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[ Document G. ]

BY THE HOUSE OF DELEGATES,

January 220(1, 1850.
Read, and three thousand copies ordered to he printed. February
19ih, five thousand extra copies ordered to be printed — five
hundred of which to be placed ai the disposal of Dr. Higgins.

REPORT

OF

JAMES HIGGINS, M. D.

STATE AGRICULTURAL CHEMIST,

to THE

HOUSE OF DELEGATES OF MARYLAND.

ANNAPOLIS:

KtLBr AND DAVIS, PRINTER »■

1850.

REPORT

The Legislature of Maryland at the session of 1847, 48, crea-
ted, the office of Agricultural Chemist by the following act:
CHAPTER 249.

An act entitled, an act lo provide for the appointment of an Agri-
cultural Chemist for the Slate.

Section. 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Mary-
land, That the Governor by and with the advice ami consent of
the Senate, shoU hereafter annually appoint and commission a per-
son of ability, integrity and suitable piactical and scientific attain
ments, as Agricultural Chemist for the State, and if (he Senate
shall have adjourned before the Governor shall make the appoint-
ment for the present year, or if a vacancy shall hereafter occur
during the recess of the Senate, then the Governor alone shall
make such appointment, which shall be good and valid until the
tenth day after the meeting of the Senate.

Sec. 2. Beit enacted, That the State shall be divided into
three districts ; the fiist shall comprise that part of the Stale now
comprised in the first Gubernatorial district ; the second that of the
third Gubernatorial district ; and the third that of the second Gu-
bernatorial disliict.

Sec. 3. Be it enacted, That the said Agricultuial Chemist,
shall spend one year, the firs tbeginning on the date of his appoint-
ment, in each of said districts in the order named, it shall alse be
his duty to spend one month in each county and Howard District,
and visit each election district.

Sec. 4. Be it enacted, That it shall be the duty of said Agri-
cultural Chemist, to analyze specimens of each variety of soil of
the county in which he shall be, that may be brought to him or
that he may find to exist, and also to examine and if necessary
analyze specimens of each kind of marl or other vegetable or
mineral deposit that may come to his knowledge, in order that his
instructions may be of more practical utilil3^

Sec. 5. Be it enacted, That it shall also be his further duty to
deliver one public lecture, after having given timely notice there-
of, in each election district in each count}'^, and then to deliver a
course of public lectures at each county town, and at some central
place in Baltimore county, after having given also sufficient notice

[G] 4

thereof in each election district, and he shall also pennit the clerk
of the lev}^ court or the comnnissioners of tax as the case may be,
to tiilce a copy of sucli couise of lectuies, to be retained and kept
for the use and benefit of the county, and published by said levy
court or commissioners of the tax if to them it shall seera ex-
pedient.

Sec. 6. Be it enacted. That the said chemist shall make an
annual report to the House of Delegates if in session, and if
not then to the Governor, whose duly it shall be to cause the
same to be published, of his proceedings, and such other matters
touching the agricultural interest of the State, as may be consder-
ed necessary.

Sec. 7. And be it enacted. That for the faithful discharge of
his duties, the said chemist shall receive the annual salary of fif-
teen hundred dollars, to be paid as the salaries of other ofiicers are
or may be paid, and for the purchase of chemical implements and
materials, the said chemist shall be allowed for the first year, the
sum of two hundred dollars in advance, and on each succeeding
year a sum not exceeding fifty dollars, out of such monies as may
be in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated.

I had the honor to receive the appointment under the above
law, and as soon as the necessar}'- apparatus, tests and reagents
coidd be procured, commenced the discharge of its duties.

A p;ut of those duties was to analyze the varieties of soil to
order to determine the presence or absence of the necessary con-
stituents of crops; — to see whether they existed in sufficient
quantities, — to recommend the application of such particular sub-
stances as would most economically supply whatever defects
might exist; to render barren soils fertile, and retain the fertility of
those which might be productive at the present.

To determine the necessary constituents of crops, we have only
to examine thorn by the aids which analytical chemistry affords,
and when we find particular substances always present in them,
when we find that alihough in different plants they exist in varia-
ble proportions, yet that they are always present, we must con-
clude that they are the substances necessary to the existence of
vegetable life. There are certain substances to be described
hereafter, which are always found in plants; in no clime, in no *
country, under no circumstances do we ever find the one without
the other. The conclusion then is, that these substances are
necessaiy to the existence of plants. But tl^.ere is another and a
stronger proof. The object and aim of all cultivatioji is to sus-
tain by the food wdiich it produces, the human body. This food
then, must contain all of ihe elements which enter into the com-
position of the body, if it did not, it could not subserve the pur-
poses of nutriment. The human body is always losing some-
thing by exercise, some hing by disease, nay, something by breath-
ing— (the very act of life.) which is again supplied to it by the
food which it takes undei the instinct -of the appetite. If this
food did not contain all of the elements thus lost, some part of

5 [G]

the body would not be renewed and life would end. Food
must contain not only the elements of blood and bone, but of all
the tissues of the body; and as all food,i5 either directly or indi-
rectly supplied by plants, the plants must contain them. These
sulistances ihen arc the necessary conslituenl:-- of plants. It is out
of place here to speak of tiie manner in which the dements of
vegetable structure are converted info the different substances
which enter into the composition of animal bodies, and I shall
say nothing on thai subject.

The necessary constituents of soils are determined by a know-
ledge of what plants require. The food of plants is derived from
the air which surrounds them, and from the soil in which they grow.
We shall not in this place say of the atmosphere any more ihaa
that if the soil cannotobtain the proper food from it, then thai food
must be supplied artificially, or sterility will be the inevitable con-
sequence. A certain portion of the elements of plants cannot
from their nature exist in the atmospliere; they must then be pre-
sent in the soil or vegetation cannot be produced, because witliout
them plants cannot be formed. We can in this manner perfectly as-
certain what substances are necessary to the plants that are used
for food, from our knowledge of the matter in a human body
which is furnished by that food, and also perfectly ascertain
what are the necessary constituents of soils from a knowledge of
the materials which those plants require for their complete develop-
ment. The hQil proportions necessary to constitute a fertile soil
can only be determined b}"^ the chemical analysis of a large num-
ber of fertile soils. With each examination one certain step is gained
in the solution of this great question.

As examinations become more numerous tlie minimttm quan-
tity, that will produce the largest yield v/ill be ascertained, and
then the perfection of Agriculture will be attained. Of the substan-
ces to be described hereafter all must be present to constitute a fertile
50?/and they not only be/)rese«^, but they must be in sufficient quan-
tities, and in a form to supply the v/ants of the crop. What the best
quantity is has not yet been exactly ascertained. Vv^e must not
reject the aid of science, because it cannot ai once give us a perfect
system, we must compare what it affords with what exists with-
out its aid. The one system is possessed of a degree of certainty
continually approaching to perfection, the other is altogether em-
pirical, and never takes one certain forward step.

I have said tliat all of the necessary substances must be present,
and I moreover add that an excess of any one cannot compensate
for the absence or deficiency of another. So tliat we have this
general rule, that the fertility of a soil depends not on the quantity
of several of the necessary constituents, but upon the proper pt^o-
portion of them all.

To show this, I submit the following table, the facts of which
are taken from numerous analyses made in England and Ger-
many, by men whose reputation vouch for their truth, and from
some made by myself in this State.

[G] 6

It is only by faclsofthis kind, well established and indisputable
facts, that principles in agriculture or in any art or science can be de-
monstrated. The creations of fancy however beautiful cannot now
satisfy the human mind in its yearnings for truth. It seeks for and
is only contented with what is proven by exact demonstration.
Now no mere hypothesis however brilliant, can be received with
blind confidence. No theory now, however fascinating, can be
tolerated, that is not founded on legitimate deductions from indu-
bitable facts. Experimental inquiry and scientific invesiigations
must be appealed to, to satisfy all doubts; for the human mind is
not satisfied with explanations of that which it does not under-
stand by assumptions more incomprehensible than that which is
sought to be explained.

A soil may contain any or even all save o}ie of the constituents
of a good soil, in the large proportion indicated below and yet be
unproductive.

Lime, 1.65 *1.80 *6.2o

Humus, 3.98 *4.10 *3.60 *3.88

Magnesia, .16 .28 .73 .80 *1.25

Potash, .05 .15 .30 *1.20

Soda, *.10 *30 *.85 *1.65 «2.13

Phosphoric acid, .19 .198 .36 .40 .20

Animal and vege-
table or Organic

matter, *1».12 *25.00 *32.16 *52.17

Chlorine, .06 .08 *.U *6.21 *.42

Sulphuric acid, .051 *.082 *.255 *267

Alumina or pure

Clayi 5.25 7.97 *13.21 *18.50

Silica or Sand, *92. *95.6l ^97.84 *98.00

Iron as per Oxide, *8.14 *10.30 «17.75 *29.00

All these soils were unproductive so that it h proven by the
above facts, that a soil may contain five hundred and forty, or even
eighteen hundred and seventy-five bushels of lime, distributed to
the depth of twelve inches, that it may contain three hundred and
seventy-five bushels of magnesia, that it may contain sixty bushels
of phosphoric acid, equal to about two hundred and forty bushels
of bone dust, or that it may contain three hundred and sixty bush-
els of potash and yet be barren, sterile and unproductive and
not repay the cost of cultivation. The sanie is equally true of
any number, save all of the constituents of a gDod soil.

On the other hand it is proven that soils very productive partic-
ularly for wheat, may contain the small proportions of any one

Those marked thus* are soils of our own State.

N. B. .1 or .1 0 is the one tenth of one per cent., and is equal to
about thirty bushels to the acre of the substance it represents, the
specimen being taken to the depth of twelve inches. It is
equal to the one-thousandth part of the specimen.

4

7 [G]

of (lie necessary constituents, the rest being present in proper pro-
portions. This is shown below.

.02

Lime,

.29

*.32

*.40

Magnesia,

*.21

*=.18

*16

*.12

Potash,

.12

.10

.08

.06

Soda, '

.09

.03

.018

Pliosphoric acid,

.02

.01

Organic matter,

.67

Chlorine,

•003

•002

Sulphuric acid,

•005

•008

Silicia (sand,)

64.5

59.21

Alumina,

1.

l.TO

2.60

Iron as per Oxide,

1.25

1.06

•69

It is shown from the above that a very fertile soil may contain
only eight-seven bushels of lime to the acre, to the depth of twelve
inches, or only two one-thousandth of a bushel of chlorine, or as
little as six bushels of potash, or three of phosphoric acid, to equal
to about twelve of bone dust.

Hence on the examination of a soil, if we find the above pro-
portion of any one of the necessary constitutents, in a form capable
of being used by plants, we must conclude that enough of that
particular constituent is present. If the soil be unproductive we
have to look for and counteract some other chemical or mechani-
cal deficiency.

To letainthe fertility of a soil already productive, it is neces-
sary to add to it a quantity of fertilizing matter equal to that
which is taken off by the crop, allowance being made for the por-
tion which may be lost by percolation through the soil. By
doing this we can in a very cheap manner alw;ays retain soils at
whatever point of production, they may have, and even have their
productiveness increased, a soil which from its texture, is particu-
larly good for wheat, may thus be kept in a condition to produce
a crop every year without any rotation. The same is true with
regard to corn or any other crop.

SOIL.
f

By this term is understood in an agricultural sense that portion
of the earth's surface which serves or may serve for the produc-
tion of crops.

Under all circumstances where a blade of grass and the smal-
lest seed are produced, there axe present all of the necessary consti-
tuents of fertility.

The quantity of these things present, when taken in connec-
tion with its physical character determine the fertility of a soil.

In all soils which are not absolutely barren we have the follow-
ing constituents they being in fact the soil, the things out of which
the soil is made.

Those marked thus * are soils of our own State.

[GJ 8

ORGANIC MATTER.

This is animal and vegetable matter considered, without refer-
ence to its inorganic constituents, and is composed of the remains
of plants or animals which existed on the soil. It is called
orgaiiic, because it has at bne time entered into a form capable of
perfonning the functions of life and has become a part of those
things which are called organs, whose duty it is to perform pro-
cesses, without which there cannot exist that system of vital func-
tions which we call Life.

At one time very great importance was attached to vegetable
matter in soils, many teaching that it was the indispensable thing
to fertiHty, and that lands were productive in proportion as they
contained a greater or less quantity of it. This hds been shown
by numerous examinations not to be the case, for the productive-
ness of soils bears no relation to the quantity of organic matter
which they contain.

Its use is now restricted to giving the necessary degree of porosi-
ty to stiff compact soils^ and by its decomposition to render raiaj
water or dew better solvents of Jhe mineral constitutents of a soil.
Every grain of sand contains some, sometimes all of the necessary
constituents of crops, which are however of no use until they be-
come dissolved into a state capable of being taken up by plants.
Whatever will effect this is of service in a soil. Vegetable matter
contains a large proportion of carbon, (charcoal,) which an ex-
posure to the air is changed into carbonic acid. Water impreg-
nated with this substance, has the property of powerfully dissolv-
ing all the minerals found in a soil, and by this means rendering it
inore productive. Its quantity varies greatly in different soils.
in some I have found less thari one percent, and in others, "the
Black Gum Swamp Soils" of Worcester and Somerset as much as
sixty-two per cent. Secondly,

SILICA, OF SILICOUS EARTH OR SAND,

Exists abundantly in all soils. Though having none of the sen-
sible properties of an acid, it nevertheless belongs to this class of
bodies, and combines with bases to form salts. It very rarely
exists in a pure form in the earth, being almost always in union
with some other substance, and forming a class of bodies called
silicates. With alumina and the per oxide of iron, it forms our red
and yellow clays, it most generally is associated with lime, mag-
nesia, potash or soda. The "grains of sand" in soils are compos-
ed of pure sand, (silicic acid) in combination with some of the
above substances. In pure water these combinations are quite in-
soluble, but water charged with carbonic acid, dissolves them in a
sensible degree. When in the nascent state, that is, when first set
free from its combinations, water dissolves pure silicic acid very
readily.

Besides its determining the mechanical properties of soils and
when in a very fine state of division acting as a substitute for

9 [G]

iron ond cla}' in tlieir absorbent capacity , it has a morfe particular use,
thai of fofjuing the stalk and stem ot plants and the husk or out-
ward envelope of llie grain. In combination with potash, soda,
lime and magnesia, but more pariiculaily witli po'.ash, it gives
hardness andiirmness lo ihe stalk of grasses, indian corn, wheat,
rye, oats, etc. It gives strength to tiie stalk to support the weight
of the blades and ear, forms chaimels for the circulation of the
sap, and for the trnnsn^ission from the root of whatever nutriment
other pans of the plant may require. Without the presence of thia
substance, and that loo in a suitable state to be taken up by ih©
roots, whatever quantity of the other constituents of plants might
be present in a soil, vegetation could not arrive at any perfection.
If the materials for the grain or ear existed, still theie would be no
stalk to support them. The quantity in different soils varies from
thirty-five pet cent in the "Black Gum Swanip Soils" of Somer-
set and Worcester, to ninety-two and seventy-four liuudreihs in
some of the soils of Cecil, Kent, Q.ueen Anne's, Talbot, Caroline
and Dorchester counties.

The soils which in common parlance are called "Sandy Soils"
frequentlv contain no more sand than those which are called
''White Oak Soils, or Pipe Clay Soil."

The difference in their texture is due to the size of the indi-
vidual grains of sand and not to the quantity which actually exists.
Other things being equal, the finer the grams of sand the better the
soil. As the growing crop can only use such materials as are
already in or can be reduced to a soluble state; whatever can con-
duce to the slate of solution will benefit them. The finer the
grains of sand the more easily they are acted on by atmospheric
agency, and the more speedily will they yield whatever substan-
ces they may contain. But there is another and a very great dif-
ference in the value of coarse and fine sand. A large part of the
food of plants is derived from the atmosphere. This food must be
absorbed wholly by the soil in the early growth of the plant, and if
the soil has not the power of absorption, the plant will pine, lan-
guish and die, unless it be supported by applied manures. Sand
m a very fine state of division has powerful absorbent qualities, it
absorbs and retains atmospheric food for plants and to a very great
extent supplies that place of alumina (clay) and the per oxide of
iron, which are famous for this property.

IRON.

Another constituent substance of soils is iron.

It always is present though not in the form of metallic iron,
but in the state or condition of an oxide of iron. When metallic iroQ
is exposed to air and moisture, it becomes rough and covered with
reddish or brown scales. This is what is called in common lan-
guage rust of iron, the process is called rusting. In chemical
language it is called the oxidation of iron and the product an
oxule of iron. In soils it is generally in the condition of per
oxide or its highest degree of oxidation and gives a reddish or
2

[G] 10

brown color to them. It is this which gives our red and yellow
clay soils their peculiar color and frequently also tinges $and
— which thus colored is called Ferruginous sand. It has several
imporlaot uses in the soil. '.

1st. It is one of the necessary constituents of tlie human body
being always found in the blood of healihy persons. From ihe
impossibility of its existence in the air, we know tiiat the body
must be supplied with it from the food which it consumes; but the
plants used for food can no more obtain it from tiie air, than ani-
mals can, hence they must obtain it from the soil, and it is there-
fore a necessary constituent of soils.

Not only is it itself food for plants, but it is a gatherer of food
for them from the atmosphere.

Baron Liebig, oaeof the ablest writers on agricultural chemis-
try, of this or any other day, thougli oveilooking the first use of
ironin a soil, so cleaily and satisfactorily explains the second, that
I cannot do belter than use his own words:

* "Per oxide bf iron and akimina" says this able and eloquent
writer, "are distiiTguished from all other metallic oxides," (i- e.
rusts of metals,) "by their power of forming solid compounds with
ammonia. The precipitates obtained by the addition of ammonia
to salts of alumina or iion are true salts in which the ammonia
is contained as a base. Minerals containing alumina or oxides of
iron, also possess in an eminent degree the remarkable pioperty ^
of attracting ammonia from the atmosphere and retaining it.'
# # # a; Soils therefore 'containing the oxides.of iron and-
burned clay, n>ust absorb ammonia, an action vrhich is favored by
their porous condition ; they further prevent by their cliemical pro-
perties the escape of the ammonia once absorbed. Such soils act
indeed precisely as a mineral acid would do if extensively- spread
over their surface." '

"The ammonia absorbed by the clay of ferruginous oxides is
separatedby every shower of rain and conveyed in solution to the-
soil." -.iwAf^Bi'

Our red and yellow clays need not burning, the iron in them
being already m the state of per oxide, heat would not benefit
them. It isonly in the white or dark clays where the iron is in
the state of protoxide, that heat would be of any use li applied.

The per oxideof iron in a soil, also absorbs and retains mois-
ture, and whatever else of the food of plants which exists in the air.
.3rd. It gives firmness and compactness to the soil, afld better
fits it for those plants v/hich flourish besi in those soils.

4lh. It gives color to soils vv'hich makes them absorb heat bet-
ter, and in this way it gives crops a quick, early growth..

The quantity of the peroxide of iron, which exists in soils is
very variable. In the red clay lands of Cecily I have found as
much as (4.80^,) four and eight tenths of one percent. In some of

♦Chemistry in its Applications to Agriculture and Physiology.
(Edited by Lyon Playfair and Dr. Gregory, 4th London Edition.)

11 - . [GJ

. .'ii: ;:;:vf;f:i!.,
the while oak lands as liillo as sixty eight hinidredihs of one per
cent, la some of ihe lio^ht sandy soila in CuroUne, Dorchester,
Souierset, VVor(;e3ter, and in those lying on ooth sides of the
Chester livef, occasionally a fraction less, .04. As a general rule,
the quantity of it in the soil decreases, as we go down the Shore.

ALUMINA.

Pnre clay or alumina is another of the constituents of all soils.
It, like iron, is the oxide or rust of a metal call aluminum whifth
never exists naturally in ks pure state. "The diOerent kinds of
clay of which pipes, procelain and earthenware are made, consistfe
of hydrate of aUnnina, in a greater or less degree of purity." Il
has not the same important action as iron in the human economy,
but Its uses in the soil are very nearly the same, giving it tenacky.
and firmness, absorbing, like it, moisture and food from the sit'-
mosphere, forming "true salts" with ammonia, and having,
like it, the properties of an acid or an alkali ; of an acid, by uni-
ting with alkaline bases such as potassa, lime and baryta; and
of an alkali, by forming salts, with acids. Our red and yellow
clays are by no means pure alumina, but silicates of alumina and
the per oxide of iron, united with lime, magnesia, and eome-
limes with potash, and very rarely with soda — that is, pure sand
chemically united to these substances. It varies in soils from
(.72) seventy-two hundteths of one per cent, in light sand soils,
to as much 5.25 in others. In those soils which are common-
ly called '-pipe clay or white oak soils," it is not in such propor*-
tions as persons usually imagine, being very rarely over 3.75 pei-
cent, and sometimes as little as 1.02 per cent, in them. Where it
exists in the proportion of fiom nine to ten per cent, good buildin<»"
br'cks may be made. In the clay from which tbe best Baltimore
bricks are produced, 1 have never found more than 19.50 per
cent, of alumina. Sand in a very fine state of division, as is the
.case in ihe "pipe clay or white oak soils" ma}'' be a substitute to a
certain extent, for both iron and clay.

LIME. ,

'^i'he great use of this substance as a manure, and the frequem
benefits that result from Its application, make almost superfluous
the bringing forward of any proofs of its necessity in a soil.
Lime, like alumina, is the oxide or rust of a metal, never existing
naturally in its pure state. The metal of lime is called calciqra.
Lime exists in a soil sometimes as carbonate, that is air slaved
lime, but most generally as silicate, that is chemically united to
silicic acid, or sand. In the human body in union with phd5]iho--
lie acid, it forms a very large part of the bones. ' It exists itf Com-
bination with diflferentaCTds in the root, stalk, blade, and giiiin of
all plants. ' . i - .

Besides the necessity of its presence to form the structure of
plants, it performs many other important functions in a ^oil. It
promotes the decomposition of vegetable matter, and thus causes

[G] 12

to yield the different miueral substances which it contains, as
means for the production of another growth. It improves the
mechanical texture of land ; this is but one of its smallest uses.
It powerfully aids the disintegration of the minerals (grains of
sand,) in a soil, whicli contain many of the necessary elements of
plants, and which, without ihe, finxing or fusing power of lime,
would still retain them. This is one of its greatest and most im-
portant uses, and we cannot yet say, whether or not, lime, when
applied to a soil, does not act more beneficially in this way than
iu any other. More investigations by chemical analysis, assisted by
practical experiments, must be made than have yet been, to settle
this question, and lo determine in what manner, under what cir-
cumstances, and in what quantities lime acts best. In none of the
soils which I have examined, has it been found in sufficient quan-
tities, except where, at some time or other, it has been applied
artificially. For other information — see the airicle on it, under
the head of Manures.

MAGNESIA.

Magnesia is the oxide of rust of a metal called magnesium^,
which never exist naturally in a pure state. It is one of the neces-
sary constituents of soil, being found in the bones of animtds, and
in the roots, stalks, leaves, and gr-ain of plants. It has, in many
respects the same action as lime, and lo a certain extent can be
substituted for it. The quantity of it varies in different soils.
In some I have found as much as one per cent equal lo about
three hundred bushels to the acre, to the depth of twelve inches,
and in others but a mere trace. The facts to show what the best
quantity is in a soil, are very meagre. As far as my knowledge
extends, I believe that where it exists in a less quantity than one-
tenth of one per cent in a soil, magnesian lime is the best appli-
cation for that soil. There have, as yet, been no experiments on
the subject, and no means taken any where as far as I know, save
in Maryland, to lay down any foundation for experiment that will
be worth any thing when made, ftly own knowledge, as to the
action of it, is derived from gentlemen who have used both mag-
nesian and oyster shell lime on their lands, and from analyses of
the soils which I subsequerrtly made, have led me to the
above opinion, and are the only data yet given to the agricultural
community on this subject.

POTASH.

Potash, the oxide or rust of a metal called potassium, is another
of the necessary constituents of soils. In union with silicic acid
it gives strength and firmness to the stalk, and to the husks or en.
velopof the grain.

The proportions in which I have four^d it to exist in soils are
very variable, from a mere trace in some, to as much as (1.20) one
and two-tenths of one per cent in others. But a very small
quantity is absolutely necessary. I have known a very productive

13 [GJ

soil to contain aa little as (.05) five one luindreths of one per
cent, and liftcen bushels of wheat to be produced where only (.008,)
or the eighth one thousandth part of one per cent existed.

SODA.

Soda, the oxide or rust of a metal called sodium, is another of
the necessary consiituents of a fertile soil. It has nearly tha same
uses as potash, and may be subsiiluled for it to a ceitain exMent.
It cxisis in various proportions in soil, but a very small quantity
seems to be all that is necessar\'. I have not been able to make
very satisfactory examinations in relation to this substance, a3 the
section of (!ie State where I conducted them was supplied, to some
extent, by air from the saltwater which surrounded it on every
side. The quantity in the soil, therefore, could not be taken us
proof of the quantity necessary to suppl}' the crop.

On salt water, land produces wheat with bright strong straw,
whilst land remote from it with an equal quantity of inorganic
jnaiter, will not do this, because it i? not supplied with soda from
the atmosphere.

PHOSPHORIC ACID.

