GOVERNMENT OF MADRAS

JAMES HORNELL, rau.s.,
Murine Biologist fo the Coniinment of Ceylon and iihiebeen of Pear Bunks,
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TO THE

GOVERNMENT OF MADRAS

: ON THE.

INDIAN PEARL FISHERIES

IN THE

GULF OF aera!

BY

JAMES HORNELL, rits.,
)

Harine Biologist to the Government ‘of Ceylon and Inspector of Pearl Banks. -

MADRAS:
PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS.

—_——

1905.

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CONTENTS.

PREFACE .. we . os 30 on : +. . an sre + ee os an an
I. Historical survey of the Pearl fisheries off the Ande Coust—

(a) Prior to the arrival of the Portuguese .. BO 30 00 ae oe O0 re o0 90

(4) Under Portuguese control, 1524—1658 .. an os oie oe O0 AG ee po ..

(c) Under the Dutch, 1658—1796 m5 20 . o0 an +e ee +s se 90
(d) Under the British ., Se a a0 . 00 a6 30 a0 a6 os 20 00
(e) Tabulation of the localities and the financial results of all Indian fisheries from 1663—1900 .. a

Il. The Topography of the Banks—

Proposed scheme for the simplified classification of the known banks .. d0 . a a5 +e
IIl. Notes upon the derivation and signification of the names of the Oyster banks da 60 00 00
IY. Narrative of the examination of the Banks made in May 1904. Oo 90 00 O°

V. Natural Characteristics of the principal banks, with comparisons (historical, topographical and feunisti
with one another and with typical Ceylon Banks to determine the relative importance of each ..

YI. Conclusions and recommendations—
A. Conclusions—

(a) Imperfect methods of inspection .. 29 ve ae .- ve 09 oe .
(3) Short supply of divers attending the faorioas reasons and remedies 00 30 O00 30
(c) The Banks of greatest potential value ee sie . 00 ate oe 00 . oe
(2) Rate of Pearl production and causes of premature Gent D0 an ee oe 00

(e) Character of supervision required in the future 00 50 or co OO . 06

B. Recommendations—
(a) Improvements in the system of inspection—

(1) Preparation of reliable charts a0 oc 36 ate *e a 00 +e

(2) Adoption of detailed ‘‘ Circle-inspection ”* 00 90 D0 00 ste J

(3) Purchase or charter of an inspection depot-ship .. OO &5 2° B0 0

(4) Beacons to be charted and improved oo G0 b0 Bo sie oe oe

(5) Improvements in recording the details of iHepestion results, sie Se se ate
() Regulations relating to the capture of fish on the Pearl banks go ee oe oe

(c) Determination of the direction of surface drift at different seasons ..

(2) Culture of the banks—
(1) & (2) Transplantation of young oysters and the concurrent cultching of the hanks ..

(3) Cleaning of the banks by means of the dredge .. Oo oe ee oe oe Ao

(4) Thinning out of overcrowded oysters 00 20 30 oe On oo 55 On

(2) Creation of a fisheries department oe oe ae ee oe oe ae 50
APPENDICES,

Appenprx A.—A contemporary official account of the condition of the Indian Pearl Banks in 1663
re B.—Detailed financial statement of the Ceylon Pearl Fishery of 1694 .. oo oe

53 C.—Governor Rumpf’s instructions defining the respective rights of the Company and the native

Princes of Madura and Ramnad, 1722 00 90 oe o° 00 00 00 00

¢ D.—Despateh written in 1744 by the Dutch Governor of ee on the advantages of leasing out

the Pearl Fisheries oc oe ° c oe 00 oe. ole O0

E.—Summary of inspection peat from 1885— 1903 . Be fe 06 O00 00 Aes Gs
ANNEXURES.

Nos. I & I1.— Sketch plans (charts A & B) of the Central Pearl Bank region showing graphically the groups
which I propose to form by the linking together of adjacent and related pars.

Nos. 111 & lV.—Similar sketch plans (charts C & D) showing the manner in which I propose the Pearl Bank
region should be examined by means of ‘‘ Circle-inspection.’’

No. V.—Specimen of a coxswain’s inspection diagram, blank.
No. VI.—Specimen of the same filled up at the end of a day’s work.

No VII.—One of the Inspector’s master-diagrams filled up by combining the four diagrams furnished by
the inspection coxswains,

No. VIII.—Skeleton diagram showing the sub-division of a large bank (Cheval Par, Ceylon) into culture
blocks.

No, IX,.—Sketch plan showing how the skeleton plan No. VIII should be filled in after inspection has
been completed, the distribution of oysters of different generations heing indicated by distinc-
tive colouring.

PREFACH.

THE aceompanying report upon the present condition and future prospects of the
Pearl Banks off the Coast of Madura and Tinnevelly is the outcome of a request for
the loan of my services made by the Government of Madras to that of Ceylon in the
Spring of 1904.

I appreciate most highly the honour thus done me and I have endeavoured to
the utmost of my ability to discharge satisfactorily the duty laid upon me. The
working up of the material, however, proved unexpectedly tedious and arduous ; the
volume of the material to be digested was very much greater than I had anticipated ;
wide historical enquiries had to be instituted and all this to be carried on concurrently
with the exacting duties of my first year in office as Inspector of Pearl Banks and
Marine Biologist to the Government of Ceylon. Critics will therefore, I trust, deal
gently with the many shortcomings which I am conscious mar the present report ;
they will kindly bear in mind that it has been built up Jargely in fragments of time
snatched from an all tco scanty leisure. I should like indeed to devote further study
to the enquiry, but under present circumstances, I see no prospect of the necessary
time-opportunity. I reluctantly decide that it is better to send in the report as it
stands than to postpone its issue indefinitely.

Possibly I have striven to do more than was expected from me, but having put
my hand to the work I could not refrain from the attempt to review the position in all
its bearings. However many shortcomings pertain to this effort I have cleared some
stumbling blocks from the way and have indicated the lines on which success may be
attained eventually by the workers who will follow me.

My aim has been to sift the whole of the evidence available, historical, zoological
and physiographical; to present the conclusions in a simple and succinct form and to
formulate remedial measures on a practical and business-like basis.

It has not been found necessary to treat herein of the anatomy and habits of the
pearl oyster as such are dealt with fully by Professor Herdman and myself in the
“‘ Report on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar,”’ recently published
by the Royal Society. :

My grateful acknowledgements are made to my predecessors in this investigation ;
my work has been immensely facilitated by the extensive data recorded and ably
presented in Mr. H. Sullivan Thomas’ “ Report on Pearl Fisheries ” published by the
Madras Government in 1884, and in the valuable reports made from time to time by
Dr. E. Thurston in the Bulletins of the Madras Museum. It has always appeared to
mea thousand pities that Dr. Thurston’s abilities have not been utilized to a much
greater extent than they have been in Pearl Fishery investigation, seeing how highly
qualified he has proved himself for the task.

I am also pleased to have this opportunity to thank Captain Carlyon, the Port
officer of Tuticorin and Superintendent of Pearl Banks, and Don Gabriel de Cruz
Lazarus Motha Vas, the Jati Talaivan of the Parawas, for their courtesy and help
during the actual work of inspection in May 1904. The Jati Talaivan, indeed, spared
no pains to put me in possession of all the historical and traditional information
of which he is the depositary owing to the close connection which has existed for
centuries between his forefathers and the Pearl Fishery organization ; such has
been of great value to me.

Tue Pears, Banks, Ceyton,
28th March 1905. JAMES HORNELL.

REPORT ON THE INDIAN PEARL FISHERIES IN THE GULF
OF MANNAR.

I

HISTORICAL SURVEY OF THE PEARL FISHERIES OFF THE
MADURA COAST. *

The well-known lack of the historica] faculty among the peoples of India prior
to the advent of Muhammadanism involves us in all but utter ignorance of the exact
localities, course, and conduct of the pearl fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar, as well on
the Ceylon as on the Indian side, until the date when European control began.

Anterior to the Portuguese seizure of the fisheries in 1524,+ the glimpses we catch
are hazy anc unsatisfactory—glimpses recorded on their return home by sailors and
travelling merchants belonging to other countries. Greeks, Egyptians, Barbary
Moors, Arabs, Venetians and Genoese have all referred incidentally to these fisheries
as among the notable sights seen during their jeurneyings, whereas Tamil and Singha-
lese writers had no thoughts save for the glory and exploits of their kings and the
adyaneement and excellence of their religious systems. The latter refer to pearls
solely to utilise the idea of their beauty and the mystery of their origin for the pur-
poses of their exuberant and florid imagery and in the exaggerated descriptions of the
riches of their kings and temples.

When the pearl fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar were first exploited we have no
hint ; even two thousand years ago they were celebrated throughout the known world
from China to the Mediterranean. In Rome, in the days of Pliny, pearls from the
Gulf of Mannar were valued at a high price and Pliny refers to this fishery as the
most productive of pearls of all parts of the world, while more than six centuries before
(550 —540 B.C.), Wijaya, the Aryan Conqueror of Ceylon, is said to have included rich
offerings of pearls among the presents to his father-in-law, the Pandyan King of
Madura. ¢

The earliest definite reference to a particular locality in the Gulf of Mannar
where a fishery was carried on, occurs in the “ Periplus of the Erythraean Sea”,
written about the end of the first century A. D. by an Alexandrian Greek. In a
description of the ports on the Indian Coast, he writes—

‘“‘ Upon leaving § Ela-bakara or the Ruddy Mountain, the country which succeeds
“is under the Government of Pandian ; it is called Paralia(Purali) and lies almost
“¢ directly north and south ; it reaches to Kolkhi in the vicinity of the pearl fishery.
« But the first port after leaving the Ruddy Mountain is Balita and next to that is
“ Komar which hasa portandaharbour . . . . From Komar the district extends
‘* to Kolkhi and the pearl fishery which is conducted by slaves or criminals condemned
“to the service, and the whole southern point of the continent is part of Pandyan’s
“dominion. ‘The first place that succeeds after leaving Kolkhi is the Bay Argulus
‘“‘ connected with a district inland (of the same name). Here and here only the pearls
‘‘ obtained in the fishery at the island of Epidorus || are perforated and prepared for the
“ market and from the same island are procured the fine muslins sprinkled with
“ pearls.”

* The term ‘‘ Madura Coast ’’ is employed in these pages, unless it be specified otherwise, in its wider and more
ancient sense ; it signifies here the sea board of the ancient Kingdom of Madura and therefore includes the shore of the
modern district of Tinnevelly as well as that of the Madura district.

+ Gaspar Correa, “ Lendas da India’’, volume II.

t Vide the ‘‘ Mahawanea.”’

§ Vaikkaraiin theCochin district.

| Most probably this is the island of Mannar, formerly the head-quarters of the Ceylon Pearl-fishery.

Ptolemy (who died in 163 A.D.) adds further interesting references, mentioning
in his description of the provinces, towns, and rivers of the East Coast—

“Country of the Kareoi; in the Kolkhie gulf, where there is the pearl fishery;
“ Sosikourai and Kolkhoi, an emporium at the mouth of the river Solen.”

So unchanging are names and peoples in this district that at the present day the
majority of these names can be readily recognised—in itself also a tribute to the accuracy
of the two Greco-Egyptian geographers of 1800 years ago. Komar is obviously
Kumari anglicised into Comorin: the Kareoi are the caste of Karaiyar or coast people—
fishermen and boatmen—of whom the Parathavar or Parawas are a branch or section,
described in the Tamil poem “ Maturack-kanchi” (LL. 140—144) * as men who dived
for pearls or for conch shells and knew the charm to keep off sharks from that part of
the sea where they dived.

The town of Sésikourai has, I notice, not been identified by any writers with any
now-existing place name, but I have little doubt it represents Tuticorin—the present
principal town on the coast. The Tamil 8 is commouly corrupted into Ch, as Sippi
into Chippi, and then Chéchikourai would readily pass into Totikourai and Tiaticourai
from which Tuticorin, the present rendering of the name of this town, is readily
derivable.

Of Kolkhi, identified by the Greeco-Egyptian writers as the head- quarters of the
pearl fishery, no name trace remains, even in that;of a decadent village. The loeali-
sation is however rendered easy by reference to the Tamil poems of the pericd in
question. In them is frequent meution of the great city of Korkai. ‘Thus the
“¢ Maturaik-kanchi” describes it as the chief town in the country of the Parathavar
and the seat of the pearl fishery, with a population consisting chiefly of pearl-divers
aud chank-cutters. The great epic ‘¢ Chilappatikaram ” (XX VII. 127) further records
that on account of the importance of the revenue derived from the pearl fishery,
Korkai was a sub-capital of the Pandyan Kingdom, and the usnal residence of the
heir-apparent. In its prime it boasted great magnificence, adorned with temples and
palaces befitting its wealth and importance. It was situated at the mouth of the
river Tambraparni } a river draining the present district of Tinnevelly and carrying
down to the sea immense quantities of sand.

The harbour of Korkai gradually silted up, and deltaic accumulation eventually
cut off ready access to the sea. In consequence the old city gradually decayed and the
population drifted to the new mouth of the river where a daughter town sprang into
being at the expense of the parent. Exactly when this occurred I cannot make out.
Medizval travellers make no mention of Korkai or Kolkhi: the head-quarters of the
Indian Pearl fishery still remained located at the mouth of the Tambraparni, but its
name was altered to Chayl, Cail, or Kay], wherein we recognize the Kayal of to-day.

Marco Polo in the thirteenth century speaks of Cail asa great and noble city;
Ludovico de Vathema mentions that he saw pearls fished for in the sea near the town
of Chayl in about A.D. 1500, while Barbosa, who travelled about the same time, says
that the people of Chayl are jewellers who trade in pearls.

To-day Kayal is a miserable village some miles inland and situated four or five
miles northward of Pinnacoil, a Parawa town on an island in the present embouchure
of the Tambraparni. The old name still clings, and the ruined remains of what must
have been the great buildings of a noble city are within gunshot—the old Kayal and
possibly the Korkhi of classic geographers and the Korkai of the ancient Tamil epies.

Kanakasabhai in his “ Tamils of 1800 years ago”} appears to think Kayal and
Korkai were separate cities, saying, ‘‘The site of this town (Korkai) which stood on

* Probably written about the same time as the “ Periplus’’.

+ This name Tambraparni in its Romano-Greek form of Taprobane was also the accepted cognomen of the island of
Ceylon among the Romans of the empire. Variations in the manner of spelling are many—Tambrapurni, Tamraparni,
Tambrapanni, Vamrapanni and others.

Much ingenuity has heen displayed (and wasted) in seeking plausible derivations. All those quoted in Tennent’s
“Ceylon’’ seem to be purely fanciful; I do not think we ueed go beyond the terms Zwmtiram, copper, aud Varnam, or
Farnam, colour, words in common use among Tamils, in seeking for the meaning of the name. :

No feature strikes the stranger on arival in Colombo more forcibly than the copper-red hue of the roads and soil:
‘€ Copper-coloured Isle ’’ is a most appropriate descriptive term to apply to Ceylon and equally so is the ‘‘ Copper-coloured
water ’’ to the Tinnevelly river in question, when in flood it becomes turbid with the red mud it carries seawards.

~ Madras, 1904,

3

the sea coast is now about five miles inland. After the sea had retired from Korkai,
anew emporium arose on the coast. This was Kayal . . . . whichin turn
became in time too far from the sea and Kayal was also abandoned.”

The accuracy of this statemen. I have no means of judging, except that none of
the people of the Tambraparni district whom I have met have any knowledge of the
ruins of Korkai, whereas they al. «now those of Kayal, and we have ample evidence
that the abandonment of Kaya! and the creation of the new ports and daughter towns
ot Kayalpattanam and Pinnacoil, or more properly Pinnekayal, by the Moor and
Parawa inhabitants respectively of Kayal took place in early Portuguese times as will
be noted further on.

When the Portuguese rounded Cape Camorin they found the pearl fisheries of
the Gulf of Mannar in the hands of the caste of shore-dwelling people, fishermen and
divers, already alluded to as Parawas whom tradition shows to have had control of
this industry from time immemorial. Of the origin of these people we know extremely
little. We know, however, thatin the old days, from 600 B. C. and for 1,500 years
or more thereafter, the country now comprehended in the districts of Madura and
Tinnevelly, formed the great Tamil Kingdom of Pandya, and in the old Tamil work
ealled the ‘‘ Kalveddu” the position of the pearl-fishing caste to this monarchy is
incidentally mentioned in the following extract :—

“ Vidanarayanen Cheddi and the Paravu men who fished pearls by paying
“ tribute to Alliyarasani, daughter of Pandya, King of Madura, who went on a voyage,
“‘ experienced bad weather in the sea, and were driven to the shores of Lanka, where
‘‘ they founded Karainerkai (Karativo) and Kutiraimalai. Vidanarayanen Cheddi had
“ the treasures of his ship stored there by the Parawas, and established pearl fisheries
‘‘ at Kadalihilapam (Chilavaturai) and Kallachihilapam (Chilaw) and introduced the
‘* trees which change iron intogold”, ete., ete. (Herdman, ‘‘ Report on the pearl oyster
“‘ fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar’’, volume I, page 2).

In the ‘‘ Maturaik-kanchi”” they are described as being most powerful in the
country round Korkai, “ well-fed on fish and flesh and armed with bows, their hordes
terrified their enemies by their dashing valour.*”” It is very probable that they were
of Naga origin and of the same race as the inhabitants of Ceylon at the time of the
Wijayan conquest of that island.

When the Pandyan kingdom was powerful the Parawas had grants of certain
rights from the monarchy, paying tribute from the produce of the fisheries and receiv-
ing protection and immunity from taxationin return. The fishery in these early days
appears to have been extremely prosperous—thus in A.D. 1330 Friar Jordanus, who
visited India at this time, tells us that as many as 8,000 boats were employed in the
pearl fisheries of Tinnevelly and Ceylon +.

The organization of the fisheries was also well ordered even prior to the advent
of Europeans, as we learn from the following extract written by the Nawab of the
Carnatic in 1771 to the Governor-General of Batavia, namely—

“In the time of the King of Madura, Terniel Nadu Raja and the second king
‘« Minaatje Ringeja Dalway, in the year 1470 it was decided that in January all things
“connected with the fishery should be arranged and that the same arrangement should
“hold good so long as the kingdom remained under the Carnatic. ¢ ”

The conditions under which the Parawas lived and the far-reaching changes
which at this period—the opening of the 16th century-—were beginning to be felt owing
tv the weakening of the paramount power of Vijayanagar are graphically set forth in
a report, dated 19th December 1669, written by Van Reede and Laurens Pyl, respec-
tively Commandant of the Coast of Malabar and Canara and Senior Merchant and
Chief of the sea-ports of Madura, in justification of their action in undertaking
war with the Nayak or King of Madura. This report addressed to Van Goens,
the Governor of Ceylon and Datch-India, contains the following exposition of the

* Kanakasabhai, loc. cit., page 44.
+ Thurston, E. ‘* Pearl and Chank Fisheries ;’’ Mad , 1894, p. 9.
t At this period the kingdom had lost its independence and was tributary to the great Hindu state of Vijayanagar,

which comprised the region known as the Carnatic.

4

condition of the Parawas prior to the arrival of the Portuguese, and the manner in
which the Portuguese obtained possession of the fisheries and subsequently carried
them on :—

‘“‘ Under the protection of those Rajas there lived a people, which had come to
“these parts from other countries *—they are called Parruas—they lived a sea-
“faring life, gaining their bread by fishing, and by diving for pearls ; they had
‘purchased from the petty Rajas small streaks of the shore, along which they settled
“and built villages, and they divided themselves as their numbers progressively
“ increased.

‘Tn these purchased lands they lived under the rule of their own headmen,
‘* paying to the Rajas only an annual present, free from all other taxes which bore
‘upon the natives so heavily, looked upon as strangers, exempt from tribute or
“subjection to the Rajas, having a chief of their own election, whose descendants are
“still called Kings of the Parruas, and who drew a revenue from the whole people
“‘ which in process of time has spread itself from Quilon to Bengal. Their importance
‘‘and power have not been reduced by this dispersion, for they are seen at every
‘pearl fishery (on which occasions the Parruas assemble together), surpassing in
‘distinction, dignity and outward honours, all other persons there, and still bearing
“ their own appellation.

_ “The pearl fishery was the principal resource and expedient from which the
‘‘ Parruas obtained a livelihood, but as from their residence so near the sea, they had
“no manner of disposing of their pearls, they made an agreement with the Rajas that a
‘““market day should be proclaimed throughout their dominions, when merchants might
“securely come from all parts of India, and at which the divers an@ sutlers neces-
“‘sary to furnish provisions for the multitude might also meet, and as this assemblage
“would consist of two different races, namely, the Parruas and subjects 0! the Rajas,
‘as wellas strangers and travellers, two kinds of guards and tribunals were to be
“‘ established to prevent all disputes and quarrels arising during this open market,
‘Cevery man being subject to his own judge, and his case being decided by him; all
‘‘ payments were then also divided among the headmen of the Parruas, who were the
“ owners of that fishery, and who hence became rich and powerful ; they had weapons
“and soldiers of their own, with which they were able to defend themselves against
“the violence of the Rajas or their subjects.

“The Moors who had spread themselves over India, and principally along the
‘¢ coasts of Madura, were strengthened by the natives professing Mahomedanism and
“by the Arabs, Saracens, and the privateers of the Sammoryn +, and they began also
‘to take to pearl-diving as an occupation, but being led away by ill-feeling and hope
“of gain, they often attempted to outreach the Parruas, some of whom even they
“‘ gained to their party and to their religion, by which means they obtained so much
‘importance, that the Rajas joined themselves to the Moors, anticipating great
“advantages from the trade which they carried on and from their power at sea; and
“ thus the Parruas were oppressed, although they frequently rose against their adver-
“saries, but they always got the worst of it, until at last in a pearl fishery at
‘‘Tutucoryn, having purposely raised a dispute, they fell upon the Moors, and killed
“ some thousands of them, burnt their vessels, and remained masters of the country,
‘‘though much in fear that the Moors, joined by the pirates of Calicut, would rise
‘against them in revenge.

‘The Portuguese arrived about this time with one ship at Tutucoryn; the
‘* Parruas requested them for assistance, and obtained a promise of it, on conditions
“that they should become Christians ; this they generally agreed to, and having sent
‘¢ Commissioners with some of the Portuguese to Goa, they were received under the
“protection of that nation, and their Commissioners returned with priests, and a
“naval foree conveying troops, on which all the Parruas of the seven ports were
‘baptized, accepted as subjects of the King of Portugal, and they dwindled thus from
‘“‘having their own chiefs and their own laws into subordination to priests and

* This is most improbable; they are more probably the descendants of Naga fishermen settled in the district
prior to the immigration of''l’amil invadere.

+ The Zamorin of Caliout, a powerful sea-chief of this period, but himself belonging to the Hindu religion.

5

“Portuguese, who however settled the rights and privileges of the Parruas so firmly,
‘‘ that the Rajas no longer dared interfere with them, or attempt to impede or abridge
‘their prerogative ; on the contrary they were compelled to admit of separate laws
‘for the Parruas from those which bound their own subjects. The Portuguese kept
“for themselves the command at sea, the pearl fisheries, the sovereignty over the
‘* Parruas, their villages and harbours, whilst the Naick of Madura, who was a subject
‘of the King of the Carnatic, made himself master at this time of the lands about
“ Madura, and in a short time afterwards of all the lower countries from Cape Comoryn
‘“to Tanjore, expelling and rooting out all the princes and land proprietors, who were
‘“ living and reigning there ; but on obtaining the sovereignty of all these countries,
‘“‘ he wished to subject the Parruas to his authority, in which attempt he was opposed
“by the Portuguese, who often, not being powerful enough effectually to resist, left
“the land with the priests and Parruasand went to the islands of Mannar and Jafina-
““ patam, from whence they sent coasting vessels along the Madara shores, and caused
*‘so much disquiet, that the revenue was ruined, trade circumscribed and almost
“annihilated, for which reasons the Naick himself was obliged to solicit the Portu-
“ ouese to come back again.

‘<The Political Government of India, perceiving the great benefit of the pearl
‘fishery, appointed in the name of the King of Portugal military chiefs and captains
“to superintend it, leaving the churches and their administration to the priests.
“Those captains obtained from the fisheries each time a profit of 6,000 rixdollars for
“ the King, leaving the remainder of the income from them for the Parruas ; but seeing
‘they could not retain their superiority in that manner over the people, which was
‘* becoming rich, luxurious, drunken, with prosperity, and with the help of the priests,
‘‘who protected them, threatening the captains, which often occasioned great dis-
“orders, the latter determined to build a fort for the King at Tutucoryn, which was
“ the chief place of all the villages; but the priests who feared by this to lose much
* of their consequence as well as of their revenue insisted that if such a measure was
“proceeded with, they would all be ruined, on which account they urged on the
“ people to commit irregularities ; and made the Parruas fear that the step was a preli-
‘““minary one to the making all of them slaves; and they therefore raised such
‘‘ hindrances to the work that it never could be completed.

‘‘ We have considered it worth while to prefix to our narrative this notice of old
“ times, because it may throw some ight on the present difficulties, and afford also a
“clear proof of the right which the Honourable Company at present claims over the
‘‘ Christian natives and all that relates to them.

“The Netherlands Hast India Company began about the year 1644, when it
‘had obtained possession of some places on Ceylon, to carry on trade and commerce
“ with the countries of Madura, and made a treaty for that purpose with the above-
‘‘ mentioned Naick, stipulating,
“* That the Honourable Company might trade in his territories with security
“and freedom, to which end a dwelling or lodge at Cailpatnam was allowed them, as
« may be seen by the treaty or contract in possession of the Company’ —and on this word
“and faith of the Naick their trade began, and their goods, merchandize and servants
‘‘ were confidently left in protection of their ally—but where there is no firm ground
“* of integrity, treachery and faithlessness find easy entry.

““ This the Company soon experienced, for it was not long ere this evil-minded
“and wicked people, deceived by appearances, and induced by hope of rapine and
“ profit, forgot their faith and promises, suffering themselves to be seduced by a sum
“ of money to demolish the Company’s lodge, seize its goods, and murder its servants ;
‘in which last attempt however they failed by the unexpected appearance of a ship
‘“‘in which the men took refuge and thus wonderfully escaped. This dastard villany,
“ detestable in any prince or chieftain, the Portuguese had contrived, and effected by
““ means of the Parruas and the Naick’s servants who thought the neighbourhood of
“the Company injurious to their interests. And although in the year 1649, a signal
“* vengeance fell as well upon Tritchenadoor as Tutucoryn, yet the people, and their
“master, the Naick and his Government remained equally base, taking every oppor-
“tunity to exercise oppression. yen the Portuguese whom they had assisted to do
“harm to the Company began soon to perceive that the renters and chiefs of the

2

6

‘lowlands wronged the Parruas on all sides and diminished the right of the Portu-
‘‘ suese, but at that time they had no means of preventing it, as the Dutch Company
“ was increasing in strength and were taking possession of their towns, forts and ships,
‘‘and became daily more powerful, which caused them to bear much from the Naick
“ with forbearance.

“ Matters stood thus in the hands of the Naick of Madura * till 1658, when
“the town of Tutucoryn was taken by force of arms from the Portuguese and Parruas,
“by which success the Company succeeded to their rights over the coast, as well as to
“their authority over the sea-ports, the Christians, the pearl fisheries, and all there-
“unto appertaining ; in fact to all that the Parruas first had, and the priests and
‘“‘ Portuguese afterwards possessed.”
Of the prosperity and conduct of the fisheries under the Portuguese we know
nothing with exactitude—even the dates of the important fisheries are lost through the
disappearance of the official records.

Fortunately many of the Portuguese soldiers of fortune have left memoirs of their
lives in the east, and several furnish interesting accounts of the conduct and manage-
ment of the fisheries at this time. The two most important are those left by Gaspar
Correa and by Juan Ribeyro; the former dealing with the condition of the fishery at
the beginning of the Portuguese connection, the latter with an account of it in the
vears when his nation was being dislodged foot by foot and fort by fort from Ceylon
and India by the Dutch. Both are worthy of being better known and therefore it will
be better to give the extracts in full.

Gaspar Correa’s account + tells us that in the year 1525 the King of Portugal
commissioned Manuel de Frias to make inquiries in India regarding the tomb of the
apostle Thomas, and it proceeds thus :—‘‘ And he commanded that with him should go
“Joao Froles, who had taken part in the affairs in Ceylon when Lopo Soares went
“‘ there, and who had been appointed by the King captain and factor of the pearl fishery
‘‘ which is earried on by the natives of the country between Ceylon and the Cape of
“ Comoryn ; in former times the Moors of that coast had possession of this pearl
“fishery, for which they paid a large rent to the lords of the land, wherefore the
‘Governors had a good right thereto, since they were rulers of the sea. Therefore
“now Joao Froles having come thus commissioned that he might take possession of
“and receive for the King this fishery, so that the Governor might not suffer loss by
““not being able to receive it for himself, he did not give Joao Froles the fleet and
““men that the King had commanded, and in order to get from it whatever he could
‘oain he ordered Manuel de Frias to go to the fishery, and to rent it for whatever
‘the lords of the land would give, and this in order-that he might find out what it
“would yield, and having accomplished this that he should proceed to the coast of
‘“‘ Choromandel as captain and factor.”

A little further on we read :—“ Manuel de Frias, captain and factor of Choromandel,
“in accordance with the orders of the Governor, which he carried with him, placed
“ Joao Froles over the fishery which he rented out to the digares,t of the country for
“ one thousand five hundred eruzados per annum, and left there as factor Jodo Froles,

* Dravida, the country of the ‘Tamils, was divided in the earliest days of which we haye record and prior to the
Christian era, between three dynasties, the Pandyans, the Cheras, and the Cholas. The Pandyan kingdom, deriving its
name from that of the founder of the first dynasty, comprised under normal conditions little more than the present
districts of Madura and ‘Tinnevelly, the city of Madura being the capita] during the greater part of the continuance of the
kingdom, which suffered the usual vicissitudes of Indian states, sometimes preponderating and more frequently, in later
times, tributary to a neighbouring state, but always maintaining in Madura some semblance of sovereign authority.

After the fall of the powerful Bilal Rajas, at the beginning of the fourteenth century?(A.D. 1310) ,a great Hindu state,
that of Vijayanagar, took shape in the centre of the Deccan. ‘The Raja of this state became about the middle of the four-
teenth century the overlord of the states of Southern India including the Pandyan country, and the Princes of Madura
remained tributary till about the time of the arrival of the Portuguese in the Gulf of Mannar.

The reigning dynasty at that time was that of the Nayaks, and while the Portuguese were busy making settlement§
on the coast, the Nayak was making himself master of all the lower countries from Cape Comorin to Tanjore, ‘‘ expelling
and rooting out all the princes and land proprietors ’’ who were living and reigning there,

The battle of Talikota in 1565, in which the last Raja of Vijayanagar‘fell before a great combination of Muhammadan
states, gave the Nayak complete independence, which his family retained till 1736 when the last of this house fell before
the power of the Nawab of the Carnatic, the ally of the British.

+ ‘“Lendas da India.”

{ Evidently Adigars are meant. At the present day the principal headman of the pearl fishery district in Ceylin
(Musali) is officially known by this title of Adigar. It is this officer who is charged with the details incident to the
erection of the fishery camp prior to each fishery. ;

7

“with his clerk, in a large boat well armed; and in order that the factor might not be
“able to steal any of the money from the rent of the fishery, he took other measures,
“ obtaining from the fishers themselves the pearls, whereby he committed many
‘robberies, as is done nowadays; for the ills of India are not improving, but are
‘“‘inereasing continually, as I shall recount further in speaking of the end that this
“ Joao Froles came to at this fishery, in which he paid for a portion of the evils that
“he had committed.”

An interval of over three years then elapses before we again hear of the pearl
fishery, Lopo Vaz de Sampayo being then Governor in India. We read that in
January 1528 :—

‘Manuel da Gama was appointed by the King as captain of the coast of Coro-
“mandel, and Joao Froles as captain and factor of the pearl fishery. This act of
“friendship towards Manuel da Gama was managed by Hector Da Silveira before he
*‘ departed; and the Governor gave him a ship and four foists well fitted and armed,
“as he had had tidings that paraos of Calieut were going along the coast of Paleacate
“ eommitting great robberies, and had seized a ship that had come from Malacca very
“richly laden, with eight Portuguese whom they put to death. To this Manuel da
‘* Gama retaliated so well, that he cleared the coast of the robbers, and managed to get
‘* back on land all the goods from the ship which the robbers had sold, and many male
‘‘and female slaves of the Portuguese whom they had killed on board the ship;
*‘ which robbers went over to Ceylon with much booty, and joined the others who had
“ cone from Calicut, and went about robbing as much as they liked by sea and land.
“The Governor sent to Jodo Froles as captain and factor of the fishery, in a ecaravel
“and a large boat and three foists, with which he went about collecting the rent of
‘“‘the fishery, as I have already said. This being known to the robbers, who went
“about strongly armed with artillery and men, twenty of them came in a body to
“ attack Joao Froles as Manuel da Gama had gone to the other coast and could not help
‘‘him and they came upon Joao Froles who was in the caravel, with the large boat,
*‘ the foists having gone to another place ; and as they were moored and the wind was
‘‘ calm, twelve of the paraos made for the caravel, dividing into six on each side, and
“the other eight likewise divided to attack the large boat. Joao Froles, seeing the
‘‘ paraos preparing for the attack, made ready as well as he could with twenty Portu-.
“ euese men that he had, and threw a rope to the large boat, so that the two lay stern
‘*to stern. Six Portuguese men went into the large boat: the caravel had a camello
‘and two falcons and six dercos,* and the large boat, two falcons and six bercos, but
“there were only a few men as several had gone to the foists that Joao Froles had
‘sent to the coast of Ceylon as prizes. Our men having thus got ready, the paraos
‘< divided into two attacking parties, ten approaching from each side avoiding the shots
“from the camello, and shifting as they pleased, all the while discharging from
“ roqueras * iron balls of the size of quinces, and firing as they liked they gave the
‘* caravel and large boat so many shots, that they cut their shrouds and caused them
“to fall with the yards, at which they set up loud shouts. Neither Joao Froles nor
“‘ the master of the caravel had thought of putting belts under the yards, which if they
‘“‘ had done the yard would not have fallen. At this the Moors considered themselves
“ victors, as the Portuguese were already killed or wounded, for only the falcons and
“‘ bercos were now of any use to our men, and they did not fire them so often as did
“the Moors,-and our men were continually becoming less able to fire; wherefore the
‘* Moors knowing the weakness of our men came in a body with their arms, and their
“ shouts and war charges, and boarded the vessel, and killed as many as they found
“alive, without sparing any one, and carried off all that they found, and took the
“ faleons and bercos and ammunition, and set fire to the vessels so that they went down,
‘and then returned to Ceylon. Qur foists, hearing the news of the burning of those
“ vessels, fled to where Manuel da Gama was staying.”

The description of the conduct of the fishery under the Portuguese by Juan
Ribeyro in his ** History of Ceylon,” dated 1685, is the only detailed account handed
down to us.7

* Different kinds of cannon. y
+ From the English translation from the French version of the Abbé Le Grand, Ceylon, 1847.

It runs as follows :—

‘* Having now related all that we know of the natural riches of the land of
‘t Ceylon, we shall describe those which its sea produces. The pearls which are procured
‘« from the coasts of the island, and more especially from Aripo, are of the highest value.
“As few persons know how that fishery is conducted, we shall here relate what we
“ know of it.

“« At the beginning of March there assemble on that coast 4,000 or 5,000 boats
“oot together and paid by Moorish or Heathen merchants and by some Christians.*
“These merchants have many partnerships among themselves, and they first make up
‘a fund to arm four, five or six boats, more or less, according as the entire adventure
‘“‘is greater or smaller. Each of these boats has generally from ten to twelve sailors,
‘one master and eight or nine divers. All the boats go out together, and seek where
“ the fishery is likely to be most profitable: and they anchor at the spots where the
‘¢ sea is only five, six or at most seven fathoms deep. Then they send off three boats
“to a league distant round about, each in a different direction ; each of these boats
‘brings back a thousand oysters. These are opened in presence of the merchants and
‘“‘ the pearls found in them are examined by the whole party and their value estimated,
“Cas the pearls are much finer in some years than in others; and accordingly as the
‘* merchants find the pearls to be large, clear, round and of good water, they bargain
‘‘ with the King for the fishery of that year. When the bargain is made the King
“ usually gives them four vessels of war to defend them from the Malabar and other
‘‘ pirates. Then each merchant goes to the sea-side and constructs a sort of enclosure
‘‘ with stake and thorns, only leaving a narrow passage for the boats to enter and go
“out again, which come there to discharge the oysters they have fished up.

“ On the 11th of March, at four in the morning, the officer in command of the
‘“‘ four vessels of war fires a gun as a signal, and immediately all the boats put off to
“sea, steering for the place which they have selected to fish at and casting anchor
‘there. Each of these boats has on board stones of the weight of 60 lb. each,
“ fastened with strong ropes, of which one end is attached to the boat. The diver
‘“ places his foot on one of the stones, and passes another rope round his body, to which
“is tied a basket or a small woven bag like a net; this second rope is held by two of the
‘“‘ sailors, and the diver thus secured descends into the sea; he remains there whilst
‘““two eredos can be said, and fills his little bag or basket with oysters which he
‘‘ sometimes finds in heaps on the rocks ; as soon as his basket is full, he makes a sign
‘‘by pulling the rope held by the sailors in the boat, and one end of which is round his
‘‘ waist, and they draw him quickly out of the water; but ifin the time he is below,
‘he can contrive to open an oyster and findsa pearl in it, it is considered his own ;
‘“as soon as his head is above water another diver goes down, and thus they descend
‘‘by turns. This fishery lasts till four in the afternoon, when the officer in command
‘« fires another gun as a signal to cease the fishery for the day. Thenall the boats go
“ to their several enclosures, and the noise and confusion that ensue in the two hours
‘* that are allowed to discharge and pile up the oysters cannot be described.

‘ Besides the people belonging to the boats the children of the neighbourhood
‘‘ never fail to assemble at the sea-side, offering their services, rather however to steal
‘¢ the oysters than to assist the sailors or merchants. As soon as the boats are
‘unloaded they put to sea again, and go about half a league higher up by the sea-side,
‘where the merchants assemble and hold a splendid fair; there are magnificent tents
“and all sorts of merchandise of the most valuable kind are to be had there, as vendors-
“come from all parts of the world. Heathens, Jews, Christians and Moors, all have
‘‘ some speculation for profit ; some sell by wholesale, others by retail ; the sailors and
‘* children bring the pearls which they have stolen, and people of every kind have
‘‘ bargains to offer. Persons having but a small capital buy small ventures, which
“they immediately sell to larger merchants with a middling profit ; not only pearls
“are bought and sold, but jewellery of every kind, bargold, dollars, fine Turkey
*‘ carpets, and beautiful stuffs from India.

* An escort of armed men always accompanies the pearl divers, on account of the Malabars, who come from the coast
of that name or from the Maldives, and who live by piracy, so that no boat, canoe or prahu is safein those seas. The
fishers or divers cease their work at roon, on account of the swell caused by the wind, aud which annoys the divers, who
can only descend in calm weather. (Note by the French translator.)

+ ‘Ihis is an error in translation and in fact. In translation from the original Portuguese it reads, “the diver as
soon as he rises to the surface is at liberty, until he who is at the bottom of the sea agcends, to open with a knife as many
oysters as he can and whatever he finds therein is his,”

9

“The fishery lasts from the 11th of March to the 20th of April,* but the fair
“itself continues for fifty days, because for the last nine days the enclosures are
“cleansed, as so many flies are bred by the corrupt matter that the adjacent places and
“the whole country might be annoyed by them, if care were not taken to sweep into
*‘the sea the impurities collected during the fishery.

“On the last day of April, the merchants of the several partnerships assemble
“together and share the pearls belonging to their respective boats. They separate
“‘them into nine classes, and set on each class a price according as the demand has
**been greater or less for pearls during the year; when these prices have been set on
“them, they make the allotments and shares. Then the ill-formed pearls are sold at a
‘* sufficiently moderate price ; the small seed-pearls are left on the sea-side and the
ee ssunby people come in the spring and sift the sand for them and sell them for a
“ trifle.

** Hence the pearls and seed are sent to all parts of the world. This is all I know
‘Cof this fishery. But I must not forget to add that pieces of amber of a considerable
‘ size are also found on this coast. Great branches of coral also drift ashore when the
““sea is high ; the black kind is better and more esteemed than the red.”

In no Portuguese work have I found any indication of the frequency of the recur-
rence of fisheries under the Portuguese or of the approximate values and localities of
each, a lack of knowledge greatly to be regretted as it becomes impossible to say with
certainty whether or not there has beer deterioration, progressive or intermittent, in
the oyster-producing qualities of the beds. The only hint I have come across is a
chance remark in Ribeyro’s “ History ”, to the effect that the inhabitants of Mannar
had in his time (cirea 1658) become impoverished by the decadence of the pearl fishery
on the Ceylon coast and its transference to the Tuticorin side, his words being “ at
present the oysters have migrated and are to be found on the coast of Tuticorin.” +

Even prior to the Portuguese we find the uncertainty of the pearl fisheries a
matter ef notoriety for Albyrouni who served under Mahmoud of Ghazni and wrote in
the eleventh century, says that the pearl fishery which formerly existed in the Gulf
of Serendib, had become exhausted in his time simultaneously with the appearance of
a fishery at Sofala, in the country of the Zends, where pearls were unknown before,
and remarks that hence arose the conjecture that the pearl oyster of Serendib had
migrated to Sofala f, z.e., to the Persian Gulf.

Few other facts of importance are to be gleaned from Portuguese writers. We
see however that in fulfilment of the treaty made with the new-comers the Parawas
became zealous Roman Catholics. Thus they won the confidence of their masters and
under the protection of the priesthood enjoyed a comparative tranquillity and immunity
from extortionate tyranny seldom met with by Indians living within the Portuguese
influence.

St. Francis Xavier did great work among the the Parawas and it was on the
fishery coast at or about Pinnacoil that he commenced his missionary labours in 1542,
thereafter visiting Tuticorin and sending priests to Mannar at the earnest solicitation
of the inhabitants. §

That the fisheries were then flourishing is betokened by the fine churches and
great monasteries that rose at the three centres named from the offerings and profits
of the divers and merchants during the second half of the sixteenth century.

The Portuguese appear to have kept well in hand the petty Rajas whose territo-
ries abutted on the fishery coast and to have been able to afford efficient protection to
the Parawas. They were fortunate in arriving in India at a time when the native
states were in the crucible of change, when internecine warfare left the chiefs neither
time nor power to cope efficiently with a more highly organized foe from oversea. Old

* Old style ?

+ See Ae Baldaeus’ ‘‘ Description of Malabar and Coromandel,’’ English edition, London 1703, where in yolume 3,
page 792, referring to the condition of affairs in 1658, he states that “this island (Mannar) was formerly celebrated for
the pearl fishery as well as the city of Tutecoryn ; but no pearls having been taken there for these ten years last past, the
inhabitants are reduced to great poverty ; whereas the sumptuons edifices, churches and monasteries, with their orna-
ments, are sufficient demonstrations of its former grandeur.’’ :

+ Reinand’s “‘ Fragmens Arabes, ” page 125, quoted by Tennent in ‘‘ The Natural History of Ceylon,’’ page 375.

é “ The History of Ceylon’”’ by Philalethes, London 1817, page 224.

3

10

states were in the melting pot of invasion and insurrection and especially was this
true of Southern India, where political paralysis began to affect Vijayanagar—hegin-
ning, as is usual, in those provinces furthest from the centre of the state.

The latest dynasty—the Nayaks—oceupying the tributary throne of Madura
was beginning to assert independence of the central Government from which it became
entirely free when the battle of Talikota in 1565 completed the destruction of the
Suzerain Hindu State of Vijayanagar.

The Parawas as already mentioned although the original holders of the
fishery rights had begun prior to the arrival of the Portuguese to feel the competi-
tion of the restless Muhammadan settlers on the coast, who, coming as many must
have done, from the coasts of the Persian Gulf knew already all there was to know of
pearl fishing. The descendants of these Arabs and their proselytes, known as Moros
to the Portuguese, are the Moormen or Lubbais of to-day.* Their chief settlement
was Kayal, a town situated-near the mouth of the river Tambrapurni, and which in
Marco Polo’s time (1290-91) was “a great and noble city”. It shared with Tuticorin
for fully 500 years the honour of being one of the two great pearl markets of the
coast— the one being the Moor, the other the Parawa head-quarters.

