... 34-61 7 Sai\...04 27:27 57 46| 26 |...... 34-61 Rise 1 34 1} 22 13] 27 nara ee 34 Fal | 3} 93 “| oF mie 4 al feP x00 |58 35] 28 | $= [33-16 1 35 1 24 Q| 27 ey L 2 33 |] 48 26:87 2 30 a8 ; 3 34 }3 Lage 56 31 ya 28-12 59 25 23| 27 bevels 5 29|...... 31-03 1 : 49 =! he Bi fie 30°00 2 6 17} 2 80}...e: 30-00 3 43] 26 || Sle. 1 57 ee 28-12 Fall J gg | 27 11) 98. | fe P?? | 2 34|) a3 350 |] 1 38| 27 || Rise J 3 31 }a kg : 28 f a ap | 75 ‘ a dale 28-12 C5 Fle: 27-27 | 61 29 5] 28 | 2 33 |e 27:27 1 33] 28 3 BBA ue 25-71 31 aol 38 [i ie pn Fall | 62 59) 29 2 31:36 Sm. low. 2 35 ee 1] 31 27] Bi fo Ba.coke.|| Rise 3 aT lees Be 2 55| 28 | |“ zhy 17 34] $2 25:45 3] 32 23] 28 1 35] % 63 51] 28 2 35 f 1 33 19] 28 3 35 ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 299 TABLE (continued). 2 |4 giéglg.] gi ¢ 4 glégle.| a a Times. A 3 & 23 3 s 2 Times. 5 Sb as 3 s 3 & |€s| a8 5 fa 2 & |€9| es 5 0 = a las|= 5 Cu a lae|= a iim os ae hm s 78/2 14 31) 34 |) 2} 2 40 37| 26 |...... 34-61 1] 15 8) 37/} 3] 41, 3).26'|:..... 34-61 2 43] 35 88 30| 27 3| 16 21) 38 1 57| 27 79 y 57| 36 2| 42 24 4 1 34| 37 3 1 2) 18 11] 37 ||" 89 | 43 18| 27 3 47| 36 1 45| 27 80 19 23) 36 2| 44 13) 28 | $)|33-33 1| 20 0| 37 3 39| 26 2 5% 125-45 90 | 45 6| 27 Rise 3} 21 10 3 Fall 1 33) 27 11 81 45| 35 1} 2] 46 0| 27 ao * kt: 22 20195 |) ata ee 2s| 28 2 53| 33 91 4) 26 3| 28 27 34 1| 47 20| 26 82 | 24 3/36 2 47| 27 1 38} 35 3] 48 11) 24 2| 25 14/ 36 2 | A 37 26 ¥ = as 83°] 26 25| 36 £ | 3 si) 51 | Pe Poss 21861) oe Sa aes Stop. § 93 50 19) 25 |) ~ ‘ z Ca geen Start. F : e Zs a 33 46) 47 |...... 19-15 = 3 33| 25 |J : Level { 94 34 25| 39 |......|23-07 Level} 94 58} 25 |....../36-00| & 1 58| 33 |...... 27-27 1| 52 23) 95 |... 36-00 % [ 2) 35 28) 30 |...... 30-00 2 48) 25 |...... 36-00 2 3 57| 29 |...... 31-03 tei ce a ee 33°33 : 8 | 36 Bb ban: an 95 j = zy ree 3 83 4 1 PH (i Reser H ] 34 12) 30 |...... s 2| 37 17) 25 ; Rise | 2 42} 30 |...... 30-00 FE Fall; 3 44| 27 ts iahen shy )_.3] 35 1d) 82 [asia] 2 335 | 86 38 8| 24 67 | 96 46) 32 |...... 28-12 s 1 32) 24 1] 56 20) 34 |...... 26:47 3 Pt af a 5 36-73 by Aap (1 ee | Ae Stop. > 87 47| 25 || ~ 1} 40 11] 24 CONSUMPTION OF COKE. 616 pounds used to get up steam in the morning, ark To be added in the to fill up the firebox previous to starting. second trip. Quantity of coke consumed during the trip of 95 miles, zn- elusive of what was required to fill up the firebox at the end ETE WEY Lily aloe. -olp ass ek evel, 0h aes, * Ube. Coke consumed per mile. . 0 Jol we eda gives 38:4: Ibs. Ditto per ton per mile upon the load (nett) Ea ee Faroe Nine *55lbs. 300 REPORT—1841. CoNSUMPTION OF WATER. Dist. Water Water evaporated. ot miles. i aie Per mile, | Per hour. if Gallons. | Gallons. | Cubicfeet. From Liverpool to Warrington...| 18 |...... 393 21:83 307 cubic ft. water * Warrington to Crewe...... 24 | 5. cap. 555 23°12 evaporated by 3654 Crewe to Stafford............ 243 | 0... 519 20:97 lbs. coke = 1 cub. Stafford to Whampton...... 143!) ...... 396 26°84 ft. water per 10°84 Whampton to Birmingham) 13 |...... 245 18-15 . lbs. coke. Statement of the time occupied in performing the trip from Liverpool to Bir- mingham, 95 miles, on an average rise of 1 in 2462, and of the time lost in stoppages and slackening and getting into the speed at the Stations. hm s h|{m|s Started from Liverpool..............seeeees .. 10 28 127. : APived in Patna. le Celia. 2 57 10 f inclusive of stoppages | 4 |28/58 Lost. TIME LOST ON THE ROAD. m|s |im]s Getting up speed at Liverpool, 14 to 4 miles, = 24 miles......... 6 | 41! At full speed would have been..........ccceesecesseteeeeececeeeensenes 4|20)| 2/21 Slackened speed at Sutton, &c. 11} to 143 miles, = 32 miles...| 9| 8 APHUlMseed bsatcdcntatassdcceteceresbecesccwcthacecses«temmecetartactore 5/51] 3)17 Stoppage, &c. at Warrington, 194 to 213 miles, = 2 miles ...... 39| 4 AG FONTS PCO MiE Nd atone daar s spc cocclbnsassasehessrneseetetesaaetveweneee 4/16 )/34| 48 Stoppage, &c. at Hartford, 314 to 333 miles, = 2 miles............ 9 | 34 AT MIMS peed Copemadeasns asp vestestertesticce och oeMesetbeesstecse ere) hee eet 4| 0} 5/34 Stoppage, &c. at Crewe, 43} to 451 miles, = 2 miles ............... 12| 8 AN RSTILL SRE J ocd potion sodsa so oebeb de cndnbos JagsABAdoo Joop Sraccaded=44 4|56)| 7) 12 Slackened at Whitmore, 533 to 554 miles, = 2 miles............... 5 | 34 AUHTOUUISDEEG romeo! Seeconcnac rete. stes decssesoareeoe secacetessoSente. stebs 4| 0] 1/34 Stoppage, &c. at Stafford, 67} to 693 miles, = 2 miles............ 13 | 33 AG; full Spee deepens daaaaeeen se atoc seek sea ceceaWiacecnnesto«sosecdureseees 5| 4|| 8/29 Stoppage, &c. at Whampton, 83 to 85 miles, = 2 miles............|10} 0 At TUS peed Eo csecsncgearecrastentoceehecsseccaliccatenerarss coches sapehe 4/ 0] 6| 0 Slackened at Birmingham, 96 to 963 miles, = 3 mile ............ 1/24 At TmiS peed iL woiscedeee tbh es sh ss cis bc onccchetieeertrestacsapeotasnhcee 1} 0 24)/1) 9/39 Time which would have been occupied if the Train had started from Liverpool at full speed, and travelled from thence to Birmingham with- OUS SPD DPE Tg despawncn cabs nitvatse co +srabieoesesecsteBpndeencas ae tle ocete | octets 319/19 Equal to an average speed of 28°60 miles per hour. Up an average rise of 1 in 2462. Time, exclusive of dead stoppages, 3 hours 37 minutes. ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 301 “ Hecla,” Tender and Twelve Carriages. From Birmingham to Liverpool. ie 3 iu Era ie é -£ a 2/8315 3 5 5 B1se\| 251 2 ies gE 188/32; | # 3 B Times. s es B8 2 3 & Times. 8 a5 $3 E o |e QA |Ae/e r o |e a |A*|e hm i s hm s f (4 47 30 14 [5 18 20 | 41 |...... 21-95 : 1 | 49 27 1 55 | 35 |...... 25-71 § 1} 50 19 | 52 |...... 17:30 ee aS ae ie Stop. & Fall 2 58 39 qOenOS 23°07 23 POP A ants cins salvo’ Start. a : 3] 51 32 | 34 |...... 26°47 2| 24 3 5 fer 2 | 52 4 | 32 |i... 28-12 3 AB AO Ve .28 22-50 s 1 33 | 29 |...... 31-03 15 25 19 | 36 |...... 25:00 3 2 53 0 27 te) 32-73 1 52 33 eeeee 27°27 3 28 | 98 /f 2| 26 22 | 30 |...... 30-00 3 55 | 27 | 15 lgo.73 3 50 | 28 |...... 32-14 Level? 1] 54 23 | 98 fs 161} 27 41] 51 |... 35°30 2 51 | 98 |...... 32-14 91 98 7 | 26 |...... 34-61 3| 55 20] 29 |...... 31-03 3 33 | 26 \s 36°75 4 50 | 30 |...... 30-00 17 56 | 23 |x Wh 56 21-131 | ese: 29-03 1| 29 20 | 24 |) 2 53" | 3a 1... 28:12 Fall 2 44 | 24 3] 57 25 | 32 |...... 28-12 a 31.30 8 | 24 5 57 | 32 |...... 28-12 $20_1 1 32 | 24 | 1] 58 30 | 33 1 56 | 24 2} 59 2] 32 2} 31 19 | 23 3 32 | 30 3 45 | 26 6) 15/0 6} 34 19 | 32 8|23 39 | 33 1 $2 | 24 | 18 lon, 2} 113] 34 2 56 | 24 eins Rise 3 47 | 34 3] 33 20 | 24 she} 7 2 20 | 33 20 44 | 24 1 53 | 33 1] 34 9 | 25 2) 3% | 32 || 2lo7.95 2 32 | 23 3 58 1'33 | (8 \- 3 56 | 24 8 4 30 | 32 21 | 35 19 | 23 Pl 5 Ss 1 44 | 25 4 35 | 32 2] 36 9} 25 Jie 6 9] 34 3 33 | 24 |] °2 lar. 9 42 | 33 22 58 | 25 \3 ayia 1} 716] 34 1| 37 23 | 25 |) ®lap, 2 49 | 33 Fall 2 47 | 24 ts ae 3] 8 22] 33 head 3] 38 12 | 25 10 55 | 33 |J #20_.| O83 38 | 26 | | Alor.64 1} 9281] 33 1] 39 4/26] (8 2| 10 1 | 33 | $33 |27-27 ene 28 | 24 3 34 | 33 3 54 | 26 |... 34-61 8) 11 10 | 36 |] 24 | 40 20 | 26 |...... 34-61 1 46 | 36 Seve 1 48 | 28 \s a5:97 Rise 2] 12 22 | 36 2} 4113)25 (ss 1 3 57 | 35 3 38 | 25 | 12 |os.97 550 112 | 13 33 | 36 | 1S lon 97 (25 | 42 6) 28 iss 1] 1410] 37/3 1 32 | 26 |...... 34-61 = 45 | 35 2 57 | 25 |...... 36-00 15 22 | 37 ll 3] 43 21 | 24 }729 13 58 | 36 eon 46 | 25 \S eo 1} 16 33 | 35 400 1) 44 10 | 24 |) 5 logon 35 { FAT TE pews 26°47 2 35 | 25 bg 3 38°] Ser ee 28-12 (97 | 45 23 | 48 |... 37°50 302 Gradient. Rise pa ee 2105 Mileposts. Fall 530 Times. Differences. Differences averaged. eeeeee seeeee ttteee weeeee REPORT—1841. TABLE (continued). Miles per hour 28°75 29-03 28°56 29°03 28°12 28°12 27:27 29°27 Remarks. Gradient. Mileposts, Stafford. Co bho 48 Oo bo ae ee Times. 5 Se Bus & |g5| 82 A la®| s= | m s 20 28) 34 11 «lor. 21 2| 34 ie vind 36 34 22 12) 36 | [38 loc. 45| 38 | [oo o° 23 19] 34 |} ™ 54] 35 |...... 25-71 24 51] 57 SB dal) lay (We cl) sac iygi ltpet | ae |i 29 44 30 44] 60 |...... 15-00 32 9] 85 |...... 21-16 43] 34 |...... 26-47 CS ap rnc) 1 ai 29-03 44| 30 |...,.. 30-00 34 12] 28 |...... 82-14 38] 26 |.....- 34-61 35 5] 27 |... 33°33 31] 26 |......\84°61 56| 25 |...... 36-00 36 20] 24 |...... 37-50 43} 23 |...... 39-13 37 Ali 3. 39°13 28| 22 50} 22 38 13) 23 35] 22 | |x 56| 21 | $*5/41-32 39 18] 22 | |S 39} 21 40 1] 22 22| 2) 44] 22 |"... 40-91 41 7| 23 31| 24 54| 23 ) 42 16| 22 39] 23 | $32 /39-13 43 4| 25 25| 21 47| 22 44 10| 23 33] 23 5él 23 || Beo1s 45 20) 24 43} 23 46 7| 24 Mes lz 37°50 47 1/30 |.,.... 30-00 45] 44 |...... 20-45 48/90) 6) pedigree. 3 | ep ey ee Pe 53 55 54 40] 45 |.,.... 20-00 55 19) 39 4...... 23-07 53} 34 |...... 26°47 Remarks. Whitmore. Crewe. ON RAILWAY CONSTANTS. 303 TABLE (continued). z 3 8 eg a a as cy g ag 5 wn 2 3 | Times, 5 |s &| & % GH a) Gres, S| S2] oy | o A AlA*|/S5/ e & 5 ay a | Fe hm s hm s r55 | 6 56 26) 38 |...... 27-27 70 | 7 24 44) 27/...... 33:33 1 SYA) i a 29-03 Rise 1 25 14) 30} ]» 29-51 2| 57 26),29 335 2 45| 31\ fe 3 55| 29 3| 2619] 34]... 26-47 Level | 56 58 24] 29 7 53| 34|...... 26-47 1 + 53 29 bas Level{ 1] 27 27| 34)... ed 47 2} 99 | Tx Bl 28D) B34... 27-27 57 17 0201 581|~ a Les 32| 32]... 28-12 ae vio | 2 Ble ben 2 1 33 3 45| 28 |-.....\8214 Fall ra Fall | 58 S73) oe 32-14 1 2} 30 O| 271... 33°33 eal 1 40} 97 |...... 33°33 100 e 2 BO AC) ae ee 33:33 3 25} 251... 36-00 3 32| 95 |... 36-00 Fall | 731} 31 20) 55/138 59 38) 28 | peo “14. ,3|, 32 6| 46) fe Ph 1 28 510 | 74 31) 25 f Poms: 54] 28 | (loony 1 57| 26| fis? 50° 5 22 28 a f 2| 3324 27 2 3 52 Fall 11> 6 17} 97)... 33°33 aH |r 34 19} 27/1. 1 aT G-10t 55 33-97 2| 35 14] 55|\> 330 | 61 35) 28 | 34-61 sara | 70 36 9| 55|| SP279 1 24 |] 19 1 37| 28 ll 2 lor. Promee) oa a7 RP | 2] 37 4) 271). 2200 3 53] 26 |...... 34:61 7 59) 9911 © lgo.59 62 9 21} 98 |... 32-14 Fall 1] 38 27| 28/fS 1 48| 97 |... 33°33 — 2 59| 32\..... 28-12 g 2| 10 14] 26 AOS Ble eabotasel Bee. Stop. = Fall | 3 40| 26 te Ao: eke, MeL OI Ph ae Start. © zoo 463 | 1 7) 27 || Blois “1.478 |8 445 zi 33| 26 | (& F00 1] 5 38] 53 = 64 53] 27 ipo Bh) 6 Saleget eg! 15°51 Level 1] 13 19} 96 |... 34-61 SET 2 46| 27 |...... 33°33 TS Renesas, ; 15-26 Fall 3] 14 16] 30)...... 30-00 Fall | 79 8 13] 38]...... 23°68 siz 16 48] 32 |...... 28-12 il 1 43] 30]......}30-00 1} 15 20) 321) a log.gz a 2} 9 13] 30 Fall f 2} * a 36 ls 3 45| 32 le 29-03 1 3 FONTS lye. 80 10 16| 31 =e 17 10) 36 bs atse Rie | 48} 32/......|2812 1 = set) eee 27-27 2| 11 22) 34 Fall} 9] 18 15] 32 |..... [e842 e256) 3 54| 32 \s wctesd a5 13 45| 30 |...... 30-00 81 12 30| 36]... 25-00 Py 3 . 304 REPORT—1841. TABLE (continued). é g 2 Be z: 2 5 F: E ee 52™ the horizontal force had decreased by 01030 of its whole value. These changes are specially noted, in consequence of there apparently having been no corresponding disturbance at Greenwich. The disturbance at Toronto was at its height from 11 a.m. to 4p.M., Gott. mean time: its general effect appears to have been that of causing a decrease of easterly variation and of éotal intensity. The agreement in direction of the changes of horizontal and vertical force deserves remark: the minimum and maximum of each occurred simul- taneously, or as nearly so as can be learned from the observations, the mini- mum of both being observed at the second reading after noon, and the maxi- mum of both at precisely the same interval after the following midnight. The observations at Toronto, being continued until midnight of Saturday at that station, which was 6 A.M., Gott. mean time of the 26th, lasted about five hours longer than those at Greenwich ; and during these five hours a second disturbance was observed even greater than the preceding. Between 4 and 10 p.m., Gott. mean time, the disturbance had been much lessened ; it then increased rapidly, and the changes between 12 p.m. and 6 A.M. were very remarkable: in 15 minutes the declination magnetometer moved through an angle of 52'3, and in 25 minutes more had returned through an angle of 62'*8 in the opposite direction. The horizontal and ver- tical-force magnetometers were also greatly disturbed, the change in the hori- zontal force amounting in 20 minutes to 0122 of the whole force. The changes of horizontal and vertical force in the last six hours have been reduced to the equivalent changes of inclination and total intensity, and are printed, for the convenience of comparison at these observatories, where the variations of the inclination and total intensity are directly observed. As the two magnetometers were not observed precisely simultaneously, the changes of inclination and total intensity can only be regarded as approximate, 346 REPORT—1841. though the difference in the times of observation having been only 13 minute, the errors occasioned thereby are probably seldom very great. The observations of the second disturbance show a striking connexion be- tween the changes of declination and intensity, an increase of force corre- sponding to an increase of easterly declination, and vice versd : the same con- nexion was observed in the Toronto observations of the 29th of May, 1840. Auroras.—An aurora was visible at Greenwich both in the morning and evening of the 25th. At Toronto the morning was heavily clouded, with rain, consequently no aurora could be seen: in the evening the aurora was visible at intervals from 7 to 10 p.m., Toronto time, or 1 to 5 a.M., Gott. time, the period of the second great disturbance ; the remainder of the night was heavily clouded. A gale of wind occurred on the following day (26th), and in the evening another aurora was seen. The extreme changes of the declination, horizontal, and vertical force, du- ring the two disturbances, were as follows :—of the declination, 1° 05'; of the horizontal force, 02438 of its whole value; and of the vertical force, 01288 of its whole value. The days of occurrence, and the extreme ranges of the principal disturbances observed at Toronto in 1840 are subjoined, in order that the relative extent of the present disturbance may be estimated. Dates. ExTREME RANGES. OO OOo 1840. Declination. Horizontal Force. Vertical Force. i May 29 ...... 159 Off scale, exceeding °044 Off scale, exceeding *024 August 28,... 1 44 0°03521 0:00846 September 22.. 1 O1 Not observed, being out of adjustment. ” 25.. 0 30 000184 0:00112 December 21.. 1 22 001522 0:01074 1841. Sept. 25 and 26 1 05 0:02438 0°01288 An aurora was observed on each of the above days in 1840; that of the 29th of May was the most brilliant of any seen since the establishment of the Observatory, Very few additional observations were taken either on the 22nd or 25th of September, 1840; on the last day especially, the few that were taken were not commenced until the greater part of the disturbance was ap- parently over ; consequently the actual changes were, in all probability, much greater than those observed ; the recurrence of so great a disturbance on the same day in the following year is remarkable. Additional observations have occasionally been taken in the course of every month in 1841, in con- sequence of unusual disturbances, but the changes have never equalled those above mentioned. The months of September and October appear to be those of greatest dis- turbance. Gauss’s arrangement of the scale and mirror has been adopted for the horizontal-force magnetometer at Toronto, in consequence of the disturb- ance of the 29th of May, 1840, having driven the magnet beyond the range of the collimator scale. The range of the declination scale (on Professor Lloyd's plan) being about 6°,—or three times greater than the extreme range hitherto observed,—there is little probability of its ever being exceeded. ON THE MAGNETIC DISTURBANCE AT TORONTO, &c. 347 Postscript, Dec. 14th.—Whilst these pages were in the press, I received, through the kindness of Mr. Caldecott, the abstract of the observations made in September at the Magnetic Observatory instituted by the Rajah of Tra- vancore, at Trevandrum, in lat. 8° 30' 35°2'' N., and long. 5 7™ 598 E.; by which I am enabled to state, that an unusual magnetic disturbance took place in India simultaneously with those observed in England and America; al- though, in consequence of the easterly position of Trevandrum, the com- mencement only of the disturbance was observed there. Each observatory discontinued its observations when its own Saturday night arrived ; thus the observations at Greenwich continued five hours later than at Trevandrum, and at Toronto five hours later than at Greenwich ; the latest observations, in each case, showing the continuance of the disturbance. The observations at Trevandrum consist of the regular two-hourly read- ings of the three magnetometers, day and night. By comparing the positions of the magnetometers at each of the magnetic hours of the 25th of Septem- ber, with the mean position at the same hour in the previous twenty-four days, we obtain what we may consider a measure of the magnetic disturbance of that day.. As the disturbance was indicated principally by the horizontal- force magnetometer, we may commence with the comparison of that instru- ment, premising that as the inclination at Trevandrum is only — 2° 50’, the horizontal intensity at that station comprises nearly the whole magnetic in- tensity, the vertical component being extremely small. Horizontal-Force Magnetometer, Trevandrum, September 25, 1841. Mean Time. Mpan Fosition. Sept. 25, Difference and Remarks. Ist to 24th Sept. Trev. Gott. hm h Scale Div. Scale Div. 0 28a.m.| 8p.m. 120°3 131-4 | 11-1 2 28 10 118:7 1268 81 en a hg ae Op Scale-divisions in excess on the 25th of 6 28 2a.M. 116:3 -1273 =| 110 September, corresponding to dimi- : , . nished intensity; one scale-division eg i EEE AAR ARN NEE cael nemdy Ghinelahole Hors 10 28 6 103-0 W185 | 155 zontal force at Trevandrum. The 0 28p.m.| 8 113°8 122-6 3:8 approximate absolute horizontal force, ay resulting from two experiments in the 2 28 10 125:1 140-2 | 15-1 month of September, expressed in re- Agi rik i ference to the units of the British sy- hat Boon: baae ‘sigh bie stem, is 7°77. (Instructions of the 6 28 2PM. 124:7 167-1 | 42:4 Royal Society, p. 21.) 8 28 4 124-0 1579 | 33:9 10 28 6 122°3 1716 | 49-3 The positions in the Table are uncorrected for the variations of temperature of the bar, but the corrections on that account may be safely neglected for the present purpose: the thermometer of the horizontal-force magnetometer on the mean of the 12 magnetic hours of the 25th, was one degree of Fahrenheit /ess than the average of the month. During the 24th of September the horizontal intensity differed little from its mean position, at the same hour, since the commencement of the month, until 10° 28™ p.m., Trevandrum time, being the last observation of the day, when it was weaker than the average at that hour by an amount equal to about 7 scale-divisions. During the whole day of the 25th it was weaker 348 REPORT—1841. than the average of the preceding twenty-four days of the month, by the quantities shown in the above table; and at the Gottingen hours of noon, 2, 4, and 6 p.M., when great disturbances were taking place at Greenwich and Toronto, the observations at Trevandrum show a decrease of intensity much exceeding the usual fluctuations. Mr. Caldecott has annexed the fol- lowing remark to the readings at these hours :—“ These irregular readings ‘«‘ examined into at the hours they were made, and found not to arise from “ any instrumental irregularity.—J. C.” On the 26th, being Sunday, no observations were made ; but the following table, exhibiting the mean position of the magnetometer 7 each day in Sep- tember, shows that during the remaining days of the month the horizontal intensity did not return to its previous average value ; corresponding with the remark deduced by Professor Kreil from ten perturbations observed at Prague, namely, that “the horizontal intensity remains weaker for some time after the “ great oscillations have ceased, and only gradually resumes its ordinary Eaorce*. Mean Position of the Horizontal-Force Magne- tometer in each day in September. Scale Div. Scale Div. 1 123°8 18 124-0 2 118°3 20 123-7 3 113-5 21 1246 4 114-1 22 123°5 6 110-9 23 1198 7 110-4 24 117-4 8 116-9 25 139-4 9 114-5 27 133-0 10 117:0 28 129-9 1] 1173 29 129°5 13 122-7 30 130:0 4 127°5 |————— | —_—_— 15 | ween |mGanpe tel | as 16 118°4 month ...... 7 125:1 Declination Magnetometer.—The effect of the disturbance on the declina- tion magnetometer at Trevandrum appears to have been comparatively small. The north end of the magnet was, however, during the whole day to the east- ward of its average position at the same hours in the preceding part of the month, as is shown in the subjoined table. The second part of the table ex- emplifies the small amount of the fluctuations which take place from day to day in the mean position of this magnetometer at Trevandrum. The mean position for the month, corrected for torsion of the thread, was 253°48 scale- divisions, or the mean declination for the month = 0° 43'45°7! East. A scale-division in this instrument = 39°85'nearly. * Letter to Lieut.-Col. Sabine, translated in Phil. Mag., Third Series, vol. xvii. p. 429. ON THE MAGNETIC DISTURBANCE AT TORONTO, &c. 349 3 Declination Magnetometer, Trevandrum, September 1841. Mean Time. Avec Mean Position in each day, osition + ffs in vip woe § j ‘ a BAY SELAH ru 1 hemes Savy es er aL | aor Cn) are yee WEP ene fr a yy — BLS SLAB biste en il has Baie NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. Addendum to the Report of the Transactions of the Sections in 1839. Ar the Meeting of the British Association in Birmingham in August 1839, Mr. Nasmyth communicated three papers, one to the Geological Section, on the Structure of Fossil Teeth; a second to the Medical Section, on the Microscopic Structure of the Teeth; and a third to the Medical Section, on the Structure of the Epithelium. Agreeably to the practice of the Association, the paper read to the Geo- logical Section was delivered to the Secretaries of that Section, Dr. Lloyd and Mr. Strickland; and an abstract of its contents having been prepared by Dr. Lloyd, for insertion in that portion of the annual volume which con- tains notices of the proceedings of the Sections, the original memoir and the abstract were transmitted to the Assistant General Secretary (Mr. Phillips), by whom the memoir was returned to Mr. Nasmyth. With respect to the two papers read before the Medical Section, the prac- tice above mentioned was not followed’: no abstract of the contents of these papers was furnished by or through the Secretaries of the Section to the Assistant General Secretary. Notices of Mr. Nasmyth’s papers appeared in the Athenzeum and Literary Gazette of the period: those journals usually obtain such notices either from authors themselves or from reporters of their own: in the present case the Council have been informed by the respective editors, that the report in the Atheneum of the two papers read to the Medical Section was supplied, and the proofs corrected, by Mr. Nasmyth himself, and the notice of the geo- logical paper by the reporter of the Atheneum; and that the report in the Literary Gazette was drawn up by the reporter of that journal, from a rough manuscript furnished to him by Mr. Nasmyth. In the October following the meeting, Mr. Nasmyth applied to Mr. Phil- lips to know whether the papers read by him at the meeting would be printed entire, or in the form of abstracts ; and was acquainted in reply, that, accord- ing to usage, brief abstracts only could be inserted in the notices published by the Association, and unaccompanied by diagrams; the original memoirs and drawings being the author's own property, and at his own disposal. On January 28, 1840, Mr. Nasmyth informed Mr. Phillips that he was preparing abstracts of his papers, and desired to know whether the papers read to the Geological and Medical Sections on nearly the same subject should be reported on as one, or kept separate. He also requested Mr. Phil- ’ lips to obtain for him, from the Secretary of the Geological Section, the original memoir read at that Section, as an application which he had made for it himself remained unanswered, and he had only rough notes of that paper from which to make the abstract. Mr. Phillips informed him in reply, 1841. B 2 REPORT—1841. that one consecutive abstract of the three papers would be preferable, urging brevity and despatch ; he at the same time returned the Geological memoir (as already stated) on or about the 10th of February. On the 24th of February Mr. Nasmyth transmitted to Mr. Phillips an abstract, which he stated to contain the material points of the three papers, abbreviated as much as possible, and requested 200 private copies. Mr. Phillips has preserved no copy, and has no distinct recollection of his reply to this request, but thinks it probable he stated the custom of the Associa- tion in regard to private copies, and referred Mr. Nasmyth to the printer, Mr. R. Taylor, from whom he would have to receive them. On the 2nd of April Mr. Nasmyth wrote to Mr. Phillips, expressing sur- prise at having that morning received in type “a small fragment of a sepa- rate report of one of his papers,” after having been requested to give the substance of his three papers in one consecutive abstract, and having com- plied with that request. He was informed in reply, that it was by an error that any notice of Mr. Nasmyth’s geological paper had been put amongst the papers of that section, beyond a mere reference ; that it shouid be cancelled ; and that it was intended to give the abstract furnished by Mr. Nasmyth in one continuous article in the proceedings of the Medical Section ; but as the manu- script appeared very long, Mr. Phillips suggested some omissions, which being assented to by Mr. Nasmyth in a letter of the 10th April, the manuscript was sent to the printing-office. The proofs, of which the printer states there were several, passed directly between Mr. Nasmyth and the printing-oftice, the manuscript and all the proofs, except the last corrected revise, being retained by Mr. Nasmyth. All the other sheets of the volume passed through Mr. Phillips’s hands in their progress through the press, as is the usual prac- tice: the exception in this case appears to have been occasioned by Mr. Phillips's temporary absence from York, and the printer's desire to hasten the volume through the press. When the proofs were finally corrected, Mr. Nasmyth applied to the printer for 100 private copies, and was informed that, without an order, his request could not be complied with until the volume was published. Mr. Nasmyth then enclosed, or brought to the printing-office, a note from Mr. Phillips to himself, the exact