Is also one of the necessary constituents of a fertile soil. With
lime and magnesia it forms about fifty per cent of (he bones of
animals. Its elements arc also found in the biood and brain, and
in combination with difi^erent bases, it forms a very large propor-
tion of all grains that are used for food. It exists in the soil, in
combination with lime, magnesia, potash, soda, iron and alumina.
With those substances, and others of this class, it form salts,
which are called phosphates. Unless there be this sub:^tance pre-
sent in a sod in sufficient abundance, and in proper for?}i for use,
no matter how rank or strong (he crop of straw may be, there
will be no corresponding yield of gi,?in. Hence, in soils famous
for large crops of straw, with a small quantity of grain, the farmer
may increase it by the apphcation of manures containing this sub-
stance, wiiich are principally bone dust and guano.

SULPHURIC ACID.

Sulphuric, acid, (commonl}^ called oil of vitriol,) is also a ne-
cessary constituent of fertile soils. It most generally exists in
combination with lime, t'orming, with two equivalents of water,
what is generally known as gypsum. Its elements exist in all
plants, and in the blood of all animals. '

The quantity necessary to constitute a fertile soil, is very small.
This has been shown by numerous practical experiments, as-well
as by n)any analyses. Sulphates, as such, will not act on a soil
which ci.mtains as little as (.005) the five one thousandth pait of'
one per cent of sulphuric acid.

Besides the soil, the air undoubtedly supplies the plants some
portion of the two substances named above, or rather supplies the

[GJ 14

elements by which they may be ronued. All animal and vegeta-
bhi bodies, by their putrefiiciion, give rise to volaiiie compounds,
containing sulphur and phosphorus, and under conditions wliich
we know to exist, these comoounds are changed into pliosphoric
and sulphurio acid, which, with bases, will form phosphates and
sulphates. Although these two substances have not, as yet, been
detected in atmospheric air, yet we know that they must exist there,
and will be brought down by dew, rain, and snow, to the surface
of the earth.

CHLORINE.

Chlorine is anoiher of (he necessary constituents of a fertile
soil. In its pure state it ''is a yellowish green colored gas, which
has an astringent taste, and a disagreeable odor." When breath-
ed, it excites violent spasm of some of the upper parts of the wind-
pipe, and has a very irritant effect on the organs of respiration,
even when veiV much diluted with air. In the soil it is almost
always united to'soda, and vcyy rarely to lime, magnesia, or potash.
United to any of the bases, it loses its poisonous properties. With
soda, it forms the different kinds of common table salt. It is be-
lieved to add to the weight of the grain. Tjre quantity necessary
to constitute a fertile soil, all other things being present, is very
sniali. I have not been able to determine, with any degree of
certainty, the sjiii.n^^t quantity necessary in a soil, as the atmos-
phere from the contiguity of salt water in the localities which I
have exau'iined, ahvays contained a varying proportion of this
substance. '

Tl7e above compose all of the substances necessary to consti-
tute a fertile soil. In some soils manganese is found, which is
the oxide or rust of a metal called manganesium. This, (hough
occasionally found in feitile soils, and in the ashes of plants grow-
ing on them, yet is no: cssantial, since its presence does not in-
crease, nor its absence decrease, the productiveness of a soil.

The air, in common with the vegetable matter in a soil, fur-
nishes to plants carbonic acid, out of which they form woody fibre,
and all substances in them which contain charcoal.

Besides this, it in common with many manures, affords ammo-
nia, a substance which sui:)plies a great share of the nutritious ^rts
of plants, and constitutes by its elements a large part of the mass
of the bodies of the vegetable and animal creation.

Water is supplied, in this country at least, wholly from the at-
mosphere, in (he form of dew or rain.

To recapitulate, then, we have as food for plants furnished by
the soil alone : — ■ **»

Silica or sand,
^ Alumina or clay,

Iron,
Lime,

X Magnesia,

Potash,

15 [GJ

Soda,
Chlorine,
We have furnished in a great measure by the soil, but prllly
also by (he air : —

The elements of pliosphonc acid cont;uning pliospJioiiis :
The elements of sulphuric acid containing sulphur.
In localities adjacent to the ocean, bay, or indeed any salt wa-
ter, there is always present in the air bolh soda and chlorine in
the form of common salt.

We iiave furnislied in a great measure by the air, but parti}-
also by the soil : —

Carbonic acid containing charcoal :
Ammonia containing niirogen.

We have furnished exclusively by the air : —
Water.

These contain all of the elemenls neces.-ary lo the perfection of
vegetable and animal life. Those of them which are not present
in the soil in sufficient qiianiilies, and which cannot be derived
from the atmosphere, nnist be supplied anificially by what, are
called

MANURES.

Manures may be defined to be whatever will contiibute to in-
crease the productireness of the soil, either by furnishing dirdclly
food to plants, which may be absent, or by causing thai food,
which already may be present, to assume a form capable of be-
ing used by them.

However valuable any substance may be in itself, yet it is no
manure to a soil that already contains it in sufficient abundance,
or has not some oilier thing present in a form which plants cannot
use, and which by the application of the substance used for ma-
nure, may be so changed as to yield food for plants.

Thus lime may act as a manure, when it is deficient in a soil,
by being directly used for Uie structure of plants, or it xxv^y net as a
manuie in a soil when it exists in sufficient abundance, but not
in a condition to set free other things which may there exist, but'
not in a form capable of being used.

Vegetable matter may be a manure b}^ yielding its carbon and
its salts to plants, or it may act by impregnating water with car-
bonic acid, which thus acquires the property of dissolving the
mineral constituents of a soil, and of placing them in a fit condi-
tion for use.

All manures should be in the finest possible stale of division,
and mixed either directly, or indirectly most thoroughly with (he
soil. Every parjicle of manure should be placed, if possible, ia
immediate contact with a grain of saud.

[GJ 16

STABLE AND BARN YARD MANURE.

This being, to a great number of agriculluiists, the only form ia
wliich manures aie applied lo lands, any suggestions to increase
its value cannot be oveiiaied.

Stable and barnyaid manure is composed of the excrements of
cattle, mixed with that part of the produce of land which is un^
consumed by them. It is nothing more than the former produce
of tlie land, modified by its passage through the bodies of animals,
or modified by the presence of those things which have, at one
time served the purposes of food. It, therefoie, contains all of
the substances necessary to plants, as well those furnished by the
air, as (hose which are obtaind from the soil. I shall not go into
any elaborate description of its .several constituents, nor of their
properties, but only give directions for preserving it in its greatest
possible state of usefulness. In the decomposition or rottening
of stable n)anin'e, a substance is formed, called ammonia, which
is very volatile, thai is, it will readily escape into the air at all times,
but more especially when the weather is waim. There would
seem lo an uninstructed mind, no possible way of preventing the
loss of this substance, but by making the receptacles of stable ma-
nure air tight ; but chemistry shows, by teaching the nature and
properties of bodies, that this substance, one of especial value ia
stable manure, can be so changed by the addition of another sub-
stance of little cost, and of easy application, as not to escape at
any degree of heat lo which stable manure isever subject; this
change does not in llie least affect the vaiueof the manure To
effect this, nothing more is necessary than a sniall quantity of
gypsum, (plaster of paris,) say from a half gallon lo a peck, scat-
tered over the yards or stables twice a week.

When manure is lo be applied to sandy soils, in which the sand
is white, sulphate of iron (copperas,) should be prefeired. A few
pounds beat very finely, are enough for each week.

In this way the value of the manure will be increased one half,
or at least one-third, and all disagreable stench removed from
the yards or stables. This stench is produceo^ by innumerable
fine particles of ammonia escaping into the air, and affects, some-
times seriously the health of anii,nals subject to it. In the appli-
cation thus recomiTiended above, not only is the health of a farmer's
stock, but the value of his manure greatly increased, either con-
sideration being sufficient to pay one hundred limes over, the cost
of the application of gypsum or of copperas. Either of those
substances when applied to privies or any place where animal
and vegetable matter is undergoing decomposition, will at once
arrest all offensive odors arising fiom them. So much for saving
that part of the manure which escapes through the air.

As commonly taken cnre of, this kind of manuie is subject to
another great loss, which should likewise be zealously guarded
against.

When any body become? saturated with water, all of the soluble
substances in it are at once dissolved, and if, when in this condi-

ir [G]

5ion, any nJditional quantity of water be added, it fakes the place
of that which previously existed, and forces out, ntjt only the
water, hut likewise all of the substances which the water held in
sohition. ThiU pait of stable manure which the water dissolves,
is most valuable, and when exposed, as it usually is by farmers,
nearly all of its valuable matter will be carried away, by water
falling on the heaps and then running off". So eirectually does
this deprive all substances of their soluble matter, that druggists
use a process identical in principle with it, to obtain the active
matter of many drugs and medicines. A quan!ity of rhubarb,
ginger, &c., being first saturated with water is allowed to remain
for a short time, an additional quantity of water then being added,
the water first present, passes through, taking with it all the
strength of the substances acted on, and leaves behind nothing
but a worthless inert mass.

A little reflection will show, thf^tthe same thing must constant-
ly occur in stable and baru yard manure.

The yards, then, for the accumulation of this kind of manure,
should be so arranged as to permit no water to run off from them.
If provender be scarce, then scrapings from the woods or ditches
should be used to absorb all of the water which falls on them.

Should the bottom of the yards be sandy, clay should be used

on it to prevent the water filtering through the manure. To sum

up all in a few words : — Soio gypsum^or copperas finely powdered,

over the stable and barn yard manure, and let no water run of

from it.

Any farmer can easily, if he chooses, carry out all of these im-
portant directions.

Lime, neither quick, water slaked, nor air slaked, should
ever be mixed with this kind of manure. The last can do no
good, the other two will do very great ipjury to it.

The above directions are short, but they have at least the merit
of being easily understood and carried out. When this is done,
they are perfectly efficient to preserve this valuable substance
from the slightest loss.

It is a much mooted question at present, as to whether this ma-
nure should be ploughed in with the crop or applied to the sur-
face.

There is, and can be no general rule on this subject. To some
crops it caunot be applied in the latter manner. The mode of
application also depends on the degree of roUenness which the
manure has uudeigone. When it is much decomposed and where
its action is desired immediately, as on tobacco or corn, it is best
to mix it thoroughly with the soil. Even when not thoroughly
rotted, it is best to plough it under for tobacco. Tobacco land
may be so manured, as always to retain its capacity for raising
^'bright tobacco:" such as is now produced on virgin soils or
*'new ground" alone.

One of the most respectable and intelligent planters in this
State, by following out directions based on scientific principles.

[G] IS

has assured me of the decided advantage experienced j both in
regard- to the quantity and quality of his crop. This advantage
was proven by the growth of the article on land adjoining, and
prepared with gre^t care, in conformily with long established
usngje. When it is not well rotted, it is best to apply it to clover
preceding the wheat crop which is to, be sown..

I shall be able to publish some very valuable comparative facts
en this subject during the present year, which will give much
valuable practical information. I can now state, however, with
full confidence, that unless this manure he, very thoroughly decom-
posed it should never be ploughed in for wheat, as it will alter
Ihe texture of the soil and make it less productive for this crop,
wheat delights in a close compact soil: — stable and barn yard
manure not well rotted, will make the soil porous, and thus iu-
jufe it. 'For indian corn this objection does not hold good, and
where the land intended for corn is stiff, it will derive benefit from
this manure being ploughed in with the soil.

Besides alfording all of the necessary food for plants, the straw,
litter, &c!, in this manure, during their decay, impregnate rain
Wcl'ter with carbonic acid, which renders it a much more powerful
solvent of all the minerals in a soil.

|A great part of the good effects of green crops when used for
manure, such us clover, peas, &c., is also due to this cause.
E^My substance capable of being rotted, when covering land, not
only' keeps the land moist by preventing the evaporation of water
whicti falls, but it also furnishes to the water carbonic acid — and
enables it ta disintegrate and dissolve the particles of soil.

Besides this, clover, or anything else, when it rots, returns to
the, soil all of the constituents necessary to its own growth, which
it had extracted, Upon these three causes, and none other, de-
penti tlie action of this class of manures, and the efficacy of top-
dressing.

To the barn yard, or compost Aeo/?, should be added sciap-
ingS' 'from the woods, the contents of privies, (one of the most
po)A^iful of all manures,) and whatever the experience of farmers
may have shown them to be valuable. A small quantity added
daiiyy will, in the course of a season, make a very large heap,
and 'more than ten time? repay all the cost and labor of coliecling
it. Dead animals should never be suffered to lie exposed in the
air.- If a common sized horse or ox, when dead, be covered over
wiih iearth made moist with oil of vitriol, diluted with ten or
twdv^e times its bulk of water, it will make enough manure to
produce at least thirty bushels of wheat. 7^he oil of vitriol will
not only arrest the volatile compounds formed from the animal
undergoing putrefaction, hut also cause them to he formed 'more
quickly. When the decomposition of the flesh of, the animal is
complete, the whole heap covering it should be dug down and
applied lo the land. If the bones be not dissolved, or decomposed,
they should be put in some convenient place, to be dealt with as
is directed under the head of bone dust.

19 [G]

• OJ eUo«
MARSH MUD .... ., .r

Is also a valuable manure. That at the heads of crefekf axid

ravines has been used with a general benefit, second only to stable
niaume, TlieJaige marshes on many ofthe rivers on llic Eastern
Shore are invaluable, and at the same time exhaustless sources of
fertility. I have examined (he "mud" from many of'lhem, and
have always found it competent to furnish in large quantities,
many of (he necessary constituents. Many specimens are easily
burnt, which affords great facility and saving of labor in its appli-
cation. . i; ;.. • . 1.: .■

This mud should be dug up and put in Heaps, and at any suit;
able time should be burnt, and the ashes immediately applied tb
the land. When it will not bum it should be made into a com-
post with quick, or water slaked lime, and applied to the soil. :.

This mud is very rich in all of tl,ie necessary constituents of
soils, as may be seen from the following analysis: ■, y, ;,. ;

Marsh mud from Chickamacomico rivef i^i Dorphester countyj
.^Specimens being dried was composed of :•—» •■

Vegetable matter, jni.::ii> ei 90.80 ' io

;'^i; ,;, Sand, , ■ 7.40 d

..,: ,,.;;Clay and iron as per oxide, .60

Lime (ox. calc-,) .65 '

Phosphoric acid, '15

Magnesia, .13

Potash and soda, ,..■■•. ..12 ..■■a.l.

. ; Sulphuric acid and Chlorine, (a tra«0.);'iM)v:;iu aiam r Jo«
Specimens examined from the marshes of the Transqueken an<l'
Blackwater, in Dorchester, from the Nadticoke and Pocomoke,'
from the Wicomico and Mouie, in Somerset, and fiom the Chop-
tank, in Caroline county, all proved to be valuable as manures.
It exists in very great abundance, particularly in Caroline, Dor*'
Chester, Somerset and Worcester counties. On the borders of the
livers, the marsh sometimes presents an unbroken level surface^
as far as the eye can reach, affording a rich pasture for large herds
of cattle. It is composed mainly of vegetable matter, in every
stage of decay. Its texture is so very soft and yielding, that in:
many places a pole may be thrust down to the depth of ten or
twelve feet, without meeting with any obstruction, and can be*'
shaken by the weight of a man for many yards around. This is^;
peculiar to the marshes on the fresh water streams. On the heads i
of the salt water creeks, it is much more firm, having a much
less proportion of organic matter, and always a large percentage of
soda. This marsh should never be hauled in its wet state, as a
large amount of labor is incurred, without any profit. It should
always be burnt when it is susceptible of combustion, and when .
this is not the case, it should be mixed in compost with water
slaked or quick lime. But the farmer, if he cannot burn^' nor
cannot mix it with lime, should not fail to use it by itself. When -
applied alone, it will be found ^a valuable application to all the

[G] ,?0

soils to which it is contiguous. The only objection to its use in
its native state is, that it is, liable from the large quanti-
ty of organic matter which it contains, to produce sorrel.
This will not iiappen when ihe vegetable or organic niatter is
destroyed by fire, or decomposed by quick or water slaked lime.

The next substance which we shall mention as a manure, is
one used froni the earliest ages to the present day, with various
degrees of success.

Its cost to the farmer, the immense quantity, and the generality
of its application, its great value when properly, the loss of labor,
time and money, when improperly used, are all strong reasons
why its nature, the difference of it^ different varieties, and the
best mode of its application, should be well known.

LIME.

Lime, as used in agriculture, is obtained either from limestones,
oyster shells, Indian shell banks, or marl. In all of these dif-
ferent substances it exists naturally in the state of carbonate. The
liiTiestone subjected in kilns properly prepared, to a degree of heat
sufficient to expel the carbonic acid, becomes quick lime, (oxide
of calcium,) and is changed in its mechanical condition from a
hard compact mass into a very fine powder. On exposure to the
atmosphere, it absorbs from it carbonic acid, and returns into the
same chemical condition as it existed in the limestone, its physical
character remaining the same as when first burnt, that is, it still ex-
ists in a finely, divided state, fit to be equally distributed over the
land. On the addition of water to quick lime, heat is evolved, and
not a mere mixture, but a chemical union takes place between
the water and the lime, and a hydrate of lime is formed — or in
common language, it becomes water slaked. This compound
contains of lime above 76 per cent, while air slaked lime contains
but 56 and nearly one-third per cent. The lime obtained from
oyster shells is reduced to powder in the same manner as stone
lime, and is, in every respect, identical with it, as far as the
lime is concerned. It contains, however, another substance —
phosphate of lime — i. e., lime associated with phosphoric acid,
the same thing which gives bones their peculiar value. This
forms from one and a half to two and three quarters per cent in
oyster shells. So that in them, we have all the properties of lime,
with those of bone dust in that quantity superadded. Oyster shells
also, contain a small quantity of magnesia, but not enough to in-
fluence their agricultural value. We obtain lirne from oyster
shells, purer than from common limestone.

The analyses of the following specimens of lime that had been
sold for agricultural purposes, and comprising all of those used on
the Eastern Shore, will show their composiiion :

Lime from North River, commonly called "New York Lime,"
is composed of

Water,* 17.70 per cent.

* Unslaked.

21 [G]

Lime as quick lime, 37.30 percent.

IMngiicsiu, 21.20 ''

SaiKl, clay and iron, 23.80 ''

The spL'ciinens of liic lime were taken from ihc lo;ul in (ho con-
dition in which fl is sohl ; and I may iiere remark, that all of the
specimens were taken from lots which had been sold. The pro-
portions given are by weight, and not by measurement.
Reading Lime — Pemisylvaivia .

Water,* 1 .40 per cent.

. . Sand, 5. SO

Clay and iron, 10.10 "

Lime, (quick lime,) 52.29 "

Magnesia, 30.30 '<

Schuylkill Lime, No. 1.

Water,* 12.80 per cent.
Sand, 4.00 "

Lime, (quicklime,) 35.00 ''

Magnesia, 40.54 ^'
Clay and iron, 7.60 ''

Schuylkill Lime, No. 2.

Sand,

6.50

per cent.

Clay and iron.

5.00

<;

Lime,

62.00

U

Magnesia,

26.00

u

Schuylkill Lime,

No.

3.

Water,*

3.26

per cent.

Sand,

6.50

u

Clay and iron,

-5.00

u

Lime,

60.24

iC

Magnesia,

25.00

u

Susquehanna

Lime — neai

" W:

right sville.

All of the specimens unslaked, contained of

Sand,

4.85

per cent.

Iron and clay.

7.16

(C

Lime,

73.00

(C

Magnesia,

No. 2.

15.00

a

Sand,

7.21

per cent.

Lon and clay.

3.32

a

Lime,

68.06

a

Magnesia,

No. 3.

21.40

((

Sand,

11.02

per cent.

Iron and clay.

6.14

u

Lime,

71.63

tc

Magnesia,

11.20

IC

•Unslaked.

[G] 2»

Baltimore County Lime.

The average of eight different analyses of the air slaked lime,
"•ave of lime as carbonate, i. e., air slaked lime, 81.4 per cent.

Lime from Indian Shell Banks. No. 1. — A.

Specimen fully slaked.

Sand, 3.00 per cent.

Clay and iion .30 "

Lime as corbonate, 94.10 "^

Lime as phosphate, i. e., bone dust 2.20 '^

Lime from Indian Shell Banks, No. 2.

Sand, 2.00 per cent.

Lime as carbonate, 95.15 "

Lime as phosphate, 2.20 "

Clay and iron, .60 "

Limefro}7i Indian Shell Banks, No. 3.

Sand, 6.25 per cent.

Clay and iron, .15 "

Line as carbonate, i. e., air slaked, 91.20 '^

Lime as phosphate, i. e., bone dust, 2.30 '^

N. B.— The Nos. 1,2,3, affixed to the ''Lime from Indian-
Shell Banks," "Schuylkill Lime," and "Susquehanna Lime,"
only denote the order in which (hey were examined.
North River Lime. — R.

Specimens obtained from Worcester county. *

Water,

Sand, clay and iron,

Lime,

Magnesia,

Pecqua Lime.
Used extensively in the upper part of Cecil county.

Sand clay and iron, 3.75 per cent.

Lime, 5S.00 "

Magnesia, 36.00 "

Water, 1-50 "
9 Gas House Lime, No. 1. — Y.

Water and free sulphur, 9.20 per cent.

Sand, 4.00 "

Clay and iron, 1.00 "

Lime as carbonate, 80.00 "

Lime as sulphate, i. e., gypsum, 3.00 "

Lime as phosphate, 2.00
Gas House Lime No. 2. — M.
This .specimen had been exposed to rain.

Sand, 6.00 per cent.

Sulphur, (free,) .^0 "

7.00

per

cent

11.90

a

56.00

u

25.00

(C

23 [G]

Water, 13.00 percent.

Lime as carbonate, G8.75 "

Lime as sulphate, (gypsum,) 9.30 "

Lime as.phosphale^ LOO "

Gas liouse lime is obtained from oyster shells, and is used to
cleanse the carburetted hydiogen, (the gas used for light,) from
sulphiuelted hydrogen, (liiai which is easily recognised by its
smell, in tlie neighborhood of the gas house.) This Mme always
contains a portion of sulphuretted hydrogen, depending on the
(juantity of sulphur in the coal from M'hich the gas is made.

When exposed to the atmosphere, the sulphuretted hydrogen,
(hydio-sulphuric acid.) loses one of its elements, and becuines con-
verted into sulphur. The sulphur thus formed, by further expo-
sure to the air becomes changed into sulphurous acid, and whilst
in this state, would rapidly evaporate, but hme being at hand, it
unites with it, forming a salt of lime, called sulphite of lime. On
more prolonged exposure, the sulphurous acid becomes changed
into sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol,) which unites to the lime, and
forms sulphate of lime, (gypsum.)

There not being a sufficient quantity of sulphur present to make
enough of sulphuric acid to unite with all of the lime, a part re-
mains as carbonate of lime.

It will be seen from the above short desciiption of the chano"es
going on in gas houselime, thatat certain periods we have in it : — •
Isf, Sulphuie'.ted hydrogen ; — 2nd. Free sulphur ; — Hid. Sul-
phite of lime; and4ih. Sulphate of lime; — at one and the same time.
Phosphate of lime is ahvaj's present, and undergoes no change.

When it has been exposed for some time, we then have in it
only gypsum, air slaked hme, and the phosphate of lime. Should
this lime be applied when first taken from thegas house, after being
used to purify gas made fiom coal, containing a large ])roportioa
of sulphur, its action will be as follows: — wiiilst ihe sulphur re-
mains unchanged, ihe usual effects of lime will be produced ; when
it becomes convened into sulphurous acid, it v/ill not only coun-
teract the good effects of the lime, but destroy all vegetation ;
when the sulphurous acid becomes changed into sulphuric acid,
gypsum is foimed, and we have its effect superadded to air slaked
lime. Gypsum as has been de7no7istra(cd by Liehig, is decom-
posed by contact v/ith the ammonia of ihe aimosphere, one of ils
elements uniting itself to it, thereby fixiug it : — in other words,
destroying iis volatility. But its use does not slop here: — it also
affords sulphur, icliich is absolutely necessary to the formation of
the nutritious part of all substances used as food by m en or animals.

That the above will be the effect of gas house lime, xmder cer-
tain conditions, there can be no doubt. It contains sulphuretted
hydiogen : — This sulphuretted liydrogen must become converted
into sulphur; — this must, and does become converted into sulphu-
ric acid : — but sulphuric acid, and ils salts, we have the hif^hest
authority for saymg, will, "even in very minute quantities, de-
stroy all vegetation." — C/«"/5/i5o?j on Poisons, p. 750. And I am

Lg]

24

assured by a gentleman of the liighest authority, that the apphca-
tion of from thirty to fift}^ bushels per acre, destroyed one crop ; —
and that, after iliat it acted well.

1 have also known plants in a gieen house destroyed hy fumi-
gations of siilpliur, sulpliurous acid being fornud. When sul-
phuric acid is formed in the gas liouse lime, as formed it must be,
gypsum ut the same time comes into existence : and we will have
its aciion and that of air slaked lime manifest, provided the soil
to which it is applied be deficient in sulphates and lime.