Hating the Moormen with all the fanatical intolerance which was their curse and
the chief cause of their eventual ruin the Portuguese took the part of the Parawas.
Accordingly the Nayak of Madura, Hindu though he was, lent his influence to the
Moors of Kayal in the hope of eventually being in a position to drive out the
Portuguese and so obtain control of the coveted pearl fishery. None of the
Nayaks were ever strong enough to do this and an armed neutrality usually existed,
the Portuguese even granting certain privileges—practically tributes—to the Nayak’s
Government in return for facilities given to the pearl merchants to travel without
exactions to the scene of the fishery.

The chief item in the concession made to the Nayak was the grant of a number
of free boats in each fishery. A grant engraved upon copper made by Soekalingee
Teroomalee Nayak in favour of the Modeliar Pilly Marcair, the head of the Moorish
community,t+ on founding the town of Kayalpattanam furnishes an interesting light on
the details of this arrangement.

It appears that the new town of Kayalpattanam had become a necessity through
the silting up of the harbour of the mother city of Kayal by sand brought down by
the river Tambrapurni.

In recognition of the chief townsman’s enterprise in transferring his town to the
coast and thus conserving to the Nayak a sea-port able to rival the Tuticorin of the
Portuguese, several gifts were made to the headman, the chief being the grant of ten
‘free’ divers’ stones at the fishery. In return he was with ‘“ seven large boats,
with 964 stones, at 132 stones to each boat, to fish the pearl banks for the use and
benefit of the said Government ” (of Madura). It is expressly said, “he is to reside
near the Government House of the Portuguese at the sea-port of Mannar and near
Marie Amman’s chapel at Tuticorin. He shall have the superintendency of the pearl
fishery and shall receive 60 chacrums per month and shall be favoured with ten
stones to dive for him at the said two places ”” (Mannar and Tuticorin).

The 9635 stones above mentioned represent the allowance conceded by the
Portuguese to the Nayak zn return for the privileges before named. Later we shall
see that the question of the consideration given in return for this privilege became the
source of continual disputes between the Dutch and the Nawab of the Carnatic, the
latter succeeding by conquest to the rights of the Madura Nayaks in the early part of
the eighteenth century.

* Moormen is the appellation used in Ceylon, whereas Lubbais or Lebbes is more commonly used on the Indian
Coast for the same people. ;

+ Termed ‘‘Choliars ” in this grant. In the tenth century the Chola dynasty overthrew the neighbouring sister ~
kingdoms of the Chera and Pandya, and reigned paramount from the vicinity of Madras to Cape Comorin.

It was doubtless subsequent to this period that the Tamil Muhammadans of South India became known as the
Choliya Muhammadans or more commonly Choliyar or people of the Tamil country called Chola-desam. To this day
the Hindustani Muhammadan speiks of his southern co-religionist as Choliya ; for, save as to religion the vast majority
of the Choliyar are Tamils in point of language, general appearance and social custems—vide Ramanathan ‘‘The
Ethnology of the Moors of Ceylon’”’ in Journal R.A.S, (Ceylon Branch), Volume XIII, page 246.

1]

Other free stones * were at intervals during the sixteenth century granted out
of these 963 privilege stones by the Nayak to various temples from religious motives,
as in 1542 and 1546.

Besides the Nayak of Madura, the Portuguese allowed to his tributary the
Setupati Raja of Ramuad f a further number of free divers (60 stones) in each fishery
in return for the help he gave in contributing to the success of the fishery and in
guarding and providing pilots for the passage of the narrow strait called Pamban pass,
separating the mainland from the Island of Rameswaram.

This petty sovereign, who is the hereditary guardian of the temple of Rameswaram
and is the head of the Marawar caste, was commonly known as the Katta Theuver or
Tuever in the days of the Portuguese and the Dutch. While nominally under the
Madura monarch, the Setupati was virtually independent and leaned more to the
foreigners, for his lands being coastal and insular, danger was greater from the sea
than from the land. His territory included the coast as far south as Kilakarai, the
great Moor diving centre at the present day, and for that reason his assistance had to
be courted and purchased by the European lords of the pearl fisheries.

Like him of Madura, the Ramnad lord granted some of his privilege divers to the
great Hindu temples of his district, giving seven stones to Rameswaram pagoda in
1509 and three more in 1714.

Besides the 60 free stones, the Setupati had the right by custom under the
Porfuguese to one day’s fishing from all his subjects, as had the Nayak from his.

Taken generally the fisheries under the Portuguese appear to have been of great
collective profit during the first haif of the period of their rule, a period coincident
with the height of Portuguese energy and power, when they had no Kuropean rivals
and when they were free to concentrate their forces entirely against the native races.
After breaking the power of the Arabs, the Portuguese enjoyed all the advantages
conferred on the nation possessing the mastery of the sea, a consideration of supreme
importance in connection with such an essentially maritime industry as the pearl
fishery.

Encroachments and claims on the part of the Nayak of Madura were then as com-
mon and as troubleseme as those experienced in the eighteenth contury by the Dutch in
their relations with the Nawab of the Carnatic. The methods adopted by the Portu-
guese to cope with these infringements of treaty rights and to afford protection to their
subjects and allies, the Parawas, appear to have been most radical and effective, consist-
ing in the removal of all Christian natives from the Madura coast to Mannar and
to the string of islands skirting the coast from Tuticorin to Pamban with a concurrent
blockade of the Nayak’s seaboard. Nor was the blockade a peaceful one as we learn
from Van Reede and Laurens Pyl’s Memoir of 1669 quoted above. To use their
words “ the Portuguese with their boats pillaged the entire sea-coast, which they

* By ‘‘stones’’, diversare to be undarstood, a diving stone being the indespensable item ina diver’s equipment.
Fach stoneis, however, usually sh:red by two divers, so it is probable that the 963 stones here referred to represented an
allowance of 193 divers.

+ The rulers of Ramnad haye hid many titles indicating an ancient and illustrious past. To-day their lands form a
zemindari and from the date of Talikota (1565) they constituted one of that peculiar class of petty Hindu Sovereigns who
held their lands tributary to larger States, usually Muhammadan, and to whom belong rightfully the title of zemindar. As
usually employed now in Indiaas a designation vf any large landed proprietor the term is used in an altered and
corrupt sense.

The title by which the Coief of Ramnad is now known is that of Raja; in former days Setupati or Sethupathi and
Katta Vheuver were titles more particularly distinctive and peculiar to these petty rulers.

The Raja of Ramnad is the hereditary chief of the warrior caste of Marawas, of whom the honorific and generic caste
name is Thevar or Teyar and from this was derived the title Katta or Catta Theuver or Teuver by whick the Dutch refer
to the Sovereign of Ramnad in a}l] their documents.

The Jtajas of Ramnad have eyer been intimately connected with the great Hindu temple of Rameswaram ; they are
the hereditary guardians of the templeand held possession till 1767 of the narrow channel between Rameswaram and the
mainland known as Pamban Pass. The remains of a broad and well-built causeway stretch from the Indian shore
2eross the “ pass’’ and onwards from Pamban over the eight miles of sandy ground that remain to be traversed ere
pilgrims reach the shrine of Rama. Originally the causeway was continuous from shore to shore, a causeway
invaluable to the millions of pilgrims resorting to the temple and the source of much importance to the sovereign of the
district, who possibly derived his most ancient title from this fact—‘‘ Setupati "’ or “ Lord of the Causeway’’ (Sethu or
Setu, a causeway and Pati, a lord) though as Adam’s Bridge, the bank connecting the islands of Rameswarem and
Mannar, is known specifically as ‘*the causeway” (Setu) among Tamils, we may also read the title as signifying ‘‘ Lord
of Adam’s Bridge ’’.

At the height of their power the Setupatis owned much of the low country between Ramnad and Madura, together
with the island of Rameswarem, and Setupati coins exist dating from this period. The growing power of the Nayaks
of Madura circumscribed their limits in the sixteenth century and thereafter they existed chiefly by the aid afforded by
an alliance first with the Portuguese and later with the Dutch.

12
disquieted so effectually that the renters and overseers (of the Nayak) on account of
the great loss they suffered in their revenues were obliged to request the Nayak to
eall the Portuguese back again.”

During this period of disturbance the Parawas held pearl fisheries from the small
islands along the Madura coast und ‘‘ assisted to the best of their power the Portu-
guese vessels.’’*

I refer to this period of the temporary settlement of the Parawas in the Madura
islands, the unmistakable evidence of a fishery camp to be seen to-day among the
sand-dunes of Nallatanui tivu, an island lying off the coast between Kilakarai and
Tuticorin. If we fix the date of this fishery at 1560 to 1570 we cannot be far out,
for, it was in 1560 that the Viceroy Don Constantine de Braganca erected the fort of
Mannar and transferred thereto the inhabitants of the Parawa town of Pinnacoil, the
scene of Francis Xavier’s labours twenty years previously, and one of their chief and
most prosperous settlements. +

By this change the island of Mannar become rich and prosperous as long as the
fisheries continued to give handsome returns. De Sa e Menezes (oc. ezt.) writing in
1622 states that for many years the fisheries had become extinct “ because of the
great poverty into which the Parawas had fallen, for they made no profit for want of
accommodation and of boats’—a result likely to arise from the exactions of Church
and of State, from the natural improvidence of the race and from the rapid decay of
Portuguese sea-power consequent upon the successful inroads made upon their mono-
poly of sea-borne commerce between India and Europe. The Portuguese, struggling
for very existence and in continual straits for the money requisite to carry on an
exhausting contest, increased their exactions from the natives and at the same time
were unable to give them adequate protection, especially at sea. We may infer with
every probability of this being true, that from the time the Dutch first appeared in
force in Indian seas, a time coinciding with a period of great official corruption
and internal unrest among the Portuguese, the management of the pearl banks
became inefficient and badly conducted.

Tuticorin and the sovereignty of the pearl banks and of the Parawas passed to
the Dutch in 1658. In 1663 the first fishery under the new rule was held,
resulting in a profit of 18,000 florins. £

At this fishery the Nayak of Madura and the Setupati of Ramnad and the head
Moor of Kayalpattanam had their accustomed number of boats free as under the Portu-
guese.

Just prior to this fishery Cornelis Valkenburg had written ‘‘ The fishery of
Mannar (Gulf of Mannar) is in great repute with the Portuguese and everybody else,
but if it be really of much importance has not yet been experienced and therefore I
ean give no information on the subject ’’. §

The second Duteh fishery took place six years later, in 1669, with what profit I
do not know. ‘Then a long interval of 22 years occurred briging us to the third
fishery, 1691, at whieh there were 3853 stones admitted free, viz. :—

264 for the Nayak of Madura.

59 for the Setupati of Ramnad and the remainder for the headmen of the divers
divided on the hnes detailed in the statement of these arrangements at the Ceylon
fishery of 1694 appended.

Six years later, 1697, we find Croon, the Commandant of Jaffna, writing that
“the pearl fishery is an extraordinary source of revenue, on which no certain reliance
can be placed, as it depends on various contingencies which may ruin the banks or
spoil the oysters. If no partieular aceident happen, it may take place for several

* Van Reede and Py] /oc, cit.

+ De Sae Menezes describes Pinnacoil (Puaticale as he spells the name—probably a misprint) at the time of this
transference as ‘‘a place on the Fishery Coast, inhabited by Parawas, who tired of the continual attacks of the Bodaguas,
their neighbours, livei more the life of fronteros than of fishermen, which trade they pHed for subsistence, but were
eoutinually robbed and cut off by their neighbours.” ‘The Rebellion of Ceylon,’’ translated from the Spanish by
Lieutenant-Colone!l H. H. St. George.)

£ See Appendix A, page 85.

_ §In instructions left for the guidance of his successors, the Residents of the seven Harbours on the Madura Coast,
“Ceylon Lit. Reg. ’’, Vol. III, page 160.

13

years suceessively . . . . but if the oysters happen to he washed off the banks
or to be disturbed by storms, the banks may be totally ruined in a very short time.
The examination. . . . is superintended by Commissioners specially

appointed and is conducted in . . dhonies by Pattangattyns and other native
headmen, who understand the business ”’.*

The next glimpse we get of a fishery off the Tuticorin coast is in the graphic
description by Father Martin, a Jesuit missionary, of a disastrous three days’ fishery
held in 1700. The description in spite of errors in detail is so vivid and instructive
that it may well be reproduced here for comparison with that left on reeord by Ribeyro
of the methods pursued in Portuguese days and also with those employed at the
present time.

‘“¢ In the early part of the year the Dutch sent out ten or twelve vessels in
“ different directions to test the localities in which it appeared desirable that the fishery
“of the year should be carried on; and from each vessel a few divers were let down
“who brought up each a few thousand oysters, which were heaped upon the shore in
** separate heaps of a thousand each, opened and examined. Ifthe pearls found in each
“heap were found by the appraisers to be worth an ecu or more, the beds from which
“ the oysters were taken were held to be capable of yielding a rich harvest ; if they were
“worth no more than thirty sous, the beds were considered unlikely to yield a profit
“over and above the expense of working them. As soonas the testing was completed,
“it was publicly announced either that there would, or that there would not, be a fishery
“that year. In the former case enormous crowds of people assembled on the coast on the
** day appointed for the commencement of the fishery ; traders came there with wares of
‘all kinds ; the roadstead was crowded with shipping, drums were beaten, and muskets
“fired ; and everywhere the greatest excitement prevailed, until the Dutch Commis-
“ sioners arrived from Colombo with great pomp, and ordered the proceedings to beopened
“ with asalute of cannon. Immediately afterwards the fishing vessels all weighed
“anchor and stood out to sea, preceded by two large Dutch sloops, which in due time
“drew otf to the right and left and marked the limits of the fishery, and when each
“ vessel reached its place, half of its complement of divers plunged into the sea, each
“ with a heavy stone tied (sic) to his feet to make him sink rapidly,t and furnished with
“a sack into which he put his oysters, and having a rope tied round his body, the end
“of which was passed round a pulley and held by some of the boatmen. Thus equip-
“ ped, the diver plunged in, and on reaching the bottom, filled his sack with oysters
“until his breath failed, when he pulled a string with which he was provided, and, the
‘“‘signal being perceived by the boatmen above, he was forthwith hauled up by the
“rope, together with his sack of oysters. No artificial appliances of any kind were
““ used to enable the men to stay under water for long periods; they were accustomed
“‘to the work almost from infancy, and consequently did it easily and well. Some
“ were more skilful and lasting than others, and it was usual to pay them in proportion
“ to er powers, a practice which led to much emulation and occasionally to fatal
“ results.

““ As soon as all the first set of divers had come up, and their takings had been
‘“‘examined and thrown into the hold, the second set went down. After an interval,
“the first set dived again, and after them the second; and so on turn by turn. The
*‘ work was very exhausting, and the strongest could not dive oftener than seven or
“eight times in a day, so that the day’s diving was finished always before noon.

“ The diving over, the vessels returned to the coast and discharged their cargoes ;
“and the oysters were all thrown into a kind of park, and left for two or three days,
“at the end of which they opened and disclosed their treasures. The pearls, having
“been extracted from the shells, and carefully washed, were placed in a metal receptacle
“ containing some five or six colanders of graduated sizes, which were fitted one into
“another so as to leave a space between the bottoms of every two, and were pierced
“with holes of varying sizes, that which had the largest holes being the topmost
“ colander, and that which had the smallest being the undermost. When dropped into

* Lee’s translation of Ribeyro’s “ History of Ceylon,” page 247.

_ ft The writer is obviously in error when he states that the diving stone is ‘‘ tied ’’ to the diver’s foot, that a
diver cannot diye oftener than seven or eight ,times a day and also in his account of the method of extracting the pearls
from the decaying oysters.

His statement that one day’s catch (not necessarily the first) belongs expressly to the King (Nayak of Madura) or
Setapati according to the locality where the fishery takes place is correct. only with regard to India. ‘Vhis privileze was
frequently contended for by the Nawab of the Carnatic at the Aripu fisheries but was consistently refused by the Dutch,
who however allowed the exaction to be made by mutual agreement between this potentate and those of his subjects
taking part in the fisheries held on the Ceylon side, the suzerain right to one day’s fishing | Valy or Wally) being reserved
at Anpu by the Dutch Government as one of its sources of revenue.

4,

14

‘ colander No. 1, all but the very finest pearls fell through into No. 2, and most of them
“passed into Nos. 38, 4 and 5; whilst the smallest of all, the seeds were strained off
‘* into the receptacle at the bottom. When all had staid in their proper colanders, they
‘s were classified aud valued accordingly. The largest, or those of the first class, were
‘the most valuable, and it is expressly stated in the letter from which this informa-
‘* tion is extracted that the value of any given pearl was appraised almost exclusively
‘with reference to its size, and was held to be affected but little by its shape and
“lustre. The valuation over, the Dutch generally bought the finest pearls. They
‘considered that they had a right of pre-emption. At the same time they did not
“compel individuals to sell, if unwilling. All the pearls taken on the first day
“belonged by express reservation to the King or to the Setupati according as the
‘place of their taking lay off the coasts of the one or the other. The Dutch did notas
*“was often asserted, claim the pearls taken on the second day. They had other and
‘“‘more certain modes of making profit, of which the very best was to bring plenty of
‘“‘ cash into a market where cash was not very plentiful, and so enable themselves to
‘* purchase at very easy prices. The amount of oysters found in different years varied
‘infinitely. Some years the divers had only to pick up as fast as they were able,
‘“‘and as long as they could keep under water; in others they could only find a few
“here and there. In 1700 the testing was most encouraging, and an unusually large
‘‘number of boat-owners took out licenses to fish ; but the season proved most dis-
“astrous. Only a few thousands were taken on the first day by all the divers together,
“and a day or two afterwards not a single oyster could be found. It was supposed
“by many that strong under-currents had suddenly set in owing to some unknown
‘“cause. Whatever the cause the results of the failure were most ruinous. Several
“merchants had advanced large sums of money to the boat-owners on speculation,
‘‘ which were, of course, lost. The boat-owners had in like mannér advanced money
‘*to the divers and others, and they also lost their money.” *

The fishery of 1708 appears the next that was held, and one that gave a satis-
factory return, At this fishery 398 free stones were allowed as follows :—

“‘ List of free stones according to ancient customs.
963 to the Naick of Madura—4 Xtian, 925 Moorish
60 to Theuver—60 Moorish.
10 to Head Moorman of Cailpatnam—5 Xtian, 5 Moorish.
185 to the Pattangatyns of this coast—all Xtian stones.
30 to those of Mannar.
13 to those of Jaffnapatam.
34 lost by 4 Moors who died in the fishery.

398 Stones free, valued at Pards (Pardaos) . . . . 3,591.”

—~_—_

The 185 stones given to the Pattangatyns or headmen of the Parawas was in the
nature of remuneration to these men for assistance in inspecting the banks, in
guarding any oyster banks discovered, in recruiting divers and in superintending
operations during the course of the fishery. All these stomes are specifically termed
‘“‘ Christian stones’, meaning that the divers using them were Christians (Parawas),
whereas those allowed to the Nayak and Teuver (Setupati of Ramnad) were all
Moorish, save for four Christians. The explanation of this division is that the two
great Muhammadan settlements, Kayalpattanam and Kilakarai were situated respect-
ively in the territories of the Nayak and the Setupati, whereas the sovereignty over

the Christian Parawas was vested expressly, first in the Portuguese and then by
conquest in the Dutch.f

* Thurston, E.
Madras, 1894.

+ The employment of native headmen in the examination of the Pear] banks and in the management of fisheries and
their rewuneratien by the grant of similar privileges to the above was continued by the Ceylon Government up to 1863.
Latterly there were but five employed, namely the Adigar of Mannar, the Maniagar of Karaiyur, two Adapannars and a
Pattankoddi. The r-muneration was five stones (the equivalent of one boat) to the Adigar, two to the Maniagar and one
apiece to the other headmen. Sir William Twynam ‘Report on the Ceylon Pearl Fisheries, 1900) states that they
generally sold their privileges at the beginning of a fishery. The Adigar of Mannar had the last privilege in 1863.
Regarding the quality of the assistance they rendered Sir William Twynam remarks “I found them highly intelligent
and well-informed men, well acquainted with the Pearl banks and matters connected with the fisheries. ‘hey helped
Mr. Vane and Captain Pritchard to carry on the fisheries in 1856, 1856, 1857, 1858, 1859 and 1860 and the Adigar of
Mannar rendered me very valuable service during the fishery of 1863.’’? With this favourable estimate I heartily coin-
cide both in regard to the present Adigar of Musali and the present representatives of the fishing and diving communities
on the Indian coast; a tactful and sympathetic attitude and the avoidance of any act or speech likely to arouse their

Frejudices soon win their confidence and in the present condition of the management of the Indian Bank the assistanos
they can cender ix uot in any way to be despised, ;

‘¢ Pearl and Chank Fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar’’, Madras Museum Bulletin, No. 1, page 9,

15

The financial account of this fishery which has fortunately survived the vicissi-
tudes of time is dated 24th May 1708 and is as follows :—

* Turicorin, 24th May 1708.

Tn this fishery the whole number of stones employed was 000 43213
P’ps
Namely, 2,380 Xtian at 7 pardaws each of
10 fanams non A AR ane ig BAG 16,660
1,5514 Moorish at 12 pardaws each of 10 fanams 18,618
390 Heathen at 95 pardaws each of 10 fanams aon 3,705
Pards. uae 38,988
Deduct 398 free stones at above value ... 3,591 398
Pards. ... 35,892 Sts. 3,9234

—_ —_ ——- —

About... £1.106,176

= £9,000

From this statement we learn that the total of stones employed reached the
astonishingly large number of 4,3214, considerably more than the number of divers
who attended the Ceylon Fishery of 1903, *a fishery which gave the prodigious
total of 41,169,637 fished oysters and a Government gross revenue of Rs, 8,30,000.

Are we to infer that this Tuticorin Fishery of 1708 although yielding but £9,000
(Rs. 1,35,000 at the present exchange) to the Government was not so productive of
oysters as the Ceylon one instanced ? In the absence of other particulars we have no
means of judging with certainty but as the average price per stone is some 9 pardaos,
each equal to about four guineas, and as this sum represents the license to fish accorded
to a diver for the whole period of the fishery we may infer with some degree of
probability from the large number of men engaged that the total catch may have been
equally large. Under the conditions that rule at the present day, Government obtains
a greater profit upon the fisheries, receiving two-thirds of the entire catch ; hence the
receipts from the sale of the right to fish probably made the fishery much more profit-
able to the subject in the early days of Iutch rule and acknowledged receipts of
106,176 (Rs. 1,35,000) would represent a fishery on a scale of magnitude comparing
most favourably with the fisheries held during the last half of the 1Y¥th century.

The proportions of divers supplied from the three religions then prevalent is also
shown by this account, namely—

2,380 Christians (Parawas).
1,501 Moormen.
390 ‘‘ Heathen ”’, 2.e., Hindus.

These 390 Hindu divers did not represent a remnant of Parawas remaining
unconverted to Roman Catholocism, but belonged to the Kadeiyar caste of lime
gatherers and burners of Rameswarem and the neighbourhood from which caste the
ranks of the divers are in part recruited at the present day.

So far as I can ascertain no divers practising the Hindu religion have attended
any pearl fisheries during the last half century, while the relative proportionate
strength of Christians and Muhammadans has gradually tended to the preponderance
of the latter, so that at reéent fisheries the Muhammadans outnumber the Christians,
an increase due partly to larger families reared by the latter and to the more regular
and abstemious lives they lead.

In my report on the Ceylon fishery of 1904 I noted the marked superiority of
Muhammadan over Christian divers in the number of seconds they remain under water
and in the greater number of oysters collected per dive—a superiority that makes the
work of the former more productive and valuable. This appears to have been recog-
nised in a very practical manner in the old fisheries we are now considering, as we see

* The total of divers who attended the Ceylon Pearl Fishery of 1903, was 3,922.
+ Many of this caste are now converted to Roman Catholicism, and it is from this division of the caste that the
present supply of Kadeiyar divers is drawn.

16

from the account given above that the Moorish stones sold for 5 pardaos more than

those of the Christians, the rate of market valuation being as. 12 to 7. Strangely
enough the Hindu stones occupied an intermediate value, being 9% parddos per stone.*

At the Ceylon fishery of 1694, a similar disparity is noticeable there being then
sold :—
1,290 Christian stones at 62 Rixdollars.
204 Gentoo (Hindu) at 9 do.
1,268 Moorish ,, at1l3 do.

In the accounts of this last fishery, I notice an entry of ‘13% ammonams of
concealed arrack found in the bushes and out of the way places, sold at 6 Rixdollars
the ammona = 825 kixdollars,” from which I fear we have to infer that the Parawas
were as greatly addicted to this indulgence 200 years ago as they are now !

No further fishery appears to have taken place between 1708 and the date of the
relinquishment of the Governorship of Ceylon by Baron Van Imhoff in 1740.

Such a lengthy intermittence in productiveness had been a source of continual
regret to his predecessors, so that when Van Imholf wrote his valedictory memoir in
1740 for the information and guidance of his successor, he urged a departure from the
policy of conducting the fishery in aumany or directly on behalf of Government.
Under such conditions the Government had made its profit by the sale of the right to
use diving stones at the fishery (amounting virtually to the taxation of the divers
employed) and of the sundry duties levied in the fishing camp (‘‘ Exchange,” Bazaar
and cloths).

This memoir is perhaps the most valuable and statesmanlike administrative record
left by any Dutch Governor. Therefore it is well if I give verbatim the portion
relating to the condition of the Pearl Banks at this time and to the alternative policy
of administration advocated here for the first time.

Extract from the Memoir of His Laxcellencey G. W. Baron Van Imhoff on his departure
Strom the Government of Ceylon, left for the instruction of his suceessor, His
Excellency William Maurits Bruynink.

“The Aripo and Tutucoryn Pearl Fisheries are certainly to be reckoned among
‘the sourees of produce to this island or rather of revenue for the profit which the
‘* Company derives from the holding of a fishery must rather be classed under the latter
“head than under the former, as it consists in different duties which are paid for diving
‘“‘those banks, and divers sums paid for the stones used in catching the oysters, and
‘some part in oysters themselves paid as taxes, which are sold when the fishery is at
‘‘an end; duties are also paid on what is called the exchange, and on cloths which are
“brought to the bazaar, but the Company does not in fact obtain any pearls, nor is
“there even a chance for the Company to purchase any pearls there, although the
“highest authorities have so often endeavoured to do so, for at the fishery pearls are
“sold at so high a price that the Moors are cunning enough to rub up even old pearls
““and to bring them there for sale, with a certainty of taking in the unwary, and
‘¢ deriving more profit from it.

‘* But it is not so much a matter of concern whether the fishery is to be called a
“source of revenue or of produce, as whether it can in reality be looked upon as a
** source of advantage and profit derived from Ceylon, or whether it is more glitter than
“ old, as many things are which belong to the Company, which shine uncommonly,
‘‘ but bave no real substance. This question is neither #novel nor unfounded one,
“and to properly answer it, we must weigh against the advantages which we have just
“ detailed, the inconveniences, discomforts, noise, expenses, the risks of the Commission-
‘ers, the employment of the Militia, the consumption of provisions, the dangers of
‘“ ships, ete.; we must also mention the hazards run by a few hundred men sent to keep
‘“‘ immense erowds in order, and their exposure to sickness and death as well after the
“fishery as during its continuance from the stench of the oysters; the price of provi-
‘“sions 1s also enormously increased ; the Company’s trade in cloth is discontinued for
‘‘a long time from the prevalence of smuggling which is occasioned by the immense
“numbers of persous resorting to those parts of the island; we may also add that

© Ante,

AY)

“ pepper is smuggled away, as well as arecanuts, although it would be thought that
“a multitude of more than 100,000 persons who consume these nuts for the space of
‘two or three months should give some profit, yet the Company draws nothing from
“it. If therefore all these matters be weighed, one against the other, it must be
“ decided, as I, for my part, maintain, that unless the fishery be indeed a full and
“ opulent one, all others must be prejudicial to the Company’s interests ; and it were
‘really desirable that no such fisheries should take place, but that there should be
“an annual rent for the diving of the banks, as now takes place with regard to the
“* chanks, with a limited number of persons and of boats; or in some other convenient
‘way that a mode should be devised to acquire for the Company the profit which
“they should derive from the fisheries, both here and on the opposite coast, as Lords
‘of the country, without the holding of any public fishery. The bad condition of
“the pearl-banks on both sides the coast has lasted for some years, and there is now
‘‘no prospect of an early fishery ; yet this cannot be attributed to any disorder in the
“country any more than the want of purchasers for our Madura cloths. This is mere
‘* chance and experience has shown that the banks have lain fallow for a much longer
“time than has as yet been the case on this occasion, and it is useless therefore to
“seek for the causes of things which are neither uncommon nor unheard of. I only
‘mention this eursorily, and to prove that the interest of the Company requires that
‘an examination of the banks should take place every two years, if not every year,
““ which indeed is not absolutely necessary, and the expense may therefore be spared ;
“yet from time to time or say every two years, an investigation should take place.

‘¢ As far as the inspection of the Aripo banks is concerned, Tutucoryn boats should
“be employed, as their Honors recommended in a recent despatch, a Dissave from
‘‘ Jaffnapatam should also be present to see that no neglect takes place, and to summon
‘‘ the boats from the opposite coast, and to take all necessary precautions when appear-
“ances prove favourable, in order to ensure a good result ; for the Company has been
“ shamefully treated in this respect since the fishery of 1732. Indeed there are many
‘‘natives who pretend to give reasons for the failure of the banks, and who say that
“ the multitude of persons forced there against their will have ruined the banks, whilst
‘‘ others looked to their own profit too much, and also that the divers have not spared
“the young oysters, and that this accounts for the nakedness of the banks-which have
“not yet recovered from their last pillaging. All thisis as probable as the pretexts of
“the country being under a spell, but to end this matter we will pray God that the
‘‘Tsland may never again suffer losses such as it now sustains from one cause or the
“¢ other.”

Four years after the date of this memoir, namely in 1744, Baron Van Imhoff
became Governor-General of the Netherlands Indies and immediately called attention
to his Ceylon memoir. He desired to be informed whether it would not be advisable
to discontinue the open fisheries and preferable to rent them out to a single individual.
Van Gollenesse, the new Governor of Ceylon, in a closely-reasoned reply, * meets and
refutes the objections likely to be raised to this change and strongly advocates an
alteration in the method of conducting the fisheries, which was thereupon sanctioned.

Accordingly the fishery which took place in 1746 was conducted on this new
footing: all free boats and stones were abolished, for, as the Governor states, these
privileges were merely conceded to the Nayak and the Setupati because the greater
number of the dhonies and people required at a publie fishery came out of their
territory, and these would not be necessary if the diving took place with a limited
number of persons. All ,privileges were therefore withdrawn and the following
instructions were given to the Commissioners of the Pearl Fishery by Governor Van
Gollenesse :—

“ Tf it should happen (which is however improbable) that the Nabob or Theuver
“‘should send their Ambassadors to be present at this Fishery, and to take care of
“ their pretended rights, they are not to be allowed to land, but some armed boats well
“filled with men and ammunition must be sent to meet them, and they must first be
‘warned in a friendly way to depart, and if this be ineffectual, the matter must be
“treated more seriously, and you must order the Commanders of our boats that they

* See Appendix D, pages 90-92,

18

‘are by no means to permit any armed foreign boats of a suspicious kind to come
“‘ within range of their shot, and if warning given does not turn them away, they must
“fire on them at once.”

1747. This year the unproductive cycle that had prevailed so long on the
Tuticorin side was broken, the fishery being rented out for 60,000 florins (£5,000).

The change of system now introduced involved the abolition of the privilege of
free or untaxed divers hitherto granted to the native rulers of Madura and Ramnad,
whose dominions had now merged in those of the Nawab of the Carnatic who had
dispossessed the last of the Nayak dynasty of Madura in 1736. THe, a more powerful
ruler than the Nayak, did not acquiesce without stout opposition and at the 1747
fishery it had been thought wise to permit the renter of the fishery to give 30 free
divers to the Nawab for which concession the renter received a proportionate redue-
tion in the stipulated price of his rent.

Two other fisheries, also rented out, took place in the two next succeeding years.
The rental of that of 1748 amounted to 114,720 florins (£9,560), while that of 1749
was florins 63,600 (£5,500).

At the former, 35 free divers were again allowed to the Carnatic overlord, much
against the Dutch Company’s will however, for we read in the secret instructions

sent to the ‘‘ Company’s Commissioners in the rented fishery on the coast of Madura”
before the fishery of 1749 :—

‘“‘ We think it necessary to inform you also that as the Armane may cause much
‘“‘injury to our defenceless Linen Factories, we granted the Nabob, on his urgent
‘“yequest, 35 divers in the two last fisheries, but Their Excellencies (the Government ot
‘“‘ Batavia) did not approve of this concession, and therefore, in case His Envoys should
“aoain claim this grant from you, you must endeavour to reduce the number to 17 or
“18 divers, showing that even this will give greater profit than the 963 which the
‘“Nabob had formerly in an open fishery, when the whole number of stones amounted
“+o several thousands. .

‘“‘ But if you cannot effect this, and if you see any risk for the Company’s becom-
‘¢ing embroiled with the Regent by a pertinaccous refusal, you will then be empowered
“to grant 30 or 35 divers, but it must appear to be done without our knowledge, and
‘on your own private authority.

“ But if the Catta Theuver, or any other native chief, should request a similar
“ concession, you must refuse it flatly.”

Between 1749 and 1784 I can trace no record of any further Pearl fishery off
the Tuticorin coast save the suggestion of one in 1771 furnished by the existence of
a set of “‘ Conditions of a rent of the Tutucoreen Fishery of 1771”. Article XXX
of these conditions reads—

‘Lastly the renter of the fishery must admit 20 dhonies of the Armanie or
“Regent of Madura, with 963 stones and two dhonies on the part of the Catte
“‘Theuvers *, manned in the same manner as the Renter’s dhonies, which 22 dhonies,
“together with 180 of the renters, shall fish throughout the whole fishery without
‘‘the renters being permitted to make any demand on that account.” .

Of the fishery of 1784, the only particulars I have (furnished by the Madras
Government) are that it was held on the Tolayiram Par, giving to the Company,
which fished it departmentally, a gross revenue of 20,000 cully chucrums. This at
Rs. 2-1-11$ per cully chucrum gives a return in rupees of Ks. 42,447-14-S.

This long series of blank years extending, with the*doubtful exception above
mentioned, over a period of thirty-five years, may have been due up to 1768 to
imperfect inspection or to natural causes or to a combination of the two, but the
intermittence thereafter arose in the main from the reluctance of the Dutch to agree
to the pressing demands of the Nawab of the Carnatic to participate upon exorbi-
tant conditions in the profits arising from the fisheries both on the Ceylon and the

* The Catte Theuvers, the Setupati Rajas of Ramnad, made a treaty with the Dutch in 1767, whereby in exchange
for the possession of Pamban Pass and the surrender to the Dutch of the right to levy dues on shipping passing there—
throngh, the Dutch agreed to grant the Setupati two free diving boats at all the future pearl fisheries held on the banks
lying off the coast of Madura, or ‘under the territory of Tutucoryn together with the privilege to purchase from the
}utch Government in eyery fishery held on the Ceylon side five boats at the same price as the renter should contract.”’

19

Indian Banks, As already mentioned, at the Ceylon Fishery held at Aripu in 1768
violent disputes occurred with the Nawab’s envoys who went to the fishery attended
by a large body of armed sepoys and tried to carry matters with a high hand.

The Dutch loth, with their usual caution and fear for the interruption of their
cloth monopoly in Madura, to bring matters to a crisis, preferred to let the pearl
fisheries remain virtually in abeyance till a settlement was effected on equitable terms—
terms which meant the curtailment if possible of the Nawab’s pretensions.

It was not till 1786 that the Dutch, pressed by the English Government in
Madras (to whom the Nawab had appealed as his ally and virtual suzerain) to effect a
settlement of the long-standing dispute, made provisional terms with the Nawab.*
By these the Nawab obtained much greater advantage than had been contemplated
twenty years previously, due to the dwindling power of the Dutch and their growing
fear of the rapid extension of the military power and commercial supremacy of the
English East India Company.

The chief articles of the agreement affecting the Pearl fisheries were that the
Nawab should be granted one-half of the profits arising from fisheries off the Madura
coast and have 36 free dhonies at any fisheries held on the Ceylon side, privileges
allowed in return for a confirmation of the Dutch trading monopoly in Madura cloth—
ever one of the most lucrative sources of revenue to the Dutch Company.

The treaty, however, was never fully ratified, but by the advice of the English
Governor of Madras its terms were allowed to govern the fisheries of 1787 and 1792,
the profits therefrom being accordingly shared equally by the Circar or Government
of the Carnatic (7.e., the Nawab) and the Dutch Company.

The fishery of 1787 took place on the Tolayiram Par and gave a gross revenue
of Rs. 63,000: that of 1792 upon the Uti, Uduruvi, Kilati and Attuveiarpagom
Pars, which lie inshore of Tolayiram Par; it yielded Rs. 42,525 to the joint
Governments.

Except with regard to the conduct of these two fisheries, the treaty never came
into force, the Madras Government steadily refusing its consent because of the
objectionable clause relating to the cloth monopoly. In this unsettled condition,
marked by the continual interchange of despatches between Colombo and Madras,
matters remained till the Dutch dominion of the Pearl Banks on both sides passed to
the British in 1796.

THe Peart BANKS UNDER THE BRITISH.

Not long after the acquisition of the Pearl Banks by the British, the districts
bordering the coast in this region and now known as that of Tinnevelly in the south
and Madura in the north, passed to the British from the Carnatic Nawab. Thus the
‘ Lords of the Pearl Fishery ” acquired sovereign rights over the districts supplying
the whole body of divers and by their own power could ensure safe conducts trom
Madura, Ramnad, Bombay, and Madras to the dealers in pearls whose attendance is
necessary to the success of any fishery. The dues levied for assistance by local
potentates, the source of constant anxiety and loss to the Portuguese and the Dutch,
were brought to an end and for the last half century we hear of no privileges allowed
save a few on a reduced scale to the headman of the Parawas. It is noteworthy to
observe that this system of remuneration by fishery privileges of which the last
remaining trace was abrogated in Ceylon in 1863, still lingers in the management of
the Indian banks, the headman of the Parawas having the right to employ a limited
and specified number of “free” boats at each fishery in return for help [rendered
during the inspection of the banks and at the fisheries when held.

This hereditary chief or Jati Talaivant+ of the Parawas, like many of the
descendants of natives of Ceylon who gave assistance to the Portuguese, bears the
honorific prefix of “‘ Don”’, while the name of the present holder of the Chieftainship—
Gabriel de Cruz Lazarus Motha Vas—further indicates the intimacy of his family’s
connection with Portuguese rule.

* Two years later a definite treaty on the same lines was signed by the Dutch.
F Literally “Head of the Caste’. His full title is Jati ‘Lalaivamore—the suffix ‘‘more’’ being, I believe,
honorific.

20

His duties consist in accompanying the Inspector on his periodical visits to the
banks—a duty formerly performed directly by the headmen themselves,—in furnishing
guards to the banks to be fished, in supplying Government with information of any
accidental finds of oysters by fishermen and in acting as intermediary between the
Government and his caste with a view, by the exercise of his influence, to ensure the
attendance at a fishery of an adequate supply of boats and divers.

In 1889 the Madras Government recorded its appreciation of the assistance
rendered by the Jati Talaivan and “directed that his privilege of being allowed the
take of two boats be continued”.* Hach boat is understood to carry 10 divers.

Subsequently, in 1891, the Madras Government while confirming the general
principle of privilege remuneration to the headman named, adopted the more satis-
factory regulation of placing the extent of the remuneration upon the basis of a slid-
ing scale, allowing him but one boat when the Government boats numbered 30 or
less, two for 51 to 60 boats, three for 61 to 90 boats employed and so on in this
ratio.

The value of the Jati Talaivan’s two privilege boats in the 1890 fishery was
Rs. 1,424, in that of 1900 only Rs. 872.

During the 100 years ending 1900 there appear to have been the following
twelve fisheries.

* Proceediags of ‘the Board of Revenue, Madras, 'No. 702, 1889. The {amount which this privilege realized to thig
headman at the 1889 fishery was Rs. 7,620.

21

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22

The oysters are at the present day fished on Government account and according
to the arrangements in force at the last three fisheries the Government claims two-
thirds of the total catch, selling its share at auction. The remaining third is the
remuneration allowed to the divers and boat owners.

In the following table I list and contrast all the fisheries of which I can find
record on the Tuticorin and Ceylon sides, respectively, of the Gulf of Mannar :—-

Particulars of Pearl Fisheries from 1658 to 1904.

Off Madura coast. \ Off Ceylon coast.
Year of Government - Year of Government
fishery. proceeds. Remarka: fishery. proceeds. Remarks.
Sees ees
1663 Fl. 18,000 oe Boon ee sees «sisle
40 aistels neler 1666 4,913 15 11 | Fished on Government

account giving net profit
as shown.

a0 6000 visiele 1667 6,160 7 5 Do.

3669 ddon I can find no particulars oe sles.
1691 . of profits realized. O¢ as00

5 sen eon 1694 6,264 16 1 Do.

a aes Se 1695 6,177 3 9 Do.

aq vee eces 1696 6,331 18 4 Do.

e ee ee 1697 6,453 0 0 Do,

1700 Very meagre’ .. | A disastrous 3-days’ fishery. 50 cone
1708 £9,000 ., [= te 1,06,176 gross pro- 1708 8,848 0 0 Do.
ceeds,

ee 9000 cece 1732 Not ascertainable. | An unproductive fishery.

ae eeee c060 1746 4,766 18 4* | Fishery rented out ta

adventurers.
( Fide Gover-
nor Sche
reuder’s
| Memoir
1747 | £5,000 .. ..|= Fl. 60,000] Of 1761) i747 21,400 0 0 Do.
1748 £9,560 .. ee | = FI. 1,14,720¢ Fea no's 1748 38,580 0 0 Do.
1749 £5,300 .. «|= Fl. 63,600 |} akin 1749 68,375 0 0 Do.
| of Ribe-
yro’s :
“cc Cey-
lon.”’ J}

ue 5009 p60p 1750 5,940 0 0 | Fishery of 6 days only.

we eee eens 1753 6,360 0 O | HKishery rented out.

els Good cose 1754 1,469 0 0 Do.

a ahi No fisheries held between 1768 Not ascertainable. | Very unsuccessful on
1768 and 1784 owing to account of bad weather.
disputes with the Nawab

RS. of the Carnatic.
1784 42,477 Gross | = 20,000 cully chucrums. 50 oats ee
Fished departmentally.
Rent received in equal
1787 63,000 a shares by the J)utch ac Gaitte AG
1792 42,525 Ai and the Nawab of the 60 oeoe B65
Carnatic.

te o006 oes 1796 37,096 15 0 | Fishery rented out.

ee oo00 eeee 1797 123,982 10 0 Do.

ae ea} ate 1798 142,780 10 0 Do.

OG 0000 9500 1799 23,319 7 6 | Net proceeds—fished on

Rs. Government account.
6c po00 aiehats 1801 1,50, 227 Gross proceeds—fisbed on
Government account.
58 et eae _ 1803 1,63,154 Do.
Oo po00 9200 1804 7,20,202 Gross procecds.
1805 39,109 Gross proceeds... oe an tee oood
50 o000 Bo00 1806 4,12,842 Gross proceeds.
1807 2,91,539 Gross proceeds oe ee G6 aes any:
ar 9000 erelere 1808 8,42,577 Gross proceeds.
1810 2,388,897 Gross proceeds ., oo 1809 2,72,463 Do.
00 Bon esee 1814 10,651,876 Do.
1815 Nil. An unsuccessful fishery, 1815 : 5,842 Do.
giving no revenue.
06 sees g000 1816 9,266 - 106;
1818 1,69, 708 aoe O° Oo00 p000
ae Riatets! ao0o 1820 30,410 Gross proceeds.
1822 1,565,693 Gross proceeds 50 00 es Gabo Lene
1828 70,127 Do. 00 oe 1828 305,234 Gross proceeds.

* According to Schreuder; £12,000 according to Lee (Ribeyro).

28

Particulars of Pearl Fisheries fram 1658 to 1904—cont.