purport of which Mr. Taylor cannot now recall, but which appeared to him at the time to authorize a compliance with Mr. Nasmyth’s request: the copies were accordingly delivered. On June 10 Professor Owen wrote to Mr. Phillips, calling his attention to the following sentence in the Medical Gazette of the 5th of June:—* In “ Mr. Nasmyth’s own report given in the Transactions of the British Asso- “ ciation, which has been printed separately, and of which a copy is now “ before us, we find it stated that the ivory is neither more nor less than the * ossified pulp, and that it can in no wise be regarded as an unorganized “ body.” Mr. Owen denied, on the authority of the contemporaneous reports in the Atheneum and Literary Gazette, that Mr, Nasmyth’s papers read at Bir- mingham would justify an abstract containing the statement tkus printed in the Medical Gazette, and claimed the theory of the development of teeth, ascribed therein to Mr. Nasmyth, as his own, communicated to the French Institute and published in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ in the December following the meeting at Birmingham. Mr. Owen concluded by requesting Mr, Phil- lips to suspend the publication, in the volume of the Association’s Reports, of the abstract containing the statement in the Medical Gazette, until its fidelity should be shown by comparison with the original documents. Mr. Phillips expressed, in reply, his surprise at the information received from Mr. Owen, inasmuch as not having seen any proofs, he was not aware TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 that Mr. Nasmyth’s abstract had passed through the press, and as he had certainly not meant to have sanctioned the delivery of any private copies before the publication of the volume; that Mr. Nasmyth, however, could not be regarded as at all responsible for these irregularities; that full con- fidence had always been placed in the communications from authors, and that no such question had ever occurred before; and that unless Mr. Owen should take the formal step of an appeal to the Council, in which case it would become his (Mr. Phillips's) duty to await the directions he should receive from that body, he could neither suppress nor suspend the pub- lication. On the 24th of June Mr. Phillips addressed the following letter to Mr. Nasmyth :— «“ Sir, “ York, June 24, 1840. “T have this moment received from Mr. R. Taylor, for the first time, a proof of the abstract of your memoirs on Odontology, and am concerned to find that you have made additions* to it since I forwarded the MS. to be set up. This is grievous; but what astonishes me more, is to learn that, without my knowledge, you have received copies of the paper in this unauthentie state, and communicated extracts, or the whole, to a Medical Review. “ These unfortunate circumstances place me in a painful position ; but their effect is more to be regretted on your account, since they deprive me alto- gether of the power of substantiating the authenticity of your communi- cations. *“ Yours very truly, “ Alexander Nasmyth, Esq.” ** Joun PHILuIPs.” To this letter Mr. Nasmyth replied as follows :— “ To Professor Phillips. “13 A, George Street, Hanover Square, “ Sir, June 27, 1840. “ It is with feelings of no little astonishment that I perused your letter of June 24th, received yesterday ; and I am quite at a loss to divine in what way I have deviated with respect to the publication of my abstract in the Transactions from the ordinary course of proceeding. More than six weeks ago, a proof of my paper was transmitted to me, and I was never more sur- prised than on learning that you did not receive one before June 24th. I corrected my proof, and received a revise of it, which I duly returned; and of course had every right to presume that either the proof or revise was sub- mitted to the Editor of the publication to which I was contributing. With respect to the corrections made, I at once undertake to prove that they con- sisted in no interpolation whatever of new matter, but merely in alterations, rendering the abstract a more faithful digest of my papers as reported in the Literary Gazette and Atheneum, and am therefore still more unable to un- derstand the propriety of this interference with my clear right to do justice to my papers in their authentic report. As to the printing separate copies of my abstract, as I have had several letters from you, authorising me to give publicity to it in any way I choose, I cannot suppose I was doing wrong in making use of a permission freely granted. “ T remain, Sir, your obedient servant, “ A.J. NAsMyTH.” * The words in Italics in this and the subsequent letters, and in the reports to the Council, were underlined in the originals. BQ 4 “REPORT—1841. On the 18th of July, Mr. Owen addressed the following appeal to the Council, to Mr. Yates, Secretary of the Council; and informed Mr. Phillips that he had taken this step :— “ My DEAR SIR, “ Royal College of Surgeons, July 18, 1840. “ You may feel assured that it is with very great regret that I trespass on your valuable time in respect of a personal matter: if it had been, however, merely personal, I should have refrained ; but the case is one that might be quoted to the detriment of the character of the Scientific Transactions of the British Association, with regard to the laxity with which authors, communi- cating their views at the meeting, are afterwards allowed to represent them- selves as having so communicated their views, when the volume comes, some months afterwards, to be published. My request is, that the publication of Mr. Nasmyth’s paper in the forthcoming volume be suppressed, or the ori- ginal paper, as read at Birmingham in August last, be substituted, on the ground that it has been altered by the author, both in the way of substitution of new matter, and omission of old, in order to include a discovery of mine, published December 16, 1839, and likewise, because the author has made use of the proof of his memoir, as so altered, to found a charge of plagiarism against me, which has been published, anonymously, in the Medical Journals, Lancet, and Medical Gazette. “In proof of these allegations, I transmit the following :— “1. Literary Gazette, containing a verbatim* report of Mr. Nasmyth’s Me- moir, as read at Birmingham, August 12, 1839. 2. © Comptes Rendus, containing the abstract of my Memoir, published December 16, 18407. “ 3. Proof of Mr. Nasmyth’s modified memoir, now standing in type for the forthcoming memoir. “4 and 5. Simultaneous attacks on me in the Lancet and Gazette, founded chiefly on a comparison of the privately circulated proof, with my published memoir; such proof being made to represent the Trans- actions of the British Association, Vol. VIII. (!) “6. My answer. “The question at issue is, whether Mr. Nasmyth described at Birming- ham the cellular ivory of the tooth as being the ossified pulp. “ [have marked with a marginal line the paragraphs in the Literary Gazette, and the modified proof which relate to dental development. “ Prof. Phillips has probably communicated with you on the subject. As injustice will be done to me if the Association sanction the publication of Mr. Nasmyth’s views in the corrected proof, as exponents of what he enun- ciated in August last, it seems to be a not unreasonable request that the pub- lication of at least that portion of his paper in question be postponed till its real correspondence with his memoir of August last be ascertained. “He (Mr. N.) has obtained Private Copies of his modified memoir, and * On a reference made by Mr. Yates to the Reporter of the Literary Gazette, the following statement was given by that gentleman in explanation of the use of the word “ verbatim.” “The Report on the Memoir on Epithelium is a ‘verbatim’ copy of the rough manuscript “supplied by Mr. Nasmyth. The Report on the Physiology of Teeth is fully and accurately ‘given in accordance with the manuscript [supplied by Mr. Nasmyth], with the exception of ‘those portions referring to diagrams, which would perhaps have more clearly explained the ‘author's views, but which, without the drawings themselves, I considered could not have ‘assisted the reader, and with the further exception of any errors of judgement exercised by ‘‘me, such as the above consideration may evidence.” The paragraphs marked by Mr. Owen with a marginal line were in the Report on the Physiology of Teeth. + Mr. Owen’s communication to the Institute was read on the 16th December, and pub- lished in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ on the 23rd of December. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5 has anticipated the publication of the Society’s volume, by transmitting them to the Institute at Paris and other Societies, as well as to the editors of jour- nals, for comparison with my memoir of December. “Believe me, my dear Sir, faithfully yours, “ James Yates, Esq., Sc. &e., “ RIcHARD OWEN.” “ Sec. Council, British Association.” Mr. Yates was unfortunately absent from England when Mr. Owen’s letter reached his house. Both the General Secretaries were also on the Continent, and most of the other members of the Council were absent from London, so that it was found impossible to assemble a Council to receive and consider Mr. Owen’s appeal before the assembly of the members at Glasgow, at the meeting of the Association in September. On the 10th of August Mr. Phillips informed Mr. Nasmyth in the follow- ing letter of the course he felt it his duty to follow under these novel and very embarrassing circumstances :— “Sir, “ York, August 10, 1840. “ The course of proceeding which I have thought it my duty to adopt, in regard to the publication of your paper, is this:--The printer will lose no time in finishing the volume, the abstract of your papers omitted ; he will also retain in type the whole of your abstract, in the form you have given it, in order that, should the Council direct it to be introduced, it may, with as little delay as possible, be added to the volume, whether published or not, and the opinion of the Council on the case, so far as by copies of all the letters I have received, and by reference to public documents, it can be justly stated to them, will be requested on the very earliest possible occasion; this being what I conceive the line of my duty, in consequence of the appeal which Professor Owen has made to the Council (Mr. Yates and the General Secre- taries being unfortunately absent). I shall be both surprised and grieved if you interpret as intended injustice to yourself what certainly is based on a conscientious desire to conduct myself rightly in circumstances such as hap- pily have not occurred before in connexion with the British Association. “That you should be dissatisfied with the suspension of the printing of your paper, is an almost necessary consequence ; but I really cannot suppose that your displeasure at this proceeding on my part will prevent you from furnishing to the Council, through their Secretary, Mr. Yates, such of the original documents which you mention as may be sufficient to prove the ac- curacy of the abstract you desire to have printed. Should you, however, in- stead of this easy and obvious method of correcting any error of mine, resolve to appeal to another tribunal, the public, I will give you the only proof in my power to offer of an unbiassed mind, by transmitting copies of all the letters I have received from you, to render any statement you may think proper to make as complete as possible. “Tam, &c. &e. “A. Nasmyth, Esq.” “ Joun Puitqies.” To this Mr. Nasmyth replied as follows :— “13 A, George Street, Hanover Square, 12th August, 1840. “ To Professor John Phillips. “ Sir, “T have to acknowledge the receipt of yours of the 10th instant, and in reply have to state, that notwithstanding I have already fully done my duty to ‘the British Association, it must be perfectly clear to you that I can have no possible objection to submit the documents required to you for your satisfac- 6 REPORT—1841. tion. It must also be clear to you, as you of course know the circumstances, that I cannot consistently with what is due to myself place any papers, draw- ings, or other documents containing unpublished matter, in the way of falling under Mr. Owen’s inspection, having suffered so much already in that quarter. Since I have had the papers in my possession J have continued my investiga- tions, and the blank pages of the original papers contain much recent original matter. The books of drawings and separate sheets of drawings themselves contain the requisite illustrations of these recent researches ; I could not, therefore, on that account, submit them where they would run the least risk of inspection by that gentleman; and even were there no original matter, I cannot, under the circumstances which have occurred, submit myself to any tribunal over which he has the least shadow of control. However, I in no way wish to elicit an opinion from you on these points, but I beg to say that as you are the person who ought, as editor of the Transactions of the British Association, to be satisfied of the correctness of any abstract or epitome pub- lished by you in that capacity, I will, if you choose, either show you here, or without hesitation I will even take the trouble of conveying to you at York the whole of my preparations, drawings and original manuscripts, which I had with me at Birmingham, under the express condition, however, that Mr. Owen is not allowed to see them, or in any way whatever to interfere. I must re- mind you, however, that all these have already been in your power, and the MSS. in your possession for some time, and that every opportunity has been rendered by me already for any one of the Council to satisfy himself on any point: the circumstances which have since occurred, and those which I have above alluded to, form sufficient grounds for not submitting any documents to the Council again* as a body, though for your satisfaction, as Editorial Secretary, I can have no hesitation in submitting them. In stating this I beg it to be distinctly understood that I mean no disrespect to the body collect- ively, or to its members individually. “I only wait therefore your answer, in the hope that as you alone are now responsible for what is published, your eye alone need be satisfied, a satisfac- tion which was equally in your power and that of the Council for some time already, and which time was only limited by their own choice, and not by any importunity on my part to have the papers back. “‘T need not observe that a great difficulty connected with the step of for- warding my original documents is the size of the illustrations, drawings, &e. ; the necessity of these to elucidate the original papers (the whole being a piece of descriptive microscopic anatomy,) you may judge of by the desire I evinced to you of having some of these illustrations introduced in the abstract. That, however, shall not stand in the way of satisfying you, and prevent the neces- sity of a step which I should deplore as much as any one. I can assure you, Sir, that it was with the utmost reluctance I took any step at all with refer- ence to Prof. Owen’s treatment of me, but I am happy in feeling that every member of the profession with whom I am acquainted, and many besides, think that I have only done what was due to myself; and I am quite sure that any one who knows me will give me credit for a love of anything rather than disputes, especially public disputations, as my forbearance for so long a period may testify. I have laboured hard for some years in a particular line of dis- covery, and you would feel as strongly as any one that it is not pleasant to have the results of your own labours appropriated by another, and then the accidental position of that other on a Council of a Society where your own discoveries were first made public (upon whose protection you throw your- * There is some mistake here; no documents of Mr. Nasmyth’s, nor any question having any relation to them, had ever been before the Council at the time that this letter was written. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7 self) acting as a check upon the publication of an ungarbled epitome of what you had really said. “ Such is my case, and I leave it in your hands. I am very happy to know that it is by Prof. Owen’s instigations that this act of justice is denied me. But I hope by the course I have proposed in this letter to induce you, as the organ of the Association, not to commit an act of injustice which one inter- ested member of its Council would induce it to commit. “J shall be ready either to go to York to communicate with you, or to see you here. I need not inform you of the very great inconvenience it will be to me to leave town even for a day at present, and it would be of much con- sequence to me if it could be spared. “T remain, Sir, your very obedient servant, «¢ ALEXANDER NASMYTH.” It may be proper here to remark, that when Mr. Nasmyth wrote this letter, Mr. Owen was himself a member of the Council: he ceased to be so in the new Council appointed at Glasgow*; and he was not present at the only meeting of the former Council, in which the question of Mr. Nasmyth’s paper came under consideration, namely, in September. Mr. Nasmyth’s offer to convey his original memoir to York, for Mr. Phil- lips’s satisfaction, was declined, as, an appeal having been made to the Coun- cil, the case was removed out of his jurisdiction. On the 5th of September Mr. Nasmyth enclosed to Mr. Yates the follow- ing letter, to be laid before the Council at the same time with Mr. Owen’s appeal :-— “ To the Council of the British Association. “13 A, George Street, Hanover Square, “ GENTLEMEN, 5th Sept., 1840. “Professor Phillips, the Assistant Secretary to the British Association, having, on a simple application from Mr. Owen, without any authority or investigation on the subject, although I repeatedly offered him all the means and facilities in my power, and even offered to take all the materials and papers connected with my communications to York for his individual satis- faction, at once suppressed, in the volume of the Transactions of the past year, the whole of a report of three contributions made by me on three dif- ferent subjects to the last meeting of the British Association; though one of these had not the slightest connexion with the point in which Mr. Owen's application originated ; though all of them had been approved by the Coun- cil, read and demonstrated at the public meetings of its Sections, and the original papers themselves had remained in the hands of its officers, and been ‘reported ’ under the direction of Professor Phillips; and though the abstract, made out at his request, had been, after his inspection, condensed and short- ened at his especial suggestion, gladly inserted by him, corrected in proof under his superintendence, and printed, and communicated to me in a sepa- rate form with his authorization ;—I now respectfully demand from you the restoration of my abstract to its proper place in all the copies of the Transactions hereafter circulated, and that an apology for its omission be instantly circulated and sent to the possessors of the volumes hitherto sold. If Professor Phillips has any cause of complaint against me, I shall instantly be ready to defend myself, if common fairnesss is first shown me, and my privileges restored; but I protest against his having first, without even the * Having been on the Councils of 1838 and 1839. + Mr. Nasmyth was in error in supposing that either his original memoirs or his abstract had ever been seen by the Council. 8 REPORT—1841. distinct allegation of a relevant deviation from propriety on my part, and certainly without an attempt on his part to try the validity of any justification, taken extreme measures against me, and then, in fact, arbitrarily passed and executed sentence upon me before trial, or even a relevant or distinct charge. Such a line of conduct in my opinion savours of persecution, and is certainly at direct variance with British ideas of justice, and I am confi- dent that the British Association for the Advancement and Encouragement of Science will never sanction for an instant such a total subversion of the fun- damental bond of union of the Association. “T am, Gentlemen, your obedient servant, (Signed) “ALEXANDER NAsmyTH.” In September the volume of the Transactions was published, containing in its sectional notices, the title of Mr. Nasmyth’s papers read at the Bir- mingham Meeting, but, as in the case of many other papers in that volume, and in others, without any abstract being given of their contents. On the 15th of September, being the earliest day on which the Council could be assembled, they met at Glasgow, having before them the letters above noticed, and a statement from Mr. Phillips that he had never seen either of the two papers read by Mr. Nasmyth to the Medical Section. Whereupon the following Resolutions were adopted :— 1. That the Council approve of the decision of Mr. Phillips to suspend the publication of Mr. Nasmyth’s paper, pending an appeal to the Council from Professor Owen, relative to the correctness of Mr. Nasmyth’s report of that paper. 2. That it be referred to the President and other officers of the Medical Sec- tion at Birmingham, to decide whether the report of Mr. Nasmyth’s paper, as published in the Literary Gazette and Athenzum, or in either of those periodicals, or the report of that paper sent by Mr. Nasmyth to Mr. Phil- lips for publication in the ‘ Report of the Ninth Meeting of the Associa- tion held at Birmingham,’ is more correct in regard to the points under discussion between Professor Owen and Mr. Nasmyth, and that the Presi- dent of the Medical Section be requested to communicate the result to the Council at his earliest convenience. 3. That these Resolutions be communicated to Professor Owen and Mr. Nasmyth. On the 19th of November the Report of the Referees was received by the Council: it was as follows :— Reference having been made to us by a Council of the British Association for our opinion whether the report of Mr. Nasmyth’s paper, as published in the Literary Gazette and Athenzeum, or in either of those two periodicals, or the report of that paper sent by Mr. Nasmyth to Mr. Phillips for publica- tion in the Report of the Ninth Meeting of the Association, held at Birming- ham, is more correct with regard to the points under discussion between Professor Owen and Mr. Nasmyth, we have carefully examined these seve- ral documents, and it appears to us that the main point under discussion between these two gentlemen is, whether the account of the process of den- tition, contained in Mr. Nasmyth’s paper, did or did not comprise the theory that the ivory of the teeth is formed by the ossification of the pulp. We find, with reference to this question, that in the accounts of Mr. Nasmyth’s paper, given in the Literary Gazette and Atheneum, his opinions on that subject are involved in considerable ambiguity ; for, while some passages in them would imply that he considered the proper substance of the teeth as TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 being formed by the addition of ossific matter in the original structure of the pulp, commencing and proceeding on its surface, these reports contain, at the same time, other passages, in which the theory of the ossification of the pulp is distinctly and expressly disclaimed by Mr. Nasmyth; whereas in the abstract of his paper, drawn up by himself, with a view to publication in the Report of the Association, this theory is very explicitly and unequivocally maintained. Whether this theory was distinctly advanced in the original paper read to the Medical Section at Birmingham, it is not in our power to determine, because that paper is not before us, and because we have no other evidence of the nature of its contents than the printed documents already referred to. (Signed) JAMES MACARTNEY, One of the Vice-Presidents of the Medical Section at the Birmingham Meeting. P. M. ROGET, One of the Vice-Presidents of the Medical Section at the Birmingham Meeting. G. O. REES, One of the Secretaries of the Medical Sec- November 16th, 1840. tion at the Meeting at Birmingham. This Report having been considered, the Council resolved,— 1, That the Council do not consider it necessary to make any further publi- cation of Mr. Nasmyth’s communication than the notice inserted in the Report of the Ninth Meeting of the Association, held at Birmingham. 2. That this Resolution be communicated to Mr. Nasmyth and Professor Owen. 3. That the thanks of the Council be returned to the Authors of the above Report, for the care and attention which they have employed in preparing it, and that they be furnished with a copy of the preceding Resolutions. On the 8th of January 1841, the Council received, through their Secretary Mr. Yates, a communication from Mr. Nasmyth, dated January 7th, still press- ing the publication of his abstract in the volume of the Association Reports, and expressing his readiness and desire to lay before the Council the engra- vings from the drawings which had accompanied his papers read at Birming- ham. There appeared from this communication reason to suppose that Mr. Nasmyth might no longer entertain the indisposition expressed in his letter to Mr. Phillips of the 12th of August, to allow the Council to have the original memoirs for the purpose of comparison with the abstract ; and as by this com- parison alone their agreement or disagreement with each other could be as- certained, and the Council be enabled (on the supposition of their agreement) to publish Mr. Nasmyth’s abstract with their own authentication, the follow- ing Resolution was adopted :— “That Mr. Yates be requested to obtain from Mr. Nasmyth the original memoir or memoirs read by him to the Medical Section at Birmingham, with a statement that no alterations have been made in them ; and to refer them to the authors of the Report to the Council, dated November 16, 1840, for the pur- pose of enabling them to decide upon the correctness of the abstract presented by Mr. Nasmyth for publication in the Report of the Ninth Meeting of the Association held at Birmingham; and that the Referees be requested to report the result of their inquiries to the Council at their earliest convenience.” At a meeting of the Council on the 27th of February, the following letter 10 REPORT— 1841. was presented from Dr. Roget, addressed to Mr. Yates, Secretary of the Council :— “Dear Sir, “ Bernard Street, January 21, 1841. “ Dr. Rees and myself, having taken into our consideration the letter which you wrote to both of us the day before yesterday, beg, in answer, to refer you to the letter of Dr. Macartney, of the 12th instant, addressed to yourself (which we return inclosed), and to express our entire concurrence in the opi- nion he there gives on the subject of the new reference made to us by the Council of the British Association. The question at issue between Mr. Nas- myth and Mr. Owen being one of considerable delicacy, we have thought it right to protect ourselves from all suspicion of being biassed in our judge- ment by ex parte statements or representations; and we have accordingly scrupulously avoided having any communication with Mr. Owen, either di- rectly or indirectly, on the matters in dispute. For the same reason we must decline the proffered interview with Mr. Nasmyth, and the more so as we feel that the question, on which the Council request our opinion, would be- come more involved and difficult of solution by the introduction of matters really foreign to it, which would unavoidably result from such an interview. The simple question, as it appears to us, turns upon the matter contained in the original memoirs, in the identical state in which they were read to the Sections of the Association at Birmingham. Mr. Nasmyth having subse- quently made many additions and alterations in these manuscripts, and not having consented to restore them to their former state, as proposed by Dr. Macartney, and having declined to place in the hands of the Referees the ori- ginal memoirs, as desired by the Council, we are consequently unable to exe- cute the task they have requested us to undertake. “ Dear Sir, faithfully yours, “ Rev. James Yates.” (Signed) « cea psteap 49°6772 Air within the Minster warmer than without...........s.csccssessceseeeeneenees 0°4898 General mean temperature of York for twenty-five years ........sssssseeeeees 48°2000 TABLE II. Mean Temperature | Mean Temp. with- | Approximate mean within. out, insame Months. | max. Temp. without. January ......... 