What cjuaniity of sulphuretted hydrogen, or free sulphur, must
exist in the gns liouse lime at the lime of its applicaiion, sufficient
to produce deleterious effects, has not been as yet determined.
There is the same poverty of exact knowledge in relation to tliis, as
unfoitunately there is in regard to other substances used as ina-
nuies. The specimens marked No. 2, containing nearly one per
cent, of freesulphui, on grov/ing wheat, was applied at the rate of
about one hundred bushels to the acre, last winter, by a gentleman
whose statement can be implicitly relied on, with very good results:
not the slightest injury was experienced. We thus have one/act,
and that is, that gas house lime containing (.90,) equal to nine-
tenths of one per cent, of sulphur, when used as a top-dressing to
wheat in the Vv-inter, is beneficial.

The injurious effects which have resulted from its application,
and its known properties, admonish us however, when ignorant
of its exact composition, not to apply it to a groicing crop, nor to
a soil that is to be hnmediatehj cultivated; when contaming a
large proportion of sulphur, to apply it to a soil abounding in
weeds, — which are pests to cultivation, — and to meadows, some-
time before seeding them, to destro}^ all grasses likely to injui-e
the hay crop. We can also safely say, that when applied to a soil
deficient in sulphates and lime, the combined effects of gypsum
and common oyster shell lime will be experienced. When its
composition is unknown, it should be applied to the surface one
seasoji before the crop is planted.

The numerous enquiries mnde of me lately, by letter and other-
wise, in I'elation to gas house lime, must be my apology for dwell-
ing on it so much at length.

From the above analyses, the great difference in the vaiiouslime
used indiscriminately for agricultural purposes, can be seen at a
glance : — some containing forty per cent, of magnesia, and some
none; — some containing near ten per cent, of gypsum, and some
none; — some having twice as much lime as others, and no mag-
nesia. If every soil was exactly^ alike, could it be possible that
each of these limes would be equally beneficial? If the oyster
shell lime should be the best application, see what a loss would be
incurred by the application of Schuylkill lime, No. 1, containing
not half as much lime. If on the other hand this lime, (the Schuyl-
kill,) sliould be the best — as it is for some soils — consider ihe loss
in applying oyster shell lime, and thus withholding from them
forty per cent, of magnesia.

25 [G]

But when we remember ihnt many soils contain an abundance
of ningnesiii, and some scarcely any, the loss in applying to the
lirsl a lime containing more ilian lilty per cent, of what is already
present in eufficient abundance, is greaily increased. The same
remark is equally true in relation to the soil containing a mere
trace of magnesia, when we apj)ly to it lime also containing none.
In each case out expense receives no remuneration — our etForls at
impiovemcnt are useless — we labor in vain. IMiat many soils
have an abundance of magnesia, and some a mere trace, is an un-
questionable fact, "^riiat ihe limes used for agricultural pui poses,
have the same difference in composition, is a truth beyond cavil.
Now, how can these limes be economically applied, by one igno-
rant of their composition, and ignorant of the composition of the
soil? How can wearrive at tlie constituents of each? How can
this knowledge, necessary, absolutely necessary, be obtained, but
by an analysis, both of the lime which we apply, and of the
.soil to which it is applied?

When if is remembered that magnesia is as necessary to con-
stitute a good soil, as any other one substance whatever, and that
being absent or deficient, it must be supplied, how can its absence
or deficiency be known, without a chemical analysis of the soil?
And, even when this is ascertained, how can the light lime be ap-
plied, without an analysis of it, to see whether or not it contains
magnesia? Let a soil, containing an abundance of magnesia, but
deficient in lime, be treated with the Schuykill, Reading, or New
York lime. The quaniity of lime in these varieties will doubt-
less increase the ciop, and permanently improve the land; but
how immeasurably greater would have been the benefit from
oyster shell, or Baltimore lime? Many sensible practical men
purchase Schuylkill lime, when they would not have our common
lime given to them, because they, by experiment, know the value
of the one, and tlie worthlessness of the other, to (heir soil. Many
again, in the same way, have found out the superiority of oyster
shell lime to all others. Sluuld not the expense incurred by ex-
periment have been «aved to them? This knowledge could have
been afforded, and should. Tlie whole aim of the application of
manures being the greatest yield in crops, from the smallest out-
lay of money, it is not enough for a farmer to know that the appli-
cation of a particular substance does icell; he should not be satis-
fied unless \\Q knoics \\m\[. it is the best for hispartictdar soil which
can be used. That different substances v^hen applied indiscrimi-
nately to all soils, must be productive of disappointment and loss,
is so apparent that I shall not puisue the subject any further. In
the application of nnllions of bushels of lime, decidedly differing
in their composition, upon soils equally different from each other,
with no rule to guide, no law to direct, an hundred times more
money is annually lost to the agricultural interest of the State,
then the amount of all the appropriations ever made for its benefit.
If the oflice of Agricultural Chemist had shown nothing but
the proper adaption of particular varieties of lime to particular
4

[G] 26

soils, the State would derive an hundred times more benefit from
it, than the cost has been for its niaintenauce. I will not now
say more on this subject. Axioms adniiL of no demonstration —
self-evident truths need no proof.

J have found, and I believe I am the first to notice the fact,
that the proportion of phosphate of lime varies with the localities
in which oyster shells are found, As we approach the ocean, the
phosphate of lime in them increases. I have made many analyses
of them for the estimation of phosphoric acid, and find this law
to be universal. So that other things being equal, the shells in-
crease in value as they approach the ocean.

Shell banksareanoiher source from which lime is supplied to soils.
These shell banks are deposits by the aborigines of the country,
and frequently cover an extent of from 1 to 40 acres, to the depth
pf fiom 6 inches, to as many feet. As those who have never
seen these social relicks of the ''Poor Indian," have questioned
the mode of their deposition, i will state the reasons for the be-
lief of their Indian origin : 1st. They are always found near the
Waters's edge, on the slope of a hill, with a southern exposure,
sheltered from the north and nort-west winds. This is a position
which the Indians would naturally select to enjoy their repast on
the delicious article of food which the shells contained. 2nd.
The bones of many animals, such as deer, bears, and numerous
small game, are found intermixed with the shells, not in a state of
integrity, but iro^ew, showing that they came there not by the
death of the animals in a natural manner, but were brought for the
purpose of being consumed as food. 8rd. There are found,
also, with those shells, numerous small pebbles, evidently used
to break ofi" the edge of the oyster, in order to open them with
greater facility. 4th. There are also found with the shells,
Indian arrow heads, battle axes, pipes, and various domestic im-
plements, that had Ijeen left by the tribes after feastmg. Another
and most conclusive reason against the opinion that these shell
banks are mere oyster beds left exposed by the retreating of the
waters is, that the shells are all separated, and no two lying to-
gether will fit each other, a large shell overlays one which is very
small, and no one see.Tis to be the fellow of its neighbor. These
shells, moreover, lie frequently in heaps surrounding a cavity,
showing as if a particular family sat together, consumed their
food, and threw the shells around them. The use to which the
remains of the food of the Aborigines are applied, is a striking
proof of the benefits conferred on the human race by civilization.
The refuse matter of their feasts is appUed to the growth of food by
another and a strange nation, who have extinguished their coun-
cil fires, exterminated their lace, and only remember their names
amongst the traditions of the past.

From long exposure to atmospheric influence, and other causes,
the shells become disintegrated, and readily crumble on free ex-
posure to the air. Again, after the lapse of a considerable period,
they become very much disorganised by another process. At first

27 [G]

a little moss formg on the surface of (he shells, this takes up
enough lime that has been dissolved by the carbonic acid of the
atmosphere, lo give support to a higher order of vegetation; this
vegetation, by its decay, furnishes food for a succeeding genera-
tion of plants, and by an increased supply of carbonic acid, dissolves
more lime to supply another generation. This, in its turn, dying,
fmnishes increased means for the solution of the shell, until, in
many cases, these banks are covered with the most luxuriant vege-
tation, and support large trees. The layer of matter covering the
shells is called "shell mould," and consists of shells in a very
comminuted state, and the organic and inorganic remains of the
plants to which it owes its formation, A little reflection will at
once show that this mould must prove a most valuable manure,
being nothing but the remains, the ashes, so to speak, of plants
mixed with a large quantity of oyster shells, in a very minute
state of division.

This mould contains of air slaked lime, by the average of fif-
teen ditferent analysis, 45.6 per cent, being more than half as
good as common agricultural lime, and when we also consider
the other matters in this mould, the ratio to limestone is much
increased. It is almost needless to say, that the lime in this
mould is identical with that in limestones, fresh shells, vfcc, and
will act equally as well. A custom has prevailed, to a very in-
jurious extent, of applying the mould together with quantities of
large coarse fragments of shells. I cannot too strongly reprobate
this mode of using the banks. These large fragments take up
much space in the soil that should be filled by other matter, in-
jure its textine, and render the crops grown on it very liable to burn
or Jire. Though these shells be composed of lime, it is not
available but in a very slight degree, to the use of crops. Lime,
to be serviceable, must be in the state of very fine powder, and
intimately incorporated with the soil. When it exists in shells of
any size, it does almost no good by its presence, and, as I have
before said, injures the texture of the soil. For all present practi-
c?il purposes, pebble stones would be equally beneficial.

The best way to use these shell banks; is to have a seive fixed
with a slight inclination. Against this the shells should be thrown,
as when persons wish to free sand from gravel. The fine par-
ticles which pass through the seive, should be applied as they are,
whilst the coarse shells which do not pass through, should be put
into kilns and burnt. In this way no part of these valuable de-
posits would be lost, all would be saved for agricultural improve-
ment, thereby increasing the quantity of crops, and augmenting
the value of land, instead of retarding its improvement, as is the
case when coarse shells are applied. The lime from these old
shells is equally valuable as that derived from those which are
recent. Some of the best crops, and the finest land, have been
produced solely by the application of shell mould, and lime burnt
from shell banks.

[G] 28

MARL.

The term ]\larl,\r\ the sense in which it is used in the distiict
of couiitry where my hibors have been, i? assigned to two sub-
stances distinct in their physical properties, and essentially different
in their chemical composition. This difference is denoted in its
name by the addition of shell in the one instance, and Jersey or
green sand in the other. The one is called shell marl, being de-
rived from shells ; the other is called Jersey marl, from having
been first used for manuring in JNew Jersey, and also green sand
from its color and appearance. I shall now only speak of shell
marl, or that derived from decayed shells, reserving a section for
the exclusive consideration of the green sand or Jersey marl.

The shell marl, as may readily be supposed from its origin
owes its valuable properties to lime, which exists in it in the state
of carbonate; also contains about one seventy-fifth of magnesia.
In some rare instances, however, the quantity of magnesia is as
much as five per cent. Phosphate of lime is present also in
some deposits, in others there is a mere trace, and frequently it
is entirely absent. In some mails a small quantity of lime is
present as sulphate.

The quantity of magnesia is not estimated separately from the
lime in any of the marls, unless it forms at least two per cent.
A particuliar description of the physical characters of each marl
is not given with its analysis in the report on the marls of the dif-
ferent counties, as it would lead to no better knowledge of their
constituents. It is enough to say in this place, that they differ
very much in different localities, both as regards appearance, the
state of division of the shells, and the quantity of lime which they
contain. Sometimes the shells are almost as perfect when first
exposed as those in the recent state; some crumble into fine
powder on exposure to the atmosphere, whilst otiiers remain
sound for a long period of time; some have the appearance of
dirty lime, scarcely a vestige of shell being visible; others are
consolidated like mortar, and have to be dug with pickaxes, often
coming up in large hard lumps, v/hich gradually fall to pieces on
exposure to the air. Other specimens, again, have a brick red
color and are very hard, obtaining both their color and consistency
from agglutination, caused by the per oxide of iron. They vary
as much in their agricultural value as in their appearance, some
containing as little as ten per cent of carbonate of lime, with only
a (race of magnesia, and none of the phosphates, others having
as much as seventy-six per cent of the carbonate of lime, and
others two and one-fifty per cent of the phosphates. Theappcar-
ance of the marl is a very imperfect indication of its value.
Some in which there is but a mere visible appearance of shells,
yields as much as fifty per cent of air slaked lime, whilst others,
which appear to be made up entirely of shells, have not more
than twenty or twenty-five per cent. In the one case the shells
have become disintegrated by heat and moisture, no current of
water passing through them during the process; in the other, water

29 [GJ

charged with carbonic acid, has circulated through llie shell beds,
dissolving and carrying away the lime, the essence of the shell,
and has left oidy its form unbroken. As a general mle, those
slielU injbeddcd in clay, or which liavo a large nilmixtnre of it,
contain more lime than those wbich a have a sandy loundation,
as water percolalijs easily I hrougii sand, carrying wiili it some of
the lime by mere force of attrition, and dissolving more when
charged with carbonic acid. Water charged with this gas, very
readily dissolves lime in thestate in which it exists in shells. In
many beds of marl the form of the shell only is loft, all of the
lime iiaving been dissolved by the above process. The lime in
marl is as good, pound for pound, as that which exists in lime-
stones, has the advantage from its admixture of sand and of clay,
being more easily incorporated with the soil. It is identical with
it in every respect, serves the same purposes, answers ihe same
end in the production of vegetation, and should be used to fulfil
the same indications, viz: to supply lime to a soil deficient in it.
Its application then resolves itself into a mere quesiion of cost.
The percentage of lime in a mail being known, its osvner can
determine for himself, whether he can, by using marl, apply to
his sod any given number of bushels of lime cheaper ilian he
can by buying lime. An allowance must be made in the marl
for the%pplicaliou of a larger quantity of lime than is repiesen-
ted by its analysis, as all of ihe lime in it cannot at once be made
available, in consequence of so;rie of the shells not being entirely
reduced to powder. In mokingthis comparison, however, it must
be understood, t^jat the agricuhnral lime, seldom contains more
than eighty-five per cent of lime. Another item in this compari
son is, the greater facUity with which lime in marl admiis of
thorough incorporation with the soil. The inert lime for the pre-
sent in marl varies in every specimen, and depends on the quanti-
ty of large shells which are found in it, and lh» facility with which
they fall to pieces when exposed to the atmosphere. 1'hese are
then the four sources from which lime is derived for agiicultural
purposes, viz: limestone, Indian shell banks, burnt oyster shells
and shell marl. The indications for its use, is, its absence or
deficiency in the soil.

MODE OF APPLICATION.

This is a subject upon which there is much difierence of opinion
among practical men.

The greatest good is obtained from lime when thoroughly mixed
and incorporated with the soil. "^Phisis piovcn by the fact, that
when lime exists naturally in a soil, other things being equal, a
larger crop is produced then when the same quantity is applied
artificially. This superior produce is obviously due to (he more
intimate mixture in the former, than in the latter case. In the
application of lime, then, the fiist consideration should be so to
use it as to mix it ultimately with the soil. This is sought to be
done in three ways : — 1st. By applying it to the surface, and
suffering it to remain undisturbed for a year or two ; — 2nd. By
applying it to the surface, ploughing it under immediately, and

[G] 30

working the land in some crop; — 3rd. By mixing it in compost
beds, and applying it in the same manner. Each of these methods
has iis pecnliai advantages, and is also liable to objections. Tlie
^e.rfwre of the soil is to be taken into consideration. By the first
method, t!ie lime becomes veiy thoroughly mixed with the soil,
particularly if it be a loose sandy soil, as the rain water washes
down its particles, and fixes them between the grains of simd.
But when lime, or any other manure, is purchased, an immediate
return is desired, which cannot be had if this plan be followed.
Many of our farmers, too, having but little ready money, cannot
afford to spend it without getting speedy, remuneration for its
use. By the second method, tlie lime is thrown to the bottom of
the furrow, and cannot be afterwards well incorporated with the
soil, which is a great objection, as the benefit from its use, to the
fullest extent, is not speedily obtained. The third method has
the advantage of diffusing the lime very equally over the surface,
and insuring its mixture afterwards; but it involves great labor in
hauling and applying it, and but a small quantity can be applied
at a time in this manner. The best mode of combining the ad-
vantages of these several methods, is first to fallow up the ground,
whicli leaves it uneven, with numerous fissures produced by the
plougliing, apply the lime, then follow it with a heavy ii^n tooth
harrow, and cultivate it m some crop that requires frequent work-
ing,— corn for example. In this manner we mix the lime well
with the soil, receive its benefits immediately in a crop, which can
be more completely realised, as the corn can be followed by wheat,
with which clover may be sown. Tlie chief indications are then
fulfilled. 1st. The lime is more thoroughly mixed with the soil.
2nd. Return for its cost in a crop of corn. 3rd. Increased re-
turn by a crop of wheat immediately succeeding the corn, and
then the benefit of a good crop of clover, so useful, not only as
food for stock but a's an improvement to the crop which it pre-
cedes.

For the reasons above stated, this moile of applying lime is pre-
ferable to all others. By it we mix the lime thoroughly with the
soil, and obtain immediate return for its cost, a consideration of
the highest importance with farmers, v/ho have not the ability to
lay out of \ heir money for several successive years, but need an im-
mediate return. Again this mode gives not only the speediest
reward, but gives a much greater piofit than any other mode in
the same number of years, which is the ultimate end of'the appli-
cation of all manures.

It has been a much mooted questicn, whether lime should be
applied in its caustic ox slaked state. The only condition to de-
cide this is the quantity of organic (vegetable,) matter in the soil.
Where this is large, as in the upper districts of Caroline county,
in the Black Gum swamp soils of Dorchester, Somerset, and
Worcester, and, indeed, in all newly cleared or drained lands,
causiic and even hydrate of lime (water slaked,) should be pre-
ferred, it promotes, in a very strung degree, the decomposition of
vegetable matter, which is of no use in aeoii until it is decomposed.

• 31 [G]

Until it becomes so, all of its inorganic matter, its compounds of
lime, potiy?h, soda and magnesia, are entirely useless to the crop,
being, in reference to it, so much inert mallei. Whatever can so
act as lo bring these inert materials into actual use nmst benefit the
soil even independent of its own direct use.

All vegetable matter contains these consliluents, which are
essential lo its very existence, and when set free, they serve as
food for cultivated plants. This is the only maierial advantage
that caustic lime has over that which is slaked, as it all becomes
slakened after exposure to the atmosphere. ]iime should always
be applied to the soil in as dry a condition as possible, for whea
it is wet it becomes cemented into lumps which becomes very hard,
and a long time elapses befoie they are broken down and mixed
with the soil. While it remains in lunjps it is of no use to the
crops, and those who apply it in this condition not only loose ac-
tually the lime, but also its effect on their crops; each a matter
of great consideration. Magnesian limes should not be spread
on the land until the lime in them becomes slakened. If put on
in ihe caustic slate, water will cause tlie magnesia and lime to
form a cement and small balls will be formed which re([uire a long
time to fall to pieces. There is a custom prevalent in some sec-
tions of the State, of mixing caustic lime with stable and barn yaid
manure. This cannot be too strongly reprobated. If those who
use it in this way were to try to injure there manure as much as
possible, they could not adopt a better plan. Ammonia, one of the
most valuable constituents of stable and barn yard manure, is ex-
pelled from the heap by caustic lime, and escapes into the air.

Til is plan should therefore never be followed. It is no proof
in its favor, that the manure, after being treated in this manner,
6till does good, a part of its valuable constituents, fire will not
destroy ; but one of the things which give it ils peculiar distinc-
tive value, is entirely dissipated when mixed with either caustic
lime, (oxide of calcium,) or water slaked lime, (hydrate of lime.)
It is indeed one of the means by whicli chemists determine the
quantity of ammonia in a compound, so thoroughly and entirely
does it drive it all away.

Upon grass lands, when they fail to produce well, and that fail-
ure is owing to deficiency of lime ia them, it may with great ad-
vantage be spread on the surface and have a light harrow run
over it.

This will not only insure to the crop the full benefit of the lime,
but will materially improve the texture of soil by loosening the
surface, and from the long absence of cultivation becomes boundy
and frequently covered with moss, and unfitted to produce a good
crop of hay. The full benefit of the lime can be obtained with-
out the trouble and expense of breaking the land from its ''setting"
in glass, and no intermission need be had in the crop. When
it is intended to supply ihe deficiency of lime in a soil by the
medium of marl, it should always be applied as long a time as
possible before the culture of the soil. Atmospheric infiuences

[G] 32

the alteration of heat and cold, and of dryness and moisture,
are all powerful agents to disintegrate the marl, reduce the
shells to powder, and hving it into a condition most favorable to
the crop, whose production it is intended to assist. Situated as
the great mass of our farmers are, precise and exact rules cannot
be followed. Many are obliged to yield to circumstances, but they
should keep the above principles steadily in view, and conform to
them as nearly as possible.

They are the result of much and careful observation ; are sub-
stantiated by the highest authorities ; and are derived from a
knowledge of the qualities of the cause, by whose application the
desired effect is sought to be produced ; in other words : from a
knowledge of the action of the agent, and the object upon which
it acts.

From a knowledge of the properties of lime as caibonate, and
of those agents to wliich it is subject, the reasons for the above
rules will appear manifest. I need not here repeat what was said
in relation to the different modes of applying lime, except in re-
lation to its use as a top dressing for grass. Keeping in view the
great principle of mcorporating it thoroughly with the soil, we see
how this is done by top dressing of grass land. Though lime be
but sparingly soluble in pure water, yet we have seen that it is
quite freely so in Viater chaiged with carbonic acid ; when marl
lies with the decayed leaves and stalks of grass on the surface of the
meadow, this gas surcharges rain water, as soon as it falls, dissolves
the lime, and carries it in a stale of solution in the soil.

This is not the only way however in which it is mixed w^ith the
soil. A large quantity of lime^ though not dissolved, is yet carried
down the interstices of the soil mechanically, by the water which
falls on it. In this way a large quantity of ii will disappear from
the surface, having become diffused thiough the soil.

The rationale of the application of marl to the surface is equal-
ly sustained, when we consider its physical condition in connec-
tion with its chemical qualities.

The lime which exists in marl is always in the state of carbon-
ate, and hence subject to the sati;e influences as common lime that
has been burnt from shells or lime stone, and become slakened.

There is however this difference, that the lime in marls is either
in massesof comminuted shells, or in large fraginentstliat have never
been disintegrated. By atmospheric exposure on the surface they
are subject to the action of water charged with carbonic acid.

The shells by alternate freezing and thawing crumble into finer
particles, become more easily acted on by water inipregnated with
carbonic acid as this change progi esses, and become entirely
blended with the soil, fulfilling, perfectly, all the indications which
first directed their use.

Modes of Action. — Sometimes it acts as direct food to the
plant ; sometimes by the decomposition of organic matter ; and very
frequently, by its power of setting free other valuable elements
which may exist in soils, but not in a form capable of seiving as
food for plants.

33 [G]

Many theories have been published on the manner in which
lime acts in producing feitility, and much has been . spoken and
wriiten as lo the peculiar manner in which it manifests its utility.
A lejwit like the piTsent, designed to be merely practical in its
nature, allbrds no opporluuity to discuss these (luesiions.

Let it be suflicient to say, that it should always be appljed to a
soil when it is not already present in sufficient quantities, and
never applied when it is. This short remark comprises all of the
rules for the necessity of its administration — further remarks would
be unnecessary.

MAGNESIA.

Is the oxide or rust of a metal called magnesium, and its ne-
cessity to fertile soils is supported by facts as well established
evidence as conclusive, and testmiony as convincing, as those
which show the use of lime, potash, or any other constiluent.

Like lime, it loses its carbonic acid v/hen exposed to a high de-
gree of heat in a current of air, and becomes caustic or calcined
magnesia. It remains in this condition much longer than lime, as
it imbibes carbonic acid with much more difficulty from the at-
mospheie. It also unites to water, but with much less intensity
than lime, pioducing but a very slight degree of heat, whilst the
union is being accomplished. Magnesia, for agricultural purposes,
is obtained from a rock called dolomite, and is found associated
with lime, both existing in the state of carbonate.

The propoition of lime and magnesia in (his rock vary in the
different localities, and even in different parts of (he same rock;
and the ratio of their ingredients is very variable, "since isomor-
phous substances crystallize together in all proportions." We can
only estimate the quantity of each, and the particular adaptation of
a limestone to the soil by a quantitative chemical analysis.

The belief is very generally diffused, that magnesia, instead of
being a necessary constituent of a fertile soil, and an essential part
of the composition of plants, injures tlie quality of the one, and
proves detiimental to the growth of the other.

To correct this erroneous impression as far as I can, and show
how far it is useful, and when it may be injurious, when it should
be applied, and when withheld from a soil, I u'ill briefly review
the arguments against its use, and let the facts which 1 shall offei,
urge its application.

Spiengle says, that soils containing much of the carbonate of
magnesia are said to be highly absorbent of moisture, and to this
cause is ascribed the coldness of such soils. This absoi bent pro-
perty of magnesia, so far from being an objection against, is a
fecommendation for its use, as we find many soils deficient in this
property, being light, loose and porous, — deficient in the two
great absorbers of food from the atmosphere, clay and (he per
oxide of iron, and not having a sufficiency of fine sand to effect
*he vicarious action of these substances. Here, then, for its nie-
5

[G] 34

chanical agency alone, magnesia is indicated, and if it had no oilier
use, should Le applied.

Chaptal says, that "magnesia soils are by no means fertile,^'
and that whenever lime, containing magnesia, is used for agricul-
tural purposes, it no longer produces the same efTect."

Against this sweeping declaration of the poverty of inagnesian
soils, no better argument can be used than that of showing the
composition of some fertile soils.