Off Madura Coast. Off Ceylon Coast.
Year of Government Year of Government
fishery. proceeds. TRRMIEEURE fishery. proceeds. Bemurke.
Rs. RS.
ae SHee aieets 1829 3,82,737 Gross proceeds.
1830 1,01,639 Gross proceeds a do 1830 2,22 564 Do.
= eee Jas 1831 2,93,366 Do.
1832 45,810 Do.
1833 3,20,896 Do.
aati 1835 4,03,460 Do
a 1836 2,54,935 Do
eee 1837 1,06,312 Do
1855 1,09,220 Do
1857 2,03, 633 Do
1858 2,41,200 Do
x aan cea 1859 4,82, 159 Do
sane \ 2,50,276 Gross proceeds 00 { yee Pee DD
1862 1,29,003 Do. ee S065 0060
ae waters aries 1863 5,10,178 Gross proceeds,
aoe asen 1874 1,01,199 0
36 1877 1,89,011 Do
1879 95,694 Do
1880 2,00, 152 Do.
1881 5,99,533 Do,
1884 17,153 Do
1887 3,96,094 Do.
An dcac ite 1888 8, 04,247 Do.
1889 1,89,984 Gross proceeds aie ae 1889 4,98,377 Do
1890 25,061 Do. aC a 1890 3,13,177 Do
ee ssc 5060 1891 9,63,748 Do
1900 19,461 Gross proceeds be 9000 flee
= swex S000 1903 8,29,348 Gross proceeds.
= sOn15 BUDO 1904 10,65,752 Do.
Twenty-four fisheries within 246 years. Fifty-eight fisheries within 246 years.

Wote.—The particulars regarding the Ceylon fisheries prior to 1801 are taken from the appendix to Lee’s trans-
lation of Ribeyro’s ‘‘ History of Ceylon,’’ Colombo, 1847. The later figures are from official returns furnished to me by
the Government of Ceylon.

The list of fisheries held on the Ceylon side is, I believe, exhaustive ; possibly
two or three may be omitted from the enumeration of those upon the Indian coast.
As it stands we have a total of twenty-four fisheries recorded from the latter locality
as against 58 from the former during the period of 246 years from 1658 to 1904.

Comparing the two lists a noteworthy feature is that many of the fisheries held
on the Tuticorin banks coincide with blank years on the Ceylon banks.

Thus out of all the Indian fisheries those of 1663, 1669, 1691, 1700, 1784, 1787,
1792, 1805, 1807, 1810, 1818, 1822, 1861, 1862 and 1900, fifteen out of the total
of twenty-four, were years in which no fishery took place on the Ceylon side.

Again this fact may be correlated to two others—

(a) that usually any particular Indian fishery was preceded at a distance of
from two to three years by a Ceylon fishery and

(4) that in the same way each Indian fishery was followed at a similar
interval by one on the Ceylon banks.

Thus the Indian fisheries of— were preceded respectively by Ceylon fisheries
held in—
1659 1666, 1667.
1700 1695—1697.
1747—1749 1746.
1805 1799, 1803 and 1804.
1807 1804, 1806.
1810 1806, 1808.
1815 1809, 1814.
1818 1814—1816.
1822 1820.
1830 1828, 1829.
1360—1862 1857—1860.

1889, 1890 1884, 1887.

24

while in the same way the Indian fisheries{ were followed respectively by Ceylon fisheries
of— in—

1663 1666, 1667.

1691 1694—1697.
1747—1749 1750, 1753 and 1754.
1792 1796.

1805 1806, 1808.

1807 and 1810 1809, 1814.

1815 1816, 1820,

1818 1820.

1°22 1828.

1828 1829—1833.

1330 1831—18383 and 1835.
1860 —1862 1863.

1900 1903, 1904,

Such regularity of alternative succession extending over 75 per cent. of the
fisheries held on the Indian side appears to be more than a mere coineidence and lends
weight to sn opinion that has gradually been taking shape and developing in my
mind that the beds on the opposite sides of the Gulf confer reciprocal benefits upon
one another and that the Ceylon banks are frequently replenished from those off the
Madura coast and, conversely, that the latter obtain most of their deposits of spat from
the Ceylon side.

The following table furnishes the valuation particulars of the last sample of
oysters lifted from a Tuticorin bank ;—

Statement of the valuation and produce of 8,500 oysters lifted from the Teradipulipiditta
Par wm October 1899.

E Weight. Total.
: 3 oe
Desoription. ey H i ; 2 a Total yalae. | Per cheyn.| Per kalanji.
cS 3 = ot rg fal aot
q a) 3S EP = zp 3
= a — ea
ro) q 3 a} q 3 qQ
aS} = 3 3 Gi 3 3
eal A e hs a ms] =)
RS. A. P. |STAR PGDS.| STAR PGDS,
Ani a0 99 00 o0 50 1} sao ie Xe 70 0 80 ae
AM OMe) Gea) 8
Anatari a0 90 50 va 3 2 a
Kuruwal Be ate et nh ANNO. Dili aae § i 714 0 ip 60
Kalippu a ie ao 20 i \ 84, 2 a j 5
Bediswalippas ee) lowe eh (leeo 1 | 820 i Hyp ee OO 20 .
Pisal ne mereeet nl ween Ws eats We 1k 14 0 6 0 1a
100
Vadivu .. 50 60 200 3 3 31 8 0 60
400
600
GM G58 soho) ts 800 63 6} 912 0 gi" 7
i 1,000
Masitul 00 6f 63 214 0
Shell pearls 65 65 012 0
Total 60 Oo a5 o0 00 00 90 on 86 2 0
Average per 1,000 oysters .. 50 00 50 oe ats es 90 10 2 90

25

II.

NOTE ON THE TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BANKS.

The charted pearl banks along the Indian Coast of the Gulf of Mannar represent
all those patches of rocky ground lying within the 10-fathom line known to the
fishermen of that coast. Taken as a whole they deserve the name of pearl banks
only so far as being so potentially. The number of these banks which have been
known to bear mature oysters during the past century is limited to 23 at most, and

except in the case of nine, none of them has been fished more than once in this long

period. These potential pearl banks extend from Cape Comorin to Raméswaram
Island at the extreme head of the Gulf, a distance of over 100 miles. They consist of
whatever rocky outcrops there are upon the surface of the wide sub-marine plateau
which fringes the whole extent of this coast. This pearl bank plateau is widest in
the south, in the neighbourhood of Cape Comorin, gradually narrowing as we proceed
northwards. In the south it shelves to the 100-fathom line at an easy gradient, and
everywhere the width of the plateau is considerably greater than anywhere in the
pearl bank region on the Ceylon side.

The pars, as these banks are termed locally, may be arranged in three divisions :
—the Northern or Kilakarai, extending from Adam’s bridge to Vaipar ; the Central or
Tuticorin, from Vaipar to the latitude of Manapad; and the Southern or Comorin
from thence southwards to Cape Comorin.

The Central division is by far the most important; indeed so far as recent
historical evidence goes the banks of this division are the only productive ones.

Many are extremely small; some have been described as having an area little
greater than that ofan ordinary sized room, and as they owe their separate entities
to the detailed locai knowledge of fishermen engaged not in pearling but in ordinary
fishing it will conduce greatly to simplify the pearl bank management if, in future,
the majority of these separate banks instead of being listed individually, be linked
together into groups, the members of each group occupying adjacent positions and
haying similar physical and biological characteristics ; some have characters rendering
them entirely unsuited to the maturing of oysters and these may be deleted eventually
once and for all.

The names of these banks arranged in order from north to south and classified
into groups consonant with their relative geographical position and with their
identity of physical and biological characteristics are as follows :—

A.—WNorthern or Kalakarai Division.

Composed of.

. PAmban Karai Par.

Pamban Velangu Par.

Musal Tivu Par,

Solaka Karai Par.

Kilakarai Vellai Malai Velangu Par.

. Vellai Malai Karai Par.

. Anna Par.

Nalla Tanni Tivu Par.

. Uppu Tanni Tivyu Par.
10. Kumulam Par.

We Vembar Group oe see eee itil. Vembar Periya Par.

I. Pémban Group...
II. Musal Tiyu Group ae oes

Ill. Kilakarai Group... suc of

IY. Tanni Tiyu Group

{9 COND OUR Co pO

B.—Central or Tuticorin Division.

VI. Outer Vaipar Group ba ... 12. Vaipar Periya Par.
(13. Karai Par.
| 14. Devi Par.

VII. Inner Vaipar Group ee ,..2 15. Pernandu Par.

| 16. Padutta Marikan Par.
(17. Padutta Marikan Tundu Par.

7

26

B..— Central or Tuticorin Division—cont.

Tuticorin Kuda Par.
Cruxian Par.

Cruxian ‘l'undu Par.
Vantivu Arupagam Par.
Nagara Par.

Utti Par.

Uduruyi Par.

Kilati Par.

Attuvai Arupagam Par.

“Attonpatu Par.

Pasi Par.

. Pattarai Par.

Kutadiar Par.
Tolayiram Par.
Vada Onpatu Par.

. Saith Onpatu Par.

Puli Pondu Par.

. Kanna Poli Pundu Par.

Kanna Tivu Arupagam Par, and perhaps
'Nundu Par.
Nenjurichchan Par.

. Par Kundanjan Par.
. Mela Onpatu Par.

Pinnacoil Seltan Par.
Sandamaram Piditta Par.
Trai ‘Tivu Kudamuttu Par.

39a. Nadu Kudamuttu Par.

Kudamuttu Par.

. Rajavukku Sippi Sotichcha Par.
. Saith Kudamutta Par.

Kovil Piditta Pattu Par.

. Sankuraiya Pattu Par.
. Nillan Kallu Par.
. Sattu Kuraiya Pattu Par.

Kadeiyan Par.

. Kanawa Par.
. Putu Par.

Naduvu Malai Piditta Par.

. Periya Malai Piditta Par.

Karai Karawal Par.
Velaneu Karuwal Par.
Odakarai Par.

Chodi Par.

Taondu Par.

Trichendur Puntoddam Par.
Sandamacoil Piditta Par.
Teradi Piditta Par.

Semman Path Par.

Surukku Onpatu Par.

O.——Southern or Comorin Division.

18.
VII. Croxian Group ean
21.
(22.
| 23.
= : 124.
IX. Utti Group v9 Q5,
| 26.
27.
= : 28.
X. Pasi Par Group ots { 28a
se sh at (29.
XI. Tolayiram Par “4 30.
iil
XII. Puli Pundu Group ce oe
B2A
XIII. Kanna Tiyu Group {om
36.
XIV. Nenjmichchan Group of 38
368
(37.
| 38.
39.
XV. Inner Kudamuttu Group 4 39a
4d,
| 41a
| 413
40.
ae = ; 40a
XVI. Outer Kudamuttu Group =) 40R
: 40¢
43.
XVII. Kadeiyan Group 5 43.8
43B
+ 42.
= ) 42a
XVII. Karuwal Par 4 Ee
45.
XIX. Odakarai Group ... 48.
XX. Chodi Group 50 : 49,
XXI. Tundu Par Group ... = 4O.
(47.
| 50.
XXII. Manapad Grou noo ile
i Pp
| 52.
L53.
XXIII. Manapad Periya Par.

The remainder of the Southern banks cannot at present be grouped, as their
positions are not marked on the Inspection Chart, and as I have had no opportunity
to examine them. Their names will be found in the list on page 107 numbered from
55 onwards. ; ;

CENTRAL oR Tuticorin Group.—The Central division corresponds both in latitude
and in extent with the productive pearl bank region on the opposite Ceylon coast,
Manapad point coinciding exactly with the latitude of the Ceylon Muttuvaratu Par,
while the Tolayiram Par, off Tuticorin, similarly coincides, as well in latitude as in
great relative extent, with the Cheval Par, the bank of largest area and greatest
productive importance on the Ceylon side. int :

9 hed

The great majority of the pars are marshalled roughly in line parallel with and
ata distance of from 7 to-8 miles from land. From Kayalpattanam to Vaipar a
second and outer’series occurs, lying in rather deeper water. The depth of the inner
series is in the main 7 to 8 fathoms, that of the outer S to 11 fathoms.

The surface of these pars consists of a rock which appears in many instances to be
of recent origin, rock formed by the consolidation of sand and dead coralszn situ. The
nature of the rock varies considerably, partaking usually largely of the present
character of the circumjacent sand and as the latter on this portion of the Indian
coast is made up principally of caleareous grains formed from the comminuted remains
of shells and corals, so the calerete is normally a more or less pure limestone.
Occasionally the remains of corals are met with, and here and there the calcrete contains
a varying amount of quartz sand. The proportion of quartz im no case is so great
as that characterizing the typical quartzose calerete so common on the Ceylon side.
Tn several localities visited during the inspection, I am, however, of opinion that the
exposed rock surfaces are not of contemporary origin, being of limestone too hard and
compact to be considered a modern calerete. Further, where such latter calcrete does
occur, it appears to me to form but a comparatively thin crust over the underlying
more compact bed-rock of the plateau whereof the density and grain appeal to me as
significantly identical with the extremely hard, compact rock forming the core of the
Jafina islands and peninsula in the north of Ceylon.

In no place did I see any shelly conglomerate, no rock in which the main
constituent could be made out as formed from the accumulation of shells of pearl
oysters, cockles and the like. ’

It is impossible to say with any certainty whether the banks which appear at the
present day to be the only banks from which we can reasonably expect to reap an
occasional pearl harvest, have always had this character or whether the banks which
were productive centuries ago and anterior to the advent of Nuropean control were
situated further south. Certain facts and inferences incline me to suspect that the
latter was, to some extent at least, the case. ‘There seems to be considerable evidence
pointing to a considerable extension southwards of the Indian Peninsula at a compara-
tively recent geological period. Without going into details as regards this it will
suffice to point out the great extent of shoals und of shallow water lying off Cape
Comorin and to the statement in the ancient Tamil epic ‘‘ Chilappatikdram ”’ where in
the opening lines of the 8th Chapter reference is made to a terrible irruption of the
sea which devastated a great tract of country to the south of what is now Cape
Comorin. The passage states * that the people of that time (circa second century A.D.)
had heard from their fathers that in former days the land had extended further south,
and that a mountain called Kumarikkodu and a large tract of country watered by the
river Pabruli had existed south of Cape Kumari, and that at a time not very long
before, in the reign of the Pandyan King Jayamakirtti alas Nilantarutiruvit Pandya,
_ the sea had torn through the land, destroying the mountain Kumarikkodu and
submerging the whole of the country through which flowed the river Pahruli.

Lending corroborative weight to this legend are the stories of similar irruptions
of the sea on the south-west coast of Ceylon recorded in the Buddbist annals of that
country. ven now these stories are current among the Sinhalese of the south, who
point to the outlying rocks known as the Basses, as the remuant of this lost land
which they say was a land of richness abounding in towns and palaces.

In this connection too we have to note the significant fact of the reported presence
of large accumulations of oyster sheils overlaid by soil at Muttam, about two miles
north-east of Cape Comorin.t

This presence of an old pearl fishery camp within two miles of the Cape lends
further support to the theory of a great extension southwards of the pearl fishery
region and while not conclusive as evidence add greatly to the physiographical
probabilities of such a hypothesis.

* Fide V. Kanakasabhai in “‘ The Tamils Highteon hundred years ago’’, Madras, 1904, p. 21.
+ Fide the statersent made to me to this effect in May last by the Jati Talaivan from his perzonal knowledge,

28

Ata time when the southern extremity of India extended further to the south,
the pearl banks on both sides of the Gulf of Mannar would have greater protection
from the South-West monsoon than they have at present while the extent of suitable
ground would be more extensive. At the present day on the coast of Tinnevelly and
Madura a converse process is in operation, the land slowly gaining upon the sea along
the*coast line facing the central division of the pearl banks. Two factors are at work—
the extension of fringing coral reefs along the coast and the distribution upon the sea
bottom of considerable quantities of sand and mud brought down by the rivers
Tambrapurni, Vaipar,and Vembar. There is also a constant movement of sand north-
wards during the prevalence of the South-West monsoon, whereby the depth of the
water on this pearl bank plateau may possibly be rendered shallower and gain some
extension seawards,

29

PEG:

MEANING AND DERIVATION OF THE NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL
PEARL BANKS OFF THE MADURA COAST.

Names of the Pars in the

Signification,.

Derivation and remarks,

= Names of the Pars as . : sts
E Mhoyappeerin ibe | ,muroret orhogra hig
EI Inspection Reports foaadontcon®
Z|
1 | Pamban Karia Par .. | Pamban Karai Par 45
2 | Velangu Par ee .. | Paémban Velangu Par .,
3 Musal Thiva Par ..| Musal Tiva Par...
4 Cholaya Karai Par .. | Solaka Karai Par Ao
}
}
5 Kilakarai Vallia Malai; Nilakarai Vellai -Malai

Veianga Par.

|

6 | Vallia Malai Karat Par .. |
|
|

7 Anna Par,. oe

8. Nallathanni Thivu Par ..

9 Uppatbanni Thivo Par,,

10 | Kumulam Par se ee
11 | Vembar Peria Par 46
12 | Vaippar Peria Par ee
i3 | Karai Par aid ~
14 | Devi Par .. oe «- |

|
15 |Pernandu Par .. ae
16 | Padutha Marikan Par ,.
17 | Padutha Marikan Par
Thunda.

18 | Tuticorin Coda Par we
19 | Cruzian Par ae Be
20 | Craxian Thundo Par

Velangu Par.

Vellai Malai Karai Par ..

Anna Par.. 56 AD

| NallaTanni Tivo Par ..

Uppu Tanni Tivu Par ,,

Kumulam Par ,, ate

Vembar Periya Par 50

Vaippar Periya Par...

Karai Par

DeviTar .. as Ao
Pernandu Par .. we

Padutta Marikan Par

Padutta Marikan Tundo
Par.

Tuticorin Kuda Par

Craxian Par

Cruxian Tundu Par

Paimban inshore bank, ?.¢.,
Pamban inner bank.

The bink near Pfimban
lying further from shore,
i.e , Pamban outer bank.

Bank lying near Hare
Island.

Bank lying off the south
shore (of Kamésvaram.)

Outer bank off the white
hill at Kilakarai (Kila-
karai, literally the East
Coast}.

Inner bank off Vellai

Malai.
?

Nalla Tanni Tivu tank ,,

Uppn Tanni Tivu bank ..

Probably this is ‘the
-bank. abounding in
hemispherical stones ’’.

Large bank lying off
Vembar village.
Large bank lying off

Vaippar village.

Bank lying towards the
shore.

Probably ‘the Rani’s
bank.’””

Fernando’s bank .. oe

Bank whereon Marikan (a
Mussalman) was found
lying (dead).

The small bank elose to
the preceding.

The bank off Tuticorin
Bay.

Bank of the cross bio

§mall Cruxian bank te

Karat, shore; par, rock and by
extension of meaning, rocky
bank.

Velungu, further.

Musal, hare ; tivu, island.

Solaka (cholaka) couth ; Karai,
shore. Cholava probably a
misprint for cholaka, which
isthe fishermen’s term for

south. ‘‘'len’’ is the eouth
of the landsman.
Kilai, east; Karai, shore;

vellai, white; malai, hi!l;
velangu, further or outer
(Kilakarai a port on the east
coast).

Kara1, inshore #.e., inner in
contrast to Velangu, outer.
Vellai Malai, a white and
conspicuous sand dune near
Kilakarat.

Anna or annam signifies swan.

Nalla, fresh; tanni, water ;
tivo, island. Nalla anni
. Tivu ig an island in the

Zamindari of Ramnad where
excellent fresh water is

obtainable from _ shallow
wells,
Uppu, silt. An island close

to Nalla Tanni Tivu where
the welis are brackish.

Kumulam, a blister-like swell-
ing, is applied to the hemis-
pherical macses of Astraid
corals so common on certain
sandy oyster banks.

Periya, large,

Karai,.shore.

Devi, a titular suffix to the
names of the Rani of Ram-
nad and of Madura; pri-
marily the name of a goddess
, (Siva’s wife).

Probably first found by a
. fisherman of this name,

Paduttiru, lying down. Mari-
kan or Marikar appended to
Muhammadan names is a
relic of an honorofie bestowed
by the Portuguese upon pro-
minent Muhammadans,

Tundu, fragment,

Kuda, bay; primarily a cavity
or hollow.

Kroos /curusn), a corruption of
the Portuguese Cruz, cross.
Tundu, a fragment (small),

8

30

Meaning and derivation of the names of the Principal Pearl Banks off the Madura Coast— cont.

}
a Arataee ot the Pare as | Names of the Pars in the
fi hs red orth 2 A 3 . . .
z they appear inthe | pmproved phere ie® Signification, Deriy ation and remarks.
E Inspection Reports. for adoption.
4a
21 | Vantbivu Arupajam Par, | Vantivu Arupagam Par,, | Bank off Vuutivu in six ) Aru, six; pagam, fathom ;
fathoms (Vantiva, hard van, hard. Vantivu, a
white rock islind), small island, north of Tati-
Corin on which there is a
sual] fishing beacon ; proba-
bly so called on account of
hard white rock there pre-
sent,
22 | Nagaya Par as .. | Nagara Par 6 .. | Bank abounding ina fish | Nagara, the name of a fish,
= | oulled nagara.
23 | Ootti Par .. ies .. | Utti Pur .. xa e. | Snail bank os ». | Otti or Utti, a enail-like
mollusc. Probably « corrujt
form of "Uri, the name of a
small spiral shell-fish (gas.
tropod) that is an active
enemy of the peurl oyster
during the first four menths
of life.
putallGoducra Parnes .. | Uduruvi Par oa .. | Possibly has reference taa | Uduruvi, penetrating or pass-
cavernous condition of ivg through.
the rock, enabling fish
to pass in and out of the
: cavities.
vp | Klatti Par 2 .. | Kilati Par ae .. | Bank abounding intrigger | Kilati, trigger fish (Palistes
fish, mitis is the most abundant

species on this coast),

26 | Athuvai Arupajam Par .. | Attuvai Arupagam Par .. | Bank near mouth of the | Attuvai, mouth of a river
: river in six fathoms. (atta, river; vai, mouth)
aru, six; pagam, fathom.

27 |Athombadu Par... | AttoupatuPar ., .,/ 9 (fathom) bank off the Attu, river; onpatu, nine

river. (ombadu, a corrupt form of
onpatu).
2g |PasiPar .. Ee eet |pasiibar a: .. | Sea-weed bank 2. .. | Pasi, sea-weed (literally moss),

28a |Patharan Par .. .. | Pattarai Par ap .. | 103 fathom) bank (7) .. | Pattu, ten; arai, half,
29 (| Kuthadiar Per .. .. | Kutadiar Par ae .. | Dancer bank(?) .. .. | Nutadian, a dancer.

o9 |[Guhaksiem Ths 5: .. | Tolayiram Par. _, | 900 banks ., oe .. | Tolayiram, 900. A large bank

characterized by numerous
smal] patches of rock rising
from a sandy bottom.

31 | Vadda Ombathu Par ,, | Vada Onpatu Par a Northern bank in nine | Vada, north.
: ’ athoms.
3la | Saith Ombathu Par .. | Saith Onpatu Par .. | Southern bank in nine | Saith, south (a local term
eto fl lane Cerca a : fathoms. derived I think from Porry-
guese).

32 | Puli Pundu Par ., .. | Puli Pundu Par .. .. | Bank having a tamarind | Puli, tamarind; pundu, bush.
: bush as land mark.
32a | Canna Puli Pundu Par .. | Kanna Poli Pundu Par ,, | Bank having a tamarind Do.
; : bush as land mark near
Kanna ‘Tivo.
33 | Alluva Par oF .. | Alluva Par a ». | Rotten weed bank (?) ., | Alluva, rotten (pasi, sea-weed
easans : ; ' being understood).

84 | Kanna Thiyu Arupajam | Kanna Tivu Arupagam | Bank off Kanna Tivu in | Aru, six ; pagam, fathom.

Par. ‘Par. : six fathoms.

35 | Thundu Par Eo .. | Tundu Par Bai .. ) Small bank ae .. | Tundu, piece or fragment, te,

Pe small.

86 | Nenjurichan Par .. | Nenjurichchan Par .. | Good for nothing hank .. | Nenjurichchan, good _ for

: in 4 : nothing, iiterally “ heart har-
rower’? from Nenju, heart ;
Urichchan, flayer or peeler.

36a | Par Kudinjan Par .. | Par Kundanjan Par Bie 5000 Rykate

36 | Mela Ombathu Par .. | Mela Onpatu Par .. | Further or outer 9 fathom | Mela, further or distant, outer.

} ou bank.

37. | Punyacoil Seltan Par .. | PinnacoilSeltanPar ., alleys Pinnacoil, the name of a large.

Paiawa settlement on the
Ticnevelly coast. Coil from
Kovil, temple, primarily ;
now used to signify church
among Christianized Tamils,
or it may be a corruption
of Kayal, which is in the
vicinity and a much more
: ancient town.
$8 | Sandamaram Puditha Par. | Sandamaram Piditta Par. Bank where land mark is} Sanda, a corrupt | form of
a ‘: alticohicarianmnanken Santai or Chantai, market ;
maram, tree; piditta, touch-
ing, #.e., indicating as does a
land mark. ~

31

Meaning and derivation of the names of the Principal Pearl Banks off the Madura Coast—cont.

Numbers.

39
39a

40

40a

402 | NilankallaPar ..

4U0e

41

4lq¢ }

$15 |

435

64 |

55

56
57

53
59

Names of the Pars as
they appear in the
Inspectton Reports.

Tra Thivu Cudamuthn Par.
Nadukudamuthu Par ..

Kovilpuditha Puthu Par.
Sanguria Puthu Par

Sethu curia Pathu Par ..

Kudamothi Par ..

Rajavukku Sippi Sothicha
Par.

Saith Kudamuthi Par

”

Naduyu malai Puditha

Par.

| Peria Malai Puditha Par.
| Kadian Par Rar Oks

Kanava Par a 0
Puthu Par 5 50
Karia Karwal Par 46

| Velangu Karwal Par.

| Thondu Par oe
Trichendore Punthotta
Par.
| Odacarai Per ., os

| Chowdi Par y
Sandamacoil Puditha Par.

| Pheradi Poditha Par ..

Semman Patti Par

Sarukku Ombathu Par ,,

Manapad Peria Par “6

Kanawa Paraku Sohi
Thundu Par.
Paracherry Par oe

Paracherry Pathoor ..

| Alanthalai Pathoor
Manapad Pathoor an

Names of the Pars in the
improved orthographio
forms now recommended
for adoption.

Signification,

Derivation and remarks.

Trai Tivu Kudamuttu Par.
Nadu Kudamuttu Par ..
Kovil Piditta Pattu Par.

Sankuraiya Pattu Par ..

Nilan Kallu Par ..
Sattu Kuraiya Pattu Par.

Kuda Muttu Par.
Rajavukku Sippi 'Sotich:
sha Par.

Saith Kuda Mnttu Par ..
Naduvu Malai Piditta Par.

Periya Malai Piditta Par.
Kadeiyan Par

Kanawa Par

Putu Par ..
Karai Karuwal Par

Velaugu Karuwal Par ..

Tundo Par
Trichendur
Par,

Puntoddam

Oda Karai Par ,.

Oda Karai Tundu Par ..
Chodi Par
Sandamacoil Piditta Par.

Teradi Piditta Par

Semman Path Par aie

Surukku Onpatu Par

Manapad Periya Par ,.

Kanawa Parakku Sohi
Par.

Paracherry Par .. AG

Paracherry Pathoor
(? Patta Par).

Alantalai Pathoor (?
Pattu Par)

Manapad Pathoor (? Pattu

Par).

Bank in the Pearl Bay
near Irai Tivu.

Bank near the middle of the
Pearl Bay.

Bank in 10 fathoms having
a church as the leading
mark on shore.

Bank where depth is a

foot less than 10
fathoms.
Blue stone bank .. :

Bank a little less than in
10 fathoms.

Pearl Bay bank .,

Bank searched for oysters
for the Raja.

South bank in the Pearl
Bay.

Bank touching or on the
hearing of a peak of the
Western Ghats.

Bank tvuching the great
hill.

The Lime-burners’ bank.

Bank abounding in cuttle
fish.

New bank . ae

In-shore bl: ick bank ae

Off-shore black bank AO

Small bank 50
Trichenduc flower garden
bank,

Narrow bank towards the
shore.

Small Odakarai bank no

Ornamental bank

Bank touching St. Mary’: 8
Church, ?.e., where St.
Mary’s Church is the
principle bearing.

Bank having Trichendur
pagoda as land mark,

Red hill bank \red hill is
the bearing’.

Bank falling quickly into
9 fathoms, ¢.e., a rapidly
shelving bank (this is
the case, itis a narrow
bank 53 fathoms deep on
the west side, 8 fathoms
deep on the east).

Large Bank off Manapad,

The bank of the highly

coloured _ flying cuttle
fish (?).

Vhe bank off the Pariah
village.

10-fathom bank off the
Pariah village (?).

The 10-fathom bank off
Alantalai (?).
Manapad 10-fathom bank

(®)-

Trai, literally finger joint, inch;
kuda, bay ; muttu, pearl.
Nada, middle.

Pattu, ten; piditt:, touching ;
kovil, church.

San, a span; kuraiya, less
(short of).

Nilam, blue; kallu, stone.

Sattu, a little; kuraiya, less;
pattu, ten.

Kuda, bay ; muttu, rl.

Ravacukieas for or eee Raja ;
soticheha, searched or exa-
mined ; sippi, oyster.

Saith, south (Portuguese or
English ?).

Piditta, touching; Naduvu
malai, Western Ghats (nadu-

- va, central ; malai, hill).

Periya, great.

The Kadaiyar caste is that of
the lin.e-burners ; it however
furnishes a contingent of
men who work as divers at
the chank and pear) fisheries,

Kanawa, cuttle fish.

Putu, new.

Karuwal, black ; probably from
the colour of the surface of
the rock.

Velangn, further; karuwal,
black.

Tundu, fragment.

Puntoddam, flower garden;
probably so naned on
account of sume _ pretty

species of sea-weed or other
marine organism found on
this bank.

Odai, narrcw; karai, shore.

Vide 46 and 48.

Chodi, to adorn.

Sandimacoil, St. Mary’s
Church ; Sandama, holy or
blessed mother, i.e, St.
Mary (Sancta Maria) ;
Kovil, church.

Ter, car; teradi, place where
car is kept, #e, pagoda or
temple.

Sem-man, red sand or earth ;
path, a ‘hill (?).

Ombathu, nine (a corrupt form
of Onpatu); surukku, quickly,

Manapad, name of a promon-
tory.

Kanawa, cuttle fish ; parakku,
flying: + schi, well-dressed or
adorned (?).

Cheri, village ;
pariah (drummer).

} It is possible that Pathoor ig

a misrendering for Patiu

Par. Ihayoe had, however,

no opportunity to examine

this region and do not know

whether the depth is 10

fathoms or not. Pattoor

may also signify the ‘‘10
| villages ’’, but the context

J) does not support this reading,

paraiyan,

Names of the Pars as
they uppear in the
Inspection Reports.

Keelee Par

Peria “Vhalai
Tharai Par,

Seman

Soman Pallei Kathu Par.

Kodoo Thalai Par 5

€4 Ovaree Anthonar Kovil
Puditha Par.

65 Ovarea Anttoniar kovil

Vallai Velai Par.

Names of the Pars in the

improved orthographic

forms now recommended
for adoption.

Signification.

Kili Par .. Bank abounding in parrot-

Periya Talai Seman

Tarai Par.

Siman Pillai Katha Par.

Bank lying near the
great head (land) of
red earth.

Possibly this means ‘‘ the
bank guarded by Simun
Pillai.”

The bink at the head of
the bay (?)

Bank touching St.
Anthony’s church at
Ovari,i.e.,on the bearing
of this church

Kuda Talai Par .. o

Ozari Anthoniar Koyil

Piditta Par,

Ovari Anthoniar kovyil
Vaillai Velai Par.

a.
*

t

aoe an
Meaning anil derivation of the names of the Principx! Pearl Burks off the Madura Coxs

Deayabon and

th as ry.
Kili, the name of a small
(parrot- fish), *

Periya,
seman,
(Latin, terra).
inan Pillai, » man’s
Katha, guarded by.

Kuda, bay; talai, head.
Ovari, the name of a il

Anthoniar __ kovil,
Anthony’schurch, =

Note on the system of transliteration adopted.—Throughout this report I have attempted to be consistent in

trausiiteraticn of bamil names.

The system followed is tuat in official use in Ceylon.

33

IV.

NARRATIVE GF THE EXAMINATION OF THE PEARL
BANK REGION.

As knowledge of the observations made during the May eruises of the S.S._
‘ Margarita” is essential to a full understanding of my recommendations, it will
be convenient if I give the record in the character of a narrative altering as Jittle as
possible the form in which it stands in my diary.

No attempt is made to furnish extensive lists of the animals found. Single-
handed the task is an impossibility, while the limitations of time do not permit the
reference of the collections to specialists. I have however expended considerable
time and labour upon the identification of those organisms that are characteristic of
certain banks--all those that predominate or have special significance are either
signalized by name or by description. The present identification is sufficient for the
purposes of comparison ; the rarer and smaller animals may well be left for detailed
examination at a subsequent period.

The programme of investigation which I mapped out before leaving Ceylon
consisted of three main lines—

(a) The examination of the sea-bottom in the pearl-bank region on the Indian
side of the Gulf of Mannaar, for the purpose of the institution of both physical and
biological comparisons between these banks and those with which I am now so
intimately acquainted on the Ceylon side.

(6) An enguiry into the present methods in use for the inspection of the banks,
and the means, if considered necessary, requisite to render the work of inspection
adequately effective.

(ce) A eritical examination of the historical evidence available, inspection and
fishery reports in particular, in order to ascertain what localities the past records
demonstrate to be more favourably situated than others for bringing pearl oysters to
maturity.

Tne present section deals almost entirely with the first mentioned of these lines
of enquiry; the historical evidence gleaned during the trip is incorporated with other
data in another section.

The Ceylon. Pearl fishery closed by reason of unfavourable fishing weather on
April 22nd this year, but in the hope that the Indian coast might enjoy sufficient
shelter to permit of useful work being done ere the monsoon came on in full fury, I
telegraphed my preparedness to Captain Carlyon, the Port Officer of Tuticorin.
Accordingly on the morning of the 26th, the 8.8. “‘ Margarita ” arrived at Marichehu-
kadde under the command of Captain Carlyon who also acts as Superintendent of the
Indian Pearl Banks. Some hours were occupied in the transfer of baggage and by
nightfall we proceeded for PAmban, having in tow three of the Ceylon inspection whale
boats.

A heavy sea prevailed during the passage, rendering it one of much discomfort.
On arrival at Pamban the next morning, it was decided to make Tuticorin by the
sheltered passage formed by the string of islands that skirt the coast for the greater
part of the distance between these two ports.

Anxious to see the important Muhammadan diving community of Lubbais *
settled at Kilakarai we put in there on the afternoon of April 27th. Accompanied
by Captain Carlyon I went ashore and by the courtesy of the Gomez family we were
enabled to interview the headmen of the divers in their house—Xavier Gomez, who
had been one of the assistant beach-masters at the Ceylon Fishery, acting as
interpreter.

* In Ceylon these men are known ae ‘‘ Moormen.”’

34

The head diver, M. Kirutuneina, who claims to be 70 years old and to have dived
from the age of nine, had much to say, but few facts of consequence were elicited ; he
and the other elders had never known or heard of mature pearl oysters in quantity on
any of the Pars between Kilakarai and Pamban. The nearest locality they knew of
was the vicinity of Nallatanni-tivu, and eyen there they had never seen a bed of
living oysters, the evidence as regards this locality resting entirely upon the abundance
of old oyster shells that litter the sand hills of that island.

In Kilakarai, signs of prosperity were visible everywhere; boat-owners were
arranging for the building of new craft, their agents gone to Cochin for timber ;
diver-fishermen were investing in new nets and goldsmiths were busy with orders for
jewellery for the womenfolk. The talk everywhere was of money, of profits past and
prospective, individual and collective, and of their determination to send more boats
and divers to the next year’s Ceylon fishery which they were already exploiting in
imagination! Incidentally the head diver informed us that as the result of careful
calculation, the best informed people of the place estimated that this one town had
brought away from the Ceylon fishery a sum of fully ten lacs of rapees—the earnings
of the divers, munduks, and boatmen, and the profits of the pearl merchants and
boutique keepers —a sum equal to the gross proceeds received by the Ceylon Government
from their share of the fishery.

This year the high profits made at the Ceylon fishery were doubly welcome as
being unexpected, news having been universally circulated at the end of last year (1903)
that, as the result of the November inspection of the banks had proved disappointing,
no fishery would take place.

The Kilakarai men are the best and most reliable of the local divers who attend
the pearl fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar. Their abstemious lives consequent upon
fairly faithful observance of the Prophet’s laws, predispose to health and regularity of
working and while more industrious than the Roman Catholic Parawa divers they also
make better use of their earnings than do the latter, who, I am assured on all sides—
even by their own people——dissipate their fishery gains within a month or six weeks of
their return home, Indeed I was told subsequently in Tuticorin, that the great
majority of the Parawas will do little or no work till they have got rid of their
earnings in drink and in entertainments and are penniless once again.

A small settlement of Parawas, dominated as usual by a whitewashed Roman
Catholic Church, is set within circumscribed limits on the seaward margin of the town
of Kilakarai. Few physical differences that cannot be accounted for by the great
divergence between their modes of life can be noted between them and their Lubbai
neighbours and I incline to the belief that in the Kilakarai Muhammadans we have
the descendants of Tamil fisher converts to Islam, just as the Parawas have become
Roman Catholics. Indeed I cannot help thinking that the Parawas and Kilakarai
Lubbais are identical in origin, but in the absence of anthropometric measurements
the point cannot be settled definitely.

Leaving Kilakarai the next morning we proceeded direct to Tuticorin, landing
there on the afternoon of April 28th.

The ensuing three days were spent in completing the necessary preparations for
work at sea, getting coal and water aboard the steamer, and, on my part, in interview-
ing every resident in any way likely to have shrewd opinions based upon local
intimacy with the pearl bank region and in comparing and abstracting the information
contained in the fishery and inspection records. Unfortunately the Jatter are all of
comparatively recent date, none going back to the period of the Dutch occupation—a
lacuna which I was subsequently able to fill in great part by dhe collation and ecollec-
tion of references which occur incidentally in various and diverse publications.

The Government records give the names of over 60 pdrs which are reckoned ag
potential oyster banks, Reference to charts A and B in the appendix, shows that
the majority are massed offshore between Tuticorin and Trichendur in from 6 to 10
fathoms of water. This region includes practically all the banks that have yielded
fisheries during the present century and accordingly it was decided to make our first
oruise over the area thus indicated.

35

Totaytram Par.—Accordingly on May 2nd we left Tuticorin at 6-30 a.m. and
proceeded to the south end of the Tolayiram Par, about 8 miles to the east of Hare
island. There we commenced the examination, the day’s work extending over the
southern half of the bank, with traverses extending some distance beyond the charted
margin. This bank, which yielded fisheries in 1784, 1787, 1807, 1810, 1822, 1830,
1889 and 1§90, has generally been considered one of the most favourable for rearing
oysters to maturity, and to be fully the equal of any other bank in respect to the
number of spat falls reported upon it during the past haif century.

It possesses by far the largest area of any productive Indian bank, its charted
outline being 7 miles long with a width varying from one mile to two miles. The
depth varies from 8 to 11 fathoms. Our examination showed the bank to consist of
a somewhat uneven, but not rugged, rocky framework rendered level by the aceumula-
tion of sand in the depressions. Here and there the rock shows bare save for a thin
veil of sand, but the greater part is covered by sand varying from | and 2 inches to
6 inches and a foot in depth.

The sandy bottom appears to the divers as broken up by a multitude of rocky
outcrops usually of limited extent and from this circumstance we may infer the origin
and propriety of the name “ Tolayiram,” literally ‘‘ nine hundred ”’.

The surface of the bank shows considerable local diversity—both physical and
faunistic. In some places a rocky surface sprinkled lightly with sand bears loose
blocks of calcrete (recently formed rock) of varying size; elsewhere fragments of
Madrepore coral branches, corroded and water-worn, lie loose, here sparsely scattered,
there abundant. In other places deep sand, bare of any life, largely preponderates.
Variation in every proportion is represented. 3

The sand is altogether different from that on the Ceylon side. Instead of being
clean large-grained quartz grit, as there, the sand of the Tolayiram pir is fine in
grain, the angles well rounded ; chemically it is composed principally of calcium
carbonate—comminuted shell fragments in the main.

In colour it is yellowish brown and there is always associated with it a certain,
though variable, amount of mud particles, which rise with every movement upon the
bottom—-the scramble of the divers, the under-tow of strong currents,

The inajority of the diving descents made upon the bank proper showed the
greater part of the area examined to be thickly covered with young oysters from one
month to six months old, those of three to four months of age preponderating. The
sizes varied from 10X 10333 millimetres to 24. 22 X83 millimetres. The weight
of 100 individuals of average size was 99°65 grammes.

The general facies of the bank approximates closely to that of the Ceylon Periya
par—a bank noted for the frequence of spat falls upon it; both are of great extent
and of diversified character and both lie all but out of sight of land towards the edge
of soundings. Great quantities of young oysters were found on the Ceylon bank
named in March last, practically of the same age as those on the Tolayiram pdr, but
on the whole the abundauce was distinctly less on the latter bank, while the sand
leaves less extent of rock exposed.

Considerable destruction of the young oysters was apparent, and large numbers
of empty shells were found. Of the latter a small proportion, 1 in 14, bore evidence
in the presence of circularly bored holes, to destruction by small carnivorous
gastropod molluses (belonging to the genera Purpura, Nassa and Sistrum) termed
Uri by the divers. The great majority, however, furnished no indication to show
by what agency death had been caused. Consideration of what the chief harmful
factor is and how it acts will be dealt with when we deal with the conclusions.

Characteristic organisms are few in number; sponges predominate, the black
erests of Spongionella mgra being frequent wherever the sand thins away. The pink
Petrosia testudinaria is also common, its truncate massive pile increasing the resem-
blance to a miniature volcano by possessing a crater-shaped excavation upon the
summit. Other massive but less conspicuous species are equally abundant, and in
some cases, I found the rapid growth of these sponges entailing the destruction of
many young oysters, enwrapping and smothering them, as evidenced by the empty
shells embedded in the sponge mass, Avximella donnani is occasionally met with.

36

Corals were searce. Occasionally locally-isolated colonies, usually small in size,
were found, nearly all being Porites, Mean:rina, and Astreids.

Still less common were Alcyonarians, represented by Sarcophyton sp. Vermetus
was common on the fragments of calerete, and the lovely star-fish, Pentaceros lincki,
a known enemy of the pearl oyster, was present in considerable numbers. Lenckia
laevigata was also taken, with Antedun palmata in crevices of the exposed rock.
Little or no algae was present.

In our traverses zig-zag across the bank we several times passed beyond the margin
of the par on the westward side, finding there bure and barren sand with an occasional
chank (Turbinella rapa).

After completing the day’s work we anchored on the south end of the par in nine
fathoms, and witbin an hour the crew had caught 16 Avl/ah (Trigger-fishes, Balstes
mitis). Several were examined and in the stomachs of all were found fragments of
several kinds of shells, those of young pearl oysters predominating in many.

The Parmandadui or ‘‘ Rock-pilot ” who is taken out by the Inspector to help in
locating the banks informed me that this bank has always been noted for the great
abundance of Kilati; one ballam usually brings back a catch of 100 fish from this
neighbourhood.

During the day the current set strongly from the north, the steamer drifting
rapidly when not steaming. ‘The temperature of the sea at 7 a.m. was 87° F. and at
5 p.m. 88° F. The specific gravity was 1,022°80 at 7 a.m.

The following morning, May 3rd, on heaving the anchor up, 18 pearl oysters
approximately 6 weeks old, all being of the same size, were found attached to the
chain near the anchor end, each by several strands of byssus. All were attached to
that part of the chain which would occasionally rest upon the ground—the last two
fathoms. Itis noteworthy that none of the older sizes were found on the chain,
although varying ages were found on this spot.

Ur1 Par Group.—-This region comprising Uti, Nagara, Uduruvi, Kilati, Atu-
vaiarpagam and Pattarai Pdrs was next examined first by means of diving traverses
on May 4th and on the ensuing day by the method of cirele inspection as used on the
Ceylon side and which is described in detail ¢nfra on page 75.

The pars in this group are small and with advantage may be considered as one,
under the above titl—Uti Pdr Group. The depth is less than the mean on the
Tolayiram, averaging here from 7 to 83 fathoms.

In all, nearly 350 dives were made in the course of an examination by cirele
inspection—a method described fully on page 74.

The centre of the circle was fixed at a point which Captain Carlyon believed from
the bearings to lie just on the east margin of the Uti par, but that bank the pdr
mandadai said was really to the south-east. The results proved the latter to be right
and the Inspector to be wrong, a false position for the latter to occupy and one that
is due entirely to the fact that no shore marks are indicated on the chart in use. No
Inspector can be expected to do good work under present conditions.