36°68 33°39 44°7 February ......... 39°03 39°01 46°25 Marehitecccssecoss 43°14 42°91 49'°3 Aiprilities sce ees 45°74 48°20 55°9 Wii snecsoeeshcat: 53°77 57°01 64:0 Jupasteninsitss 58°22 61°18 72°3 FREY, bist deve 61°22 62°42 73°0 AUSUSt He. tent 9. RAE ee £177,830) |,1SSa cm meet riot eee cesseees £179,283 ROO sea csay 3p sepcer qiea-eps 190,515 | 1834 ...... SON acta ch Sas 192,269 MRR ancl 2 en ane «nds «0975 198.1449 ISS scene eerste ae 231,903 7) © Eb w. 173,593 The annual consumption of these goods in England is estimated at 1,200,000/. The earnings of the men vary, in proportion to their skill, from 18s. to 42s. per week, and some receive much more. The unions among the workmen are rich, and should any master resist their dictation, they can afford a handsome allowance weekly; but the restrictions imposed by these unions are not so severe as in other trades, partly on account of the variety of work, and partly on account of the superior intelligence of the workmen. The number of operatives is a little over 400. They have sick societies, separate from the unions, which afford efficient relief to those who have been incapable of working’for three successive months. The saw-manufacture is next in importance. The workmen are remarkable for sobriety, intelligence, and good conduct. They have unions, which regulate wages, the number of apprentices, and afford relief in sickness. There are 208 journeymen, about twenty of whom are not in union; the number of boys is 130, which exceeds what is allowed by the rules of the trade. The wages vary according to work and skill, but may be stated at from 24s. to 32s. per week. Piece-work is stil] more un- certain, ranging from 28s. to 45s. Wages are about the same now as in 1814, but work has been increased 25 per cent. The trade depends on foreign orders, and is subject to great fluctuations. The edge-tool manufactory employs about 200 foremen, 200 strikers, and 50 apprentices. The average of the wages, supposing a man to work eleven hours per day, is, foreman 34s., and strikers 22s.: they all work by the piece. The labour is severe, and produces exhaustion, which leads to vicious excesses and intoxication. The spring-knife manufacturers are among the worst paid in the town, and suffer more than any others in seasons of commercial distress. Their numbers are— Spring: knife hafters....... oie Redgade poifemtan oo'se sida stia= 1400 Scale and spring forgers ......esseeessseeseeerereeseee 150 Blade-forgers ...csescsseseeenene pe costa sdunpeanstost .-- 300 . Pocket-blade grinders ......... ebeansasetaceateaatisaces uf LOO Pen-blade grinders ...... Soo Seaseae ct easpetsenstspeora stat OO APPFentices ..-cecseeeseeeseeeeeeess ESR Shae ace .--- 600 Total ...... Moasdeslessesarstvas 2000) tress, they manufacture for themselves, and sell the goods to hardware dealers, &c., which produces still greater depression in the trade. These operatives marry early, and have generally large families. The file-trade employs 1420 men, 700 boys, and 100 women: the wages vary con- siderably, as the work is paid by the piece ; but the following is the average :— £s. d. Forgers—Double-hand, average......... REACTS EERE ei ay Single-hand......scs.csseeeeeeeeeseeees Busses 111 10 Saw-file .........++s0+ ESCTE IONE Pedeasescss - Lamon a * Foreman, 1/. 12s. 10d.; Striker, 1/. 6s. 9d. 88 REPORT—1841 File-cutters—A man, average ..........+. Ue Ss epeioals octet oh di 26 A man and boy ....s....0+00 Ssapsewneclod ewe Lid, 18 A man and two boys............ sAScanaeAb 2 0 6 A Qrinder.ee..sceecee sence Peo eothin in sweee 114.0 Ditto, with a boy ........cessssees Senmoos ccs hey et Scourer (a woman)......... Baaete keels snes ects 0 9 O The filers are inferior to the platers, but are superior tc the grinders, &c. The num- ber of clubs among the operatives in Sheffield is 56. The numbers in 1839 only amount to 7978; and the whole stock, belonging to 38 clubs, is 53,3737. There are no ac- counts of the numbers in 17 clubs, and of the funds in 18. The number of secret orders is 36, containing 2940 members. On the Vital Statistics of Sheffield, prepared by a local Committee, and for- warded to the Section by Dr. HoLuanp. It began by describing the position of the town, showing how favourably it was circumstanced in respect to ventilation, drainage, and supply of water. It had ad- vanced very rapidly both in population and wealth; but though no data existed for determining the latter, it was believed that wealth had advanced in the greater ratio. Sheffield did not possess many large capitalists ; the nature of the trades followed in the town did not require any expensive outlay in stock and machinery. A remark- able proof of its advancement was, that in the middle of the last century there was only one commercial traveller employed in the town; there is now scarcely an establish- ment that does not employ one or more. The following table shows the increase of population :— In 1736 ......... ... 16,000. US OV eee ericeeer. ae 31,000, an increase of 2 per cent. per annum. SH y Skistersioieisictelete 53,000 ———— lj per cent. NGPA WE i soaapsaeaes 65,000 -————._ 2 per cent. TS Silene seeess 91,000 —————_ 35 per cent. USAT as hastesars Law 117,000 —————__ 23 per cent. The value of property in Sheffield had been greatly diminished by the cessation of foreign demand ; and this had principally affected the cutlers, who depend on the ex- port trade, but had not seriously injured the silversmiths and platers, who look to the home market. In no place perhaps have the poor-rates exhibited such extraor- dinary variations. In 1801 they were 7200/.; but in 1820 they rose to 23,0001., out of a rental which, it is supposed, did not exceed 46,0001. In 1825 they were re- duced to 6000/. ; in 1836, to 5000/.; and in 1837, to 40001. “The present amount is 6500/.; and the distress at the present moment is believed to be greater than it has ever been before. Trades in which combinations and associations exist, are found to become claimants on charity less frequently than those which are uncom- bined. This is attributed by the author of the Report to the habits of foresight and prudence which arise from trade societies fora common object. One branch of trade, within the last four years, paid to unemployed workmen in the same line not Jess than 20007. The author of the Report then entered into a comparison of the con- dition of the operatives in Sheffield with those of Liverpool, Leeds, and Manchester, for the purpose of showing that enormous capitals are not favourable to the happi- ness of the general body ; and that the greatest misery must be expected in the vi- cinity of the greatest wealth. He dwelt particularly on the fact, that the operatives of Sheffield usually have a house to themselves ; and that there is nothing in that town similar to the cellars of Liverpool, or the lodgings of Manchester. The danger to life involved in the manufactures at Sheffield, was illustrated by a comparison of the numbers who die beyond the age of 70 in that town and in other districts. Out of every 1000 deaths the average above 70 is 145 for England and Wales. 210 for the Northern and Western Ridings of Yorkshire. 104 for London. 66 for Sheffield. 63 for Liverpool and Manchester. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 The mortality of infants under 7 years of age, in every 1000,— 270 for the mining districts of Staffordshire. 180 in the agricultural counties. 242 in Sheffield. In comparing the mortalities of different trades, the two classes of occupation most unfavourable to human life, are found to be those which require frequent transitions from heat to cold, and which generate metallic dust. In what is called ‘‘ dry grind- ing,” the mortality is said to be “truly appalling ;” but the rate was not stated, save that a “‘ dry grinder ” is considered an old man at 35. Larly marriages in Sheffield are more common among the underpaid than among the higher classes of workmen ; and the ratio of children to a marriage is also higher in the more distressed class. But Sheffield exhibits a less ratio of marriage than most other manufacturing towns. In Sheffield (1839-40) the proportion of marriages to a thousand inhabitants was 94, while in Leeds it was 17. The writer of the Report then entered at great length into the question of Savings Banks, for the purpose of showing that the amount of deposits affords no trustworthy criterion of the prosperity or adversity of a commu- nity. He stated that adversity, by forcing prudential considerations on the mind, was more likely to make men become depositors than prosperity. As an example, he stated, that during the last three years trade had notoriously declined in Sheffield, and had gone on in a falling ratio, yet the amount in the savings banks had been on the increase. In 1838 there were 4093 depositors to the amount of £142,000 1839 ,, ,, 5088 or rp Py) 143,000 1840 ,, ,, 5248 ” > eb 148,000 The proportion of artisans among the depositors appears to be very small; and it is least among those to whom a provision is most necessary. Out of 5000 cutlers there were only 221 depositors ; while out of 450 silversmiths and platers, there are 89. The greatest number of depositors is found in the present year, which is the year of greatest depression. Mr. Fripp read a paper on the Statistics of Education in the city of Bristol, which was intended to complete and perfect the Report he had made on the subject at the meeting of the Association in 1836. The present population of the city of Bristol is about 120,000, and this number is assumed as the basis for the proportions between the instructed and the uninstructed. The schools which formed the subject of in- quiry are divided into six classes. Infant schools....... seeeeeeeeee 14 with 1,705 scholars, 11°60 per cent. WYAINE 7 V55 - pesacices ac eer areces 27 S301 Ah 20°52 Common day and evening... 219 ,, 7,900 p50 DOI AUINsS Free and endowed ....... eet, 24 ae sh. sod nA 9°08 __,, Superior ......... Bw ats secede 38 T3 740 a 5°03.—i,, Total day schools ............ 512 14,694 Sunday schools ....... sosonpon GI 7,171 Schools .......sseee0. . 598 21,865 The total number attending Sunday schools is 11,684, but 4513 also attend day schools, and are therefore not reckoned: It appears that of the total number of chil- dren receiving instruction,— 10,181, or about 8% per cent. of the population, attend day and evening schools. | 4,513, or about 3$ per cent., attend both day and Sunday schools. 7,171, or about 6 per cent., attend Sunday schools only. Of the total number of children in day and evening schools,— 7,825, or 533 per cent., are boys. 6,869, or 463 per cent., are girls. In the Sunday schools there are— 5,780, or 49% per cent., boys. 5,904, or 503 per cent., girls. The following is a comparative statement of the ages of the children attending day and evening schools :— 90 REPORT—1841. Under 5 years Of age........,eceseseeeeeeeee 3,274, Or 224 per cent. Between 5 and 15 ......csseeeseseeseeevesees 10,730, Or 73 per cent. Above U5. ae che Eependhiiure tion and pur- the world Ge Trade , P * | chase of goods. per week. Se i eeierey Fen Ne < 1841. 1836. 1841. 1836. 1841, 1836, 1841, 1836. ie s. djl. s. djl. s. djl. s. djl. s. djl. s. dill. s. d. 3 pawes loon w weaver ...|) 0 14 4/1 1 61017 431016 03 0 5 53/0 3 08 6 | Dresser ... veces] 1 4 01117 O}1 1 23/0 18 24/0 2 10310 18 gt 6 | Labourer ....... 1018 8{1 8 O11 4 3 {1 0113 0 7 040 5 7 3 | Card-roomhand . 10 8 8/013 O10 11 4/0 9 9 03 3/0 2 8 5 | Spinner ....seeeee ++014 4/1 1 61019 2 jo 16 10 0 4 8/0 410 4 | Warehouseman ......... 010 8) 616 0/014 6 \0 12 9 0 3 3/0 310 7 | Assistant Mechanic ....016 0} 1 3 Ooj1 0 431017 9 05 3\)0 3 7 Total......-| 5 6 81/8 0 0|6 8 14/5 12 34)0 2 1042 7 3h1 3 7 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 Account of the Monts de Piété of Rome, Paris, and other cities on the Con- tinent. By Henry Joun Porter, F.S.S., Tandragee, Ircland. The author stated that an institution of the kind had been formed at Rome before the Christian era by the Emperor Augustus, but that they were revived in modern !taly under the patronage of the Popes. ‘The system was supported by the Franciscans, and opposed by the Dominicans, until the matter was set at rest by Leo X., who de- clared lending-houses to be legal and useful, a decree subsequently confirmed by the Council of Trent. From an old Italian work, entitled ‘ The Pious Institutions of Rome,’ published in 1689, he gave the following account of the origin of the Monte di Pieta. The work was so rare that he could not purchase a copy, but had been permitted to make an extract. “‘ The original founder of this great work of benevolence in Rome, was Padre Gio- vanni Calvo, a Franciscan of the order of Minorites, who obtained the sanction of Paul III. for an association of some persons of distinction, whom he had united for this object. This pontiff not only approved the institution of the present sacred Monte di Pieté, but assisted the undertaking with money, enriched it with indulgences and privileges, and conferred on it all the favours enjoyed by similar institutions. The sacred Monte di Piet& has for its object the advance of sums of money, in each case not exceeding thirty crowns, to poor and necessitous persons of every description, on the security of pledges. This is accomplished as individuals, actuated by benevolent motives, supply funds to the institution, or, apprehensive of danger if they retain money at home, deposit it with the establishment for greater security. The pledges which are taken from day to day are retained eighteen months, after which, if the owner fails to claim them, they are sold publicly and fairly, by auction. The proceeds are applied to satisfying the claims of the establishment, including interest at two per cent., and the surplus is returned to the owner of the pledge. The institution is go- verned by a fraternity, which every year elects forty of its members as directors. The directors meet weekly, to deliberate on all that is required for the maintenance of the establishment, which may be regarded as the common patrimony of the poor, and the great mansion of all.” The document then set forth the favours which had been shown to the institution by successive popes, ending with the promulgation of its statutes by Alexander VII. Mr. Porter stated, that as he was anxious to obtain some information respecting the founder of this institution, he applied to the General. of the Franciscan order, and obtained from his secretary the following extract from the records of the Franciscan monastery at the Arraceeli in Rome :—‘“ 1541. John Calvus, son of Calvus, was a native of the kingdom of Corsica, and educated in the province of Corsica. He was a man renowned for his learning, skill, and suavity of manners. He held the office of Commissario in the court of Rome; he was selected at the general assembly at Mantua, to regulate the whole order of Franciscans. He was the first person to institute the Monte di Pietaé. He was eminent for a two-fold apostolic office ; he was theological advocate at the Council of Trent; he was esteemed by Paul III., and the kinys of France and Lusitania. He died at Trent 21st of January 1547, having held office about six years.” The following table shows the state of the Monte di Pieta in Rome, for the year 1839 :— | Amount Lent. 1839. | Number of | articles. Italian money. nay ale ene ede R veil a Peatan riven 2. s d. ss me emaining in store, oar as 94,872 | 349,849 90] 80,165 11 8 Pawned in 1839...... 306,161 925,327 10/211,554 21 14 23 Totals < ice daos che 401,033 1,275,177 291,719 13 9 Redeemed ............ 287,234 891,259 203,746 17 1 14 2 Remaining in store, 113,799 | 883,918 87,972 16 8 Dec. 31, 1839... 92 REPORT—1841. Amount of capital in the Monte di Pieta department (in English money).......0:..cssscccssscececcsssccscecess £104,360 8 11 Amount in actual circulation, 31st Dec. 1839 ......... 87,972 16 8 Balance in hand.........e00-e00+ £16,387 12 3 The greatest amount lent in one suM..........-seeeeeeees £2,750 0 0 MUG Weash atc smeeentceccaetspacccc cers ssteccccs onectasrcatmests 0 O 103 Expense of management (98 persons being employed) 6,432 9 7 INGCiprofitssscrresscees-c-cecceseress “Srtinneccose canneaGES 4,761 12 6 The following return shows the state of the Banking department, which was joined to the Monte di Pieta in 1589 :— Total amount lodged in 1839........csceeesesesseeeeees ee. £438,755 3 4 Amount of drafts in 1839 ...........secesscesceeeees ee... 407,536 15 10 Increase of capital in 1839 ............... £31,218 7 6 The institution is divided into three departments, called Primo Monte, Secondo Monte, and Terzo Monte. The first and second are for the reception of goods on which the amount borrowed does not exceed a scudo (4s. 7d.) ; the third is for ar- ticles of higher value. The net profits for 1839 do not include a large class of the borrowers, as the institution lends, without interest to the poor, sums not exceeding a scudo; and to this class of borrowers 18,333/. 6s. 8d. was lent in the year 1839. The expense of management does not include pensions which are given to about thirty retired officers, and to the widows and orphans of such as have died in the service of the institution. Officers are obliged to lodge five per cent. of their salaries for a re- tired fund. After forty years of service they may retire on full pay, and on half pay after twenty years of service. The poor are not the only persons benefited by this in- stitution; merchants, traders, and even crowned heads have taken advantage of it. Among the articles in pawn, Mr. Porter saw a diamond-ring, a suite of pearls, a snufl- box with a likeness of Louis XVIII. set in pearls, a coronation medal, and many similar articles. He had been entrusted with the secret of the ownership, but of course could not betray the confidence reposed in him. Not more than one-tenth of this valuable description of property is ever sold, nine-tenths being the average of the releases from the Terzo Monte. ‘The government of the Monte di Pieta is entrusted to a protector, who is the treasurer of Rome for the time being. My Porter gave a brief account of similar institutions at Turin, Leghorn, and Genoa, but entered into more detailed statements respecting the Mont de Piété at Paris. The following table shows its operations for the year 1840 :— Mont de Piété of Paris.—Operations for the year 1840. Pledging department.| No. of articles. Amount lent. ace emg Francs. Si $s. dil ase. Pawned ......... 1,220,692 18,576,020 | 743,046 16 8} O 12 2 Renewed ......... 241,130 5,763,827 | 230,553 1 8 0 10 93 Total...... 1,461,822 24,339,847 | 973,593 18 4 Releasing depart- ment, Redeemed ...... 1,090,119 | 16,362,143 | 654,485 15 0] 0 12 0 Renewed ,........ 241,130 5,763,827 | 130,553 1 8| O 10, 93 Sold by auction . 98,178 1,641,575 65,663 0 0} O 18 43 Total...... 1,425,427 23,757,545 | 850,701 16 8 When pawns are renewed, the goods are revalued, and the borrower is compelled to make compensation for their deterioration. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93 State of the Magazine of Pawned Goods at Paris, 31st December 1840. | No. of articles, Value, Francs. £ s. a. Remaining in store, Dec. 31, 1839. 800,347 15,311,359 | 612,456 7 6 Pawned in 1840............. sessseeeees| 1,461,822 | 24,339,847 | 973,593 18 4 Total..... “cand 2,262,169 39,651,206 {1,586,050 5 10 Lent out of store, redeemed, or sold.| 1,429,427 23,767,545 | 850,701 16 8 Remaining in store, Dec. 31, 1840. 832,742 15,883,661 | 735,348 9 @ Average Daily Transactions. | Articles. | Amount. | Francs. | £1 ssid: Pledges .........+06 3840 59,655 2485 12 6 Renewals........ Lats 735 17,505 729 7 6 Releases ......06..0- | 1 8 2830 42,998 1791 1 Connected with the Paris Mont de Piété are four depots managed by commission- ers, who have a certain profit on every transaction. ‘The importance of such an ac- commodation appears from the following estimate :— In every 100 pawns, 9 are by the public, and 91 by commission. 100 renewals, 40 by the public, and 60 by commission. 100 releases, 44 by the public, and 56 by commission. The interest charged by the Paris Mont de Piété is 9 per cent., and one-half per cent. for valuation. The number of watches in pawn is generally from 250,000 to 300,000. There were over 6000 mattresses in store, and the directors had resolved to admit no more. Mr. Porter concluded by stating, that in 1839 a sum equivalent to 78211. 13s. 4d. had been given from the Paris Mont de Piété for the support of the hospitals, and expressed his readiness to correspond with any persons interested in such institutions. On the Loan Funds in Ireland. By Henry Joun Porter, F.S.S., Tandragee, Ireland. The interest excited by the author’s paper on Pawnbroking, read at Glagow, in- duced him to procure a statistical account of the operation of loan funds in Ireland, together with the opinions of the directors as to the benefits conferred, the diffi- culties to be overcome, and the evils, if any, which may arise from their opera-- tion. He presented tables of 215 loan funds, three of which were reported to have ceased operation since the accounts were received. It was necessary, be- fore entering on the subject, to allude to a system which was general in Ireland, and which had only been partially checked by the working of the loan funds. It is explained in the following extract from the Report of the Bailycastle Loan Fund :— «« Tt was a common practice to supply meal at a price one-third above the market. Potatoes were also supplied during the cheap season, an engagement being entered into by the buyer to pay the summer price, whatever it might be; nor was this all, for an interest was charged on the promissory note at the rate of 6 per cent. Again, if a poor man required a cow or a horse, he applied to one of the money-lenders, who either purchased it for him, charging him 1/. for the bargain, and sometimes more, or counted down the money asked for by way of tender, and then abstracted . Il, for the compliment, in either case putting the borrower to the cost of 1s. 6d. for the promissory note, and requiring him to pay 6 per cent. interest. In like manner, weavers were obligedeither to take yarn from the dealers considerably above the market price, or if, as was often done, they borrowed 20s. for one month, or between two markets, to purchase yarn for themselves, they were charged ls. at least, and fre- quently more, for such accommodation.” The funds are raised by deposits, and it 94 REFORT—1841. is gratifying ‘to find that the sum of 44,8111. has been deposited by farmers, as the money-lenders just described were persons holding from twenty to fifty acres of land; the greater part of this sum was therefore formerly employed in usurious practices, to which the farmers now prefer the certainty of 5 or 6 per cent., without any trouble or risk. The sum deposited by manufacturers is trifling, being little more than one-seventh of the agricultural amount. It appears that 329 servants have deposited 71571.; these depositors are not numerous, except in those loan so- cieties where small sums are received at a lesser interest, until they amount to 5/., when a debenture may be purchased and the interest increased to 6 per cent. De- positors of 50/. are the most numerous class ; Mr. Porter thinks them desirable only at the commeneement of such an institution, and wishes them to be gradually paid off, in order to make room for the depositors of smaller sums. The greatest number of loans have been applied, it is believed, to the most useful purposes. In the year 1840 there were issued— Toasts Agiswat For the purchase of horses, COWS, Pigs, &C.sse...sseeseeeneee 37,766 £152,875 For the purchase of seed, manure, implements, &c., and other agricultural purposes......ce.secsececereeeeenceeceerees . 9,247 32,574 Total....... 47,013 £185,449 For the purchase of provisions the number of loans has been 23,363, amounting to 77,5101. Loans for the payment of rent and debts are not generally encouraged ; nevertheless, there are many instances of the best effects from both of these objects. For the purpose of dealing in various ways, the sum of 53,938/. has been issued, in 14,295 loans. This class of borrowers is very numerous. The following is a return of the loan funds whose directors have expressed their conviction of the benefits conferred by these institutions in various ways, viz.— 32 Loan funds bear testimony to advantages conferred on farmers in their crops and tillage. 52 ,, ,, to small farmers in the purchase of cattle. 64 ,, ,, in supply of provision without usurious prices. 57 4» »,° by promotion of industrious and economic habits. 48 ., ,, by benefits to tradesmen, mechanics and dealers. 