Johnston, J. F. W., Lectures on the Application of Chemistry
and Geology to Agriculture, p. 284, 'Ogives a soil which had been
cropped for 100 years successively, without manure or naked fal-
low," containing 1.16 per cent of magnesia, equal to about 350
bushels of magnesia to the acre, to the depth of twelve inches;
another containing .312 per cent of magnesia, equal to about 94
bushels, "9 viigin soil celebrated for its fertility ;" another con-
tairiing a carbonate of magnesia, 10.36 per cent, equal to about
3,100 bushels of carbonate of magnesia, which had been '^unnia-
nuied for twelve years, and during the last nine, had been cropped
Vith beans, barley, potatoes, winter barley and red clover — clover,
winter barley, wheat oats, naked fallow."

Analyses of' Spengle, too, shows very fertile soils containing—*
.6 of one per cent of carbonate magnesia.
C( of u i^

a of u a

'^ of magnesia.

u of u

The following analyses of my own, also show, that niagnesian
soils, so far from being barren and unproductive, are exceedingly
fertile. No. 1. Soil from Kent county, producing 20 bushels of
wheat, and 10 barrels of corn per acre, contains of magnesia .35
of one per cent, equal to 100 bushels. No. 2. Also from Kent
county, producmg 22^ bushels of wheat, 8 barrels of curn, and
fine crops of clover, contains .27, equal to eighty bushels to the
acre. No. 3. A soil from Q,ueen Anne's county, producing 30 or
35 bushels of wheat, 12 barrels of corn, and fine clover, contains
of magnesia .4 per cent., equal to 120 bushels. No. 4. Soil from
Q,ueen Anne's county, producing 30 or 35 bushels of wheat, 13
or 15 barrels of corn, fine clover, contains of magnesia .38 per
cent.

There is another soil from the same neighborhood, favorably
situated, and in a fine state of cultivation (Dr. W. H. DeO.,)
having very nearly the same constituents as the two last mentioned,
which produces only 20 or 25 bushels of wheat, and con'ains
only .01 per cent, equal to about 3 bushels of magnesia. These
shows the necessity of magnesia, as strongly as facts can show
anything.

Again in Talbot and Dorchester, we have fertile soils containing
from 60 to 400 bushels of magnesia to the acre ; and in Caroline
and Worcester we have soils deficient in magnesia, all things else

1.64

u

.52

a

2.22

('■

.84

(■(

1.04

(I

35 [G]

beinp^ present, and yetnol so prochictivc as where mafrnesia exists.
Bill (lie evidence does not, stop lieie, (lie aslies of llie grain of
wheat contain from 12.98 10 IG. 20 per cent of magnesia, accord-
ing to the analyses of Bichon, Thou, Boussingault., Wills, and
Prescnins, the inorganic part of the grain of bailey contains of mag-
nesia 10.5 per cent.

But why multiply proofs? The above arc sufficient to show,
that it is one of the necessary constituents of plants and of fer-
tile soils, and if it does not exist in a soil, common sense tells U3
that it must be supplied, or that the soil cannot reach its maximum
of productiveness. The application of caustic magnesia to a soil,
may pri.ve injurious from its caustic properties, since it does not
reailily imbibe carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and become
mild, as lime dots. From this quality, we should place it in as
dense an atmosphere of carbonic acid as possible, by applying it
to the surface, and turning it under with some green crops, or by
mixing it in com;)Ost heaps, before applying it, or by letting it re-
main on the suiface for as long a time as possible, before the land
is cropped. On the Black Gum Swamp soils, and on those on the
Beavei Dam in Q,ueen Anne's, no injury need be feared from its
use immediately before a crop.

On the soils not containing a large quantity of vegetable matter,
from twenty to forty bushels of magnesia lime to the acre, is the
best quantity. This quantity should be applied every three or
four years, until about two hundred bushels shall have been used/
The larger the per centage of magnesia in the lime, the smaller
the quantity to be used.

POTASH

Is the oxide or rust of a metal called Potassium. This sub-
stance is supplied to soils from ashes, the unleached containing
very much the larger quantity, from stable manure, from scrapings
of the woods, and more especially from the green sand or Jersey
marl. The quantity in ashes, as they are usually sold for manure,
is very variable. 1 have found it to vary from five tenths of one
per cent, to four and one half percent. The quantity of Potash
necessary to constitute a fertile soil, as I have elsewhere stated, is
very small for reasons given elsewhere, I have not been able to
give any very definite information in regard to it. It will be ia
my power, in my next annual report, to speak more particularly
of ibis substance, as well as soda. With regard to both of these
substances, I may here state, that upon land whe^^e the wheat crop
is liable to rust, ashes, particularly the unleached, or common salt,
which contains soda, wmU usually prevent its occurrence. Of
common salt, from one to three bushels per acre, sown on the
wheat is sufficient, and the proper time for doing this is the early
part of April.

Chlorine exists in salt, and can only be econominally supplied
by applying salt.

The next class of manures are those which especially supply
phosphoric acid or phosphates of soils.

[G] * 36

Phosphoric acid existfe in the soil in combiDation with iron, clay,
lime or magnesia.

In the stalk of plants, in combination with lime and magnesia,
it is always found in small, and in the grain or seed, always ia
large quantities. In animals it is found in the bones in large pro-
portions. Wiih bases, it forms a class of salts called phosphates.
What is the exact quantity which should exist in a soil (o give it
. the greatest degree of feitility, has not been ascertaii\ed. When-
ever the analysis of soils shows a less quantity than (.05) five one
^yhundredths of one per cent of iron and alumina as phosphates,
(for in this, for valid reasons, I have always estimated it,) phos-
phates may be advantageously supplied. The only indication for
their use is their absence or deficiency.

SOURCES OF PHOSPHORIC ACID.

The chief sources of the supply of phosphoric acid are from
bones and guano. Ashes, both leached and ufileached, also con-
tain them in large quantities, and to this much of their beneficial
aciion maybe frequently ascribed.

Bone dust contains about fifty per cent of phosphate of lime
and magnesia. I mean, now, bone dust, such as is ground from
bones, as they are used for manure without any especial washing.
Besides this, they, by the decomposition of the animal matter in
them, afford ammonia. In this manner, they have a two fold ac-
tion on crops : — 1st. By supplying them with ammonia ; — 2nd.
By supplying phosphoric acid. They should be so prepared as to
preserve both of these valuable constituents.

MODE OF PREPARATION OF BOXES.

There have been many different ways of preparing bones. The
most common is that of ground or crushed bones, in which they
are broken to a greater or less degree of fineness, and thfen applied
to the soil. Another mode recommended by Mr. Puse}'^, of Eng-
land, is to first grind them, then moisten with water, cover them
over with a stratum of earth, and suffer them thus to remain for a
week or ten days. In this way the bones become converted into
a soft pasty mass, which is to be thoroughly mixed with the earth
which covers them and applied to the land, l^lie outside of the
heap should have a thick covering of gypsum, which will retain all
of the ammonia generated during the decomposition of the animal
matter in the bones.

Another mode has lately been advised and practised with suc-
cess, viz : to dissolve the bones in sulphuric acid, diluted with
water. In this way, the same quantity of bones will produce a
much greater effect than when ground to the finest powder. To
effect their solution, the bones should be first ground or broken
with rammers^ put into a w^'ooden vessel, (a cider or hog trough
will answer very well ;) mixed with their weight of water, then
with half their weight of the strong coirjmercial oil of vitriol. The
mass should be constantly stirred for two or three hours at first.

37 [G]

thensufTeied to lemain for a week or (en days, or nnlil the frng-
nieiits of bono are no longer-visible — the whole, then, should be
inliniatelv nnxod with ashes, saw dust, sci apings from ihe woods —
or what is much better^ corn or li'hcat bran. With this applica-
tion, not only are (he phosphates supplied (o a soil, hut also gyp-
sum, the lalier being formed by (he action of oil of vilrol on (he
bones.

The use of the sulphuric acid requires some caution, as it will
burn (he skin and injure the clothes if suflered lo come in contact
with them.

The great superiority of bone prepared in this way, consists in
their moie complete division, they are reduced to an impalpable
powder, whi^li can be more evenly anc| equally disiiibnted over
the soil, more easily dissolved by the rain, and more readdy tak^n
up by the crop. The same amount expended in this way will
produce a much greater return that when laid out for bone dust.

There is still another, and as I believe, a better mode of using
bones, because cheaper and equally productive, viz: the applying
of ihem in (he liquid form. To do this the bones are first dissolved
in oil of vitriol, and then diluted with a large quantiry of water,
and applied at the tirlio of sov.Mng wheat by a machine for tliat
purpose.

The machines used in England for this purpose are vcr}'' ex-
pensive, costing from two to five hundred dollars.

Jt may be applied by a very cheap and simple contrivance, as«
follows :

Take a hogshead of cotuienien! size made of thick slaves, and
near the bottom insert a leaden pipe, connectins^ it with another
hogshead, which may be of half the capacity of the first. The
leaden pipe must have a stop-cock, by which the How of water
may be regulated from the larger into ttie smaller hogshead, so
that in the smaller hogshead a regular head of water is kept up.
This smaller hogshead is to have a leaden pipe also, with a stop-
cock fixed into it near the bottom, which should be joined at right
angles to a hollow cylinder cf wood, perforated with numerous
small gimblet holes.

This whole apparatus can be placed in a common horse cart,
when the larger hogshead is to be filled with (he dissolved bones.
When in the field the stop-cock in the leaden pipe, leading from
the larger to the smaller hogshead, is to be turned so as to keep
up a regular head of water in the latter. As soon as the team
starts, (he stop-cock in the pipe, leading from the second hogshead
to the perforated cylinder, is to be turned, and by means of the
gimblet holes in the cylinder, the dissolved bones will be very
equally distributed on (he land. The perforated wo-nien cylinder
should have a length equal to that of the axletree of the cart used.
This simple contrivance will distribute the dissolved bones as
effectually as the most expensive English machines, and the
whole cost of it will not exceed twenty dollars. This application
should follow immediately the sowing of the wheat. Bones used
in (his way will give (he wheat a strong, quick growth, and thus,

t. O] 38

m a great measure, prevent injury from the %. I am at present
making some experiments to drive away or destroy the fly, and
with stroni; prospects of success.

To apply bones in this manner is a great saving of ihein, and a
much less quantity answers tlian when they are ground, dissolved
in oil of vitriol in the way first mentioned, or decomposed by a
covering of earth. They are scarce and expensive, and any
mode therefore which can substitute for quantity, skill, or even
expense in their preparation, should meet with the most favorable
consideration. I am not aware ihey have been applied in this
way in this counlrv. In England the following experiments show
the relative value of bones in the liquid form, when compared
with other modes of application.

39

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43 [G].

If no experiments had been ever made, 1 can readily conceive
how, not only bones, but any oilier manure, applied in (his ijnan-
ner, will pioducea much greater eflect then when applied ev6n in
the linest powder. I will not recapitulate the reasons for this
opinion heie. Under the general head of manures ihey njay be
seen— common sense and experience confirm them.

GUANO

Is (he next sourse of supply of phosphates. This substance
has been, for the last few years, extensively used as a manure.
Besides the phosphates wliich it contains, a large quantity of
ammonia is generated during the decomposition of its azotised
matter.

Guano, as is well known, is the dung or fecal, matter of various
tribes of sea birds deposited on the coast of Africa, South Ameri-
ca, and on tho Florida coast of the United States. The varieties
most usually sold are the Chilian, Peruvian, Patigonian, and the
African or Ichaboe Guano. Of these, (he first two command
much the highest price in the market, the African or Ichaboe be-
ing much less valued, and selling for a less price. The difference
between the Chilian and Peruvian, and the two latter, depend oa
the difFerence of the climate in which they are found. The at-
mosphere in Peru and Chili is very dry, scarcely any rain falling,
and hence the guano, after its deposition, suffers but little change,
no water being present to aid the heat in its decomposition ; both
heat and water being essential to that process in organic substances.

On the coast of Africa and Patigonia, much rain 'falls, which
not only dissolves some of the phosphates in guano, but readily
washes out the ammonia as it is formed. These latter vareities,
therefore, are never so rich in ammonia as the former, but they
fequenily contain a larger quantity of phosphates, inasmuch as
the ammonia being formed and driven off, the proporiion of phos-
phates in any given quantity will be comparatively greater. The
indications for the use of guano, are the absence or deficiency of
phosphates in a soil, and the inability of soils to supply themselves
with ammonia, for want of power of absorption. The constitu-
ents for, and the conditions necessary to this, may be seen under
the head of Alumina, Iron, and Sand, in the chapter on the con-
stituents (if soils and their properties.

I will, however, slate heie, that upon open, loose, light, porous
soils, ihat species of guano, containing the largest quantity of
ammonia, should be used; but on clayey land, or while oak soils,
that kind containing the largest quantity of phosphates is prefer-
able, because these soils can supply themselves with ammonia
from (he atmosphere. It is a matter, then, of the first importance
for the purchaser to be able to know the constituents of guano.
At present he cannot know them, unless he employs some chemist,
which he had much better do, than to buy and apply guano in the
dark. The different specimens of guano differ very much, and
the purchaser should know, before buying, the value of each lot
that he purchases.

{g] 44

There is much difference in opinion, as to the mode in which it
should be applied; some ndvocaiing its apphcation to the surface
as a lop dressing, others ploughing it under. Where the soil is
porous, the former, I believe, is preferable; in stiflT soils the latter
is the better mode. In either case gypsum shoukl be applied with
it, in the proportion of about one-eighth by weight. The best
quantity per acre, depends on the quantity of phosphates and
ammonia in the speciinen to be apphed. A quantity of guano,
capable of yielding phosphates, equal to about seventy-five pounds
of bone dust, is the best, as far as my knowledge enables me to
say ; the facts in my possession in relation to this are very few,
though I beheve, more numerous than have been obtained by any
one else. Indeed, though there has been so much written and
published, as to tlie action of guano, no information has beea
ehciied of general utility, because neither the composition of ihe
guano, nor of the soil, has been given, and yetyet they are the two
chief items which can afford us data, whereby to establish rules
for the quantity to be used, or, indeed, for its use at all. I know
of cases where it has acted well, that is, has more than paid for
its cost, where, however, a much less sum expended in other
manures, has paid more than twice as well.

Phospliates exist in night soil, in poudtette, in ashes, in stable
and in barn yard manure, in some maris in oyster shell lime, and
also in stone lime, but in the last, not insnfiicient quantity to merit
especial attention in reference to agriculture.

The next substances claiming attention, are those which furnish

SULPHUR OR SULPHURIC ACID

to the soil. They are called sulphates, because formed of sul-
phuiic acid, (oil of vitriol,) in combination with some base. The
sulphate, almost universally used, is gypsum, or plaister of paris,
this is a sulphate of lime with two equivalents of water.

This substance has been most extravagantly lauded and condemn-
ed by different persons, as it chanced to act well or badly, when
used by them.

The indication for its use, is its absence or deficiency in a soil.
When all of the other necessary constituents of a soil are present,
this being absent, its use in very small quantities, produces an al-
most magical effect, making all the difference between a soil almost
absolutely barren, and one very fertile. Even though it be absent
<5r deficient, by itself it will not do any good, unless all of the
other necessary constituents of a soil be also present, so that when
gypsum does not act well on land, it may be for two reasons; the
tirst, because of its presence already in the soil, — or secondly,
because of the absence or deficiency of some other necessary con-
stituent— the analysis of the soil, or a series of experiments, being
alone capable of deciding, to which of these causes its non-actiou
should be attributed.

The very great difference in the gypsum which is sold in market,
I shall advert to particularly when recommending some action in

45 [G]

regard to its inspection. It, is best applied by beiiif^ sown broad-
cast on the growing crop, on clover euily in ibe ISpring, and on
Indian corn just before it begins to siioot. 'I'be proper cn^anliiy is
from one-ball' to one busbei per acie. An advantage is also de-
rived IVoin rolling llie corn in it before planting. 'I'o compost
lieaps, to barn yard anil to stable niatune, it slionid be applied
every few diiys in cpianiities depending on the number ol' stock,
one gallon at a time, being enough (or the laigest yards or stables
in the country.

This should be done whether gypsum is applicable to the soil
upon which the uiamire is to be used or not, as it preserves one
of the valuable cousiituents of ihc manure which w(juld be other-
wise lost. Sulphate of soda, which is but common ginuber salts,
is anothei foim in which the ?ui])huric acid, or one of the sul-
phates, can be applied. They are very cheap, being worth about
three fourths of a cent per pound, and when the soil is deficient
in soda, should be preferred to gypsum, as by it both sulphuric
acid and soda wilt be supplied at the same time.

Besides furnishing the elements tociops, which enter info its
composiiion, gypsum is decon)posed by the ammonia always pre-
sent in the atmosphere, which, by uniting itself to the sulphuric
acid of the gyiisum, loses its volatility, that is, its tendency to
escape into the air.

'"I'he application of gypsum, then, beside furnishing its own
elements to crops, retains for tiieni much valuable food from the
air.

This mode of the action of gypsum has been denied by some
very distinguished writers who allege against this theory, that the
increase of the substances in crops which it absorbs from the air,
is far beyond what the quantity applied is capable of retaining.
Those who take this ground forget, that when sulphate of lime is
decomposed by caibonate of aunnonia, the growing crop takes up
the ammonia without using the sujphuric acid, which is thus left
to absorb and yield to the crop successive quantities of ammonia,
as long as it remains \n the soil. All chemists are familiar with
similar action in the manufactme of ceitain chemical conipcunds^

Sulpliate of magnesia, conunon Epsom sails, is another source
from which tlie sulphuiic acid may be applied to soils deficient in
iis two constituents, viz: sulphuric acid and magnesia. 'J'hough
much dccti'er than the two above mentioned, it will be found supe-
rior 10 them on ^oils deficient in both sulphuric acid and magnesia.
I have now some experiments to be performed in relation to (he
use of its substance, which, when complete, will be laid before the
public.

CA/ony/e, which, in c imbinalion with basts, forms what are
called in the language of chemistry chlorides, is another of the
necessary constitnenis of soils, and consequently a manme. Com-
nion salts is the form in which it is most cheaply supplied. The
indication for its use, is its presence or absence in the soil, or the

[G] 46

posiiioa of the land in reference to salt water, as the vapor from it
conlainsnn appreciable amount of chlorine, which, by winds and
storms, nfe curried to the neighboring land.

These comprise all of the necessary constituents of plants, all the
necessarv constituents of soils. The particular combination of each
which will give the greatest yield, has not yet been determined, "^rhis
can only be done by many careful analyses of fertile soils, in order
to see what quantities are present in them, and, by the analysis
of soils, which are unpioduciive, and then to determine, by the
apphcaiion of the necessary manure, the smallest quantity which
will produce the greatest benefit. The experiments hitherto made
determine nothing but the mere fact, that some particular manure
has acted well on some particular soil. As long as we remain
in ignorance of tlie compositiot) of the soil, so long we can learn
almost nothing. I deeply regiei. too, that men, fiom whose repu-
tation and knowledge better things might have have been expect-
ed, have sanctioned the empirical course of endeavoring to obtain
a knowledge of the best manure by its mere application to a soil,
without any reference to the composition of the soil experimented
upon.

The experimenis made with so much care, and reported with
such commendable exactness in the journal of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of l^ngland,are incomplete, and those recommend-
ed^by l^rofessor Johnston, as well as those reported by him, are
valueless, except to the particular individuals who made them.
All others would have to go over the same or other experiments,
before ihey could (ell whether the manures used successfully would
be equally efficacious in theirhands, for if they failed, being igno-
rant of the causes of failure, no plan would be suggested to ensure
success on a second trial. Tiiere would be a constant groping in
the dark, because (he liglit afforded by an analysis of the soil was
neitherfurnished nor re( ommended.

It rnay to some seem presumptuous, that I thus condemn the
course followed by men of high reputation and acknowledged
ability ; but neither of these is a safeguard from etror, and nei(her
"the sliadow of a great name," nor any authority, however im-
posing, should be blindly followed. The science of agriculture
like all other sciences, has fixed laws; many of these laws are
hidden at present from our view% and the veil which covers them
will never be lified, unless they be studied in- a rational and phi-
losophical manner. Kach known fact in agriculiure, to be useful,
nuist have revealed with it all of the causes which led to its pro-
duction. A successful or unsuccessftd application of manure
is a fad of no value, unless the compasition of the soil upon which
it was useil be determined. Then all of the causes influencing
its action will be manifest, and each experiment made will lead
us onward tna pel feet sysiem; every trial of a manure will teach
us how it slio..ki be uslmI, and when rej-cled with profit.

In obedience to the law, 1 commenced the discharge of my
duties in the first gubernaloriai district, comprising eight counties,

47 [G]

viz: Cecil, Kent, Queen Anne's, Caroline, Tniijot, Dorchester,
Somerset ;ind Worcester, which constitule the

EASTERN SHORE OF MARYLAND.

It is bounded on (he nortli by the far famed Mason and Dixon'd
line, (which separates ii fioni Pennsylvania as il does the slave
from the non-siavcholding part of our Union ;) on the souiii hy
the eastern shore of \'iiqinia; on the east by the Atlantic Ocean
and jMason and Dixon's line, separating' it from the Slate of
Delaware; and on the west by the Chesapeake Hay. The mild-
ness and salubrity of its climate, the natural fertiliiy of its virgin
soils, the numerous and various sources of improvement for those
that have been worn out by improvident cultivation ; the unequal-
Jed advantages of ils geographical position ; tlie high moral and
social tone of its population ; — all teml to make it an object of in-
terest, as well to those who wish to cultivate the earth for a sub-
sistence, ns those who tiied of a city life, or the drudgery of pro-
fessional labor, desire to enjoy dignity with leisuie in a retirement
from noise and bustle, into the bosom of tlie 4;ountry, where the
pleasures of sense may be combined with the higher and purer
social enjoyments, which all sigh for, and few obtain. A plain
description of this section of our Slate, derived from peisonal obser-
vation during a residence t'lcre of nearl}' eighteen months, being
the testimony of what 1 have seen, and of what I know, from
careful observation, will full}'- confirm what J have said.

^ First, as to the advantages of its geographical position. Any
one who will look at a large map of the United States, will not
fail to perceive that in thisiespect it is imcqiialled by any wtb.er
part of our Union.

On one side resting on the ocean^ on the other reposinj^ on the
Chesapeake Bay, — (he largest and most beautiful^ in the world, —
intersected by rivers, or rather arms of the bay, every few miles,
which afford at all seasons of the year a safe, cheap and speedy
conveyance to market. Placed within a circle, as it were, sur-
rounded by the great cities of New York, Philadelphia and Bal-
timore, all ready and willing consumers of its varied agricultural
productions: the ingenuity of man could not improve it's locality
in this respect. All that railroads and canals, n>ade with enor-
mous labor and expense, can, in the opinions of the most san-
guine, effect for other portions of the Union, is here accomplished
by the hand of nature, in a manner blending'ihe highest bsaijty
■with the greatest utility.

Almost every man has fine bold water, either at his door or only
a few miles distant from it, navigable for the largest schooners and
steamboats, which, with but little time and expense, can convey
his productions to market, and bring in leturn whatever may be
required for convenience, for comfort, for luxury. These waters
are, moreover, abundantly supplied with th-i finest fish, terrapins,

[G] 48

crabs and 03'sters, and some of tliem with wild fowl of flavor and
excellence, unequalled elsewhere.

Tlic character of its soil, and (he means at hand for ilsiinprove-
ment, aie no less worthy of adniiiation. The variety of iis soils
affords an opportunity for the cuUivation of every kind of grain,
fruit or grass, whiich the climate of this latitude will admit of.
Many of its soils are ])eculiarly adapted to the growili of wheat;
others raise the finest ciops of corn : its fruits, particularly peaches,
are equal to the best in the counlr)', and nothing is wanting but
careful cidtivation to make it the vineyard of the 'Union ; and its
capacit}'" for growing grass will render it a fine grazing country.
It has an abundance of the finest timber^ pa^■licuIarly while oak,
pine and cypress. In many places there are extensive deposites
of bog iron ore, easily obtained, and several of the largest of
chrome ore in the world. One great and valuable feature of this
country, is the abundance and variety of its resources for agricul-
tural improvement. On many of the rivers there are large depo-
sites of Indian sheli banks, capable of affording many millions of
bushels of the purest lime. It has numerous deposites of very
lich shell and green sand marl, Jn some of the counHes the green
sand marl contains alarge per cenlage of gypsum. In many laige
distiicts of country shell marls, containing from foity to seventy-
six per cent of air slaked lime, can be obtained with the greatest
facility, being sometimes within a few feet of the surface, some-
tiiDes croj)ing out upon it.

The shores of the bay, and its numeious creeks and rivers, af-
ford laige quantities of sea-weed, a most excellent and valuable
malnure. In other counties the marsh mud, easily obtained, is ex-
ceedingly lich in those constituents most generally needed by
worn out soils. To those of its soils which require magnesia, the
Chesapeake and Delaware canal, and Susquehanna rivet, afford
every facility for a cheap supply. The whole country is well
wooded, timbered and watered. ,

I find it to be an opinion geneially held, that this is a verv un-
healthy section of our State. My opportunity for observation
has been better, perhaps, than that of any other individual," whilst
my professional studies, as they enable me to observe accu-
rately, should give my opinions some consideration. So far
as my knowledge extends, no part of our covmtry is more healthy
than this. There is no better mode of judging of the health of a
country than by the physical appearance of its inhabitants. All
writers on the science ofhealth (Hygeine,) agree on this general
rule, that the physical development of the inhabitants of a country
is the best criterion to judge of the health of that countiy. The
reasons of the truthfulness of this index are perfectly in accordance
with sovind physiology. Muscular development cannot take place,
except when all the organs of nutrition are capable of performing
their functions in a proper manner. This they cannot do, if ex-
posed to the influences of causes which produce disease ; if they

4^. [G^

do it not, then the appetite will not take food, — or if the nppetite
does, it will not be coiivciled into aliment. Hence, instead of the
full development of the osseous system, ((he bones,) and muscular
system, ihey will be s})aringly nourished, and attain but little size,
1'iavellers, and indeed all persons, speak invariably of the dimi-
nutive size of the inhabitants of unhealthy districts, and of the
puny statute of the denizens of closely-built nianufactoring towns,
in comparison with the large size of the inhabitants of mountain-
ous countries. Experience and the laws of physiology, then,
alike decJare, that the best test of (he health of a country is, the
physical developement of its inhabitants.