The matter presents no difficulties ; the landmarks, which consist of Hare Island
Lighthouse, the factory chimneys at Tuticorin and the beacon on Vantivu, are clearly
distinguishable from these banks, and I should think the Survey office could, from
the materials already available plot the position of the several objects with exactitude
and without further survey.

The whole of the Uti par was gone over together with the southern portion of the
Nagara par, the result showing that but a few odd living oysters remain, aged from
23 to 3 years old and all more or less over-grown with sponges and other growths,
In several cases the largest and most frequent of these crusting sponges, the brick-red
Clathria indica, completely enveloped the oysters, occupying the whole surface of both
yalves and rising in numercus bold upgrowths to a height of two and three inches.

37

The pars constituting the Uti group have absolute identity. in fauna and in
physical characteristics. The rock of each pir is fairly continuous in its outerop with
much less sand sprinkled over it than in the ease of the Tolayiram Par. To some
extent as a consequence of this the fauna is richer in the number of species, in the
number of individuals, and in luxuriance of growth.

Sponges are especially abundant. Among the most characteristic are the black-
erested Spongzonella nigra, one specimen of which was partly mantled with a thin
erust of crimson-lake Botrylloid; purple-red Siphonochalina communis (Carter) bearing
frequently a like-tinted Antedon, clinging to its tubular branches; the massive
Suberites inconstans and the oyster-crusting Clathria indica.

Several of these sponges, notably Stphonochalina and Suberites, furnish free
quarters to quite a host of diverse lodgers—chiet among which are a colourless Alpheus,
a searlet Porcellana, a small (rebea and a long armed spiny Ophiuroid (Ophiactis
savignii). The last named chiefly affects the large canals of the Suberttes, more
rarely being found within Siphonochalina. Gebia burrows in the smaller canals of the
Suberites, while the Alpheus and Porcellana favour Stphonochalina much more than
they do Suberites, probably because their superior activity enjoys greater freedom in
the larger and less tortuous cavities of the former sponge.

Corals and Gorgonoids are scarce, the handsome Juncella juncea being the only
conspicuous representative found.

Specially characteristic are enormous numbers of the branched parchment-like
tubes of a fine Eunicid (£. tubzfer, Crossland). The empty tubes were made known
to seienee years ago by Professor McIntosh from material received from Dr. E.
Thurston, Superintendent of the Madras Museum, but it is only in the present year
(1904) that the animal has been described and named. Quite a host of smaller
creatures settle upon the surface of the tubes—hydroid zoophytes, polyzoa, and
compound ascidians, together with an occasional Lepas of a species not yet identified.
The last named is of interest in that in colour and outline its appearance approximates
so closely to a branch of the Eunicid tube that this may be regarded as a striking
ease of mimicry or protective adaptation to environment.

Colonial masses of the delicate caleareous tubes of Milograna were met with and
numerous species of the usual errant worms.

Of Echinoderms, Ophiuroids, Antedon spp., and P. incki were abundant. Many of
the Antedon appeared, as already noted, to be commensal (?) upon sponges and upon
Gorgonoids, while commensal in turn with Antedon I found Decapods and Ophiuroids—-
the former consisting of a small striped crab and a striped Galatheid, the latter of a
small, short-armed black Ophiuroid upon an Antedon of the same hue.

Small Cephalopods (Polypus spp.) were numerous; polyzoa and tunicates were
universal.

Occasional individuals of a large Prana sp. were found lying prone on the rock
and much enveloped with sponge and tunicate growth, barnacles and the like; some
bore pearl oysters of about one year old.

To the west of the Uti group of parsa large chank-bed is marked. Here we
found rock to be practically absent with a corresponding absence of the faunistic
elements noted above. In their place were quantities of chanks (Turbinella rapa) and
of Pinna shells. The former were mostly small as is to be expected, this being a
recognised chank-bed and within easy reach of Tuticorin. Many of the Pimna were
dead shells ; these that were alive were, as is usual on sandy ground, embedded deeply
in the sand. Both dead and living bore quantities of large barnacles (Balanus sp.).

The rock is of somewhat variable composition, varying from a compact brown
limestone, similar to that of the Tolayiram Par, to rock of a distinctly quartzose
nature ; the angular quartz grains were embedded in a brown calcareous matrix—a
quartzose limestone. The sand of the chank-bed is similar to the component material
of the par, but containing an appreciably greater amount of recognisable shell
fragments.

After completion of the inspection of the Uti Par region, we proceeded south on
ihe afternoon of May 4th in the face of a stiff breeze and heavy sea, anchoring at
5-30 p.a. off Pinnacoil in the shelter afforded by the reef off Kayalpattanam point.

10

3

ios)

Pinnacoil is one of the head-quarters of the Parawa caste and a noted Roman
Catholic centre. Here St. Francis Xavier laboured with great effect and of the four
churches which render the town conspicuous from the sea one is connected by legend
with this great missionary’s ministrations. It is of Pinnacvil that de Faria y Souza
records that (eirca. A.D. 1560) the Viceroy of India “ sailed to the Island Mate
where he built a fort and translated thither the inhabitants of Punicale to redeem
them from the tyrauny of the Nayque, who would fleece them there—Emmanuel
Rodrigues Continho was left to command there and with him some Franciscans and
Jesuits, all satisfied with the equal distribution the Vieeroy made of all things.” *

A Casuarina-tope is a conspicuous feature of the landseape about two miles south
of the town and were its position fixed with accuracy upon the chart it would form
a useful and much-needed landmark during the inspection of the pearl banks.

The Jati Talaivan has informed me that an old pearl-fishery camp at one time was
situated just south of the trees of the tope as evidenced by this place bei ing now
ealled Silavaturai kadu (jungle), the site having now reverted to jungle.

Karuwat Group.—The next morning an oily calm prevailed with current
running from the north. We steamed south-east with the intention of examining
the group of banks lying off Trichendur and of which the Velangu and Karai Karuwal
Pars are the central and among the most important, having given fisheries more
frequently during the past century than any other section of the pearl banks, with
the single exception of the Tolayiram Par Tf.

At 8 a.m. the four inspeetion boats were cast off to the south-west of the
Velangu Karuwal Par at a point due east of Trichendur Pagoda. The boats were
ranged in line abreast, a quarter of a mile separating the individual boats and the
coxswains were instructed to follow the steamer taking dives at regular and frequent
intervals and preserving their respective distances apart. We then steamed three
miles north by west and anchored on the west side of the Naduvu Malai Piditta Par
in 93 fathoms, the current still running strong from the north and the wind
remaining southerly.

When the boats arrived, it was found that only the two on the west of the line
had crossed over the pars, the others being too much to the east and traversing
ground which was almost entirely bare sand. The results obtained sbowed the rock
and sand to be of the same characters as the bottom on the Uti Par region; in some
places upon rocky ground a considerable amount of Orbitolites sand was found and in
other places the sand was coarse enough to be considered a gravel. ‘The fauna was in
its main characteristic features similar to that of the Uti Pér—sponges were abundant
and of similar species and, in addition, several specimens of the spherical crimson
Axvinelia tubulata were obtained, containing the usual quota of commensals—Oligochaete
worms and Gephyreans.

Of corals we found Favia sp. forming rounded masses 5 to 8 inches in diameter.
The tubes of Hunice tubifex were again common together with Penrtuceros linckt,
Antedon, Ophiuroids and many Polyzoa, the most conspicuous of the lastnamed
being dense hydroid-like colonies of Scrupocellaria sp. over 3 inches in height. Little
seaweed was found but Padina commersoni was sometimes fairly common together with
some bunches of Codi’um tomentosum. On Naduvu Malai Pér small nullipore balls
(Lithothamnion) were locally abundant on certain of the sandy stretches. Pinna and
live coral were absent from the ground examined this day.

The sandy ground to the west of the pars yielded numerous chanks and many
valves of sand-loving Lamellibranchs (Mactra, ete.), the sand itself being of the
usual brown calcareous nature, of fine grain and with comparatively little quartz,

A few living oysters were found on the Naduvu Malai Par aged from 24 to 3
years togethor with many dead shells of about the same age, largely on sandy bottom.
‘As in the Uti Par region the majority of the shells were enveloped in a covering of
spouge (Clathria indica).

* “ History of the discovery and conquest of India”’ translated by J. Stevens, 1695, and quoted in the Ceylon
Monthly Literary Register, Volume IIT, N.S., p. 199. .
+ The Karuwa Pars were fished in 1805, 18165 and 1862,

39

The landmarks for the Karuwal Pdr region are excellent. To the south
Manapad lighthouse is conspicuous, due east is the lofty pile of Trichendur
Pagoda while to the north-west is the white mosque near Kayalpattanam village and a
Casuarina tope to the south of Pinnacoil, to say nothing of a white gabled Roman
Catholic Chapel at or adjacent to Kayalpattanam point. Unfortunately the three
latter are not marked upon the chart and as the Inspector was uncertain as to whether
the tope is on an island or on the mainland and as to the exact relative positions of
the chapel and the point named, the difficulties which I experienced in localizing the
boundaries and positions of the pars were great and distracting.

From what I have seen already and from the silent evidence afforded by the
charts on which the marks are either not placed or are indicated vaguely and without
precision I am convinced that the work of inspection for years past has been carried
out without that scrupulous exactitude necessary to obtain satisfactory and reliable
results. :

Tyner Kupamutru Par Grovup.—Tuis group, consisting of the Saith Kudamuttu,
Kudamuttu, Rajavukku Sippi Sotichcha, Sandamaran Piditta, Pinnacoil Seltan and a
few other small pars was examined on May 6th, the steamer accompanied by the four
inspection boats, two on either side proceeding slowly from one end to the other, the
divers descending to the bottom at regular intervals.

The ground upon the pars appeared less favourable to the maturing of pearl
oysters than tbat of the Karuwal group. Competing organisms were in greater
numbers aud more luxuriant in growth; the banks were typically “dirty ”’, using the
term in the oysterman’s sense of being pre-oceupied by organisms, sponges especially,
which give no opportunity to the well-being of oyster spat settling thereon.

A few old oysters apparently 2 to 25 years old were found, less than half a dozen
in number, together with some of a younger generation, 9 to 10 months old. The
majority of both ages were, as usual, densely covered with sponge growth (Clathria
tndica). ead shells of the younger generation were in quantity in some places.
Death in many cases had been recent and the majority of these showed distinct signs
ot haying been bitten, pieces having been snipped out of the ventral margin suggest-
lye of damage by oyster-eating fishes, which were found notably numerous here,
seven Kiluli (Balistes mits) being caught by the No. 4 boat which traversed the
greatest extent of rocky bottom, while in the evening after anchoring, several large
Vellamin (Zethrinus sp.), noted devourers of shell fish, were taken together with more
Kilati.

Although we found no pearl oysters in quantity, the work of the boats showed
that the ground to the east of this group and between it and the Sankuraiya Pattu
Par group is excellent chank ground and should be marked as a chank-bed on the
chart. It will probably be found to extend also some distance northwards. The
chank-bed sand was excellent of its kind—fine grained and very dark in colour, due
to the presence of mud and organic particles and so forming an excellent feeding
ground to the annelids which constitute the favourite food of the chank.

Seaweeds were common on these pars, principally Pudina and the lamellar olive
brown fucoid so characteristic of the Ceylon Periya Par.

The characteristic fauna consists of—

Spongionella nigra, Suberites inconstans, Clathria indica, Axinella tubulata and
Siphonochalina (with the usual commensals) as the most conspicuous and numerous
sponges ; a coarse form of the decalcifying sponge Clone, making burrows of large
size, is also conspicuous in the blocks of dead corals occasionally met with.

Eunice tubifex, Trophoma and many small Polynoids and Serpulids, with
Gephyreans and Nemertines.

Droma sp., Alpheus sp., Gebia sp., Squills sp. and numerous other small
Decapods.

Pentaceros lincki was present in quantity with an occcasional Linckia miliaris,
and numerous Antedon spp. and Ophiuroids.

No Pinna was taken either on the sand or the rock,

Ascidians were scanty in number,

40) .

The pir is flat surfaced and in places discontinuous, varying from quartzose
limestoue to compact and extremely hard, brown, and purely calcareous rock. ‘The
loose fragments numerous in certain localities are either of the latter character or are
masses of dead coral much tunnelled by boring molluscs and sponges. From the
absence of live coral on these pars, | am of opinion that in common with the loose
broken coral branches (‘‘chullai or challai” as the Tamil divers term the latter) these
fragments are derived from inshore reefs, of which a long one stretches northwards,
parallel with the coast, from 'liruchendtr to Pinnaeoil.

May 7th was spent in making traverses over the two groups of pars lying south-
west of the Tolayiram Pér—an inner, which we may term the Puli Pundu group,
and an outer, or Nenjurichchan group. The ground between and around was also
examined.

Port Punov Grovp.——This collection of small pars, comprising the Kanna Puli
Pundu Par, Puli Pundu Par, Saith Onpatu Par and Vada Onpatu Par lie close
together and agree in all essential characteristics, in the depth of water, which ranges
from 7% to 83 fathoms, in the identity shown by the organisms found there, and in
the physical nature of the rock forming the bottom. For the practical purposes of
inspection and fishery they may be considered as a single unit. They agree exactly
in all particulars with the pars forming the Uti Par group, except that at the present
examination no pearl oysters were found.

Nensuricucuan Grovur.—Very different are the banks which I propose to unite
under the term Nenjurichchan group. The constituent banks are the Par Kun-
danjan, Nenjurichchan and Mela Onpatu Pars with a depth ranging from 7% to 84
fathoms. These pars, although in almost the same depth of water as those of the
Puli Pundu group, bear a fauna more characteristic of deep water conditions,
Gorgonia miniacea, Suberogorgia suberosa, with numerous examples of Juneella juncea
being characteristic. As usual, on these banks massive sponges are numerous, mostly
dark coloured, and the rock, instead of being covered with ordinary sand, is sprinkled
freely with large foraminifera (Orbctol/tes and Heterostegina) ; the rock is flat in surface
and both in appearance and in fauna bears much resemblance to the seaward side of
the Ceylon Muttuvaratu Par.

Both to the west, the east, and the south-east of this group we have a great
extent of sandy ground extremely rich in life, characterised by the presence of varied
forms of Aleyonarians. Conspicuous among these last are a rosy tinted aborescent
Pennatulid, a grey and drab Pennatula sp. anda slender Virgularza (V. juncea), the
first named anchored by a branching root-like base, the two latter by a long and
deeply embedded axis.

Kqually characteristic is a stout lamellar and fan-shaped dark green Alga which
passes below into a bulbous base embedded deeply in the sand; the projecting fan-
shaped portion measures in many cases as much as 5 inches across; the bulbous base
from 6 to 8 inches in length, stiffened by a large admixture of sand entangled among
the ramifying filaments of the Alga.

That peculiar Ascidian, Rhabdocynthia rosea, is another characteristic organism.

Small crustaceans, molluscs and burrowing worms are also noteworthy, with a
varying number of chanks.

After examining this region we proceeded N.N.W. from Par Kundanjan Par
which brought us to the region immediately south-west of the Tolayiram Par. Here
we found considerable quantities of small oysters lying im clusters upon sand; the age
appeared to be from three to four months and, besides the living, a considerable quantity
of dead shells were found. A few of the latter showed signs of having been bored by
carnivorous Gastropods and others were broken, possibly by the bites of some fish.
This, however, is somewhat doubtful and the majority showed no apparent signs of
what the cause of death had been. ,

The nuclei of the clusters were in the main the spicular Ascidian Rhabdocynthia:
rosea ; in a few cases only was it a shell, a fragment of par or of dead coral. In many
a nucleus was absent, the little oysters clinging to the shells of one another. Every-~
where there was a marked scarcity of “cultch”’ (shells and rock fragments).

41

The sand was clean and in some places contained a larger proportion of quartz
erains than at any other place hitherto examined. Pennatula sp. and Virgularia
juneea were fairly common as was also the flat ecbinoid Clypeaster humilas: A few
Pentaceros lincki and Fungia dentata were also met with.

From this position we went west, traversing the area indicated on the chart as a
large chank bed. Here the sand became fine, dark in colour and slightly muddy.
Zigzagging over this 16 dives were made, giving uniform results regarding the
character of the sand and the organisms characterising it, numerous small chanks,
small Pinna sp. and rooted fan- alge.

Our supply of water was by this time almost exhausted; se, after completing the
examination of this chank bed, the “ Margarita’ was headed for Tuticorin where we
arrived the same afternoon.

The two next days I spent ashore in a further examination of records and in
gathering loeal opinions, which I hold should never be treated with indifference. A
mean has to be steered between the extremes of credulous faith and scornful contempt,
and if the sifting be judicious the stories and opinions of fishermen and divers may
often furnish useful hints of considerable importance in drawing deductions and in
furnishing the necessary clue to elucidate some difficulty or apparent contradiction.

A study of the significance and origin of place names may also furnish consider-
able assistance, and the Jati Talaivamore, whose title is frequently rendered as Jati
Talaivan, was fortunately able and willing to facilitate my task.

Under Captain Carlyon’s kind. guidance I was enabled also to examine the
godown in which the chanks collected by divers on Government account are stored
pending the periodical auction sale.

This store is situated about a mile north of the town at a spot conveniently near
the shore, on land that once was a salt marsh.

The great majority of the sheils were of medium size; quite a large number
bore a cluster of young oysters, two to six months old, upon the upper whorls of the
shell. In one ease i4 young oysters had been so carried—a fact bespeaking both the
abundance of oyster spat during the last six months and the poverty of resting places
for the attachment of the spat at the end of the free-swimming stage.

Chanks of a size too small to be paid for, formed a heap of quite respectable
dimensions.

The “ Margarita” left Tuticorin on her second cruise at 7 A.M. on May 10th.
The weather showed signs of impending change and on that account I was extremely
anxious to ascertain at once the condition of the northern pars in order to compare
with that of the southern groups with which I had now obtained a fairly satisfactory
acquaintance. I decided therefore to devote this cruise to an examination of the
banks between Kilakarai and Tuticorin.

Cruxtan Grovp.—Of these banks the three southernmost, the Vantivu Arupagam
Par, the Cruxian Par and the Cruxian Tundu Par, may conveniently be grouped
together as the Cruxian group.

They have long been classed among the banks from which a fishery may from
time to time be expected * and accordingly, although they cover a comparatively small
area, I made a specially exhaustive examination first by a traverse from end to end
by the four inspection boats strung oat in line at quarter mile intervals as usual and
upon the completion of this, by causing them to make four circles round the ship
when at anchor upon the centre of the most important of the group—the Cruxian Par
itself.

At 8 a.m. a half knot current was running from the north, with wind from N.W.;
temperature of water 89° F.; specific gravity 1,022-80.

Besides the work done by the divers in the boats who made in ail 250 descents,
a large number of check dives was made from the steamer. These, when compared
with “results obtained from the boats, showed the three pars to have a distinct and
characteristic facies of their own, and pointed to the practical advisability of uniting
the three under one head both on account of faunistic and of physical identity.

* ‘The Cruxian group gave satisfactory results at the fishery of 1861.

Hil

42

The rocky ground was flat-surfaced and largely continuous ; the sandy stretches
found on and between the pars was never deep, scarcely ever exceeding a depth of 3
inches, and in consequence, individuals of the large species of Pinna, which is here
characteristically abundant, are exposed for fully five-sixths of their length, only the
apex being embedded in the sand. Quite a large proportion were dead shells.

Crowds of large Barnacles (Balanus sp.) and Zoophytes occupy the outer surfaces
of the valves as well of the living as of the dead, the cavities of those barnacles that
are dead harbouring great numbers of small crustaceans and worms.

A favourable feature of these pars is the absence of an excessive amount of
sponges. Such as there were of the larger forms consisted principally of the massive
Suberites tnconstans and the cavernous Siphonochalina communis. In the former,
besides the usual species of Gebia, were several of an interesting heteronereid form of
Nereis. The tall, branched tubes of Hunice tubifex were met with wherever rock
appeared on the surface.

A characteristic organism is a Botrylloides sp. which forms grey gristly-looking
rounded masses of 3 to 4 inches in diameter. Algse were scant in quantity.

The depth of the water over these pars shows great regularity, ranging within
the limits of half a fathom, 6 to 63 fathoms.

The only signs of pearl oysters consisted of occasional dead valves, old and much
corroded and of an age which I would fix approximately at 23 years. They had the
appearance of having been dead several years.

A few chanks were found on the sand outside the eastern margin of the pars,
where the sand is fine and largely calcareous in composition.

From 9-80 to 11-15 a.m. an oily calm prevailed, the surface of the sea covered
as far as the eye could see with a brown scum composed of Trichodesmium ery threeum.
Its appearance and to some extent its effects were such as a thin film of oil produces
when spread upon water.

We remained at anchor till the next morning near the middle of the Cruxian
Par. A strong southerly swell prevailed the whole night and as a land wind blew
with some foree from the N.W. the ship rolled heavily making sleep practically
impossible.

At 7 am. on May 11th we proceeded northwards after casting off the four inspec-
tion boats, which were ordered to examine the ground lying between the Cruxian Par
and the most southerly of the next group to be examined—the Marikan Par group—
and then to pass northwards over the whole extent of the latter pars.

The steamer led the way dropping a mark buoy on what was believed to be the
south side of the Padutta Marikan Tuudu Par, as a guide to the following boats. We
then headed north and anchored on the Devi Par.

The boats reported continuous sand after passing the northern edge of the
Cruxian Par, both between the two groups and along the line which should have led
them over the Marikan Par group of banks—an unsatisfactory result due either to the
plotting of the cross-bearings being incorrect or to the pars being incorrectly placed
upon the chart. I incline to believe that the former explanation is the true one,
seeing that the Inspector, although the shore-marks are distinct and elearly visible,
has not the position of these marks indicated upon his chart. Rough and inexact
work is the inevitable consequence.

Varpar Karat Par.—The next day, May 11th, after ascertaining that the ground
in 64 fathoms, two miles east of outer Chullai Island, consisted of fine sand mixed with
a considerable amount of mud, we proceeded towards the south-east and anchored
upon Vaipar Karai Par in 6? fathoms in order that I might make a descent in the
diving dress.

When I alighted upon the bottom I found the water so turbid with suspended
mud particles that it was impossible to ascertain what lay underfoot save by crawling
on hands and knees, and even then I had to bring the helmet window within two
inches of the ground. By so doing I found the bottom to be composed of fine calcare-
ous sand commingled with a considerable proportion of muddy sediment. The surface
was littered with numerous dead pearl oyster shells both entire and fragmentary, and

45

was underlaid at a depth of from J to 2 inches by flat-surfaced rock. On the least
disturbance the mud constituents rose in dense clouds further obscuring vision.
No recognisable reason for the death of pearl oysters could be traced; their
average age was approximately 13 year. Only a single individual was found alive ;
it appeared rather older than those that were dead, with the valves covered with
a dense coating of tunicates, sponges and (polyzoa; it had a distinctly stunted
appearance. I also came across a considerable number of large Pinna lying prone on
the surface, covered as in the case of those found the day previous, with quantities
of large barnacles ( Balanus sp.) together with a mantling of various species of Lepto-
elinids and several species of Zoophytes. Several massive corals of the kinds usually
associated with pearl banks were noticed.

This bank, which is not marked upon the inspection chart dated 28th November
1892, by the bearing should lie between the Vaipar Periya Par and Pernandu Par as
shown on that chart, but concerning this position there appears to be some doubt as
the par-mandadai (native pilot) who accompanied us held that in reality it hes to
the north-west of the Devi Par.

From the character of the bottom such view is not unlikely to prove correct, for
however carefully angular bearings be taken, the imperfections of the present working
chart hinder them from being plotted thereon with accuracy. *

The Vaipar Karai Par is an exceptionally dirty and muddy bank, wholly different
from the Cruxian Pdr and associated banks. From what I saw and also from the
history of the banks it appears, however, to be rather favourably situated for the
deposit of spat and appears to be fitted to bear them till they reach from 1 to 14
years old, after which age they rapidly die off. Such a bank would be a fitting one
to utilize as a source from which to obtain young oysters were oyster transplantation
ever to be attempted. .

In the afternoon a heavy squall came on suddenly from the west-south-west,
raising a heavy sea. ‘The wind remained in the same quarter all night and the next
iurning the sea was so rough and the ship rolling so considerably as to render it
impossible for me to make further diving descents. A native diver who went down
reported the water too thick to permit him to see anything. After waiting a while
in the hope that the weather would moderate, we proceeded to

Nata Tanni Trvv, anchoring off the west shore. Here we landed soon after to
verify, if possible, the presence of the oyster shells reported to us by the divers at
Kilakarai. Much of the island consists of sand dunes overlaying a coral formation
in which can be traced specimens of corals of the same species as those now living
upon the adjoining and encircling reef. The island is farmed under the zamindari of
Ramnad aad several flourishing plantations of casuarina, cocoanut and palmyra were
here found. We searched the sand dunes on the western side carefully and in several
places we certified the presence of large quantities of pearl oyster valves, both entire
and fragmentary ; the nacre was undimmed in the case of many and even the mottled
prismatic outer coating was intact in some, showing even the characteristic radiating
purplish-brown bands distinctly. These shells certainly represent the remains
of a fishery camp held here, when, it is impossible to say from anything in the
outward appearance of the shells, as they might remain unchanged and uncorroded
for an indefinite period when covered with sand in the comparatively dry climate of
this locality.

The age of these shells when fished was, judging from the breadth of the hinge
groove, not less than 43 years, possibly five years.

There is no record of any fishery camp having been held here under British or
Dutch control, and it has been suggested as probable that these shells on Nalla Tanni
Tivu represent a fishery held by one of the Ramnad Rajas. This theory may, however,
be dismissed at once as untenable, for we have no evidence tliat these local potentates
ever claimed the right to fish pearl oysters in this district, though the zamindari does

* The compass bearings were difficult to fix owing to the heavy and continuous rolling of the ship. As near as they
could be made out they were—
Hare Island Lighthouse, 8. 57° W.
Church Gable, ‘Tuticorin, 8. 76° W.
North end, Chollai Island, N. 17° W.

44

maintain the right to rent out the local chank fishery at the present day ; while we have
direct and overwhelming evidence that both the Portuguese and the Dutch, over a
period of nearly three centuries, exercised the sole sovereignty over the whole of the
pearl fisheries on both sides of the Gulf of Mannar.

The more probable explanation is that these shells represent the remains of a
Portuguese pearl fishery camp located here e/rea 1560-1570, during the period when
the Portuguese, at war with the Nayak, blockaded the Madura Coast and removed the
Parawas from Tuticorin and Pinnaccil to settlements in the islands at the head of the
Gulf of Mannar. This particularisland of Nalla Tanni Tivu would be the natural loca-
tion of a camp to serve a fishery off the Indian Coast under such circumstances, as it 1s
the nearest one affording a satisfactory and sufficient fresh-water supply.

Natia Tannt Trvu anp Ureu Tanni Trvu Pars.—LEarly on the morning of May
138th we left our anchorage off Nalla Tanni Tivu and steamed south 25 miles to the south-
west end of Uppu Tanni Tivu Par, where we cast off the four inspection boats with
instructions to row H.N.E. over this bank. Several dives from the ship in five fathoms
at this place showed the bottom to be flat rock with a considerable amount of sponge
growing upon it. From this place we steamed to the eastern edge of Nalla Tanni Tivu
Par and there awaited the arrival of the inspection boats.

The results showed that the interval of sandy bottom between these Pars as shown
in the inspection chart is largely absent; that the extent of hard bottom is more
extensive than is charted, and that special attention should be given to this region at
inspections, especially in view of the remains of old shells on the neighbouring
island of Nalla Tanni Tivu. The depth of water on Uppu Tanni Tivu Par varies from
41 to 6 fathoms, while that on Nalla Tanni Tivu Par ranges from 53 to 7 fathoms,
depths rather greater than those recorded on the inspection chart.

The rock on both Pars varies from an almost pure limestone to a calearecus sand-
stone, in the former case brownish yellow in colouring and ringing like iron under a
blow ; this I consider the bed rock of the plateau and not a recent calcrete. It is
apparently identical with the hard limestone of the Jaffna Peninsula of Ceylon.

Few specimens were obtained as the water was too clouded with mud to permit of
objects being seen upon the bottom. The divers complained bitterly of the discomfort
of these conditions under which they had to examine the bottom by touch alone.

This excessive turbidity is in itself quite sufficient to entail upon pearl oysters
starvation, weakness and eventual death, especially in the case of young and immature
ones. A similar condition entailing fatal results 1 noticed among the younger oysters
which I kept in aquarium tanks at Galle during the south-west monsoon when
discoloured turbid water is the prevailing condition in Galle Harbour.

My coxswains, who have been connected with Ceylon inspections for a very long
period, 12 to 19 years, state that while the water becomes discoloured on the Ceylon
side after a continuance of heavy weather the extent of turbidity is sight compared
with what they have seen on this side during the last two days.

On the rocky ground of this region the tubes of Hunzce tubifex were plentiful
together with many sponges and gorgonoids,

Siphonochalina communis, Avinella donnani, A. tubulata, Isodietya sp., Suberites
inconsians, &C,, were net with, also Juncella juncea (in quantity) and Gorgonza minacea,

Neither chanks nor Pzana were found.

The sand met with was, as usual on this coast, fine grained and largely caleareous,
made up in the main of minutely comminuted shells. The quartz grains present were
all extremely minute ; foraminifera were fairly abundant.

In the afternoon as wind and sea increased rapidly we ran for shelter to the north-
east side of Uppu Tanni Tivu, By 4 p.m. a very nasty cross sea got up and with the
wind blowing half a gale the ship rolled unpleasantly at her anchorage. Towards sunset
a strong land wind set in, the sky over the land murky-red and threatening.

In the morning (May 14th) the landward side of the vessel, and of the awnings,
funnel, stanchions, &e., was covered with a thick coating of impalpable red dust; the
murkiness over the land of the preceding night had been due to dust clouds, which, as
they prevail throughout the south-west monsoon on this coast, must therefore form no
inconsiderable factor in the production of muddy deposits in the sea.

45

Kunutam Par.—Leaving the Uppu Tanni Tivu anchorage at 6-20 a.m. we steamed
south to the small Kumulam Par. A series of dives here in six fathoms showed the
bottom to be rocky, sometimes fairly clear of sand, at other times covered with from
one to two inches. A few Holothurians and sponge fragments were brought up; no
trace of oysters was found. ;

Steaming a quarter of a mile further another series of dives gave similar results ;
flat rock with sand fillmg the depressions and with occasional small, loose fragments of
calerete upon the surface.

At both stations the sand contained a large proportion of mud, so much that I
have no hesitation in condemning this ground as hopeless and utterly unfit to rear
oysters to maturity. It may with safety be ignored in future inspections. %

The ground lying between the Kumulam and Vembar Periya Pars was next
examined and found to consist of a coarser sand than any seen so far. Many medium
sized quartz grains were present and though the water here was discoloured, no mud
was actually found in the sand.

Depth 10 fathoms. Temperature of sea at 4-30 pu. 89° F. Specific gravity
1,022°80.

Vempar Periya Par.—Continuing our course we arrived at 8-15 a.m. at a point
which Captain Carlyon believed to be the north-east end of the Vembar Periya Par.

The steamer and the four inspection boats were employed in the examination of
it for the rest of the morning.

This par as outlined on the chart is of considerable extent, 3 miles in length by
13 mile in breadth, the bank ranking next in size to the Tolayiram Par, The depth
shown on the chart is 6 to 7 fathoms.

The examination proved hardly satisfactory, as out of upwards of 160 dives taken
oyer an area of three miles long by one mile broad, but eight dives (in 8 fathoms)
were on rock. All the soundings were between 63 and 9 fathoms, the great majority
being 8 to 84 fathoms.

On the small patch of rock found by No. 2 boat two small pearl oysters—4 to 5:
months old—were discovered, together with a large number of Suran (Modiola
barbata). One small fragment of rock bore a densely packed cluster of 10 indi-
yiduals. Euncid tubes and zoophytes were also present in considerable abundance.

The greater part of the sand was of a character approximating closely to that
found on the Ceylon banks—bright clean yellow in general colour with plenty of
quartz, cleaner and better sand even than that taken between this region and the
Kumulam Par. Two dives gave tenacious black mud similar to that taken. between
Uppu Tanni Tiyu and Nalla Tanni Tivu Pars.

The Par is all a more or less pure limestone, mostly of fine grain.

Viewed by the nature of the bottom and the depth of water, I am very doubtful
if the locality inspected is the Vembar Periya Par; I believe the ground examined
in reality lies seaward of the Parsonamed. This Vembar Periya bank at all times
must be diffienlt to find from want of good land-marks; there are indeed no charted
land-marks observable from this position at sea, though several remarkable trees and
clumps can be seen and might be utilized for lack of something better. To do this
sketches of the relative positions of these trees and clumps should be made from
different bearings and the positions of the principal objects marked accurately on
the chart. ;

Fortunately this is the only bank in any way difficult to locate, all others that
are equally far from land being within sight of such conspicuous land-marks as beacons,
lighthouses and pagodas.

On the evening of May 14th we returned to Tuticorin, the unsettled and
threatening character of the weather making it doubtful if we should be able to do
any further work at sea.

Pending a decision upon this question, I occupied part of this stay ashore in
endeavouring to locate any bed of window-pane oyster (Placuna placenta) that there:
might be in the neighbourhood. I had found prior to this several young individuals

12

46

thrown up by the tide along the shore to the south of the town, and from the muddy
character of the bottom I thought it useful to investigate further. Accordingly
taking two fishermen I proceeded south along the coast and passed the salt factory
scrutinizing as we proceeded the eroded edge of the low sandy land on the one side
and the face of the littoral on the other. Along the shore of the bay-like estuary
scuth of the salt factory large quantities of dead Placuna shells are observable in
two places accumulated in dense masses and embedded in the sand some little
distance below high-water mark. The shells appear as densely packed as those in
the great heaps which mark the sites of former fisheries of this shell-fish along the
shores of Lake Tampalakam near Trincomalie in Ceylon,

Close by I saw others embedded in the adjacent sand hummocks, showing up
wherever a section was exposed. In some places a depth of sand of fully 18 inches
lay upon the shells. Meanwhile the fishermen had been wading about in the shallows
and after trying various places found a small bed of the living animal and brought
ashore a considerable number. The majority of them were fairly well grown and
approaching maturity. The size of six typical individuals averaged 153 centimetres
in diameter, being almost perfectly circular in outline,

The men also reported large numbers of dead shells which, however, probably
belonged to past generations.

Placuna lives well out of water if kept in a cool situation, a property due to the
faculty this shell-fish possesses of closing the valves tightly at all points round the
margin, after the fashion of the edible oyster. In this particular case, several indi-
viduals which I put on one side for this experiment were found alive and vigorous
thirty hours later, in spite of being drained of water and the temperature as high as
96° F. in the shade.

In Ceylon a fishery of this shell was frequently leased by Government with
considerable profit during the past century, the locality being an extensive shallow
muddy bay on the north-east coast, close to the harbour of Trincvmalie.

In Tuticorin I could glean no information as to whether a fishery had ever been
held in the neighbourhood ; in view of the presence of ving individuals and of the
great piles of embedded shells along the sea-shore it might prove to be of advantange
to Government if further search were made in suitable localities—backwaters, shallow
estuaries, etc.—along the coast of the Madras Presidency with a view to locate any
beds sufficiently large to provide a fishery and to ascertain also if pearls be sufficiently
numerous to make such a fishery profitable. I notice that Dr. Edgar Thurston *
records Placuna from Pulicat lake and Buckingham canal. The former of these has,
T understand, an area far exceeding that of Tampalakam Bay and should therefore
receive special attention.

The weather had now improved temporarily and it was decided to spend two
more days upon the banks, in order if possible to provide me with an opportunity to
make a diving descent upon the Tolayiram Par, a matter which I considered to be of
great importance.

Leaving Tuticorin on the morning of May 17th, we proceeded to a position
south-west of Mela Onpatu Par, where we spent the whole of the available time in
taking numerous hauls of the dredge in 93 to 10 fathoms. My intention had been to
select a locality which wasa known chank bed in order to experiment with the dredge.
I had accordingly requested Captain Carlyon to arrange to be taken toa suitable
bank, the consequence being that the pilotage of the steamer was entrusted to a Par-
mandadai, who was, I understand, informed of my wish in the matter. The results
showed that he deliberately placed the ship where I am absolutely conyineed no chank
bed exists.

This action, accidental or intentional, barred my way to demonstrate, as I had
wished, the utility of the dredge in fishing for chanks. Fortunately one of the pearl
banks fished in February 1905, on the Ceylon side, adjoins a chank bed, and having

* “Notes on the Pearl and Chank fisheries and Marine Fauna of the Gulf of Manaar,’’ Madras, 1890, page 27.

47

the use of the dredging steamer “ Volet”? at that time, I was able to satisfy myself
by actual experiment that the dredge is an efficient implement for successful chank
fishing.

The bottom where the Parmandadai took the “ Margarita’? was quite unlike that
of any of the undoubted chank beds we had previously visited, while the depth of
water, almost ten fathoms, was nearly double that upon typical chank beds.

The ground was extremely rich in life, elongated cylindrical actinians of two
Species were abundant embedded in the sand, together with large numbers of an
elongated Molgulid, which appears to live upright with the aboral extremity
implanted in the sand. A small /Vlabellum sp. was plentiful on the surface together
with a drab and grey Pennatule and many Virgularia juncea ; eeborescent rosy tipped
Pennatulids were also characteristic, while several specimens of a hollow-stemmed
coarsely-branched Aleyonarian (? Siphonogorgia sp.) were taken. The latter were
pink and white in colour and were accompanied in each case by a pair of small crabs
and a pair of small Galatheids similarly celoured and obviously commensals.

Some colonies were more uniformly suffused pink than others and on these the
commensals were more uniformly tinted pink. On one colony, where white colouring
largely prevailed, and where the margins of the branches alone were coloured pink,
the crabs were uniformly white except for two splashes of pale pink on the anterior
edge of the carapace. The large fan-shaped green alga with bulbous base embedded
in the sand was the only alga found. A single specimen of Lingula sp. was one of
the noteworthy acquisitions made in this locality.

The sand was fine, clean, and with no trace of the mud which is a characteristic
componeni and essential attribute of a prolific chank bed.

Hence we moved north to the Tolayiram Par, where we anchored after verifying
the locality by cross bearings and by some trial dives, which indicated the presence
of numerous young oysters.

During the evening the crew caught a large number cf trigger fishes ( Balistes)
and of strong-toothed fishes of the genus Lethrinus, the latter being known as
Vellamm * among the Tamil fishers. The stomach contents of the Balistes were in this
case free from incriminatory evidence in respect to pearl oysters, due probably to the
fact that all the individuals were of a small size. In the case of the Vellamin on the
contrary the stomachs were crammed with fragments of pearl oyster shells upon which
this fish appeared to be feeding exclusively. As six of these, all of large size, were
caught within two hours it is plain that these fish are now inflicting enormous havoe
upon the bed of oysters on this par.

The next morning I donned the diving dress, and the water being fairly clear I
had an excellent opportunity of examining the bank.

The depth where the descent was made is 94 fathoms. I found the bottom very
~yariable ; in most places a covering of about an inch and-a-half of sand lay upon flat
surfaced rock. Here and there the rock protrudes or lies level with the general sandy
surface. These exposed patches are small in area, usually from 14 to 2 feet in
diameter. A limited amount of small cultch is present on the surface to which the
majority of the oysters adhered. The cultch consists of short fragments of much
worn branches of coral (“ chullai”), quite small Nullipore balls (Lethothamnion), the
tests of dead echinoids (chiefly of Clypeaster humilis), fragments of calerete and such
like.

The oysters were fairly abundant, their numbers obviously curtailed by the
quantative limitation of the cultch. They appeared to be of two generations, the one
four to five months, the other ranging from six weeks to two months.

Sponges were not obtrusive, several specimens of the peculiarly massive Petrosia
testudinaria were seen but the commonest species was one which interiorly is yellow,
while the exterior is more or less tinted with pale green. In its growth it envelopes
much sand in its substance, which is generally level with the sand surface, sending
up stout tapering branches at interyals. Its general appearance is inconspicuous.

* Lethrinus nelulosus and other species.

>

45

No living coral was seen except a small Fuvia sp. and an occasional Gorgonid.
While on the bottom I saw many fishes including both Ailat (Trigger fishes)
and Vellamin together with a beautifully striped sponge-eating fish (Holocanthus

émperatvr). The Asterid, Pentaceros lincki, was not abundant. No Suran (Modiola
barbata) was seen.

After I had completed my examination of the bottom, Captain Carlyon being of
opinion that it was now too late in the season to do further work, and as the coal
supply was on the point of giving out, under the circumstances I determined to
bring the investigation to a close.

When the anchor was brought up we had a repetition of our former experience
on this bank—the chain being studded with young oysters of about two months old
affixed by their byssal cables near the attachment to the anchor.

Two hours later we landed for the last time at Tuticorin and although I had not
been able to examine every bank charted, I considered that I now knew the general
characteristics of the principal groups sufficiently well to answer all practical purposes.

and enable me to furnish solutions to the majority of the preblems I had set eat te
solve.

i
tex)

COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERISTICS AND RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE OF THE VARIOUS PEARL BANKS.

Tn the present section an attempt is made to sieze upon the essentially charac-
teristic features of the chief pars—historical, topographical, physical and biological—and
therefrom by comparison with one another and with typical banks on the Ceylon side
to evolve a knowledge of their relative economic importance in regard to the prospect
they respectively hold out of successfully maturing such oyster spat as may from time
to time settle thereon: Such a comparative survey will also go some distance towards
enabling us to say what direction any measures of cultivation should take, if it be
found advisable or possible to assist nature by artificial means.

The configuration of the Indian coast of the Gulf of Mannar is simpler than that
on the Ceylon side. On the former there is no great shoal like that of the Ceylon
Karativu, which stretches northwards into the sea for a distance of nine miles giving
a certain amount of shelter to a great area of varied bottom, rock and sand, lying in
the Bay of Kondachehi. On the contrary the Indian Pearl Banks lie open to the full
force of the south-west monsoon which on this coast sweeps up in great violence from
south to north. Again lying as they do on the west side of the Gulf, they also
experience much reugh weather during the north-east monsoon, a time when the
Ceylon banks, lying under the lee of the land, enjoy comparative quictude. The
period of immunity from storm disturbance on the Indian coast is accordingly greatly
curtailed and is restricted under normal conditions to the months of February, March
and April. Occasionally fairly quiet conditions prevail during the greater part of
May—the onset of the south-west monsoon in full force being experienced somewhat
more tardily there than on the Ceylon side.

This geographical disability of the Indian Banks is linked with and intensified
by the mechanical disadvantage entailed by the inferior character of the sand on that
side, its finer grain and the admixture with it of mud—characteristics which contribute
to increase greatly the turbidity of the water whenever heavy seas sweep the Pearl
Bank region. As already noted these are conditions which have probably become
intensified concurrently with the erosion of the southern extremity of India and which
tend, though with extreme slowness, in the historic sense, to reduce the pearl oyster
productiveness of this locality—deductions from which we infer greater prosperity in
times past. That there was such anterior prosperity we have indications in the
existence of remains of ancient oyster-shell heaps close to Cape Comorin, in the
frequent allusions of classical writers to the wealth of the Pearl Fisheries of Kolkoi,
which town we have seen was situated on the river Tambraparni, in the statement of
Friar Jordanus that as many as 8,000 boats were engaged about the year 1330 in the
Indian and Ceylon fisheries and in the fact that Kayal or Cail near Pinnacoil is spoken
of by Marco Polo, Ludovico de Vathema, Barbosa and other medieval travellers as
the head-quarters of the Pearl Fishery—a ‘‘ great and noble city inhabited by jewellers
who trade in pearls.”

Dealing with the} conditions as they ‘are at present, we find that so far as our
available modern records permit us to judge, all the known oyster-productive banks are
comprised in the division which I have termed the Central, lying between Vaipar and
Manapad point, a distance roughly of 40 miles.

A list of these banks and of the groups into which I propose to classify them has
been given above on pages 25 and 26.

It now remains to describe the varying characteristics of each group and to
institute comparisons as detailed as the material at our command will allow,

1. ToLayirau Grovp.
This group possesses the distinction of being the most productive and remunera-
tive collection of pars along the Tinneyelly coast. ‘Iwo banks only are comprised
: 13

50

under the group title—the large Tolayiram Par and the small Kutadiar Pdr. The
former is by far the largest of the productive pars ; the latter, which lies to the south-
west extremity of its huge neighbour, being on the contrary one of the smallest, an
oval-outlined rocky patch one mile long by half that in breadth.