98 by general advantage to the community. The following number of institutions complain of difficulties :— 5 Difficulties arising from opposition. 17. ,, », from want of funds. 4 ,, ,, from improvident borrowers. 81 state that little or no difficulty has been experienced. 10 complain of loss of time to borrowers and loss of money to sureties. 1 speaks of intemperance and fraud. 9 mention the necessity of pawning to pay instalments. 91 state that there were little’or no evils apparent. The agricultural loan funds at Tyrrell’s Pass and Moate are the most extensive, and a knowledge of their judicious management may lead others to follow their ex- ample. The first extends its operations over four hundred square miles ; it has em- ployed a Scotch agriculturist, and furnishes seeds to farmers. It also supports from its profits an infant school, in which 120 children are educated ; a platting school for Irish Leghorn hats and bonnets has been commenced, and the manufacture of those articles from grass and rye-straw is of acknowledged beauty. A Ladies’ Society is connected with the loan fund, which distributed at Christmas last 202/. worth of clothing, and 177 stones of wool were lent on three months’ credit, and above 40/. given in premiums. The report of the agriculturists is most satisfactory. A meal-store was opened at the most trying season of the year, and employment af- forded to 5229, who, with their families, constituted an aggregate of 19,795 souls, all deriving benefit from the employment afforded to one or more members of their families. ‘The Moate Loan Fund has allocated 50/. per annum to an agricultural school. It is the only one in Leinster, and if properly supported by the landed pro- prietors, will doubtless prove a great benefit to the farming population. The sum of 80/. has been given as premiums to the farmers in those parishes from which the loan fund derives its profits. Forty pounds were also given to the Ladies’ Chari- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95 table Association, which keeps forty poor women and girls in constant employment. On the branch of the system which embraces Monts de Piété, Mr. Porter referred to his paper read at Glasgow. He however stated that they are increasing in number, and are doing much to mitigate the evils of pawnbroking. At Limerick, Tandragee, Portadown, Belfast, Cork, Newcastle, and Dungannon, Monts de Piété are in active operation, and Coleraine and several other towns are in correspondence on the sub- ject, with the view of opening such institutions. Mr. Porter then presented the fol- lowing tables, explaining that the total number of loan funds was 215, of which three were closed, 73 had not yet made returns, and 66 kept no account of the subjects recorded in the second table. Table of the Loan Funds in Ireland, from which returns have been received, show- ing the amount of Loans in the four Provinces. . Total | Sums in bor- Expense ; Capital Total b *hands,| G eel PUENTE Profits Provinces, fin eireu- | amoung, | ofoane | Sst Dec. "| profits, | mage. | profits. hart y” £ £ £ £ £ £ £ Wister—2eh 88,515 | 523,415 138,560} 124,631 |18,577| 6,089 | 6,367 | 2,821 Leinster......... 56,888 | 382,276 |110,091 96,523 |15,602| 4,840 | 6,616 | 4,288 Munster......... 44,007 | 183,519 | 191,510 46,989 | 7,241} 2,998 | 2,385 292 Connaught ...| 5,929 | 76,364 |240,010 19,178 | 2,584) 1,124 478 147 Total...... 195,339 |1,165,574| 464,171) 287,321 | 44,004] 15,051|15,846| 7,548 Purposes for which Loans are granted by seventy-three Loan Funds, being about one-third of the number in existence. Tans for seeds Loans for horses, cows, eens andim. | ans for meal, | Loans for wool, 7 2 and pigs. plements. potatoes, &c. flax, and yarn. No. Amt. No. Amt. No. Amt. No. Amt. £ £ £ f SEOs csacae 0 21,166 | 92,114 | 5,234 |19,878 |13,012|42,386 | 7,461 |24,187 Leinster......... 11,620 | 47,113 | 2,744 |10,013 | 5,921/16,802 830 | 2,683 Munster.........| 4,255 | 10,973 589 | 1,236} 4,118] 8,336] 797 | 1,927 Connaught ... 725 2,675 680 | 1,447 312 986| 577 | 1,720 Total ...... 37,766 | 152,875 | 9,247 |32,574 |23,363)77,510| 9,665 |30,517 Loans for looms. mpnhneniees Loans for rent. |Loans for debts.|Loans for dealing. Provinces. | No. | Amt. No. Amt. No. Amt. | No. | Amt. No. Amt. £ £ 25, £ £ Ulster......| 417 | 1,422) 4,466 |17,358| 4,308] 18,498] 1,633/5,210) 6,469/28,212 Leinster ... 0 O| 2,703 |11,019| 2,545] 12,360) 388)1,456) 3,043)13,525 Munster...| 43 45] 3,874 | 8,955 922) 2,395) 290) 920) 4,337|11,060 Connaught 10) O| 384 902 116 495} 154) 462 446) 1,141 Total....| 460 | 1,467) 11,427/38,134| 6,991| 33,748) 2,465|8,048| 14,295|/53,938 On the Income of Scientifie and Literary Societies, and the Amount paid for Rates and Taxes in the year 1840. By Mr. A. Rytanp. Number of which te amount of income is stated. Number of which 4 amount of rates Amon of 8 ates and taxes is stated. - Amount of in- come. “Number of societies, Oe 91 £36,793 140 76 £1787 15 8 96 REPORT—1841. Institutions of which the amount both of Income and Expenditure is stated. Number. Income. Taxes. Per-centage. 82 £36,787 5 03| £1,787 15 8 43 Papers containing portions of a return of the Stipends of the Clergy of the Esta- blished Church in Scotland, were presented to the Section. Irom them it appeared that the average stipend of a clergyman in Berwick is 268/. per annum, in Roxburgh- shire 288]., and in Haddington 3600. Prof. Quetelet addressed the Section on the importance of keeping exact registers, in different districts, of the facts described in the following table :— ‘a 1. Meteorology. 5. Agriculture. Pressure of air. Epochs of rural labour. debaters: of vegetable maturity. Tecanity eS oa Force and direction of winds. Sage Soe ae Quantity of rain and snow, &c. 6. Zoology. State of the sky. Matson. allie: stnrantees Arrival & departure of birds, insects, &c. ——— of fishes. - ; 2. Physics. Entomological phenomena. Magnetism of the earth. Reproduction of animals. Temperature at different depths. '| Mortality. Ditto at sources and mouths of rivers. 7. Man. Temperatures of vegetables and animals. Phzenomena of tides. Births, and all their circumstances. Deaths, and all their circumstances. 3.) Chemistry. Diseases, and their duration. Analysis of air. i | Crimes. — of rain water, Consumption of food. 4. Botany. Letters. Budding of plants. Traffic and travelling on roads. Flowering. * -- on canals. Fructification. ——-- in harbours. Shedding of leaves. He stated, that from observation it appeared that there was a periodicity in the facts both of the physical and moral world. ‘To tabulate these facts, to ascertain the times and circumstances of their maxima and minima, and to show where they coin- cided with each other, would be highly beneficial to science, and would render statis- tics the great bond by which all other branches of knowledge would be held together, and all applied to the service of man. He then went over the several heads of inquiry, briefly commenting on each. Report on the state of Education in the Polytechnic School at Paris, prepared at the request of JAMES Heywoop, F.R.S., by an English resident in Paris. The Polytechnic School of Paris is the principal educational institution in which pupils are prepared for the public service, in the departments of the artillery, engi- neering, and the construction of roads and bridges in France. A severe preliminary examination is required from all the candidates who are de- sirous of admission into the Polytechnic School. Two years’ study are required from each of the pupils in the school, and the course of study consists, practically, of a continual series of examinations, which are often limited to particular branches of mathematical science, and are followed by more ge- neral examinations at the end of each academical year. Public competition forms a part of the regulations for the entrance examination in the Polytechnic School, and no one can be admitted to this competition without TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97 having previously proved, that he is either French by birth, or French by naturali- zation, and that he is between sixteen and twenty years of age; soldiers only are per- mitted to enjoy a special exemption from this last rule, and they may be admitted to the competition, provided they have not attained their twenty-fifth year. The subjects of the entrance examination include arithmetic, algebra, plane and descriptive geometry, plane and spherical trigonometry, logarithms, conic sections, and statics; exercises are also given in drawing from a model of the human figure, and in architectural coloured drawing; and the candidates are further expected to trans- late a passage from a Latin author, to write a French essay on a given subject, to work a trigonometrical question, and to compose a mathematical paper on some given problem, or on some other mathematical subject. Candidates are informed that all the foregoing subjects of the examination are equally obligatory upon them. At the end of each academical year, the pupils of the school are subjected to severe examinations in analytical geometry, mechanics, physics, chemistry, descriptive geo- metry, the description and effect of machines, architecture, and several of the higher branches of algebra and mathematics. Drawing and French composition are included among the subjects of study, and in the second year, the German language receives.a portion of the attention of the stu- dents. A professorship of English was established in the school in 1830, at the same time with the German professorship, and both these important languages were taught in the school until the autumn of 1840. The annual payment, or “ pension,” for education in the Polytechnic School is only 1000 francs, or 40/.; and there are also twenty-four bursarships, of 1000 francs each per annum, of which twelve are placed at the disposal of the minister of war, eight belong to the minister of the interior, and four to the minister of the marine, for the students. No pupil is, however, allowed to recéive either a bursarship, or a half-bursarship, unless his name has been included in the first two-thirds of the ad- mission list, and unless he has previously addressed a request for this emolument at the time of inscribing his name. A strict system of military discipline is maintained in the school; duelling is for- bidden, under pain of expulsion to both parties, if a challenge is accepted; games of chance are illegal, as well as smoking; and no books, printed papers, or drawings are allowed to be introduced, without special leave. Unconditional obedience to every command of the superior officers of the school, is a fundamental rule of the in- stitution ; the pupils are ordered on all occasions to salute their officers ; they are re- quired always to appear in their uniform, both in and out of school, and they are not allowed to hold or form any society, or secret deliberation, or to print anything in any periodical publication ; and theymust noteven be presentat any ceremony of any body or association, without the special permission of the commandant of the school. Any pupil who remains absent from the school for three days, without communi- cating the cause to the commandant, ceases thereby to belong to the school. Two days only are allowed in each week on which the pupils may go out into the town ; on Sunday, from the termination of the military parade, at a quarter past nine in the morning, until ten at night ; and on Wednesday, from half-past two in the afternoon, until half-past eight p.m. in summer, and nine in winter. On these two days, the parents and guardians of the pupils, and persons furnished with permissions from them, are allowed to see the pupils in the parlour of the school, from three P.M. to a quarter before five p.m. The pupils draw by lot for the seats which they occupy in the lecture-rooms, on first entering the school, and they always retain the same seats. Exact notes are kept of their behaviour as well as of their proficiency, and marks of credit are granted to them accordingly. A large staff of officers, examiners, and professors is maintained in the school, among whom are the well known names of Bourdon and Gay-Lussac : a certain number of extra masters are also privileged to give lessons in fencing, dancing, and music, and the school society is supplied with a physician, a surgeon, assistant surgeons, and numerous subordinate officers. All the officers, including the commandant of the school, receive the full pay belong- ing to their rank, as well as one-third in addition to their pay, and the whole of the salaries are paid to the officers and others out of the funds of the school, which are included in the budget of the minister of war. 1841. H 98 REPORT—1841. No ecclesiastical control is exercised over the students in the school, and no di- stinctions are made on account of religious opinions; persons of any denomination are admitted into the school, and in fact, the pupils are left entirely to themselves - with respect to religion. The pupils are divided into four companies, to each of which are attached several sub-officers, out of their own body. They hold their rank only for one year, subject to re-appointment, and their promotion is considered as a mark of honourable distinction. All orders of the superior officers are conveyed to the pupils of each company through these sub-officers, who are further responsible for the good conduct of their comrades, and are liable to be punished for them; the sub-officers of the school also wear the same gold chevrons on their uniform, which distinguish the sub-officers of the same grade in the army. Those pupils who do not pass the examinations with credit at the end of the first year, cannot go up into the second year; anda similar failure at the end of another year, or even neglect during the daily examinations of the lectures, would cause them to be immediately dismissed from the school. The place which they occupy at the end of the second year in the examinations, de- termines their order of admission into the public service ; and as only very few are an- nually rejected, it may be said, that in general, the success of a candidate in the final examinations is always followed by a commission in the artillery, the engineers, the bridges and highways, the navy, or in some other department of the public service, On the Ist of April 1840, there were 271 pupils in the Polytechnic School, of whom 139 were in the first year, and 132 in the second year: of the first-year men, four only had been recommended to pass a second year in the junior division of the school, as they were not yet sufficiently advanced to enter on the second year’s course of study; and in the second year, eight had been authorized to remain an additional year in the division, for various reasons. Of the total number of 271 pupils, 56 were from the department of the Seine, in which Paris is situated, 208 from other French departments, 2 from French colonies, 2 of British parents, 1 from Switzerland, 1 from Saxony, 1 from Trebizond. Besides these regular pupils, authorizations had been granted by the minister of war to twenty-six young men, who were not pupils of the school, to attend the lec- tures, viz. sixteen in the division of the first year, and ten in the division of the se- cond year. These voluntary students were of various nations :—8 French, 1 English, 1 American, 2 Swiss, 3 Italian, 2 Greek, 1 Spanish, 2 Russian, 1 Norwegian, 1 Hes- sian, 1 Wurtemberger, 2 Portuguese, and 1 Brazilian. The body of professors is always recruited by young men of the greatest promise, selected either from the school itself, or from the most distinguished scientific insti- tutions of the country ; the general course of the studies is superintended by a council of instruction, and the whole system is subject to the constant supervision of a council of improvement: these two councils are formed from the principal officers of the school, and other men of science, and to their vigilance and able direction the Poly- technic School is largely indebted for its efficiency. A council of discipline watches over the internal regulations of the school, and the whole establishment is underthe special jurisdiction and authority of the minister of war. Results of some Experiments on a System of small Allotments and Spade Husbandry. By Mrs. Davies GiLBert. It was stated that by this practice the number of paupers in the workhouse had been reduced from 220, July 1840, to 130, July 1841; and that the people evinced such a desire to obtain work that they walked three miles up Beachy Head for it. Mrs. Gilbert entered into minute details of the system of husbandry pursued in the district, particularly dwelling on the benefit of forming tanks in chalk soils, and the importance of keeping milch cows under cover. Account of the establishment of a Central Statistical Commission in Brussels by the Belgian Government. By M. Quete.er. He adverted to the great importance of statistical science, and dwelt on the diffi- culties which impede the collection, comparison and verification of statistics, He Page. on. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99 stated that government documents, even when trustworthy, presented difficulties in practical use, from their being constructed on various bases, published in different forms, and calculated on systems which did not admit of immediate comparison. He offered, on the part of the new Commission, to send copies of their publications to the statistical societies of Great Britain, from whom he requested communications in return. MECHANICS. On the Plymouth Breakwater, By Wm. Stuart, C. B, Superintendent of the Work. The importance of a breakwater at Plymouth attracted the attention of the Ad- miralty in 1806, and in February of that year Mr. Rennie and Mr. Whidbey, the Master Attendant of Woolwich Dockyard, were directed to survey the Sound. As the results of their survey, they submitted a plan for a stone breakwater, and gave their opinions upon several plans previously proposed. The stone breakwater was to be 1700 yards in length, at the top of which the middle was to be straight for 1000 yards, and each end, 350 yards in length, was to incline at an angle of about 20° to the straight part : it was to be ten yards in width at the level of ten feet above the low water of an ordinary spring tide, with a slope of three to one on the south or sea side, and one and a half to one on the north or land side; and to be constructed by blocks of limestone thrown promiscuously into the sea on the intended line, with a cut stone pier onthe top, This plan was favourably received, and an Order in Council was issued in June 1811, for the execution of the work, and in August 1812 the first stone was deposited. Mr. Stuart then described in detail the progress of the work, and the va- rious alterations found advisable. The south slope is regularly formed with squared blocks of limestone and dove-tailed granite, from the level of low water spring tides, with a slope of five to one, and the north side with rough blocks of limestone, with a slope of two to one. A lighthouse is now in course of construction at the western end, and a buttress for the protection of the lighthouse, and securing the front of the south slope. The force of the sea is so great, that stones of fifteen or even twenty tons have been taken from low water and carried over the top of the work. According to the original ‘calculation of Messrs. Rennie and Whidbey, 2,000,000 tons would be required for the work, but owing to the various exten- sions, the quantity is much increased, and between the 12th of August 1812, and the 31st of July 1841, 3,377,068 tons had been deposited. The estimated cost of the original breakwater was 1,013,900/.; but owing to the alterations in the work, and an increase in the materials, the whole outlay to the present moment is 1,111,7001., and the cost of the breakwater when completed, including the lighthouse, will not exceed 1,300,000. - Various other breakwaters have been proposed to the Admiralty : one of cast iron in 1804 ; two of stone, and one of wood, by Mr. Bentham, in 1811. The wooden breakwater was to consist of 117 floats of wood, of a triangular or prismatic form; each float thirty feet in breadth and depth, forty feet in length, to be moored by iron chains, at a cost of 201,805/.; but the Admiralty resolved on a stone breakwater, and the thirty years’ experience since elapsed have confirmed the author in his opinion of the wisdom of the choice. The stone breakwater is said to have occasioned an accumulation of mud and silt within the harbour, and a consequent diminution in depth of the water to the extent of five feet. In the original report of Messrs. Rennie and Whidbey, is contained the following statement :—“ From con- versing with pilots and various other intelligent men whom we met at Plymouth, we have reason to believe, that the depth of water in the Sound is on the decrease, by the settlement of mud and silt brought down by the rivers from the interior country, and also by the embankment of the mud lands within, thus diminishing the ancient receptacles of the water of the tide, which both in its flux and reflux occasions a powerful scour in its passage through the Sound.” The fact is, that a recent inclosure of 275 acres of the backwater of the Catwater above the Lara Bridge had just taken place ; it seems evident that mud and silt were then in the Sound. On a considera- tion of the whole question, Messrs. Rennie and Whidbey were of opinion that there H2 100 REPORT—1841. was no danger of the Sound becoming more shallow, and that no further deposition of silt or mud would take place, except immediately within or without the breakwater. In consequence of a communication, made in J uly 1838, to the naval authorities at this port, to the effect that a deposit was then going on in the Sound, the Admiralty di- rected Mr. James Walker to report fully on the subject, and the best means for pro- viding against the apprehended injury to the anchorage. After a long and laborious investigation, and a minute survey, during which no less than 2000 soundings were taken, Mr. Walker reported, that, taking the mean of the soundings that could be affected by the breakwater, the result was that there was but very little increase or decrease, and that, if there was any decrease of depth in the Sound (except close to the breakwater, and which could produce no practical evil), this was certain, that if it had taken place, it was but small,—certainly not enough to cause alarm, or to justify expensive measures for removing the cause. As to the destruction of the break- water by the Pholas, though connected with the breakwater since its commencement, Mr. Stuart never saw a perforation in the limestone by the Pholas, except between the low water of spring and of neap tides ; and these perforations only occur on the outer surface of the stone, and to a depth not exceeding three inches. He never dis- covered any such perforation in the interior of the work, although he had recently had occasion to remove stones, by the aid of the diving-bell, at the depth of five feet be- low low water, and which had been deposited there upwards of twenty-five years. Loose stones had been taken up from beaches, and from the bottom of the Sound, perforated by the Pholas, but they must have been perforated before they got there, for the Pholas had never, in such cases, been found alive. On a Floating Breakwater. By Captain Taytor, R.N. The breakwaters hitherto constructed have generally consisted of solid masonry, thus presenting an unyielding obstacle to the waves, permitting accumulations of mud and sand behind them, causing enermous outlay by the constant dilapidation from the force of the waves and compressed air, and not affording the security to shipping and life which is required, and may be afforded by other means. The floating break- water consists of floating sections framed of timber strongly moored; these sections yield to the shocks of the sea, and admit the waves to pass through them, and by thus dividing the waves, reduce them to an open and harmless state. The depth of these sections vary according to the situations in which they are employed. The sea in the most tempestuous weather is said to be tranquil at the depth of sixteen or eighteen feet below the surface ; a breakwater, therefore, immerged to that depth, and present- ing six or eight feet above the surface, is sufficient to form a safe harbour on the most boisterous coast. The angle of inclination which the section presents to the wave is that pointed out by nature in the Mew-stone, viz. 35 degrees. Stone breakwaters check the ground tides, and cause accumulations of mud and deposits which other- wise would go seaward, and are peculiarly subject to the action of boring shells, con- stantly at work below the dove-tailed stone ; and cavities being formed, large portions are oceasionally blown up. The destruction of the wood by the Teredo is prevented in the floating breakwater by tarring the wood with a preservative mixture, and the worm can make no lodgment on a prism floating upon the surface ; besides, it can be scrubbed and tarred as often as required. The distinction between waves and break- ers is very important, the former being an undulation, the latter being accompanied with a translation of the mass, and capable therefore of exerting extraordinary forces on the masses opposed to them, when applied force to force. The breakwater is formed of hollow framework ; it fills with an inert body of water, which requires a considerable force to be put in motion or driven through the breakwater, and each succeeding wave expends its force upon the preceding, therefore each wave becoming inert, acts as a resisting medium to the others, almost entirely independent of the caisson itself, with but slight strain to the moorings, and thus passes broken and tranquil to the inner or land side, which is rendered completely calm, instead of acting with immense violence upon solid masses. The construction of this breakwater is so adjusted that its beam is limited to 20 feet, for beyond this it would present too solid a resistance, and add to the strain on the moorings and framework. This was clearly demonstrated by practical experiments. Srey, TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101 Capt. Taylor, R.N. explained, by reference to a model, his construction and ap- plication of a shield to protect the paddle-wheels of steam-boats from the shock or action of the sea when riding at anchor, or sailing or scudding under canvas when the steam power is not applied ; also his method of disconnecting the paddles