I have visited many sections of our counlr}', and in no part of
it have I seen the mass of population looking more healthy,
or having more of all the signs of health manifested in their ap-
peara'nce, than on the Eastern Shore of Maryland. I have seea
some of (he largest gatherings of men that have ever taken place
in our Union, and with any of them, the assemblages of farmeia
that I have met in my professional tour will favorably compare.
Going through every part of each of the counties during all
seasons of the year, I have had an oppoit unity of knowing what-
ever amount of sickness might exist, and 1 have in the same ex-
tent of population, found as much in those sections of our Union
accounted the most healthy, as I have found on the Eastern
Shore. The only diseases at all prevalent are intermittent and re-
miitant fevers. These only prevail during a portion of the year,
and seem to be the best preventatives against the numerous and fatal
class of diseases of the chest which are so fearfully present in
other parts of the countr^^ Consumption so prevalent in many
parts, is here almost unknown. My own observation, and the ex-
perience of its resident physicians, fully sustam this assertion.
The people^ then, of this part of our State suffe] for a brief period
of the year undei a class of maladies, which, with proper treat-
ment, are speedily and easily cured, and have almost a total ex-
emption from a numerous class of always dangerous and frequently
incurable diseases. It may be asked here, why then has this sec-
lion of our Slate a reputation for unhealthiness, which it does not
deserve ? The only reason which I can give is this : in all of the
counties on the Shore, there is a custom of having what are called
^'public days," in the county town, and frequently in other parts of
the county. These days are set apart by common consent for the
transaction of public and private business, and where very many
meet who have no particular business to transact. In this way,
several persons from each neighborhood always meet, and what-
ever case's of sickness occur in any particular section, are known
and told with sympathy all over the county. So every case of
sickness or death is known, and from the particular acquaintance
and friendship engendered by frequent meetings of the people, is
felt as a calamity to the whole comnnmity, although the number
of cases do not exceed those in the healthiest parts of the Union
T

[Gl 60

More is known of the cases which do occur, but no more ac-
iually take place here, than in the most healthy parts of the
country.

As this country progresses in its rapid march of agiicultural
improvement, the better and more perfect cultivation of its soils
will remove many of the causes of sickness which now exist.
This should and will be additional reason for inducing, by all
means, the most thorough cultivation and improvement of its
soils.

I have dwelt somewhat at length on this subject, to correct the
erroneous impressions which exist, and to show to those in want
'of certain profitable employment, and of cheap and easily im-
^oved lands, that they need not feel any apprehensions on the
score of health. Emigrants will find here land cheaper, taking
'6very thing into consideration, thaa they can find in the West,
and equally healthy ; and if they are taken sick, or meet with
misfortunes of any kind, instead of being subject to the privcilions
of a newly settled country, they will experience every aid and as-
sistance from a kind, generous and hospitable people.
'■ The son of Erin will be received in a manner that will remind
"h'im of the warmth of his native land ; the patient industry of the
'German will here meet with a speedy reward; and the Magyar will
liere find a home amidst a people capable of appreciating his noble
patiotism and chivalric love of liberty.

■ ' '"The, surface of the country is generally level. The upper part,
ih Cecil county, is very hilly ; thence the face of the country
gradually changes into a gently rolling surface in Kent and
Qiiicen Anne's, until it becomes very level and flat in the other
dounties.

' Its scenery, though deprived of the grandeur of mountains, is
iiiore than compensated in beauty by its unrivalled water pros-
pects, The rivers penetrate far up the country, winding graceful-
ly from farm to farm, which seem to seek the embrace of the clear
blue waters, in whose bosoms they lie. The fresh streams which
are bordered by large marshes, in some seasons of the year, present
scenes of the most ravishing beauty.

The waters of these streams are of a dark amber color, from
the organic matter of the marshes which border on them, and are
covered with the water-lily, a very large and most beautiful while
flower ; and the marshes on the sides next the river are filled with
Wild roses, whilst that part next to the highlands, are one unbroken
forest of magnolia. As far as the eye can reach, it rests on one
il'hbioken series of beautiful flowers, more beautiful from the dark
slbggish waters which are in contrast with them. At night, the
lilies on the water are covered with fire-flies, givrng the scene an
appearance of unequalled beauty and brilliancy. The whole
forms a scene which art, with all its ability, can but faintly
imitate, and which is without a parallel, even in the climates of the
'''gorgeous East." Its population has long been distinguished for
the exercise of the highest degree of polished hospitality. Re-

61 [G]

silling in the central part of the Union, immediately on Mason
and Dixon's line, dicy have all of the virlues, with none of the
vices, which bcloiitj io ihe two gieaL sections yC our Union. I'hey
possess ihii ihiift, iiichisiiy and economy of the North, without its
parsimony, — the generosity and chivalry of the South, with none
of its extravagance and recklessness. Living where the land and
the waters meet, their minds have all the firmness of the former,
their hearts all the freedom of the latter.

Though to some, the above short description may seem highly
colored, ail who have had the same opportunities for knowledge
as I have had, will bear testimony to its correctness.

I do not conceive it necessary to go into a minute description of
the topography of the several counties. The lesidents know
it already, and to others it would possess no interest, and be of
no benefit. I shall only speak of the particular deficiencies of
each soil, show from what source these deficiencies are to be
supplied, and give the compositions of some of the different marls.
I shall only publish a few of the many analyses of soils made, as
they would possess no particular interest beyond their immediate
locahty, and there I have already given all the requisite informa-
tion. All of the analyses made by me would occupy a large space,
and the great raajoriiy of farmers would derive but little benefit
from reading them. I conceive my duty rather to lie in the appli-
cation of the aids of science to agriculture, than in teaching that
science ; and to do the latter in a report of this kind, would be
foreign to its object As the sick man needs not to know the
exact mode in which the medicines administered for his relief aot,
but is satisfied with his recovery, so for those seeking to improve
their lands, it, is only necessary to know what will most certainly
and cheaply accomplish their objects. Tiiis I shall show, without
going into elaborate reasoning as to the theory of the action of
their inanures. The law seemed to indicate, that instruction on
this point was to be given during my sojourn in the different coun-
ties, by means of lectures, by conversations, and, when required,
by means of written communications. This is deemed, (and as
far as my experience goes,) with great wisdom, the means best
adapted to diffuse scientific agricultural information in the commu-
nity. Notice was given in all the public papers of my presence
in the respective counties, and of the time and place of delivering
public lectures. Free opportunity was thus offered to all, of reap-
ing whatever benefits could be derived from this office.

Having spoken of the components of soils in general, and of
manures, I come now to describe several general varieties which
exist in ihe.section of the State where my duties have been per-
formed. Although different paifs of the same field present differ-
ences, yet on another and adjacent field, the same kind of soils
will be found. The varieties of soil, which J shall particularly
describe, are those which are met with in gteateror less abundance,
in all the counties on the Eastern Shore.

[G] 52

WHITE OAK OR PIPE CLAY SOIL,

Forming a large proportion of the soil of ihe Eastern Sliore^
must be of great interest, whether viewed as to its barrenness,
when unimproved, or its fertility, when correctly manured. I have
examined its properties, determined its constituents, and studied
the best means of remedying the defects of each, with the most
careful attention. To the knowledge of the iirst two, obtained
by my own investigations, I am able to add, for the correction
of the last, a knowledge derived from the accumulated experience
of many of the best farmers on the Shore. This variety of
soil is readily distinguished from all others by its white color,

FIRM COMPACT TEXTURE, ITS LEVEL SURFACE, ITS GREAT RE-

TEXTivENESS OF MOISTURE, by iis softuess and plasticity when
wet, and by its firm and unyielding nature when dry. It is al-
most always in ils original state, covered with white oak titnber,
from which it derives its name. Sometimes, however, pine grows
abundantly on it, mixed with the white oak. The water which
luns off from its surface is of a dirty white color, and even when
it collects in pools, takes a long time to become clear ; in other
words, a long time must elapse before all the earthy matter, from
its extreme fineness, subsides to the bottom. The sub-soil is most
usually a true white clay, (silicate of alumina and protoxide of
iron,) unless on the points of land running into the rivers and
ocean where red clay predominates. Occasionally, we find the
sub-soil of a '^mottled, marbled" character, being a mixture of the
red and white clay in various proportions. Its chemical constitu-
ents are no less constant and marked than its physical appearance.
T It is distinguished by the large proportion of sand, by the small
3 proportion of iron and clay, by the presence of magnesia in
1 Bufiicient quantities, by a great deficiencv of lime, which is con-
i.stant, and hy a tolerable supply of the alkalies, phosphates and
• sulphates. The sand in these soils is always in a finely commi-
nuted state, feeling but slightly giitty under the fingers, and re-
ceiving minute impressions when placed in contact with any un-
j^ even surface. It is from the extreme firmness of the sand, that
-this soil derives its compact texture and its power of retaining
t moisture. It is this which makes up for what would otherwise
^'.be a deficiency in the clay andiron. These two latter substances
-t are particularly important in soils from their power of absorbing
and retaining moisture. From the atmosphei'e they also absorb
1.. ammonia, a powerful fertilizing agent, rnd retain it with gi-eat
ji force, for-ming combinations, "true salts," with it until the plant
- requires it for support. In a soil deficient in clay and iron, then,
-•! and whose sand is course, you will have to supply artificially, some
t! manure containing this latter indispensable substance, or a good
y crop can never be obtained. There are examples of this kind in
\he loose, light, sandy soils in some parts of all of the counties.
These soils owe their barrenness alike to their texture, and to
their composition.

53 [GJ

In ihe while oak soils, the fine sand is a suijstilute for iron and
clay, ahsoibinq, with great, power, moisture, and whiitever other
ferlilizinj]c ni:uter may be in ilie iilnios[)!icie, and relaininy^ it until
the want?; oC the plant ie(|uire its use. Thesand thus performs a
vicarious action to iron and clay ; ills a snhsiiluie for them in
giving compactness to the soil ; it is a substitute for them in ab-
soibing moisture, and the food which plants obtain fiom the at-
mosphere.

IMie power ofchaicoal to absorb various gasses, is well known,
a power derived exclusively from its mechanical texture, as shown
by its great number of fine pores ; and when we consider the fine
state of divisir)n in which thesand exists in these soils, we readily
see how a mass of it must present a very large surface for absorp-
tion, and how an almost infinite number of small spaces must exist
between the grains of sand, giving it in a great degree the same
properties as charcoal. For although this soil appears to form a
solid mass, yet no grain of it is in perfect contact with anv oilier
grain. This is niost saiisfaciorily demonstrated by placing a snrall
lump of it under the field of a microscope, when the inleisiices,
the spaces between each grain, are distinctly visible. Another
advantage which this land possesses, is, that it more readily yields
the mineral agents which it contains, to growing plants, all bodies
(other things being equal,) being sohible in proporiion to the fine-
ness of their division. This is always acted on by those who
wisii to dissolve any substance of difiicult solubilit}-, by pulverizing
it in a morter. Now, in a soil, every grain of sand contains some-
thing of use to the plant, which can be more readily dissolved
from fine, than from coarse pai tides. These soils are uniformly
deficient in lime, but have enough of magnesia: they have potash
and soda, as well as sulphates and phosphates, in fair proporiion.

How does an acquaintance with their lexture and^'composition
teach us to improve ihem ? What are the indications, and how
are they to be fulfilled ?

First, — "^rhese soils are level and retentive of moisture. They
should then be drained thoroughly U'ith surface drains. No
water should ever be allowed to rest on them. The fields should
be ditched at least on two sides', with a wide deep ditch, into
•which a number of small surface drains should run, and one or
two laige drains through a field are no substimie for a large num-
ber of smaller drains. These latter are more effectual and more
easily made. A plough run once or twice in the same furrow,
aided by ihe hoe, will in most cases, make a very effectual drain.
The manure fiom the bottom of ihese ditches will, in a few years,
pay for them, even if they had no other use.

These soils are compact, and, therefore, do not lequire a great
depth of soil in order to give firmness and stability to the roots of
plants growing on them. They, also, very eirectiveiy retain mois-
ture, thus afibrding it to crop? in a dry season; when overlaying
a white sub-soil, they can gain nothing of use from it, for these
sub soils contain almost nothing that is useful to vegetation, and

[G]

54

some things in a condition that are injurious. How, then, should
ilicy be cultivated? Notwithstanding, it is so fashionable to ad-
vocate deep ploii.ifhing ; noiwidisianding, it i.-s always insisted on
by agriculiural wi iters, speakers, and essayists, yet I must advise
ail to beware of it, on these lands, unless (hey have a red clay
sub soil. The only rational rules for ploughing, are short and
plain. They are, to turn up a sufficient depth of soil to give a
firm support to the plant, enough to retain moisture for its use,
and never to go deeper, when (hose ends are obtained, unless (lie
sub-soil be better tlian the sinface soil. If it be v/orse, you injure,
and cannot improve by deep ploughing.

If (he sub-soil be belter, tlien, and then only can you gain by
deep ploughing. Reason and common sense alike tell us, that if
you join a woise with a belter soil, the compound v/ill be infeiior
10 that better soil. If, on (he other hand, (he sub-soil is better
than that which overlays it, then should it be turned up with the
plough, because the sum of the two will be belter than (he surface
soil.

Such being the case, you siiould plough shallow in these white
oak soils, and never turn up the ickite. clay upon which they rest.
The paiticular depth of ploughing, will vary slightly in different
soils of this class, and I have never seen any that requited more
than five inches ; most frequefilly tluee or four inches are sufficient.
This depth is sufficient to support the roots of the plants, sufficient,
to retain enough of moisture, and liiere is inferior soil underneath,
wliich would deteriorate tlie quality of the surface soils.

Where there exists a sub-soil of mottled or marble clay, the
same rules are to be observed a,s regards the depth of tillage.
Upon the red or yellow clay sub-soils the practice should be dif-
ferent, as these may with advantage be turned up, never more,
however, than one inch for each rotation, which may be rejieated
until the depth of tillage reaches to six or eight inches. These
rules are founded on the nature of the sub-soil, and its influence on
vegetation.

The iron in (he red and yellow clays, is in the state of per
oxide, that is, it is in its highest degiee of rust, and can receive
no more oxygen. Iron, in this condition, absorbs ammonia, (a
very fertilizing constituent of the atmosphere,) and retains it until
required by (he growing plar.t. But the advantage does not s(op
here. The color of soils has an important influence on (heir pro-
ductiveness. Those Vv'hich are dark colored, absorb, and retain
heat be(ter than those of a lighter hue. Seed, in the former, sprout
quicker, and grow more rapidly than in (he latter. So by mixing
a red o.r yellow clay with these white soils, you will cause the crop
to take an earlier start, to grow more rapidly, and arrrive at matu-
rity sooner, than if a contrary practice was adopted. These clays,
too uniformly contain some lime, in which the surface soils are
deficient.

We cume now to speak of the best means of improving the soils
under consideration, by manures, that is by the addition of those

65 ^ [G]

substances in which they arc deficient : deficiency or absence be-
ing aUiways (he test of a iiKiiuiie. However vnhuihle anylliiiii^
may be in itself, it is no nianiire when applied where it already
exists in proper form, and in suflicient quantities. From what
has been said of the composition of these soils, the rationale of
their ini provement is plain, cheap and certain. They are only
deficient in lime: Then it should be applied to them in the
purest form, — oyster shell lime is iheliine for tln;se soils, because,
in reference to them, it contains less impurities than any other
kind of lime. If Wrightsville, JNew York, or Schuylkill lime,
be a|)plietl, much less of manure, for the same amount of money
and h^bor, is g-iveii to the soil, than if oyster shell lime be used.
Each of these limes contain a large pei cenlage of magnesia, and
more sand, clay, and iron, than that from oyster shells. As these
soils contain enough of magnesia, all the magnesia applied to ihem
is so much lost in money and labor, to say nothing of the loss of
the crop which a pure lime would have produced.

It matters not in what form the lime be applied, as it is a mere
question of cost, whether pure oyster shell lime, shell marl, or the
mould from Indian shell banks be used : al^ these act by supply-
ing lime, the prime deficiency of the soil ; they willact and bring it
to a high degree of fertility, pioducing Jtbundant crops of every
•kind, and the finest, heaviest crops of wheat ; for these soils, from
their texture, is peculiarly adapted to this grain.

The manner of applying lime to these lands now icquires some
notice. It it be applied to the surface a long time before the crop
is to be planted, the rain, instead of carrying the particles of lime
down into the soil, will carry them of fiom it, and in this way a
large part will be lost. In loose, porous soils, (his surface application
will answer very, well, but hard compact soils sliould be first
ploughed up, and then have the lime scattered immediately on the
surface. In this way none will be lost.

The quaniUi/ of lime to be applied, is the next subject of con-
\ sideration. Here again we have to consult fertile soils of this
class. Science has given them a language, every sound of which
is truth.

The most productive have not shown over two hundred bushels
of air slaked lime (o the acie, to the depth of twelve inches.
There is no need then, of evergiving them more than this quanti-
ty. Six or seven-tenths of one per cent is always enough. Up to
this point, the larger the quantity the bciler will be the crops.
All who have this variety of soil should apply lime to them. If
it be impossible to apply an hundred bushels, apjily fifty ; if not
fifiy, then twenty-five; if not twenty-five, then ten bushels; apply
some, and do it at once, make a beginning, however small, and
its good results will soon persuade all who make tiie efibrt, to
surmount whatever trifling diificulties may intervene, and lead
them to apply the necessary quantlt3^

Besides lime, a slight dressing of compost manure, made from
the scrapings of the woods, will greatly aid in the improvenierH
oi these lands. It will materially quicken the action of the lime.

[G]

56

I need noL give the reasons, the fact is certain and quite sufficient
for our present purpose.

Tliere are millions of acres of this land, now not worth in the
iTaiket niore thaa fioiii five to eight dollars, which by tlie appli-
cation ofas much money in the [roper manure, will pay for tlieinr
selves and for the manure, by the very fir^, or, at most, the second
crop. -Lands, precisely similar to them, have produced from
fifteen to tweniy bushels of wheat to the acre, afier proper draining
and liming, which before would not produce more than fourorfive,
frequently no more than two or three. , 1 know some exam-
ples of this kind, upon which all may depend, which prove these
two prime facts : — 1st. That those lands, when improved, are the
most productive and valuable in our State, taking every ihing into
consideration ; — 2nd. That lime is the cheapest agency to effect
this improvement. I need not say, that in their unimproved con-
dition they are the least profitable of all of our varieties of soil. If
there be any one kind of manure which I can recommend for any
particular soil with more confidence than any other, it is

OYSTER SHELL LLME TO WHITE OAK SOILS
If that cannot be obtained, then the Baltimoie limes should be
used. I have never known one single instance of failure from the
use of pyster shell lime on these soils, where proper cultivation
was also followed. The most productive lands in Talbot are o^
this kind, and made so by the use of this substance, and manure
from the common resources of the farm. Land there, which
twenty years ago was considered dear at ten, will now readily
bring fifty and sixty dollars. The same degree of improvement
has occurred in many other of the counties of this shore, but not
so generally as in Talbot, I have now given the nature of the
composition, and best means of improving, this variety of soil ;
shown what indications Analytical Chemislry declares were to be
fulfiilled to render them fertile; and I have shovv^n that where these
indications had been carried out, they have never failed to produce
the desired lesult; that art and science, theory and practice, all
pointed to the same system of cultivation, and the same kind of
manures. It remains then for the owners of this land to act their
part, and their labor shiuld be the less irksome from the cer(ainty
of Its success.

The following are a few of the many analyses made of these
soils : —

Specimen from Farley creek, Kent county.

Vegetable matter, 5.60

Silica, (sand,) 89.S0

Iron and pure clay, 3.40

Iron and alumina, as phosphates, .14

Lime, as air slaked lime, .41

Magnesia, -35

Potash and soda, .12

Sulphuric acid, .001

Chlorine, .001

57 [G]

This soil produces from twenty lo thirty bushels of wheat unci
from six lo ten barrels of corn lo the acre, at present. It has been
manured with two hundred bushels of Schuylkill lime lo the acre.
This sod in its original condition, contained an abundance of
Magnesia. This was not the best lime for it. A specimen taken
from an adjoining fiekl gave iwo-tcntbs of one per cent, of ma''"-
ne:>ia. Hefore the application of the lime, (he owner of this land
informed me, that it would not have produced thiee bushels of
wheat to the acre.

No. 2.
Specimen from the upper district of Queen Anne's county

taken to the depth of five inches, was composed as follows of '

Vegetable matter, 3.50

Silica, 91.10

Ahmiina, (clay,) 2.50

Iron as per oxide, 2.00

Iron and alumina as phosphates, 05

Lime as carbonate, (j4

Magnesia as carbonate, jq

Potash and soda, 03

Sulf)huric acid, .001

Chlorine, 001

This soil had never been limed, it originally contained only

twelve bushels of linie to the depth of 12 inches. It has a laiffe

abundance of magnesia, and is very poor. The manure is of

couise li7ne, and the common resources of the farm

No. 3.
Specimen of unimproved while oak land from Kent Island in
Queen Anne's county. Specimen taken to the depth of iive'in-
ches, and thoroughly dried gave as follows, of —

Vegetable matter, 3.73

Silica and sand, 92.30

Alumina, 2.00

Iron as per oxide, 2.25

Iron and alumina, or phosphates, .08

Lime as carbonate, .08

Magnesia, 29

Potash and soda, ^15

Sulphuric acid and .

Chlorine, not estimated quantitively, but evidently enough.
This land does not produce five buhsels of wheat to the acre"
though it has all of the constituents of a fertile soil, except lime'
in as good proportions as the other soils which pioduce Iwenty-five
bushels of wheat.

No. 4.
Specimen from near I\liles' River, Talbot county, was composed
as follows, of —

Organic matter, 5 00

Silica, (sand,) 9U0

8

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58

Alumina and iron as per oxide, 2.90

Iron and alumina as phosphates^ .11

Manganese, (a trace,)

Lune as carbonate, .32

Magnesia, • .18

Potash and soda, .07

Sulphuric acid and chlorine in sufficient quantities.

This is a very productive soil, made so by the application of mail.

No. 5.

Specimen from TuckalioeNeck, CaroHne county, was composed

Organic matter, 4.60

Silica or sand, 92.10

Alumina and iron as peroxide, 2.80

Iron and alumina as phospl)aies, .03

Lime as carbonate, .17

Magnesia, .10 -^

Potash and soda, .04

Sulphuric acid, a trace,
Chlorine, not deficient.
This is rather more productive than most of the unimproved
"while oak soils," the quantity of hme in it being above, and the
quantity of phosphoric acid, under, the aveiage. Besides oyster
sU^ll lime, bone dust or guano, particularly the Patagonian or
African, should be used on these soils.

Several examinations of soil.'=' in this Neck, show very nearly
the same composition as the above.

No. 6.

Soil from near Cambridge, Dot cheslercount}'^, Md. Specimen
taken to the depth of six inches. This soil had never been im-
proved ; it was composed as follows, of —

Organic, i. e., vegetable matter, 7.20

Silica, i. e., sand, 90.50

Alumina, (clay,) and Iron as per oxide, 1.70

Alumina, and iron as phosphates, .09

Lime as carbonate, .10

Magnesia, .21

Potash and soda, .111

Sulphuric and acid, .008

■ Chlorine, .006

This soil was experimented on by J. Wallace, Esq., with the
following result, which I cannot do better than give in his owi\
words: —

"I accordingly purchased five hiindred bushels of ashes in Bal-
timore, and had them landed at the cost of 12^ cents per bushel,
and applied them upon lot No. 1, of field No. 1, at the rate of one
hundred bushels per acre ; immediately alongside, I applied one
hundred bushels of shell lime, at a cost of 3 cents per bushel.
The whole was sown in Vvheat in the fall of 1847, upon an oat

59 [ G ]

stubble. At harvest I measured off and reaped separately, one
acre of (lie aslied land, and one acre ot lUe unimpi'oved Idnd.
Upon ihe ashed land, I have raised seventeen bushels of grain,
upon tlic unimproved only scvoi and one-half, an acre of nine
and one half bushels. The product of the limed acre was not
measured, but as the eye could observe, there was a slight differ-
ence in favor of the aslies, but very little. The difference in the
cost of improvement, however, was material ; the a^hed land cost
$12.50 per acre, and the limed only $3.00. On the young wheat,
in the spring, clover seed was sown upon the whole field, but the
plants all died in the summer, except where the lime and ashes
had been applied. And I may here add, that in every instance I
had failed to raise clover where either lime or ashes had not beea
applied."