The Tolayiram Par lies 8 to 11 miles off the coast and opposite Hare island and
Tuticorin Bay, the northern extremity due east from the town of Tuticorin. In shape
the bank is roughly crescentic, the concave side turned shorewards. Its long axis lies
roughly north-east by south-west measuring over six miles in this direction. The
width varies from one to two miles, broadening as we approach the upper extremity.
The depth of water over it ranges from 8 to 11 fathoms.

Hight fisheries have taken place upon this locality during the past 120 years,
namely, in 1784, 1787, 1807, 1810, 1822, 1830, 1889 and 1890.

The annexed table shows the results of these fisheries so far as I can obtain
particulars :—

vine Number of Gross Govern- Net Govern-
oysters fished. | ment revenue. ment revenue.
RS. RS.
1784 AY ae as es iis 42,420 42,420
1787 oe os ee o. ap08 63,900 63,000
1807 40 56 50 os 71,647,305 2,91,539 neiats
More than
1810 50 oe 60 ote 22,000,000 2,38,897
1822 ee 5b os po eee 1,55.693
1830 56 O60 oe oie O000 Separate revenue
not given.
1889 oe ee oe 50 12,600,531 1,89,984 1,568,483
1890 ve oe .. 60 1,806,762 25,061 7,803
Total revenue over Rs. 10,06,594

The name Tolayiram Par, literally “(900 banks”, pithily describes the peculiar
physical conditions which prevail over the area so denominated. The character of
the bottom is an alternation of rocky patches scattered irregularly in a vast setting of
sand.

The sizes of the outcrops of rock differ greatly, from little tabular fragments a
foot or two across to great areas of several acres in extent. The sand is nowhere deep,
seldom forming a layer of more than six inches in depth, filling up inequalities in the
rocky framework of the bank.

The rock is a fine grained limestone compact and resonant, the colour yellowish
brown. Here and there a small admixture of quartz is present but never in any large
proportion. Loose blocks and many parts of the exposed surfaces are in a “ rotten ”
condition, tunnelled and excavated by boring molluses and occasionally by Chine.

The character of the sand is fine grained and almost entirely caleareous—a similar
material to that from which the underlying rock has originated.

Cultch is fairly abundant in places, scattered over the sand. It consists of dead
shells, broken branches of Madrepore coral (‘‘chullai”), Echinoid tests and similar
material.

A striking parallelism can be traced in nearly every characteristic between this
bank and the well known Periya Par on the Ceylon side of the Gulf of Mannar. In
both cases the bottom consists of a few inches of sand covering flat rock in those
places where the rock does not outcrop and with a fair amount of small cultch scattered
over the sand.

The average depth, 93 to 10 and 11 fathoms, is the same in both; both are
situated further seaward than any other true oyster pars on their respective sides—the
Periya Par 16 to 18 miles off land, the Tolayiram Par 11 to 12 miles.

The faunistic characters approximate in a remarkable manner, the larger and
more conspicuous species of animals are the same in both localities.

51

Tn the sponge, coral, echinoderm, molluscan and fish fauna there is practical
identity. One list will serve for both.

Thus we have as common to each :—

Petrosia testudinaria, Spongionella nigra, and Axinella donnuni typifying the
sponges ; the abundance on these two banks of Petrosia is one of the most remarkable
of the many of the striking resemblances between these banks, for this sponge, striking
in its strangely massive form, may be said to be hmited to them. I have scarcely
eyer seen it elsewhere.

Corals are scarce on both banks, represented by isolated colonies of Astraeids
(Favia sp.) and of Meandrina.

Occasional Aleyonarians and Pennatulids are found together with numbers of
knobbed horse chanks and small lamellibranchs of identical species. Pentaceros link,
Linkia laevigata and Antedon sp. are the chief starfishes on the Tolayiram Par.

On both banks the fish population as represented by the trigger fishes (A7atz),
and Vellamin (Lethrinus spp.) and gobies, appears to be greater in numbers than on
the banks nearer the shore.

On the whole both banks are decidedly poor faunistically, with little diversity
of life-forms which in the majority of cases are also poor numerically. The absence
of Madrepores, of Pinna and of the tubes of Eunice tubsfer, is characteristic and
note-worthy.

The Periya Par is cited by Professor Herdman * as especially suitable for dredging
over. The Tolayi ivam Par is equally so, or if anything somewhat superior as the rocky
surface is quite free from upstanding growths or rugged inequalities.

Reviewing the history of the Tclayiram Par as shown by the Inspection diaries
dating from 1860, we find that subsequent to the year named—when the bank was
covered with oysters said to be 33 years old—there are records of the bank having been
stocked extensively with spat four times, one of which resulted in the fisheries of
1889 and 1890.

The particulars of these are—

1803. “ Some young oysters (It would appear that the numbers could not have been
large. ‘* Suran”’ was noted as present the same year).

1874. “Some young oysters on Kuthadiar Pdr with ‘ Suran *. Gai

1878. ‘“ Thickly stocked with oysters of one year age.”

1881. “‘ Some oysters of one year.”

1884. The Inspection sammary reads “ plenty of oysters of one year age; clean and
healthy.” ‘hese oysters survived and furdished the two successive fisheries
of 1889 and 1890, at which a total of 14,407,293 oysters were fished.

1904. Since 1890 only one spat fall has been recorded—that found during the present
year’s examination.

The bank was not examined in the spring of 1861, nor in 1862, 1864, 1868,
1870, 1874, 1893 and 1900.

From the above we observe that out of a total of 44 years, 1860—1904, there
have been five recorded spat falls on this bank with the probability of a sixth in 1874,
when this bank was not examined although the adjcining Kuthadiar Par bore
young.

The bank brought one lot of these—that of 1884—to maturity and from what
I can see the prospects of a fishery resulting from the present population of young
oysters are good if they survive till next spring. By that time they will be too
large to suffer much from the depredations of oyster-eating fish (Trigger-fishes and
Vellamin). They will then be more robust and better fitted to endure the discomforts

and danger of starvation, which are the concomitants of the disturbed water conditions
during the stormy period of the year.

Comparing the history of the Periya Par, we find that in 26 years ending 1904,
this bank was restocked at least 12 times without yielding a fishery. We know also
that one fishery, that of 1879, is the only one yielded by this bank during the past
century (7,645,901 oysters realizing Rs. 95,694).

* loc. cit, Pt. 1, page 111.

02

So while the Ceylon bank is infinitely more fertile in the number of times it is
replenished with oyster spat, its Indian counterpart has greater reliability ; six times
do we know that it has brought its oysters to fishing maturity, namely, in 1784,
1787, 1807, 1810, 1822 and 1889-1890, and very probably a third time as well, for
the oysters noted in 1860 as 35 years old were in all probability there in 1841, in the
spring of which no examination was made, the officers in charge being busy with the
fishing of oysters of a similar age on the inshore pars. This divergence in results is
due in great part to the Ceylon bank being situated in a relatively more exposed
position being close to the edge of the precipitous submarine cliff that margins the
seaward aspect of the Ceylon Pearl Bank plateau. As a consequence the heavy seas
which characterise the period of the south-west monsoon break in unmitigated
violence upon the Periya Par, whereas on the Indian coast the movement of the
water during the same season has undergone considerable amelioration when it reaches
the Tolayiram Par from travelling over a couple of hnndred miles of comparatively
shallow water.

Faunistic and many physical (chiefly geological) characteristics link the Tola-
yiram with the Periya Par; but in regard to the aspect and degree in which the
former meets the fury of the south-west monsoon, its position is more comparable
with that of the Cheval Pdr which lies on the leeward side of the Periya Par, and
is as consistently reliable as the latter is the converse.

The value of the Tolayiram Par may be assessed as midway between the Cheval
Par and the Periya Par, inferior to the latter chiefly by reason of oyster spat being
less abundant and to current conditions (surface-drift) being less favourable to the
deposit of such spat on the Indian than the Ceylon side ;—partly also to the conditions
of life being somewhat less favourable on the Tolayiram Par owing to the greater
amount of sediment present in the sea on the Indian side.

The data for the institution of comparison between the rate of growth normally
characteristic of the Tolayiram Par oysters with that of oysters from typical localities
on the Ceylon side rests upon a single series of measurements and weights of that
generation of the former that survived to a fishable age in 1889, The resultant
comparisons based upon these dimensions are highly jinstructive and while in my
opinion I believe it is probable that they are quite typical of the normal progress of
growth of oysters on this pdr, further series of growth observations are desirable and
Inspectors after this should be instructed to record the necessary particulars on every
available opportunity.

Two methods of comparison are available: (@) the external dimensions of the
oysters when alive, and (4) the weight of the cleaned shells.

Making use of the former method we find usually but little increase in the length
and depth of the shell after the third year; the shell secreting energy of the animals
being thereafter occupied chiefly in adding to the thickness of the valves.

T now attach greater importance to observations upon the average weight of
oyster shells than upon measurements of length and depth, inerease being nearly as
steadily progressive in old age in the case of weight of shell as it is during the first
three years of existence ; it furnishes us with the most reliable guide available in the
assessment of age that I know of.

But we necd to have considerable knowledge of the special growth peculiarities
of the ground we deal with. Some pirs by reason of abundant food supply hasten
the growth of their oysters toa surprising degree, while others where less favourable
conditions prevail bear oysters of an unhealthy appearance and of stunted size. -

On the Ceylon side two distinct types of oysters are found, the one large and
vigorous, peculiar to the Southern and Eastern Cheval and Moderagam Pars, the
other slow-growing, small and stunted, characteristic of the rocky banks of the
Muttuvaratu, Mid- West and North-West Cheval.

We will now proceed to compare the sizes and weights of the generation of
oysters carefully guarded on the Tolayiram Pdr by Captain Phipps from 1884 to
1889 with those of oysters of the two types referred to on the Ceylon side,

Weiyht of Pearl Oyster Shells.

55

, Weight [Increase in
5 Number | per 100 | weight in
Locality. Date. oe. weighed. | pairs of year
values. | preceding.
YEAR, PAIRS. OUNCES. | OUNCES.
(| March 1884 oe 56 . st 10 1:00 50
| | October 1884 aa 86 6 1} 10 3°75 ue
March 1885 50 6 . ' 1g 10 6:25 5°25
October 1885 . oe S 24 10 7:00 3:25
April 1886 .. 50 30 : 22 LO 7:50 1:25
Tolayiram Par... re + November 1886 a0 ee 9 3t 10 8-50 1:50
March 1887 06 65 50 O 3¢ 10 10-75 3°25
| October 1887 0 a6 50 60 43 10 13°00 4°50
November 1888... 50 50 50 54 10 15:25 2°25
| (Fished} March 1889 ‘ 50 56 53 10 16-62 a0
i Solaey SEORISO Oe) al) ee 68 3 17°64 1:02
Western Cheval Par * (| March 1871 es sie ; 0 = 13 2-50 0
(Type intermediate between 1 1872 + an ve : is 13 7:50 5-00
the freely grown oysters of 8 . 6
the South and South-East 4 op ultei6} we oe 0 22 50 11°88 4°33
Cheval and the extremely || November 1873 ., ee an 0 3h 100 12-81 06
stunted ones from the Mut- (Fished) March 1874 O06 6 Bee 45 15°31 4:43
tuyaratu). rears a sis fe $ 43 47 18-75 3-44
March 1874 eae rere 8 33 2°25 a
South-East Cheval Par* Sc Pl Sta Se 00 Rie ‘ és 60 8:50 6°25
(Free growth type) .. een) 1876 6 5 : 23 150 13°44 3°94
Whibstan eer sicz Bone age e 51 18°75 5°31

* In Captain Donnan’s table the ages of these are given as three months older than shown
given, I believe, approximate more closely to the actual ages.

Analysing the above table we obtain the following comparisons:

Tolayiram Par.

Weight at $year . :
3 g

sn 12 years... :
93

59 oy 9 eee oe
23

oe a 9 002 vee

” = ” eee eee

” Oy wee

ae ee
Weight at jyear ...
oy 1Z years... :
93
2 Ut op =e
vs
oS) Un 0 - eee
3
oP) ae 2» eee ase
+ 3
Weight at $year... oc
cf 1? years ... sete
93
” pce 9) C COL
23
» “4 ” ees eee
” Age 5g oct ee

2°25
8:50
13°44
18°75

here; the figures now

The weight of three typical oysters from the fishery held on the Muttuvaratu
P4r in 1891 is 5°375 ounces, equivalent to a weight of 17-916 ounces per 10 pairs
of shells when the oysters were approximately 6% years old.

The annual increase in weight of oysters on the Tolayiram Par compares, as will
be seen from the above, very unfavourably with the comparatively stunted oysters
characteristic of the Western Cheval.
12 year, when 10 Tolayiram Pdr oysters weighing 6} ounces were but 11 ounce less

than the weight of a similar number from the North-Western Cheval.

The nearest approximation was at the age of

During the

next twelve months, however, the latter gained 44 ounces as against an increase of

14

54

1} ounce by the former. This disparity continued toincrease more slowly thereafter,
but unfortunately for want of data we cannot give the exact amount for the age of 4%
ears.

y It is a pity that we have not available a record of the yearly weight increase of
the oysters tished on the Ceylon Muttuvaratu Par in the same years as those of the
Tolayiram Pir. If we had J think we should find that there would be shown close
approximation between the two; the Muttuvaratu oysters of that generation were
markedly stunted and poor and the fishery of 1889 was decided upon only after
considerable hesitation.

The only datum I possess is the weight given above of three typical oysters from
the 1891 fishery. This which is equivalent to a weight of 17-916 ounces for LO
shells at 64 years of age as against 17°64 ounces for a similar number of 6$ years old
oysters from the Tolayiram Par in 1890 indicates practical identity in growth-rate.

By the courtesy of Captain Carlyon I have been enabled to measure a few indivi-
duals of this last fished generation of Tolayiram Par oysters and append a table
thereof in which the measurements of some of the oysters from the Muttuvaratu
Par are included for the sake of comparison. The numbers are too restricted to
give an average that may be taken as thoroughly trustworthy. They constitute,
however, the only data available and till systematic records extending over a ¢consider-
able series of years be obtained by work in the future it is well to place them on
record :——

Date. Age. | Size. Average.
v |
March 1835 .. ee| 12 years co 1165 58:5 xX 22-75
April 1886 60 e- | 22 years .. sie 9 ee 110-5 Seaieae
October 1887 .. ..|4i years oe | lees X 71:33 X 33.
November 1888 .. -- | d3 years o> 00 { 76°66 X 77°33 X 32:83.
March 1889 .» _»» | 52 years Ho { } 79 X 17 x 31°38.
> 1890 oC .. | 62 years p= [ 72°66 X 71 X 32°16.
J

Muttuvaratu Par, Ceylon.
(| 63 years (deep short { ]
| | oysters covered with
| living growths—

March 1891 60 ..¢ | Lithothamnion and | +
| | corals ; much corro- |
L J

73 X 63 X 36
67 X 57 X 355 ” +. 73°33 X 59°33 X 35°83.
80 X 58 X 386

ded by the tunnel-
ling of Clione).

It would appear from the preceding tables that the growth of the Indian oysters
is distinctly retarded after the third year, the life conditions being more favourable
to the young than to the old—a condition which I believe will be found due largely to
the great abundance of encrusting organisms, sponges and polyzoa especially, which
begin to flourish upon the valves of the Indian oysters in wonderful abundance from
the age of 14 year. A similar state of marked retardation in growth is charac-
teristic of the oysters from the Ceylon South Moderagam Par, after the attainment of
the same age, a retardation coincident with the appearance of luxuriant sponge,
tunicate, and polyzoa growth upon the valves. On the South Cheval where such
commensal growth is rare, no such marked slackening in the rate of growth is
apparent.*

The oysters of the Tolayiram Par in October 1887, when 41 years old, gave a
pearl valuation of but Rs. 83-11-5 per 1,000 and as this was much too low to justify
a profitable fishery, it was not till after the valuation of November 1888, affording a
valuation of Rs. 13-12-8 per 1,000, that a fishery was decided upon. The oysters
were therefore 5? years old when first fished in 1889.

* See my ‘‘Report on the Biological results of the Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fishery of 1904”, Ceylon Marine
Biological Reports, No. 1, Colombo, 1908.

NS)

Against this we find that the comparatively stunted oysters of the North-West
Cheval Par were ready for fishing at 3} years of age—a sample lifted in February
1874 giving the high valuation of Rs. 36-8—0 per 1,000.

Finely grown oysters on the South-East Cheval were also fished in 1878 at the
reputed age of 4 years; their valuation three months prior thereto was Rs. 39-14—2
per 1,000.

The oysters fished on the Muttuvaratu Par in March 1889 were reputed to be
44 years old, and in the November preceding, at the approximate age of 4} years, the
valuation sample worked out at Rs. 10-2-4 per 1,000.

2. Urt Par Group.

A chain of six banks, the Nagara, Uti, Uduruvi, Kilati, Attuvaiarpagam and
Patarai Pars constitute this group. All are of small and of about equal size, averag-
ing from $ to = of a mile in diameter. They lie in a depth of 7 to 84 fathoms,
landwards of the Tolayiram Par, at a distance of 5 to 7 miles from the shore. They
stretch north and south about 3 miles.

The area is essentially rocky, the proportion of sandy ground intermingled with
the rock insignificant.

Fanunistically this area is richer and more diversified than the Tolayiram region,
the intimate intermingling of rock and sand upon the latter producing effects when
the sea is disturbed which but a comparatively few species of animals can tolerate.

The fauna agrees closely with that of those southern Ceylon banks lying off
Negombo, notably with Uluwitte Par which lies at the same depth.

The features characterising the Uti banks in common with those off Negombo
are as follows :—

An abundance of sponges including a larger number of small species than in
the case of the Tolayiram. Stphonochalina communis with its numerous commensals
is among the most common; fixed corals are scarce ; Zoophytes are profuse with
many colonial masses of Filograna tubes and everywhere the curious branched tubes
of Eunice tubifex. Pinna sp. covered with large Balani are conspicuous on the sandy
ground.

The rocky bottom on the Uti banks is calerete, containing in some places a
considerable quantity of quartz grains embedded in a calcerous matrix—a quartzose
limestone.

The only fisheries recorded from these banks during the last 120 years took
place in 1792, 1830 and 1860-1861. In the last instance the oysters, said to be 44
years old, were abundant and of good fishing value. Adjacent banks are usually
fished in the same season with these and separate figures of the number of oysters
fished from the Uti banks are not available.

3. Past GRovp.

Two banks, the Pasi Pir and the Attonpatu P4r, may be linked together under
this head. They he 6 to 7 miles off Hare Island, Tuticorin, at a depth of 8 to 9
fathoms, and are situated nearly midway between the Uti Par group and the western
margin of the Tolayiram Par.

These also were fished in 1861 together with the adjoining Uti Par and
associated banks. Since then the only records of oysters present in quantity are—

1865 COE aa ... “ Very young oysters and Suran.”’
1876 het dr ... “ Plenty of young oysters of 14 years.”
1881 Bee ot ... “ Large numbers of oysters of one year of age with Suran

in some places and covered with weeds.”

In addition, in 1394, 1896 and 1901 some few young were found, but as their
number was limited we may disregard them and draw the interence that like so many
other banks on this side these two suffer rather from a shortage of spat than from
inability to support in health those that do appear and survive the dangers of the
first 15 months of existence. :

56

The bottom on the rocky patches is the usual calerete, the remainder of the
ground fine sand with occasional chanks.

The young oysters found in 1901 lay principally on the sandy stretches.
4, CRUXIAN GROUP.

Another group of small pars, three in number, lying west of the island of Vantivu
and about six miles from the mainland. ‘The three constituent pars, Cruxian, Tundu
and Vantivur Arupagam are to the north-north-west of the Uti group in rather shallower
water, 6 to 63 fathoms.

The bottom on the pars consists of level stretches of continuous rock, brownish
tinted calerete exactly similar to that on the Uti pars.

The fauna differs considerably from that of the last-named banks. Sponges are
less extensive, Siphonochalina communis being the most conspicuous and numerous.

Among other animals noted were large (inna sp. in abundance rooted in the
thin layer of sand covering the rock in many places, with Balunus and zoophytes
crowding the exposed surfaces of the Pinna ; Eunice tubifex in quantity ; Heteroneid
form of Nere’s sp. in the canal system of Suberttes tnconstans ; Botrylloides sp. ;
Turbinella rapa in the sand on the western side.

The large fishery of 1861 was contributed to from these banks, which appear
more favourably situated than many others for receiving spat falls, some eight being
recorded since 1861. Untortunately in only three instances, 1878, 1884, and 1902,
did the re-stocking take place on an extensive scale ;—even in 1902 the quantity of 14
to 2 years old then present was estimated at but 1,700,000, a number too small to
give good results two to three years after in view of the unpreventuble wastage that
must be allowed for.

In many respects the Cruxian group has points of resemblance with the North
and South Moderagam Pars on the Ceylon side, notably in the in-shore situation, the
comparative shallowness of the water and in the characteristic abundance and associa-
tion together of Pinna and Balanus.

The ground referred to on the Ceylon side is much the more clean of the two,
both faunistically and physically ; the sand there is of the usual coarse grit and this,
by the attrition of its movement during disturbed weather conditions effectually
scours the bank, keeping down the growth of weed and other organisms unprotected
by a hard external protective casing.

This mechanical cleansing of the bottom is nowhere well seen on the in-shore
Indian banks where the fineness and low specifie gravity of the sand lacks not only
an adequate scouring force, but by reason of the presence in it of a certain amount of
mud exercises a retarding influence upon oysters when they are present—an influence
resulting in a stunting of the growth.

The fact has long been noted * that the size of Ceylon oysters of a given age from
the Cheval par is markedly superior to that of those of the same age from the in-shore
Indian banks, the latter approximating more closely to those from the Muttuvaratu
Par, a bank with a bad reputation for the starved appearance characteristic of its
oysters.

5. VAIPAR KARAI GROUP.

The largest of these is the Vaipar Karai Par, a bank of some importance not
located upon the present inspection chart. From the observations made and the
information supplied by the par mandadai, it appears to lie north-west of the Devi
Par and about five miles due south of the village of Vaipar. The other banks in this
grouping are the Devi, Pernandu, Padutta Marikan and Padutta Marikan Tundu Pars,
varying in diameter from half to three quarters of a mile. Depth 6 to 64 fathoms.

The bottom is of the usual reddish-brown limestone common to the other

groups in this neighbourhood, interrupted and more or less overlaid by a fine muddy
sand, the larger particles consisting chiefly of comminuted shells. Numerous dead

* Thomas3H, Sullivan, /oc. cit., page 14.

57

pearl oyster valves, entire and also fragmentary, were abundant, fully 15 years old ;
of live ones but a few odd individuals were found greatly overgrown with tunicates
and polyzoa and distinctly stunted in appearance.

The sand on the Vaipar Karai Par is appreciably more dirty and muddy than
that on the Cruxian pars, a difference due to the vicinity of the embouchure of the
Vaipar river. The other pars of the group are probably less affected but all have
borne mature oysters, the group being included in the fishery ground of 1861.

The faunistic characters approximate to that of the Cruxian pars. Pinna sp.
bearing large Balani predominate. A few corals (astreids) were seen with lepto-
clinids and zoophytes.

Sponges are neither numerous nor conspicuous.

It appears from the records that these banks have suffered neglect in recent
years, which in view of the fishery held there in 1861 and of the record by Captain
Phipps of an abundance of young oysters in 1867, 1873, 1877, 1881 and 1884 they
do not justify.

Thus the Karai Par received no attention for the years 1887 to 1894 and again
from 1897 to 1903, both inclusive, a period of eight years in the one case and of
seven in the other.

In the case of the other pars of the group the years of neglect are 1888 to 1890,
1892, 1893, 1898, 1900 and 1901, eight years in all.

It is quite conceivable that fishable oysters were missed through such omission
and it emphasizes the contention I make elsewhere for a reorganization of the work
of inspection upon such a scientific basis of accuracy and method as will preclude
such lengthy periods of neglect.

A significant incident pointing to the imperfection of the methods in use in the
management of these banks is the statement made in Mr. H. Sullivan Thomas’ report *
that oysters of 24 to 3 years of age were found in December 1869 upon the
Pernandu, Padutta Marikan and Padutta Marikan Tundu Pars, while the entry for
March 1869 states that these banks were totally devoid of oysters,—-‘ blank ”’.
Comment is superfluous on sucha state of affairs, not unknown either in the past history
of the Ceylon banks.+ :

The Padutta Marikan Tundu par was one of the banks fished in 1830, the only
record of a fishery on this par during the past century.

6. NensuricHcHan Par Group.

Three of the usual small pars, 7 to one mile long, compose this group, namely,
Nenjurichchan, Kundanjan, and Mela Onpatu Pars and cannot be treated otherwise
than asasingle unit. They lie at a distance of about 6 miles fromthe shore midway
between Tuticorin and Pinnacoil. The depth is 72? to 8} fathoms.

The rocky surface is extensive and comparatively free from inorganic sand,
what there is being composed largely of Foraminifera (Orbitohtes and Heterostegina).
The rock surface is level and well adapted for dredging purposes.

Physically and faunistically this group resembles closely the seaward side of the
Ceylon Muttuvaratu Par. Like the latter it is rich in sponges and in Gorgonoids
(Gorgonia miniacea, Suberogorgia suberosa, Juncella juncea), while the long-armed
Asterid Linckia leavigata is fairly common.

The group has a disappointing history we]l expressed in the name of the median
par—Nenjurichchan, literally “‘ Heart-harrower”. Why this should be so is difficult
to say as the group lies but less than a mile to the south of the Tolayiram Par group ;
even the sandy stretch separating these groups carries occasional clusters of oysters
and on the chank bed to the north-west it is not uncommon to find a dozen young
oysters making use of the chanks in the absence of cultch and rock.

* Loe, cit., page 52.
+ Lwynam, Sir William—‘ Report on the Pearl Fishery of 1888,” Ceylon, 1888, page 13, also Stewart—
** Account of the Pearl Fisheries.’’

15

58

Probably the reason for such continued lack of oysters is due to some peculiarity
in the set of the surface drift over these beds.

This gronp should reeeive regular attention during the next few years with a
view to elucidate the reasons for this characteristic, note being taken (and recorded)
of the character of the surface at each inspection, together, with particulars of the
relative abundance of chief organisms met with, sponges, Gorgonoids, corals, the
tubes of Eunice, ‘‘Suran”’, chanks, fishes and seaweeds.

7. Purr Punpvu Grovp.

South-west of the Nenjurichchan group, this collection of small rocky banks
comprising the Vada Onpatu, Saith Onpatu, Puli Pundu and Kanna Puli Pundu
Pars, is situated about 9 miles norib-east of Pinnacoil and some 8 miles west from
the coast. The depth ranges between 73 to 83 fathoms.

The bottom of the pars is of flat-surfaced rock, somewhat patchy in distribution.
Here and there is a small amount of eulich, more especially on the landward side,
where a considerable amount of water-worn coral branches, ‘ ehullai”’, is present.

The par is mostly a fine grained and exceedingly dense limestone, reddish brown
in tint and so hard as to ring under the hammer. Occasionally the traces of dead
massive corals, As/re@a or Mcandrina, appcar embedded zn the surjace layer of this rock,
and are usually much bored into by tunuelling molluses and sponges.

The parchment like tubes of Lunice tubifex are most profuse, their lower
portions penetrating the tunnels already existing in the surface of the par-calerete.
The usual massive sponges, Stphonochalina communis, Spongella nigra, and Suberdtes
inconstans are met with, while off the edge of the banks on the west and north chanks.
were met with in number together with occasional Pinne.

The history of the group is disappoimting, no record existing of any fishery
having taken place here, although there were spat falls noted in 1867, 1874, 1878,
18£5, 1895, 1897 and 1901, all of small extent and of no practical importance.

The bank was not examined during the 8 years belween 1886 and 1895.

Fishes are very plentiful on this ground and the area of rocky ground exposed
is practically insignificant compared wiih the area of sand, while culteh is quite
insufficient. It is possible that in these three disabilities we have the reasons for
the smallness of the numbers of oysters noticed here from time to time.

8. Invern Kupamuttu Grove.

A series, stretching north and south, of 6 small banks lying 5 to 6 miles off
the coast between Pinnacoil and Kayalpattanam. The most northerly is the smalk
Pinnacoil Scltan Par, the most southerly a small bank, unnamed upon the chart,
lying a quaricr of a mile south of the Saith Kudamuttu Par—the depth in all eases
being 74 to 83 fathoms. :

The general character of the rocky ground is almost identical with that
characterising the Uti Par group which lies in the same depth of water. Many of
the larger organisms found in the latter locality are also present here, sponges and
Eunicid tubes coming up at nearly every dive. Pinna and Balanus were noted as
absent from these bauks—common features of the Uti pars. As on the latter, a
few odd oysters remain from the generation noted in 1902 as being from 14 to 2
years old; all were more or less enveloped in the orange-red sponge Clathria indica.

In 1818 Kudamuitu, Saith Kudamuttu and Putu Pars gave a fishery yielding
Rs. 1,67,693. Ten years later they were fished again in conjunction with the
neighbouring pars, and from an entry in Captain Phipp’s list * that oysters 24 to 3
vears old were present in May 1860 and that no inspection was made in the twe
following years, I think there can be no doubt that mature fishable oysters were
here also in 1561 or 1862, not being fished owing to a large number of other banks
being stocked at the same date and receiving preference in the order of fishing.

—_—.

* Tl amas, H. Sulliva, /oc. cit, p. 58.

59

The rocks show some diversity in character, dense and compact limestone
passing in some places into a somewhat quartzose stone having a calcareous matrix.
‘The hard bottom is much cut up by more or less extensive stretches of sand. Here
and there we meet with loose fragments of calcrete similar in composition to the bed
reck of the par; dead coral is “fairly common in the form either of much honey-
eombed tabulae or of rolled and much worn broken madrepore branches, derived
probably by the action of baekwash and under-current from the extensive coral reefs
that fringe the adjacent coast.

Chank beds lie to the south, east, and west of these banks, forming virtually a
girdling of chank-producing sands.

A list of the common forms of life met with here is given on page 102
together with other details.

The term Kudamuttu used in the names of these banks is significant. It
means literally the ‘‘ Pearl Bay”’, so that the shallow indentation off which these
banks lie and which has Hare Island, Tuticorin, and Trichendur point as its northern
and southern limits, with the mouth of the Tambraparni river at the centre of its
eurye, appears to haye been termed the Pearl-bay, par excellvnce, from the renown of
the pearl fisheries held there. Kolkoi and Kayal were at the embochure of the
Tambraparni, so we have in Kudamuttu further indirect evidence that the towns
named were located near the centre of the most prolifie pearl fisheries of early and
medieval times, the periods when they flourished respectively.

9. OutER Kupamuttu Group.

This is a eongery of some six small banks lying due east of the Inner Kudamuttu
group. It measures some two miles north and south by the same from east to west,
with an average depth of 9 to 10 fathoms.

No fishery i is recorded from these banks; neither do we know of any extensive
spat fall in any year since the inspection record begins in 1863. ‘Time did not permit
of an extensive examination this year.

10. Kapitan Group.

This collection lies about seven miles west of Pinnacoil and due south of the
Kudamuttu group from which it is separated by a narrow chank bed. To the south
it marches with the Karuwal group. Ia depth it agrees with the former—7+ to 8
fathoms.

The two principal patches of rocky ground are the Kadian and Kanawa Pars,
each of about half a mile in diameter. The whole group covers an extent measur-
lng approximately two miles from north to south by one and a half from east to west.

In its fauna, physical structure, and history, it isin close agreement with the
inner Kudamuttu region, and was fished in conjunction with the Kudamuttu Pars
in 1828. Spat falls have several times been recorded since 1861, namely 1 in 1878,
1881, 1895 and 1597 when young oysicrs Jay thick on all the rocky outerops and
wherever there was any cultch, quantities being found adhering even to the valves
of Pinna, which are fairly abundant on the edge “of. the sandy ground on the western
margin.

The generation of oysters seen for the first time in 1897 were reported healthy
and stiil plentiful j in the following year, but in 1899 the bank was described as almost
bare of oysters. A very large ‘number of byssal cables was noticed at this 1899
inspection, indicating|probably a recent inroad by rays (R/inoptera sp. ) upon what
must have been a promising bed of oysters.

The Inspector, I observe, remarks that the presence of these byssal strands
““ shows plainly that the oysters of last year have migrated”, a deduction not warranted
by an intimate knowledge of the habits of the pearl oyster.

Whenever an occurrence of this nature be met with, care should be taken to
eseertain the condition of the individual byssal cables; we require to know whether
the majority show signs of having been broken with violence as happens normally
when oysters are torn away from “their attachment, or if the strands of each cable

60

join together at the free end in a pale coloured semi-gelatinous ‘“‘root”. Only if
such ‘‘roots’? be present can we infer voluntary migration, for when an oyster
decides to shift its quarters it sloughs the root of the byssus; it never severs it
—indeed such is an impossibility. In any case a pearl oyster’s migration is hardly
worthy of such a designation ; at the most its journey can be measured in yards and
for practical purposes the power may be ignored—a power of little advantage to the
possessor except to shift position from one side of a fragment of rock to another.
‘hus I have seen an oyster three years old crawl four inches up the side of a stone
to get away from an eddy of sand playing round the base.

11. KaruwatL GRovpr.

A series of the usual small rocky patches called pars lying seven miles east-north-
east from Tiruchendur Pagoda. The depth is 75 to 8 fathoms.

The principal banks are Velangu Karuwal and the Karai Karuwal oceupying the
southern portion of the group, with the Periya Malai Piditta and Naduvu Malai
Piditta Pars on the north, the whole scattered over an area about three miles long by
from one to two miles broad in an east to west direction,

The rocky areas have the same general features as the other pars of the Central
division lying in a similar depth—flat-surfaced rock outcropping in patches of
different size from a surrounding waste of sand.

The rock is the usual somewhat variable calcareous calcrete. The sand to the
west of the group is fine grained and passes gradually into a chank bed. On the par
region proper the composition of the sand varies considerably ; on the surface of the
lock foraminifera (Ordctolites and allied forms) form a notable proportion of the bulk ;
elsewhere the grain becomes frequently coarse and occasionally grades into a distinct
gravel. On the northern section a considerable amount of small Lithothamnion balls
is locally abundant.

Among the characteristic organisms we have Stphonchalina communis, Spongio-
nella nigra, Axinella tubulata, Axinella donnani, Clathria indica.

A few corals, chiefly Fava sp. (no Madrepores were seen) ; euntce tubifer is
abundant.

Other common organisms are Pentaceros lincki, Linckia levigata, Antedon spp.
Ophuiroids ; Scrupocellaria sp ; Padina commersoni, Codium tomentosum.

A considerable number of dead oyster shells were found of a size of those from two
and a half to three years old. Living oysters of about the same age were present here
and there, the majority enveloped in the encrusting mass of Clathria indica.

The Karuwal group has brought oysters to maturity more frequently than any
other bank save the Tolayiram Pdr during the last century—in 1805, 1815 and 1862.
Since the last named date young oysters have appeared here in quantity at ieast five
times,—in 1863, 1874, 1878, 1884 and 1897; no inspection of the Karai Karuwal was
made in 1865, 1870, 1878, 1874, 1875, 1877, 1887, 1889-1890, 1892-1893, 1900 and
1902.

The oysters found in 187 were still on the pars in 1899 and would have been
ready to fish the following year when however the bank was not examined,
owing presumably to the fishery then in progress on the neighbouring Teradi Puli
Piditta Par.

The fishery of 1862 on these banks produced a net profit to Government of
Rs. 1,10,619.

The general characteristics of the Karuwal group are the most favourable of any
scen during the investigation, the ground approximating most nearly to the condition
found on certain of the better parts of the Cheval Par—the most valuable and
reliable of all the Ceylon banks.

In both cases we find the depth of water about the same, while the bottom on
the Karuwal group has a diversity in physical characters somewhat approaching that
found on the Cheval, stretches of rock much broken up by patches of sand overlaid
in places with a considerable quantity of eultch consisting of loose blocks of calcrete,

61

nodular masses of Lithothamuion (‘‘kotteipakku”’) and worn fragments of dead
coral (“‘chullai”). Such diversity seems a condition specially suited to the require-
ments of oysters.

12. OpaKaRal Par.

A bank lying six miles west of Trichendur and due south of the Karuwal group
with which it appears to be linked in its main characteristics.

Much of the bottom is well cultched with Lithothamnion nodules * and the extent
of rocky bottom is satisfactory, the par extending about 13 mile north and south. The
depth is 8 to 84 fathoms.

Prior to 1885, this, in common with the banks included under the term Manapad
group, received insufficient attention and there can be little doubt that fishable oysters
occupied the bank in 1900 and perhaps in 1901,—years when no examination was made,
although it was reported in 1899 that oysters of 25 inches in depth were sufficiently
numerous to give 20 to a dive.

In the 44 years since 1860 the bank was examined sixteen times only, so that no
inspection was made during 28 years. Twice there was no examination for five years in
succession, and this in view of the bank being for all practical purposes a portion of the
most prolific oyster-maturing ground on this coast !

13. Cuopr Par.

A bank four miles west of Trichendur in 81 to 9 fathoms of water. I had no
opportunity to examine it.

According to the inspection records it bore oysters of one, two and three years of
age in 1869 and is described as being covered with shells and coarse sand about six
inches to a foot deep in 1591 and 1894. It is marked as ‘ useless ” in the summary
of 1899, a conclusion I do not think is justifiable in view of (a) the oysters met with
here in 1869 and (6) its proximity (one mile north) to the Tundu Par which yielded
oysters at the fishery of 1900. Itis noteworthy im this connection to observe that
these Tundu Par oysters were not known to the Inspector prior to the fishery in
question, being discovered accidentally by the divers on their way to the fishery
ground on the Teradi Puli Piditta Par. Once again I feel driven to the conclusion
that inspection work has too frequently been performed in perfunctory manner, with
want of method and over too limited an area. Only ten times since 1860 has any
attention been paid to this bank and in view of the imperfect method of inspection
employed I am far from being convinced that the examination was efficiently carried
cut and that the results shown are reliable. In most years no note is supplied of
the number of dives made, and in the absence of this we have no guide to the thorough-
ness of the work done. I shall return to a consideration of this vitally important
subject when dealing with general conclusions.

14. Tunpu Par.

A bank lving one mile south of Chodi Par at the same distance from land, depth
from 9 to 94 fathoms.

It appears to have been fourteen times examined in the course of the last 44
years. In 1897 it was not examined ; in 1898 oysters were ‘‘ plentiful, 35 to a dive,
two inches in size and healthy in appearance”’; the succeeding year states ‘‘ Nothing
of value”’, while in 1900 the fishing fleet stumbled by chance on a fine bed of oysters,
fully four years old on this very bank, a telling impeachment of the accuracy of the
general results of the examination carried out in the preceding year! The oysters
plentiful in 1898, and missed at the regular inspection of 1899, would assuredly have
matured and died unknown had the accidental rediscovery of the bed not been made
by the divers on their way to the “ official” fishing ground.

The fishery of 1900 proves the good potentialities of this bank, which deserves
regular and careful attention in common with all the groups in this neighbourhood.
It is also to be noted to the credit of this bank that the oysters fished here in 1900
were larger shells than those from the Teradi Puli Piditta Par and fetched better
prices than the latter.

4 Tnepection Report, 1887.
16

62

It was remarked that the Tundu Par oysters were covered with weed, whereas
those from the other par were practically clean.*

15. Manapapd Group.

Under this name I propose to include a one ranked series of pars extending over
6 miles north-east and south-west parallel with the coast between Trichendur
Pagoda and Manapad point. They lie at an average distance of 8 miles from land.
The depth ranges within close limits from 8 to 9 fathoms.

From north to south the names of the constituent banks read—Trichendur
Puntottam Par, Sandamacoil Piditta Par, Teradi Puli Piditta Par, Semman Patt Par,
and Manapad Par, together with a few smaller rocky patches.

Prior to 1885 these banks received scant attention and were seldom examined,
under the impression I believe, that they were of little or no value. However in 1897,
oysters ranging from 2 inch to 14 inch in depth were found on Sandamacoil Piditta,
Teradi Puli Piditta, Semman Patt Par, Surukku Onpatu Par (Manapad Par appears
omitted from every inspection since 1860!) and in 1899 well-grown healthy oysters
were found plentiful on all the four banks.

The following year the Teradi Puli Piditta Par was fished together with the
Tundu Par already described. Unfortunately the quality of the oysters from the former
par was too poor to encourage the divers to attend in large numbers and continue for
a prolonged period. It appears possible that they were fished a year too early, though
this is a point that was not definitely settled.

The valu: eso of a sample of these oysters in the October preceding was reported
to be Rs. 10-20 per 1,000 and according to the experience of many fisheries on the
Ceylon side, the actual price obtained at the fishery following is invariably considerably
higher. In the present cas2 Government had the utmost difficulty in obtaining
the valuation figure and indeed were we to exclude the larger and finer Tundu par
oysters, the price at which the Teradi Puli Piditta oysters were sold would be found
to be below the sample valuation.

It would be found of great assistance to Government and to buyers alike if
a second valuation sample of oysters were drawn immediately prior to the fishery, say
ten days preceding, in addition to the one obtained in the October or November of the
preceding year. This is regularly done at the Ceylon fisheries and serves as an
efficient check and corroboration both of the accuracy of the preliminary valuation and
of the identity of the ground selected for fishing with that from which the first sample
was taken. As showing the possibility of error in localization of patches of oysters
when the organization is imperfect, are the two well-known instances of this given Be
Sir William T'wynam, namely—

(a) How in 1836 two beds of young oysters were fished in error instead of one
bearing old and properly matured ones, and (6) how the fishery of 1860 on the
Moderagam was all but lost, a long continued search of three days being necessitated
ere the bed was rediscover ed. T

An omission which I cannot understand is the fact that no inspection was ace
of the Semman Patt and Surukku Onpatu Pars in 1901 as they bore oysters in 1899 of
the same age and in the same abundance as those on the Teradi Puli Piditta Par. No
examination of these was made in 1900 and it is quite probable that patches of fine
quality and large sized oysters might have furnished a fishery on these pars in the year
named. This region in 1901 was by far the most important to examine and for some
reason or lack of system the obvious was not carried out.

SouUTHERN OR Comorin D1yisron.

Of the banks forming this division and stretching from Manapad southwards to
Cape Comorin little is known. A list of some of these banks is given on page 103.
Of these only the Manapad Periya Par appears to have received any attention. This
bank lying in 53 to 7 fathoms is nearly 10 miles in length by about one mile

* “ Proceedings, Board of Revenue, Madras,’’ No. 208, October 1900.
f ‘‘ Report on the Ceylon Pearl Fisheries’’, 1902, page 20.

63

in breadth. it lies from 6 to 10 miles off the coast, south-east of Manapad and
about 5 miles south-west of the southern extremity of the Manapad group of pars.
No information is given in the inspection summary of the character of the bottom.
It would be advisable if the Inspector be instructed to pay special attention to this
group during the next few inspections in order to obtain data for comparison of
these banks with the better-known ones of the Central division.

Historical evidence as already quoted points to some at least of these banks being
oceasionally productive. I know of no physical reason why such conditions should
cease.

NortHEeRN oR Kinaxkarar Drviston.

The lmits of the banks comprised in this category lie between Vaipar on the
south and the Island of Ramésvaram on the north, a distance of 60 miies. In the
past considerable attention has been devoted to their examination, very much more
indeed than that given to those of the Southern division which are more deserving of
such eare.

All these northern pars suffer from the excessive turbidity of the sea which
prevails during stormy weather. The proportion of mud present in their sand is much
greater than in the case of either the Central or the Southern division, and as
a consequence pearl oysters exist in a condition of chronic starvation, are stunted from
an early period and never survive to a fishable age, if we may judge by the records of
the past 100 years and from the effects I have noticed in those experiments where
I have kept oysters under circumstances simulating a like condition of silt-laden
water.

Mauch of this mua is derived from the rivers entering the sea between Vaipar and
Pamban, mud which moves north-east up the coast during the south-west monsoon
period. In several places eddies eansed by the deflection of the current by the
presence of the chain of islands lying parallel with this part of the coast conduce to
the formation of mud deposits at definite localities, one of which we found between
Nallatanni Tivu and Upputanni Tivu Pars; other mud deposits are marked on the
Admiralty chart.