with- out stopping the engines. He also proposed to apply the steam power of vessels for the purpose of working the windlass. On the Propulsion of Vessels by the Trapezium Paddle-wheel and Screw. By G. Renniz, FR. The author gave an account of the various experiments to which he had been led, on the propulsion of vessels by various forms of paddle-floats and by the screw. It was generally admitted that the paddle-wheel was the best means of propulsion with which engineers were at present acquainted, and various attempts had been made for its improvement. There are several objections to the square or rectangular floats, particularly the shock on entering the water, and the drag against the motion of the wheel on the float quitting the water ; both of which give rise to considerable vi- brations. He had been led, in considering the improvement of the paddle-wheel, to have recourse to nature, and the form of the foot of the duck had particularly attracted his attention. The web of the duck’s foot is shaped so that each part has a relation to the space through which it has to move, that is, to the distance from the centre of motion of the animal’s leg. Hence he was led to cut off the angles of the rectangular floats, and he found that the resistance to the wheel through the water was not di- minished. Pursuing these observations and experiments, he was led to adopt a float of a trapezium or diamond shape, with its most pointed end downwards. These floats enter the water with their points downwards, and quit it with their points upwards; they arrive gradually at their full horizontal action, without shocks or vibrations, and after their full horizontal action, quit the water without lifting it, or producing any sensible commotion behind. After a great variety of experiments, he found that a paddle-wheel of one half the width and weight and with trapezium floats, was as effective in propelling a vessel as a wheel of double the width and weight with the ordinary rectangular floats. The Admiralty had permitted him to fit Her Majesty’s steam-ship African with these wheels, and he had perfect confidence in the success of the experiment. Another means of propulsion was the screw, which had been applied with success by Mr. Smith in the Archimedes. In examining the wings of birds and the tails of swift fish, he had been particularly struck with the adapta- tion of shape to the speed of the animals. The contrast between the shape of the tail of the codfish, a slow-moving fish, and the tail of the mackerel, a rapid fish, was very remarkable,—the latter going off much more rapidly to a point than the former. From these observations he was led to try a screw with four wings, of a shape somewhatsimilar to these, but bent into a conical surface, the outline being a logarithmic spiral. He found also that certain portions of these might be cut off without diminishing the effect. With respect to ascertaining the friction of the screw on the water, great diffi- culty existed ; but he would refer to his experiments, published some years ago in the Philosophical Transactions, in which he measured the friction of the water against a body revolving in it, by the time which a given weight took to descend; this body con- sisted of rings, and he found that the friction or resistance through the water did not increase in proportion to the number of rings. The results of the experiments made since with the African, opposite the measured mile in Long Reach in the river Thames, and also with an iron steam-boat in the river Shannon, have fully realized the expec- tations of the author. On Truscott's Plan for Reefing Paddle-Wheels. By W. CHaAtrIELp. Mr. Chatfield described, by reference to a model, an improved paddle-wheel, the principal feature of which was a new application of the principle of feathering and reefing. Each paddle or float is attached to an axis passing through its centre, with a crank at the extremity of the axis, and the feathering is effected by the motion of a roller attached to this crank, and moving in a groove eccentric to the wheels. The radii of the paddle-wheel are connected at their extremities by a chain instead of a rigid rim, and the reefing is effected by drawing the radii together, like the folding 102 . REPORT—1841. of a fan, by means of a peculiar arrangement of the clutch box at the centre of the wheel. On a Plan of Disengaging and Reconnecting the Paddle-Wheels of Steam- Engines. By J. GRANTHAM. There are four cases in which it may be desirable to disconnect the paddle-wheels from the steam-engine in steam vessels, viz. when the vessel is on a Jong voyage, and the fuel must be economized as much as possible by using the sails on every fa- vourable opportunity ; when the engines are damaged, and, the vessel being close to a lee shore, it is necessary to disengage the engines quickly, to allow the vessel to make sail; when some derangement has taken place, and the engines are allowed to continue to work imperfectly to the end of the voyage, rather than detain the vessel by causing the paddles to drag through the water while the engines are stopped ; when, the vessel being at anchor, the action of the swell and tide on the paddle-floats, while stationary, causes a great additional strain on the cables, which would be ob- viated could the wheels play freely. The Admiralty had called attention to the subject, by inviting plans for effecting it. Several had been proposed for disconnecting the pad- dles, but Mr. Grantham is not aware of any plan having been proposed by which the wheels could be readily reconnected in a heavy sea. The crank pins are usually fixed in the cranks of the intermediate shaft, a little play being allowed in the eye of the crank of the paddle shaft, to prevent the crank pins from breaking when the centres of the three shafts vary from a straight line by the yielding of the vessel. For the purpose of disengaging and reconnecting, a brass box of a rectangular form is inserted in the eye of the crank of the paddle shaft, which can be moved several inches by means of a screw at the back of the crank. The eye of the crank is so made that two of its sides may be cut away, and through these openings the crank pin can pass when the box is drawn back, or the disengaging effected. The brass box has one of its sides, which restrain the crank pin when in gear, cut away one or two inches to assist in reconnecting the engine, which is effected by screwing the box out one or two inches, or just so far that the crank pin can pass the side which has been cut away, and come in contact with the higher side. This is the correct position for reconnecting, which is accomplished by a single turn of the screw. On Captain Couch’s Chock Channels. Mr. Snow Harris explained and illustrated, by a model and drawings, the safety chock channel, for allowing the masts and rigging of vessels to be easily disengaged when the masts are carried away. Many cases have occurred in which, with the rigging and ordinary channels, the greatest danger has been incurred, in consequence of not being able to get clear of wreck. The ordinary channels may be blown up by the sea; whereas, if made solid, on Capt. Couch’s plan, all danger from this source will be avoided, and the sailors would be at once able to clear the vessel of any wreck. On a System of Trussing for the Roadways of Suspension Bridges. By J. M. Renvet. Mr. Rendel placed before the Section a model of the Montrose Suspension Bridge, the roadway of which had been recently restored, and a peculiar system of trussing adopted. Suspension bridges were peculiarly subject to undulatory motions, which proved extremely destructive to them. These undulatory motions arise from the action of the wind, and the circumstances are such that the wind may tend to raise the roadway at one end, and depress it at the other; and various means had been de- vised to prevent these motions. In 1838 a considerable portion of the roadway of the Montrose Bridge was destroyed, and Mr. Rendel being employed to restore it, it struck him that if great stiffness were given to the roadway by a system of longitu- dinal trussing, the desired object would be attained. He adopted, therefore, a system of vertical and longitudinal trussing, extending above and below the line of the road- way, so that the neutral axis of the truss is in the roadway. This had succeeded most completely. In an ordinary gale of wind, the original roadway would be sub- ject to a wave of from three to five feet in height, but he was satisfied that the present TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103 roadway is not subject to a wave of as many inches. The weight of the roadway has not been increased by more than five or six per cent. Remarks on the Connexion which exists between Improvements in Pitwork and the Duty of Steam-engines in Cornwall. By J. 8. Enys. After adverting to the admission of the truth of progressive increase of duty, it was shown that considerable changes have been made in the course of seventy years, in the methods by which water is lifted out of the mines in Cornwall; and that in compa- ring the duty of earlier periods, an allowance of the difference of the Imperial and Winchester bushel of coal ought to be made. The distinction between horse-power and duty, pointed out by Mr Parkes, was alluded to: one excludes, the other includes, the friction of the pitwork ; and the remarks attached to each in Lean’s report, show the necessity of adverting to the different conditions of the pitwork, in an attempt to estimate with accuracy the relative merit of different engines separate from the pit- work. In an endeavour, some time ago, to trace the causes of the great variation of the duty, a small amount of expansion was observed in engines remarkable for a low duty, and the reasons assigned were, either weak pitwork—flat rods—heavy load per square inch on the piston, and old boilers—and often the joint action of the above causes. The strength of the pitwork, or of the boilers, in different cases, seems to become the limit of expansion in the engines. In reference to deficiency of water from pumps, in proportion to the calculated quantities, on which duty is founded, two causes have operated in inducing a strong belief that it is less than at any former period: —1. Greater attention to the pitwork by the managers of the mines, under whose care it is placed, to the exclusion of the engineers of the steam-engine by which itis worked. 2. The general employment of the plunger-pump,—the latter instantly shows the slightest defect of the packing, and-allows of an easy remedy; while the bucket-pump, on the contrary, does not show the defects in the packing ; and the operation of tightening it is attended with great difficulty,—so much so, as often to cause the repacking to be delayed to the last moment that the pump will lift water. The first cause, though it has a tendency to.decrease duty in proportion to improved water delivery, has in a still greater degree the tendency to reduce the friction of the pitwork on a given load : yet it is not easy to assign the exact values: on the whole, a reduction of total re- sistances probably occurs in shafts of equal depth; but, on the other hand, the great increased depth of many shafts obviously produces a greater proportional friction on a given load. Under these circumstances, it becomes the fairer method to select the duty of engines working the deepest shafts, for a comparison with the duty of the ear- lier periods, when engines were worked so differently as regards the steam. Mr. J. W. Henwood (Huel Towan) estimates the deficiency of water delivery at 7 or 8 per cent.; Mr. T. Wicksteed (Holmbush) 10 per cent. water from three lifts measured and weighed; Mr. Enys (Eldon’s engine, United Mines) 4 per cent., four strokes of the engine with one plunger-lift having been measured. The absence of attention in earlier times can only be assumed from the known habits of the miner, and the ab- surd stories prevalent of particular instances of neglect. Another great, but almost inappreciable change, has occurred in the increase of weight in the rods for a given load, due to deeper shafts and more expansion; but the circumstance of the greater weight of rods admitted of the reciprocal action of a still greater amount of expansion in Watt’s engines : in heavy pitwork, the accumulated force stored up at the com- mencement is restored at the end of the stroke. The only decrease of duty is occasioned by a greater amount of friction in the gudgeons of the balance beams, arising from the weights required to balance the rods; but, on the other hand, a direct gain is obviously due to the smaller quantity of water required to be expended as steam, to produce, by means of greater expansion, the same mean power. The present form of rod, with lifts alternately on each side, where the shaft admits of this method, was pro- bably due to Watt or Murdoch. Smeaton, at the Chacewater Atmospheric Engine, in 1775, seems to have effected the introduction of one rod for a portion of the shaft, and dispensed with the older practice of bringing up to the arc of the beam a separate rod for each lift. The plunger-pump seems to have effected another change of some im- portance, in the velocity with which the larger portion of water is raised. The engines are usually made to go, out-of-doors, at rather more than half the velocity of the in- door stroke, the piston moving in-doors from 240 to 260 feet, and out-of-doors from 104 -REPORT—1841. 120 to 130 feet per minute; the velocity of the plunger is usually four-fifths of this amount, or 100 to 120 feet per minute. Still a portion of the water, from one-third to one-sixth, is raised at three-fourths of the higher velocity ; recently larger valves have been placed below the plunger than above, with a view of equalizing the resist- ance of the water on passing the valves. In commencing motion, after the state of rest to which pumping engines are brought, it is possible a greater power may be employed than is required to continue it ; still the term variable load, formerly adopted by the writer of this paper, may be too strong. In an attempt to value friction by the area of the rubbing surfaces of the packing of the plungers, it appeared the una- nimous opinion of many of the best pitmen, that water could be kept from escaping with less friction by means of twelve-inch than with nine-inch packing, in a twelve- inch plunger-lift,—a circumstance that requires attention, not only in this, but pro- bably under numerous other conditions of friction calculations. In regard to the effect of expansion on the pitwork in producing a variable strain during the load, it was observed, that with twelve times expansion on an engine recently erected, of Watt’s construction, including clearance steam, the variation was found by an indi- cator to be as 8 to 1 at the end of thestroke ; but that in anew engine wita combined cylinder, by Sims, in which the steam is expanded twelve times, viz. three times in a small cylinder, and subsequently four times in a larger cylinder during the out- door stroke, this power being converted into a constant quantity in-doors by means of a balance, the variation of pressure would be about as 2 to 1 only; and that in Horn- blower’s or Woolf’s, if worked with high steam, under the condition of twelve times expansion, including clearance steam, the variation might be roughly taken as 3 to 1; —that the commercial part of the question of more or less expense in engines or pitwork, would determine the relative advantages, on the whole, of each engine for lifting water from deep mines. It seems that expansion has not been carried out to so great an extent when the load is near the end of the beam, and when the enormous balance weights, usual in Cornish pitwork, are not required to be applied, though it is obvious that this condition causes less pitwork friction. On an improved Sight for Rifles and other Fire-arms. By CHAnr es . THORNTON COATHUPE. As a substitute for the ordinary steel-leaved rifle sight, whose heights are regulated for certain definite ranges (between which an imaginary allowance for the correct elevation is all that can be effected), Mr. Coathupe recommends another upon a dif- ferent principle, equally simple, and by which any elevation may be readily obtained with accuracy, commencing with the lowest, or point-blank range, and ascending by the least possible increments to the extreme range for all useful purposes. It should be constructed by first forging a piece of iron, which, when filed up flat, and square at the edges, shall furnish a wedge, or inclined plane, from six to eight inches in length, and from three-eighths to half an inch in width, having its thicker extremity about three-eighths of an inch, and its thinner end about one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness. Upon this inclined plane a piece of steel, of similar length and width to that of the inclined plane, but of uniform thickness throughout, and having its edges filed so as to exhibit a dove-tail section, must be fixed, the wider surface being uppermost. Upon this dove-tail plate a steel sight, with a small notch filed in the centre of its upper edge, must be fitted so as to traverse steadily from end to end. The dove-tail plate may be attached to the inclined plane by means of gunsmiths’ solder ; and when thus fixed, a narrow groove must be filed longitudinally through its substance, com- mencing in a median line upon its upper surface, the bottom of the groove being par- allel to the base of the inclined plane. The whole must then be affixed to the rifle barrel, in a line corresponding with the axis of the bore, by means of three steel screws, whose heads must be countersunk. It is evident, that if the upper edge of this traversing sight, when at the commence- ment of the inclined plane, be so adjusted to the perpendicular heights of the in- clined plane, and of the sight near the muzzle, that a line passing through a central point in each shall be parallel to the axis of the bore, this will be the position for the point-blank range of the rifle; also, that if the traversing sight be pushed further along the inclined plane, the angle of elevation, and consequently the range, will be TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105 proportionally and gradually increased, until it has traversed to the extent of its limit : and as, during its passage, it will be gradually approximating to the upper sight, there will be an increasing ratio of range as the distance between the two points of sight diminishes. The plate upon which the lower sight traverses should be graduated throughout its length for every ten yards of distance within the range of the barrel (the charge and quality of the powder being uniform). By means of the thumb, the sight may be in- stantly adjusted to accord with the estimated distance of the object from the observer. On the Granite. Quarries of Dartmoorsand their Railways and Machinery. By W. JouHNson. The surface granite of Dartmoor, existing in detached blocks, has been long em- ployed in the neighbourhood for ordinary building purposes, but the quarried granite was first brought into the market by the Haytor Granite Company about the year 1820. The construction of a stone tramway allowed of the granite being shipped at _ Teignmouth ; it now competes with the best Aberdeenshire stone, since the lightness of its tint, the fineness of its texture, and the very large blocks in which it can be ob- tained, render it for some purposes unrivalled, and it has been extensively employed in many public buildings, both in the metropolis and other places. The completion in 1825 of the Plymouth and Dartmoor Railway, of the length of 25 miles and uni- form rise of 1 in 94, affords ready transport for the granite of the western face of the . moor from Fogginton and other parts adjacent, and the facilities with which these quarries are worked are very great. Strong timber stages with travelling frames, and upon the frames powerful traversing crabs, avoiding thereby the labour and delay of lifting by the ordinary means of derricks and cranes, are now in the course of con- struction. The travelling frames, with the crabs upon them, can be transferred from one line of scaffold to another, so that power may be accumulated to any extent upon one stage, so as to operate on blocks of extraordinary size. The magnitude of the blocks in which the granite can be procured from this quarry, renders it peculiarly fitted for the largest works of the engineer. The beds already accessible lie at great depths below the surface, and yield stone of the greatest compactness, strength, and uniformity of colour, and the horizontal disposition of the rock allows of the removal of stone of fair forms and in blocks of the largest size. On Arnott's Stove, and the Construction of Descending Flues, and their Ap- plication to the purposes of Ventilation. By J. N. HearpER. The general advantages of Arnott’s stoves in economizing fuel, avoiding smoke, and regulating the temperature, are well known; but these stoves are attended with some disadvantages, of which the danger of explosion and imperfect ventilation are the most serious. The liability to explosion Mr. Hearder considers to arise from the construction of the stove, in having the upper door air-tight, the only aperture for air being the valve aperture of the ash-pit. ‘The air so admitted is immediately decom- posed, and nearly the whole of its oxygen is abstracted, so that by the time it has passed up through the fuel, and reached the upper chamber of the stove, it has not oxy- gen enough left to support combustion. The heat evolved by the lower stratum of fuel, acting upon the upper stratum of fresh or unignifed fuel, liberates from it the inflam- mable gas which it contains, and which also accumulates in the top of the stove. A mixture is then formed analogous to the fire-damp of coal mines, ready for explosion whenever the requisite oxygen or degree of temperature shall be present. Under these circumstances, should the door be opened, a burst of flame outwards may be the re- sult ; or should a puff of wind down the chimney carry the mixture down through the ignited fuel, an explosion may ensue. Other causes, such as the sudden shutting or opening of the door of an apartment, may occasion the downward draught and conse- quent explosion. Now carburetted hydrogen will not explode when the proportion of the air to the hydrogen exceeds a certain limit, so that if air be supplied to the top of the stove, so as greatly to preponderate over the hydrogen, the latter will burn off in flame at the moment of its formation, or be carried up the flue. Mr. Heardeér, there- fore, proposes as a remedy, perforations through the lower edge of the upper door, so that air may be admitted on a level with the top edge of the fire-brick, through which 106 | REPORT—1841. a constant in-draught of atmospheric air will be ensured, sufficient to obviate the evil. The heat evolved by the perfect combustion of this inflammable gas, under these cir- cumstances, will, he says, more than compensate for the admission of cold air into the upper part of the stove. The perforations just mentioned will also obviate, in a great measure, the want of ventilation. The author described a small rarefying ap- paratus, to be inserted in the vertical shaft connected with a descending flue, in which apparatus a small culm fire is to be constantly kept. The expense of this is not more than one penny per day; and Mr. Hearder has found by experience that the draught produced by this means is so powerful as to ensure the success of an underground flue several hundreds of feet in length. On the Water Power at Wheal Friendship Mine. By Joun Tayuor, F.R.S. On the present state of the Thames Tunnel. By Sir lsamparp Brune. Mr. Whitworth gave an account of ‘A New Construction of Die Stock for Cutting Screws.’ Mr. D. Laing explained ‘Smith’s Wire Ropes.’ Mr. Brockedon explained his ‘ Application of Caoutchouc as a Stopper for Bottles containing Liquids.’ eros INDEX I. TO REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. OBJECTS and rules of the Association, v. Officers and council, vii. Places of meeting and officers from com- mencement, viii. Officers of sectional committees at the Ply- mouth Meeting, xi. Corresponding members, Xi. Treasurer’s account, xii. British Association property, xiii. Reports and desiderata, &c., xiv. Arrangement of the General Evening Meet- ings, Xv. Researches published by the British Asso- ciation, xvi. Recommendations for reports and special researches in science, Xix. Reports undertaken to be drawn up at the request of the Association, xix. Recommendations of researches in science involving money grants, xx. ‘Synopsis of money grants, xxiv. Extracts from resolutions of the General Committee, xxv. Address by the Rev. Professor Whewell, President, xxvii. Acid, carbonic, formation of, in the animal body, 27. —, effect of, when injected into the veins, 28. ——, ——, when thrown into the carotid artery, 28. Agassiz (M.), provision of meteorological in- struments for the use of, 41. Air, velocity of cooling in, 5. Airy (G. B.) on the publication of the hourly observations made at Plymouth, 328. Anemometer, Osler’s, erection of, at Inver- ness, 329. ——, Whewell’s, on the working of, at Ply- mouth, 36. Animals, engraving of skeleton maps for re- cording the distribution of, 327. Anoplura Britanniz, 331. Artery, effects of carbonic acid when thrown into the carotid, 28. Baily (F.) on revising the nomenclature of the stars, 44. Baily (F.) on the reduction of the stars in the Histoire Céleste, 330. on the extension of stars in the Royal Astronomical Society’s catalogue, 330. Ball (R.) on marine zoology, 331. Balloons, experiments with, 55. , directions for making observations on the atmosphere in, 59. Barometer, on the, 58. Batrachia, 181. Birt (W. R.) on meteorological observations made in America, 43. Brewster (Sir D.) on experiments with balloons, 55. on the hourly observations at Inver- ness and Unst, 329. on the erection of Osler’s anemometer at Inverness, 329. on the action of gaseous and other media on the solar spectrum, 330. Bristol tides, discussions of, 30. Hee (J., Jun.) on earthquakes in Ireland, on the subject of researches concern- ing the mud of rivers, 330. Buckland (Dr.) on the fossil fishes of the old red sandstone of Great Britain, 331. —— on drawings of the sections of strata exposed in railway excavations, 331. Pon (Mr.) on discussions of Bristol tides, Cape of Good Hope, magnetic disturbance at, on Sept. 24 and 25, 1841, 351. Caprimulgide, progress of report on, 331. Cetiosaurus, 94. — brevis, 94. — medius, 100, brachyurus, 100. longus, 101. Chelone, 168. —— planiceps, 168. —— obovata, 170. ——, Wealden, 172. —— pulchriceps, 172. ——,, Eocene tertiary, 177. — longiceps, 177. —— planimentum, 178. —— breviceps, 178, 108 Chelone convexa, 178. subcristata, 179. latiscutata, 179. Chelonia, 160. Chelonide, 168. Cladyodon, 155. Ccelum Aunstrale Stelliferum, reduction of Lacaille’s stars in the, 327. Compteur, Morin’s, 309. Conduction, power of, 5. , Fourier’s hypothesis of, 6. Cooling, Newton’s law of, 3. Crocodilia, 65. Crocodilus Spenceri, 65. Dalyell (Sir J. G.) on radiata, 331. Denny (Mr.) on anoplura Britannie, 331. Dinosaurians, 102. Earthquakes, on obtaining instruments and registers to record shocks of, in Scotland and Ireland, 46. 