For more particular details, the reader is referred to a letter from
Mr. Wallace, in the January number of the American Farmer. It
is by far the most valuable practical paper yet published on this
subject.

'These analyses and experiments place the matter beyond cavil,
as to the successful manuring of poor lands of this description. I
have examined numerous specimens of this variety of soil in other
parts of Dorchester.jin Somerset, and Worcester, in Queen Anne's,
Kent, and Cecil, and they all have the same general composiiion,
and would be benefitted by th.e same cultivation, the same kind
and quantity of manures.

ri::d and yellow clay soils.

By this term I include all of those soils, having for their bases,
red or yellow clay. The surface soil depends very much for ha
color, on the quantity of vegetable matter in it. Sometimes it is
filled with course gravel, sometimes it is a fine dark grey sand,
frequently of a light reddish color, owing to the presence of per
oxide of iron, and very often the surface soil has nothing by which •
it can be so described as to be recognized. The sub-soil is, how-
ever, always characteristic, being a red or yellow clay, similar to
that from which bricks are made. The clay differs in color from
a bright brick red, m Cecil, to a pale fawn color, in Worcester
county. The transition in color is gradual, from Cecil to the
southern parts of the shore, becoming less red by almost insensible . -
degrees, a fact due to the dimunition in quantity of the iron.
These clays, also, are less strong as we proceed downwards; that
is t, hey contain a less quantity of pure clay

The surface soils over diese clays are deficient in alumina and
per oxide of iron, in lime, inagnesia, and the phosphates. The
fii'st two can be supplied by deep plowing.

The red and yellow clay sub-soils contain fi'om eight and a half,
to as much as twenty bushels of lime per acre, for every inch in
depth. Hence, on those soils, with every inch of clay which is'/
turned up, from eight and a half to twenty-five bushels of lirnei,,
is brought into action. Besides thi:j; they also contain magnesia,
and sometimes potash. If there was no other reason but this

[G] 60

ii should be sufficient to induce deep culiivation on the red and
clay lands, which will also, paitially supply (.he latter deficien-
cies. The composition of these soils points out the nianuiTs besi
adapted for them. These are the Schuylkill, Wrighisville, or New
York lime and bone dust, or guano. Lime devoid of magnesia,
will increase the growth of crops on these soils, yei it will never
act as well as those which contain it, because, by the latter, both
lime and magnesia, two deficiencies instead of one^ are supplied.

They should be ploughed deep, but not more than two inches of
the clay should be turned up in one rotation. This should be done
in the fall, that it may be subject fo the action of the winter's frost,
and to the influence of the weather for a. long time

For the reason that these soils differ very niuch as to the quan-
tity of their necessary constituents, and of course in the quantity
of manures which should be applied, I have not given any of their
analyses in this report.

Those which I made have been given to (he owners of tlie soil,
and the necessary manures, both as to kuid and quality, indicated
at the same time.

I have, moreover, given all the information which I possess in
reo"ard to them, to their owners, through conversations and lectures.
At present, gypsum would act well on these soils — when, how-
ever, thej iiave a large admixtlire of the per oxide of iron and
alumina, by means of deep ploughing, the benefits of this will be
questionable.

The rules whicli I have laid down, aiding by observations of the
effects of the specified manure, will aid greatly in their successful
cultivation. These lands, from the faciliiy with which they are
improved, are very valuable. Though at present they may be
cheaply purchased, yet, in a few years, when their worih become
better known, they will command a very high price. Indeed, at
present, they are rapidly increasing in value.

BLACK GUM SWAMP SOILS.

These are characterised by their black color, light porous tex-
ture, and the large quantity of vegetable mattet which they con-
tain. They are very productive in corn, but wheat does not flour-
ish on them, owing to their porous texture 'This class of soils is
most generally found in bottom lands, and, when at all moist,
should be drained.

The best application for them, is unslacked magnesian lime, for
even when a fair proportion of lime is found on analj^sis, yet lime
will act on them, as the substances necessary for plants are held by
the vegetable matter, wiiicn cannot be yielded until it is decom-
posed : quick lime affects this very* readily, and should be ap-
plied for every rotation as long as a large quantity of vegetable
matter can be recognized. From twenty to foiiy bushels applied
every year, will insure, for a number years, very large crops of
corn, and, when the texture of the soil will allow, large crops of
wheat will be produced. These soils are generally quite fertile.

01 [G]

lieaiins^ from four to eight baiiels of corn every year for a gieaf.
number of years.

AVIioii quick limccaiuior he procured, water-shikcd liuie sliould
be useil. Air-shikcd hiiie u ill benelit. them but very slighily, and
coniuion eaiih of any kind, by rendering iheni more compact,
will also act beneficially on these soils.

Specimen fiom Fourlh Election Disliict, Worcester county,
Md., thoroughly dried, was composed as follows, of —

Vegetable matter, 41.70

Silica, (sand,) 5.3.80

Iron, as per oxide, .40

Alumina, (pure clay,) . 3. .50

Irop. and alumina, as phosphates) .(>S

I.ime, .20

Magnesia, .21

Potash and soda, , .10
Sulphuric ccid and chlorine, (a (race.)

This soil produces from thirty to forty bushels of corn every
year.

Specimens from the long maish in Caroline, and the Beaver
Dam in Queen Ann's county, showed a composition nearly simi-
lar to the above, except in having a larger quantity of iron and
alumina as phosphates, from .2 (two-tenths) to .45 (four and a
half temhs of one per cent.)

Specimen from near Newtown, Worcester county, Md.

Vegetable matter, 44.00

Silica, (sand,) . 53.00

Iron, .SI

Alumina, (pure clay,) 1.00

Iron and alumina, as phosphates, .15

Lime, .30

Magnesia, ,25

Potash and soda, .04

Sulphuric acid, , .002

Chlorme, .006

This soil produces from thirty to forty bushels of corn every
year — no wheat.

Specimen from Worcester county, Md., from near Derickson
Cross Roads, being fully dried, was cou)posed as follows, of —

Vege'.able matter, 35.00

Silica, (sand,) 60.00

Iron as per oxide, 1.00

Alumina, (pure clay,) ' ^ 2 60

Iron and alumina, as phosphates, .16

Lime, .35

Magnesia, .24

Potash and soda, .15

Sulphuric acid, ,009
Chlorine not estimated, but sufficient.

[G] 62-

This soil produces fromfiftyvto sixty bushels of Indian com
every year — wheat does not thrive on it.
Specimen from Somerset county —

Vpgeiable maiter, ^ 42.60

SiUca, (sand,) 53.20

Iron, as per oxide, .61

Alumina, (^pure clay,) . 2.70

Lon and ahuTiinaj as phosphates, .13

Lime, ,21

Magnesia, .20

Potash and soda, .15
Sulphuric acid and o^iloiine not estimated quantitatively, but
sufficient.

This soil produces from thirty to forty bushels of corn every

year — no wheat. /
LIGHT SANDY SOILS.

These soils are chnracterized by their coarse, gritty texture^ their
porosity, their white color and their barrenness. Sometimes the
sand- in them is brownish from the presence of iron. Their
greatest defect is mechanical. They are deficient in clay and iron,
and liieir sand is too coaise to absorb much, if anything, from
the atmosphere. ,

Their chemical defects are lime, magnesia, the phosphates;
these substances, tiiough present, are not in a condition to be used
by plants.

They should be treated with, compost, Tiiade of vegetable mat-
ter of any kind ^ such as scrapings from the woods, the clearings
out of ditches, &c., with any of varieties of lime containing
magnesia. Gypsum should always be sown on tiiese lands when
not in cultivalion, and as large a crop of grass as possible suf-
fered to grow on them, unmolested by catile. When this deca3^s,'
it will dissolve much of the mineral matter in the soil, that other-
wise would not be taken up by plants. The compost manure^
recommended above, supplying lime and magnesia, would act
in the same manner. If the raagnesian lime be applied by itself,
not more than twenty bushels per acre should be applied at one time.

This ahould be done in the fidl or winter preceding the crop ta
be tilled.

It should bespread on the surface, for in these porous soils the
rain will cairy down the lime into the soil, distributing it very
equally through it. As th.ose soils cannot absorb ammonia well,
that form of guano coniaining the largest amount of it should be
preferred for them. When bone dust is applied, it should be
done imn^ediaiely before the crop is planted. Gypsum should
always be used on these lands.

One of the best means for the improvement of (his class of soils
is by crops of peas, and the comr.-ion lady pea is belter for this
purpose than all odiers. The ground inienJed for their use, should
be ploufjhed up in April or May, and the peas harrowed in about
the middle of the latter month, or first of June, by means of a light

63 [G]

spike toothed haHow. In the full the peas slioukl be galliored
fioin the vines, wliicli will pay as well us any other crop on these
lands. Tiie succeeding year they will bring at leasi tiiirly per
cent more ol' corn, than if they had not been cultivated in this
way. There are soils of this kind near Worion I'oini, in Kent
county, and also on the Chester river. 'J'liey are found in the
neigiiiibrhood of Sntlleisville, in Queen Anne's, extendini!; on
the Chester river, for sonic distance below the Chesteriown
bridge, and reaching out into the coiniiry, until they become
gradually blended with the red and yellow vlay lands; ihey are
found in Talbot, bordering on the Choptank, and Ihey prevail
veiy much in Caroline county ; in the upper and middle districts
in IJorchester county, on the Choptank, alwve Cambridge, lo the
Delawaie line J and in the upper part of Somerset, and that p{>it
of Worcester called the Forrest. They also are found east of the
Pocomoke, below Snow Hill, extending a few miles above it,
until they meet with the yellow and red clay lands of Quepongo
and Berlin.

The above compose the most marked varieties of soil found in
the first gubernatorial district. To describeall which occur, would
swell this report to an unieasouable length. The sub-varieties are
very numerous, and as far as opportunity permitted, their charac-
teristics were examined, their deJiciencies determined, and the ma-
nures and cultivation best adapted to them, were made known by
the means pointed out by the law. .

The analyses of all kinds made of soil, exceed one hundred and
fifty in number, but as their publication, would subserve no prac-
tical benefit, I have not included themm this report.

The owners of the soils will give me, in the course of a few
years, the result of their experiments, which will form a coUeciion
of the most valuable facts yet given to the art or science of Agri-
culture.

I have adverted to the variety and richness of the niarls of some
parts of the Eastern Shore. These are comprised under two
general classes, viz : the green sand marl and shell marl. These
are the terms applied to the two vaiieties on the Shore, by which
«ll there -.vill readily undeisland my meaning.

THE GREEN SAND, OR JERSEY MARL,

Is found in large deposites on the head of Sassafras, in Kent
county ; on the Sassafias river, in Cecil ; on the branches of the
Gieat and Little Bohemia river; and in many other localities in
the lower part of Cepil. A bed of it is found also below Chester-
town, near the Chester liver, but evidently not in its original
posi'ion. Another bed, to the thtcknes of about eighteen inches,
is found overlaying shell marl of the very latest deposit e in Talbot,
at the head of Wye, on the land of Mr. Tliomas Hopkins. This
is also out of place, having been transported hereby a current of
water at some distant peiiod. The green sand to which I refer,
owes its value to the presence of potash. , Soiuetimes, however, it
contains carbonate of lime, and occasionally some sulphate of

[ G ] G4

lime, (gypsum,) formed by the decomposition of the sulplniret of
iron, and of carbonate of lime furnished by shells.

It is, by no means, to be taken as granted, that all sands which
are colored green, possess fertilizing properties. Their color is
due to (he presence of iron, and not of potash or liiiie. They may,
and sometimes do, Lave a bright green color, and yet have not
enough of either of these substances to be of the smal'csl value
as fertilizing agents. The test of value recommended by Profes-
sor Rogers, in his geological survey of New Jersey, that of a
green slain being made by the sand on White paper, is not correct ;
though it was also mentioned in a report on the geology of Vir-
ginia as an unerring mark, and adopted by (he lamented Professor
Ducatel of this State. '\h& gi'een color of this marl is caused by
the iron and not by potash. It is true, that when potash is pre-
sent in the sand, the gieen stain will be made, but it is equally true,
that it will be made if no potash is present ; hence it is, by no
means, an ''unerring test" of the value of this kind of sand, and,
indeed no test at all. The only means to determine the qirantity
of potash in green sand, is a chemical analysis made by an expe-
rienced, practical chemist. Its analysis is complicated and difficult,
and liable to many sources of eri'or. No confidence should be
placed in any estiiTiate of its worlh, that is not based on a chemi-
cal analysis made by an experienced hand. This marl is some-
times found in large grains, sometimes the grains.are very small,
and the mass of it is very close and compact, the color is some-
times a bright green, which, on exposure to the air, becomes a
dusky red, from the per oxidatioir of the iron. Frequently it is of
a dull green, approaching to black. No indication of its value,
however, is alibrded by its exteriral appearance.

The benefits of its action are due principally to the potash which
it contains; besides this, its iron, when peroxodised, absorbs am-
monia from the air, and improves, very materially, the texture of
the soil, especially when the soil is light, loose, porous, sandy, or
of a white color-. The following are analyses of some of the dif-
ferent specimens examined by me.

MARLS OF KENT COUNTY.

Green sand from Ebenezer Welch, head of Sassafras, in Kent

county, 100 parts, thoroughly dried, gave of —

Silica, 58.00

Iron as protoxide, 22.00

Alumina, 5.00

Lime, • 6.00

Magnesia, 1 .50

Potash, ^ 0.50
A stratum in this bed, about four feet in thickness, intermixed

with sliell, gave as follows, of—

Silica, 3K00

Lime as carbonate, 57.00

Alumina and iron as phosphates, LOO

•5 [GJ

Iron as protoxide, 4.50

Magnesia, 1.60

Poiasli, 2.60

Secimens from Mr. Briscoe, head of Sassafras river, ihe same
locality as i\bove, were composed of —

Silica, (sand,) 68.50

Iron as protoxide, 21.50

.Alumina, G-60

Lime, 6.00

Magnesia. 1.50

Potash, 6.70

The bed of green sand, on llie head of Sassafras, is about

twenty feel in depth to ihe level of the tide-water, and extends

more than (hree-loinihs of a mile down llie river. This sand iff

found more or less intermixed witli the sand on the streams, and

with the under strata of some of the soils in diffeient parts of the

county. Analyses were made fiom many localities, but there was

none of any practical value, except that below Chestertown, and

a specimen furnished by Mr. George Spencer.

I'he foimer contained of potash, 4 per cent, the latter of potash)
3 per cent.

A specimen intermixed with many green particles of sand from
near St. Paul's church yard, in the Lower District, gave of —

Silica, 90.00

lion as protoxide, with per oxide, 4.25

Alumina, 2.00

Lime, 1.60

Potash, 1.25

Specimen of shell marl from Mrs. Julia Merritt, lower district
of Kent.

Physical characters, hard compact texture, dusky red color, ana
intermixed with many small quartz pebbles. Specimens thorough-
ly dried, gave of —

Sand, 45.00

Iron as per oxide, 5.55

Lime ae caibonate, 49.22

Magnesia, (a trace,)
Phosphates, (a trace,)

Shell marls from the banks of Chester river, on the farm of Mr.

Wm. Decourse, v;as composed as follows: —

Sand, • 45.00

Iron as per o:tide, 10.74

Alumina, 1.12

Lime as carbonate, 43.00

This marl was of very easy access, hut had never been used,
though the land on the farm, and all thiough the neighborhood,
very much needed it.

Dark black marl, with small fragments of shells in it, from Mr.
Malsberg, near Georse^o^^r. GroE-s Roads, contain of**-
9

[G] 66

Silicn, 13.75

Iron as per oxide, 12.00

Alumina, 1.00

Iron and alumina as phosphates, * .50
Lime as carbonate, , 17.00

Lime as sulphate, (gypsum,) 4.00

Potash, 1 .25

This is a very valuable marl, containing, as it does, almost all
of the necessary constituents of soils in fair proportions.

Very many different specimens of the matl, and what was sup-
posed to be fertilizing matter, were examined in all the counties
duiing my stay in them, the analyses in every instance were fur-
nished to the different individuals when the specimens were of
any value, but when worthless, the result only was announced.
It is unnecessary to give them in detail here. Many marls whose
efficacy had been determined by long use, were not submitted for
examination.

Many rich deposites of green sand marl occur in Cecil countyj
but as most of the specimens were brought to me only a few days
before my duties there closed, I have not had an opportunity of
thoroughly analyzing them. This shall be done in the course of
a few months, and the results given to the owners in a proper
manner.

ANALYSES OF SHELL MARLS FROM QUEEN ANNE'S

COUNTY.

Specimens from W. A. Spencer. The bed situated atthe edge
of a running stream, and Of very large size, covering an area of
more than 50 acres, to the depth of 6 to 8 feet.

Specimen No. 1, was composed as follows, of —

Sand, 66.00

Iron as per oxide, 1.00

Alumina, .25

Lime, as carbonate, 32.75

The above are the proportions in 100 parts, after being thorough-
ly dried.

Specimen No. 2, was composed as follows :^-

Sand, 85.00

Iron, 1.50

Alumnia, 1.10

Lime as carbonate, 12.40
Specimen No. 3, was composed as follows: —

Sand, 90.00

Iron, 1.70

Alumina, .50

Lime as carbonate, 7.80

This specimen was from a distinct stratii'm, hnmediately abuve
the last.

67 [GJ

Another specimen from the same bank, also, from a distinct
stratum, was composed as follows, of —

Sand, 90.50

Iron, 1.50

Alumina, .50

Lime, as carbonate, 7.50

The following shows the composition of two specimens of marl
from Mr. Davidson, Wye Neck.

No. I,
Contains of —

Sand, 68.20

Iron, as per oxide, 1.40

Alumina, 1.00

Lime as carbonate, 29.40

A stratum immediately overlaying the above, to all appearance
equally good, was composed as follows, of —

Sand, 90.00

Iron, 2.50

Alumina, 1.00

Lime, as caAonate, 6.50
This is not worth hauling.

Specimen from Dr. Newman's, near Church Hill. This bed is

of very large extent; covering about 150 acres, and being about
twelve feet in thickness.

No. L
Contained of —

Silica, 57.00

Alumina and Iron, 2.00

Lime as carbonate, 41.00
No. 2.
Blue stratum from same beds, the shells being much more
thoroughly decomposed was composed as follows, of —

Sand, 62.00

Iron, 1.40 ^

Alumina, 2.00

Lime as carbonate, 24.50

Analyses of two specimens from Mr. William Carmichael, Wye
river.

No. 1.
Was composed as follows, of —

Sand, 79.00

Iron, as per oxide and alumina, 3.50

Lime as carbonate, 17.50

No. 2.

Contained of —

Sand, 57.15

Alumina and iron, 5.05

Lime as carbonale, ^ 37.80

[ G ] 68

Specimen from Mr. Walter D. Haidcastle's farm, near Reid*s
creek, was composed of —

Sand, 49.00

Iron, as per oxide, 3,00

Alumina, 2 25

Lime as carbonate, 45.75

A specimen from Mr. Greenberry Knott's farm, was composed
as follows, of —

Sand, 71.85

Iron and altmiina, 8.50

Lime as carbonate, 19.65

A specimen from Mr. Madison Brown, Centrevillc District, was
composed as follows, of —

Sand, 55.00

Iron and alumina, ' 5.92

Lin)e as carbonate, 39.00

A specimerj from Mr. R. E. Clayton, was composed as follows^
of—

Sand, 60.80

Iron and alumina, 3.00

Lime as caibonate, 36,50

Specimen from Mr. William Herasley, head of Wye was com-
posed as follows, of —

Sand, ' 65.00

Alumina and iron, 8.00

Lime as carbonate, 26.50

Besides the above, many other valuable beds of marl are found
jn this county.

ANALYSES OF SHELL MARLS IN TALBOT COUNTY.

Specimen from Cbas. Robinson, near Easton, was composed as
follows, of —

Sand, 70.00

Iron and alumina, .07

Lime as carbonate, 28.00

Lime as phosphate, 1.15

/. H. McNeill— Marl, No. 1.

Hard, compact, while shells, finely comminuted. Specimen

fjaving the appearance of mortar.

Sand, 17.00

Iron and alumina, 6.50

Lime as carbonate, 76.30
/. U. McNeiU~Red, No. 2,

Sand, 19.00

Iron and alumina, 10.50

Lime as carbonate, 70.00

Loss and other components not maleiial, .50

69 [G]

iNo. I.

Mr. Stiandberg,

Sand, 56.60

Iron and alumioa, 3.50

Lime, ns carbonate, 39.60

Mr. Strandberg, No. 2, contained of —

Sand, ^ 68.25

Iron and alunaina, 4.00

Lime as carbonate, 37.00

Specimen from Mr. Barlly Haskins, white color, showing but
very lidle apperance of shells. It contained of —

Sand, 26.00

Clay and iron, 2.20

Lime as carbonate, 70.00

Lime as phosphate, L60

Specimen from Mr. William N. Mulliken, contained of —

Sand, 65.00

Iron and alunoina, 4.60

Lime as carbonate, 30.00

Specimen from Mr. Sol. Merrick, contained of —

Sand, 56.25

Iron and clay, 5.15

Lime as carbonate, 38.60

The average of four specimens from Baker^s Landing, the pro-
perty of Thomas Hughlett, gave ofj»-

Sand, 60 00

Iron and clay, 6 00

Lime as carbonate, 33.50

Specimen from T. R. Plater, near Tred Haven, compact, hard,
and filled with finely comminuted shells, was composed of —

Sand, 21.00

Iron and alumina, 3.76

Lime as carbonate, 74.00

Lime as phosphate, L25

Specimens from Edmundson's Neck, v?a8 composed of —

Sand, 36.60

Iron and clay, 3.5d

Lime as phosphate, 1.70

Lime as carbonate, 57.70

Ditch Bank Specimen,

From Rev. E. J. Way, was composed of —

Sand, 6S.50

Iron and clay, .90

Lime as caibonate, 30.60

Specimen from the Upper Pit, (E. J. Way,) was composed of —

Sand, 76 50

Iron and clay, 2.30

Lime as carbonate, 21.20

Specimen from Major John Dawson, Miles' river. One speci-
men contained of —

[G] 70

Lime as carbonate, 41.00

Specimen of blue marl from same, contained of —

Lime as carbonate, 2L00

Specimen from Mr. Edward Hambleton. The sliell marl spe-
cimen was composed as follows, of —

Sand, 47.00

Iron and clay, 4.50

Lime as phosphate, (bone dust,) L75

Lime as carbonate, 46.60

The specimen of ''greenish colored sand," overlaying the above,
contained only a trace of sulphate of lime, (gypsum,) and is not
worth the labor of its application. Many other analyses of marls
were made and given to their owners.

These are but a part of the numerous and valuable marl beds
in this county. At least one-third of it is underlayed by marl,
whose average composition will give fifty per cent of air-slacked
lime. These marls are very easily obtained, and produce, un-
aided, very great renovation in the adjoining land, frequently
increasinor the crop from three to twenty bushels of wheat in a
single year, and giving a corresponding increase also of the corn
crop. Notwithstanding the great and now universally admitted
benefits of shell marl to the land of this county, it is only within
the last few years that it has been generally used. Mr. Singleton
applied it with great benefit near forty years ago.

The only specimens of marl brought to me for analyses in Caro»
line county, were two specimens from near Greensboro'.

Specimen No. 1.

Contained 28.50 per cent of air-slaked lime.

Specimen No. 2.

Contained 34.36 per cent of air-slaked lime.

There is a very valuable deposit also on the farm of Mr. T. H.
Slaughter, near Denton, which as yet has never been used to any
extent.

Its valuable matter is 6S.60 of air-slaked lime, and 1.75 of
phosphate of lime, (bone dust.) But very few marls on the shore
are better than this.

I shall now call the attention of your honorable body to the
inspection laws of the Sta'e, so far as they immediately affect the
Agricultural interest. They are exceedingly defective, and need
prompt and radical amendment.

To protect the weak against the oppression of the strong, and
to secure to all safety in their persons and property, are duties
which the State owes to all of its citizens.

In some instances these principles are fully carried out, they
should be in all, but this is not the case.

If one, by reason of a superior physical ability, wrests from ano-
ther his property, the State very wisely and justly interposes its
power, causes restitution of the goods forcibly taken away, and
punishes the offender, to prevent the commission of similar crimes.
Equally binding is its obligation to protect all who may suffer in

71 [GJ

ilieii property, from the superior knowledge of oUiers, since^ leased
as great may ensue from deficiency of knowledge, as from deficien-
cy of strength, to resist imposition.

Eveiy care is taken by the Stale to protect our citizens from
injury of any kind from the latter cause, but whilst the duty to
guard them against injury from the former is acknowledged, ihe
means used are, in many instances, inadequate to the attainment
of (he end.

The State, to protect its citizens from loss, by the superior
knowledge of others, has provided inspectors of various things in
common use — men especially chosen, fiom their superior fitness,
to discharge the duties assigned them; these duties being to de-
termine the quality of different things inspected, and to affix to
them some maik or brand, by which their value may be known by
all. In this way it interposes its superior knowledge, with the
same justice that it interposes its superior force, merely to save its
citizens from imposition and loss. The duty is as strong in the
one case as in the other, and equal necessity exists for its perform-
ance.

An inspection that does not show the true value of the article
inspected, is worse for obvious reasons, than no inspection at all,
and in inspections of things made up of different substances, the
quantity of those which give the article its value, s\ioi\\d be shown.
I wish the above plain truths to be applied to the inspection of
two articles of great cost to the Agricultural interest, which it is my
duty to benefit by all the means in my power.