Between Nallatanni Tivu and Pdémban the banks have all the useless character-
istics of the Ceylon banks immediately south of Mannaar island and are distinguished
by an inordinate luxuriance in growth and variety of Algae, such as Luurencia,
Polysiphonia, Corallina, Chrysymenia uvaria, Halimida tuna, and Kallymenia perforata.

Such pars are, I fear, uniformly valueless and unworthy of inspection oftener
than once in four years.

Greater attention 1s required in the southern portion of the division where there
exists the possibility, rendered somewhat definite by the presence of the remains of a
fishery camp on Nallatanni Tivu, of oysters some day maturing. The prospect is not
hopeful but is sufficient to justify an inspection in alternate years. The pars requiring
the most attention are the Upputanni Tivu, the Nallatanni Tivu and the Vembar
Periya Pars. The two first Jie four miles off the coast south and south-east of
Valinukam Point, the last south-east of Vembar village.

The rocky bottom on all these pars is the usual brownish dense limestone calcrete,
while the sand is in most cases rather finer than that from the Central and Southern
divisions and the amount of mud mingled with it is very markedly greater in quantity.

When inspection of this ground be made, diving and dredging traverses should be
made oyer the whole of the ground at depths between 73 and 10 fathoms to the south
and east of the two Tanni Tivu and Vembar Pars. Some of the ground we met here
was distinctly promising, and being further from land and at greater depth the bottom
is more free from mud than on the inshore banks.

The characteristic organisms of the Tanni Tivu Pars are sponges in great abund-
ance (see page 28 for names), various Gorgonoids, notably Juncel/a juncea, an occa-
sional Astraeid, the tubes of Hunice tubifer and numbers of Pinna ; Modiola barbata
(suran) generally absent.

Kumulam Par is valueless, as are also Valinukam and Valinukam Tundu Pars
and some others in shallow water between Valinukam and Vembar.

VI.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.
A. CONCLUSIONS.

The outstanding conclusions of supreme importance to which my investigation of
the records and natural characteristics of the Tinnevelly and Madura pearl banks has
led are that the banks have latterly given inferior returns owing to—

(a) The imperfections of past and present methods of inspection, and
(4) Deficiency in the supply of divers when fisheries are held.

Imperrect Metuops or INSPECTION.

The Ceylon banks have certainly enjoyed larger measures of supervision and a
more developed inspectional organization during the past half century than the Madras
banks and probably during the preceding 50 years as well. They were, however,
inspected in a very imperfect manner till the early sixties, when Captain Donnan
introduced improved methods. Prior to that time, owing to the charts in use being
imperfect and the landmarks insufficient in number and in conspicuousness, the
Inspectors relied in great part upon information supplied by native headmen. ‘The
boats employed were often ill-adapted to the purpose and the search for beds was not
eonducted with anything approaching scientific precision.

As already mentioned, Captain Donnan, who was Inspector from 1863 to 1902,
organized matters on an improved basis and so far as nautical knowledge permits
brought the mechanical part of the inspection to a high level of excellence. By the
preparation of large scale charts, whereon he plotted every landmark of value and the
outlines of many of the pars, he was enabled to dispense with the services of the
headmen ; he abolished the unhandy ‘‘ ballams” which served as the inspection divers’
boats, introducing in their place a handy type of whale boat; he elaborated an
admirable system of ‘‘ cirele inspection” capable of supplying detailed information in
regard to the minute features of the ground iuspected—the respective numbers of old
and young oysters present, the ratio of sandy ground to rocky and the distribution of
oysters over it. He trained intelligent natives (Parawas) to act as coxswains of these
bvats and to record in diagram form the results of each and every dive made during
the day’s work.

The present state of the Tuticorin inspection organization is similar to that
characterising Ceylon inspection prior to the inception of Captain Donnan’s improve-
ments. Charts are imperfect and do not show the position of the chief landmarks ; *
native pilots (par-mandadais) have to be employed ; circle inspection is not carried on
in an adequate and systematic manner; native boats are still employed for the divers’
use and no attempt has been made to train efficient coxswains to keep records of the
work done with exactitude. Asa consequence of such imperfect methods I am con-
vineed that beds of oysters have been missed and fisheries lost from time to time.
Such mischanees certainly did happen on the Ceylon side under similar conditions. In
the experiences given by Captain Steuart in his ‘‘ Account of the Pearl Fisheries ”
his belief is several times stated that beds of oysters had repeatedly been missed and
that even in 1836 a bank was lost and two or three beds of young oysters fished by
mistake. He ‘attributed this in great measure to the clumsy boats used for inspeec-
tions and the ignorance of the native headmen”. Sir William Twynam (‘ Report on
the Pearl Fishery of 1888,” page 13) in commenting on this has no doubt that want
of proper landmarks, incorrect (or rather confused) compass bearings, incorrect charts
and unsatisfactory inspections hada great deal to do with such lost fisheries—a conclu-
sion which I cannot improve upon when commenting upon the past and present methods in
use in the examination of the Tuticorin banks.

——

* See charts A and B in annexures,

65

Until the present day, a sea-faring education has been considered the fitting
mental equipment for Officers in charge of the Pearl Banks of Ceylon and India. Men
who had passed their youth and early manhood on the sea were appointed, the impres-
sion being that nautical knowledge and elementary marine surveying were the chief
qualifications for these duties. Captain Donnan has been without doubt the ablest of
these nautical Inspectors, but far as he carried the improvement of inspection methods,
lack of biological knowledge prevented him from so economizing his time as to enable
him to examine each season the whole of the potential oyster-bearing ground in his
charge. In this way it was that often enough precious days and weeks were devoted
to the examinaation of ground which a biologist would have decided at once to be
unworthy of detailed circle inspection, while other large areas, biologically more
fayourable to oyster growth, had to be left wholly or partially unsurveyed for want
of available time.

A concrete instance of the imperfection of present inspection methods on the
Tuticorin banks is afforded by the last fishery held, that of 1900. The bed to be
fished was the Teradi Puli Piditta Par off Trichendur; fishing went on there for three
days, but, on the fourth, some of the boats, owing to a strong head wind, were not able
to fetch the proper bank and anchored three miles away on the Tundu Par, where to
the surprise of everyone—officials included—they found quantities of oysters larger
and apparently older than those on the advertised bank *. The inspection records for
the preceding four years, if the examination had been efficiently carried out should
have indicated the presence of oysters each year at this locality. The actual record
is, however, as follows ¢ :—

ae ‘« Bare of oysters ”’.
©1897 ... Not examined”’.
1898 ... Oysters plentiful, 35 to a dive, 2 inches in size, healthy in appearance.”
«© 1899 ... Nothing of value.” (sic !)

The inefficiency of present inspection methods is palpable. The oysters fished in
1900 were estimated by Captain James as four years old (oc. cct.), so that by the
Inspector’s own showing this particular bed was missed on two occasions out of the
three that it was examined. Oysters do not and cannot migrate, and if the oysters
seen in 1898 and fished in 1900, were missed in 1896 and 1899, we cannot do other-
wise than condemn the character of the methods employed in inspection.

Who can say how many similar oversights there have been? Careful scrutiny of
the inspection records show many suspicious entries. Take the Karai Karuwal Par,
one of the most productive banks in this region. The records for 1897-1902 run
thus :—

UES ... Large quantities of young oysters, healthy in appearance, 1} to 3 inch
in size.
©1898 ... Oysters plentiful, 35 to a dive, 2 inches in size, healthy in appearance.

1899 ... Hundred and seventeen oysters, 27 inches in size; among these eleven
dead shells.

“1900 ... Not examined.

“1901 .». Coral, weeds, pinna. No oysters.

«1902 Not examined.”

Can we doubt that a fishery was missed in 1900 ?

The records of the Velangu Karuwal Par and the Trichendtr Puntottam Par
are identical.

On the Odakarai Par in 1899 there were ‘‘ oysters, 20 toa dive, 24 inches in size,
healthy. A very small quantity of dead shells were found. Divers eae that the
undertow was very heavy and that they had much difficulty in keeping on* their feet.
Large quantity of weed on this bank,” but no examination was made in 1900, 1901
or 1902!

Mr. Sullivan Thomas remarked the same discrepancies in the inspection records.t
He says :—

* “ Madras Board of Revenue Proceedings,’’ No. 208, dated October 1900, page 4.
+ Copied trom the Inspection Registers in the office of the Superintendent of Pearl Fisheries, Tuticorin.
+ “ Report on Pearl Fisheries and Chank Fisheries ’’, Madras, 1884, page 24, paragraphs 76 and 77.

17

66

“ Looking for instances of oysters that have been obviously missed, we find that
‘in 1869, banks 15 and 16 contained oysters of 2} and 3 years old in December,
“ eae a blank was recorded in March of the same year. ‘Again, in March of the
‘same year, bank 49 held ‘ many oysters of 1, 2 and 3 years of age,’ which for want of
. inspection had not been found before. Tn April 1878, banks 44 and 45 ‘ were
“thickly covered with oysters of one year age’, and in May of the following year the
“record is ‘blank’. If. they had not migri ‘ated and been missed, we might ‘perhaps
‘have found some traces of at least a few dead shells. In 1882, we find ‘dead
‘shells’ of we know not what age on bank 20, which the previous year was
SOS anik75

‘¢ Banks 15, 16, 17 might seemingly have been fished in 1870, but they were not
‘finspected. Perhaps Captain Phipps was away; perhaps the necessity for inspection
“was lost sight of for want of statement b.”

I may add that long weeks before [ made my investigation and before I had
acquaintance with the facts above related, my most intelligent coxswain, a Tuticorin
man himself, in reply to my inquiry if he had any theory why oysters came to
maturity so seldom on the Indian banks, said ‘‘ oysters often come, inspection not good,
not wide enough”’. He remarked that he and his people often said among themselves
that if the Indian inspection was carried out in the thorough manner it is on the Ceylon
side there would be more frequent fisheries. As he said, long ago fisheries were very
good off Tuticorin and Kayalpatnam,—why should they now be so very few and
unprofitable ? This opinion expressed, I believe, his honest belief; there was nojadvan-
tage in deceiving me and at that time he had no idea that I was likely to have any
connection with the Indian banks. Candid opinion of the native fishermen is often
shrewd and well considered, and I agree cordially with Mr. Sullivan Thomas in his
remark “as regards fisherfolk know ledge—it i is marvellously good and should never
be neglected, but at the same time always tested.” * In other words the ideas of the
local fishermen and divers may often furnish a valuable working hypothesis.

NumericaL Derictency oF DIVERS ATTENDING THE FISHERIES.

Apart from any question of the fertility of the banks, the inadequate supply of
divers attending the Tuticorin fisheries has frequently entailed disastrous financial
consequences, notably in 1889 and 1890. In those years large fisheries took place
concurrently off the Ceylon coast, and as the Ceylon fisheries are believed by the
divers to yield them better results than those on the Indian coast, it was with consider-
able difficulty that any men were prevailed upon to attend the latter. This state of
affairs was well known among the native merchants and all the more wealthy resorted
accordingly to Ceylon as the market possessed of the greater attractions. Their
abstention further influenced the results adversely.

Take the fishery of 1889 for example. In that year the Tolayiram Par was
densely stocked with fine oysters nearly six years old. Captain Phipps, the then
Superintendent of Pearl Fisheries, caleulated that there were 309,760,000 oysters upon
the bank; but for want of sufficient boats and divers the gross take, 12,600,000 oysters,
barely reached 4 per cent. of the estimated total available. The average number of
boats out per day was 35; the largest on any one occasion was but 48.

The next year, when the oysters were dying off, an even worse state of affairs
prevailed ; the average number of boats employed per day fell to 21 and the total take
of oysters was a miserable million and three quarters (1,806,762), bringing in a paltry
profit of Rs. 7,803 to the Government.

The ensuing year, as was to be expected from the age limit being exceeded, no
oysters were found on the banks.

The combined takes of 1889 and 1890 were under 14,500,000 oysters, so that if
we accept Captain Phipps’ estimate of over 309,000,000 on the bank in 1889, the
Government harvested a wholly inadequate proportion of the crop. Can we justly
characterize the Indian banks as being poor and unsatisfactory when one bank brings
such a multitude to maturity in one year? Is it not more reasonable to lay the

* Toc. cit., page 25,

67

blame on antiquated methods and lack of foresight and method in organization? The
average price obtained per thousand in 1889 was Rs. 22-8-6 ; therefore if the organi-
zation of the fishery had ensured, as it ought to have done, the lifting, we will not say
of the whole 309,000,000 of Captain Phipps’ estimate, but merely of a modest
50,000,000 oysters, then, instead of taking but Rs. 1,89,986 in 1889, Government
would have had arevenue of Rs. 7,50,000—a preventible loss occurred of over 0 lakhs
of rupees.

The actual take was, however, as I have stated, but 4 per cent. of the estimated
crop ; 96 per cent. was literally thrown away for want of the means to gather it in.

To overcome the labour difficulty created by the preference shown by the divers
for Ceylon when fisheries coincide in the same year on each side of the Gulf of
Mannar, it was recommended by the Board of Revenue in August 1890 that efforts
should be made to arrive at some arrangement with the Ceylon Government, the basis
of arrangement to be either a division of the fishing season in point of time or a
limitation of the number of boats employed upon the Ceylon side.

Subsequently an agreement was actually arrived at* upon the former basis
whereby when fisheries on the two sides of the Gulf should occur in the same season
in any future year, it was agreed that the Ceylon fishery should begin in February
and close at the end of March, leaving April and May for the prosecution of the
Tuticorin fishery.

From the experience I have had of actual fishing conditions, I am of opinion that
in practice this agreement will be found unworkable. The beginning of February is
too early in the season to start fishing on the Ceylon coast. Divers will not attend
till weather conditions become settled, till the intermonsoon lull begins, characterized
by alternating land and sea breezes and by clear limpid water free from suspended
particles of mud and sand.

No dependence can be placed upon the oncome of this period prior to the first
week in March, and I cannot see how the Ceylon Government can agree to close their
fishery some three weeks after the date of actual opening and just when the fishing is
probably at its best. Apart from governmental considerations such a proceeding
would be deeply resented by the divers and the merchants ; if they were compelled to
go, the fishery being summarily closed, the consequences would be felt at subsequent
fisheries. The proposal is only practicable if fishing could be begun early in February
and this as I have said is impossible owing to circumstances beyond the control of the
Ceylon Goverament. Neither can the Ceylon Government limit the number of boats
participating if there be sufficient abundance of pearl oysters to justify the work,
indeed it would be an advantage to Madras if the Ceylon Government were able to
obtain such a number of boats as would clear the bank to be fished in a limited period,
as then the divers would be at liberty to depart and would be available for the Indian
beds. However, even in the case of a cessation of the Ceylon fishery at the end of
March, I am convinced that an Indian fishery in April and May would benefit there-
by very little if the Ceylon fishery had been at all successful. At a fishery, such as
the Ceylon one of this year, the divers make so much money as to be wealthy beyond
their dreams of avarice for that year at least. The more prudent Moormen have made
enough money to enable them to invest in new fishing nets, new boats, or jewellery
and dowries for their women, while the thriftless Parawas find enough money in their
pockets to hand a substantial sum to their Church and leave enough over to permit
them to feast and be merry for several weeks or, perhaps, even months.

Such men will be induced only with the utmost difficulty to undertake a second
diving season hard on the heels of the first ; they will be restless, discontented, and
eager to selze any excuse to get away. Witness what happened in 1890 when a
number of divers returning from fishing on the Ceylon banks, were pursuaded to
resume operations off Tuticorin; only eight days fishing was obtained as the divers
utilized with their usual skill the stalking-horse cry of “sharks on the banks”. As
any stick is good enough to beat a dog, so any excuse is considered good enough to
utilize when the divers for any reason wish a fishery to come to an end. At one time
if is *‘ sharks” ; at another, the alleged scarcity of oysters, ‘‘chippi illei”’. Illness,

* In February 1892, according to information supplied from the Colonial Secretary’s office, Colombo.

68

rumours of cholera, small profits, rough weather, chill winds, are all utilized with the
utmost cunning but the true reason—that they have made enough money—is 2lways
kept in the background.

Hence I conclude that relief must be sought in some other manner and that it is
necessary for the Madras Government to proceed entirely independently of the Ceylon
authorities and to accept, as an unpalatable but none the less living reality, the fact
that till present conditions be radically reformed, the Tuticorin and Kilakarai divers
have not the requisite confidence in the Tinnevelly pearl fishery administration to
induce them to forego attendance at a Ceylon fishery when such clashes with one on
the Indian banks.

Many years ago Captain Worsley, when acting as Supervisor of the Ceylon Pearl
Banks, summed up his conception of the Inspector’s duties towards the oysters under
his charge in the dictum “ find them, watch them, fish them”. I have shown that
the organization of the Indian Pearl Fishery Department has failed notable in all these
operations, lamentably so in 1889.

Detailed inspection carried out with scientific accuracy by a capable officer
endowed with biclogical knowledge and with acquaintance with elementary marine
surveying, furnishes a sufficient remedy for the first and second of these administra-
tive diseases; the third is more difficult to cure, though much improvement might be
counted on as certain to take place when the divers become aware of the improvements
taking place in the methods of inspection. With confidence in their Inspector and in
the statements he might publish regarding the promising character of a bank about
to be fished, many would, I believe, voluntarily remain at home in spite of Ceylouese
counter attraction.

This we must not, however, count upon till the new organization proves its
efficiency by results, and we come back again to the problem, how can we fish a large
number of oysters, say 90,000,000, during a fishing period not exceeding eight
weeks (March and April), in spite of the defection of the great bulk of the local
divers ?

I can think of but two alternatives, (@) the utilization of mechanical means and
(0) the drafting to the fishery of a sufficient body of Arab divers.

Regarding the former plan, although the character of the bottom on the Tolayi-
ram Par is favourable to the employment of the dredge, the numbers of oysters to be
dealt with are so enormous and the occurrence of fisheries so erratic and occasionally
so long deferred, that at present I cannot see that this is a practicable solution, so long
as the fishery be conducted by Government. A fleet of dredging vessels would be
required and the maintenance of these cannot be justified till a cultural scheme be
perfected which will ensure tolerably regular periodic (annual) fisheries. The most
that is feasible is to fit the fishery steamer with dredging equipment and so enable
her to do her share in the actual fishing operations.*¥ The same equipment would
serve for the dredging of young oysters for the purposes of transplantation, and it
might also be utilized for the dredging of chanks, though I doubt whether the results
from the last-named work would be sufficiently remunerative and would counterbalance
the extra expenditure that would be occasioned in coal and oil.

The alternative of obtaining a supply of Arab divers adequate to work the
fishery is left us. It appears to me that if due precautions be taken to obtain true
Persian Gulf divers in small gangs under men who can give adequate monetary
guarantee for the good behaviour of the men supplied by them, that this plan is
eminently feasible.

At the present year’s Ceylon Fishery (1904) 258 Arabs were allowed employment
and Mr. Lewis, Superintendent of the Fishery, states in his report :+

~

* The results obtained daring the Ceylon fishery of 1905, show that an arerage of 35,000 oysters may be reckoned as
the daily cateh of a properly equipped small dredging steamer under good management. The cost of wages and upkeep is
considerably less than the value of the divers’ share of oysters, so we find dredging to bea more economical mode of fishing
than the employment of divers on the one-third share basis, provided work can be found for the steamer in the off seascn.

¢ ‘‘Keports on the Pearl Fishery of 1904.’ Sessional paper No. XIII, Ceylon, 1904, page 6.

69

“© As the fishery proceeded and the advantage of having them had become
“ apparent, I was prepared to take more. They gave very little troubie, and were
‘‘very useful both for the starting of the fishing and for keeping it going towards the
“end. They were always most keen on going out, no matter what the weather was, and
“they rather roughly handled a Jaffna tindal who started for the fishing one morning
“ but turned back because his sail split. They offered to mend it for him, but he said
‘he had no materials. Their indignation was great, and they were loud in their
‘complaints. They are as used to handling boats as they are to diving, and had
‘‘ sreat contempt for tindals who were deterred from proceeding to the banks owing
“to small accidents to their boat or gear.”

Further evidence of the good work and reasonable disposition of these Arab
divers when treated justly, is afforded in Captain James’ report on the 1900 ‘Tinnevelly
fishery, * his words being—‘‘ At first there must have been quite 1,500 divers, of
“which about 200 were Arabs. These latter I consider quite the best men to have
‘at a fishery, quiet, good-tempered and hardworking, and quite amenable to all
“ discipline, much more so than the Paravas who are a constant source of trouble, both
“‘ on the banks and in the Kottoo, where they were constantly being caught concealing
“oysters, which of course were always confiscated. Only one Arab was caught
‘‘doing this, and his companions abused him for disgracing them. The Malayali
‘¢ divers left the banks after the first few days as the water was too deep.”

Fortified with such favourable opinions from men who had to meet and control
these divers ashore, where trouble is more likely to occur than at sea, I have no
hesitation in saying that I have the highest possible opinion of these men and of the
quiet, methodical, and energetic manner in which they conduct their work. I watched
them at work daily throughout the last two fisheries, and they were ship-companions
with me when toward the end of the 1904 fishery they agreed to fish from the
Government steamers.

Such daily contact afforded me opportunity to obtain insight into their characters
and as a result I found them more willing to obey my orders and follow suggestions
than either the Parawas or the Kilakarai Moormen—a result due naturally to their
higher intelligence. Quick tempered they are and restive under even the suspicion of
injustice, but withal reasonable and eminently amenable to fair treatment. Personally
I should not hesitate to run a fishery entirely with Arabs, and if ordinary precautions
were taken to exclude the scum of Bombay, I am satisfied that perfect order would
prevail. j

During the north-east monsoon, numbers of these men visit the ports of Canara and
Malabar, whence they might readily be obtained.f

Banks OF GREATEST VALUE.

Descending to matters of detail, the present investigation shows that certain of
the Pars or rather certain groups of Pars are more worthy of particular attention than
others, The same conclusion has been drawn with regard to the Ceylon Pars; some
are clearly to be classed as favourable to the maturimg of oysters, while others—the
majority—are wholly unreliable in this respect.

Of the banks off the Indian coast, historical, physical, and biological evidence
combine to show that the Tolayiram Pdr and the Kudamuttu and Karuwal groups of
P4rs are the highest in relative importance, bearing the more frequent spat falls and
yielding the major number of the fisheries that we are able to localize.

The Northern or Kilakarai division is of little economic importance ; prolonged
inspection is not requisite in this region and the time formerly devoted to this purpose
can be employed to better advantage in making more detailed examination of the Pars
of the Central division and in carefully prospecting in the region lying between the
Karuwal group and Cape Comorin.

* “ Procsedings, Board of Revenue,’’ Madras, No. 208, 1900.

4 Since the above was written, I have had experience of another large pearl fishery, at which a largely increased
contingent of Arabs, some 2,000 in number, was employed. Their conduct was again eminently satisfactory. They gave
no trouble whatsoever.

18

70

The region last named has been neglected almost entirely in the past; during
the last 45 years only a small portion of the area has received any attention on thirteen
oecasions, while many square miles of sea bottom have been systematically ignored in
this region, which we have conelusive evidence to show formerly yielded fisheries.

The Tolayiram Pdr deserves the Inspector’s greatest attention; it is the sole
region seen during the investigation suitable for cultural operations, The bottom
resembles the better parts of the Ceylon Cheval Par and like the latter premier bank
is the largest among its fellows in individual area. It has also a favourable record
for rearing its spat to maturity in great abundance. It may not receive so many spat
fails as the Karuwal group, but from its superior extent one successful fishery here,
is, if it be properly exploited by a sufficiency of divers, worth several of the smaller
Karuwal group fisheries.

The Tolayiram Pfr should be mapped into blocks in the way in which I have
mapped out the Ceylon Cheval Par (Annexure No. 8) and each of these should be
carefully studied, periodically inspected, and the results shown graphically in chart or
diagram form annually.

Those parts of this region which came under my personal notice bore but small
quantities of loose stony material, “cultch” as it is technically termed, a decidedly
unfavourable factor, as the oysters need such material for the purpose of attachment.
Attention should in future be given to this detail during inspection, in order to ascer-
tain if this deficiency is, as I think it is, general over the whole area. In the event of
this proving to be case means should be taken to increase the available quantity
whenever an extensive spat fall is found to have occurred.

PrEaRL Propuction—Caovses or Deatn.

Pearl production by the oysters fished in 1889 on the Tolayiram Par, the only bank
regarding which I have any data, was less rapid than that noted during the past two
years on the Ceylon Cheval Pir. On some sections of the latter satisfactory pearl
production is found at the age of four years, valued at over Rs. 21 per 1,000 in the
case of those fished in 1903, whereas the last oysters fished on the Tolayiram Par were
at a similar age valued at but Rs. 3-11-65 per 1,000. It was not till they attained
the age of 54 years that they brought in an equivalent value (Rs, 22—8-6 being the
actual average price per 1,000 at the 1889 fishery) to that of Ceylon oysters 1$ year
younger. The latter, however, were those from the richest known beds and there were
others which at the same age—35 to 4 years—were not rich enough in pearls to give a
profitable fishery. Pearl production is, however, very variable and the yield by one
generation is not necessarily a criterion as to what the next may furnish, even upon
the same ground.

Examination and comparison of the Tolayiram Par oysters of 1887—90 with those
of Ceylon give fairly satisfactory results in respect to shell growth. They are not
equal to the finely grown oysters of the Cheval, but in general appearance are of a
healthy type. They are nowise stunted-looking as so many of the oysters on the Pars
more inshore are, or, as are the oysters characteristic of the Ceylon Muttuvaratu Par.
But although they are distinctly of the Cheval Par type, they are of slower growth and
the weight of the shells approximated closely to that of Muttuvaratu oysters. Given
an abundant infection of pearl-inducing cestode parasites, the pearl production should be
profitable in quality and quantity. This question is still one on which we are imper-
fectly informed ; the life-history of the parasite is still unsolved, and till we know the
animals which lodge the adult stage, we cannot formulate any plan for furthering the
increase in numbers of those of the larval stage, whose presence in the pearl oyster
controls the production of valuable pearls.

The ratio of infection—and of consequent pearl production—varies greatly as is to
be expected consequent upon the local abundance or otherwise of the host of the adult
parasite whatever it may be, and also upon the relative profusion or scarcity of the
oysters themselves.

Time after time I have proved by the dissection of large numbers of oysters of
the same age from different beds that the cestode infection may vary within consider-
able limits and as a consequence the pearl yield is proportionately variable. For

71

example in November 1902 samples of the same generation of 3} to 34 years old
oysters were obtained from four different beds, with valuation results as follows :—

RS.) AP.
Periya Par Karai 500 mee S00 60° St 13 4 0 per 1,000
South-east Cheval ... oon ae ae ase 1) Zh Oo 5s
Mid-east Cheval wee Re Heh oe 50 NS BO oe
North-east Cheval ... 000 ae a ae 23 2 Os

In March 1887, oysters of a similar age from the Moderagam Par gave a pearl
valuation yield of but Rs. 9-14-3 per 1,000, while other individuals of identical
age from the North-west Cheval in the same year were valued as low as Rs. 6-15-0
per 1,000.

Another instance of wide variation in pearl yield occurred in the valuation of the
42 to 43 years old oysters fished this year (1904) from the Western Cheval. Three
lots varied as follows :—

RS. A. P.
South-west Cheval ve 360 0c O00 ae 36 0 O per 1,000
North-west Cheval 50 ane Sa os aes 338 12 0 a
Mid-west Cheval 360 coc 500 500 at 20 4 0 -

With such wide divergence in oyster value from closely adjoining areas we can
never be sure of the pearl yield from a particular bank till we solve the riddle of the
pearl Cestode’s life-history and are enabled to artificially increase the proportion of
infected oysters—a matter for marine biological investigation.

Meanwhile it is satisfactory to know that the oysters which the Tolayiram Par
rears are of fair quality and capable of giving a high pearl yield.

I have had no opportunity to inspect a series of successive generations of oysters
from any other Indian Pir. The individuals seen from the Devi, Cruxian, and other
inshore Pars appear much inferior to those from the Tolayiram Par. They are small
for their reputed age, stunted in growth, and much encrusted with sponges, corals
and polyzoa. In general appearance they approximate to those Ceylon oysters that
hail from rocky beds—from the Muttuvaratu Par and the Mid-west and North-west
Cheval.

The Tolayiram Par is the bank by far best suited to rear healthy oysters in
quantity. Unfortunately some of the characters which render it so suitable for this,
expose the oysters to heavy risks from the depredations of fishes. The bare level
bottom, free from clefts and crannies and boulders, gives the rock-perch and trigger
fish (Vellamin and Kilati) every facility to devour enormous quantities of oysters
during the first year of their existence. The bank swarmed with these fishes in May
last and the question of the possibility of the present young oyster population coming
to maturity depends largely on whether there be many more oysters present than can
be consumed by these fishes in nine months or a year. When about one year old
the shells become stout enough to resist the sharp teeth of these fishes and the survi-
vors have a fair chance of living the allotted span of oyster existence, if the bank
be not harried by a shoal of oyster-eating rays (Riinoptera spp.). These fishes, the
principal enemies of the adult oyster, are often of large size, five feet or more across
the dise and with mouth armed with milling teeth of great crushing power. They
are able to feed only upon comparatively level ground and unfortunately the Tolayiram
Par is of this character. On the Ceylon side, I once walked over an oyster bed
ravaged at the most but a few days previously. The sight was one never to be
forgotten ; everywhere the flat rock surfaces, originally densely packed with oysters, as
evidenced by occasional clumps remaining, and by multitudes of torn byssal cables
adhering still to the denuded surfaces, were stripped in large part. Wide lanes had
been ploughed through, every oyster gone within the breadth of the lane. At frequent
intervals lay piles of broken shells, crushed flat as if passed through a mill.

72

It isa significant fact that this ground is particularly “ clean ’’, free from culteh and
from any impediment to an animal scraping the oysters off in wholesale quantities. It
is ideal dredging ground. Equally significant is the fact that on rougher ground and
on areas where bulky cultch occurs, no depredation whatever took place. From this
I infer that the presence of fragmentary material is a safeguard against rays; they are
unable to differentiate between oysters and rubble when feeding, and when the latter
is present, mastication being prevented, the rays find the ground unsuitable and move
away.

Hence the cultching of the Tolayiram Pdr would serve two purposes of vital
importance ; it would give additional and much needed holding ground to oysters
and would tend largely to diminish the damage lable to result from the inroads
of rays.

Much more sediment is held in suspension in the water on the Indian banks than
in the case of the Ceylon banks. Ido not however consider that this exercises any
greatly deleterious effects upon oysters on the outer banks of the central and
southern divisions ; on the Kilakarai banks the profusion of muddy sediment is exces-
sive, as it also is on some of the inner of the more southern banks, and in such places
we cannot expect any spat-fall ever to reach maturity. From the mouths of all the
rivers along this coast great amounts of mud are poured forth annually and this in
conjunction with the growth of new fringing coral reefs along the shore, each succes-
sive one further seaward than its predecessor, causes encroachment upon the sea.
The old pars are thus brought more within the harmful influence of river sediment.
The process is an exceedingly slow one and the danger to the beds appears greater on
paper than it isin reality, even though we know that Korkai, the Kolkhi of the
Greeco-Romans of 1,800 years ago, and the great pearling centre of that day, 1s now
several miles inland, and its successor, Kayal, converted as well from a flourishing
seaport into an inland village.

Again while the presence of so much sediment is harmful, at least to the inshore
banks, it has beneficial effects upon the prosperity of the chank-beds, which flourish
most vigorously wherever there is a plentiful admixture of mud with the sand,
especially if there be much organic matter present, as happens off the mouth of
rivers.

To this great abundance of mud is due the superior richness of the Tuticorin
chank-beds over those in the neighbourhood of the Ceylon Pearl Banks, where the
sand is composed largely of a coarse clean quartz- grit.

CHARACTER OF THE SUPERVISION REQUIRED.

To place the entire management of the pearl banks under scientifie control is:
the only way whereby the inspection methods can be satisfactorily reorganized and a
permanent return to prosperity assured in regard to the pearl fishing industry. I ecan-
not well improve upon the words used in 1884 by the Hon’le Mr. H Sullivan Thomas,
then First Member of the Board of Revenue, in his very valuable report to Government
on this fishery, namely :—

‘J think the deficiencies in the record of facts tend to show that though in
“‘ Captain Phipps the Government has had an intelligent and painstaking officer, he
“has not been seconded by any scientific supervision anywhere, and that his active
‘‘interest in his duties might have been turned to better effect ifhe had had from time
“to time the assistance of some one who had leisure and appliances for adding a-
‘scientific turn to his inquiries. It appears therefore that if the Government contem-
“plate ever constituting a fisheries department, pearl fisheries should be combined
‘‘with it and have the advantage of any scientific knowledge that department may
have.) *

Looking at the matter from a practical point of view, I do not consider that under
present circumstances it would be advisable to engage a qualified expert in economic
biology to devote himself solely to the care of the pearl banks, even though he be so

* Loc. cit., ~paragraph 96, page 29.

73

exceptionally qualified as to be able to combine the duties of marine biologist with
those at present performed by the Superintendent-Inspector of Pearl Banks.

To secure a really competent officer, a substantial salary would have to be allotted
to the post and, as we know, pearl fishery work can only be carried out on the Madras
coast for a maximum of five months in the year. On the other hand, the potentialities
of profitable research in other directions are practically unlimited and I think that the
time is now ripe, and economic fishery science sufficiently developed, to carry out the
suggestion of organizing a Fisheries Department as suggested twenty years ago by the
Hon’ble Mr. H. Sullivan Thomas.

If this were done, and an officer appointed as Director, he might be instructed to
give his primary attention to the reorganization of the pearl bank inspectional
methods, the proper charting and landmarking of the beds, the elaboration of a
scheme for the culture of oysters—cultching and transplantation chiefly, the
recruitment of an adequate diving labour force prior to any fishery and, if possible,
the means for the mechanical raising of oysters by means of dredges and trawls.

Control of the chank fishery should be placed with him. He would elaborate
fishing methods, experimenting especially with a suitable modification of the oyster
dredge ; if successful, he would take steps to ensure the adoption of such improved
mothods by the native chank fishers. He would also investigate the feasibility of the
artificial hatching and breeding of chanks—a promising departure that opposes few
difficulties to success.

Other shellfish of economic value are the Window-pane oyster (Placuna Placenta)
and the Edible oyster. Large quantities of the former have been fished in a land-
locked bay in Ceylon and the lease of this fishery has yielded considerable sums to the
revenue in the past owing to the fact that these molluscs yield abundance of seed
pearls. In the Madras Presidency they are found in several places in quantity—
notably in Pulicat Take, whereof the great area affords ample scope for the creation
of an extensive industry.

Béche-de-mer is an industry as yet little developed on the Indian coast and one
susceptible of considerable enlargement.

In the economic investigation and control of ordinary sea and fresh water fishing,
the field for the exercise of the beneficient labours of a Fishery Department is bound-
less. It is not necessary here to enter on these desirable developments in detail ; I
will content myself with pointing out that the fish supply at many localities on the
coast of the Madras Presidency might be greatly increased by the introduction of new
methods ; that a wide field for remunerative trawling awaits the capitalist on banks as
yet scarcely touched by the native fishermen ; that much help could be given to the
latter by a fishery expert in teaching improved methods of net tanning and by experi-
menting with new fibres, such as ramie, for the production of nets cheaper and
stronger and of better lasting properties than the materials now in use; that the
cause of public health would be greatly served by the oversight that would be given
to fish-curing yards.

A general survey of present fishery methods would be one of the results of the
working of the department suggested, and from the facts ascertained it would be
possible to consolidate present fishery laws, modifying or enlarging the scope of such
enactments as might be found advisable.

The field for improving and augmenting the fish supply from fresh water sources
is still more extensive. Practically nothing is done among the natives to improve the
quality and the quantity of fish in tanks, a branch of work offering immense scope for
well directed cautious efforts. The restocking of inland waters that dry up annually
with selected fry of species characterised by rapid growth and good table qualities
should be taught, encouraged, and organized on a@ practical basis. Were this done,
the results obtained in other countries and even in some parts of Northern India
justify the prediction that the fresh water fish supply of the Presidency would be
doubled in quantity and greatly improved in quality within a very short period.
Nowhere in the world are the potentialities of aqriculture greater than in India and
as yet nothing has been done to utilise modern piscicultural knowledge.

19

74

RECOMMENDATIONS.
J. Improvep System or INspEcrion.

(a) The preparation of reliable charts—The present charts of the Pearl Bank
region are extremely unsatisfactory. The positions of none of the many landmarks
dotting the whole length of the Tinnevelly and Madura coasts are shown. It is quite
impossible to lay off the ship’s position with exactitude upon certain of the banks
because of this deficiency ; numbers of good marks—chapels, mosques, topes and the
like—are in sight, but because their existence has been ignored by the cartographer
they are practically useless for the purpose of the inspection of the banks, even
actually misleading if we attempt to fix their positions on the coast line and fail, as is
probable, in placing them correctly. This lack of beacon indications upon the charts
is further adverted to in section d below.

The scale of the charts in use—one mile to the half inch—-is also too small
for careful survey and for the insertion of the necessary details in regard to the
distribution of oysters, rock, and sand in the areas inspected.

All the charts used for fishery work should be on the uniform scale of 1 nautical
mile to the inch. A 2-inch scale is unnecessarily great and is unwieldy to handle.
It is a size especially inconvenient in making comparisons of surveys effected and in
furnishing comparative diagrams of oyster distribution to accompany the periodical
inspection reports.

In the past there has been unnecessary sub-division of the potential oyster-
bearing area, resulting in the creation of 64 so-called banks. Many of these are
extremely small patches of rocky bottom often not more than half a mile long by
a quarter in breadth. Many again lie adjacent to one another and hence lend
themselves readily to a system of grouping. I propose therefore a grouping of the
banks in the manner shown upon charts C and D (annexures III and IV).

Each group may be denominated by the name of the best known bank included.
The grouping suggested is that which has been detailed fully in the section dealing
with the topography of the banks (wide ante p. 24) and which need not be here
recapitulated.

Accompanying the revised working chart, which should be put in hand at the
earliest opportunity, should be a list of at least three cross bearings taken from the
central point in each inspection cirele (see ¢zfra).

(b) Adoption of a system of detailed ‘‘ Circle-inspection.”—-To ascertain the
presence and distribution of oysters over the whole of the effective Pearl Bank region,
an exhaustive examination by what I term “ Cirele-inspection ”’ is absolutely essential.

Any bank found bearing oysters should be inspected by this method so long as
they remain, and all hitherto unexamined ground should be covered with a net-
work of tangent circles to ascertain the distribution of rock and sand and the
potentialities of oyster-bearing.

Picked divers should be employed for the work and the services of the sam@ men
secured permanently by giving them either an annual retaining fee or an extra rate
of pay. They should be placed under the charge of four inspection coxswains,
also on a permanent engagement for the annual inspections in the same way as has
been adopted with marked success in the Ceylon service.

The banks grouped as suggested in the preceding section should next be
mapped out into circular inspection areas which may be termed ‘‘ Inspection-
circles”, of 1} mile in diameter, each denoted by a serial number and, where it can be
done with advantage, by a distinctive name. The larger banks, like the Tolayiram
and Manapad Pars, will require several circles to cover them, whereas in the case of
the smaller pars several will frequently have to be grouped within one circle. In the
latter case, the cirele for convenience may take the name of the largest or most
important of the included pars ; in the former from its compass bearing. For example
the four divisions of the Tolayiram Par may be denominated respeetively the north,
the central, the south, and the south-west sections, while the circle including the
Karai Karuwal and the Velangu Karuwal Pdrs may be termed simply the Karuwal
section or circle.

75

During examination the inspection vessel should moor as near the centre of each
section as possible, and if to one side, modify the outer boat circuits to suit this as
shown in the accompanying diagram.

\
EIEN OO
( ar, pees a. e.

\ uy, wh /

La

The black circle is the outline of the Pearl Rank section to be examined—
(2) The ship’s position. (d) A $ mile semi-circuit.
(4) The 4 mile cireuit. (e) A 1 mile semi-circuit.
(c) The 3 mile circuit.
With good landmarks, reliable compass, and painstaking endeavour it should
not be difficult to anchor with approximate accuracy upon the centre of each section.

The banks of superior value lie from south of Vembar to off Manapad, the Devi
Par being the most northerly, the Manapad group marking the most southerly limit.

Charts C and D (annexures III and iV) show the inspection sections which I
propose. They are based upon the Pearl Bank chart at present in use and which in
turn is based upon the Admiralty Chart of this part of the coast.

Each of the circles, of which there are 35 according to my arrangement, is
marked with its own distinctive number. The inspection of each circle should be
completed in one morning, leaving the afternoon wherein to lift the twelve mark-
buoys, shift the inspection vessel, locate the centre of the next circle, and to lay out
the buoys for the following day’s work.

Given average fair weather, such an inspection would occupy six weeks.

If the weather be favourable and other circumstances allow, I recommend that
the whole programme be completed in one season, in which case, should the results
show no considerable deposit of oysters to be present, the inspection of the following
year may be greatly curtailed and be in the nature of traverse prospection rather than
detailed circle inspection. Circle inspection and zigzag prospecting may be used in
alternate years, but wherever oysters be found in quantity, detailed circle inspection
with careful numerical estimates should be carried out annually. Where oysters of
over 24 years of age are known to exist, inspection should take place if possible twzce
a year anda valuation sample drawn at the age of 34 years and thereafter twice
annually until such time as the valuation amounts to over Rs. 10 per 1,000, where-
upon it becomes incumbent to consider whether or not a fishery should be held at as
early a date as possible.

Detaile of the method of circle inspection—The essential features may be stated
as follows :— ‘

Three flag-buoys are laid out by the attendant launch or tug-boat in the
direction of each cardinal point of the compass at distances apart of a quarter of a
mile, the inmost buoys taking their distance from the inspection vessel, which is
anchored to serve as a pivot mark in the centre of the area to be inspected.

Four inspection boats (modified whale boats), each manned by a crew of six,
together with three divers and two munduks, under the charge of an experienced
coxswain, take up equidistant positions between the ship and the first buoy on the
north line and row slowly round the ship, retaining their relative positions the while.
At regular intervals the crews rest on their oars to allow the divers opportunity to
inake descents. The result of each dive is reported to the coxswain of the respective
boat, who records it upon a diagram with which he is provided.

76

The four boats having each performed a complete circuit are next ranged in
line abreast in the same manner as before, between the quarter and the half mile
buoy and each makes a second circuit. The day’s work is completed by a third and
last circle, in this case between the buoys distant respectively half mile and three-
fourth mile from the ship.

The four boats make a total of twelve concentric circuits, each boat making
three. The results shown upon the coxswains’ diagrams—each of which has three
concentric circles drawn upon it (see plan No. V) representing the three circular paths
eovered—are transferred by the Inspector to a final diagram or plan furnished with
twelve concentric circles. When this has been done the distribution of old and of
young oysters is graphically shown for a circular area having a diameter of a mile
and a half (plan V1).

After calculating in square yards the area occupied by oysters the approximate
number thereon may be estimated by taking the average number of oysters per dive
(ascertained by scrutiny of the divers’ results) in conjunction with the average
amount of ground which a diver is credited with being able to clear at one descent.
Usually this area is considered on average ground to be from two and a half to
three square yards. By assuming the area per dive to be three square yards the
danger of an overestimate is avoided.

(c) Purchase or charter of an inspection depit ship.—To carry out inspection
satisfactorily I recommend that either a schooner be built, purchased, or chartered, to
serve as the head-quarters or depot upon which the inspection staff of divers and boat
men may live.

Tf purchased or built specially, the latter of which would be the more economical
and satisfactory plan in the long run, cooler and more commodious quarters could be
fitted up than upon a steamer, and being wooden there would be practicaily no
liability to error in the accurate taking of compass bearings.

A steam vessel would be required for towing purposes. The “ Margarita”
might be used for the present and when it becomes necessary to replace her, the next
vessel should be a screw steamer built and fitted specially for dredging and towing so
that when not engaged in the latter duty, she might be used for the dredging either
of chanks or of fishable oysters for market and for valuation sample.

Meanwhile the “ Margarita” should be altered and fitted to serve dredging
purposes for which she is by no means unsuited.

(d) Beacons to be charted and improved.—An improved scheme of landmarks
should be provided and the positions of the several beacons accurately fixed on the
chart. It is almost incredible that none are marked on the charts in use; the
Inspector has to roughly guess their relative position to the headlands and indenta-
tions of the coast indicated on the chart. Even the Admiralty Chart, which is
wonderfully accurate in other respects, shows the position of but a very few with
precision—the others either being omitted or not defined with exactitude. In taking
bearings from the sea, it is of little value to see upon the chart a number of marks at
a certain spot indicating the presence of a conglomeration of buildings ; we require
the position of the most conspicuous one to be placed with precision.