4 Ely (The Very Rev. the Dean of) on terre- strial magnetism and meteorology, 38. Emydian, large, from the Kimmeridge clay, 168. ——,, footsteps of, in new red sandstone,168. Emys, 160. — testudiniformis, 161. de Sheppey, 161. Enys (J.) on the construction of a constant indicator for steam-engines, 307. Fossil reptiles, British, 60. fishes of the old red sandstone of Great Britain, 331. Femur, chelonian, from lias at Linksfield,168. Gases, velocity of cooling in, 5. Goniopholis crassidens, 69. Gould (Mr.), progress of report on capri- mulgide, 331. Graham (Robert) on the engraving of skeleton maps for recording the distribution of plants and animals, 327. Greenock (Lord) on obtaining instruments and registers to record shocks of earth- quakes in Scotland and Ireland, 46. Harris (W. S.) on the working of Whewell’s anemometer at Plymouth, 36. —— on the publication of the hourly obser- vations made at Plymouth under the su- perintendence of, 328. Heat, present state of our theoretical and experimental knowledge of the laws of conduction of, 1. , Poisson’s theory of, 9, 11. ——, Fourier’s hypothesis of, 9. ——, Libri’s hypothesis of, 10. ——, Biot on, 15. ——,, conductive power relative to, 18. Herschel (Sir J. F. W., Bart.) on terrestrial magnetism and meteorology, 38. — on the reduction of meteorological ob- servations, 42. INDEX I. Herschel (Sir J. F. W., Bart.) on revising the nomenclature of the stars, 44. —— on experiments with balloons, 55. —— on the reduction of Lacaille’s stars in the Coclum Australe Stelliferum, 327. Tee _Céleste, reduction of stars in the, Hodgkin (Dr.) on inquiries into the races of man, 52. Hodgkinson (Eaton) on the construction of - aoe indicator for steam-engines, Human race, varieties of the, 332. —-, queries respecting the, 332. ——, physical characters, 332. —, language, 334. —, individual and family life, 335. —, buildings and monuments, 337. ——., works of art, 337. ——, domestic animals, 337. ——,, governments and laws, 337. ——., geography and statistics, 338. ——-, social relations, 338. » religion, superstitions, &c., 339. Hygrometer, on the, 58. Hyleosaurus, 111. ——,, vertebre of, 112. ——, sacrum of, 113. , caudal vertebre of, 114. ——,, dermal scutes of, 115. ——,, dermal spines of, 115. ——,, scapular arch of, 117. ——,, teeth of, 118. ——, jaw of, 119. Hythe, gigantic fossil saurian from the lower greensand at, 157. Tguanodon, 120. , teeth of the, 120. — , head of, 124. ——,, tympanic bone of, 124, , vertebral column of, 125. ——, sacral vertebrz of, 129. ——,, caudal vertebre of, 131. ——,, ribs of, 133. ——,, scapular arch of, 133. ——, coracoid of, 134. —, clavicle of, 134. —,, humerus of, 135. —, ilium of, 135. ——, pubis of, 135. —=,, ischium of, 136. ——,, femur of, 136. ——,, size of, 142. Iguanodon Mantelli, 120. Indicator, constant, construction of a, for steam-engines, 307. ——, Wait’s, 308. ——,, Prof. Moseley’s, 310. ——, theory of the, 314. Inverness, erection of Osler’s anemometer at, 329. —, hourly observations at, 329. Ireland, on obtaining instruments and regis- a to record shocks of earthquakes in, INDEX I. Jardine (Sir W., Bart.) on anoplura Britan- nie, 331. Kelland (Rev. P.) on the present state of our theoretical and experimental knowledge of the laws of conduction of heat, 1. Kimmeridge clay, large emydian from the, 168. Labyrinthodon leptognathus, 183. —— pachygnathus, 186. scutulatus, 188. Lacaille’s stars in the Coelum Australe Stelli- ferum, reduction of, 327. Lacertilia, 144. Lardner (Dr. D.) on the determination of the mean value of railway constants, 205. Leiodon, 144. Leith tide observations, discussion of, 33. Lizard, pleurodont eocene, 145. ——,, oolite, 145. Lloyd (Prof.) on terrestrial magnetism and meteorology, 38. Lubbock (Sir J. W., Bart.) on experiments with balloons, 55. Magnetic disturbance.at Toronto on the 25th and 26th Sept. 1841, 340. ——, remarks relative to the, 345. ——, at Trevandrum, on Sept. 25, 1841, 347. ——, at St.Helena, on Sept. 24 and 25,1841, 349. ——,, at the Cape of Good Hope, on the 24th and 25th Sept. 1841, 351. Magnetism, terrestrial, 38. Man, inquiries into the races of, 52. Maps, skeleton, engraving of, for recording the distribution of plants and animals, 327. Megalosaurus, 103. ——,, vertebre of, 104. ——,, sacrum of, 105. Meteorological instruments, provision of, for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord, 41. Meteorological observations, reduction of, 42. Meteorology, 38. M‘Cord (Mr.) provision of meteorological in- struments for the use of, 41. Miller (Prof. W. H.) on experiments with balloons, 55. Milne (David) on obtaining instruments and registers to record shocks of earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland, 46. letter to, from J. Bryce, Esq., on earth- quakes in Ireland, 49. Morin’s compteur, 309. Mosasaurus, 144. Moseley (Prof.) on the construction of a con- stant indicator for steam-engines, 307. Mud of rivers, researches concernin g the, 330. Newton’s law of cooling, 3. Ophidia, 180. Ornithology, progress of report on, 331. Owen (R.) on British fossil reptiles, 60. 109 Paleosaurus, 154. Patterson (Rob.) on marine zoology, 331. Plants, engraving of skeleton maps for re- cording the distribution of, 327. Platemys Bowerbankii, 163. Bullockii, 164. — Mantelli, 167. Pliosaur, teeth of the, 61. , vertebral column of, 62. , bones of the extremities of, 64. Pliosaurus, 60. Plymouth, on the working of Whewell’s ane- mometer at, 36. ——, hourly observations made at, 328. Poikilopleuron Bucklandi, 84. Poisons, 26. Polyptychodon, 156. Pterosauria, 156. Radiation, law of, 2. Railway constants, determination of the mean value of, 205, 247. Raphiosaurus, 145. Reports, provisional, 327. Reptiles, British fossil, 60. Researches, progress in special, 327. Rhynchosaurus, 145. ——,, vertebre of the, 146. ——, skull of, 147. ——,, coracoid of, 15]. -—, humerus of, 151. ——,, radius and ulna of, 152. , ilium of, 152. , femora of, 152. . Robinson (T. R.) on experiments with bal- loons, 55. Ross (D.) on the discussion of Leith tide ob- servations, 33. Roupell (Dr. G. L.) on poisons, 26. Russell (J. S.) on the forms of vessels, 325. on wayes, 325. Rysosteus, 159. Sabine (Lieut.-Col.) on terrestrial magnetism and meteorology, 38. — on experiments with balloons, 55. on the translation of foreign scientific memoirs, 328. Saurian, gigantic fossil, from the lower green- sand at Hythe, 157. —,, femur of the, 157. ——, tibia and fibula of, 157. —, metatarsals of, 158. ——,, ilia, ischia, pubis, and coracoid bone of, 158. Scientific memoirs, translation of foreign, 328. Scotland, on obtaining instruments and re- gisters to record shocks of earthquakes in, 46. Seeds, preservation of vegetative powers in, 50. Seismometer, common pendulum, 46. , inverted pendulum, 47. Selby (Mr.) on ornithology, 331. Spectrum, solar, inquiry into the action of gaseous and other media on the, 330. 110 Stars, nomenclature of the, 44. , reduction of, in the Histoire Céleste, 330. ——,, extension of, in the Royal Astronomi- cal Society’s catalogue, 330. Steam-engines, formule for determining the work of, by means of the indicator, 323, —,, construction of a constant indicator for, 307. ; ; Steneosaurus, 82, St. Helena, magnetic disturbance at, on Sept. 24th and 25th, 1841, 349. Strata, progress of drawings of the sections of, exposed in railway excavations, 331. Streptospondylus, 88. major, 91. Suchosaurus cultridens, 67. Teleosaurus, 72. ——,, vertebral column of the, 76. ——,, pectoral extremities of, 78. , dermal armour of, 79. Teleosaurus cadomensis, 81. asthenodeirus, 81. Testudinide, 160. Thecodonts, 153. Thermometer, on the, 59. Tide observations, discussion of Leith, 33. Tides, discussions of Bristol, 30. Toronto, magnetic disturbance at, on the 25th and 26th Sept. 1841, 340. Tortoises, new red sandstone, 160. INDEX II. Tortoises, oolite, 160. Tretosternon punctatum, 165. Trevandrum, magnetic disturbance at, on Sept. 25th, 1841, 347. Trionyx, 168. Unst, hourly obseryations at, 329. Vegetative powers in seeds, preservation of, 50. Veins, effect of carbonic acid injected into the, 28. Vessels, forms of, 325. Watt’s indicator for steam-engines, 308. Waves, 325. Whewell (Rev. W.) on discussions of Bristol tides, 30. on the discussion of Leith tide obser- vations, 33. —— on terrestrial magnetism and meteor- ology, 38, on revising the nomenclature of the stars, 44. on experiments with balloons, 55. Whewell’s anemometer, Mr. S. Harris on the working of, 36. Woods (Edward) on railway constants, 247. Zoology, marine, 331. INDEX IL. MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. — ABSCESS, hepatic, 81. Acid, hydrocyanic, new extemporaneous pro- cess for the production of, 54. Aigean sea, on two remarkable marine inver- tebrata inhabiting the, 72. Agricultural products of Cornwall, 83. Air, on the temperature of the, in York min- ster, 29. Allotments, on the system of small, and spade husbandry, 98. Animal, new glirine, from Mexico, 70. Animals of New Holland, geographical di- stribution of the, 68. Arnott’s stove, Mr. J. N. Hearder on, 105. Artesian well, strata penetrated in sinking an, at Plymouth, 63. Ascites, extraordinary case of albuminous, with hydatids, 81, Asthma, 80. Atkinson (Joseph) on rain, at Harraby, near Carlisle, 30. Austria, freshwater fish of, 71. Axmouth, landslip of, 64. Ball (Robert) on the destruction of plants by animal odour, 76. Bartlett (Mr.) on the post-tertiary formations of Cornwall and Deyon, 61. —— on animal and vegetable physiology, 77. Bateman (J.) on the use of the sliding rules, 42. Bellamy (Dr. P. F.) on two Peruvian mum- mies, 79. Bellamy (J. C.) on Devonian fossils, 64. —— on the distribution, &c,, of the mam- mals of Devonshire, 68, INDEX Ii, Blindness, case of, 81. Bodmin, fossil organic remains of, 61. Booth (A.) on spontaneous combustion, 50. Boswarra (J.) on the heave of a copper lode, 64 Botany, 68. Bottles, application of caoutchouc as a stop- per for, 106. Bowman (Edmund) on determining distan- ces by the telescope, 42. Bowman (J. E.) on the upper Silurian rocks of Denbighshire, 59. Breakwater, Plymouth, 99. , floating, 100. Brewster (Sir David) on crystalline reflexion, 42. Bridges, suspension, system of trussing for the roadways of, 102. Bristol, statistics of education in the city of, 89. Brockedon (Mr.) on caoutchouc as a stopper for bottles, 106. Brunel (Sir J.) on the present state of the Thames tunnel, 106. Brussels, establishment of a central statisti- cal commission in, 98. Buckland (Rev. Dr.) on specimens from gra- nite quarries near Prince Town, Dartmoor, 64. —— on models for illustration of the suc- cession and dislocations of strata, mineral veins, &c., 67. Bunsen (Prof.) on the radical of the kako- dyle series, 55. Butter (Dr. J.) on the pathology and cure of squinting, 79. Caldwell (Dr.) on the varieties of the human race, 75. Caoutchoue, application of, as a stopper for bottles, 106. Cardinia, Agassiz, on the genus, as charac- teristic of the lias formation, 65. Cecidomya Tritici, 72. Chatfield (W.) on Truscott’s plan for reefing paddle-wheels, 102. Chemical action, restrained, 51. Chemistry, 43. Chock channels, Captain Couch’s, 102. Christie (Prof.) on the preservation of mag- netic needles and bars from oxidation by the electrotype process, 41. Chronometers, application of a coating of gold to the steel balance-springs of, 41. Circles, instrument for drawing, in perspec- tive, 42. Clergy of the established church in Scot- land, stipends of the, 96. _ Coathupe (C. T.) on an improved sight for rifles and other fire-arms, 104. Combustion, spontaneous, 50. Compasses, sea, 27. Continent, account of the monts de piété on the, 91. Copper, action of sea water.on, 77, 111 Copper sheathing, causes of the increased destructibility of modern, 43. Cornwall, post-tertiary formations of, 61. #4 ——,, fossil organic remains of the south- east coast of, 61. ——,, zoology of the county of, 68. , flora of, 75. ——, agricultural products of, 83. ——, connexion which exists between im- provements in pit-work and the duty of steam-engines in, 103. Couch’s (Capt.) chock channels, 102. Couch (Jonathan) on the zoology of the county of Cornwall, 68. Craig (John) on sections of the railway be- tween Glasgow and Greenock, and Green- ock and Ayr, 67. Crustaceans, occurrence of some minute fossil, in Paleozoic rocks, 64. Cyanogen, direct formation of, from its ele- ments, 52. Daltonism, 40, Dana (Dr. Samuel L.) on determining the quantity of real indigo in the indigos of commeree, 49. Dartmoor, granite quarries of, 105. Daubeny (Prof.) on manures considered as stimulants to vegetation, 47. on the disintegration of the dolomitic rocks of the Tyrol, 48. on a portable botanical press, 77. Dawson (Mr.) on the landslip of Axmouth, 64, Deafness, case of, 81. Deakin’s (Dr. R.) registers of meteorologi- cal instruments at the baths of Lucca in 1840, 42. De Moleyns (Mr.) on recent discoveries in voltaic combination, 42. — on the nature and properties of the new element, or product of electrical action mentioned by Schénbein, 57. Denbighshire, upper silurian rocks of, 59. Derry’s (Samuel) statistical report of pa- tients of the Plymouth public dispensary, during the years 1838-1840, 83. Devon, post-tertiary formations of, 61. ——,, flora of, 75. Devonport, statistics of, 82. Devonshire, distribution, &¢., of the mam- mals of, 68. Dickson (Sir D. J. H.) on an extraordinary case of albuminous ascites, with hydatids ; of five cases of hepatic abscess, and of two cases of phthisis, 81. Dispensary, Plymouth public, statistical re- port of patients of the, during 1838-1840, 83. Dukinfield, income and expenditure of cer- tain families of the working classes in, 90. Dumbness, case of, 81. Dury (Rey. T.) on sea compasses, 27. Dent (E. J.) on the application of a coating of gold to the steel balance springs of chronometers, 41, 112 Education, natural history as a branch of, 77. ——,, statistics of, in Bristol, 89. , State of, in the polytechnic school at Paris, 96. : Eel, habits of the, 71. Electrical action mentioned by Schonbein, nature and properties of the new element, or product of, 57. Electrotype process, preservation of magne- tic needles and bars from oxidation by the, 41. Empyema, 82. Enamel, capsular investment of the, 17. Enys (J. S.) on the connexion which exists between improvements in pit-work and the duty of steam-engines in Cornwall, 103. Epithelium, structure of the, 15. Equation, algebraic, relation of Sturm’s auxiliary functions to the roots of an, 23. Eye, human, on two new fasciz connected with the muscles of the, 80. Fire, possibility of, from the use of hot water in warming buildings, and of explosions in steam-engine boilers, 49. Fire-arms, improved sight for, 104. Fish, freshwater, of Austria, 71. Tishies, marine, three new genera of, from Van Diemen’s Land, 71. Flues, descending, their application to the purposes of ventilation, 105. Forbes (E.) on two remarkable marine in- vertebrata inhabiting the Aigean sea, 72. Fossil organic remains of Cornwall, and of Bodmin and Menheniott, 61. Fossils, discovery of, on Great Hangman Hill, North Devon, 64. , on copying, by a galvanic deposit, 67. Fowler (Dr.) on a case of deafness, dumb- ness and blindness, with remarks on the muscular sense, 81. Fowler (Mr.) on a new calculating machine, 39. Fownes (G.) on the direct formation of cy- anogen from its elements, 52. Fripp (Mr.) on the statistics of education in the city of Bristol, 89. " Geography, physical, 59. Geology, 59. Gilbert (Mrs. Davies) on a system of small allotments and spade husbandry, 98. Gold, application of a coating of, to the steel balance-springs of chronometers, 41. Granite quarries of Dartmoor, 105. —, specimens from, near Prince ‘Town, Dartmoor, 64. Grantham (J.) on a plan of disengaging and reconnecting the paddle-wheels of steam- engines, 102. Gray (J. E.) on the geographical distribu- tion of the animals of New Holland, 68. — on a new glirine animal from Mexico, 70. Grellet (Mr.) on an instrument for drawing circles in perspective, 42. 5 INDEX II. Gurney (G.) on the possibility of fire from the use of hot water in warming buildings, and of explosions in steam-engine boilers, 49. Gutch’s (W. G) notice of certain barometers invented by Mr. Bursill, 42. Harding (Major) on the discovery of fossils on Great Hangman Hill, N. Devon, 64. Harraby, near Carlisle, rain at, 30. Harris (W. 8.) on Capt. Couch’s chock chan- nels, 102. Hearder (J. N.) on Arnott’s stove, and the construction of descending flues, and their epeerion to the purposes of ventilation, 3. Heat, refraction of, 25. Henslow (Prof.) on Cecidomya tritici, 72. Tae (Sir J. F.W., Bart.) on photographs, Hewett (Capt.) on the tide of the north sea, 32. Heywood (James) on the state of education in the polytechnic school at Paris, 96. Hopkins (Thomas) on the influence of moun- tains on temperature in the winter in cer- tain parts of the northern hemisphere, 28. Hore (Rev. W. S) on the flora of Devon and Cornwall, 75. Hull, condition of the working-classes in, 85. Human race, varieties of the, 75. Hunt (Mr. R.) on the influence of the ferro- cyanate of potash on the iodide of silver as a photographic preparation, 47. Husbandry, spade, on the system of small allotments and, 98. Hydrogen, production of sulphuretted, 57. Indices, refractive, theoretical computation of, 24. Indigo, quantity of real, in the indigo of commerce, 49. Infusoria, deposits in springs, rivers and lakes, from the existence of, 72. Integrals, definite, machine for calculating the numerical values of, 35. Invertebrata, marine, two remarkable, inha- biting the Aigean sea, 72. Treland, loan funds in, 93. Johnson (W.) on the granite quarries of Dartmoor, and their railways and ma- chinery, 105. Jordan (T. B.) on copying fossils by a gal- vanic deposit, 67. Kakodyle series, radical of the, 55. Kingston-upon-Hull, condition of the work- ing-classes in, 85. Laing (D.) on Smith’s wire ropes, 106. Lakes, deposits in, from the existence of in- fusoria, 72. Landslip of Axmouth, 64. Lankester (Dr. E.) on the production of sul- INDEX Il. getable matter on solutions containing sul- phates, 57. Lankester (Dr. E.) on deposits in springs, rivers and lakes, from the existence of in- fusoria, 72. Lee’s (John Campbell) notice of a meteoro- logical journal forthe year1840, kept by, 32. Lemon (Sir C., Bart.) on the agricultural products of Cornwall, 83. ’ Lepidosiren, two specimens of, from Macart- ney Island, 72. Lias formation, on the genus Cardinia as cha- racteristic of the, 65. Lichens, white crystalline substance obtained from, 53. Liebig (Prof.), abstract of a letter from, to Dr. Playfair, 53. Light, certain points of the wave-theory of, ——,, some investigations on the phenomena of thin plates in polarized, 26. Lloyd (Rev. Prof.) on some investigations on the phenomena of thin plates in polar- ized light, 26. on simultaneous changes of the mag- netic elements at different stations, 26. Loan funds in Ireland, 93. Lode, copper, heave of a, 64. Longchamps (M. E. de Selys), projet d’ob- servations annuelles sur la périodicité des oiseaux, 73. < Lucas (P. B.) on two new fasciz connected with the muscles of the human eye, 80. Macgowan (Dr.) on empyema, 82. Machine for calculating the numerical values of definite integrals, 35. ——, new calculating, 39. Machinery of the granite quarries of Dart- moor, 105. Magnetic elements, simultaneous changes of the, at different stations, 26. Magnetic needles and bars, preservation of, from oxidation, 41. Mammals of Devonshire, distribution, &c., of the, 68. Manchester, income and expenditure of cer- tain families of the working classes in, 90. Manures considered as stimulants to vegeta- tion, 47. Marshall (John) on the fall of rain in low and high ground near Hallsteads in Cum- berland, 42. Mathematics, 23. Mechanics, 99. Medical science, 77. Menheniott, on the fossil organic remains of, 61. Mexico, new glirine animal from, 70. Mineral veins, models for illustration of the succession and dislocations of, 67. Monts de piété of Rome, Paris, and other cities on the continent, 91. Moore (Dr. E.) on the discovery of organic remains in a raised beach in the limestone cliff under the Hoe, at Plymouth, 62. 1841, 113 Moore (Dr. E.) on the strata penetrated in sinking an Artesian well at the Victoria spa, Plymouth, 63. Moseley (Henry) on a machine for calculating the numerical values of definite integrals, 35. Mountains, influence of, on temperature in the winter in certain parts of the northern hemisphere, 28. Mount Batten, on specimens from the slaty rocks of, 64. Mummies, on two Peruvian, 75. Muscles of the human eye, on two new fascie connected with the, 80. Nasmyth (Mr.), letters respecting his paper on the structure of the teeth, 3. on the microscopic structure of the teeth, 14. on the structure of the epithelium, 15. Natural history as a branch of education, 77. Neild (W.) on the income and expenditure of certain families of the working classes in Manchester and Dukinfield, in 1836 and 1841, 90. New Holland, geographical distribution of the animals of, 68. Nitrogen, on determining the amount of, in organic bodies, 54. Northern hemisphere, influence of mountains on temperature in winter in certain parts of the, 28. North sea, tide of the, 22. Oiseaux, projet d’observations annuelles sur la périodicité des, 73. Opium, value of, as a remedy in rheumatism, 78 Opossum, great dog-headed, 70. Organic remains, discovery of, in a raised beach, in the limestone cliff, under the Hoe, at Plymouth, 62. —, fossil, of Cornwall, and of Bodmin and Menheniott, 61. Owen’s (Prof.) letters respecting Mr. Na- smyth’s paper on the structure of the teeth, 4. on a Thylacinus, the great dog-headed opossum, 70. Paddle-wheel and screw, propulsion of ves- sels by the trapezium, 101. Paddle-wheels, Truscott’s plan for reefing, 102. —— of steam-engines, plan for disengaging and reconnecting the, 102. Palzeozoic rocks, occurrence of some minute fossil crustaceans in, 64. Paracyanogen, production of silicon from, 54. Paris, monts de piété of, 91. ——,, state of education in the polytechnic school at, 96. Parnell (E. A.) on restrained chemical action, 51. — on some subjects connected with the sulphocyanides, 51. I 114 Patterson (R.) on natural history as a branch of education, 77. f Peach (C. W.) on the fossil organic remains of the south-east coast of Cornwall, and of Bodmin and Menheniott, 61. Peruvian mummies, on two, 79. Phillips (John), letter respecting Mr. Na- smyth’s paper on thestructure of theteeth,3. — on the temperature of the air in York Minster, 29. —— on rain at York, 30. — on the occurrence of some minute fossil crustaceans in Paleozoic rocks, 64. Photographie preparation, influence of the ferrocyanate of potash on the iodide of silver as a, 47. Photographs, 40. Phthisis, 81. Physics, 23. Physiology, animal and vegetable, compara- tive view of, 77. Pines, on some species of European, 76. Pit-work, connexion which exists between improvements in, and the duty of steam- engines in Cornwall, 103. Plants, destruction of, by animal odour, 76. Playfair (Dr.), abstract of a letter from Prof. Liebig to, 53. ’ Plymouth breakwater, 99. Plymouth, stratified and unstratified voleanic products near, 61. ——, discovery of organic remains in the limestone cliff, under the Hoe at, 62. ——, strata penetrated in sinking an Artesian well at the Victoria spa at, 63. ——, statistics of, 82. — ~, statistical report of patients of the public dispensary, during 1838-1840, 83. Polytechnic school at Paris, state of educa- tion in the, 96. Pontia, specimens of, 72. Porter (Henry J.) on the monts de piété of Rome, Paris, and other cities on the con- tinent, 91. on the loan funds in Ireland, 93. Potash, ferrocyanate of, influence of the, on the iodide of silver, as a photographic pre- paration, 47. Powell (Prof.) on the theoretical computa- tion of refractive indices, 24. on the refraction of heat, 25. — on certain points of the wave-theory of light, 25. Pratt (S. P.) on specimens from the slaty rocks of Mount Batten, 64. Prideaux (J.) on copper which had been acted on by sea water, 77. —— on the causes of the increased destruc- tibility of modern copper sheathing, 43. Prince Town, Dartmoor, on specimens from granite quarries, near, 64. Quarries, granite, of Dartmoor, 105. Quetelet (Prof.) on the importance of keep- ing registers of the physical and moral world, 96. INDEX II. Quetelet (Prof.) on the establishment of a central statistical commission in Brussels, 98. Race, varieties of the human, 75. Railway, notice of sections of the, between Bristol and Bath, 67. , between Glasgow and Greenock, and Greenock and Ayr, 67. neler of the granite quarries of Dartmoor, Rain, researches on, at York, 30. , at Harraby, near Carlisle, 30. ee (Dr. D. B.) on the ventilation of ships, Rendel (J. M.) on a system of trussing for the roadways of suspension bridges, 102. Rennie (G.) on the propulsion of vessels by oon trapezium paddle-wheel and screw, 1. an value of opium as a remedy in, 8. Richardson (Dr.) on three new genera of ma- rine fishes from Van Diemen’s Land, 71. Rifles, improved sight for, 104. Rivers, deposits in, from the existence of in- fusoria, 72. Rocks, dolomitic, of the Tyrol, disintegration of the, 48. ——, upper Silurian, of Denbighshire, 59. ——,, palzozoic, occurrence of some minute fossil crustaceans in, 64. Rome, account of the monts de piété of, 91. Ropes, Smith’s wire, 106. Rumball (Mr.) on asthma, 80. Ryland (A.) on the income of scientific and literary societies, and the amount paid for rates and taxes in 1840, 95. Sanders (William) on sections of the railway between Bristol and Bath, 67. Santorin, map of, 68. Saxicava rugosa, geological changes produced by the, in Plymouth Sound, 66. Schunk (M.) on a white crystalline substance obtained from lichens, 53. Science, medical, 77. Scotland, stipends of the clergy of the esta- blished church in, 96. + Screws, new construction of a die-stock for cutting, 106. : Sense, muscular, $1. Sepiadz, colossal, 73. Sheftield, economic statistics of, 87. ——,, Vital statistics of, 88. Ships, ventilation of, 82. Silicon, production of, from paracyanogen, 54. Silver, iodide of, influence of the ferrocya- nate of potash on the, as a photographic preparation, 47. , molybdie, 58. Skin, pustular disease hitherto undescribed by writers on diseases of the, 77. Sliding rule, use of the, 42, Societies, income of literary and scientific, in 1840, 95. INDEX II. Societies, amount of rates and taxes paid by literary and scientific, 1840, 95. Smith (Col. Hamilton) on the colossal se- piade, 73. Solomon (J. V.) on the treating of squinting, 80. Springs, deposits in, from the existence of infusoria, 72. Square (W. J.) on a case of empyema, 82. Squinting, pathology and cure of, 79. Statistical commission, establishment of a central, in Brussels, 98. Statistics, 82. ——, economic, of Sheffield, 87. —, vital, of Sheffield, 88. — of education in the city of Bristol, 89. Steam-boats, shield to protect the paddle- wheels of, from the action of the sea, 101. Steam-engines, plan of disengaging and re- connecting the paddle-wheels of, 102. in Cornwall, connexion which exists between improvements in pit-work and the duty of, 103. Stonehouse, statistics of, 82. Strata, models for illustration of the succes- sion and dislocations of, 67. Strickland (H. E.) on the genus Cardinia, as characteristic of the lias formation, 65. on a map of Santorin, 68. Stuart (W.) on the Plymouth breakwater, 99. Sturm’s auxiliary functions, relation of, to the roots of an algebraic equation, 23. Sugar, composition of crystallized diabetic, 54. Sulphocyanides, some subjects connected with the, 51. Sylvester (Prof.) on the relation of Sturm’s auxiliary functions to the roots of an alge- braic equation, 23. Taylor (Capt.) on a floating breakwater, 100. — onashield to protect the paddle-wheels of steam-boats from the action of the sea, 101. Taylor (John) on the water-power at Wheal Friendship mine, 106. Teeth, microscopic structure of the, 14. Telescope, determination of distances by the, 42. Temperature, influence of mountains on, in the winter, 28. Thompson (Dr. T.) on the value of opium as a remedy in rheumatism, and on the cir- cumstances which should regulate its em- ployment, 78. Thomson (Dr. A. T.) on a pustular disease hitherto undescribed by writers on dis- eases of the skin, 77. Thomson (Dr. R. D.) on the new process for the production of hydrocyanic acid for me- dical use, 54. — on the composition of crystallized dia- betic sugar, 54. 