These two substances are guano and gypsum, (plaister of paris,)
the cost of which, to the farmers of this Stale, is but little short of
eight hundred thousand dollars. Too much care cannot be taken
to determine their value, and 1 cannot urge upon your honorable
body, too strongly, the necessity of having ihem subject to a form
of inspection, which shall make known for, show to, the buyer the
true value of the article which he purchases, and indicate to him
the per centageof its valuable constituents.

I shall first speak of guano : Notwithstanding the many vari-
ous compounds which enter its composition, yet its value almost
entirely depends on two of them. On the ammonia already present
in it as a salt, with that which is capable of being formed by the
decomposition of its azotised matter, and on its phosphoric acid
or phosphates, which are combinations of this acid with some base.
The small quantity of the other substances in it possess no particu-
lar value, as they can, if needed, be supplied much cheaper from
other sources.

Does the vf»lue of guano depend on its ammonia which it already
may have, or which may be formed in it, and its phosphoric acid
or phosphates? We have in support of this, a unity of senti-
ment among the ablest chemists. Liebig, Ure, Johnston, and
indeed nearly all who have written on the subject, agree in the
opinion, that guano owes its value to its ammonia and phosphates.
Tlipsp two substances mvst g\\p. guano its value, ornothing else

[G] 72

does, for, take away these two, and only a moiety of other matters
remain, which can be cheaply obtained from many sources.

Not only are these substances the cause of the value of guano,
but as either may exist in greater or less propoition, in any particu-
lar specimen, it makes that specimen better or worse for particular
soils. Ammonia is supplied to plants in large quantities from the
atmosphere, being absorbed by soils, and, with iron and clay,
form "tiue salts." But if any particular soil has not this ab-
sorbent capacity, and has a deticieticy of iron and clay, it cannot
obtain amnionia from the usual source of suppl}'^, and will be un-
productive, unless it be supplied from some other souice. If guano
is used, then, the purchaser should know which of the different
lots contains the most ammonia. But many soils have the capa-
city to supply themselves with ammonia, but are deficient in phos-
pliales, andj therefore, barren, and if the owners of soils find it
more convenient to buy guano, than any other manure, they should
know what specimen contained the largest quantity of phosphates,
what samples contained the most of what they want. If the pur-
chaser does not know, would he not be constantly liable to loss, in
buying the wrong specimen? If it even acts well, he is not as-
sured that another specimen would not have acted better. If, on
his land, in one year, be makes a luxuriant crop, by the use of
guano, !he next year, by the use of a different specimen, even at
the same price, he may make a very inferior crop. Guano,
therefore, has a relative value in relation to particular soils, as
it can supply them with a greater or less proportion of their
deficiencies; it has an absolute value depending on the quan-
tity of aiTimonia which is already or can be formed in it, and oa
its phosphates. Most clearly and unquestionably, then, its inspec-
tion should show the proportion of each of these constituents, so
as to show its absolute worth, and its relative value to diffeient
soils. When a farmer is buying guano, let him know how much
of each valuable substance he may be purchasing, then he will
not be spending his money without knowing what he is getting
for it, and can better suit his guano to his particular soil. The
proportion of the two valuable substances is very variable, and
yet the guano, at present, has but two, or, at most, three grades
of value.

Some specimens of No. 1, or No. 2, or No. 3, must be much
more valuable than others, and yet each lot of the same number
sells at the same price. The purchaser should not be obliged, in
buying guano, to pay twice as much for some specimens as he does
for others, of only equal, it may be of less value. I have made
many analyses of guano, and submit the following to prove what I
have above stated.

Analyses of different specimens of guano, to determine its agri«
cultural value:

Specimen A, contained of —
Ammonia, 4.00 per cent.

Phosphates, 36.00 "

73 [GJ

Sand, 7.00 per cent.

\\ iiier and organic matter, 50.00 "

Specimen N, wliich sold for, I believe, twenty dollars per ton,
contained of —

Ammonia, .3 tenths of one per cent.

Phosphates, 40.0 per cent.

Water and organic matter, 33.0 ''

Silica, (sand,) 26.0

Specimen G contained of —

Ammonia, 7.00 per cent.

Phosphates and other constituents, not estimated,

Specimen O, contained of—

Ammonia, 15.25. per cent.

Phosphates, 46.12 '^

Silica, (sand,) .50 ''

Organic matter, water, and

other constituents, 3S.13 '^

Specimen J, sold in Kent county for twenty-nine dollars pet
ton, contained of —

Ammonia, 4.00

Phosphates, 40.00

I have not the nofea of this analysis, but am quite certain that'
the above vejy nearly represents its value.

I have made many other analyses, but the above are sufficient
to maintain the correctness of the position which I have assumed.

Specimen "O," and specimen "A," were No. 3, and sold at
the same price. A glance at the dilTerence in the quantity of
their constituents, will show that their value nmst have been verv
different.

V Specimen A sold for forty dollars per ton. Specimen J sold
for twenty-nine. Yet sperimen J is the better of the two. More
numerous proofs can be adduced, but the above are sufficient to'
show the great difference in this article, and to prove also that the
only safety which the buyer has^ is in such an inspection as will
show him the proportion of phosphates and ammonia in tlie article.
The ammonia in the above, not only shows the quantity already
present, but also all that which can be formed during the decom-
position of the oiganic matter in the specimen. The mode of in-
spection which I have recommended above, is easily practicable,
and any one who buys guano lo even a small amount, would be a
gainer by paying for its analysis before purchasing it. I do not
pretend to give here the details of a proper law, but am ready
when called on, to appear before the committee on. Inspections, 'or
that on Agriculture, and give them the benefit of all the knowledge
which I may have on this subject. I have had numerous con-
versations with men of great ability, in relation to this mattery antf
am happy to have them all coinciding in opinion with me. '

The form of inspection which I recommend, would save to (he
farmers of the State, every year, more than one hundred limes the
10

[G] 74

cost of what would be a fair remuneration for making it. There
7Jiust be a chemical analysis of guano made, before we can ascer-
tain its value, and its result should be shown. The merchant
who sells, knows no more about its worth than the fanner who
buys, and both may be deceived in regard to it. The smell gives
no indication of its value, and we can no more judge from its
appearance, what (he quantity of its valuable constituents may be,
than we can of the quality of the contents by looking at the out-
side of a barrel.

Since, then, neither the buyer nor seller can know, the State
should ascertain and show the quantity of its valuable con-
stituents.

In reference to the inspection of gypsum, the same argumAit
holdsgood. This is a sulphate of lime, with two equivalents of
Avater. The rock from which it is obtained, owes its value to the
quantity of sulphate of lime in it, and in buying what is sold for
gypsum, we wish the barrel as free from any other less valuable
substance as it possibly can be, we should only pay for the barrel
in proportion to the quantity of gypsum which it contains. Is
that which is sold as gypsum, pure gypsum? or does the quantity
of it vary very greatly in diffeient barrels?
Let the following analyses answer :

Report of the analysis of ten different specimens of gypsura, to
show its agricultural value.

No. 1,
Contained of —
Sand, ^ 5.77 prct.

Lime, as carbonate, 16.41

Alumina, with a trace of iron, 3.66

Lime, as sulphate, i. e., gypsum, 74.10

No. 2,
Contained of —
Sand, 10.60

Lime, as carbonate, » 17.25

Clay and iron, 1.36

Gypsum, 70.79

No. 3,
Contained of —
Sand, 4.50

Clay andiron, 2.2S

Lime, as corbonate, 4.00

Gypsum, 89.20

Specimen E, contained of —
Sand, 13.68

Iron and clay, 5.29

Lime as corbonate, 21.59

Gypsum, 59.40

Specimen R, contained of—

Sand, 4.65

75 [Oi]

liiine, as caibonafe, 12.20

Clay and iron, . 1.12

Gypsum, S2.0U !i

.Specimen T, contained of —

Sand, 10.00

Lime, as carbonate, 28.00

Iron and clay, 1.30

Gyp.9um, 60.70
No. 7,

C!ontained of —

Sand, 2.20

lion and clay, 1.25

Lime, as carbonate, 10.00

Gypsum, 86.40

No. 8,
Contained of —

Sand, 2.04

Iron and clay, 2.10

Lime, as carbonate, 5.40

Gypsum, ' > 89.90

No. 9,
Contained of —

Gypsum, 85,04 i.

Other constituents not estimated.

No. 10,
Contained of —

Sand, 6.20

Iron and clay, 1.15

Iiime, as carbonate, 7.35

Gypsum, 85.30

It is shown from the above analyses, that some specimens con-
tain thirty percent less of gypsum than others, yet he who buys,
pays the same price for it, as if it contained the full amount of
gypsum. The inspection shoidd show in this, also, not only the
loeight of the bairel, but what is in it. When one gives $L37
for a barrel of gypsum containing three bushels, about forty-six
cents per bushel, he should know how much of gypsum he is
buying, — not to be forced to pay $1.37 for a barrel of something,
one third of which is only wortli, at the highest rate, six cents per
bushel ; — nor made to pay for common air slaked hme and sand,
atlhe same rale as he pays for gypsum.

I must not be understood as charging the traders in this article
with adulterating it. No such thing is necessary to iTiy pur-
pose. A great diflerence exists in the rock from which the
gypsum is ground ; and if there was none, still it is possible for it
to be adulterated, and the Slate should take the sanre precaution
to guard its citizens from loss from this source, as it does in other
articles of which the people at lar-ge are good judges, frequently
as good as the inspector hit^rself. As the gypsum, (sulphate of

[G] ' 7C

lime ) is that which every one seeks Lo buy when purchasing a
ihino" under (hat name, the State should so order its inspection,
that each barrel should show how much of this substance was in
it so that its price thereby mi^ht be regulated. No reasonable sel-
ler should object to such regulations; and every buyer ought to
insist upon them. By ihem, the owner of a good article would
ffet the value of his good commodity, and he wiio wished to buy,
would not be deceiveil in the purchase of tliat which might be of
litde worth. While it would deprive the sellei of no right, it
would give great benefits to the buyer, "^rhe seller would get the
value of his article, — the buyer tlie worth of his money. The
fact is familiar lo all who use plaisler, that it acts much more
favorably in some years than others. This has been attributed ex-
.clusively to the seasons, but very often the difference is owing'' to a
dilTerence in the article used.

The smallest per cent of gypsum in the specimens which I
have examined, was 59.40; the highest was 89.60 per cent, a
difference of more than thirty per cent. If only one half of that
sold was of an average quality, a fair way of judging, then fifteea
per cent of the money spent for gypsum is thrown away. The
cost to the farmers of Maryland of this article, (freight and labor
included,) as near as I can judge, is $7t)0,()00, so that con-
siderably more than $100,000 is lost to the citizens of the Slate
annually, in the attempt to buy what they do not get. They buy
gypsum, and only obtain sand and common air-slaked lime.

I have thus called the attention of those interested to a sub-
ject to them of the deepest interest. I have shown the defects
pf the present laws. It remains for them to have those defects
remedied. lean assure all interested, that these differences do
exist in the manures spoken of above, which are not shown by
the present form of inspection, Iti making your lionorable
body acquainted with this fact, 1 am only performing a part of
my duty to the farmers of the Slate. Let them provide a
I51W which, while it will do wrong to none, will do justice to
ihe'iQselves.

I do not know how the inspection of lime js performed, but its
constituents should also be determined in the same manner.

This, however, is not practicable in every instance, as a large
quantity of that useil in the State comes fr-om beyorid its jurisdic-
tion. I have obviated this difficulty as far as I could, by publish-
ing analyses of the various limes used by the farmers of Maryland.
It is, therefore, a useless office, ser'ves no good purpose, and
should be abolished. It is nriy further intention, during the pre-
sent year, to procur-e a number of specimens from each of the
quarries, both within and without the Stale, which supply lime to
our farmers, and subject them to a more minute, rigid, and elabo-
rate analysis than has been yet made of them. I have not done
so during the present season, because of the impossibilii}'^ of pro-
.euringthe specimens.

77 [GJ

There is another ihing, perhaps, inchided under tlie broad term
of "such oilier matters touching (lie Aoricultural interest of the
State, as may be considered necessary," which is the dilliculty that
sometimes luippens, between the i)urchaser mid the seller of wheat
and other i^iain, as lo its merchantable condition.

A loud of grain is frequently contracted for by the merchant,
and afterwards thrown upon the hands of the producer, or hia
agent, from the alledged diflerence in the condition of the sample
and the load. When a merchant, ihus refuses to take the grain,
there is no remedy left, but to sue for breach of contract, a course
for obvious reasons, not always practicable. In the present state
of things, wheat brought in the evening, is frequently retirrned in
the morning, csjoecially xulien the market declines. It thus hap-
pens that the producer sometimes looses by a decline in the price
of grain between the contract for sale and delivery and never
gains by any rise, for when any rise takes place, the grain is
never returned.

That the load of grain sometimes' does not correspond to the
sample, I have no doubt ; when it does, and a decline in price
takes place, between the bargain for sale and its delivery, that it
is sometimes throv/n back upon the producer, is well known.
There should be some fixed law, with a competent officer, to de-
termine the merchantable quality of all grain offered for sale, and
thus give fair play ahke to the purchaser and grower.

This officer, moreover, could keep a strict account of all wheat,
corn, dec, biought to the market, and give statistical information
in legard to the amount of these crops, which would be of great
value in an agiitultuial, as well as a commercial point of view.

I do not mean to accuse all of the dealers in grain of dishonesty,
but to trust to the universal existence of its opposite virtue, is to
have a greater amount of confidence than the experience of any
would wariant. There is an obvious necessity for some legisla-
tion on this subject.

The office which the undersigned has the honor to fill, being a
new one in this )Stale, the bill creating it was, of course, liable to
imperfections, which experience only could correct, and I would
fail in my duty, were I not to make such lecorainendations to the
Legislature, and people of this State, as would lead to the con-
struction of a law better calculated to carry out their liberal views.

1st. I shall call your honorable body's attention to the purposes
of the present law creating the office of State Agricultural Chemist.
2nd. Show in what particirlais its errors consist, and recommend
such changes as my experience convinces me are necessary. 3rd.
Show the utilit]) of the office to the agricultural interest of our
State. The intent of the law of 1S47, ch. 249, is best shown by
its4lh section, which declares:

"That it shall be the duty of said Agriculturm Chemist to ana-
lyze specimens of each variety of soil of the county in which he
shall be, that may be brought to him, or that he may find to exist,

[G] 78

and also to examine and, if necessary, analyze specimens of each
kind of mail, or other vegalabie or mineral deposit, that mav
come to his knowledge, in order that his instructions may be of
more practical utility."

The law in this section was not sufficiently explicit. Its letter
could have been carried out, and not one single fact of practical
value elicited. The farmer would have been as ignorant of the
composiiion of his soil, of its defects, and of the manure necessary
to supply these defects, as if it never had existed. The mere per-
formance of an analysis would have been of no use, unless it could
have shown the quantity^ as well as the mere presents of the se-
v-eral constituents of a soil.

A qualitative analysis could have shown the latter, and done no
o-ood. A quantitative analysis was wanting, to show, not only the
presence of the different substances necessary to a fertile soil, but
at the same time to determine their quantity, to define their pro-
portion, to see whether they existed in sufficient quantilies to pro-
duce a crop, and to enable the farmer to supply any deficiency
which niio'ht exist by the application of the particular substance or
substances wanting. The quantity of (he substance to be applied,
depends, of course, upon the quantity of that already present,
which can be shown only by a quantitative analysis. A qualita-
tive analysis would have conformed to the letter of the law. This
would have been of no use. A quantitative analysis only could
carry out its spirit, which I have done in all of my operations,
though It takes ten times the trouble, care, and labor, of a quali-
tative analysis. Another great defect of the law is, that sufficient
time is not given to carry out its provisions. The quantitative
analysis of a soil is said by Parneill, an analytical chemist of the
highest authority, to be "the most difficidt and tedious of all
analytical operations." All who are at all familiar w^th chemical
research, know the great care, labor, and time required to perform
it. The utmost attention must be given to each step in the pro-
cess. The most exact and cautious manipulation is necessary to
avoid all sources of error, and its termination cannot be hastened,
except at the expense of its correctness. Many difl^'erent varieties
of soil and mail had to be examined iri some of the counties,
which would take more time, of themselves, than that allowed by
the law to remain in them; but, besides this, the different parts of
each county had to be visited in person, a suitable place to be ob-
tained for the erection of the apparatus to perform the analyses;
lectures to be delivered in the diflferent districts, and a report to be
written ; and, in addition, numerous enquiries by leUer, for infor-
mation,'had to be answered ; all in the short space of six weeks.
Those who attentively consider the nature of the duties to be
performed, and thelime allotted for them, cannot ftiil to be struck
with its-total inadeqXiacy to that end. To have gone over some
of the counties, in the time which the law allowed, would have
been useless to the farmers, and have produced no presenter future

79 [GJ

good results. It wns uUeify ini])0S3iljle fur any oiric to have per-
lorine^l the duties of the law in the time, and with the means al-
lotted for them. I, therefore, carried out iu this, the spirit and
not the letter of the law. The mere letier of the law carried out,
howsoever fuiihfidly, woukl have heen a mere shadow without a
suhslance, and would have subjocled any one to.niorited ridicule
and contempt, who, under any circuujsiances, might have pro-
fessed to have done it.

Another, and a great defect in the present la)v, is requiring the
State Chemist to lit up his Labaraiory in (he dillerent counties,
and there make the analyses, instead of allowing him to fix it
permanently in one place. Though it \s possible, to carry the ne-
cessary apparatus through the country, and make the analyses, yet
it is at the saciilice of Uiuch time, which could be more profitably-
spent in other duties, and recpiires much fruitless labor, which '
should be avoided. The rooms in which I had to place my ap-
paratus, were such as I could procure, and ahvays unfit for that,
purpose. Great injury, even wiih the utmost care, has sometimes
happened to the materials, and considerable damage was frequent-
ly done to the more delicate and cosily parts of the apparatus.
Without the most delicate and accurate balances, no analyses can
be performed, for upon their truth and correctness hang the whole
value of an analysis. They should, therefore, be preserved from
every thing likely to impair their riccuracy. Faraday, the first
authority on this subject, and, indeed, on eveiy other coni?ected
with chemical manipulation, says, without the n.ost delicate balan-
ces, no analyses can be made, and all who are in the liabit making
analyses as delicate as those which 1 have to perform, keep their
balances out of the room where the analyses are made, though
this room (that for analysis,) has all the means and appliances to
carry off all vapors which may coirode or ir)jure the balances. It
is especially enjoined never to touch them, except for the purposes
of weighing, when their case should be innnediately closed, and
that when once they are fixed, that they sliould not be moved.
It can be readily perceived, now, what ditliculty I endured to !^eep
' mine correct, and the time which I had to spend to preserve thein
from harm, and the derangement which they must have suffered
in their fiequent removals fronr place to place.

The law also, in its oth section, makes it a duty to publish
notices of lectures, but makes no appropriation for defraying the
cost. I do not know whether the Legislature intended that the
State Chemist should pay for it himself. I have always given
full notice in all of the county papers, where I have been, both of
my presence in the counties, and of the time and place of giving
my lectures, and paid for the publication from my own funds.
Nor is any provision made for defraying the expense of removing
ni}^ laboratory, or for the rent of rooms for it.

There is, moreover, this general defect in the law, viz : that it
requires mi a^noimt of duty to be performed, in a given time,

[G] 80

wliicJt no man can 'perform^ as it ougitt to he done. And no one
having any respect for his own reputation^ and capable of per-
forming its duties, ivill ever pretend to do it.

Knowing the lime lo be inadequate, to perform all of the duties,
I devoted myself lo that paiticuh\i class, which would confer the
greatest, benefit to agriculture, viz: the analysis of soils, marls,
&c., leaving myself little or no time for the preparation of lec-
tures, though from them one might gain much greater credit in the
community, than f^om any thing else. I have been content to give
the result of my investigations in the plainest style, being satisfied
that it was better to spend my time in acquiring a large number of
facts, otherwise unattainable, than in ornamenting a small number,
by studying and writing out lectures. It was better to attend lo
their substance, than to lose time in improving their form.
• "With a law as defective as the one for the creation of the oflttce
of State Agiicultural Cliemist, it is apparent, that to carry it out
to the letter, would have been to render it null and void, and
have subjected myself to the iinputation of chailataury and ig-
norance.

I, therefore, in good faiih, devoted myself, with all the energy
and knowl^ge which I possessed, to fulfil its spirit, and so to ex-
ecute it as to meet the wants of those for whom I was appointed
to labor.

All will bear witness that I have diligently discharged its duties,
devoting myself excludvehj to them. I have had no other end in
view but that of serving faithfully the agricultural interest, pro-
inoting its welfare, and saving it from imposition and loss. The
performing of the letter of the law, would have taken but little
time and trouble ; in cariying out its spirit, great labor and inces-
sant application was necessary. It cannot be charged, therefoi'e,
that it was from any unworthy motive that I disregarded the letter
of the law, since, by so doing, my duties were an hundred fold
more arduous, my responsibilities and my labor greatly iricreased.
I preferred to act right, and to perform my duties, so that they
might lead to the knowledge of sound principles, and the true phi-
losophy of agiicultuie. I rely with implicit confidence on the
knowledge and good sense of the agricultural community, for my
justification. I have, at least, the testimony of my own con-
science, that I have exerted all my ability to " act W'ell my part,"
a solace, greater than all human praise could be, for duties imper-
fectly performed, even though they should meet with public ap-
proval.

Your honorable bod}'- will also recollect, that the present law
was originally formed for a principal and assistant, but that on its
final passage, the section for the appointment of an assistant, was
stricken out, while that detailing his duties was retained. There
was thus left for me a double duty to perform, and, had I taken
double the time indicated in the law, I still would have been
within the time allotted by the original bilk

81 [G]

Having thus pointed out to your honorable body the defects of
tlie piesenl law, I will respect fully offer such suggestions for its
amendnienl, as M)y experience in its duties have taught me to be
necessary.

Frst. — The laboratory should be fixed permanently in one
place.

The analysis of a soil, is one of the most difficult and delicate
of all analytical operations. Any error in it, besides subjecting
those who might be governed by its results, to loss, in making
improper applications of manures, would also retard or destroy
conlkleiice in its ability to render aid ti) the art of Agriculture,
and thus cause farmers to reject assistance from the source most
capable of rendering it at the cheapest rate. As every thin.g de-
depends on the accuracy of an analysis, every care should be taken
to insure that accuracy. A much greater nunibei, also, could be
performed in avfixed laboratory, and every analysis, is one certain
step towards forming a true system of Agriculture. If one analy-
sis be of service, a greater number would confer proportionally
greater benefit. With a fixed laboratory, no time would be lost, in
moving it from place to place ; the soil or marls capable of being
easily moved, without injuiy, should be moved to the laboratory —
which can be moved only with risk of injury — and not the labora-
tory to them. During the past year, could my laboratory have
been permanent, many young gentlemen capable of affording me
valuable assistance, would have been with me ; who would in
time have become so many sources for the diffusion of scientific
knowledge, derived from the application of Chemistry to Agricul-
ture. In this way the State would secure a much greater amount
of profitable work, for the same cost; the benefits of the law
would be more quickly and generally diffused, and means would
be given for furnishing to a large number of our citizens, without
cost, knowledge of practical analysis, now scarcely attainable
at the highest expense. So that, while the principal was em-
ployed in collecting specimens, taking a general survey of the
country, and giving to the community, by lectures or otherwise,
the fruits of his investigations, the data of these results would still
be accumulating, and their education would not be suspended
with his absence from the laboratory.

3rd. The lectures are too numerous, they should only be given
at such times and places as to secure a good attendance. Written
instructions for publication should take their palce, whenever, in
the judgment of the Chemist, it would best subserve the ends of
the law.

4th. The time for the examination of any particular county or
district, should be left, also, in a great measure to the judgment of
the Chemist, under certain restrictions.

It is an acknowledged principle, that the followers of every pro-
fession or art, are the best judges of the manner in which the
duties of their respective callings can be perfornied. This is con-
ceded to those who follow occupations, of which all in the commu-

11

f G I 82

nity have some knowledge: — much more then, should it be grant-
ed to (hose who follow a profession, of which, almost every one
in the community is profoundly ignoiant. It is useless to bind one
as to time in doing a particular thing, where no ability exists to
know whether that thing be correctly done or not. The State
Chemist may be restricted within a certain time to make particular
investigations, but no restriction can force him to make these
investigations, if he chooses not to do it. None but himself ever
knows whether they be made or not, and since the perform-
ance of his duty, must be left to his integrity and sense of honor,
there is no good reason why the mode of doing it should not de-
pend upon the same security.

A law embracing the general features which 1 have given above,
would much more expeditiously and perfectly supply the wants of
the Agricultural community, than the one at present in existence.
In this I am sustained by all who are competent judges.

I have given thus frankly and freely my opinions as to the pre-
sent, and my views as to the construction of a future law, having
iri view only, the benefit of those for whom the law was made.

To any one who will do his duty faithfully, the office is one of
incessant toil and labor, and the object which I have in view is, to
make that toil and labor effective when incurred.

Your honorable body will perceive, from a comparison of the
letter of the law, with the manner in which it has been carried out,
that I had in view, principally, its objects, and only a general
regard to that lime and mode by which those objects were to be
attained.