The beacon on Vantivu should be increased in height and an additional one erected
on one of the islands to the northward.

(e) Improvements in recording the details of inspection results—The officer in
charge of the Inspection of the Pearl Banks should be directed by the Government to.
insert in the records kept in his office as well as in the report furnished by him to
Government at the termination of each inspection, the following details concerning the
condition and abundance of the pearl oysters and associated organisms met with on
each of the inspection sections, namely :—

(1) The number of individual dives made upon each group of pars, and the
number of those where oysters were found, together with the average number of
oysters per dive over the whole of the productive ground. Not less than 300 dives
should be made upon each section, if a reliable conception of the character and condi-
tion of the area under examination is to be arrived at. The number of dives made
upon the banks in the past, even upon the important Tolayiram Pdr, have been
totally insufficient. The Tolayiram Par is of such large extent that four inspection

77

circles are needed to cover it adequately, equivalent therefore to a total of 1,200 dives.
From the office records I notice that in 1890, ninety dives were made; in 1892, 158
. dives; in 1896, 220 dives—far too few to give a reliable conception of the condition
of the bank as a whole.

Other banks fared even worse. Taking some figures at random I find that
12 dives were made to suffice for the Alluva Par in 1886 and 382 in the following
year. On the Tundu Par 35 dives were made in 1885, 31 in 1887, 7 (!) only in
1889. On the Karai Karuwal ‘Par, one of the most frequently productive of the
Indian banks, a sorry seven dives sufficed for the examination of 1888, while the
Velangu Karuwal Par had 74 dives in 1887 and 63 in 1891.

(2) The average weight and dimensions of an average sample of the living
oysters found in each locality should be recorded with exactitude. Where the
oysters are numerous, the sample should be as large as possible to diminish the possi-
bilities of error. The weight should be recorded in pounds, ounces, and drams, and
where possible 100 oysters should be weighed together. In expressing the average
weight of the individual oyster it might be useful to express the result in grammes,
as the metric system is more convenient for the purposes of comparison than avoirdu-
pois weight. :

When there are large numbers of oysters present and possibilities of an
eventual fishery, the cleaned (empty) shells of 25 individuals should be averaged in
like manner.

I think it probable that we shall eventually find the average weight per shell
the most reliable guide in ascertaining whether growth be satisfactory or not and also
in ascertaining the approximate age of oysters of unknown history.

In the same way I recommend the dimensions to be recorded in centimeters
and millimeters, recording the length, depth, and thickness of 25 individuals taken
haphazard and without selection from the samples brought in by the divers.

The length is the greatest horizontal distance between the anterior and the
posterior margin of the shell taken parallel with the hinge-line, as shown upon the
accompanying diagram. The depth is the longest line that could be drawn (measured)
at right angles to the line of greatest length; it extends from the hinge to the most
ventral point of the free margin of the shell.

HINGE .. DORSAL ASPECT

ANTERIOR
ASPECT

POSTERIOR
ASPECT

VENTRAL MARGIN

The anterior aspect of the shell can readily be distinguished as such because
of the presence of the byssus at that side.

The thickness should be measured by means of a pair of eallipers, clasping the

pie mee the thickest part of the oyster, a point indicated in the diagram by the
etter A,

20

78

(3) The general outward appearance, stunted or of free vigorous growth, should
be stated and also whether the oysters be extensively covered or not with sponges
and other crusting organisms in exceptional degree.

(4) The comparative abundance of the following animals should be noted, so
far as it is possible to ascertain the facts :—

(a) Chanks (with a view to utilizing this knowledge in further exploiting
the chank fishery).

(2) Starfishes (especially the scarlet-lake coloured Pentaceros lineki, a great
enemy of the pearl-oyster).

(ec) Rockfishes and Trigger-fishes ( Vellamin and Kilatt).

(d) Sdran (Modiola barbata).

(e) False-spat (Avicula vexillum).

The abundance of sea-weed might also be recorded.

Charting the results —Kach of the four Inspection Coxswains should fill up, each
day that circle inspection be employed, a diagram form similar to that shown in
annexure V, while the Inspector should the same day transfer to a master—form
(annexure VII) provided with twelve concentric cireles, the information contained in
the diagrams furnished by the four Coxswains.

By this means he will be enabled to lay down the extent of the rocky bottom
present, and later, when the entire inspection 1s complete, the outlines of these areas of
rock should be filled inupon a skeleton chart. The final results, if carried out with
eare and accuracy would provide material, in the course of a few years’ work,
sufficient to enable a revision of the Pearl Bank chart to be undertaken, in respect of
the par outlines or boundaries.

The resultant chart would then indicate the rocky areas which remain compara-
tively free from sand from year to year, 2.e., the mean distribution or exposure of
rocky bottom during normal seasons. If the distribution of oysters be also shown
upon another similar skeleton chart, comparison of a series of these with the rock
distribution chart would show if any part of the sandy areas frequently bear oysters,
and what parts, if any, bring their oysters to maturity most regularly.

Further and much needed light would also be shed upon the relative value of
different sections and would lead probably to a concentration of effort upon certain
patches, while others might be found so uniformly unprofitable as to be ignored there-
after, whereby time would be economized or devoted more usefully to the more
favourably situated pars.

The Inspector, when he furnishes his periodical reports, should accompany it by
the two charts named—one showing the distribution of rock and sand over the ground
examined, and the other that of the distribution of oysters, a separate colour being
used for different ages, the average size being given of each age.

Copies of these charts should be kept in the Inspector’s office, and bound into
permanent form every few years for the purpose of future reference. ai

Il. REGULATIONS AFFECTING THE CAPTURE oF FISH UPON THE PrarL Banks.

Whenever a large deposit of young oysters be found on any of the pars, if there
be little siran present, I recommend that encouragement be given to fishermen
to go there and fish for Vellamin and Trigger-fish (Av/at) as these are the great
enemies of the pearl oyster at this age.

Stone anchors should, however, be interdicted, and the use of grapnels or iron
anchors insisted on.

At other times, except when the pearl oysters are in their third year, I should
recommend fishing to be permitted with the one restriction regarding the non-
employment of stone anchors.

When oysters on a bank approach maturity probably it would be advisable to
prohibit fishing—this chiefly for two reasons, the one being the danger of disturbance
of the oysters, and the other that at this time sponge-eating fish (Holacanthus spp.),
Gymnodonts, Vellamin (Lethrinus spp.), and Trigger-fish perform a useful function in
devouring and helping to keep under various competing organisms, sponges, small
molluses (sfiran and brood oysters), and crusting growths that overload and overrun
the valves of the older oysters.

79

II]. DETERMINATION OF SURFACE-DRIFT OVER THE BANKs.

An accurate Knowledge of the movement of the surface-water over the pearl
banks isa matter of the utmost importance in their management. Without this
knowledge we cannot form even an approximately accurate idea of the source whence
eomes the spat that from time to time replenishes one or other of our banks. So
long as we are in the dark upon this subject, we cannot define in what location a
reserve of oysters should be to produce the most useful results. There are banks so
situated as to be normally of no breeding value, of no importance in replenishing
the banks which are our reliance; conversely certain banks must be of supreme
importance in the conservation of our beds, and it is obvious that information on these
points is of vital importance in the farming of the banks. It should be ascertained
whether any proportion of the spat that settles, say on the Tolayiram Par, originated
from the oyster beds on the Ceylon side of the Gulf of Mannaar, whether the converse
be the case, or again whether there be mutual interchange of spat.

The plan offering the greatest advantages is to obtain the co-operation of the
Ceylon Government in order to secure both uniformity of method and mutual assist-
ance im carrying on this investigation. I recommend that batches of small sealed
bottles, each containing a post card inscribed in English and Tamil, be thrown into
the sea, at intervals and places yet to be determined, on both the Indian and the
Ceylon side of the Gulf of Mannar, and that small rewards be given to those finders
who place the cards in the hands of the nearest revenue officer or native headman,
who would despatch them to the authority appointed, with particulars of the date and
place of recovery.

After investigation on these lines has been carried out systematically for two or
three years, it will become possible to determine the place of origin of much of the
oyster spat, and we shall be enabled to trace the course of its wanderings while in the
laryal swimming condition, and in consequence know where to conserve breeding
reserves of oysters for the further replenishment of the banks.

IV. CuLture of THE Banks.

(a) and (b). Transplantation and Cultching—The principal means whereby the
banks can be permanently improved and the quantity of fishable oysters increased
lies in the adoption of the correlated operations of cultching and transplantation of
young oysters. The latter is admittedly the most important cultural means at our
disposal for increasing the harvest of the pearl banks and I am of opinion that it
might be adopted with very favourable financial results on certain of the Tuticorin
banks, notably upon the Tolayiram Par, provided there be proper organization of the
diver labour-force, so that when the oysters become of fishable age we may be assured
that the means will be adequate to bring the greater part of them ashore during the
limited available season of favourable weather.

Ti this long-standing labour difficulty be removed I advise the fitting up of the
inspection steamer as an oyster dredger in order that, when young oysters are found
in profusion upon unsuitable ground, a substantial proportion may be transferred to a
bank where the conditions are favourable to the maturing of oysters. My experience
with the Ceylon dredging steamer “ Violet” shows that from 500,000 to 700,060
oysters of the size attained in six months, may be transplanted during each day’s
employment, equivalent to a transplantation of from 15,000,000 to 20,000,000 per
month—extremely satisfactory figures.

The Tolayiram Pér is a suitable bank and there I should advise the laying of
any oysters lifted from other localities, as it is in many ways the best for this purpose.
It has, however, the great defect of possessing an insufficient quantity of loose
stony fragments spread over the major part of the surface. ‘To fit it to receive and
protect the oysters transplanted there to and to give satisfactory fishery results, I
recommend whenever transplantation is in operation that several hundred tons of
broken coral obtainable from the reefs fringing the coast in many places, be spread
over the bottom where the transplanted young oysters are laid. The cost would be
comparatively small, as coral collection is a local industry at Tuticorin and as the
Jaden ballams and dhoneys would proceed direct from the Hare Island reef to the
bank, where their cargoes would be scattered over culture areas merked out by means
of flag bearing buoys.

80

(ce) Cleaning of the Banks.—In this, as in the matter of cultching, we may with
the greatest advantage profit by the experience of European oyster-culturists, who
find it absolutely necessary to check the growth upon the banks of all organisms other
than oysters. Not only must those that are active enemies of the oyster (starfishes,
whelks and the like), be destroyed, but also those animals that curtail the area that
oysters may oecupy, and which also consume food that would otherwise fall to the
oysters. Sea weeds too are ruthlessly rooted out. As a consequence much of the
oystermen’s time is taken up in cleaning the beds by means of the dredge. If the
beds are in preparation to receive spat, all harmful matter is taken ashore—starfishes,
whelks, mussels, and the thousand and one animals that may be termed the passive
enemies of the oysters—where it finds a ready sale as manure. Sea weeds share
the same fate, while all solid material that is overgrown with any form of life is
regarded as “foul”, and laid out on the beach to be cleansed and bleached by the
combined influences of sunshine and rain.

Unfortutiately many of the Tuticorin banks, the Tolayiram Parbeing a notable
exception, are more or less “foul”. Sponges, corals, aleyonarians, echinoderms and
ascidians abound on nearly all the inshore pars, as for example, the Uti, Uduruvi, Kilati,
and Kudamuttu Pars and such oysters as live there are stunted and poor, suffering
by competition with the host of creatures living upon the same diet of microscopical
organisms.

The only means to clean a bed is to dredge it thoroughly, separating and treating
the materials brought up in the way above described.

The Indian banks are too extensive to permit of dredging being undertaken with
this sole object in view, but, as this cleansing can and should go on concurrently with
the dredging of spat for transplantation or of mature oysters for sale, we have herein -
one of the chief arguments in favour of taking up dredging on a scale of considerable
magnitude. Sight should never be lost of the fact that dredging has four-fold utility,
namely, (a) fishing oysters, (6) cleaning ground and removing enemies, (¢) in thinning
out overcrowded beds, and (d) spat transplantation. Its value is not properly
assessed if account be taken of the first item alone or even of the first and the last.

Every live coral removed and replaced by a fragment of clean eulteh may mean
the addition of three oysters at the next fishery; every starfish destroyed does mean
scores of oysters saved from destruction ; every Clione-riddled block of coral bleached
on the shore will tend to reduce the widespread havoc this inconspievous sponge
causes amongst the oysters. The immense advantage that accrues from keeping the
banks ina state of thorough cleanliness can well be appreciated by an agriculturist
who knows how his erops tall off if weeds be allowed to run riot unchecked, if fungoid
and insect pests be ignored, if the soil be never disturbed and if sun and air be
excluded therefrom.

(d) Thinning out of oysters.—The evil effects attendant upon overcrowding of the
oysters which so often takes place upon certain of the Indian banks have been laid
stress upon, and I think sufficiently demonstrated. The remedy suggested consists
of thinning out at suitable time. The dredge again is the only remedial agent.
Thinning out, transplantation, and cleaning the bank may all proceed eonjointly—
the thinned out: oysters being deposited on unoccupied ground, while the foreign
organisms and the cultch materials will be taken ashore, the former to be destroyed,
the latter to be bleached.

V. Creation oF A FisHeRIES DEPARTMENT.

A Fisheries Department should be constituted under scientifie control and
the work of inspection of the pearl banks and superintendence of the chank fishery
transferred thereto as the most important duties under its control.

Such a plan would enable these two important departments to be developed
economically and on sound practical lines, would enable attention to be given to the
development of other fishing industries, marine and fresh-water, at present under no
scientific supervision, and finally would set free the Port Officer at Tuticorin from
work foreign to the important duties involved in the charge of the port and harbour
of Tuticorin, which would then receive his undivided attention.

CEYLON, JAMES HORNELL,
February 1905, Marine Biologist to the Govt. of Ceylon.

APPENDICES AND ANNEXURES.

21

A PPENDICHS.

Pace

Arpesprx A.—An account of the condition of the Coast of Madura and of the Pearl Fisheries there in 1663, from

Valentyn’s ‘‘ History of the East Indies,’’ 1724-26, Volume V, page 164 ae 50 60 85

=; B.—Detailed financial statement of the Ceylon Pearl Fishery of 1694 06 O0 Bo sis 50 87
“¢ C.—Instructions defining the extent of the respective rights of the Dutch, the Nayak, and the Setupati
at Pearl Fisheries in the Gulf of Mannar, given to the ‘‘ Senior merchant ’’ at Jaffna by

Governor Rumpf in 1722 .. 50 a0 oe on os 00 00 60 o 89
» D.—Renting out of the pearl banks. Advantages to be gained by Government from renting out of
the pearl banks, as set forth ina despatch to the Governor-General of the Dutch Indies, by

Van Gollenesse, Governor of Ceylon, in 1744 .. 20 co oD On ae 00 50 90
,, £.—Tabulation of the results of tha Inspections of the pearl banks off the Indian coast cf the Gulf
of Mannar from 1885 to 1903 inclusive. (A continuation to date of thel records given in

Mr. H. Sullivan Thomas’ ‘‘ Report on Pearl Fisheries”’, etc., Madras, 1884) ,. ae its 93

85

APPENDIX A.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE CONDITION OF THE COAST OF MADURA AND OF THE PEARL
FISHERIES THERE IN THE YEAR 1663, TRANSLATED FROM VALENTYN’S
‘“ HISTORY OF THE EAST INDIES”, VOLUME V, PAGE 164.

“©1663. Madwra.—Under the Coasts of Madura are included the seven ports or harbours,
and the country of the Prince Ragonada Catta Theuver, commonly called the ‘ Teuver,’ with
whom we are on good terms. His contract, written on copper, is hereunto annexed. But we
consider a further description necessary of the Gulf between Ceylon and Manaar, and we shall
commence with the island Ramanacoil, which is in the inner Bay, and makes a narrow separa-
tion between the Continent of India on the one side and Adam’s Bridge on the other, but the
passage, with the highest water towards the land is scarcely six feet deep. This passage is
called Pamben-aar, signifying, on account of its many windings and curlings, the ‘ Snake
River’ which gives the Theuver sufficient profit not only from the tax laid upon the Pass, but
also on account of the excursion over to the Island, on which there stands a very old pagoda
of their much revered idol Ramana, to honour whom people come from Hindostan, Orissa and
Bengal, from which circumstance it may well be imagined that a tolerable revenue is derived.

‘This said Teuyer is subject and tributary to the Naick of Madura; but since we have
entered into terms of alliance and friendship with him, he cares far less for the Naick than he
did previously ; but he greatly respects us, knowing that it is in our power to take this island of
Ramanacoil from him, and therefore we can always retain him to our interests, as a balance
against the great power of the Naick, although it is not by any means requisite that we should
show any great deference to either the one or the other.

“ The western lands of the Theuver are situated next to Ramanacoil, farther eight or ten
miles in the Gulf, within which lie his principal places on the sea-coast, named Wedale Peri-
patnam, Killekare and Wallemoeke, over which we have no authority. But still farther to the
west follow By-paer, Bem-paer, Pattenemandoer, Tcetecoryn, Pondecail, Cailpatnam and
Manepaar, constituting the Seven Harbours,’ all (excepting Cailpatnam, whose inhabitants
are principally Moors) being inhabited by Christian Parruas, and provided with commodious
churches. The number of these Christians consist at least of 20,000 families, maintaining
themselves chiefly by diving for chanks, catching fresh fish, and diving at the pearl-fisheries
when they take place, and which last employment gives them their chief profit, and causes them
to live comfortably. These Parrua Christians are all under the Government of the Honourable
Company, since the conquest of Tutucoryn, and they have readily submitted to our power on
account of the prompt justice which we afford them. The poorer classes are more especially
well satisfied with our Government.

** Great care should always be taken to treat the people with justice and prudence, and to
place a mild and sensible person as their Captain, for they are, like all Malabars, of a capricious
temper and easily migrate if they are not well treated. We have used great efforts to bring
the people to our religion, but as long as the Naick of Madura, or his regent Barmiliappa Pulle
do not adopt a course different from their present one, and do not specially banish the Romish
priests, we shall have little chance of attaining our object.

“ Pearl Fishery.— The whole of the inner gulf was always under the authority of the King
of Portugal, during the time of his possessing Ceylon and Tutucoryn, and on that account the
Portuguese always took to themselves the full empire of the sea, including the income of the
pearl-fishery, which is of some consequence, particularly when diving can take place on all the
banks at once, as used frequently to be the case; but for some time the banks of Mannaar have
given no profit, although the revenue from them was once the most considerable, and it is now
fixed that they should be tried next March. But as there is some distinction with regard to the
Company’s interests between the banks of Tutucoryn and those of Manaar, we must give a
farther account of them. Whenever the pearl-fishery is limited to Bempaer, Bypaer, and as far
as Tutucoryn, all the oysters must be brought ashore at the last place, the market being held
there and at Pondecayl, from which the Armane (as the Court of Madura is named) draws a
large revenue. The Moors are, with our permission, allowed to fish also, but they are bound
to pay a large duty to the Company as may be seen in the Report of M.M. Valckenberg and
Boesem.

22

“ The fishery of Tutucoryn gave last season a profit of 18,000 florins, as ap
books of our factory at that place. Whenever a pearl-fishery may take place at Me
Company mey expect much larger returns, for then the oysters will be brought ashore
about three miles distant from Manaar, or Mantotte, being a place on the Compan:
territory, and where the sale of the pearls will then be held. Y.E. should take care
guard be stationed, to watch against irruptions of the Wannias, Wedas, or King’s peopl
in order to give confidence to the divers for themselves and their boats. If there 100
soldiers and 100 lascoryns, the guard will be sufficiently strong, if Manaar and Jafinapatam

haye their garrisons also strengthened.”

(From the Memoir left by Governor van Goens for the guidance of his successor Governor Hustaart, 26th Dece:
1663.)

87

APPENDIX B.

DETAILED FINANCIAL STATEMENT OF THE CEYLON PEARL FISHERY OF 1694,
(TRANSLATION FROM THE DUTCH OFFICIAL RECORD.)

Free Stones of the Naick of Madura, The Theuver, The Pattangatyns of Jaffnapatam, Manaar
and Tutucoryn, according to old Customs.

962 different free stones of the Naick of Madura in six boats, viz. :—

RDS. RDS.
4 Christian stones, at 64 Rds. each ... 000 000 26
1 Gentoo stones, ... ash we se éap ais i)
914 Moorish stone at 11} Rds. each Abe aos ... 1,0522
—- 1,0872
RDS.

60 Moorish stones in three boats for the Theuver (of which
1 is given to the Maniagaar of Pambenaar) at 112
Rixdollarseach ... O0C eon O00 900 coo MO)

== 699
9 stones to Pariboe-neyna, Head-Moorman, viz. :—
7 Christian stones at 63} Rds. ... 500 S00 as 454
2 Moorish do. at1li ,, oe 23
= _- 684
9
The following to the Pattangatyns of Jaffna and Manaar:
43 stones, namely :—
10 for the Pattangatyn Moor of the Parruas of Mannnaar,
Jan de Cruz.
10 to Anthony de Melho, Head Pattangatyn of Uarreas.
8 to the Nayenkarreas, namely :
2 at St. Pedro.
2 at Pesale.
1 at Tellemanaar.
2 at Ikelampalle or Lugaar,
1 at Aripo,
8
3 to the Pattangatyn of Jaffnapatam, Don Rodrigo.
3 to the Pattangatyns of the Carreas.
3 to the Pallewellys.
3 to 3 General Pattangatyns of Parruas, Carreas and
Pallewellys. :
1 to the Head Moorman of Jaffnapatam.
2 to the Pattangatyns’ Canacapulles,
43 at 6i Rds, each ... Onc soe 000 oat 660 2794
SEA
181 stones to the Pattangatyn of Tutucoryn, viz. :—
130 to Pattangatyns, 1 Canacapulle and the Topas Moor-
man, each 26 stones.
6 to 2 Head Pattangatyns.
3 to 3 Cavacapulles of the Community and of the
Pattangatyn Moorman.
1 tothe Bazaar Guard.
1 to the executioner.
40 to 40 common Pattangatyns of the seven harbours.
181 stones at 64 Rds. each at Bee bun oe AGEL =

Total 3892 stones valued at Rds. 600 C00 500 ie 3,301

88

Frnancrat Accounr of THE Peart FIsHEeRy or 1694.

Dr.
Expenses for the inspection of the pearl banks at

various times from the year 1667 (2nd Fishery) FLORINS.
to 1694 (8rd Fishery) as pipe by the books
kept at Manaar 6; 76a Gee
To expenses incurred for the same purpose at
T'utucoryn, as appears by the commercial books of
that place and of Manaar 2,493 1 11
9,260 18 0
Expenses at this fishery, namely, expense of soldiers
and sailors, lascoreens, cooly hire, arrack, RxDs.
medicine, and sundr 'y expenses of the Commis-
sioners according to their separate account 1,709 = 521713 0
Cost of 38894 free stones, which according to old
custom are not paid for — see separate account, 3,301 = 9,905 5 0
To the Shroffs who counted and sorted the money
and prepared it for jae pas over... a0 40° = 1205 700
+ Clear profit Beh, 63,057 18 0
Total florins 7,561 9 QO
Cr.
The amount of the rent of the ‘change, ’ of the bazaar,
and of the clothes shop, viz. :—
RIXDOLLARS.
The ‘ change’... : 1,500
The Bazaar 5 ay 137
The Clothes wee 5 . 3l
1,668
Stones purchased in the fishery and paid for, namely :—
1,690 Christian stones paying 6} Rds. each 10,985
204 Gentoo do. do. 9 do. see LE eS6
1,268 Moorish do. do. 114 do. wee «14,2423
27,0632
Customs formerly collected by the Topas-Moor of
Tuutcoryn, but now taken by the Company and held
at the disposal of the Governor and Council of
Colombo
201 Gentoo stones at 1 fanam each ie 2035
1,014 Moorish do. 2 do. 600 ese 2024
—= 222.2.
12 ounces, 17 angels, and 3 asof pearls gained from
oysters ‘brought up by the divers of the cepa
as Wally, sold for a 180
Sifting the sand where the pearls were laid 25
== 205
13£ ammonams of concealed arrack found in the
bushes and out-of-the-way places at 6 Rds. the
ammuna 822
Deduct two-thirds given to the discoverers of the
arrack ore eee 55
a 27%
——
Total Rds. 29,187,2,
or fl 87,561 9 O

Thus drawn up in the Fishery to the S. of Aripo, 7th May 1694.

(Signed) FLORIS BLOM,
» ) A. BERGAIGNE,
( ,»°) D! DE CHAVONNES:

89

APPENDIX C.

NSIRUCTIONS GIVEN IN 1722 BY THE GOVERNOR OF CEYLON DEFINING THE
RESPECTIVE RIGHTS OF THE DUTCH, TH# NAYAK, AND THE SETUPATI AT
PEARL FISHERIES HELD 1N THE GULF OF MANNAR.

Extracts froma despatch, dated 20th January 1722, from the Extraordinary Councillor and
Governor of Ceylon, M. J. A. Rumpf, and his Council in Colombo, addressed to the Senior
Merchant and Chief Authority at Jaffna, Jacob deJong, and his Council there.*

“It is now upwards of 22 years since the Company has indulged its own subjects or
strangers with any fishery in the Bay of Condatchy.

“The Valy, or general fishing on the Company’s account, is together with the payment
for the stones, a double token of the Company’s sovereignty over the divers and the Banks
from Cape Comorin, north, to Negombo, south; or at least by these tributes enough is done to
show the dominion conceded to the Company over those seas, the bay and the pearl-banks
lying there, and the result of the enquiry of the Commissioners for the last three years proves
that this claim is indisputably made with greater foundation than that of the Naick to the
ships along the coast of Madura, when that Prince, to show his mixed authority, sets up his
flag next to the Company’s standard at the fort of Tutucoryn, assists in laying down rules for
the fishery, exercises magistracy over the black people who come to that fishery, permits all
misdeeds, except treason, to go unpunished among his own subjects during the time of fishing,
and the Company winks at this and receives tax from all pearls carried away from Tutucoryn,
but with the exception of 963 free stones he has no part or share in the produce of the stones
sold at the Banks of Madura or Aripo, which payments are received and kept solely for the
Company as Lords of these seas and bays; but at the same time (though it appears rather
nnreasonable) from old custom, a kind of authority is exercised by the Naick over the Cham-
panothy of eyery nation, which obliges them to give to this Prince of Madura one day’s
fishing free of payment, but His Highness, through his ambassadors who came to the fishery of
Condatchy, has now and then endeavoured and more especially in the year 1695, according to
the custom of all black people, to institute a claim to enjoy the same tribute from all dhonies,
but this has always been boldly refused to him, except with regard to his own subjects from
whom he takes this tribute, as the Theuver does from his own subjects, but no further as the
Commissioners will find fully explained in the reports of 1694 and 1695, where the Company’s
absolute and undivided authority, if not along the coasts of Madura, at least in the Bay of
Condatchy as being Sovereigns there, in the same way as this is given to Princes on the coast
of Madara, etc., etc., ete.

“The Maniagaars of the Armane and Theuver, as envoys sent to take care of their masters’
interests in the Fishery of Aripo, must be treated with politeness and cordiality. The olas
which they usually bring with them must be received ard forwarded ta me, and nothing must
be granted to them except what is authorized by old custom, viz., to the Naick 964, and to the
Thenyer 60, free Moorish stones, as appears by the lists which I mentioned to you, although
the latter Prince, being limited to three boats, was accustomed to have an unequal number of
stones in them, which gave rise to frequent disputes; until at last in the year 1694 it was
stipulated that whether the boats were large or small no more than 60 stones were to be
employed in them, which you will unreservedly take notice of; and if any claim be made, you
will refer to this rule laid down in 1694 and followed till 1699, Andas to his request of 27 free
stones for the Pagoda of Ramanacoil, His Hacellency may give as much as he pleases from those
60 stones which are granted to him from the Valy which he receives from his own subjects, but the
pretensions of Peria Tamby, or whoever now fills his place as the Theuver’s Marcair, seem
better founded. This claim is not a rule, but an act of liberality on the part of the Company,
and granted or not, in proportion to the care and fayour which he gives to the Company’s trade
at Kilikerry,” etce., ete,

* Ceylon Literary Register, Volume ILI, pp. 166, 167.

99

APPENDIX D.

1744. ADVANTAGES TO BE GAENED BY GOVERNMENT BY RENTING OUT THE
PEARL FISHERIES OF THE GULF OF MANNA .R

Respectful considerations relating to the renting out of the Aripo Pearl-Banks and the Chank
Fishery on the shores of the North of Adam's Brilge, submitted to His Hacellency Gustuvus
William Baron Van Imhoff, Governor-General, and the Members of the Council of
Netherlands India, by Julius Valentyn Stein Van Gollenesse, Governor of Ceylon.
(Ceylon Literary Register, Volume ILI, page 181.)

Although the undersigned has not as yet acquired sufficient experience to be able to judge
fully of all matters relating to the Pearl Fishery, yet he is unwilling to defer obeving the order
conveyed in your letter of 5th November 1743,* and which desires that he should lay before
you his humble opinion with regard to the Chank Fishery, and also state whether it would not
be as aavisable, or even preferable to rent out the Aripo Pearl Banks, as to continue the
present custom of settling whole or half fisheries, and he hopes that Your Excellency will look
over any errors in his views of the subject, and kindly supply any defects in this statement of
his opinion.

In the first place then, I must admit, as a matter beyond dispute, the remark which Your
Excellency makes in the memoir left here for the guidance of your successor in this Govern-
ment, namely that the Honourable Company is rather a loser than a gainer in our Pearl
Fisheries ; no person will deny this who hasa grain of local knowledge respecting the affairs
of Ceylon. It is therefore necessary to seek some mode of conducting these fisueries, which
may secure to the Company the profit to be derived from them without its being accompanied
by the many drawbacks detailed in your memoir; and who can doubt that this may best be
effected by renting them out, or by selling the freedom of diving on the banks, with a limited
number of boats and persons in the same manner as now takes place with regard to the
Chank Fishery. It is evident that this may be done without any hindrance, and more profit
will result than is expected, at all events the gain will be real and not merely ostensible. It
is not to be denied that at first sight some difficulties appear to rise in opposition to this plan,
but the undersigned will now relate everything that to the best of his knowledge can offer
hindrance, and show how in his opinion every obstacle may at once be removed.

I. The Theuver and the Naick of Madura having had from all times three days free diving
in each fishery will not allow this privilege to be taken from them.

Answer 1 (a)—This privilege seems to have been merely conceded because the greater
number of the dhonies and people required at a public fishery come out of their country,
and these will not be required if the diying takes place with a limited number of persons ; the
right may therefore be withdrawn.

(b) If they venture to pretend that their right rests upon a better ground, and cannot
therefore so easily be withdrawn, it is certain that on the other_ side they have never fulfilled
that portion of their concessions which are laid down in legal contracts between the Company
and themselves and the Company is therefore fully authorised to deny their right, even if 16
can be called by that name.

(c) If there remain any doubt that this can justly be done, yet this need not prevent the
rentings, as their privileges may still be guaranteed to them under proper restrictions.

2nd Objection.—It will be difficult to find persons of so much property as to pay the
price of the rent in advance.

2nd Answer.—Even if they be not found in this island, speculators enough will come
from the coast, and even money enough exists among the Ceylon merchants, for many together
will make a Company to take shares in the adventure.

3rd Objection.—Even though the number of the dhonies be limited speculators will
arrive from all sides, and there will be as large a crowd of persons to purchase the pearls as
ever there was at an open fishery, and then the Company will not obtain its purpose in this
respect.

* Mercly calling his attention to the preceding remarks of Baron Van Imhoff.

*
?

91

ard Answer (a).—It is very different from an open fishery wluch is preclaimed on all
sides, and to which all persons are invited, but ina rented fishery it would only be necessary to
give orders that no person should be admitted except those who are absolutely required to be
present, and the uninvited might be sent away.

(6) The oysters might be opened on the shore by the renter’s people, and might be
taken away at pleasure, but if it be imagined that this would bring too great a concourse of
people to this island, it would be easy to order the renter to take away the oysters with him to
the coast, as is done with the Chanks, and not to allow him to land them on this side the water.

4th Objection.—For a complete fishery 800 or 1,000 boats are required, and how could
then the work be done with a limited number of 25 or 50.

4th Answer (a).—In the memoir already quoted a full and complete fishery is excepted from
being rented.

(6) But the same rule might hold good even in a full fishery, for (1) as a fishery seldom
lasts longer than 24 days, a rented fishery might last three times as long; (2) the bank which
could not be open in one year, might be rented the following years, as the assertion of the
Commissioners at the last fishery seems very improbable, that the oysters being too mature
loosen the pearl and let it drop; this may be the case with some few of too full a growth, the
place of which others will supply which were not so mature previously.

5th Objection—It has just been answered to an objection, that what cannot be done in
one year, may be done in the next one or two years immediately following, but since it has
happered that there have been full fisheries for many successive years, how is it possible that
these continued full fisheries could be carried on with a small number of dhonies? and then the
loss to the company could be exceedingly great.

5th Answer (a).—A moderate profit in a rented fishery would be far more advantageous
to the company than great apparent gain in an open fishery, at which if all matters would be
weighed and balanced, the company really gains nothing; (6) it has not yet been proved
that the oysters lose their pearls so quickly, and it is therefore uncertain if the company would
sustain any injury by the delay.

6th Objection.—The renter will fish the banks so bare, that the profit of the company will
be quite ruined.

6th Answer (a).—I cannot perceive why a small number of divers should strip the banks
more than a greater number.

(b) If that idea should prove to be well founded, proper directions should be established
oa the subject, and it must be prohibited to bring up small or young oysters ; and although it
is desirable to get rid of the trouble of having constant guard over the banks, yet it would not
be very difficult to have two or three persons commissioned to see what’ goes on.

7th Objection.—It will be necessary to inspect the banks in the same manner as previously,
in order to know how the conditions of the rent are to be made out, for certainly speculators
will make large or small offers according to the greater or fewer appearances of profit, and there
will always be differences of opmion ; for the renter will constantly urge that the duty was not
well performed, in order to obtain some deduction for his amount of rent.

7th Answer (a).—The renter may have full liberty to obtain indemnification from the
natiye inspectors, in the event of an incorrect report being given in by them.

(b) In the conditions care may be taken to guard against all after-claims, and to let the
banks in whatever condition they may be found.

(c) Public notice may be given that persons inclined to make an offer for the banks may
be present at the inspection of them.

8th Objection. —This rent will prejudice the chank fishery, for this latter will be at a stand-
still from the want of divers.

8th Answer.—lf divers can be found for 800 or 1,000 dhonies, then it can surely not be
thought that they will be so scarce as not to be found for 50 boats, and both fisheries may
easily go at the same time.

2th Objection.—The inspection of the pearl banks takes place in November, and it is late
in December before the Government is able to make out the conditions of the fishery which is
to be held in the middle of February. Now, it would be impossible to fix a day for offering
the rent before the beginning of February, in order that speculators from the coast may have
time to come to Ceylon, If then there should chance to be no speculators, or if they should
not make an offer large enough, it would be too late to commence preparations for an open
fishery, and Government would be compelled to be satisfied with a bidding however small, lest
it should be deprived of the advantage of fishery on its own account or of letting out the
fishery.

9th Answer (a).—It is not one instant to be doubted, but there will be a sufficient number
of bidders ; (b) at all events, even if they should bid little, and we should be compelled to
accept their trifling offer, it would always be satisfactory to think that the gain is clear profit.

92

Finally, with respect to the Manaar and Calpentyn chank-fishery, the Governor is of opinion
that a diving on the company’s own account would be far more profitable than renting the
fishery, and if we resolved in our sitting on the 11th January last to rent that fishery again, it
was because Mr. Raket, the Chief Officer at Manaar, was so indifferent upon the subject as to
hold out no hopes of a successful attempt on our own account, yet we have since then given up
renting that fishery, and it now takes place at our own risk, and although it is as yet not by
any means so well conducted as it ought to be, still we by no means doubt but the company
will derive a larger profit from it than 4,800 Rixdollars, which were offered for the rent of the
last fishery.

The undersigned hopes he has now satisfactorily obeyed Your Excellencies’ wish, and
clearly proved first, that the renting of the pearl banks is in every respect preferable to having
an open fishery ; second, that it would be better to dive for the chanks at Calpentyn and Manaar
on the company’s own account.

93

APPENDIX KE.

Y

TABULATION OF THE RESULTS OF THE INSPECTIONS OF THE PEARL BANKS

i)

OFF THE INDIAN COAST OF THE GULF OF MANNAR, FROM 1885 TO 1903
INCLUSIVE.

(A continuation brought up to date of the records given in Mr. H. Sullivan Thomas?

Report on Pearl Wisheries”’, 1884.)

. PAMBAN Karat PAR—

1885. Nil.

1886. Few oysters of 3 to 2 inches, no value.
1887. 117 dives; 6 oysters of $ to } inch.
1888 to 1894. Not examined.

1895. Weed, chully and sea branch coral.
1896 to 1903. Not examined.

. Pawpan VELANGU PArR—

1885. Weeds, no spat. Bare, 3 young oysters in 2 dives.
1886. 31 dives. No oysters, much sea weed.

1887. 59 dives ; 5 oysters.

1888 to 1894. Not examined.

1895. Weed, chuily and sea branch coral.

1896 to 1903. Not examined.

. Musa Tivo PAr-—

1885. False spat plentiful.

1886 to 1894. Not examined.

1895. A few young oysters, measuring 14 inch, on weed.
1896 to 1903. Not examined.

. CHotava Karat PAr—

1885. Weeds diminishing.

1886 to 1894. Not examined.
1895. Weeds and 6 young oysters.
1896 to 1903. Not examined.

. KimaKARAI VALLAI Matar PAr—

1885. Killikoy ; sea weed, useless.

1886. Not examined.

1887. Sixty-five dives, 4 oysters, averaging} to inch in size.
1888 to 1894. Not examined.

1895. Red coral, weed, chully and shells.

1896. Bare.

1897. Blank.

1898 to 1903. Not examined.

. Vauiat Matar Karat PAr—

1885. Blank.

1886. Not examined.

1887. Twenty-one dives ; blank.

1888 to 1894. Not examined.

1895. Red coral, weed, chully and shells.
1896. Bare.

1897. Blank.

1898 to 1903. Not examined.

. Anna Pir—

1885. Blank.

1886. Blank.

1887. Twenty-five dives, blank.

1888 to 1890. Not examined.

1691. Six young oysters measuring from 1 to 1} inches, killikoy (small) and red
branched coral. Sea weed and red coral.

1892 to 1893. Not examined.

1894. A few small oysters, measuring } inch, on weed.

1395. Red coral, weed, chully and shells.

24

94

7. Anna PAr—cont.

1896. Weed and chullies.
1897. Blank.
1898 to 1903. Not examined.

8. Nazua Tannr Tivou PAr—

1885. Two examinations, sea weed only.
1886. Blank.

1887. Sixty-eight dives; weed and chully; 1 oyster of } inch.

1888 to 1895. Not examined.

1894. Chully and weed.

1895. Three live oysters measuring 1 to 1} inch, sea weed, chully and red coral.

1896. Weed and chullies.

1897. Blank.

1898 to 1903. Not examined.

9. Uproranni Tivu PAr—

10.

1885. Blank. :

1886 to 1887. Blank.

1888 to 1898. Not examined.

1894. Chully and weed.

1895. One small oyster, red coral and sea weed.

1896. Weed and chullies.

1897. A few young oysters, average 8 to a dive, 1} to } inch, very poor in condition
and unhealthy looking, probably due to the mud bank.

1898 to 1903. Not examined.

KoumuLtam PAr—

1885. Blank.

1886. Thirty-four dives, no oysters ; weeds and stones.
1887. Thirty-three dives, no oysters but weed and chully.
1888 to 1893. Not examined.

1894. Chully.

1895. Blank.

1896. Weed and chullies.

1897. Blank.

1898 to 1903. Not examined.

10 (a). VatisuKam PAr—

1885. A few killikoys.

1888 to 1890. Not examined.

1891. No oysters, small killikoys on red coral, 20 dives.
1892 to 1893. Not examined.

1894. Killikoy on red coral.

1895. Weed, red coral and one live oyster.

1896. Weed and chullies.

1897. Blank.

1898 to 1903. Not examined.

10 (6). Vatinvxam Tunpv PAr—

Wl

1885. Bare.

1891. Quite bare, only chullies, 10 dives.
1894. Weed and 2 small oysters.

1896. Weed and chullies.

1897. Blank.

1898 to 1903. Not examined.

Vempark Periya PAr—=

1885. Blank.

1886. Seventy-seven dives, a few oysters } to } inch, plenty of stiran.

1887. Two oysters only found, no stiran, no value.

1888 to 1898. Not examined.

1894. ORs a live oyster, small quantity of spat on rock aud weed, red coral and
chully.

1895 to 1896. Not examined.

1897. A few young oysters 13 to 7’; inch in size.

1898. Not examined.

1899. Bare.

1900 to 1901. Not examined.

1902. No oysters, some stiran and mud.

1903. Not examined.

12. Varpar Pertya Pir—

1885. Not examined.
1885. Very few oysters of no value, plenty of sfran.

ail

13.

14.

16.

Life

2. Varpar Periya PAr-—cont.

1887. Seven dives, blank.

1888-1893. Not examined.

1896-1903. Not examined.

Karat PAr—

1885. Probably affected by river water. Average 13 oysters to a dive, apparently new
deaths.

1886. Seventy-eight dives, very old, empty dead shells and small coral stones. One
oyster toa dive. Examined by “ Pearl ”’, no oysters, no stran.

1894. Weed and chully.

1896. Oysters 1 inch in size, 5 per dive; several dead killikoy and a small quantity of
small stiran.

1897-1903. Not examined.

Devi PAr—

1885. Four examinations; oysters plentiful but as many empty shells as live oysters,

1886. No oysters, no stiran ; no oysters, plenty of stiran.

1887. Four oysters of 3? to 1 inch, plenty of stiran, 33 dives.

1888-1890. Not examined.

1891. Forty-two dives, some siran, 20 chanks.

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. A good number of young oysters, average 3 inch, killed by large siran.

1895. False and true spat mixed.

1896. Oysters varying from 12 to 7; inch in size, 7 to a dive, dead sfiran but no dead
oysters among them.

1897. Blank.

1898. Not examined.

1899. Bare ; divers report that they found a large quantity of sand deposited on this
bank.

1960-1901. Not examined.

1902. Very few one year old healthy oysters.

. PERNANDU PAr—

1885. Four examinations ; oysters plentiful but as many empty shells as live oysters.

1886. No oysters, much siiran. ~

1887. Two oysters of linch. This bank is now covered with stran ; 4 dives.

1888-1890. Not examined.

1891. Forty dives, no oysters ; in some parts stran.

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. Blank.

1895. False and true spat mixed.

1896. Oysters ranging from 1} to 7; inch in size; 6 to adive. Dead stiran but no
dead oysters among them.

1897. Blank.

1898. Not examined.

1899. Bare.

1900-1901. Not examined.

1902. Very few 1 year old healthy oysters.

PapntHa Marian Pirn—

1885. Oysters plentiful but as many empty shells as live oysters.

1886. Found 11 dead oysters of 2 to 21 inches. Much weed in some places.

1887. Four oysters of } and 1 inch on weed, no siiran.

1888-1890. Not examined.

1895. False and true spat.

1896. Oysters average 10 to a dive measuring 1} toZinch Found oysters on dead
pinna, also a large quantity of dead shellson sand. On‘north side of the bank
found dead shells with dead stiran, also 2 live oysters 2} to 2 inch on dead
stiran.

1897. Blank.

1898. Not examined. -

1899. Blank.

1900-1901. Not examined.

1902. Very few oysters 1 year old, healthy looking.

Paputta Marixan Tunpv PAr—

1885. Two examinations, both found stran only.
1886. Bare, all sfiran.

1887. Stiran; 23 dives.

1888-1890. Not examined.

1891, Sixty dives, some sjiran, no oysters.
1892-1593. Not examined.

1894, Blank,

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

96

PapurraA Marixan Tonpu PAr—cont.

1895. False and true spat mixed on weed and rock.
1896. (Same as Par No. 16.)

1897. J3lank.

1898. Not examined.

1899. Bare.

1900-1902. Not examined.

Turicorin Kupa Pir—

1885. Pinna, stiran; oysters few ; apparently a valuable bank.
1886. Found covered with stiran. No oysters, no stiran.
1887. Twenty-nine dives. One oyster of } inch, siran and weed.
1888-1894. Not examined.