115 Thomson (Dr. T.) on two lepidosirens from Macartney Island, 72. Thylacinus, account of a, 70. Tide of the North Sea, 32. Transactions of the Sections in 1839, adden- dum to the Report of the, 1 Tripe (Dr.) on some specimens of Pontia, 72. Truscott’s plan for reefing paddle-wheels, 102. Trussing, system of, for the roadways of sus- pension bridges, 102. Tunnel, Thames, present state of the, 106. Tweedy (Mr.) on molybdic silver, 58. Tyrol, disintegration of the dolomitic rocks of the, 48. Van Diemen’s Land, three new genera of ma- rine fishes from, 71. Varrentrapp (Dr.) on determining the amount of nitrogen in organic bodies, 53. Vegetation, manures considered as stimu- lants to, 47. Ventilation, on descending flues, and their application to the purposes of, 105. Vessels, propulsion of, by the trapezium paddle-wheel and screw, 101. Volcanic products, stratified and unstratified, near Plymouth, 61. . Walker (W.) on the geological changes pro- duced by the Saxicava rugosa in Plymouth Sound, 66. Wartmann (Prof. Elie) on Daltonism, 40. Water-power at Wheal Friendship mine, 106. Wave-theory of light, certain points of the, 25. Wheal Friendship mine, water-power at, 106. Whitworth (Mr.) on a die-stock for cutting screws, 106. Widdrington (Capt.) on the habits of the eel, and on the freshwater fish of Austria, 71. — on some species of European pines, 76. Will (Dr.) on determining the amount of ni- trogen in organic bodies, 53. Williams (Rev. D.) on the stratified and un- stratified voleanic products in the neigh- bourhood of Plymouth, 61. Woollcombe (H.) on the statistics of Ply- mouth, Stonehouse, and Devonport, 82. Working classes,in Kingston-upon-Hull, con- dition of the, 85. , income and expenditure of certain fa- milies of the, in Manchester and Dukin- field, 90. York minster, temperature of the air in, 29. York, rain at, 30. Zoology, 68. —— of the county of Cornwall, 68. THE END. PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. The Published Reports of Proceedings at the Meetings of the Association may be obtained by Members only, on application to the under-mentioned Local Treasurers, or Agents appointed by them, at the following prices :— TREASURER. DEPOT FOR THE REPORTS. LONDON ....0s000e.seee0eeeee-J0Kn Taylor, Esq. Messrs. R. and J. E. Taylor’s Printing 2 Duke Street, Adelphi. Office, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. LOCAL TREASURERS. DEPOTS. OXFORD ....... ce secvessesses Dr. Daubeny .......+ Seoscssnee Ashmolean Museum, Mr. Kirkland. CAMBRIDGE .....00sseenees Rey. Professor Henslow...... House of the Philosophical Society. DDUBLIN .0..00002-.2ccseessee Dr. Orpen .......eccccercereeses 13 South Frederick Street. EDINBURGH ........eeeeeees Charles Forbes, Esq. ......... Apartments of the Royal Society. GLASGOW .....00.sesseceeses Charles Forbes, Esq. ......... Union Bank. WIGS cnccces-sccc00 paddboctcts William Gray, Jun., Esq. .... Yorkshire Museum. BRISTOL........,.0000seeceeee William Sanders, Esq. ....... Philosophical Institution, Park Street. LIVERPOOL .......0.0eseeees Samuel Turner, Esq. ......... Bank of England Branch Bank. Mr. James Orme, Lit. and Phil. Soc. MANCHESTER........sc0eeee Rev. John James Tayler... Chapel Yard, 9 Cheapside, King St. BIRMINGHAM.....cseceseees James Russell, Esq. ..........Philosophical Institution. NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE .... William Hutton, Esq.......... Natural History Society. PLYMOUTH .....ceccseses ....-Henry Woollcombe, Esq. ....Athenzum. PROCEEDINGS or tHe FIRST anp SECOND MEETINGS, at York and Oxford, 1831 and 1832, 10s. Contents :—Prof. Airy, on the Progress of Astronomy ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., on the Tides ;—Prof. Forbes, on the Present State of Meteorology ;—Prof. Powell, on the Present State of the Science of Radiant Heat ;—Prof. Cumming, on Thermo- Electricity ;—Sir David Brewster, on the Progress of Optics ;—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Present State of Mineralogy ;—Rev. W. D. Conybeare, on the Recent Progress and Present State of Geology ;—Dr. Pritchard’s Review of Philological and Physical Researches. Together with Papers on Mathematics, Optics, Acoustics, Magnetism, Electricity, Chemistry, Meteorology, Geography, Geology, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology, Bo- tany, and the Arts; and an Exposition of the Object and Plan of the Association, &c. PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRD MEETING, at Cambridge, 1833, 8s. Contents :—Proceedings of the Meeting ;—Mr. John Taylor, on Mineral Veins ; —Dr. Lindley, on the Philosophy of Botany ;—Dr. Henry, on the Physiology of the Nervous System ;—Mr. Peter Barlow, on the Strength of Materials ;—Mr. S. H. Christie, on the Magnetism of the Earth ;—Rey. J. Challis, on the Analytical Theory of Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics ;—Mr. George Rennie, on Hydraulics as a Branch of Engineering, Part I.;—Rev. G. Peacock, on certain Branches of Ana- lysis. Together with Papers on Mathematics and Physics, Philosophical Instruments and Mechanical Arts, Natural History, Anatomy, Physiology, and History of Science. PROCEEDINGS or tue FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1834, 10s. Contents :—Mr. H. D. Rogers, on the Geology of North America ;—Dr. C. Henry, on the Laws of Contagion ;—Prof. Clark, on Animal Physiology ;—Rev. L. Jenyns, on Zoology; Rev. J. Challis, on Capillary Attraction ;—Prof. Lloyd, on Physical Optics ;—Mr. G. Rennie, on Hydraulics, Part II. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the As- sociation and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tHe FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, 9s. Contents :—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of the Mathematical Theories of Electricity, Magnetism, and Heat ;—M. A. Quetelet, Apercu de l’Etat actuel des Sciences Mathématiques chez les Belges ;—Captain Ed- ward Sabine, on the Phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees, PROCEEDINGS or tue SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, 8s. Contents :—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect to Mineral and Thermal Waters ; —Major Edward Sabine, on the Direction and In- tensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic Force in Scotland;—Mr. John Richardson, on North American Zoology ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids ; —Mr. J.T. Mackay, a Comparative View of the more remarkable Plants which cha- racterize the neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh, and the South-west of Scot- land, &c.—Mr. J. T. Mackay, Comparative Geographical Notices of the more re- markable Plants which characterize Scotland and Ireland;—Report of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;— Second Report of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Ner- vous System ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., Account of the recent Discussions of Ob- servations of the Tides ;—Rev. Baden Powell, on determining the Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in various media ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on the Communication between the Arteries and Absorbents ;—Prof. Phillips, Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature ;—Prof. Hamilton, on the Validity of a Method recently proposed by George B. Jerrard, Esq., for Transforming and Re- solving Equations of Elevated Degrees. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Daubeny’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tHe SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, 1837, lls. Contents :—Major Edward Sabine, on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different points of the Earth’s Surface ;—Rev. William Taylor, on the various modes of Printing for the Use of the Blind;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., on the Discussions of Observations of the Tides which have been obtained by means of the grant of mongy which was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at the last Meeting of the Association ;—Prof. Thomas Thomson, on the Difference be- tween the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the Cold and Hot Blast ;—Rev. T. R. Robinson, on the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the Green- wich Observations, made as commanded by the British Association ;—Robert Were Fox, Esq., Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Temperature of Mines ;—Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British & Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and the organs producing them ;—Dr. G. O. Rees, Report from the Committee for Inquiring into the Analysis of the Glands, &c. of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the British Asscciation Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Prof. Johnston, on the Present State of our Knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies ;—Col. Sykes, on the Statistics of the Four Collec- torates of Dukhun, under the British Government ;—EHaton Hodgkinson, Esq., on the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—William Fairbairn, Esq., on the Strength and other Proper- ties of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—Sir John Robison, and John Scott Russell, Esq., Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British Association at Bristol in 1836 ;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface ;—James Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and with- out any free communication with the outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Traill’s Address, and Re- commendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tut EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838, 10s. ConTENTs :—Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Channel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt ;—Report on the Discussions of Tides, prepared under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. Snow Harris, Esq., Account of the Progress and State of the Meteorological Observations at Ply- mouth ;—Major Edward Sabine, on the Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., on the Determination of the Mean Nu- merical Values of Railway Constants ;—R. Mallet, Esq., First Report upon Experi- ments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;— R. Mallet, Esq., on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Organic Substances. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tue NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839, 9s. Contents :—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Refractive Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media ;—Report on the Application of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Mr. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G. Bunt, Esq.;—H. L. Pattinson, Esq., on some Galvanic Experiments to determine the Existence or Non-existence of Electrical Cur- rents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Mountain Limestone forma- tion, constituting the Lead Measures of Alston Moor ;—Sir David Brewster, Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland at the expense of the British Association ;—Report on the subject of a series of Reso- lutions adopted by the British Association at their Meeting in August 1838, at New- castle ;—Richard Owen, Esq., Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—Edward Forbes, Esq., Report on the Distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles ;— W. Snow Harris, Esq., Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at the Plymouth Dockyard, Devonport. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Ad- dress, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. PROCEEDINGS or tot TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840, 10s. Contents :—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to Radiant Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject in- serted in the first volume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science ;—James D. Forbes, Esq., Supplementary Report on Meteorology ; —W. Snow Harris, Esq., Report on Professor Whewell’s Anemometer, now in ope- ration at Plymouth ;—Report on ‘‘ The Motions and Sounds of the Heart,” by the ~ London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;—Professor Schonbein, an Account of Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—Robert Mallet, Esq., Second Re- port upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel;—Robert Were Fox, Esq., Report on some Observations on Subterranean Temperature ;—A. Follett Osler, Esq., Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, and 1840, by the Self-Registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institu- tion, Birmingham ;—Sir David Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, at the expense of the British Association, from Nov. Ist, 1838, to Noy. 1st, 1839 ;—William Thompson, Esq., Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata ;—Charles J. B. Williams, M.D., Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-Tubes ;—Rev. J.S. Henslow, Report of the Committee appointed to try Experiments on the Preser- vation of Animal and Vegetable Substances. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major Ed- ward Sabine’s Address,,and Recommendations of the Association and its Com- mittees. LITHOGRAPHED SIGNATURES of the MEMBERS who met at Cambridge in 1833, with the Proceedings of the Public Meetings. 4to. Price 4s. (To Mem- bers, 3s.) List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, to whom Copies of this Volume are supplied in conformity with the following Regulation adopted by the General Committee at the Eleventh Meeting in 1841. “ The Volume of Reports of the Association will be distributed gra- tuitously to every ANNUAL SusscriseR who has actually paid the Annual Subscription for the year to which the Volume relates, and to all those Lire Members who have paid Two Pounds, as a fixed Book Subscription.” *,* Tt is requested that Members who may perceive errors or omissions in this List will communicate corrections thereof (by letter post paid) to Messrs. R. and J. E. Taylor, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London. LIFE MEMBERS who have paid the Book Subscription. Aldam, William, Warmsworth, Doncaster. Alexander, William Maxwell, Southbarr, near Paisley. Allis, Thomas, York. Amery, John, F.S.A., Park House, Stour- bridge, Worcestershire. Auldjo, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S,, Noel House, Kensington. Babbage, Charles, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., Hon. M.R.I.A., F.R.A.S., M.C.P.S., 1, Dorset Street, Manchester Square. Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., St. John’s College, Cambridge. Backhouse, John Church, Darlington. Baddeley, Fred. H., Capt. R.E., Fort George. Bain, Richard, Gwennap, Truro. _ Ball, William, Rydal, near Ambleside, West- moreland. ' Barker, George, F.R.S., Birmingham. _ Barker, Richard, M.D., M.R.D.S.,. 6, Gar- diner’s Row, Dublin. _ Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., Carlisle. Barnett, Richard. Barton, John, 44, St. Mary Street, Dublin. Bateman, Joseph, Poplar Institution, East India Road, and Excise Office, Broad Street. ' Bayldon, John, York. Beamish, Richard, F.K.S., Sans Souci Prest- bury, Cheltenham. Binyon, Alfred, Mayfield, Manchester. Bird, William, 5, Old Church Yard, Liverpool. Birks, Thomas Rawson, Watton, near Ware. Blackburn, Charles, B.A., 40, Kensington Sq. Blackwall, John, F.L.S., Oakland, Llanrwst, Denbighshire. [Devizes. Blackwell, Thomas E., F.G.S., Foxhangers, Blake, William, Crewkerne, Somerset. Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S., Birmingham. Bland,Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.R.S., Lilley Rectory, near Luton, Bedfordshire. Boddington, Benjamin, Burcher, near Kington, Herefordshire, Bompas, George G., M.D., Fish Ponds, Bristol. Bompas, G. J., M.D., Fish Ponds, Bristol. Botfield, Thomas, F.R.S., F.G.S., HoptonCourt, Bewdley. Boughton, Sir W. E. Rouse, Bart., F.R.S., Downton Hall, near Ludlow, Shropshire. Brakenridge, John, Bretton Lodge, Wakefield, Yorkshire. Briggs, Major-General John, F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.A.S., Cheltenham. Bright, Benjamin Heywood, F.G.S., Ham Green, near Bristol. Brooke, Charles, 35, Keppel Street, Russell Sq. Brunel, Isambard Kingdom, F.R.S., 18, Duke Street, Westminster. Buckland, Rev. William, D.D., Pres. G.S., F.R.S., Canon of Christ Church, and Pro- fessor of Mineralogy and Geology in the University of Oxford. Buller, Sir Antony, Pound, Tavistock, Devon. Burke, Francis, 5, Upper Rutland St., Dublin. Burlington, William Earl of, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Chancellor of the University of London, 10, Belgrave Square. Campbell, James, Candleriggs, Glasgow. Campbell, William, 34, Candlerigg Street, Glasgow. Carew, William H. Pole, Antony House, near Devonport, Carne, Joseph, F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.1.A., Pen- zance. Castle, Robert, Milk Street, Bristol. Cayley, Sir George, Bart., Brompton, North Riding of Yorkshire. Chadwick, Hugo Mavesyii, Mavesyn-Ridware, near Rugeley. Challis, Rev. J., M.A., Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, Cambridge. Chevallier, Rev. Temple, B.D., Professor of Mathematics, Durham. Christie, Samuel Hunter, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Military Aca- demy, Woolwich, Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S., The Common, Woolwich. a BOOK SUBSCRIBERS. Clark, Francis, Hazelwood, near Birmingham. Clay, J. Travis, Rastrick, near Huddersfield. Coathupe, Charles Thornton, Wraxall, Bristol. Conway, Charles, Pontnwydd Works, New- port, Monmouthshire. Cottam, Samuel E., F.R.A.S., Brazennose Street, Manchester. Cotton, William C., M.A., Windsor, Berkshire. Courtney, Henry, 27,Upper Mount St., Dublin. Cox, Joseph, Wisbeach. Crampton, Philip C., Hon. Judge, 50, Lower Baggot Street, Dublin. Crane, George, F.G.S., Yniscedwyn Iron Works, Swansea. Creyke, Capt. Richard, R.N., 7, Albemarle Villas, Stoke, Devonport. Crichton, William, Glasgow. Crompton, Rev. Joseph, Norwich. Crooke, G. W., Town Hall, Liverpool. Curtis, John Wright, Alton, Hants. Dalby, Rev. William, Compton Basset, near Calne, Wilts. Dalton, Rev. James Edward, M.A., Queen’s College, Cambridge. Darbishire, Samuel D., Manchester. Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D., Ald- rich’s Professor of Chemistry, Regius Pro- fessor of Botany, Oxford, F.R.S., Hon. M.R.I.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Oxford. Davenport, Edward Davies, F.R.S.; 28, Lower Brook Street. Dawes, Rev. William Rutter, F.R.A.S., 3, Allsop Place, Regent’s Park. Dawson, Henry, 14, St. James’s Terrace, Li- verpool. Dickinson, John, 67, Stephen’s Green, Dublin. Dilke, C. Wentworth, jun., 118, Sloane Street.’ Donkin, Thomas, F.R.A.S., Westow, near Whitwell, York. Downie, Alexander, Crossbastat, Glasgow. Duncan, James, M.D., Farnham House, Fin- glass; Co. Dublin. Dury, Rev. Theodore, Westmill, near Bunt- ingford, Herts. Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.,Oulton Park,Cheshire. Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M., Grimstone House, Malton, Yorkshire. Enys, John Samuel, F.G.S., Enys, Cornwall. Exley, Rev. Thomas, A.M., Bristol. Fairbairn, William, Manchester. Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., Fullerian Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 21, Al- bemarle Street. Fellows, Charles, F.R.G.S., 30, Russell Sq. Fisher, Rev. Thomas, A.M., Luccombe, Mine- head, Somerset. Fleming, Lieut.-Col. James, Argyleshire. Fleming, W. M., Barochan, Renfrewshire. Fleming, William, M.D., Manchester. Flower, Rev. William, jun., M.A., York. Forbes, James David, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, Edinburgh. Kinlochlaich, Forbes, John, M.D., F.R.S., 12, Old Burling- ton Street. Forrest, William Hutton, Stirling. Forster, Robert, A.B., Springfield, Dungan- non, Ireland. Forster, William, Ballynure, Clones, Ireland. Fox, Charles, Perran Arworthar, near Truro. Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth. Gadsden, Augustus William, F.S.A., Hull. Gibbons, William, Falmouth. Gilbert, Rev.Ashhurst Turner, D.D., Principal of Brazennose College, Oxford. Goff, William, Moat, Ireland. Gordon, James, 46, Park Street, Bristol. Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, A.B., Box- moor, Herts. Gotch, Thomas Henry, Kettering. Grzeme, James, Garvock, Perth. Grahame, Captain Duncan, Irvine, Scotland. Graham, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S.L. & E., Pro- fessor of Chemistry in University College, London, 9, Torrington Square. Graves, Rev. Charles, A.M., 2, Trinity Col- lege, Dublin. Gray, John, Greenock. Gray, John Edward, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., British Museum. Gray, William, jun., F.G.S., York. Greenaway, Edw., 9, River Terrace, Islington. Greenock, Major-General Lord, K.C.B., F.R.S.E., F.G.S8., 12, Carlton Place, Edin- burgh. Greswell, Rev. Richard, M.A., F.R.S., Beau~ mont Street, Oxford. Griffin, John Joseph, Glasgow. Grooby, Rev. James, B.A., F.R.A.S., Swindon, Wiltshire. Guinness, Rev. William Smyth, Rathdrum, Co. Wicklow. Hailstone, Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S., Horton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire. Hall, Rev. T. B., Coggeshall, Essex. Hamilton, Sir William R., B.A., M.R.1.A., Astronomer Royal of Ireland, Dublin. Hamilton, Mathie, Glasgow. Hamilton, William John, Sec. G.S., 14, Ches- ham Place, Belgrave Square. Hamlin, Capt. Thomas, Greenock. Harcourt, Rev. William Vernon, M.A., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Bolton Percy, York. Harley, John, Wain Worn, Pontypool. Hartley, Jesse, Trentham Street, Liverpool. Harvey, Joseph C., Youghal, Co. Cork. Haughton, William, 28, City Quay, Dublin. Hawkins, John Isaac, 26, Judd Place West, New Road. Hawkins, Thomas, F.G.S., Sharpham Park, Glastonbury. ; Hawkshaw, John, Islington, near Salford. Hawthorn, Robert, C.E., Newcastle-on-Tyne. Henslow, Rev. John Stevens, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Prof. of Botany in the University of Cambridge ; Hitcham, Bildeston, Suffolk. Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham. Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., Christ Church, Oxf. Hill, Rowland, 1, Orme Square, Bayswater. BOOK SUBSCRIBERS. Hill, Thomas Wright, Bruce Castle, Tottenham. Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnwick. Hoare, George Tooker, Godstone, Surrey. Hodgkinson, Eaton, F.R.S., 17, Crescent, Salford, Manchester. Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool. Holland, P. H., 86, Grosvenor St., Manchester. Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.D,S., 53, Harcourt Street, Dublin. Horner, Leonard, F.R.S. L. & E., V.P.G.S., 2, Bedford Place, Russell Square. Hudson,Henry, M.D., M.R.1LA., 24, Stephen’s Green, Dublin. Hull, William D., Fairburn, Rostrevor, Ireland. Hulse, Edward, All Souls College, Oxford. Hunter, Adam, M.D., Leeds. Hutton, Robert, F.G.S., M.R.LA., Putney Park, Surrey. Hutton, William, F.R.S., F.G.S., Newcastle- _ on-Tyne. Jackson, James Eyre, Tullydory, Blackwater Town, Armagh. Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough. Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Jardine Hall, Applegarth, by Lockerbie, Dunmfries-shire. Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.G.S., Durham. Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S. Swaff- ham Bulbeck, Cambridgeshire. Jerrard, George Birch,B.A., West Park, Bristol. Johnson, Thomas, 24, York Street, Manchester. Johnstone, Sir John Vanden Bempde, Bart., M.A., M.P., F.G.S., 27, Grosvenor Square. Johnstone, James, Aloa, aear Alloa, Stirling- shire. fr Jones, Christopher Hird, 2, Castle Street, Li- verpool. Jones, Josiah, 2, Castle Street, Liverpool. Jones, Robert, 59, Pembroke Place, Liverpool. Jones, Major Edrvard, Plympton, Plymouth. Kenrick, Samuel, Handsworth, Birmingham. Kerr, Archibald, Glasgow. Kerr, Robert, jun., Glasgow. Knox, G. James, 1, Maddox Street, Regent St. Langton, William, Manchester. Larcom, Captain, R.E., Phoenix Park, Dublin. La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A., Castle Street, Dublin. Leah, Henry, Byerley Hall, Bradford, York- shire. Leatham, Charles Albert, Wakefield. Lee,Revy.James Prince, King Edward’s School, Birmingham. Legh, George Cornwall, F.G.S., High Legh, Cheshire. Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of, Carton House, Maynooth. Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S., F.G.S., _ F.HLS.,46, Charles Street, Berkeley Square. Lewis, Capt. T. Locke, F.R.S., F.G.S., Ibsley, Exeter. Liddell, Andrew, Glasgow. Lightfoot, W. B., Grove Street, Liverpool. Lister, Joseph Jackson, F.R.S., 5, Tokenhouse Yard. Lloyd,Rev.Humphrey,M.A.,F.R,S.,M.R.LA., Professor of Natural and Experimental Phi- losophy, Trinity College, Dublin. Lloyd, William Horton, F.L.S., 1, Park Sq. West, Regent’s Park. Lock, Sir Joseph, Oxford. Lockey, Rev. Francis, Swanswick, Bath. Lubbock, Sir John William, Bart., M.A., V.P. & Treas. R.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Vice- Chancellor of the University of London, 23, St. James’s Place. Lucas, William, The Mills, Sheffield. Lutwidge, Charles, M.A., Hull. M‘All, Rev. Edward, Brighstone, Newport, Isle of Wight. Macartney, James, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.L.S., 35, Upper Merrion Street, Dublin. MacBrayne, Robert, Barony Glebe, Glasgow. M°Cullagh, James, Professor of Mathematics, Dublin. M‘Culloch, George, 6, St. Mary’s Street, Mary Square, Lambeth. . MacDonnell, Rev.Richard,Trin. Coll., Dublin. M‘Ewan, John, Glasgow. Marshall, James Garth, M.A., F.G.S., Head- ingley, Leeds. Martineau, Rev. James, 12, Mason Street, Edgehill, Liverpool. Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.L.A., 22, Upper Merrion Street, Dublin. Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter. Moilliet, J. L., Hampstead Hall, Birmingham. More, John Schank, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. Murchison, Roderick Impey, F.R.S., Pres. G.S., Hon. M.R.I.A., 16, Belgrave Square. Murphy, Rey. Robert, M.A., University of London, Somerset House. Newman, William Lewin, F.S.A., York. Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar- quis of, Pres. of the Royal Society, F.S.A., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.8., 145, Piccadilly. O’Reardon, John, M.D., 35, York St., Dublin. Owen, Jeremiah, Dockyard, Devonport. Palmer, William, Harcourt Street, Dublin. Parker, Charles Stewart, Liverpool. Pasley, Major-General Charles William, C.B., Royal Engineers, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Chatham. Patrick, John Sheddan, F.R.S.E., Hessilhead, Beith, Ayrshire. Patterson, Robert, F.L.S., 3, College Square North, Belfast. Pedler, Lieut.-Col. Philip Warren, Mutley House, Plymouth. Peile, Williamson, F.G.S., Lowther Street, Whitehaven. Perigal, Frederick, 33, Torrington Square. Petus, Edward. Phillips, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., York. Phillips, Mark, 6, Vigo Street, Regent Street. Philpott, Rev. Henry, M.A., Catharine Hall. Cambridge. Pitt, George, 4, Great Portland Street. Pontey, Alexander, Plymouth. Poppelwell, Matthew, Rossella Pl., Tynemouth. Porter, Hen, John, Tandragee Castle, Armagh, Porter, G, R., Board of Trade, Whitehall. a2 BOOK SUBSCRIBERS. Portlock, Capt. Joseph E., Royal Engineers, F.R.S., M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Ordnance Sur- vey, Dublin. Powell, Rev. Baden, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry, Oxford. Pratt, Samuel Peace, F.L.S., F.G.S., Lans- downe Place West, Bath. Prestwich, Joseph, jun., F.G.S., 10, Devon- shire Street, Portland Place. Pretious, Thomas, Royal Dockyard,Pembroke. Prince, Rev. John Charles, St. Anne Street, Liverpool. Pritchard, Andrew, 162, Fleet Street. Rance, Henry, Cambridge. Rawlins, John, Birmingham. Reade, Rev. Joseph Bancroft, M.A., F.R.S., Stone Vicarage, Aylesbury. Richardson, John, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Has- lar Hospital, Gosport, Riddell, Lieut. Charles J. B., Royal Artillery, Woolwich. Roberts, Richard, Manchester. Robinson, John, Shamrock Lodge, Athlone. Robson, Rey. John, 193, Renfrew Street, Albert Terrace, Glasgow. Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., V.P.S.A., 39, Bernard Street, Russell Square. Roughton, William, jun., Kettering, North- amptonshire. Russell, James, Birmingham. Ryland, Arthur, Birmingham. Sabine, Lt.-Colonel Edward, R.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Woolwich. Sanders, William, F.G.S., Bristol. Schofield, Robert, Rochdale, Lancashire. Scholfield, Edward, M.D., Doncaster. Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.I.A., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Woodwardian Lecturer, Cambridge. Semple, Robert, Richmond Lodge, Wavertree, Liverpool. Shaen, William, 49, Upper Bedford Place. Shanks, James, 23, Garscube Place, Glasgow. Sharpe, William, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Bradford, Yorkshire. Sherrard, David Henry, 84, Upper Dorset Street, Dublin. Sillar, Z., M.D., Rainford, near Liverpool. Smales, R. H., Kingston Bottom. Smethurst, Rev. R., Green Hill, Pilkington, Manchester. Smith, Robert Mackay, Windsor Street, Edin- burgh. Smith, Rev. John Pye, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Homerton. Smith, Rev. Philip, B.A., Cheshunt College, Hertfordshire. Smith, Rev. George Sidney, D.D., Trinity College, Dublin. Solly, S. Reynolds, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., Surge Hill, King’s Langley, Herts, Solly, Edward, jun., 38, Bedford Row. Sopwith, Thomas, F.G.S.,Newcastle-on-Tyne. Squire, Lovell, Falmouth. Strickland, Charles, Loughglyn, Ireland. Sutcliffe, William, 4, Belmont, Bath. Sykes, Lt.-Colonel William Henry, V.P.R.S., Hon. M.R.I.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., M.R.A.S., 47, Albion Street, Hyde Park. Tayler, Rev. J. J., B.A., Manchester. Tayler, Joseph Needham, Captain R.N., 61, Moorgate Street. Taylor, John, Stronsham Court, Worcestersh. Taylor, John, F.R.S., Treas. G.S., F.L.S., 12, Bedford Row. Taylor, John, jun., F.G.S., Coed-Da, near Mold, Flintshire. Taylor, Richard, jun., F.G.S., Wood, Penryn, Cornwall. Taylor, Richard, F.S.A., Assist. Sec. L.S., F.G.S., M.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. Taylor, James, Todmorden Hall, Rochdale. Tennant, James, F.G.S., 149, Strand. Thicknesse, Ralph, jun., Beech Hill, Wigan. Thodey, Winwood, 4, Poultry. Thompson, D. P., M.R.I.A., Ballintaggart, Dingle, Co. Kerry. Thomson, Edmund Peel, Manchester, Thomson, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S., Primrose, Clitheroe, Lancashire. Thomson, James Gibson, Edinburgh. Thorp, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Archdeacon of Bristol, F.G.S., Trinity College, Cambridge. Tinné, J. A., Briarly Aigburth, Liverpool. Tobin, Sir John, Liverpool. Townsend, R. E., Springfield, Norwood. Trevelyan, Arthur, Wallington, Northumber- land. ‘ Turnbull, Rev. Thomas Smith, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Caius College, Cambridge. Turner, Samuel, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Liverpool. Tweedy, William Mansel, Truro. Vallack, Rev. Benjamin W.S., St. Budeaux, Plymouth. Vance, Robert, Belfast; and 5, Gardiner’s Row, Dublin. Walker, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S., Reader in Iixperimental Philosophy in Wadham College, Oxford. Wallace, Rev. Robert, 2, Cavendish Place, Grosvenor Square, Manchester. Ware, S. Hibbert, M.D., F.R.S.E., York. Warren, Richard B., 35, Leeson St., Dublin. Waterhouse, John, F.R.S., Halifax. Watson, Henry Hough, Bolton-le-Moors. Weaver, Thomas, F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.1.A., Kingsholm, Gloucester. Webb, Rev. Thomas William, M.A., Tretire, Ross, Herefordshire. West, William, Literary and Philosophical Society, Leeds. Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., Master of Tri- nity College, Cambridge, F.R.S., Hon. M.R.I.A., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., The Lodge, Cambridge. Whitworth, Joseph, Manchester. Wickenden, Joseph, Birmingham. Williams, Rev. David, F.G.S., Bleadon, Up- hill, near Bristol, ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS 1841. Williams, William, Rood Lane. Williamson, Rev. W., Clare Hall, Cambridge. Wills, William, Edgbaston, Birmingham. Wilson, Thomas, Banks, near Barnsley. Wilson, Alexander, 34, Bryanstone Square. Wilson, William, Troon, Glasgow. Wilson, Rev. James, D.D., M.R.L.A., 10, War- rington Street, Dublin. Winsor, F. A., 57, Lincoln’s Inn Fields. Winterbottom, Rev. James Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., East Woodhay, Hants. Wood, George William, M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S., Singleton Lodge, near Manchester. Woollcombe, Henry, F.S.A., Crescent, Ply- mouth. Wormald, Richard, jun., 6, Broad St. Buildings. Wright, Robert Francis, Hinton Blewett, near Bristol. Yates, R. Vaughan, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. Yorke, Lt.-Colonel Philip, 12, Duke Street, Grosvenor Square. Younge, Robert, M.D., Greystones, Sheffield. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. Acland, P. L. D., Killerton, Exeter. Acland, J. B. A., Killerton, Exeter. Agar, Capt. John, Bovisand Lodge, Plymouth, Akroyd, Edward, Bankfield, Halifax. Aldham, Henry M., Plymouth. Alford, Rey. Walter, 15, West Emma Place, Stonehouse, Devon. Allies, Jabez, Catharine Villa, near Worcester. Ames, John, Green Street, Grosvenor Square. Armstrong, Dr., Naval Hospital, Stonehouse. Arthur, Charles, Mount Pleasant, Plymouth. Arundell, Francis Vyvyan, Landulph, Devon. Austen, Robert A.C., F.G.S., Merion House, Guildford. Austen, Algernon S., Lieut. R.N. Barlow, Rev. George, Helston, Cornwall. Barnes, Rev. R. N., M.A., Leigham, Buck- land, Plymouth. Barnes, Ralph, Exeter. Barnes, Walter, Exeter. Barnett, S. Harvey, Plymouth, Bartlett, George, Plymouth. Basden, Capt. C., R.N., Plymouth. Bassett, John, 12, Upper Brook Street. Beal, Rev. W., LL.D., Tavistock, Devon. Beardmore, N., 25, George St., Plymouth. Beckerleg, E. J., St. Agnes, Truro. Bedford, John S., Penzance. Bell, Andrew, 35, Scotland Street, Edinburgh. Bell, Capt. J. H., 27, Hornton St., Kensington. Bellamy, John C., 8, George Street, Plymouth. Bellamy, Peter Franklin, George Street, Ply- mouth. Bennett, John N., 29, George Street, Plymouth. Berryman, William Richard, 6, Tamer Ter- race, Stoke, Devon. Bevan, William, M.D., Dublin. Bezzi, G. Aubrey, Torquay, Blackmore, —, Plymouth. Blythe, William, Church, near Accrington, Lancashire. Boase, John Josias Arthur, Penzance. Boger, Deeble, Plympton, Devon. Bolitho, William, Chyandour, Penzance. Bone, A. B., Devonport. Bossey, Francis, M.D., Woolwich. Bowden, John, Devonport. Bowring, John, LL.D., F.L.S., Queen Square, Westminster. Bowring, Charles, Lackbear, Exeter. Box, William Henry, East Looe, Cornwall. Brand, Capt. Henry, Government House, De- vonport. Bray, Rev. E. A., B.D., The Vicarage, Tavi- stock, Devon. Brewin, Ambrose, Tiverton. Briggs, Rev. John, B.A., Stoke, Devon. Bright, Benjamin, 59, Pulteney Street, Bath. Brockedon, William, F.R.S., 29, Devonshire Street, Queen’s Square. Brown, Henry, Old Town Street, Plymouth. Buckle, Capt. Edward (Madras Engineers), 22, St. James’s Square, Bath. Buckle, Commander C. H. M., R.N., 22, St. James’s Square, Bath. Budd, John Wreyford, M.D., Plymouth. Bulcock, Robert, Compton Knoll, Plymouth. Bulkeley, Capt. Charles, Mount Stone, Stone- house, Devon. Buller, John, Morval, Liskeard, Cornwall. Bulteel, Francis, Plymouth. Bunbury, Charles James Fox, F.L.S., F.G.S., Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmund’s, Burnett, Richard, London. Burrow, George, High Street, Poplar. Burt, Thomas Moore, Windsor House, Wind- sor Terrace, Plymouth. Busk, George, Greenwich. Butter, John, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Plymouth. Byrth, Rev. Dr. Thomas, Wallasey, Cheshire. Campbell, Sir Archibald, Bart., Succoth. Carrington, J. W., Plymouth. Cartwright,Cornelius, Dudley, Worcestershire. Charles, Andrew Paton, Mare Street, Hackney. Chatfield, Henry, Devonport. Clerk, Rev. D. M., Yatton Vicarage, Bristol. Clerke, Major T. H. Shadwell, K.H., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 4, Brompton Grove. Clouston, Thomas B., Poolbeg Street, Dublin. Clouter, Jonathan, Stonehouse, Devon. Cole, Edmund Hearle, Trinity College, Ox- ford. Colley, John Long, Plymouth. Collier, R. P., Trinity College, Cambridge. Colston, Hungerford, New College, Oxford. Cookworthy, J. Collier, M.D., Mayor of Ply- mouth, Cooper, Rev. James, M.A., Stonehouse, Devon. Coryndon, George, Plymouth. Couch, Jonathan, F.L.S., Polperro, Cornwall. Cox, John, Edinburgh. Cox, Henry, Stoke, Devon. Crowley, Rev. James Campbell, Torpoint, Cornwall. Currie, William, Linehill, Lillesleaf, Rox- burghshire. Dansey, George, Stoke, Devonport. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS 1841. Davie, Richard, M.D., Princess Square, Ply- mouth. Daw, James, Stoke, Devon. Dawe, J. E., Plymouth. Dawson, William, Exeter. De Moleyns, F. W., M.A., F.G.S., Halkin Terrace, Belgrave Square. Derry, David, Plymouth. Derry, G. W., Plymouth. Dickson, Sir David J. H., M.D., Royal Hos- pital, Plymouth. Dickson, G. D. W., Royal Hospital, Plymouth. Dobson, George C., 29, Park Street, Plymouth. Drewe, William, Exeter. Dunn, James, M.D., Kelvin House, Smeth- wick, Birmingham. Dunning, Richard, Albemarle Villas, Stoke, Devonport. Dunning, Rev. R., Torpoint, Cornwall. Dymond, Rob., 20, Southernhay Place, Exeter. Eardley, J. P., Plymouth. Eastlake, George, Plymouth. Eastlake, William, Plymouth. Easton, Nathaniel J., Plymouth. Ebbs, Jolin, M.R.D.S., Temple Hill, Dublin. Eden, Henry, Capt, R.N., Devonport. Edgworth, Thomas, Wrexham, Denbighshire. Egerton, F., R.N., Worsley, Manchester. Elliot, John, Kingsbridge, Devon. Ellis, Carteret John W., A.M., Trengwainton, Penzance. Evans, Richard, Union Club, Manchester. Evans, Rev. John, M.A., Halberton, Tiverton. Evens, William H., Stoke, Devon. Firmstone, J.P., Highfields Ironworks, Bilston. Flamank, John, Tavistock, Devon. Forrest, Rey. James, M.A., Devonport. Foster, George, 3, Chapel Square, Birchin Lane, Manchester. Foster, John, Devonport. Foulston, John, Plymouth. [bury. Fowler, Richard, M.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., Salis- Fox, Francis, Falmouth, Franklyn, —, Stonehouse, Devon. Fuge, John H., Plymouth. Gadsden, James, F.H.S., Harefield House, Cheam, Surrey. Gamble, Joseph C., St. Helen’s, Lancashire. Gibbs, John, Evesham, Worcestershire. Gibson, Rey. Christopher M., St. Clement, Truro, Cornwall. Gibson, H. M., Plymouth. Gill, J. E., Crescent, Plymouth. Gill, W., Crescent, Plymouth. Glasson, George, M.D., Devonport. Glencross, Josiah, Devonport. Goddard, John Frederick, 20, London Street, Fitzroy Square. Goodbody, Jonathan, Clara, King’s County. Gould, W. B., Lew Trenchard, Launceston, Gould, Alexander Baring, Lew Trenchard, Launceston. Gowen, James Robert, F.G.S., St. James’s Street. Grantham, John, Liverpool. Grantham, Richard B., F,G,S., Gloucester, Gray, Rev. David, M.A., Rector of the Royal Academy, Inverness. Greig, Charles, Infirmary, Bristol. Grote, John, M.A., Trin. Coll., Cambridge. Grylls, Henry, Redruth, Cornwall. Grylls, Rev. Thomas, Cardynham, Bodmin. Guppy, Thomas R.., Clifton, Bristol. Gutch, J. W. G., 37, Charlotte Street, Port- land Place. Gwatkin, R. L., Plymouth. Gwatkin, John, Pure Behn, Tregony,Cornwdil. Hains, Parton, Richmond Villa, Devonport. Hains, John, Marine Place, Plymouth. Hall, George Webb, Sneed Park, Bristol. Halse, William Hooper, Brent, Ashburton. Hamilton, Dacre, New Park, Coots Hill. Hancock, William, Somerset Cottage, Stoke, Devonport. Harding, Major William, F.G.S., Tiverton. Harris, Rey. Dr., Cheshunt College, Hertford- shire. Harry, John, M.D., Chudleigh, Devon. Hatchard, Rey. John, St. Andrew’s, Plymouth. Hawkes, T. F., Dockyard, Devonport. Haworth, Edmund, Bolton-le-Moors, Lan- cashire. Hay, John, 21, Charlotte Square, Edinburgh. Hearder, Jonathan, Plymouth. Heathcoat, John, Tiverton, Devon. Hext, George, Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Hicks, William Robert, Cornwall Asylum, Bodmin. Higginbotham, Dr., H.M.S. Dreadnought. Hill, William, Worcester. Hillyar, R. P., M.D., Stoke, Devon. Hilton, John, 7, Gascoyne Place, Plymouth. Hilton, James, 7, Gascoyne Place, Plymouth. Hoare, Archdeacon, Godstone, Surrey. Hoare, James Samuel, Godstone, Surrey. Hoblyn, D. Peter, Colquite, Bodmin. Holberton, William, Plymouth. Hole, F., Tiverton, Devon. Holmes, Rev. Peter, Plymouth. Hope, Thomas Arthur, Everton, Liverpool. Hopkins, Thomas, 5, Broughton Lane, Man- chester. Hopkins, Evan, 5, Brunswick Terrace, Ply- mouth. Hore, Rey. W. S., F.L.S., Stoke, Devon. Horton, John, St. Mary’s Row, Birmingham. Hoste, Col. Sir George C., Citadel, Plymouth. Hoste, Rev. G. C., M.A., Acle, Norfolk. Houldsworth, Thomas, Manchester. Houldsworth, Henry, Cranston Hill, Glasgow, Howard, Rev. W., M.A., Chelsea. Howard, William, Hartley House, Plymouth. Hughes, William Hughes, F.S.A., F.L.S., Manchester Buildings, Westminster. Humpage, Edward, Bristol. Hunt, Robert, Polytechnic Society, Falmouth. Ingram, T. W., Birmingham. Irwin, Thomas, Audit Office, Somerset Place. Ivanitzky, Captain, Engineer in the Russian Service. Jago, R. §., Plymouth. Jago, John Sampson, Lieut, R,N., Falmouth, ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS 1841. James, C., Stratton, Cornwall. Jarman, Francis, Bristol. Jeffery, Moses W., Devonport. Jenkin, Silvanus W., Falmouth. Jerdan, William, 7, Wellington Street, Strand. Jessop, William, Butterley Hall, Derbyshire. Jessop, Elizen, Devonport. Johnson, Captain Edward John, R.N., F.R.S. F.L.S., 18, Clement’s Inn. Jones, John, Spring Vale Iron Works, Wol- verhampton. Kelland, Rev. Philip, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics, Edinburgh. Kelly, John, Plymouth. Kendall, Nicholas, Pelyn, Cornwall. Kennedy, Gilbert, Glasgow. Kennedy, Rev. C. John, Paisley. Kentish, Rev. John, Park Vale, Birmingham. Kidd, William Lodge, M.D., Armagh, Ireland. King, Robert, Plymouth. King, Frederick William, Royal Military Aca- demy, Woolwich. King, James, Plymouth. King, Rev. Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S., The Wil- derness, Dartmouth. Kingdon, George Bowden, Plymouth. Kirshaw, J. W., Lapworth, Henley-in-Arden. Knight, H. G., Firbeck Hall, Rotherham. Lancaster, Thomas, Queen Street, Devonport. Lane, Robert, Kingsbridge, Devon. Lankester, Edwin, M.D., 43, Hart Street, Bloomsbury. Lary, David, Polytechnic Institut., Regent St. Laurance, John, Leicester. Law, Henry, Thames Tunnel, Rotherhithe. Laws, Robert, Devonport. Leach, George, Stoke, Devon. Leach, Colonel, Penlee Villas, Stoke, Devon. Lee, Sir Theophilus, G.C.H., Park House, Mount Radford, Exeter. Lifford, Lord, Astley Castle, Coventry. Lindon, Joseph, Plymouth. Littleton, Nicholas, Saltash, Cornwall. Llewellin, John, Clifton, Bristol. Lloyd, William, M.D., Birmingham. Lockyer, Edmund L., Plymouth. Logan, Rev. H. F. C., F.L.S., St. Mary’s Col- lege, Oscott, Birmingham. Lopez, Sir Ralph, Bart., M.P., Maristow, Plymouth. Lucas, P. Bennett, 12, Argyll Street. Luney, Rev. Richard, Plymouth. Luscombe, Richard, Tavistock, Devon. M°Caul, James, Daldowie, Glasgow. Macgowan, Edward, M.D., Exeter. Macgowan, Frederick, Exeter. Mackay, John Selby, Grangemouth, Scotland. Maclaren, Charles, 15, Northumberland Street, Edinburgh. Malcolm, H., Stoke, Devon. Manackjee, Cursetjee, Athenzeum, Pall Mall. Marshall, William, Plymouth. Martin, Robert, Edgbaston, Birmingham. Mathews, William, Edgbaston, Birmingham, May, Joseph, Devonport. Mennie, George, Union Street, Plymouth. Mercer, John, Oakenshaw, Accrington, Lan- cashire. Miller, William Allen, King’s College, London. Millett, John N. R., Penzance. Milward, Alfred, 4, Northernhay Place, Exeter. Molesworth, Rev. Hender, Falmouth. Molesworth, Rev. William, St. Breoke, Wade- bridge, Cornwall. Moore, Edward, M.D., F.L.S., 11, Atheneum Terrace, Plymouth. Moore, Robert Edward, Plymouth. Moore, James, Devonshire Place, Plymouth. Moore, Rev. Joseph, Farringdon, Berks. Moore, William, jun., Friary, Plymouth. Moore, J., Admiralty House, Devonport. Moore, William Cameron, 2, Ardwick Place, Manchester. Morley, Earl of, F.R.S., Saltram, Plymouth. Moseley, Rev. Henry, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy, King’s College, London. Mould, Rev. J. G., Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Moyle, Samuel, Bowigo House, Truro. Mudge, Lieut.-Colonel R. C., F.R.S., Beach- wood, Plymouth. Mushead, Rev. J. A., Widey Court, Plymouth. Nantes, Rev. Daniel, Powderham, Exeter. Neill, Patrick, LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.L.S., F.H.S., Secretary to the Caledonian Horti- cultural Society, Edinburgh. 5 Neild, William, Mayfield, Manchester. Newton, Thomas D., Lockyer St., Plymouth. Nichols, Isaac, Plymouth. Nicklin, Edward, Montpelier House, Highgate, Birmingham. O’Reilly, James A., Boyn Lodge, Truro. Osler, T. Smith, Clifton, near Bristol. Page, G. T., 84, Great George Street, West- minster. Parker, M. E. N., Whiteway, Chudleigh. Parsey, Arthur, Regent Street. Pascoe, Rev. Thomas, St. Hiliary Vicarage, Marazion, Cornwall. Pattison, Samuel Rowles, F.G.S., Launceston, Cornwall. Peagam, E. C., Plymouth. Pearse, Thomas, Launceston, Cornwall. Pearse, Rev. S. Winter, Cadleigh, Ivybridge, Devon. Peck, Edward Ellis, St. Edmund Hall, Oxford. Pedler, Edward H., Liskeard, Cornwall. Phillips, William, Morley Works, Plymouth. Pinney, William, M.P., Somerton House, So- merton. ; Pinsent, Savery, Greenhill, Newton Abbott. Pinsent, Thomas, Greenhill, Newton Abbott. Pole, William (Civil Engineer), London. Porter, John, 22, Lincoln’s Inn Fields. Prance, Williain, Plymouth. Prideaux, Henry, Plymouth. Pridhams, George, Plymouth. Pringle, Captain, Atheneum, Pall Mall. Rashleigh, William, jun., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S., Menabilly, Fowey, Cornwall. Rattray, William, Aberdeen. ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS 1841. Read, Joseph, Durnford Street, Stonehouse. Reed, D. B., M.D., F.R.S.E., 15, Duke Street, Westminster. Reed, Thomas, Plymouth. Rees, John, Devonport. Reibly, James H., Leigham, Plymouth. Reibly, Thomas, Leigham, Plymouth. Rendel, James M., M.I.C.E., Westminster. Rendle, Edmund, M.D., Plymouth. Reveley, Henry W., Parkstone, Poole, Dorset. Roberton, I. D., Assist. Sec. Royal Society, So- merset House. Roberts,J.Coryton, Trevol,Torpoint,Cornwall. Rogers, John Jope, Penrose, Helstone, Cornwall. Rogers, Saltren, Penrose, Helstone, Cornwall. Rome, Rev. S., M.A., Crediton, Devon. Rooke, John, Akehead, Wigton, Cumberland. Rooker, Alfred, Plymouth. Rooker, James, Bideford, Devon. Ross, Daniel, 11, Somerset Pl.,Somerset House. Row, Frederick, M.D., Devonport. Rowe, William, Stratton, Cornwall. Rundle, Richard, Old Town Street, Plymouth. Rundle, John, M.P., Tavistock, Devon. St. Aubyn, Edward, Devonport. St. John, Rev. Beauchamp, Plymouth. St. John, James, R.N., Coltishall, Norwich. Samuel, James, 23, Miller Street, Glasgow. Sanders, Thos., Capt. R.N., Stoke, Devonport. Saull, William Devonshire, F.G.S., 15, Alders- gate Street. Saunders, Robert, Salisbury. Searle, Charles, M.D., Bath. Shadwell, Julius, Balliol College, Oxford. Shepheard, John, Plymouth. Sleman, Richard, Tavistock, Devon. Smith, Andrew (Engineer), London. Smith, Lt.-Colonel Charles Hamilton, F.R.S., Park Street, Plymouth. Smith, Rev. George, Plymouth. Smith, John, Stoke, Devon. Smyttan, George, Birnam Cottage, Dunkeld, Perthshire. Sole, W. C., 53, Margaret Street, Cavendish Sq. Soltan, G. W., Efford, Plymouth. Somerville, George Field, R.N., Devonport. Spence, William, F.R.S., F.L.S., Hull. Spence, W. B., Hull. Spence, R. H., Hull. Square, William Joseph, Plymouth. Squire, Charles J. F., The Octagon, Plymouth. Staunton, J., Talton, Shipston-on-Stour. Stanger, Joshua, Wandsworth, Surrey. Stephens, Robert, Plymouth. Stephens, Rev. D., Little Petherick, Cornwall. Stevelly, Professor John, M.A., Belfast. Strickland, Henry Eustace, Cracombe House, Evesham, Worcestershire. Stuart, William, 10, Woodside, Plymouth. Sutherland, R. Sutherland, George Mowbray, Devonport. Swain, William, Bridport. Printed by Richard and 3 Swaine, Paul William, Devonport. Sykes, H. P., 47, Albion Street, Hyde Park. Sykes, Frederick, 47, Albion Street, Hyde Park. Talbot, William Hawkshead, Wrightington Hall, Wigan. Tanner, Charles, Plymouth. Taszychi, Joseph Adolph, Plymouth. Thom, Robert, Ascog, by Rothsay. Thomas, Charles, M.D., Devonport. Thompson, James, Kirkhouse, Brampton, Cumberland. Thompson, Theophilus, M.D., 15, Keppel Street, Russell Square. Thomson, Dr. James, Professor of Mathema- tics in the University of Glasgow. Thomson, A. Todd, M.D., Professor of Mate- ria Medica in University College, London, 5, Hind Street, Manchester Square, Tipper, Samuel, Southampton. Treby, Henry H., Goodamoor, Plympton. Trimmer, Joshua, Putney. Tripe, Dr. C.W., 19, George Street, Plymouth. Tripe, Cornelius, Devonport. Trist, Rev. Samuel, Tregony, Cornwall. Tucker, H., jun.,7, Morice Square, Devonport. Vivian, John Henry, M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.H.S., 24, St. James’s Place. Walker, Rev. S. H., Harrabridge, Tavistock. Walker, William, Bovisand, Plymouth. 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William, Stonehouse, Devon. Yarde, Thomas, Chudleigh, Devon. Yonge, James, M.D., Plymouth, Young, James, Lesmahagow. ion Court, Fleet Street. dynos SimoT'r" YoRoD SSET ye] : joodioary WD ADDN MOT OUrT WNW” + SS ee ——— te — - — SEA en ae kes sr er vs OT é 8 L poodany way ITD ‘ Hs ] bs 7 . ia ~ Z9LZ UL T i SS ~ / : : ia i FEOT Ut T <. - im yor) eae es —— 5 ee 2 : J SON MDT 7 ——— a ge . 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ES ee 1839 Heights — Tunar Parallae. Correction co Eleventh report of the Brit-Assoc.for the advancement of Science 164 om : om e MW. The dotted: lines show the Com tei how the Girrection. obtained after applving the Atmospheric Grrection the ‘otherr Being the Correction previously laid. down on. the Sheets Heights Lunar Declination Correction The dotted tine we ae rt i above 26 — he zs = 26" Heights Solar Parallax Correction 4 x ive) —s ; id Heights Solar Declination. Correction ae oO A = : —_—— = a i = > = 3 a =z = 5d i ae: Tal A, ee aa Seitle of Heagiits $ teet to an Inch \ . ic . TEET P22 JO PUPULITUD NPD OY} LOL “DOSE PAT Wpy Jo zwodayy ypeasoysy , 7apef MiMOT YW ( jypap rucuny Pe? ae Le a Ning a ere Lite \ ie 1841, Hlovenihi Report of the Brit-Asroo. for the-Advancoment.of Sence 1841. PI. VIL tember TRBANCE on the 25" of Sup GNETIC DISTT ng a MA THE DECLINATION & HORIZONTAL any VERTICAL FORCE MAGNE TOMETERS ny ANADA Auris THE OBSERVATIONS o at TORONTO in, ¢ D 7 IN TING S REPRIEST CURVI Gottingen mean Time | ——————fa1600 al tur! 3 a —— = = 2 ‘ = 3 as z 2 z 2 “2 3 E = 3 35 z 3 3 3 2 < 33 25 33 = < 3 x = of 4 ¢