I believed it was more in accordance wiih the law, to fulfil
its spirit and intent, though its form might be violated, than to
pay attention to form, while its substance should be disregarded.
Under this belief, I acted. I sought the counsel of some of
the maturest judgments in the State, who coincided with me in
opinion ; and I feel sustained in my course when I recollect,
thatto have acted in any other manner would have been to injure
the interest which I was selected to benefit. There is at this time
great and increasing interest felt in Agriculture throughout our
State. The great question every where amongst our farmers is,
how can soils that have been worn out by improvident cultivation,
be restored, most cheaply and quickly, to their original fertility,
and how that fertility can be retained ? The only answer to these
queistions has hitherto been that afforded by naked, isolated expe-
riments; its voice has led some to success, while others who have
obeyed it, lament time lost, labor gone, and capital expended in
vain. There have been no certain rules to solve these questions,
no rational way to unravel the seemingly complex laws which
govern the production of crops.

At this juncture, the State pointed out and presented to the
Agriculturalist, the Science of Sciences, as a key to (he unlocked
mysteries of Agriculture: — as a lamp, whose clear, certain light,

83 [G]

was to illuminate (he path hitherto obscured by '^ shadows, clouds,
and duiknoss. " Had this science been so applied as to have ut-
terly failed in its object; —had all felt tbat no benefit could have
been derived from it; — that it was powerless for good: — as would
have inevitably been the case had the letter of the law only been
observed — Agriculture would have received a severe check. The
ardor of those foremost in the march of improvement, would have
been dantpened, and the only oracle of truth to the anxious en-
quirer after the philosophy of Agriculture, would have been con-
temptuously spurned. Tlien would have followed a relrogade
movement in the farming community, bearing it back beyond the
point from which the present progress commenced. Other States,
too, were looking on the experiment in Maryland with an anxious
eye, leady to follow her example, if successful, but not able to
profit by her errors, had the present law failed, — as it must have
done, had the strict letter of it been observed. The State of Vir-
ginia, at the last session of her legislature, had a bill under conside-
ration for the general application of Chemistry to her Agriculture;-
which did not then pass, doubtless because she wished to see the
result of the law of Maryland. One of the southern States, Mis-
sissippi, has a similar law in contemplation, and all will follow the
example so worthily begun by our State, When, therefore, the
future application of Chemistry to Agriculture, not only in our
State, but in others, depended upon a demonstration of its utility,
every motive of patriotism, and the plain demands, of duty alike
required, that the demonstration should be effected.

When I became the humble Minister of Chemistry in its appli-
cation to Agriculture, justice to the one and duty to the other
alike demanded, that I should only speak its precepts, only give
utterance to its oracles, which could be done only, by laboring in
each county, for a longer period than the law allowed. Its oracles
would, with true inspiration only speak, after a more protracted
devotion at its shrine than that contemplated by the law. Appointed
to speak the truths of Chemistry for the benefit of Agriculture, I
was obliged, either to speak those truths, which by its immutable
laws are attainable with great labor and time — or to have submitted
to the public, mere fictions of the iniagination, and thus have been
a traitor to the science — faithless to the Art — false to myself, and
to those whose influence placed me in my present position. The
choice was not difficult. I have discharged my duties in a way
capable of doing the greatest amount of good. The results are
before the public — and to the judgment of enlightened and in-
structed public opinion, I am content to submit. By its decision I
willingly abide.

At the present time it may seem almost a matter of supereroga-'
tion, to speak of the utility of Chemistry to Agriculture. The
Slate has made provision for its application, and favorable testi-
raony from those who are too sincere to flatter and too intelligent
to be deceived, has been given to its efficacy.

[GJ 84

Why should not science benefit Agriculture? Its study will af-
ford all the pleasure, which the Roman orator claimed as the pe-
cuMar property of hterature" Studia literarum," says Cicero, "ado-
lescentiam alunt^senectutem oblectant,secundas res ornant, ailver-
sis profugium ac solatium praebent, delec(ant domi,non impediunt
foris penoctant nobiscum perigrinantur, rusticantur,"* — whilst its
practice will give those comforts, which, though more homely,
yet cannot be supplied by mere literary studies. Its siudy affords
all the delights of literature, with the addition of the necessaiies of
life. Farmers should not be mere hewers of wood and drawers of
water. Let them know, not only the necessary elements of fer-
tility, but let them also understand how these act, in supporting
vegetable existence, and how mere matter is indispensable to that
function of organization, which we call life. Let them not look
upon the earth as a mere source of food, while living; a mere
place of repose when dead: but rather as a casket, whose treasures
they may obtain if they apply their minds to the investigation of its
formation. Let them seek to understand the properties of each
component part of the soil, anil it will be a volume of endless plea-
sure and instruction: then indeed will the toil, as well as " the
sleep, of the laboring man be sweet," — for he can read "sermons
in stones," and see " good iri every thing." It has been the
peculiar province of science, ever to benefit the human race ; ever
to afford pleasure in its pursuit, and profit in its application ; to
lighten toil, to lessen labor, to assuage care; to relieve the wants
of the body; to supply the desires of the mind. It is to the mind,
what hope is to the affections, dispelling gloom — and in the daik-
est hour, giving assurance of a brighter dawn. The student, in his
closet, demonstrates a principle — and, straightway, millions of his
fellow creatures receive the benefit ; are blessed with its advantages;
and but too frequently, alas, bless not in return! The princi-
ples of science perfected the steam engine, giving life and beauty
to that, which before was only a crude misshapen mass -straight-
way nations used it, to multiply their comfort in a thousand ways!
Scientific knowledge in the hands of Archimedes, was a safeguard
to his countrymen, more powerful than walls of stone or armies of
men : — its power, with the same universality as death, is felt in the
hovel and feared in the palace: — its influence, equally potent to
relieve the sickness of the infant, and to stay the power of the
ihunder-bolt. Let it not then be refused the Agriculturists. If he,
through misfortune, cannot obtain it for himself, let the State, that
he supports with his labor, and defends with his life, supply it.
Let him but receive it, and the return will be, all blessings to her-
self, all benefits to him.

* Literature nourishes and strengthens our youth, affords delight
in old age, adorns prosperity, gives help and consolation in adver-
sity; delights us at home, is not in our way when abroad ; gives
pleasure to us at night, in our travels abroad, and wanderings at
home.

S5 [ G ]

Of all the sciences, Chemi«^try hns everslood foivmosL in melio-
rnting ilie cdnililioii of ihe lnini;in lace. It. lias been lo llic ijody
aliuodt wluiL CliiistiMiiiiy lias in-.eii lo l!ic swui ui man. Oiher
sciences are pariial, this is universal ; other sciences benelii. the
few, this blesses the many; other sciences are of nse to but one
particular class, this embraces all. The highest, an J the lowest,
ate equally iis debtors. Applied lo mechanics, it gives one the
sireiiirili of thousands; — to nieiiicine, and, in 'disease, it lulls the
infant as calmly to sleep, as when in health it lests on its inuilnjr's
breast. It fnquenily snatches one from death, when it impends,
and softens its panu;s when inevitable. Lei it then be applied lo
furnish (he "staff of life."

But it is not enough to make mere scientific researches. After
beitig made, their results should be carried to the doors of the people.

THEY SHOULD BE DIFFUSED THROUGH THE LAND.

The experience of all should serve to guide each one that tills
the soil, and to all should be given (he benefit of whatevei know-
ledge is otherwise beyond their reach. To eflfect this dilTusion,
agricultural societies, or cluhs of practical farmers, are of great use.
In their meetings, the knowledge of one becomes (he property of
all, each adds something to the general stock and receives some-
thing bengficial in return.

By the very act of communicating knowledge once acquired, we
improve our minds, cultivate our understandings, enlarge our ca-
pacity for the observation of new facts, and increase our ability to
investigate them coriectly, when observed. But the benefit is not
merely one of a mental or pecuniary nature, the social good accom-
plished is of vast consequence. Farmers would think favorably
of each other, as they become better acquainted. Tiiey would
be more united to resist aggression, niore umted in all efTorts to
promote theircommon welfare, and ever"in union theie is strength,"
Frequent association and the habit of fiee discussion, do niuch to
promote the intelligence and good feeling of every class. This is
especially remarkable in the legal piofession. I'hough often ad-
versaries, ihey are always united in whatever concerns the best in-
terests of their pinsuil. We can easily see what excellent results
would follow from a more intiniate union of those, who have a
common interest (o advance and who meet not to confute, but to
aid and assist each other. 1 have witnessed the great good done
by t\.ssociaUons oi practical farmers, whh frequent meetings for
the discussion or Agricultural subjects, and as great aids (o im-
provement, would recommend their formation in every neighbor-
hood of our Slate.

The Pie;s, too, is all powerful in the diffusion of Agricultural
information.

This great instrument of human knowledge, speaking a lan-
guage whose utterance can be recalled at pleasure, has done much
and can do more to spread the amoimt of existing knowledge, and
by inducing investigations to increase it.

[G]

86

It is well for fanu'ers to recollect, that as lliey increase the sub-
pcriplion of pnpers devoted to their interests, they iricrease their
abihiy to benefit it, so tliut each one who iiilces a paper lias a per-
sonal interest in increasing its subscription as much as possible.

But it is not only the present race of farmers who should be
thouijht of. The next generation should be taught now, the true
principles of agriculture. There are at this ti:ne, thousands of
children in the Stale, who should be receiving elementary instruc-
tion in Agricultural Chemisti}^ taught them in a plain and com-
prehensive manner. There will then be done for the next gener-
ation, wh.at can, at best, but be imperfectly done for this. 1 must
not be understood as advocating the teaching of analytical chem-
istry in our common schools and academies. This is impossible
and should not be attempted; but only the elementary principles
of chemistry, in its application to agriculture. Farmers from these
schools, would be belter able to understand treatises on their pro-
fession, and coniprehend the language which belongs to the science
nearest allied to their art. They would become acquainted with
many facts of great practical benefit, and by having their minds
directed to this study when young, would more certaiidy apply to
it when old. The benefits from this, all can see.

The benefits that have arisen from the execution of the present
law of Maryland, are vast and important. It has determined the
composition of many deposits of marl, giving to the owners there-
of, guidance for its application, which before they had not.

Bv determining the compositions of many variety of soils, it has
been able to recommend the specific manures for them. There
have been expended hundreds of thousands of dollars, in the
application of magnesian limes to soil, which already contained a
sufficient abundance of ir.agnesia. There have been expended
hundreds of thousands of dollars, in the application of limestone
containing no magnesia, to soils equally destitute of it : thus with-
holding from them a necessary constituent, when no espense
would have been incurred in applying it.

Some soils are injured by deep ploughing, and these I have ac-
curately described to their owners, as far as it was possible to do so.
Other soils require deep ploughing. The surface soil, from long
and shallow cultivation, was almost entire exhausted of lime, mag-
nesia, and potash, and besides, its mechanical texture was unfavor-
able to vegetation. The subsoils capable of counteracting the
faults of mechanical texture, and having constituents to supply
the chemical defects were analysed, and their value insisted on. In
many sections of the Stale, the subsoils lying only three or four
inches below the surface, contain from eight to twenty-five bushels
of lime per acre, for every inch in depth, besides also magnesia and
potash. These had been undisturbed for years, and would have re-
mained untouched forever, unless some chance experiment had dic-
tated their cultivation: the experience of oti)ers on different soils
being against the mode of cultivation to bring them into use. In no
singie solitary instance has the farmer been disappointed in the mode

87 [CI]

of cullivation, predicated on the analysis of itiese paiiicular subsoils.
Men of the highest knowledge and education hear (estimony to their
value; men of ihe surest practical knowledge have become con-
verts to a system of cultivation opposed to their former usage, an»i
unsanctioned by any custom of which they were cognizant.

The products of these lands in their lirst crop have been greatly
increased, and will, if lire rules laid down by the leachings of
science be followed, giv-e as large crops as when they were first
cleared. There hasbeen besides, asone of the fi nils of this office,
and by no means the least important, a spirit of enquiry and in-
vestigation set on fool, which, carried on by men who know "oo
such word as fail," will confer great benefits on practical Agricul-
ture.

1 have also analyzed and deter.iiined, the value of many speci-
mens of bog iron ore : there is a prejudice against the iron made
from this ore, amongst farmers, who say, that the iron fiom it is al-
ways vei-y "brash." This is owing, I am certain, to the carbon,
(charcoal,) in the iron, and not to any intrinsic quality of the ore
from which the iron is made. This charcoal is (o be destroyed by
more skilful preparation of the iron. This not being in the strict
line of my duty, I did not follow up my investigations on this most
interesting subject. 1 am satisfied however, — ether things being
equal, — that the specific gravity and tenacity of iron is in direct
ratio to llie quantity of charcoal which it contains.

Farmers have been directed to the true sources of knowledge,
and when sufficient time elapses for its application, fruits will be
seen in more improved lands, and happier homes, than yet have
blessed many sections of our State. 1 have been infornred by one
of the largest booksellers in the Stale, that he has sold more
scientific works on Agriculture since the existence of the present
law, than have ever before been sold in the city where he lives.

The community, too, have been saved much in avoiding nos-
trums, which, under the guise of niunures made on scientific
principles, are frequetrtly based on ignorance of the first principles
of science, are false in theory, and even have not always the merit
of being compounded in accordance with that theory.

These truths are the best evidence of the necessity of this law,
and I can refer for their evidence, to every county of the State
where I have been. The testimony is living, present, and unim-
peachable, and I may safely sa}^ will be given fronr more nume-
rous sources as its practical operations develop it.

VVe can confidently look forward, as the fruits of this office,
to a system of Agriculture founded on sound principles of induc-
tion. The facts collected by it, when sysiematised, will make the
culture of the soil as certain, as airy of the arts which depend on
the exact sciences for aid.

It will settle, in reference to the soils which may be investigated
the following questions: — The best hind of manure; the best time
and form, for its application; and the quantity to be used; so as
^0 produce the greatest yield at the least cost.

[G] 88

It will eniible us to guard against and counieract some of the
diseases to which our most valuable crops are subjecl, and save in
this manner thousands (o the Slate. I have, as /ar as my hmited
time allowed, been making some observations on the naiure and
causes of rust in wheat, a disease which frequenily, in a few hours,
destroys (he labor of a whole year, and I am certain that a remedy
will be found for this deslruclive enemy of ihe wlieat crop. 1 shall
give a brief abstract of the reasons on which this belief is foiuid-
ed, so that they may be corrected by the observations of others,
if unsound: and I hope that some who may have greater oppor-
tunity than myself, may siudy the subject^ and give the public the
benellt of their investigalions.

Rust in wheat has been attributed to many and various causes,
but as some of them are not always present, and in some cases all
are absent, it cannot be said that the exact cause of it has hitherto
"beea determined. Many circumstances may attend the develop-
ment of this disease, but uniil some connection be shown between
them and the production of the disease, they can only be viewed
as accidental and not as essential attendants.

If we find lust occurring always under particular circumstances,
all of which are in action when it is produced, we must attribute
its production to the influence of those circumstances. We shall
then know, frciTi a knowledge of the causes, how they can be
counteracted. To understand fully the nature of these causes, it
is necessary to remember that the stalk of wheat is filled with nu-
merous sap vessels, by which the matter in the soil necessary for
the perfection of the grain, is carried to it. If those vessels be
broken, burst or injured in any manner, the supply of nutriment
lo the grain being cut off, it cannot be perfected. I believe that
the rust is nothing more than a fracture or bursting of the vessels
of the stalk, destined in the economy of the plant to carry nutri-
ment to the grain — I believe it for the following reasons: It
always occurs in warm damp weather, at a time when the external
pressure of the atmosphere, from its lightness, is least, and when
the outward pressure of the juices of the stalk, from heat, is
greatest. We have here two efficient causes for the bursting of
the vessels, either one of which being absent, rust is never pro-
duced; for no matter how damp the weather may be,^if it be cool,
there is no rust; and no matter how warm it may be, if the weather
be dry, (in that condition in which the pressure of the atmosphere
13 greatest.) there is still no rust. Again, rust occuis in that jmr-
ticular stage of the growth of wheat wdien the stalk commences to
harden; it does not happen before, because the vessels would
expand wlihout breaking, it cannot happen afterwards, because
they have become suflSciently strong to resist the expansion of
whatever sap they may contain.^

*These fracture" are distinctly visible by means of a good micro-
scope.- This instruiiient, which has afforded such great facilities
to many other branches of science, had never, as far aa I can

89 [Gl

Here arc two causes in action sufficient to explain all the phe-
nomena which attends in wheat, and which are explained by none
other. We know that if the vessels which convey the materials
that form the grain be destroyed, the grain cannot be formed. We
see here causes in action sufficient to produce that destruction, and
we never see it produced without the existence of those causes.
But this is not all. Whenever we find any causes present, able
to counteract the influence of either of the above, rust is not pro-
duced ; whenever, in the composition of the soil, sufficient materi-
als exist to give a firm strong stalk, rust is never seen.

On land exposed lo the influence of the spray from saltwater,
wheat always escapes the lust, though that in the same neighbor-
hood may suffer. A narrow belt of trees frequently separates
fields, that are uninjured, from those which are entirely ruined:
this belt of trees arresting the spray from the water. This spray
contains soda, one of the substances which assists to form a strong
hard stalk. Upon soils precisely identical, except in local ion, and
in what was derived from salt water, I have found the above fact
to exist, which can only be accounted for by materials in the
salt water. Wherever the soil contains the materials in proper
proportion for forming a strong stalk, rust does not nijure the crop.

In localities where rust was before troublesome, it has almost
ceased to exist, after the application of green sand marl, which is
lich in those substances which form the stalk. Again, common
salt has been recommended to prevent rust, by ks antiseptic power,
that is, its power to prevent putrefaction. Its eff'ect against the
rust, may be better explained by its power to stiengthen the straw.
I shall institute during the present season a series of experiments
on this subject, and confidently expect to determine the true nautre
of this blasting, blighting disease. If it be from the causes which I
have given above, then the remedy will, in preventing the efleclg
of the injury, greatly increase the product of this, the staple crop of
the Union.

The material to prevent this is in very great abundance in our
State, and now deemed worthier. At this time its owners will
pay for its removal.

If in the present report, or in the labors which preceded it, any
good shall have been conferred on (he Agriculture of the State, those
labors will be abundaiiily rewarded. If I have only awakened such
an interest in our Agiiculturists, as will induce them to study and
apply the sciences of their art, my ambition will be satisfied.

learn, been applied to the diagnosis of the constiuients of soils,
until used by myself. I have not been able as yet to make but
few investigations with it ; though it may not confer the same
advantages on the prosecution of the study of the components of
soils, as (he tftlescope has done in the study of Astron)ony, yet I
am ceitain that it will be of very great utiliti/. During the pre-
sent year 1 intend to devole much time in order to see how far
that utilitv extends.
12

[|G] yO

In conclusion I must slaie^ thnt since my appointment to tlie
office of State Agricultural C[ienii:~t, I have been cheered by the
warmest and kindest greetings in every county of the State where
Miy duties have called me. All have welcomed^, all have tendered
m,e t|ieir hospitality to the fullest extent.

Id the performajice of the duties of my office, many privations,
l^nown only to those acquainted with ihem, had to be endured.
The office v/as looked upon by many with distrust; to many its
purposes had to be unfolded ; to all its utility had to be demon-
strated. Cheered by the kindness and full appreciation of those
]by whom I was surrounded, sustained hy the oisKjirsi in viy heart
and heartiest in tnypfayers, I have to be devoutly thankful for
iki^ pleasures '^\\\c\\ attended my lalxirs.

I here tender to ali my most sincere and heartfelt thanks^ and
give my most sincere prayers for their present prosperity and future
bappines?.

1 shall ever remember their friendship and kindness with devout
gratitude, and while wishing for them, that the produce of their
tields may be as generous as their hearts, devoutly pray, that they
may enjoy tlie happiness of everlasting life.

■ritiiMi Jufi . JAMES HIGGiNS

GLOSSARY

A."7ALTSi3, as a chemical operation, consists in the separation of compound
substances into their component parts.

Qualitative Analysis, is the operation of showing merely the nature of the
bodies inakin^ up any compound.

QpANTiTATivE ANALYSIS, is the Operation to discover the exact amoant ot each
separate constituent.

A Special Qualitative ok QciNTiTATivE Analysis, is that which
shows the nature or exact quantity, as the case may be, of any number of bodies
composins; a compound, short of the whole number.

Eleme.vt, a simple body — Elementary bodies are those which are not com-
posed of two or more different substances.

Atc-vi, the smallest p^itide of matter, necessarily incapable of further division.

Chemical AmxiTy, or Affinity, is that property of the atoms of bodie9
which causes them to form new combinations, producifig new bodies diti'erent from
those which existed previous to the developement of this propert}'. It is the force
which occasions the union of different kinds of matter, whether simple or com-
pound, and the greater the difference of the properties of bodies the stronger appeals
to be this species of attraction between them.

Acid, a substance whether sweet, sour or tasteless^ which combiner icitk bases,
forming with them a class of bodies called salts.

Base, a term extended to embrace a large group — compounds of the metals, (wUh
the exception of ammonia) with those substances which support combustion-^
which having any taste are not sour, which are not disposed to unite with each
other, but unite readily with acids forming with them a class of bodies caiU
ed salts. ,

Alkali, an Arabic word applied to bodies having a peculiar caustic taste, in aH
of their properties the reverse of acids — all alkalies are base*. Caustic potash is a
familiar example of an alkali.

Salts, bodies formered by the union of an acid and a base, having properties
distinct from eiMier the aaid or the base which enter into their composition.

Gas, matter existing in an airiform state, differing from vapour in requiring a
much greater force for its condensation. It has different names accordin? to the sub-
stance of which it is composed; sometimes it exists as an element,"and is theu
named trom some prominent characteristic — thus we have carbonic oxide gas, com-
posed of carbon and oxygen, and oxygen gas, which is an element.

OxYGE.v, a gas most extensively diffused thro-ughout nature, always in combi-
nation with some other substance, either mechanically, as in the air; or chemicaHy
as in water. It has strong affinity for almost all bodies, and received its name from
two Greek words, oxus, signifying sour or acid, and gennaem, to produce, because
when first discovered it was supposed to be the source of acidity — it sometimes is
called Vital Air, because it is necessary to the life ot animals and vegetables.

Combustiox. — The union of oxygen with any other body accompanied by light
and beat.

Oxidation. — The union of oxygen with another body, without the concurrence
of light and beat. When oxvgen unites with metals it produces what is called
Bust".

Hydrogen. — A body very extensively diffused through the world, forming a
a large part of all vegetable matter, and about two thirds of all water. It is Xhe
light ;st of 'all bodies, and on that accoun used to fill t\?lloonsv with oxygen it forma

[CJ]

92

water. This is a good example of the change produced by affinity; here two in-
visible boities unite to form a third different in all of its physical properties from
those of which it is composed. It receives its name from two Gieelc words,
HudoT, signifying water, and Gennaein, to produce, because without it water can-
not be formed.

Nitrogen. — A gas very extensively diffused through the world, entering largely
into the composition of the plants and animals, aiii Ibrming about eight tenths of
the air we breathe; with hydrogen it for«s aiumonia. It is sometimes called azote
from two Greek words signifying not, and zoe, life, because when breathed alone,
life will cease to exist.

Ammonia. — A compound of hydrogen and nitrogen, and very generally diffused
throughout nature, being a general product of the decay of animals and vegetables;
it exists in the air we breathe, as has been satisfactorily proven, united to carbonic
acid, [t is called ammonia, because first made in large quantities at the Temple of
Jupiter Ammon, from the dung of camels — when united to carbonic acid
it forms what is familiarly known as sraeliinu; salts, volatile alkali from its great
volatility; hartshorn, because made from the horns of Stags, ?cc.

Carbon. — Charcoal in common language; forms a very large proportion of the
structure of animals and vegetables, and is the reeidup. lelt when they are subjected
to a red heat, without the access ol .lir. Coke is the charcoal from coal — Ivory Black
is the charcoal from bones — Lamp Black the charcoal from Resin. The Diamond
is but chrystalised charcoal, and Black Lead contains from 90 to 95 per cent, of it.
Wood charcoal has the property of absorbing many times its volume of different
gases, and of giving them up again when heated. This depends entirely on its
mechanical structure, all porous substances acting in the same way to a greater or
less extent.

Carbonic Acid, formed by the union of oxygen with carbon, and exists in the
gaseous form when not combined with some other body; it i? extensively diffused
through the earth, air and water; is always produced by the burning of wood, and is
expired from the lungs of animals in breathing. It is* found united to quick
lime, and with if forms marble and the different varieties of lime-stone, from
which it is expelled by burning. It is the escape of this acid which pioduces
effervescence when soda or seidlitz powders are mixed, and which also causes effer-
vescence when vinegar is poured upon marl.

It is this gas which sometimes causes death to persons who go down info wells;
it extinguishes burning bodies, and is called from this fact fire-damp, sometimes
also choke-damp, from its causing, when breathed, spasms of the windpipe.
Death has sometimes occurred to persons sleeping iu a close room, from the pro-
duction of this gas by a pan of burning charcoal.

This is another good erample of the changes pro: iced by affinity; here char-
coal which can be seen, felt and handled, —ben united to oxygen, assumes the
gaseous form, becoming invisible and intangible.