1895. False and true spat mixed on weed and rock.

1896. One live oyster 1 inch, weed and red coral.

1897. Blank.

1898. Not examined.

1899. Bare.

1900-1903. Not examined.

Cruxtan Pir—

1885. Chanks on rock, stan, killikoy.

1886. One oyster } inch, no stiran, 4 killikoys and a good deal of weed on rocky
bottom. Sand on rock in many places; plenty of stran.

1887. Seventy-two dives, 9 oysters varying in size } to 1} inch; much stran, kil-
likoy.

1888-1890. Not examined.

1891. Plenty of stran and killikoy.

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. A few young oysters, average 5 inch, on branch coral and killikoy.

1895. Young oysters averaging |} inch in size, 5 to 7 per dive.

1896. A few young oysters 12 to $ inch. Dead chanks and pinna.

1897, Blank.

1898. Not examined.

1899. Bare.

1900-1901. Not examined.

1902. Estimated 1,700,000 oysters (healthy), 13 to 2 years old.

Cruxian Tunpu PAr—

1885. Chanks on rock, stiran, killikoy.

1886. Nes 49 dives; nostiran, Much stranand killikoy, also few oysters of

qa inch.

1887. Forty-nine dives, 14 oysters of $ inch; much sdran and weed.

1888-1890. Not examined.

1891. Highteen dives, stran , no oysters.

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. A few young oysters varying in size from 13 inch down. Sea weed; 5 live
chanks and chully,

1895. Young oysters and a small quantity of siran on the southern part of the bank.

1896. A few oysters measuring 14 to 14. Sdran on dead chank shells.

1897. Blank.

1898. Not examined.

1899. Weed, chullies, and some large live stran.

1900-1901. Not examined.

1902. Estimated about 2,000,000 oysters (healthy), 14 to 2 years old.

Vantivu Arupacam Pir—

1885. Stran.

1886. Twenty-three dives, no oysters, no stran. Plenty of stran.

1887. Twenty-five dives, stran and weed.

1888-1890. Not examined.

1891. Twenty-five dives ; stiran, no oysters.

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. Weed, 8 live chanks. Chully and small killikoy.

1895. Young oysters, measuring 1} inch in size, 5 to 7 per dive and small quantity
of siran on the southern part of the bank.

1896. A few young oysters averaging 3 to a dive, 1} to $ inch on pinna and shells;
found 10 oysters same size.

1897. A few young oysters mixed with dead shells.

1898. Weed and chullies.

1899. Weed, chullies and some large live stran.

1900-1901. Not examined.

1902. Very oy young oysters from 1 to 1} years old and healthy in scattered
parts.

22

24.

oii

Nagara PAr—

1885. Bare.

1886. Plenty of oysters } to 1} inch mixed with some empty shells. Five dives, some
killikoys, no stran, many dives, oysters of 1 inch in size and injured by fish.
One chank with 8 oysters and some empty shells.

1887. Thirty-seven dives ; 11 oysters of } inch, much sfran and killikoy and weed.

1888. Not examined.

1889. Blank.

1890. Not examined.

21891. Fifteen dives, 7 chanks, 1 killikoy, some stiran ; small pieces of stones; blank.

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. A fowangnne oysters varying in size from 1$ inch down. Five live chanks and
chully.

1895. False and true spat, also young oysters varying from 1 to } inch in size.

1896. Five to 7 oysters per dive, averaging 1 inch in size; dead shells of appearance
only recently dead.

1897. Blank.

1898. Weed and chully.

1899. Weed, chully, and some large live stiran.

_ 1900. Not examined.

1901. Large quantity of dead and crushed young oysters.
1902. Estimated about 1,500,000 oysters 1} to 2 years old and healthy.

3. Urri PAar—

1885. Bare.

1886. A few oysters from 3 to 1} inch, mixed with some empty shells 10 to 20 in a
dive. Several dives made, a few oysters of 1 inch in size much mixed with
dead shells.

1887. Twenty-six dives; much stran and weed.

1888. Not examined.

1889. Blank.

1890. Not examined.

1891. Ten dives, 4 chanks, small pieces of stone, 1 young oyster, blank.

1892. One oyster 24 inch on chully, nothing more.

1893. Not examined.

1894. Sea-weed, chully, and small killikoy.

1895. False and true spat; also young oysters varying from 1 to # inch in size..

1896. Ten oysters to.a dive ; old and young dead shells ; oysters on live killikoy..

1897. Blank.

1898. Weed and chullies..

1899. Bare.

1900. Not examined.

1901. A few dead shells ? inch in size.

1902. Oysters found 13 to 2 inches, number not estimated. Healthy.

Uptruvi Piér—

1885. Bare.

1886. One oyster 1 inch and a number of dead shells of no value, all stiran..
1887. Thirty-one dives, 40 oysters varying from 1+ to 3 inch.

1888. Not examined.

1889. Blank.

1890. Not examined.

1891. Seven dives; 3 chanks. Blank.

1892. Blank.

1893. Not examined.

1894. Stran, sea weed and a few live chanks.

1895. False and trae spat, also young oysters varying from 1 to } inch in size.
7896. Bare.

1897. Blank.

1898. Weed and chullies.

1899. Bare.

1900. Not examined.

1901. Some young oysters, but 90 per cent. dead.

1902. Oysters plentiful, 2 years old and healthy. (Sic):

. Kmart P&r.

1885. Saran, a few empty oyster shells.
1886. (a) Plenty of oysterafrom $ to It inch ; 11 dives; 40 to 50 oysters in a dive-
ue stran or killikoy.
(b) Some oysters ; divers got 20, 30 and 50 to a dive ot 1 inch; many dead -
bank of very doubtfnl value.. <
fc) Bank covered with stran ; no oysters.

25

98

25. Kitatr PAr—cont.

bo

1887. Thirty-nine dives, 5 oysters of { to 14 inch, stran, weed and killikoy.
1888. Not examined.

1889. Blank.

1890. Not examined.

1891. Twenty-two dives, 9 chanks, sand and small pieces of stones.

1892. Chullies—otherwise quite blank.

1893. Not examined.

1894. Stran, sea weed and a few live chanks.

1895. Young oysters, 7 to 8 per dive, size 1 inch.

1896. A few young oysters, 1 inch in size. Weed, chullies and red coral,
1897. Blank.

1898. Weed, bare.

1899. Bare.

1900. Not examined.

1901. Some young oysters but 90 per cent. dead.

1902. Oysters in moderate numbers.

. Arruval ARUPAGAM PAr-=

1885. False spat plentiful.

1886. (a) Eleven dives, two of which oysters of 3, 1, and 14 inch were found.
(6) Weed and some dead oyster shells ; 2 oysters of 12 inch.
(c) All stiran.

1895. Blank.

1896. A few young oysters, 1 inch in size. Weed, chully and red coral.

1898. Blank, weed, bare.

1899-1900. Not examined.

1902. Not examined.

. ATTONPATU PAR-=

1885. Two inspections—chanks on rock and empty shells. No live oysters.
1886. (a) Eleven dives, no oysters.
(b) No oysters or stiran, 65 dives made.
(c) Saran.
1887. No oysters—stran dead in some places. 387 dives made; 1 chank.
1888. Not examined.
1889. No oysters, much stan; 20 dives.
1890. Not examined.
1891. Twenty-nine dives; 44 chanks, small pieces of stones, stiran.
1892. Forty-four dives ; live and dead stiran, chullies, 8 chanks.
1893. Not examined.
1894. Sea weed, chully, red coral, a few young oysters measuring from ? to $ inch.
1895. Blank.
1896. Four hundred and eighty-one dead shells, 78 live oysters, 4 inch in size, the
dead shells were found in perfect preservation, not snipped or fish bitten.
1897. Blank.
1898. Not examined.
1899. Blank. Weed and chully only.
1900. Not examined.
1901. Some few oysters, size 1} inch, 50 per cent. dead, mostly found on the sands
and off the bank.
1902. Not examined.

. (a) Past PAr——

(6) Parraral PAr—
1885. Bare.
1886. No oysters, bank bare, 56 dives made.
1887. One oyster of $ inch. Pinna, chanks, and much siran ; 40 dives made.
1888. Not examined.
1889. Much stran ; no oysters ; 20 dives.
1890. Not examined.
1891. Forty-four dives ; bare.
1892-1893, Not examined.
1894. Sea weed and stran.
A small quantity of oysters varying in size from 2 inches to } inch. Sea weed
and a few chanks, One large oyster, 3 inches in size on rock.
1895. A few young oysters.
1896. Seven small oysters, chanks, chully and weed.
1897. Blank. .
1898. Weed ; bare. F
1899. Blank ; weed and chullies only. a
1900. Not examined. <

99

28. (a) Past PAR, ETC,——cont.
1901. (28a) Large quantity of 6 months old dead oysters, in size 3 inch, said to be
killed by sdran, also dead sfiran.
(28b) A few oysters, size 1; inch; 20 alive, 8 dead.
1902. (28a) Very few oysters, 6 months old, mixed with siiran,
(285) Same as above.

29. Korapiar Pir—
1885. Perfectly bare.
1886. (a) Nine dives—380 oysters of 1 inch in size, appear to be very few-
(6) Fifty-nine dives—a few oysters, many broken shells.
. Stran ; no value at present.

1887. Siiran, 2 chanks, 4 oysters of l inch on dead chank. Thirty-two dives made
on this bank.

1888. Not examined.

1889. No oysters, much stiran; 17 dives.

1890. Not examined.

1891. Forty diyes—pinna, 5 young oysters varying from + inch to 1 inch in size,
chully and pinna.

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. Red coral, sea-weed, 2 live oysters, 2} to 2 inches in size—6 live chanks.

1895. Young oysters 10 to 15 per dive.

1896. A few oysters yarying from 22 to } inches in size.

1897. Blank.

1898. Weed ; bare.

1899-1900. Not examined.

1901. No appearance of oysters.

1902. Not examined.

1903. Moderate number of very young oysters.

29-4. Wicks Bank—

1885. Two inspections ; young oysters, size 4 to 2} inch, plentiful, 2 chanks alive,

1886. Sixty-one dives; a very few oysters, size } to 1$ inch. A good number of
pinna on the bank which is not of any great estan. Stran; 2 dead chanks ;
1 live chank; weed; 5 dead shells from 2 to 2 4 inch.

1887--1890. Not examined.

1891. Thirty dives, siran in small quantity, seven live chanks, weed and one live
oyster 12 inch in size.

1892—1894. Net examined.

1895. Four small oysters, large quantity of siran, chully, and weed.

1896—1903. Not examined.

30. Totayiram PAr—

1885. Seven inspections. Satisfactory, oysters clean and apparently growing well,
free from trouble of any kind. The largest live oyster found measured 8
inches, average 2+ inches; trigger fish ; oysters covered with short sea-weed.
Plenty of oysters from 2 to 2% inches.

1886. Large number of oysters 2} to 22 inches. The proportion of empty shells was
trifling. This bank will be ready fora fishery in 1888. ‘There seems to be
much stran round the bank and some of the oysters had it on them. The
proportion of empty shells was trifling.

1887. Lifted 745 oysters, some siiran; 13 dead shells only found; plenty of fish.

1888. Plenty of oysters.

Lifted 15,000 oysters, dead shells few.

1889. This bank has been partially fished. Net profit to Government Rs. 1,58,483.

1890. Do. do. do. es 7,803

1891. Ninety dives; a quantity of large sized dead shells; 2 live oysters, 23 to 3
inches in size ; on a buoy which was placed to mark chanks in February last,
found a large quantity of young oysters, ¢ to linch in size ; lifted the buoy
carefully and placed it on the bank on rock, Bxamined! the bank carefully
but found no spat deposited. Am placing several more buoys as spat-
catchers.

1692. One hundred and fifty-eight dives—8 chanks and a large quantity of full grown
oyster shells and some weed. On examining the weed carefully through a
magnifying glass found minute oyster spat. The spat-catcher buoys laid
down last year werenot to be found. They have unfortunately disappeared.

18°3. Not examined.

1894. Old oyster shells, 2 live oysters measuring 14 and + inch, respectively, live
chanks, sea-weed, on which on careful examination small oysters measuring
from % inch downward were found ; large sfiranin small quantity, pinna and
dead chanks.

1£95. Northern fortion quite bare, only chully. Southern part, sea weed with a few
oysters yarying from 2% to % inch.

30,

Co

BO.

34,

bo

100:

Torayiram PARr——cont.

1896. Made 220 dives on this bank, result :—old oyster shells, branch sea-weed, red
coral, 2 young oysters on rock measuring 1} and 1} inch.

1897. Old dead shells, weeds and challies.

4898. Weeds and chullies ; large siran in some parts.

1899. A quantity of old dead oyster shells, chullies and sea-weed on the northern
part. Found some small live siran.

1900. Not examined.

1901. One of the largest banks. No appearance of oysters.

1902. Bare of oysters.

. Vana Onpatu Pir—

1885. Bare ; sea-weed, no spat.

1886. Thirty-two dives ; no oysters.

1887. Fifty-four dives; stiran, 3 oysters of 14 inch.

1888—1890. Not examined.

1891. Sixty-two dives; 14 live chanks, pinna, chullies, no oysters.

1892-1898. Not examined.

1894, Bank free from stiran but nothing but sea weed on it.

1895. A few young oysters.

1896. A few oysters on southern side of this bank, large siiran on the western, rest
bare.

1897. A few young oysters measuring from 1 to 3 inch in size, 10 to a dive.

1898. Weed and chullies.

1899, Nine oysters ? to 14 inch in size, 6 dead shells, red coral and weed.

1900. Not cniontiacd,

1901. A few live oysters 13 and 1% inch; many of the clusters of oysters on the-
edges of the bank loose on sand.

1902. Not examined.

(a) SarrH Onpato PAR——
(b) Purr Punpv PAr—
(c) Kanna Pott Ponpv PAér—
1885. Young oysters on sandy bottom attached to pinna shells, also on rock, all
healthy looking ; some stiran.
1886. Twenty-six dives—no oysters on Puli Pundu Par or on Saith Onpatu Par.
On Kanna Puli Pundu Par, 2 oysters of 14 inch, some dead.
Oyster shells, 42 dives.
1887. Thirty-three dives made on the two latter banks; chanks, weed, 7 oysters of
22 inches in size.
1888—1894. Not examined.
1895. Young oysters 10 to 15 per dive.
1896. (82a) Bare.
(826) Seventeen live oysters, one 5} inch, rest 11 inch. A large quantity of,
freshly broken oyster shells ; no stiran or killikoy.
(82c) Do. do. do.
1897. A few young oysters mixed with dead shells, same size.
Oysters alive 31, dead 35; blank.
1898. Weed and chullies.
1899. Nine oysters $ to 14 inch in size, 6 dead shells and red coral and weed.
1900. Not examined.
1901. (82a) A few live oysters 13 to 1% inch; many of the clusters of oysters on the:
edges of the bank ‘Toose on sand.
(3826) Weeds small stones and no oysters.
(82c) Star fish, weeds and no oysters.
1902. Not examined.

Atuya Pir—

1885. Stiran, killikoy ; useless.

1886. Twelve dives ; no oysters.

1887. Thirty-two dives; 3 oysters of ? and I inch; stran.
1888. Not examined.

1889. Nine dives.; blank.

1890--1893. Not examined.

1896-1897. Do.

1898. Weeds and chullies. ‘
1899-1902. Not examined.

Kanna Tiyu Arurpacau PAr—

1885. Blank.

1886. (4) Seven dives, no oysters.

(b) Twenty-six dives, no oysters, weed and chullies:.
£887. Twenty-two dives, siran.

34.

35.

36.

37.

101

Kanna Tivu Arvpacam PAr—cont,

1888. Not examined.

1889, Fifteen dives, 5 young oysters of six months.

1890. Not examined.

1891. Large siran in quantities, no oysters.

1892-18938. Not examined.

1894. Weed, chully and killikoy.

1895. Two small oysters, sea-weed, and a small quantity of small stran.

1896. Sdran and killikoy.

1897. Oysters plentiful ranging in size from 2 to}inch. They are unhealthy in
appearance, very poor in condition. This is probably due to the adjacent
mud bank.

1898. Weeds and chullies.

1899. Blank, nothing of value.

1900-1992. Not examined.

Tounpu PAr—

1885. Blank.

1886. Thirty-five dives, no oysters, no stran, no killikoy, some pieces of rock.
1887. Thirty-one dives stran.
1888. Not examined.

1889. Seven dives, blank.
1890-1894. Not examined.
1895. Blank.

1896. Bare.

1897-1898. Not examined.
1899. Blank, nothing of value.
1900-1902. Not examined.

(a) NznscricucHan PAr——
(b) Par Kunpansan PAr—
(c) Meta Onpatc PAr—
1885. Blank.
1886. (a) 13 dives, no oysters.
(6) Very few oysters—i52 dives.
(c) The bank covered with sdiran entirely; all stones, chanks, etc., thickly
covered.
1887. No oysters, mud, suran; of no value.
1888. Not examined.
1889. No oysters, some stran; 47 dives.
1890-1894. Not examined.
1895-1896. Bare.
1897. Blank.
1898. Bare.
1899. Blank.
1900. Not examined.
1901. {a) Weed, coral and small stones.
(6) Broken coral, small stones, no oysters.
(c) No oysters ; weed and coral.

Piynacot, Sertran Pir—

1885. A very small bank ; bare.

1886. Bare.

1887. Twenty-two dives; blank.

1888-1890. Not examined.

1891. Two live chanks, one dead chank, two large dead oyster shells; chully and coral.

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. Sea-weed, red coral, and chully.

1895. Young oysters, 10 to 15 per dive, with dead stiran mixed with young dead
oyster shells.

1896. Oysters 1} inch, 5 to a dive on south-west side of bank; rest bare.

1897. Young oysters ranging from | to 2 inch in size on weed.

1898-1899. Bare.

1900. Not examined.

1901. Weeds and stones, one healthy oyster, size 2 inches.

1902. Not examined.

1903. Bare of oysters.

. SanpamarRAm Pipitta PAr—

1885. Large stran plentiful, also chanks.

1886. One diver brought 28 oysters 14 inch and again 10 of 1 inch, then got 20 to 30
each time, but the bank is of very small extent, and of no value.

1387-1890. Not examined.

26

102

38. SanpamaRam Popirra PAr—cont.

1891. Forty-two dives; a small quantity of large and small oysters, oyster shells
evidently old. Chully, red coral and a small quantity of weed.

1892-1893. Not examined.

i894. Sea-weed, red coral, and chully and two small oysters measuring } inch.

1895. Young oysters 10 to 15 per dive.

1596. Seventy-seven oysters, average 2 to 2 inch in size; chullies and weed.

1897. Oysters plentiful 14 to 3 inch in size on weed, healthy in appearance, byssus
strong; weed in large quantities.

1898. Oysters plentiful, 40 to 50 obtained at a dive. Divers report that oysters are
firmly attached to bottom and it is only with a strong pull they can detach
them. Size 2 to 24 inches.

1899. Bare.

1900. Not examined.

1901. Not examined.

1902. Not examined.

39. (a) Ira Trvu Kopamutre PAr—
(6) Napu Kupamutru PAr--
1885. Quite bare, no stran or killikoy ; no spat.
1886. A few oysters of 14 inch with dead oysters and stran. One part 15 and 20 to
a dive intermixed with stiran ; 43 dives made.
1887. Nineteen dives ; bare.
1888-1890. Not examined.
1&91. ‘lwo dives (sic) ; weed and chully.
1892-1893. Not examined.
1894. Sea-weed and red coral.
1855. Young oysters, 10 to 15 per dive.
1896. Bare.
1897. Same as No. 38.
1898. Same as No. 33.
1899. Bare.
1900. Not examined.
1901. Not examined.
1902. Not examined.

40. (a) Kovm Pipirra Patru PAr—
(b) Sanauria Parru PAr—-
(c) Nuam Kativu Pdr—-
(dq) Serau Koria Partro PAr—
1885, Blank.
1886. A few oysters on these banks of 1 and 14 and 3 and 3 inch, not sufficient to be
of any value. One diver got 48; another 28, 92 dives made. On the part
called Nilam Kallu Par one diver got 9 oysters in two dives, another 7; 62
dives made on this Par.
1887-1890. Not examined.
1891. Twenty-six dives; bare.
1892-1894. Not examined.
1896. Bare.
1897. Blank.
1898. Only chullies and weed, no signs of oysters.
1899. Bare.
1900. Not examined.
1901. Weeds, corals, and no oysters.
1902-19038. Not examined.

4]. (a2) Kupamuttu PAr—
(b) Rasavurku Siper Sorichcwa PAR--
(c) Satrh Kupamurru PA&r—-
1885. Blank; suran on the former, none on the latter.
1886. A few oysters $ to 1} inch ; many broken and empty shells, stran.
On Kudamuttu Par five! oysters of 1} inch; much sand on this bank, dead

oyster shells of { inch with weed, few oysters of 1 inch mixed with stran ;
68 dives.

1887. Thirty-one dives made on these banks.
On Kudamuttu Par, 14 oysters of 1 inch; much sitiran.
On Rajavukku Sippi Soticheha Pa4r five oysters 4 to 1 inch ; stiran.
On Saith Kudamnttu Par two oysters of $ mech ; much stéran.
1888-1890. Not examined.
1891. (a) Thirty-four dives ; five chanks, no oysters,
(b) Twenty-nine dives ; five chanks, four oysters.
(c) fourteen dives ; bare.

103

41. (2) Kupamerru P&r, Etc.—-cont.

43,

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. Sea-weed, chully and red coral.

1895. Young oysters 10 to 15 per dive.

1896. Bare ; stiran, dead oyster shells and a few young oysters.

1897. Large quantities of oysters on these banks measuring 1% to 3 inch, healtby
looking, byssus strong, free from stran and with plenty of weed; on
eastern edge large quantities of oysters were found on dead pinna and chank
shells,

1898. Oysters varying from 2 to 2} inches, 40 to a dive among weed on rock, byssus

strong, oysters healthy ; very few dead and those evidently smashed by
fishing stones.

1899. (a) and (b) bare; (c) only 24 oysters, 2$ inch, were found.
1900. Not examined.

1901. (a) weed, coral, no oysters; (c) weeds and coral, 1 oyster.
1902. Not examined.

1903. (6) Very few six months old healthy oysters.

2. (a) Napv Matar Prprrra PAr-—

(6) Periya Matar Prpirra PAr—

1885. Two oysters 2 inches and 4 inch respectively only found on the former; the
rest bare.

1886. 75 dives made on the former ; two oysters of 1 inch, some empty shells of 134 to
2 inches, many chanks.

65 dives on the latter; bare.

1887. On Nadu Malai Piditta Par 21 dives ; blank.

1888-1893. Not examined.

1894. Red coral, sea-weed, four small live oysters averaging % inch and a few live
chanks.

1895. (a) Plenty of oysters, 104 to 106 per dive. Percentage of dead, small; oysters
also on sand close to the bank. Young oysters 100 to 106 per dive; healthy
looking.

1896. (a) and (4) 3 to 4 young oysters per dive.

1897. Not examined.

1898. Same result as No. 41.

(a) Oysters ranging from 1{ to 2 inches in size 10 to 20 per dive, healthy and
good.

(6) Oysters plentiful; 40 to 50 per dive; size 2 to 24 inches; healthy, byssus
strong. No dead shells.

1899. (a) A few oysters, weed, chullies and pinna.

(6) Found only a few oysters on dead pinna and rock, found a very large
quantity of cast-off byssus showing plainly that the oysters of last year

had emigrated (!) (No; rather the ravages of Rhinoptera sp. J.H.).
1900. Not examined.

1901. (a) Weeds, coral, pinna; no oysters.
(b) Weeds, and coral, no oysters. In 1897 the banks were full of oysters.

(This does not tally with the entry for that year! J.H.)
1902. Not examined.

1903. (6) Bare.

(2) Kaprryan PAr—

(b) Kanava PAir—

(ec) Puro PAr—

1885. A few small live oysters.

1886. A very few oysters, many broken shells, weed, suran, and killikoy ; one oyster
of 2 inches ; 54 dives.

On Putu Péra very few oysters, varying in size from j to 1 inch, empty shells,
and weed on the bank; 40 dives.

1887. 174 dives made on these banks. On Putu Par 71 oysters of 31 to 1} inch;
much suran in all parts.

On Kadeiyan and Kanava P4rs seven oysters of + to 14; much stran.
1888-1890. Not examined.
1891. (a) and (6) 40 dives; four chanks, no oysters.
1692-1893. Not examined.
1894. Sea-weed and a few live chanks and chully.
1395. (a) On south side young oysters 10 to 15 per dive; young stran..

On the northern side 40 to 58 per dive, free from saran.

(4) Young oysters only 10 to 15 toa dive. Small stran.

(c) Young oysters only 1 to 2 per dive.
1896. (a) 1 to 2 young oysters to a dive, also dead shells.

(b) and (c) A few young oysters.

104

43. (a) Kapriyan PAr, Erc.--cont.

1897. Large quantities of young oysters, healthy in appearance 1{ to § inches in size.
(6) and (ec) Same result.
1898. (a) Oysters plentiful averaging 2 to 24 inches in size, healthy in appearance,
byssus strong.

On western edge oysters were found in large numbers on pinna ; oysters in
abundance on the eastern and western edges—oysters in large quantities
on pinna lying on sand, 2 to 24 inches in size.

(4) and (c) oysters plentiful—healthy in appearance; divers obtained 50 per
dive, size 2 to 2} inches. No siran or any trouble.
1899. (wa) Almost bare—found only a few oysters on dead pinna and rock.

Found a very large quantity of cast off byssi showing plainly that the
oysters of last year had emigrated. (!)

(6) Found avery large quantity of cast off byssi showing plainly that the
oysters of last year had emigrated (!)

Hight oysters 23 inches in size and a few dead shells.

(c) Thirty-seven oysters of 2} inches and a few dead shells.
1900. Not examined.
1901. (a) Weeds, stones and no oysters.
(6) Weeds, stones and no oysters.
(c) Weeds, stones and 1 oyster 1 inch in size. In 1818 a fishery was held on
this bank.
1902. Not examined.
1903. Bare.

44, Karat KaruwaL Par—

45,

1885. Seven live oysters to a dive; empty shells, the largest, apparently fresh,
measured 23 inches; empty shells intact. Much stran.

1886. Broken shells; siran; 1 live oyster, 1} inches.

1887. Not examined.

1888. Seven dives from canoes; weed, 1 oyster on sand.

1889-1890. Not examined.

1891. A few empty shells, 1 young oyster. 21 dives.

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. Sea-weed, red coral, and chully.

1895-1896. Bare.

1897. Large quantities of young oysters, healthy in appearance, 1? to $ inch in size.

1898. Oysters plentiful, 35 to a dive, 2 inches in size ; healthy.

1899. One hundred and seventeen oysters, 2% inches in size; among these 11 dead
shells.

1900. Not examined.

1901. Coral, weeds, pinna; no oysters.

1902. Not examined.

1903. Bare.

Vetanau Karuwat PAr—

1885. Oysters plentiful, measuring from 1$ to 14 inches; 10 per cent. of empty shells,
Some apparently bitten by fish and average 2 inches in size. Short sea-
weed on oysters plentiful,

1886. Insome parts there are oysters in fair quantities of inch; 10 and 20 to a dive,
but many are already dead. Sitran exists, also the bank of little or no value,
92 dives. Last year’s oysters all gone.

1887. Seventy-four dives; some empty oyster shells, 1 and 14 inches; weed, sdran,
and round pieces of lime.

1888-1890. Not examined,

1891. (a) 63 dives; 5 oysters, 1 small dead oyster shell,

(6) 40 dives; chully, weed, coral, etc.

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. Sea-weed, red coral, and chully.

1895-1896. Bare.

1897-1898. Same results as No. 44.

1899. Oysters 2% inches in size, 10 to a dive.

1900. Not examined.

1901. Coral, weeds and no oysters,

1902. Not examined.
1908. Bare.

46. Tunpu PAr—

1885. Sea-weed and coral, nothing else.

1886. Highty dives ; 54 oysters of 14 inches in size, siran; empty shells, all broken.
1887-1890. Not examined.

1891, Ten dives ; chullies,

|
.
:
“|

105

46, Tunpu PAr—cent.

47.

48.

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. Sea-weed, red coral, and chully.

1895-1896. Bare.

1897. Not examined.

1898. Oysters plentiful, 35 to a dive, 2 inches in size, healthy in appearance.
1899. Nothing of value.

1900. Not examined.

1901. Coral, weeds and no oysters.

1802. Not examined.

TricHENDUR PunTHoTTa PAr—
1885. Blank.
1886. (a) Several dives; large number of ‘oysters from + to 1} inch attached to
small coral stones, mixed with some dead shells ; a very few weeds.
(6) Large number of oysters; the appearance of the oysters does not look
healthy, Dead shells; several dives.
1887. Some empty oyster shells of 4 to inch; no value.
1888-1890. Not examined.
1891. (a) Thirty-seven dives; small stones, and chullies.
(5) Twenty dives; weeds, coral, pinna, and chullies,
1892-1893. Not examined.
1894. Sea-weed, red coral, and chully,
1895-1896. Bare.
1897. Oysters plentiful, 14 to $ inch in size, healthy in appearance and in good
condition. Divers brought up netsfull every dive, average 380 oysters.

' 1898. Oysters plentiful, 2 inches in size, on eastern and western edges. Oysters on

pinna in large quantity. All healthy and free from any trouble.
1899. Oysters average 22 inches in size, 8 to a diye.
1900. Not examined.
1901. Coral, weeds and no oysters. -
1902. Not examined.
1903. Do.

Opa Karat Pir—

1885. Bank measures 1+ miles north and south; oysters sparse on rock, about 10
to 20 to a square yard; size 1 to 2+ inches. Coloured red and like the coral
to which they are attached.

1886. Forty-seven diyes ; last year’s oysters are all gone. Now there are some young

ones of and 1 inch; some dead shells also; divers got 11 live oysters of
1 inch, 13 and 8, most part are already dead.

1887, Fifty-five dives; one oyster of 14 inches, four dead oyster shells, 3 to 14
inches. A large quantity of small round lime.

1888-1890. Not examined.

1891. One young oyster, four small dead oyster shells ; 36 diyes,

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. A small quantity of empty oyster shells, weeds and coral.

1895-1896. Bare.

1897. Oysters plentiful; divers report that they could bring up basketsful at a dive.

: a inch.

1898. Oysters 2 to 22 inches in size on weed and pinna, very healthy in appearance
but quantity of broken shells shows that this bank lying close inshore and
abounding in fish has been visited by fishermen. :

1899. Oysters 20 toa dive, 2} inches in size; healthy, Avery small quantity of dead
shells were found; divers report that the undertow was very heavy, and
that they had much difficulty in keeping on their feet; large quantity of weed
on this bank.

1900-1902. Not examined,

1903. Bare.

48 (a). Opa Karat Tunpu Pir—

49.

1885. Nil,
1386. Several dives; a very few oysters intermixed with many dead oyster shells;
weed and chully.
1887-1894. Not examined,
1895-1896. Bare.
1897. Only a few young oysters,
1898-1903. Not examined.
Cuopr PAr—
1885. Bare.
1886. Fifty-two dives ; no oysters, no stiran, etc.
1287-1890. Not examined,
27

49.

50.

106

Caonr PAr—-cont.

1891. Twenty-two dives; a few dead oyster shells, no oysters. This bank in places
is covered by coarse sand and shells about 6 inches deep.

1892-1893. Not examined.

1894. Quite bare, covered with coarse sand 1 foot deep.

1895-1896. Bare.

1897-1898. Not examined.

1899. Useless ; covered with sand.

1900-1903. Not examined.

Sanpamacom, Pipirra PAr—

1885. Three or 4 to a dive. -

1886. Large quantities of oysters of } to and 1inch. The divers brought up 6, 50,
21, 30, and 125 ata dive, some of 3 inch. This is a valuable bank, but dead
shells are already to be found ; the oysters look clean and moderately healthy.

1887. This bank is also cailed “‘ Surruku Onpatu Par.” * A yery few oysters on it.

1889-1890. Not examined.

1891. Large and small oyster shells, red coral, weed and chully ; 42 dives.

1892—1894. Not examined.

1895-1896. Bare.

1897. Oysters plentiful ; sizes ranging from 13 to § inches ; very few dead shells,

no suran.

1898. Oysters plentiful ; sizes ranging from1§ to 2§ inches. Kuillkoy with oysters

attached also found.

1899. Same results as No. 48.

1900. Not examined.

1901. A few scattered mature oysters.

1902. Not examined.

. Trraprt Pot Pipirra PAr—

1885. Sea weed and old empty shells.

1886. Bare.

1887. Forty-six dives ; blank; some false spat.
1888-1890. Not examined.

» 1891. Twenty dives. A large quantity of small dead oyster shells, pinna and weed,

52.

58.

coral and chully.

1892—1894. Not examined.

1895. Sea weed only.

1896. Bare.

1897. Oysters plentiful, 12 to $ inches ; very few dead shells, no suran.

1898. Same as No. 50.

1899. A very large quantity of oysters on this bank, 2 to 2} inches in size; divers report
that they could bring up basketsful at a time ; healthy in appearance with
good strong byssi.

1900. This bank fished—supposed prematurely—poor prices fetched. Net profit to
Government, Rs. 11,088.

1901. A few mature oysters ; 10 per cent. empty shells; weeds 4 feet high in places.

1902-1908, Not examined.

Seuman Pare Pir—

1885. Sea weed; no spat.

1886. Blank. This bank is joined on to the large Manapad Par; is of no value.

1887. Seventy-two dives ; blank.

1888—1890. Not examined.

1891. Highty dives; chully, red coral, pinna, six live oysters from 13 to 2 inches;
two live chanks.

1892-1894. Not examined.

1895-1896. Bare.

1897. Same result as No. 50.

1898. Weed and chullies only.

1899. Same result as No. 51.

1900-1908. Not examined.

Surugku Onparu PAr—

1885. Six dives ; three oysters of 2 inches, 2 inch and 3 inch, respectively ; two kinds
of sea- weed, tree and long, broad and flat leafed kind.

1886. 139 oysters from % to 1} inches in size mixed with some recently dead oysters,
chully and weed.

1887. Not examined.

1888—1894. Not examined.

1895-1896. Bare.

* No; they are distinct banks.—J.H.

107

. Suruxku Onpatu PAr—cont.

1897. Oysters plentiful 14 to inch. Very few dead shells ; no suran.
1898. Not examined.

1899. Oysters 2 to 2 inch ; 10 to 15 per dive.

1900-1903. Not examined.

. Manapap Prertya PAr—

1885. Blank.

1886. No oysters; not a likely place at any time.
1887. Thirteen dives blank.

1888—-1898. Not examined.

1899. Bare.

1900-1903. Not examined.

. Kanawa Paraxku Sour Tonpu PAr—

1896. Oysters ranging from 23 to l inch; 3 to a dive.
1897—1903. Not examined.

. ParacHERRY PAR—

1885. Nui.

1886. Several dives. A very few oysters of inch. A large quantity of empty shells,
weed, suran, and sponge.

1887, Thirteen dives; blank.

1888—1903. Not examined.

7. ParRACHERRY PatTHooR.

58. ALANTALAI PatHoor.
59. Manapap PatHoor.

. Kint P&r.

. Pertya Tatar Seman Terar P&r.

. Seman Patter Karuu Pir.

- Kopoo Tuatat P&ir.

. Oyarze AnruontaR Koyit Prpitra P&z.

), OvarREE AnrHontAR Koyin VELLAI VALLAI PAr-=

1899. Bare.
1900—1903. Not examined,

Zé

ANNEXURES.

Nos. 1 & I1.—Sketch plans (Charts A and B) of the Central Pearl Bank region showing graphically the groups
which I propose to form by the linking together of adjacent and related pars.

Nos. [11 & 1V.—Similar sketch plans (Charts C ani D) showing the manner in which I propose the Pear] Bank region
should be examined by means of ‘‘ circle-inspection ’’.

No. V.—Specimen of a Coxswain’s inspection diagram, blank.
No. VI.—Specimen of the same filled up at the end of a day’s work.

No. VII.—An example of one of the Inspector’s master-diagrams filled up by combining the four diagrams
faornished by the inspection coxswains,

No. YIl1.—Skeleton diagram showing the sub-division of a large bank (Cheval P4r, Ceylon) into culture blocks.
No. [X.—Sketch-plan showing how the Skeleton plan No. VIII should be filled in after inspection has been

completed, the distribution of oysters of different generations being indicated by distinctive
selouring

a ee CIE
' ANNEXURE NO: |
CHART of the NORTHERN HALF of the CENTRAL DIVISION
of the INDIAN PEARL BANKS, Showing:-—
(a). The position, extent, § names of the “Pars”
as given in the present Inspection chart;

(b). The plan of grouping proposed, whereby
pars of similar characteristics are
coalesced into larger divisions.

The boundaries of the latter are VAIPAR ) i
shewn by red lines and to each & a
is affixed an index numeral in \ asin LO
i — =

Note,—The position of no land marks can)
be indicated, as none are given in
the present Inspection charts.

REFERENCE COLOURS

a & ”
Indicates Pars

To. Chaok Reda

Vaipar Periya

VI Pax =

Cruzian T nas Par é: ig

7 68-7; Nagara ET es

“pe wii ja
Bs #82 uhururi Par

b¢-7z Kilati Por

_- /Aftonpatu Far /-

ne

, ao ioe
Attnvai Arnpagem Sap EZ?

«+ ¢ Kanna Tivo :
2e Ov arupagam Par

/

«

Saith Onpatu Par “272: \ 2

* Pali eae Par

(figned) JAMES HORNWLL,
22-8.05

A ae nr

: Ziaae Survey Office, Mad
Copies — 200 ; I ) eee ce, Madras

ANNEXURE NO: fi

PINNACOIL (¢

| ByoPeriva Mal Piditta Par
: % 4 8 % Kral Karuwal Par

- | Book VIII

=a
TRICHENDUR ()? Peeoda

( ae Oda Karai Par

eS DOL

ri CHART
a of the
#/ Southern half of the Central Division
af of the
i INDIAN PEARL BANKS,
— MANAPAD Showing —
fee POINT |
fp (a). The position, ewtent, § names of the Pars
as given in the present Inspection chart.
(6). Lhe plan of growping now proposed, whereby * Pars”
diwisions. The boundaries of the latter are shewn
by red lines, and to each is affixed an index

% numeral im red. -—
BEFERENCE COLOURS +>— ecaiiees

Indicates Para”

ie Ce Chank Bads

XXIII

2 62-7 falhoms

ibs “Morar Periya Par a

of similar characteristics are coalesced into larger

(Signed) JAMES BORNELL,

T53\10 Bast Longitude ;

Reg. No, 8587 Zineo, Survey Office, Madias
ig lia 1905

VEMBAR

ia

ANNEXURE NO. Ill

CHART of the NORTHERN HALF of the CENTRAL DIVISION
of the INDIAN PEARL BANKS, Showing:—

|
| ( a). The pearl Bank areas simplified as proposed in Chart A.
a Their extent is indicated by blue tinting; >

|
|
i

7

the proposed name isaffized to each.

(0). The manner whereby exhaustive p
examination can be effected in Re
: 3 . VAIP.
18<‘inspection-circles”. These ERG
are bounded by red lines and Sr
are numbered consecutively. ee ,

Small numbers in black indicate
depth in fathems.

my

| <
A
; ~
aN
9
kK a W
oF
>. 2
Oo :
O Chank bed

TUTICORIN G

a

Kanna Tivu Par.

Nenjurichchan Par.

rang ie
Puli Pundi Par :

(Signed) JAMES|HORNELD,
22-3.05.

: Zinco., Survey Office, Madras
z Be. 3 v , Madra
Opes ; 1905,

z 78! 20
ANNEXURE NO: IV Pe is
=
| | Chart D
Month of River
c ~ >| Tambraparni
Be Gi
(=)
$:to10 S\N.
| at | ee
; <0 } © Onter Kudamuttu
| Co Par
|
XVIII

s Karuwal Par

XX NN
Chodi Par : |
2 = J °
g 8
30 = 30
eg | IK
“ =9.91 :. | HeaQEer | :
XXI | Se xcees \ \ . cy 3 ) Oda Karai Par

| ; ie
4
‘] ”
CHART
of the aa
.~) Southern half of the Central Division Pas oo]
ee
of the : E 4 \ XXIL
INDIAN PEARL BANKS, AL SE 7) mansped Par
Showing :— E meg
Py ji 89 Ye
(2). The pearl bank areas simplified F a9 «oy
48 proposed in chart B. i 5)
+ MANAPAD Their extent is indicated by blue tinteng; ~~
POINT the proposed name is affixed to cache 89" é
(b). The manner whereby exhaustive examination —
can be secured in 17 “‘inspection-circles.”
These are bounded by red lines, and numbered
consecutively from 19 to 35.
Note:—S mall figures in black indicate the depth in fathoms. g
20
z s) 33 -
Ye ac wonere on ee ee 7
fest ze ee eae XORIIT a d
on 2 eye cease :
5 ak a ali raaetammaeie ae (Signed) JAMES HORNELL, |
: 23:3-05

7810 Bast Longitude. §} 20

Zinco., Survey Olfi¢e, Madras

300n&

ge ow a fre

ANNEXURE NO. IV

Specimen of a Coxswain’s
Inspection Diagrain

before use.

. Par
No. of Boat_.

Date...

s

Numbers above the line indicate Old Oysters.

” below ”

4 indicates flat rock.
x

6 Young Oysters.
Ke Oysters too young to count.
@ ” a sandy bottom.

Reg No. 8590 Photo-Zinco., Surrey Office, Macliras.
Ccpies - 200 1905,

of dives on Old Oysters

Meda... Young Oysters eee i.e

Share ROCK 610 ck ee, oo

Br OO CATON EANC reece eee

es .

Fotal dives

of square yards...

ORO Sl Orenirmen alec oats Seen ee

of Oysters to a dive

ANNEXURE NO. V
He]

Mid West Cheval far
No. of Boat. Le

Date........23 * February, 19 OL,

und

Numbers above the tne indicate Old Oysters.
caces Slat rocky.

belo ee ae Young Oy slers

Oo xd |

a ee Oysters loo young to count
er

a sandy bottom

4.4.0. Soe sinles
7

Reg. Mo. 3591
Copies - 200

Photo-Zines., Survey Office, Madras.
1905.

ANNEXURE NO- VII
Date 27th and 28th February 1904. WN. W. Cheval Par

Bearings of landmarks from centre are:-

Karativu Pile Beacon, $.31°R.
Kutiramalai Trigonometrical Tower, §.33°E.
Kellar Beacon, S.72} E.

LEG
AiR

w# afr E

24. Numbers urdicate Wd Oysters......
yz. Nurmbers indicate Young Oysters..... Upon Kock when the figures stand alone

xX wndicatesOyslers too young lacount.\Upon Sand when contained within a corcle
A tndicales that the bottom 1s flat rock

a sandy bottom ............|

When Oysters are wa ating i

4.6.0. FY? 125,94

Rez. No. 92 Photo-Zinco., Survey Office, Madras
Copies — 200 1905

ANNEXURE NO. Viti

woeretteys
ECs ss SC

ee : Plan of the
£ Pavia: Par CHEVAL PAR REGION
PS Karat.” To itustrate the
Be ee ra proposed system of
Se subdiwisvor trto culture

teed

The dotted outlines usadicate
the bounaar ves GF the banks
as gwen tw Captacn
7 Sis beach Norra Eas Loum ans chart.

/- oi .: S 3

: Norra Wes7r \s. S we
‘ . Cenrpar NX

| ., Min- LAST %

(0 ie 4

SOUTH-EAST

| Sourn

- £
SHOAL| BEACON

Scate,-One uch toa nautical Mule

Sigh], Sames Horndl.

IO. G. O%.

2.60 N°? (264 04 S

Reg. No.
: i w200 Photo-Zinco., Survay Office, Madras.
Copies — 200 ve

uli

Ug

c)

~

No. 5 3 ANNEXURE NO: IX,
| 7 Sketch Plan
| of the

Periya Par Karat CHEVAL PAR REGION
Showing the distribution of Pearl

Oysters in February 1904.

The areas shaded red represent
the extent of grownd occupied

by jishable oysters 41 to 42

years old; those shaded in

blue, the distribution of imm-

ature oysters about 23 years

of age.

,

N

eh.

\ ;
a \ ot ] }) Karative 7

e - Shoal | Beacon

North Moderagam
AX

Scale-One Inch to a Nautical mile

(Signed) JAMES HORNELL, s
Reg. No. 8594 Zinco., Survey Office, Madras
Copies — 200 1905

| il i iil (ui til

90488 0030?

nhanth qSH377. ine
Report of the goverment of Madras on th